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The effects of peer helping on participants' perceptions of school climate, school connectedness, and school violence

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The effects of peer helping on participants' perceptions of school climate, school connectedness, and school violence

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Content THE EFFECTS OF PEER HELPING ON PARTICIPANTS' PERCEPTIONS
OF SCHOOL CLIMATE, SCHOOL CONNECTEDNESS,
AND SCHOOL VIOLENCE

by

Michael A. Salce

________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2007

Copyright 2007 Michael A. Salce
ii
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my parents, Louie and Martha, for their many
sacrifices that have provided me with this opportunity; and to my wife, Janette, for
her unending inspiration and unconditional support of my efforts, I love you.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge those that I feel have been critical to my
completion of this process; first and foremost, my dissertation committee,
Dr. Melora Sundt, Dr. Ron Astor, and Dr. Carol Lew, whose guidance and patience
have been above and beyond the call of duty. Additionally, I would like to
acknowledge the students that participated in the study. Finally, the study would
not have been possible without the support of the coordinator of the Peer Helping
class, as well as the site and district administration within the school district.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

LIST OF TABLES vi

LIST OF FIGURES vii

ABSTRACT viii

CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND 1
Developing Democratic Schools 3
Student Resilience and Developmental Assets 7
Peer Helping Effects 11
Statement of the Problem 12
Significance of the Study 13
Purpose of the Study 14

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 17
Peer Helping 18
Peer Helping in Schools 20
Peer Helping and School Violence 21
Effects of Peer Helping on Program Participants 24
School Climate and School Connectedness 27
Student Perceptions of School Violence 29
Influences on Peer Helpers’ Perceptions of
School Climate and School Connectedness 31
The Peer Assistance Leadership (PAL) Program 33
Summary 34

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 36
Purpose of the Study 36
Sample and Population 37
Research Design 40
Instrumentation 41
Procedures 42
Data Analysis 44
Summary 45

v
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS 47
Demographic Description of Sample 47
Comparison of Peer Helpers and Non-Peer
Helpers on School Connectedness Variable 53
Comparison of Peer Helpers and Non-Peer
Helpers on School Climate Variable 55
Comparison of Peer Helpers and Non-Peer
Helpers on School Violence Variable 63
Personal Development and Creating School
Community 74

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS 76
Discussion 77
School Connectedness: Implications for Theory 78
Implications for Practice and Policy 81
School Climate: Implications for Practice and Policy 82
School Violence: Implications for Practice 85
Implications for Policy 88
Limitations 90
Recommendations for Future Research 91
Summary 96

BIBLIOGRAPHY 97

APPENDIX SCHOOL CONNECTEDNESS INDEX 102

vi
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Demographics of Sample 48

Table 2: Behavior Variables for School Year 2004-05 49

Table 3: GPA Year-to-Year Comparison 50

Table 4: Year-to-Year Comparison of Attendance 52

Table 5 Between Group Comparison of School
Connectedness Index 53

Table 6 Within Group Comparison of School
Connectedness Index 54

Table 7: Between Group Comparison of School Climate Index 56

Table 8: Within Group Comparison of School Climate Index 57

Table 9: Chart of Qualitative Data 58

Table 10: Between Group Comparison of School Violence Index 64

Table 11: Within Group Comparison of School Violence Index 65

vii
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Year-to-Year Comparison of Students on School
Connectedness Index 79

Figure 2: Year-to-Year Comparison of Students on School
Climate Index 83

Figure 3: Year-to-Year Comparison of Students on School
Violence Index 86

viii
ABSTRACT

This mixed-methods study was intended to further the understanding of the
effects of Peer Helping programs on participants, specifically their perceptions of
the variables of school connectedness, school climate, and school violence. A total
of 36 high school students from an urban area of Los Angeles County participated.
Students that participated in the Peer Helping program facilitated by the school
were the experimental group (n = 18), and those students that were interviewed but
not chosen to participate in the program were the control group (n = 18). Survey
data collected at two different time-points, and focus group data collected at the
completion of the school year, compared students’ perceptions comparing school
year 2004-05 to school year 2005-06 on the variables of school connectedness,
school climate, and school violence. Results indicated that students that served as
peer helpers to their school (experimental group), made evident statistically
significant positive changes in both school connectedness and school climate when
compared to the control group. Confirmatory focus group data indicated that
students in the experimental group found that their collaborative working
relationships with school staff made a significant impact on their perceptions of the
school. The students’ service to the school and their fellow classmates also
contributed to the peer helpers’ sense of connection to the school including school
staff. This was in contrast to the control group that viewed their relationships with
teachers and administrators more negatively and perceived their opportunity to
ix
connect with the school community limited. Schools would benefit from creating
opportunities for students to take part in a more meaningful role within the school
community. This study highlights that peer helper’s welcome genuine
responsibility and research on school violence indicates that a comprehensive
school violence prevention plan must include viewing students as collaborators in
creating safer schools.

1
CHAPTER 1
BACKGROUND

The highly publicized incidents of school violence on middle and high
school campuses in the past 10 years, particularly since the tragedy of Columbine,
has obligated school personnel, social science, and educational researchers, as well
as the federal government, to examine how best to address this crucial issue.
According to the National Center for Educational Statistics and the Bureau of
Justice Statistics, Indicators of School Crime and Safety report published in 2004,
survey data revealed that students ages 12-18 were victims of 1.8 million nonfatal
crimes while they were at school, and 1.5 million crimes while they were away
from school in 2002. The report indicates that this represents victimization rates of
64 crimes per 1,000 students at school, compared to a rate of 55 crimes per 1,000
students away from school. Despite a decrease in the number of violent acts on
school grounds in more recent years, the numbers would indicate that schools must
continue to look for strategies to address this issue.
The rate of victimization of school-aged children while on school grounds
has led to a variety of strategies that attempt to intervene, prevent, and respond to
school violence. The vast majority of these strategies have focused much attention
and resources on the use of law enforcement rather than educational models for
violence reduction (Hyman & Snook, 1999). The utilization of police tactics to
address the issue of school violence has increased despite limited research to
2
support its effectiveness. The increase in police presence on high school campuses,
as well as the increase in district staff designated to provide security, have
contributed to a climate on campuses that serves to erode the trust and connection
that students feel toward their schools, that have begun to look more like
institutions of something other than learning (Kitsantas, Ware, & Martinez-Arias,
2004). Research conducted regarding students’ perceptions of school violence
indicates that students perceive a lack of respect of their needs, interests, and
opinions by school staff, a respect they believe to be essential to feel safe at school
(Haselwerdt & Lenhardt, 2003).
The use of intervention and prevention strategies that employ
predominantly punitive measures supported by law enforcement tactics all
approach the issue of violence from the perspective of individual acts that are
committed by students. Although these methods have their place within the context
of creating safer schools, they fail to address the constructive and meaningful steps
that schools can take to create opportunities for students to take part in the creation
of their school environments. With such opportunities, students can take on some
of the responsibility to make their schools safer places.
In contrast, there are numerous studies that indicate that students being
trained to help their peers and employed as campus resources can have protective
effects from health risk behaviors. Among the protective effects that the literature
highlights are acts of violence in schools. Interventions that demonstrate value and
respect for the contribution of students have been closely associated with students’
3
feelings of connectedness to their peers and adults on campus (Wilson, 2004). This
chapter focuses on areas that have demonstrated that student contributions can play
a vital role in the development of a school environment, as well as students’
perceptions of that environment. In addition, interventions that focus resources on
the development of student’s strengths are discussed to demonstrate an avenue of
strategies that this researcher would argue is lacking in most school violence
prevention programs.

Developing Democratic Schools
Overdependence on police interventions to remedy school violence can
have profound effects on a school communities’ ability to innovate and create
alternative policies and procedures to address violence. Such overdependence can
undermine the school authority, taking it out of the hands of teachers who have the
ability and opportunity to connect with students, and placing it in the hands of law
enforcement personnel, who are often much less compelled to connect to students
(Hyman & Snook, 1999). Although programs and strategies designed to restore
order and safety in school are necessary, school attendance should also encourage
students to become empathic and caring adults. A school environment with such a
focus could help to create students who value cooperation as well as being more
open to working collaboratively with others. Students that are exposed to such an
4
environment would be prepared to participate in the creation of positive school
communities that discourage violence.
It would appear that programs attempting to remedy school violence
through security measures and punishment alone do not suffice, as they fail to view
the student as a resource and instead only place them in the limiting roles of
perpetrator or victim. School and classroom discipline policies that focus only on
maintaining order are missing opportunities to encourage character development
and nurture the skills and behaviors associated with good citizenship (Pohan,
2003).
Schools that seek to enlist the assistance of all members of the community,
including students, uphold the ideal that American schools should strive to be
exemplars of democracy. Essentially, the goal should not be to protect children
from children; it should ultimately be to instruct and provide opportunities for
children to utilize the skills and experiences necessary to work through their own
conflicts, truly a democratic ideal. Apple & Beane (1995) pointed out that students
must come to understand that “democracy is not so much an ‘ideal’ to be pursued
as an ‘idealized’ set of values that we must live and that must guide our life as
people”(7).
John Dewey, educator and philosopher, is credited with being the driving
force behind this movement to have schools be models of democracy. He argued
that if society hopes to create schools that are positive places where children can
learn important “democratic habits of thought and action” (Dewey, 1941), then
5
educators will be forced to be innovative and make attempts to go beyond the
traditional punitive model of school discipline and management. Students that take
part in a more democratic school environment feel the respect that is sorely lacking
from the law enforcement model of school management. A cooperative model
such as this would appear to be especially welcomed in urban communities, where
schools are populated with ethnically diverse students, whose experiences with law
enforcement outside of school often serve to further alienate them from campus
personnel that are employed to “protect and secure” the campus.
Utilizing more democratic models of school management is based upon the
premise that students will feel empowered to be more responsible for creating their
school environment. To be empowered, they must be exposed to training and
opportunities to acquire skills such as effective communication, cooperation, care,
as well as the ability to work with diverse groups of people (Poussaint, 1997).
Programs that help to nurture these leadership skills are lacking in today’s schools
and it would appear that our schools’ inability to utilize adolescents as resources
has had a negative effect on students’ perceptions of their school environment.
Schools should strive to be places where students have opportunities to contribute
and feel supported and where they sense respect and belonging from peers and
adults (Comer, 1997). In schools such as this, students are much more likely to
learn to make decisions based on an internal set of attitudes, values, and a
democratic way of being. Additionally, students who feel that they are valued
members of a community of learners may begin to experience the power of choice
6
that was brought about by an internal locus of control; in turn, they may be more
likely to avoid violence and antisocial behavior (Edwards, 2001; Kohn, 1996).
The longitudinal studies of Solomon, Watson, Delucchi, Schaps, &
Battistich (1988) in suburban elementary schools in California demonstrated such
effects. Their project data made evident increases in pro-social development as the
result of program participation that emphasized cooperative activities, activities
promoting social understanding, and helping activities. Their work on the project
also resulted in reports that there were positive effects on students’ democratic
values as measured by questionnaires.
Schools that do strive to be models of democracy give students
opportunities to contribute and they provide an avenue for young people to learn
and demonstrate their strengths. These opportunities to participate and contribute
to the school community can help shape student perceptions in a more positive light
by recognizing them as active contributors to the development of the climate in the
school.
Edwards (2001) pointed out that students need to be given opportunities
within the school curriculum to develop resilience. Resilience has been associated
with students’ positively managing disruptive circumstances, at home and at
school, which may have otherwise resulted in misbehavior or acts of violence.
Edwards asserted that school-based programs that focus on student strengths such
as the development of resilience, support the notion that such programs can foster a
school climate that encourages cooperation and collaboration, and discourages
7
school violence. An examination of the literature that focuses on student strengths
is necessary to help determine whether such a focus could serve to influence
students’ perceptions of their school environment.

Student Resilience and Developmental Assets
As stated previously, much of the current strategies employed to intervene
and prevent school violence utilize law enforcement practices and punitive
disciplinary measures to address individual perpetrators. This approach, although
essential to a comprehensive action plan to create a safer school environment, has
proven to be shortsighted. Law enforcement models of school violence prevention
view students simply as individuals in need of punishment or protection. Such
model missed the opportunity to teach students to participate in the creation of a
safer school. This approach to violence in schools is analogous to the prevailing
pessimistic views about how to manage youth problems in general, through
punishment or through treatment of a suspected disorder. These intervention
models view adolescents as disruptive, deviant, and disturbed; they often fail to pay
appropriate attention to the strengths that adolescents possess (Brendtro & Larson,
2004).
In recent years, there has been an increase in the psychological and
educational literature that focuses on the strengths of young people. The year 2000
marked the American Psychological Association’s (APA) call to create a positive
psychology that shifted the focus away from deficits to one that highlights the
8
development of strengths. With regards to youth and adolescents, this more
optimistic perspective concerning issues that affect young people, including
violence in schools, has centered attention on the resilience and the development of
assets in young people.
The literature on resilience was founded in the premise that positive growth
for adolescents results from opportunities to experience belonging, independence,
and generosity (Brendtro & Larson, 2004). Although there is a limited base of
research, the goal of the resilience movement is to bring research-validated
principles into practice to provide interventions that serve to foster positive youth
development. A prevailing belief among the proponents of this viewpoint is that
many interpersonal problems of youth stem from an absence of essential personal
strengths (Seligman & Peterson, 2003), strengths that can be identified, classified,
and ultimately fostered in young people.
The research on the psychology of human strengths does point to some
systems that attempt to categorize these strengths into a list that connects them to
positive outcomes concerning adolescent development. The Developmental Assets
Model lists 40 assets that lead to positive outcomes, with twenty internal assets
such as achievement motivation and personal power, and 20 external assets such as
positive peer influences and service to others (Benson, 1997). Students that
demonstrate these developmental assets benefit from the protective effects that are
a result. The model purports that the protective effects serve to insulate young
people from engaging in harmful behaviors toward self as well as their peers
9
(Benson & Roehlkepartain, 1992; Bernard, 1990; Jessor, 1991; Kirby et al., 1994;
Scales, 1990). Additionally, protective effects against adolescent violence and
violence in schools have been demonstrated by school programs developed and
implemented based on the Developmental Asset Model (Aspy et al., 2004).
There are programs based on the Developmental Asset Model that have
been created by a consortium of researchers and educators titled the Search
Institute, established in 1989. These school-based programs seek to develop
student assets through the building of relationships and the creation of supportive
environments that attempt to empower students through service to others and
through positive peer influences. This approach that seeks to utilize student
strengths to build skills and confidence in young people is opposite to the punitive
measures that seek only to identify and punish. Students that participate are
enabled to take part in a more democratic school environment that respects their
needs, as well as their opinions on how to create a safer school environment. They
also serve to insulate participants from harmful behavior, as well as attempt to
prevent incidences of school violence in a manner that views youth as a resource.
An integral part of creating a more positive school environment is to provide
students opportunities for cooperative interaction with others within the community
or school. Such a school environment could help to provide students with a sense
of belonging and connectedness that compels participants to serve as a resource.
Within the school setting, programs that promote peer helping can provide
the training and experiences that are associated with students’ personal
10
development and feelings of empowerment. School programs that demonstrate
confidence in students by utilizing them as resources can serve to empower
participants so that they see themselves as capable of positively influencing their
environment (Hazler & Carney, 2002). This researcher would argue that programs
that promote peer helping not only serve to create a more democratic school
environment, but they also empower students to make effective change in their
school community. Furthermore, it is argued that despite whether the actual
change in the school environment is measurable, the perceptions of peer helpers
will be positively influenced on measures of school climate, school connectedness
and school violence.
Research has indicated that peer helping programs implemented at the high
school level have positive effects on the participants trained to help others. These
positive effects are associated with the acquisition of communication skills and the
development of positive relationships with peers and staff. These positive effects
of the peer helping experience may consequently influence perceptions that
students have of their school environment, through a sense of empowerment and
increased feelings of control (Turner, 1999). There is a growing body of research
that points to the positive effects of empowering young people to become active
members of their school community, which could result in increases of pro-social
behavior and decreases in violence (Wassef, Collins, Ingrham, & Mason, 1995).
Empowerment-oriented interventions enhance wellness by providing opportunities
for participants to develop knowledge and skills, as well as engage school staff as
11
collaborators instead of authoritative figures within the social environment (Perkins
& Zimmerman, 1995).

Peer Helping Effects
Peer programs utilize the strengths of students while creating opportunities
to harness the power of positive peer influences. They demonstrate care and
concern to both helpers and helpees and they can decrease student feelings of
powerlessness and isolation (Carr, deRosenroll, and Saunders, 1991). Peer helpers
can serve a variety of functions within the school setting but essentially, they
provide students assistance in thinking through concerns and experiences that they
may be having. This resource can provide a much needed connection to avenues of
assistance that schools can provide assistance that students may otherwise be
unaware of or actively avoid.
With regards to the helpers themselves, participants of such programs
develop skills in effectively communicating with others, as well as learning
techniques to resolve or mediate conflicts appropriately. Such skill acquisition can
enable students to take a more active role in the development of a more accepting
and tolerant school environment. In a report on school interventions to address
school violence published by the Safe School Coalition (1994), programs that
promoted peer helping, peer mediation, and conflict resolution were characterized
as having great potential for positive change within the school. The experience of
peer helping and the personal growth that student participants have demonstrated,
12
suggests that students’ perceptions of their school environment may be affected
through participation.

Statement of the Problem
As stated previously, at the core of peer helping programs are opportunities
for youth to become actively involved in their school as valued members through
helping their peers. This experience can foster personal development and feelings
of empowerment that may serve to alter or influence peer helpers’ feelings about
their school environment. More specifically, participants’ feelings and perceptions
of the school climate, their connection to school staff and peers, as well as how
violent they view their school to be, may be influenced. Although there is some
evidence within the research literature that speaks to the effects of peer helping
programs on the helper, there is minimal data on program effects on helpers’
perceptions of these variables related to school violence. Research on student
perceptions of school violence has made evident that an understanding of context is
essential to understanding whether students view their school environment as
violent (Benbenishty & Astor, 2005). In influencing student relationships with
peers and staff, as well as influencing students’ sense of empowerment and control,
peer helping programs may have an effect on student perceptions by altering how
students view specific contexts within the school setting. The current study could
serve to shed light on this possibility.

13
Significance of the Study
The research conducted on how peer helping programs serve to affect
student perceptions has significance for a variety of school personnel, including
school counselors, teachers, administrators, and district personnel whose
responsibilities include program implementation in an attempt to make schools
safer places. Prevention programs that have the foresight to include student
participation can help to foster student ownership of their school through effective
communication with trusted adults on campus. Data collection focused on student
perceptions before and after participating in a high school peer helping program can
assist district decision-makers with predicted outcomes with regards to
appropriateness of such a program for their particular school. Coming to a better
understanding of how student participation in a peer helping program can influence
how those students view their school’s climate, school connectedness, as well as
perceptions of school violence, has implications for all interested parties that seek
to utilize peers as resources on school campuses.
The research to date on peer helping programs, although convincing on
program effectiveness for schools and its positive effects on participants, would
appear to be lacking in regard to the question of the current study namely, what
effects does program participation has on student perceptions. More specifically,
can peer helping programs impact how students feel about their school in
relationship to the variables of school climate, school connectedness, and school
violence?
14
Purpose of the Study
The primary aim of this study is to analyze how participation in a peer
helping program serves to influence and have an effect on participants’ perceptions
of school climate, school connectedness, as well as perceptions of school violence.
There is evidence to support the notion that participation in a peer helping program
has effects on students’ feelings of personal development, increased
communication skills, better decision-making ability, as well as the adoption of
healthy behaviors (California Association of Peer Program, 2002). With this in
mind, the current goal is to obtain information about how the peer helping
experience serves to influence participants’ perceptions of the school violence
variables previously mentioned. For the current study, in addition to the data that
will be collected on students’ feelings and perceptions, data will also be collected
to help determine if there is a noticeable effect on grade point average, attendance,
referrals for disciplinary action, as well as reports of health risk behaviors for
participants of the program when compared to a control group.
Student helpers will participate in the Peer Assisted Leadership (PAL)
program that will begin at the start of the school year 2005-2006 and will be a class
within their schedule. Participants will be chosen from the 11
th
and 12
th
grade
classes through teacher and student nominations. The program consists of a
curriculum that is presented to a group of 18 – 25 students throughout the course of
an entire school year. During the first semester of the school year, students are
instructed in techniques of communicating effectively with one another; they are
15
also introduced to basic counseling techniques such as empathic listening.
Activities are conducted within the classroom setting on a daily basis, which serve
to enhance the relationships among the participants of the program and between the
participants and the instructor(s) of the class. As the year progresses, these student
participants begin to interact with other students on campus in structured settings as
representatives of the PAL program. PAL student interventions include new
student orientations, peer and cross-age teaching and tutoring, peer helping,
community service activities, red ribbon week activities, and conflict
management/mediation. The current study will compare the participants of the
PAL program with a control group in an attempt to ascertain the program’s effects
on student perceptions and on GPA, attendance, behavior referrals, and health risk
behaviors.
Specifically, the purpose of this study is to address several research
questions by collecting pre- and post-data on student perceptions before and after
peer helper training and experience. The research literature indicates that peer
helpers experience benefits from participation in the program and of primary
interest is how such effects serve to influence their perceptions of the school
environment when compared to a control group. The variables of school climate
and school connectedness are being utilized due to their relevance in the current
literature on the prevention of violence in schools. This researcher posits that
students will view their school climate more positively and report increased
feelings of school connectedness due to the empowering experience of serving the
16
school community as a peer helper when compared to their pre-intervention
perceptions as well as a control group.
Additionally, this researcher posits that students will perceive their school
more positively on questions of school violence due to the contextual changes that
take place for the peer helpers. In other words, as peer helpers become more
proficient and effective communicators and social problem solvers, the school
context is transformed into one that is perceived as less violent and less threatening
for these students. It is also believed that an increase in social resources that serve
to support these students will also affect student’s perceptions of the contextual
factors that make up the school environment, by giving them a greater sense of
their school as a community.
Finally, the effects of peer helper participation on specific student behaviors
will also be assessed and compared to pre-intervention data as well as a control
group. Specifically, students' grade point average (GPA), attendance, behavior
referrals, and survey data on health risk behaviors, will be conducted. This
researcher believes that peer helpers will be positively influenced by their fellow
peer helper group members to demonstrate an increase in behaviors associated with
academic achievement.
17
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

It is this researcher’s contention that the act of helping others can
significantly change how school-aged children perceive and feel about their social
environment; also, the contention that the act of helping others is powerful enough
to influence students’ goal directed actions and behaviors. The purpose of the
current study is to address these questions within the context of a comprehensive
high school setting among adolescent age students (15-17 years of age). A group
of twenty-two students will be trained to be peer helpers providing various services
to their peers, and the effects that this training and the experience of helping other
students will be measured by surveys administered pre- and post-training, as well
as a confirmatory focus group interview. Essentially, the premise is that being
trained to help others will have an affect on the helpers’ perceptions and feelings of
their school environment. In addition, students’ behavioral outcomes with regards
to attendance, academic achievement (grades), and behavior, will be measured in
an attempt to determine if the helping experience served to influence an increase in
positive student behaviors and a decrease in negative student behaviors. This
researcher believes that the experience of peer helping will provide the helping
group members with opportunities to be active within the school context in a
manner that will promote personal growth and empowerment in the students. This
researcher posits that the experience of helping others can increase students’
18
competence and confidence within their environment, and thereby alter their
perceptions of the school environment and social contexts in which they find
themselves. In addition, the experience will contribute to perceptions of a more
positive and safer school climate, and increased feelings of school connectedness.
With this in mind, it is necessary to review some of the relevant literature
concerning peer helping as an intervention, in particular, combating school
violence.

Peer Helping
The use of peer support has taken several forms, including mentoring,
conflict resolution, befriending, and counseling approaches, all in an attempt to
harness the power and influence that is provided by the peer group. Peer-led
interventions can have a profound effect on helper and helpee in increasing feelings
of personal growth, effectiveness and control (Turner, 1999). Organizations such
as Alcoholics Anonymous have proven effective in utilizing the concept of mutual
help and peer support. The use of peer-led interventions has proven effective in
several contexts, from assisting individuals with addictive behaviors to addressing
antisocial behaviors (Gibbs, Potter, Barriga, & Liau, 1996), as well as helping
individuals facing painful or stressful situations.
The utilization of peer support gained momentum as an intervention in the
eighties as techniques became more refined. One such refinement was that of
Vorrath and Brendtro (1985) who developed what was known as the Positive Peer
19
Culture. This intervention employed guided group interaction in an attempt to
utilize peer influence to promote pro-social behavior in aggressive and antisocial
youth. Although such attempts at utilizing peer influence have proven successful to
some degree in improving self-concept or self-esteem (Atwood & Osgood, 1987;
Vorrath & Brendtro, 1985), the literature points to limitations of such interventions
due to social, moral, and developmental deficits of the juvenile participants that
most often take part in such groups involuntarily (Carducci, 1980).
Much of the literature on adolescent peer-led intervention strategies has
focused primarily on prevention of drug, alcohol, and tobacco use (Black, Tobler,
& Sciacca, 1998). Utilizing the social learning theory of modeling and
reinforcement, such interventions have proven successful in decreasing drug use
when compared to other programs that are not peer-led (Tobler, 1986). Such
programs utilize the effectiveness of modeling desirable behaviors by employing
children that are perceived as having power and having similar characteristics with
the adolescents being helped by the program.
It is necessary at this point to examine some of the literature on peer helping
in schools to help determine its effects on student peer helpers. Students serving as
peer helpers in the specific social context of school can have a profound effect on
the students they serve and the helpers themselves. It is this researcher’s argument
that this experience can positively influence perceptions of themselves and
consequently influence their perceptions of the school environment as well.

20
Peer Helping in Schools
The use of peer-led interventions in the school context has been established
since the 1970s with cross-age tutoring strategies and a variety of other
interventions using peer helping. As early as 1971, peer helping was evaluated as
to its effectiveness as an intervention to encourage positive behaviors in other
students (Kern & Kirby, 1971). In this study, students were selected after being
rated positively by peers; they assisted counselors in working with students
reported to have adjustment problems. Results indicated that the 5
th
and 6
th
grade
students served as an important positive influence to the peers that were served by
the program.
In another study conducted by Myrick and Bowman (1983), elementary
students used as peer helpers were reported to have a significantly positive effect
on the learning environment for both helpers and helpees, by enabling greater
participation and more meaningful learning experiences. In a slightly more recent
study, Myrick and Bowman (1991) reported on the effectiveness of a cross-aged
peer helper program that trained 5
th
graders to be facilitators with 2
nd
and 3
rd

graders. Results revealed that students who were helped by the program
demonstrated improvement in classroom behaviors and attitudes toward their
school.
As the use of peer-led interventions and strategies continued to increase, the
contexts and applications of its use increased as well. In an attempt to further
utilize the influence of the adolescent peer group, programs have more recently
21
been developed and evaluated in schools that attempt to positively affect the
complex and multifaceted issue of school violence.

Peer Helping and School Violence
Much of the more current research in this area has predominantly been
initiated outside the United States, in countries such as the United Kingdom and
New Zealand. Bullying has largely been the focus, as studies sought answers to
questions concerning how the power of the peer group affects, contributes, and can
serve to reduce bullying. Naylor and Cowie (1999), in a study conducted in the
United Kingdom, looked at the effectiveness of peer support systems in challenging
school bullying in secondary schools and colleges. Their work utilized large-scale
survey data to analyze the perceptions of students and teachers regarding peer
support systems within the school setting in combating bullying. They noted that
the presence of peer support systems that ranged from mediation, mentoring,
befriending, and counseling, enabled more bullied children to approach someone
for help. Eighty-two percent of the system users that were reported to be victims of
bullying reported that they found the peer supporters to be “helpful” or “very
helpful.” The results indicated that students and teachers reported peer support
systems helped reduce the negative effects of bullying in the schools. Many of the
victims also reported that they felt as though they were given strength to overcome
the bullying problem. It is possible that the strength mentioned by the victims may
be connected to the social component of the intervention, lending support to the
22
research that suggests that having a friend or supporter acts to buffer against
bullying.
The study conducted by Boulton, Trueman, Chau, Whitehead, and Amatya
(1999) demonstrated the protective effects of friendship. As previously mentioned,
befriending is a peer-led intervention that has been evaluated to a limited degree
within the school setting. Befriending was defined by Boulton and colleagues as
training students to provide caring support for peers that are victimized in the hope
that it will serve to minimize distress and enable the student to resist future
victimizations. In five junior high schools in the United Kingdom, 170 students
reported victimization by peer nominations after reviewing class lists. Data was
collected at two time points, six months apart, during the course of the school year.
Results indicated that regardless of gender, those students that reported “no friend”
at both time points showed a significantly greater increase in victimization and
those students that reported friendships at both time points demonstrated a greater
fall in victimization than all other groups. Additionally, the study analyzed student
reports of changes in friendship conflict and its effect on victimization. Of interest
was the finding that a change in ‘Conflict’ score predicted changes in victimization
regardless of gender. A decrease in ‘Conflict’ score was associated with a fall in
victimization. In other words, having a stable friendship reduced your chances of
being a bully victim. Although the study did not look at who was doing the
bullying and whether those students in conflict with friends were victimizing each
other, the data was convincing in demonstrating the protective effect of friendship
23
and interventions that promote pro-social activity. Results such as this support peer
interventions that focus on increasing peer communication skills and utilize
befriending strategies. Furthermore, these interventions could equip students with
the skills to mediate their own conflicts (Salmon, 1992). Although the previous
studies demonstrate some of the beneficial effects of peer intervention strategies,
they fail to specifically examine what the effect of being “helpful” to others has on
the peer helpers.
The establishment of peer helping programs within the high school setting
is believed to increase and encourage student s’ constructive handling of conflict
with peers (Johnson & Johnson, 1994). With regards to the peer helpers
themselves, the communication skills training may serve to increase efficacy in
handling conflict that are more apt to use during their adulthood (Johnson &
Johnson, 1994).
The study conducted by Abu- Rasain and Williams (1999) looked at the
effects of a peer counseling program at a boys secondary school in Saudi Arabia
over the course of an academic year. Twenty students were chosen from a group of
36 volunteers and they were trained over twelve 45-minute sessions to be peer
counselors. The impact of the program on the student population was assessed
using pre- and post-program questionnaires as well as student records and
interviews administered randomly to fifty percent of the student population. The
investigators looked at student feelings of loneliness in an attempt to assess the
applicability of peer counseling to adolescents in Saudi Arabia, specifically to try to
24
determine if the intervention could ameliorate loneliness. In addition, measures of
social support and client satisfaction were administered. Results indicated that
although there were no statistically significant differences in feelings of loneliness,
clients of the program reported significant satisfaction with the service; they felt
that the peer counselors were helpful and that they made them feel better (Abu-
Rasain & William, 1999). With regards to this particular study, of great interest
was the success of the program despite considerable resistance by a large majority
of the school staff. The counseling program was reported by the authors to be, in
many ways, alien to the culture where the family alone serves as emotional support
and that the stigma of seeking help from others is considerable. Despite this
obstacle, the peer helpers were able to make a significant difference in feelings of
social support by the clients of the program, specifically the help-oriented
provisions of guidance and reliable alliance. As this study would suggest, increases
in feelings of social support by users of a peer helper program as well as helpers
themselves would expect to have some positive effect on perception of school
climate and school connectedness.
Effects of Peer-Helping on Program Participants
In 1998, the California Association of Peer Programs conducted a
comprehensive evaluation of peer programs through a grant from the California
Wellness Foundation. The evaluation served well in describing in detail the effects
of peer helping programs on the participants, those that were helped by the
25
programs, and the general student population within the school. Over 500 schools
took part in the evaluation, which included 191 middle schools, 236 high schools,
and 73 continuation schools. Survey data was collected from 862 high school peer
program participants measuring attitude and behavioral changes that they perceived
to have happened as a result of the training and experience of the program. The
responses were categorized into the following life-skill areas: 1) Personal Growth;
2) Communication; 3) Decision-making/problem solving; and 4) Conflict
resolution. Results indicated that 20% or more of the peer program members
reported an increase in the ‘Strongly Agree’ response from their ‘THEN’ responses
(prior to peer program involvement) to their ‘NOW’ responses (current peer
program involvement) to various behavior skill statements. The survey data
indicated that 25% of the program participants “felt connected to school” and 34%
of them answered that they strongly agree with the statement that they “contribute
to school.” Also of interest were those student participants that agreed with the
statements that indicated that they communicate openly and honestly with others
(28%), make good decisions (24%), resolve conflicts peacefully (38%), and work
with groups comfortably (25%). Although the data is encouraging with regards to
the effectiveness of peer helping programs, the lack of a control group within the
evaluation would suggest that the results be interpreted with some caution.
There are other studies that also discuss the effect on peer helping program
participants. Mary O’Brian Orman (1993) purports that while reaching out to help
others, peer helpers increase their skills in communication and problem solving that
26
can have a lasting effect on their lives. Carr (1995) reported that the experience has
encouraged feelings of mutual respect and regard between helper and helpee. In
addition, the previously mentioned evaluation of California peer helping programs
reported that a large majority of program participants (85%) indicated that being a
member had helped them at school; 72% reported that it also helped them at home
(California Peer Helpers Association, 1998). In the study cited previously
regarding peer counseling in Saudi Arabia (Abu-Rasain & William, 1999), peer
counselors reported improved listening and communication skills, which was
consistent with teacher observations. Peer counselors of the study also reported the
development of good social relationships with classmates. The authors went on to
state that all data sources consistently revealed that peer helpers had grown
personally as a result of the experiences, increasing self-confidence and making
evident the ability to apply their newly learned skills to their own problems. The
ability to apply communication skills that directly affect students’ social experience
within the school would suggest that the experience of peer helping could have a
considerable effect on students’ feelings and perceptions of their school
environment.
As previously stated, peer helper interventions have demonstrated positive
effects on both the school context and the helpers themselves. However, this study
is looking at whether this translates into a significant change in helpers’
perceptions. Are student helpers’ perceptions of school climate, school
connectedness, and school violence impacted by participation in the peer helper
27
program? To examine this, we must first define and review the variables to be
measured based on pre- and post-program participation.

School Climate and School Connectedness
School Climate
Within the educational research literature, there have been a variety of uses
of the term school climate, which have included descriptions of school culture, as
well as broad definitions that include various community influences. For the
current study however, the term school climate will be defined as the social
influences of a school that can serve to effect, either positively or negatively, the
academic achievement and overall development of students. Much of the work
done in the area of school climate has helped to categorize and describe common
characteristics of what is theorized to be a positive school climate and is reported as
such by students. These include a focus on academic achievement, respect for all
school members, positive relationships with students and staff, fair and consistent
discipline policies, appropriate attention paid to safety issues, and the necessary
involvement of family and the larger community (Wilson, 2004). A perceived
positive school climate is thought to enhance and contribute to student development
and academic achievement.

28
School Connectedness
More recent within the research literature is the construct of school
connectedness. School connectedness is defined for the current study as the belief
of students that adults in the school care about them as individuals and about their
learning (Blum & Libbey, 2004). As mandated by Congress in 1993, the National
Institutes of Health began the first national study on adolescent health as it relates
to and connected to their social environment, and the various social settings in
which they take part. The resulting data was initially presented in the National
Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health and its first publication of the data in
1997 by Blum and Rinehart (1997). The paper that utilized survey and interview
data of over 90,000 students from grades 7 to 12 across the country, attempted to
articulate the social connections that made significant positive contributions to the
lives of youth, as well as having a protective factor with regards to their health.
According to the authors, although many aspects of school were measured for their
impact on the behavior of young people, the factor that demonstrated the greatest
association with lower prevalence of all health risk behaviors, as well as being
associated with highest increase in emotional well-being, was school
connectedness.
According to a review of research conducted by an interdisciplinary group
of education leaders, it is hypothesized that there are critical requirements for
students to feel connected to school (Blum & Libbey, 2004). Students are reported
to feel more connected to school if they experience positive adult-student
29
relationships, high academic expectations coupled with support for learning, and
feeling safe, both physically and emotionally. The research would indicate that
peer programs have the necessary components to affect the perceptions of students
with regards to school climate and feelings of school connectedness.

Student Perceptions of School Violence
The literature regarding student perceptions of school violence indicates
that students’ perceptions of safety are associated with their perceptions of the
school environment, which includes school climate (Kitsantas, Ware, & Martinez-
Arias, 2004). This is viewed as a key issue because influences that could positively
affect feelings of school climate could, in turn, have a beneficial effect on students’
perceptions of school violence. The positive effects of peer helping programs for
both users of the program and the helpers themselves can play a significant part in
creating a climate of care in schools that may prove influential on student
perceptions (Cowie, 1999).
Qualitative studies regarding the issue of student perceptions of school
violence have also served to give some insight as to what students themselves feel
could have an impact on school violence. Michael Haselswerdt and Ann Marie
Lenhardt’s (2004) study explored the perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes of students
on the topic of school violence and school safety using focus-group methodology.
Results of the study revealed that the students who were interviewed feel that there
are several ways that schools can be proactive in enhancing a positive climate
30
within the school and thereby affect students' perceptions concerning safety at
school. The recommendations made by the study that are relevant to peer helping
programs and their effects on a school environment are as follows:
1) Developing respectful relationships — Training and providing opportunities
for teachers and students to effectively listen and communicate with one
another is reported by the study as critical to enhancing school environment
variables;
2) Disciplinary policies — Programs that reduce the punitive nature of discipline
policies for those that emphasize social skill development and afford
opportunities for student growth.
3) Communication infrastructures — Providing students with opportunities to
contribute to decision making processes fosters feelings of respect and
demonstrates that staff believes that students are capable and contributing
members of the school community; and
4) Community service programs — The study also recommends programs that
foster cross-age mentoring and service to others as a way to enhance feelings
of self and connection to school community by students.
Peer helper programs can address each of these recommendations as they
provide opportunities for students and staff to learn and practice communication
skills and integrate social skills by managing conflict through constructive and
focused discussions. In addition, the process creates the necessity for students to
31
make critical decisions as helpers provide services to the school community under
the supervision of school personnel.

Influences on Peer Helpers’ Perceptions of
School Climate and School Connectedness
So, how would the participation and training of students to help their peers
serve to influence perceptions of school climate, school connectedness, and school
violence? The current study purports two mechanisms by which student
perceptions may be influenced regarding these variables. First, the research on peer
helping would suggest that program participants are empowered by the acquisition
of communication skills that may serve to justify students’ feelings more control
over their environment, and their abilities to navigate their environment (Turner,
1999). Within the same vein of influence, researchers such as Cowie (1999) argued
that participation in peer helping programs fulfills a social need within the
adolescent development process. Program involvement provides young people
with the opportunity to affect their environment through structured interaction with
peers in need, an experience that can alter a participant’s view of themselves and
their place in the school community where they learn and serve as a resource. As
stated previously, when students are asked how schools can become safer, they
state that respectful relationships with staff, as well as creating communication
infrastructures are ways to enhance positive climate within the school (Haselwerdt
& Lenhardt, 2003). Peer helping programs can provide such opportunities for this
32
type of communication to take place. Additionally, the sharing of power and
responsibility within the school can provide opportunities for learning and critical
decision making that students desperately need which in turn, can serve to shape
students’ perceptions of their school community, their connection to school, as well
as their views of the violence on their campus.
Another closely related mechanism which this researcher believes peer
helping programs serve to influence participant perceptions are associated with the
social affiliations that participation entails. Peer helpers develop relationships with
peers and staff that may enhance their standing or status within the school,
especially with school staff. Peer helping puts young people in a position of power
and influence and also ensures that they will socialize with others with the same
power and influence within the school environment. This researcher posits that
such a process builds a sense of community within the school for the participants
that results in positive outcomes for the students and consequently more positive
perceptions (Battistich, Solomon, Kim, Watson, & Schaps, 1995). As Battistich
and colleagues indicated in their work, a student's sense of community is associated
with increased academic performance, positive attitudes toward school, and
increases in pro-social behavior and attitudes toward others. This researcher
believes that peer helpers will feel a greater sense of community in their school
environment as a result of their participation in the program that includes training
and the experience of helping others. This, in turn, will positively influence their
perceptions of the variables to be measured.
33
The positive by-products that program participants experience as a result of
both training and serving as peer helpers are often reported by authors as having
positive effects on school climate. Although this may be the case, to date there are
no studies that have collected data pre- and post-peer program participation on the
specific issues of school climate, school connectedness, and perceptions of school
violence. In addition, studies and evaluations that have looked at students’
perceptions to benefit from program involvement have failed to utilize study
designs that include a control group that could serve to more accurately measure or
report on the effects of peer helping on the helpers themselves.
This researcher proposes to follow through on the implementation of a peer
helping program within a comprehensive high school setting in order to collect data
on both students that receive the intervention (PAL program participants) and those
that do not (control group). For clarification, a description of the proposed
intervention follows.

The Peer Assistance Leadership (PAL) Program
The Peer Assistance Leadership (PAL) program was established in 1980 in
an effort to prevent and address the underlying causes for alcohol, tobacco, and
other drug use by youth. The program consists of a curriculum that is presented to
a group of 18 to 25 students throughout the course of an entire school year. During
the first semester of the school year, students are instructed in techniques of
communicating effectively with one another; they were also introduced to basic
34
counseling techniques such as empathic listening. Activities are conducted within
the classroom setting on a daily basis that serves to enhance the relationships
between the participants of the program, as well as between the participants and the
instructor(s) of the class. As the year progresses, these student participants begin to
interact with other students on campus in structured settings as representatives of
the PAL program. PAL student interventions include new student orientations,
peer and cross-age teaching and tutoring, peer helping, community service
activities, red ribbon week activities, and conflict management/mediation. The
program can be implemented at the elementary, middle, and high school levels and
its purported results are improved school attendance, reduced drug and alcohol
abuse, a positive school climate, increased academic success, responsible behavior,
and involvement in community service.

Summary
As the review of literature indicates, peer-led interventions can have
beneficial effects on its users and its participants. This researcher posits that
student participants of a peer-helping program implemented on a high school
campus will serve to positively influence their perceptions of school climate,
school connectedness, and school violence. The rationale for this influence is
based on the assumption that students will be empowered by their social skills
development, which will serve to alter the manner in which they view the various
social contexts that they encounter. Additionally, students’ perceptions will be
35
influenced by their newly found voice in the school community that will be heard
and received with an interest and respect from the school staff that may have been
lacking previously. As these students begin to be utilized as the resources in their
school, their participation in a more democratic school and their greater sense of
community result in a more positive perception of their school environment. The
more positive perception of their school environment will be indicated through the
measurement of the variables of school climate, school connectedness, and school
violence.
36
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY

Chapter 3 presents the methodology for the study, including a description of
the population, the sampling procedures, the research questions, and the design
utilized to test these questions. The instruments used in the study are described, as
are the study procedures and the manner in which the data will be analyzed.

Purpose of the Study
The primary aim of this study is to analyze how participation in a peer
helping program serves to influence and potentially affect participants’ perceptions
of school connectedness, school climate, and school violence. School
connectedness refers to the belief of students that the adults in school care about
them as individuals and about their learning (Blum & Libbey, 2004). Perceptions
of school climate are defined for the current study as the social influences of a
school that can serve to effect, either positively or negatively, the academic
achievement and overall development of students (Wilson, 2004). Data on these
two variables, as well as students’ perceptions of school violence on their campus
will be measured utilizing the California School Climate Survey as revised by
Astor (1997).
37
The primary research question of this study addresses 42 students attending
a comprehensive high school within the Los Angeles County. Students that agree
to participate will be selected and assigned either to a control group (21 students) or
an experimental group (21 students). The research question is as follows: What
sort of effects are associated with participation in a peer helping program on 11
th
and 12
th
grade students’ perceptions of school connectedness and school climate?
The survey will be administered at two time points, the first of which will attempt
to gather perceptions of students prior to participation in the program, to assist in
the determination of how the peer helper training and experience affects
participants’ perceptions.
In addition, qualitative data will be collected by focus group with ten
members of the experimental group at the conclusion of the study. It is
hypothesized that participants of the peer helper program will demonstrate an
increase in feelings of school connectedness and will indicate a more positive
perception of the school climate.

Sample and Population
Study participants will be sampled from a single high school within Los
Angeles County. Blanche Unified School District is located approximately 12
miles east of downtown Los Angeles in the San Gabriel Valley. The student body
with 2,440 members at the start of the school year 2004-05 is expected to be at
approximately 2,500 for the school year 2005-2006. Demographics of the
38
community and the school place the Latino population at 85%, Asian 8%,
Caucasian 4%, African American 2%, with 1% designated as Other. The socio-
economic status of the school’s surrounding community can be characterized as
low, where more than 50% of the students (approximately 60 - 68%) are eligible to
participate in the free and reduced school lunch programs. The school site for the
study has had a significant history of violence on campus with the social dynamics
of the school becoming increasingly hostile according to district administration.
The peer helper program was initiated by the district and site administration in an
attempt to address the perceived negative peer relations of the school community.
It was proposed that a program that could address the overall school climate, which
would eventually include conflict mediation and in turn would benefit the school.
Participants for the study were collected through the recruitment process of
a peer-helping program in May 2005, for the school year 2005-2006. This process
consisted of nominations from teachers, students, as well as self-nominations.
Through discussions with teachers, an attempt was made to be inclusive to all
factions of the student body. Teachers were asked to include students who
belonged to vastly different social groups within the school community regardless
of academic performance. Nominations were limited to 10
th
and 11
th
grade
students so that during program implementation, peer helpers would consist of only
11
th
and 12
th
graders. Once the nominations were completed, students were
notified and an information sheet was given to those interested in the program (331
nominations resulted in 318 information sheets collected). Applications were then
39
reviewed and transcripts were checked to ensure a minimum grade point average of
2.0 in an attempt to be as inclusive as possible while staying within the guidelines
set forth by the school administration. Once screened for grade point average, the
student sample was significantly reduced with 84 student applications remaining
eligible. These 84 students then attended an information session that explained the
program and the duties it would entail during the school year 2005-2006. Those
interested were given a more detailed questionnaire about their interest in the
program that was to be returned within one week. Students were informed that an
interview would be scheduled upon the return of the completed questionnaire. This
process resulted in 59 questionnaires submitted, followed by 5- to 10- minute
individual interviews with each student that were conducted over three days. To
obtain additional information regarding those students scheduled for an interview, a
more detailed nomination form was given to each of their teachers (6 per student)
that described their potential to be a peer helper. From this process, 21 students
were selected using the following criteria:
1. Availability — Students scheduled for the school year 2005-2006 must be
able to accommodate an elective class that would be attended daily.
2. Interest — Students who articulated an interest in being a peer helper through
their application and interview.
3. References — Information gathered throughout the process, particularly the
information provided by each teacher, once the student was scheduled for an
interview.
40
4. Gender and social group — The school staff responsible for the participant
selection process specifically made every attempt to include equal numbers of
male and female students without compromising the three criteria listed
above. In addition, students’ social groups were considered in an attempt to
include all social factions of the student body.
Final selection of the 21 student peer helpers resulted in 14 female students
and 7 male students. The control group consists of 22 students selected from those
interviewed who were not asked to be peer helpers with the male to female ratio
being equal to the experimental group.

Research Design
For the current study, a quasi-experimental design will be employed to
assist in determining what effect the intervention of participation in a peer helping
program had on the helpers’ perceptions about variables related to school violence.
The design is as follows:

A X B
Group 1 (experimental) Yes Yes Yes
Group 2 (control) Yes No Yes
A = Pre-test (survey)
B = Post-test (survey)
X = Intervention (peer helper training and experience)

41
In this design, subjects are assigned to two different groups — experimental with
both pre- and post-tests and control with pre- and post-tests.

Instrumentation
This mixed-methods study will utilize survey data collected from pre- and
post-intervention, as well as a focus group interview completed post-intervention.
For the survey data, the questionnaires are taken from the work of Astor, Behre,
Fravil, and Wallace (1997), who revised the California School Climate Survey for
their extensive work both in the United States and Israel. This instrument uses a 5-
choice Likert-type format, and it has been utilized to measure students’ perceptions
of school violence and school climate as it relates to school violence.
Within this instrument, there are questions that will serve to measure the
construct of school connectedness as it has been defined within the literature. The
construct of school connectedness was initially measured as part of the National
Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health and its first publication of the data by
Blum and Rinehart (1997). This study defined school connectedness as a
composite variable that utilized multiple dimensions of other factors within the
survey they employed. The original 8-item measure used in the study consisted of
items investigating a student’s sense of safety, rule fairness, teacher support, and
belonging. For the current study, school connectedness will be defined by the same
variables utilizing the survey revised by Astor and colleagues (1997). The school
42
connectedness scale embedded within the survey will be represented by the average
of fourteen items (See Appendix).
Additional data collected from student records that will be utilized in the
course of this study will be the student transcripts, attendance records, and
discipline records (referrals from teachers and administrators). Finally, with
regards to the one-hour focus group session with 10 students, confirmatory
questions will be used in an attempt to triangulate the results of the survey data.

Procedures
Selection of the peer helpers for this study began in May of the school year
2004-05. Through teacher and peer nominations, students were selected after a
review of student applications, teacher recommendations, and a one-on-one
interview. Peer helpers were selected and randomly assigned to either one of the
two experimental groups with the only consideration of equally distributing male
and female students as much as possible. Group 1 (experimental) and Group 2
(control), both with 11 students, would undergo the survey (pre-test) during the
first week of school in order to obtain information regarding students’ perceptions
prior to the intervention.
Students that are selected as peer helpers will enroll in an elective course
that will be part of their schedule for the entire school year. For the purpose of this
study, the duration of the treatment will be one full semester, which equals 18
43
weeks. The class will meet for one period per school day (55 minutes) for the
duration of the semester.
The class will consist of the curriculum designed for the Peer Assisted
Leadership (PAL) program. The program is reported by the authors to teach life
skills and build resiliency and assets in students (www.ocde.us/PAL/index, 2005).
In the process, students will learn the skills necessary to be peer helpers, which
include instruction in techniques of communicating effectively with one another;
they are also introduced to basic counseling techniques such as active listening.
Once trained, the services offered by the students to the entire school population are
peer counseling, freshman orientation and mentoring, and cross-age teaching and
tutoring.
The course will be taught by a female teacher who holds both a single
subject teaching credential and a Pupil Personnel Services credential in School
Counseling. The course will be aided by a credentialed School Psychologist who
will also serve as a counseling supervisor for students who will be required to
discuss peer counseling sessions upon their completion. The study intervention is
defined as the peer helper training (which consists of the elective course) and the
experience of being a peer helper for the school for the duration of at least one
semester. Students peer helper experience could include their facilitation of any or
all of the peer helper activities; they are all voluntary.
At the completion of the school semester, which starts in September 2005
and concludes in January 2006, all students in the experimental group (21) will be
44
administered the same survey to obtain information regarding their feelings and
perceptions about the previously stated variables of school violence. These
variables include the construct of school connectedness and school climate. In
addition, all students in the control group (21) will be administered the survey for
comparison. Finally, ten students from the experimental group will participate in a
one-hour focus group to obtain qualitative data regarding how their feelings and
perceptions may have been affected by the experience of being a peer helper, which
will be tape recorded, transcribed, and analyzed for relevant themes. In addition to
the survey and focus group data, student records will undergo pre- and post-
intervention reviews for all students in both groups to help determine if program
participation had an impact on student grade point average (GPA), attendance, and
referrals for disruptive behavior.

Data Analysis
Data analysis will be conducted with the use of the Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences (SPSS) software. It should be noted that analysis is limited to
descriptive statistics due to the low numbers within each group. For the research
questions, each variable related to school violence will be examined for within
group and between group differences regarding their feelings and perceptions about
their school before and after their participation in the peer helping program.
Focus group data will be collected during the second semester of the
treatment phase of the study, with the focus group consisting of 10 students. The
45
semi-structured focus group will last one hour and it will be tape-recorded. This
recording will be transcribed and this transcription will be analyzed for thematic
statements as they are related to the research questions. As previously stated, the
research questions focus on the effect that participation in a peer helping program
has on students’ perceptions of school connectedness, school climate and school
violence.

Summary
This mixed-methods study will investigate the effects of participation in a
peer helper program on the helper. The program implemented will be the Peer-
Assisted Leadership (PAL) program. Specifically, data on participants' feelings
and perceptions of school connectedness, school climate, and school violence, will
be collected at two time points during the intervention — one that asks students’
views regarding their school during the previous school year and the second is the
administration focusing on the current school year. The intervention for the study
is defined as peer helper training and peer helper experiences for the duration of
one school semester (18 weeks). A total of 42 students attending a single high
school within the Blanche Unified School District in the Los Angeles County will
participate in the study. Twenty-one 11
th
and 12
th
grade students will serve as the
experimental group, with an additional 21 students serving as the control group for
the study. Data collection will include the quantitative analysis of survey data
obtained by the administration of the California School Climate survey, as revised
46
by Astor and colleagues. In addition to this, qualitative data will be collected via
three 30-minute focus groups that will be conducted with nine students from the
study sample.
47
CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS

The current study investigates the potential influences on perceptions and
behaviors that may be associated with participation in a high school peer helping
program. Student perceptions of school connectedness, school climate, and school
violence, were obtained from two separate occasions to help determine the change,
if any, associated with program participation. The initial administration of the
survey asked students to answer questions as they recalled their perceptions for the
school year 2004-05. The second administration, given to students four weeks
later, asked them for their perceptions at the completion of the school year 2005-
2006. In an attempt to elucidate the results of the survey data, focus groups were
utilized to triangulate the quantitative data with qualitative methods. Additionally,
students’ grade point averages (GPA), attendance, and behavior referrals, are
compared for the school year 2004-05, to the current school year, to obtain data
regarding the potential influences that program participation may have had on these
variables.

Demographic Description of Sample
Subjects for the current study are a group of 42 high school students in a
school district within Los Angeles County. All students within the sample were
48
interviewed as potential peer helpers by the school staff during the school year
2004-05. From this selection process, school staff chose 21 students for the
program. This study placed the peer helping program participants in the
intervention group, with the students that were not chosen being placed in the
control group. The intervention group consists of 14 female and 7 male students,
and the control group consists of 15 female and 6 male students. During the
recruitment and consent process, three students in the intervention group refused to
participate; therefore, to maintain groups of equal size, recruitment for the control
group was stopped after 18 students agreed to participate (13 female and 5 males).
The intervention group was finalized at 12 female and 6 male students.

Table 1. Demographics of Sample

Demographics of Sample
N Females Males
Peer Helpers 18 12 6
Non-Peer helpers 18 13 5
Total 36 25 11
Students in both groups varied a great deal in their interests, as evidenced
by their social groups. Students also varied in their interest and participation in
school, as evidenced by their GPA, attendance, and extracurricular activities. The
ethnic make-up of the entire sample is similar to that of the school and community,
49
with an overwhelming majority being of Latino descent, with two Caucasian
students, one each from the peer-helper group and the control group.
Additional data that will serve to describe both the experimental group and
the control group are those data being utilized to inquire as to the possibility of
positive change due to peer helping program participation, grade point average,
attendance, and behavior referrals for the school year 2004-05. These data will be
compared to the same variables for the school year 2005-2006. For the school year
2004-05, data for the experimental group and the control groups are listed on Table
2.
Table 2. Behavior Variables for School Year 2004-05
Behavior
Variables for
2004-05 N
Mean
GPA Std. Dev Attendance
Behavior
referrals
(unexcused period
absences)
Peer Helpers 18 3.09 0.735 393 0
Non-Peer
helpers 18 2.85 0.71 454 1
Total 36
As indicated, the peer helping group and the control group make evident a
similar student profile. For the school year 2004-05, the peer helping group had a
mean GPA of 3.09, while the control group’s was 2.85.
The similarities continued with the attendance, with the peer helper group
missing 2.0% of the school year combined, using unexcused period absences, and
the control group missing 2.3% of the school year. For the most part, both groups
50
of students had good behavior with only one student from the entire study sample
having a behavior record that included incidents for which the school’s
administration was notified by referral from school staff.
An examination of the same variables for the school year 2005-2006 reveals
that the peer helper group made evident some positive gains with regards to these
behavior variables. With regards to grade point average, the peer helper group
students demonstrated a relative increase to a mean GPA of 3.28. This is in
contrast with the students in the control group, whose group mean GPA decreased
to 2.64. On an individual basis, the positive gains are even more revealing, as 13 of
the 18 students in the peer helper group obtained an increase in their GPA (72%),
while only 6 of 18 students (33%) in the control group achieved an increase in their
GPA. As Table 3 indicates, the changes between the two school years in GPA for
both groups were not statistically significant. Despite this, the data made evident a
trend that could be associated with peer helper program participation. The peer
helper group made a positive gain in their mean GPA, which is in contrast to the
students in the control group that made evident a decrease in their mean GPA.
Table 3. GPA Year-to-Year Comparison
GPA within group
comparison
(dependent t-test)
N
GPA
2004-05
GPA
2005-06
Std.
Dev
Std. Error
Mean t dF Sig.
Peer Helpers 18 3.09 3.28 0.4766 0.11235
-
1.676 17 0.112
Non-Peer helpers 18 2.85 2.64 0.4727 0.11142 1.85 17 0.082
Total 36
51
Peer helpers also made evident an increase in their attendance although, as a
group, their attendance decreased. Peer helpers as a group missed 2.5% of the
school year while the control group’s relative decrease in attendance resulted in
missing 4.5% of the school year. The attendance data on a student-to-student basis
is more positive, as 55% of the peer helpers had an increase in their attendance (10
out of 18 students), while only 17% of students in the control group (3 out of 18)
increased their attendance for the school year 2005-2006.
Table 4 indicates that there was a statistically significant difference in the
attendance for the non-peer helpers, when comparing school years 2004-05 and
2005-06. The difference made evident a significant drop in attendance for the
students in the control group. This was in contrast to the peer helper group that did
not have a statistically significant drop in attendance. It should be noted that for
the school year 2005-2006, there were a number of factors that may have
contributed to the excessive absences by students who participated in the study.
For instance, many of the study participants in both groups were seniors. This is
significant as students’ attendances often drop off during their senior year because
there are often many opportunities for students to celebrate the completion of their
high school careers (“senior-itis”). Additionally, during the course of the school
year 2005-2006, there were several days that students chose to participate in “walk-
outs” to demonstrate their support for immigrant rights, which happened to be a
critical issue politically during this particular time. Students who chose to
participate did so without the consent of school administration and therefore many
52
were suspended, thereby increasing the number of absences for the school year.
Interestingly, although there were students in the non-peer helper group that
participated in these walkouts, there were no students from the peer helper group
that took part in the demonstrations. As suggested by the qualitative data, students
in the peer helper group mentioned a greater sense of responsibility that could have
played into the differences in attendance between the two groups.

Table 4. Year-to-Year Comparison of Attendance
(utilized unexcused period absences)
Comparison of Attendance for 2004-05 and 2005-06 School Years
(Dependent t-test)

N
2004-
05
2005-
06
Std.
Dev
Std. Error
Mean T dF Sig.
Peer Helpers 18 393 505 19.553 4.609 -1.35 17 0.195
Non-Peer helpers 18 454 891 36.491 8.601 -2.823 17 0.012
Total 36
Finally, with regards to behavior referrals, there was no relative change in
either group; there continued to be one student only from the entire study sample
who received referrals for poor behavior. These data, collected to help determine
the possibility of pro-social behaviors associated with peer helper program
participation, appeared to indicate positive effects. The majority of students that
participated as peer helpers demonstrated an increase in grade point average as well
as attendance. This was in contrast to the students in the control group, with the
data indicating a significantly less positive effect on student behaviors.
53
Comparison of Peer Helpers and Non-Peer Helpers
on School Connectedness Variable
The primary research question guiding this particular study is: What
affects, if any, the experience of being peer helpers has on students’ perceptions of
their school as framed by the constructs of school connectedness, school climate,
and school violence? This study defines school connectedness as being the belief
of students that adults in the school care about them as individuals and about their
learning (Blum & Libbey, 2004). This definition is also expanded to include
positive adult-student relationships, high academic expectations coupled with
support for learning, and feeling safe, both physically and emotionally. The survey
used for this study measures school connectedness utilizing 17 questions in a 4-
choice Likert-scale format that addresses each of these areas as students perceive
them about their school. The results of the initial administration of the survey
indicate differences between the peer helper group and the control group in the
measure of school connectedness, as shown on Table 5.

Table 5. Between Group Comparison of School Connectedness Index
Independent t-test for the Scale of School Connectedness
N Mean Std. Dev
Std.
Error df P value
Peer Helpers 18 40.78 10.9 2.57
Non-Peer helpers 18 49.93 3.73 0.879
Equality of Means 20.92 0.003
54
Students from both groups were asked to complete the survey with the
previous school year in mind, attempting to capture their perceptions of how they
viewed their school for the school year 2004-05. As indicated, the students in the
control group recalled themselves to be more connected to school during the
previous school year. An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the
school connectedness index scores between the two groups.
There was a statistically significant difference in scores for controls
(M=49.83, SD=3.73), compared to peer helpers (M=40.78, SD=10.90; t
(20.92)=3.33, p=.003). This indicates that at the initial administration of the
survey, the control group perceived themselves to be more connected to the school
for the previous school year than the peer helper group.
As Table 6 demonstrates, the second administration of the survey revealed a
significant difference in the peer helper group’s perception of their connectedness
to school.

Table 6. Within Group Comparison of School Connectedness Index
Paired t-test for the Scale of School Connectedness
N Mean Std. Dev Std. Error p-value
Peer helpers (Time 1) 18 40.78 10.9 2.57
Peer Helpers (Time 2) 18 51.06 5.09 1.2
Paired Differences -10.27 9.51 2.24 p=.000
Non-Peer helpers(Time 1) 18 49.83 3.72 0.879
Non-Peer helpers (Time 2) 18 50.94 5.05 1.19
Paired Differences -1.11 4.24 0.999 p=.282
55
A paired samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the impact of the peer
helper participation on students’ scores of the school connectedness index. There
was a statistically significant increase in their score from Time 1 (M=40.78,
SD=10.90) to Time 2 (M=51.06, SD=5.09), t(17)=4.58, p<.001, indicating that
students in peer helper group viewed themselves as more involved with activities at
school and generally had a much more positive perception of the school as being
supportive. Additionally students indicated that they viewed staff as more helpful
and more approachable. This is contrast to the control group whose paired sample
t-test score indicated a difference between Time 1 (M=49.83, SD=3.72) and Time 2
(M=50.94, SD=5.05), t (17) = 1.11, p=.282, that was not statistically significant.
A look at some of the specific responses to the survey items reveal that
students in the peer helper group significantly altered their perceptions on some of
the major components that define the construct of school connectedness. For
instance, students, on average, demonstrated a statistically significant difference
between Time 1 and Time 2 on questions such as:
I felt very safe and protected at this school (p=.007); I felt unsafe
going to school or on the way home from school (p=.008); The
rules at school were stupid (p=.004); At this school, students and
teachers really cared for each other (p=.049).

Comparison of Peer Helpers and Non-Peer Helpers
on School Climate Variable
For this study, the construct of school climate refers to the social influences
of a school that can serve to affect, either positively or negatively, the academic
56
achievement and overall development of students. The survey that was
administered to both the peer helpers and the control group measured school
climate with 19 questions that covered the various aspects of the current definition
of school climate, which include a focus on academic achievement, respect for all
school members, positive relationships with students and staff, fair and consistent
discipline policies, and the appropriate attention paid to safety issues (Wilson,
2004). As the data from the initial administration of the survey indicates (Table 7),
the peer helper group viewed the school climate less positive than did the control
group.

Table 7. Between Group Comparison of School Climate Index
Independent t-test for the Scale of School Climate
N Mean
Std.
Dev
Std.
Error Df P value
Peer Helpers 18 48.33 4.51 1.06
Non-Peer helpers 18 53.67 4.07 0.96
Equality of Means 34 0.001
An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the school climate
index scores between the two groups. There was a statistically significant
difference in scores for controls (M=53.67, SD=4.07), compared to the peer helper
group (M=48.33, SD=4.51; t(34)= 3.72, p=.001). However, a significant change
occurred on the second administration of the survey, with the peer helper group
57
score demonstrating a positive change that indicates an increase in their perceptions
of the school climate.

Table 8. Within Group Comparison of School Climate Index
Paired t-test for the Scale of School Climate
N Mean Std. Dev
Std.
Error p-value
Peer helpers (Time 1) 18 48.33 4.51 1.06
Peer Helpers (Time 2) 18 53.78 6.42 1.51
Paired Differences -5.44 7.13 1.68 p=.005
Non-Peer helpers(Time 1) 18 53.66 4.07 0.959
Non-Peer helpers (Time 2) 18 55.44 4.92 1.16
Paired Differences -1.77 4.23 0.998 p=.093
A paired samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the impact of the peer
helper participation on students’ scores of the school climate index. There was a
statistically significant increase in their score from Time 1 (M=48.33, SD=4.51) to
Time 2 (M=53.78, SD=6.42), t(17)= 3.23, p=.005. This is in contrast to the control
group whose paired sample t-test result indicated a difference between Time 1
(M=53.66, SD=4.07) and Time 2 (M=55.44, SD=4.92), t(17)= 1.78, p=.093, that
was not statistically significant.

58
58
Table 9. Chart of Qualitative Data
Thematic Category Quotation
School Connectedness
Controls Group
Relationships with teachers affected “I think how they treat you personally when you go to them for help and
by respectful interactions: guidance on grades and stuff. A lot of teachers will try to help you and push
you and give you in a way the confidence to do better but then a lot of them
will be like oh well you weren’t here and be like real negative toward you
and there is a lot of teachers here that do not make you feel comfortable
talking with them about your grades and stuff. There are also those
(teachers) that just kind of give up on you I think that’s a real big effect on
your relationship with them.
Involved with activities: “I think what being connected means is just to be involved in whatever
activities there is in school.”
“… getting involved, not necessarily like sports or anything, just being
involved with school.”
Peer Helper Group
Feelings of Responsibility: “… I think that everybody felt like they were responsible for showing up, if I
didn’t show up I would have felt kind of guilty about it so it made me feel
like I wanted to come, like I was responsible for them because I felt like the
community was depending on us.”
“I guess I feel important in this class. I feel like we are doing something, not
just like ASB decorating stuff but we are trying to change things from like
the inside out, so kind of like they need us”.
59
59
Table 9 (continued).
Thematic Category Quotation
School Connectedness (continued)
Helping others is connected: “… connected means to be involved and try to help out, with the school and
with the students.”
“… it’s being involved and trying to make a difference.”
“I feel more apart of the school, I got to help the freshman this year which in
turn they will be here next year hopefully and then they’ll remember when
we helped them and hopefully they can try and help the freshman coming in
…”
“I feel more a part of the school because since we are part of the program we
have to know what’s going on in school in order to fit in what we want to do
in the school.”
“It just made me feel closer to the students on campus, only because I got to
talk to them, and see what they think about this school, and their views.”
Relationships with teachers affected “Well I feel more a part of it (the school) only because I know what goes on
by respectful interactions: and I’ve had that interaction with teachers and administrators and students
themselves.”
“… teachers stop treating me as a student or a guy and they starting treating
me like an adult, somebody who holds responsibility in this school and I
think when you start treating a student like that I think that’s when it gets
good, like the relationship just you get this bond you know because there’s
always a sense of responsibility like you can count on them and its just back
and forth that’s all.”
60
60
Table 9 (continued).
Thematic Category Quotation
School Climate
Control Group
Inequities in enforcement of policies: “There are a lot of people here that just because they have Dads working in
the district or stuff like that they get away with a lot more things where other
students would be expelled or they would be suspended or they would get a
ticket or something, I think a lot of people get away with stuff.”
“I think the rules are fair, just that there are times like the dress code, they
get caught when you are like suppose to check them when they first come in
and like one person gets caught but you see everybody else wearing them
and its just kind of dumb when some people get in trouble and others don’t.”
Inequities in treatment: “I think when teachers pick someone, I’m going to say intelligent, like let’s
say that I have a C in that class and there is this girl that has an A, I just
think they pick them over me just because they have a better chance of
something”
Approachable teachers: “I feel real comfortable that I could speak with most of my teachers,
especially about confidential matters, I think that I can go to pretty much any
of them and like they are pretty fair on the rule sand how they deal with
students.”
“I think the senior teachers are a lot different than the other ones ‘cause they
treat you more mature and you feel more confident in talking to them about
important things like fighting or stuff like that.”
“I would say feeling real comfortable with your teachers and to know your
resources when you have problems and people to talk to.”
61
61
Table 9 (continued).
Thematic Category Quotation
School Climate (continued)
Uncaring teachers: “Teachers that don’t care kind of make me want to give up like, oh well the
teacher doesn’t care, why should I care kind of attitude.”
Peer Helper Group
Caring teachers: “… (the class) kind of helped me realize that like they (teachers) were there
for me, they were always willing to listen so what it did for me is it changed
my view because now I see them as more than just my teachers”.
“ I use to think that teachers didn’t really care, but like now that I see them
more as like a person instead of just being a teacher, I see them more as a
person someone there wants to help you to get out of this town, do
something more with your life.”
Student input matters: “Now I feel that what we do matters. ‘Cause we have administration
involved, they are kind of involved in this class, they come in here and I see
them on campus and they ask us, what’s going on? Or like with fights and
stuff like that you know how sometimes we get called up to talk about
people getting into arguments and stuff, so I do feel like we do have some
impact now, but before, never.”
“I think it was in peer counseling I realized that it is worth waiting with your
hand up, I mean it does matter, your opinion does matter and I think that my
opinion matters a lot now.”
62
62
Table 9 (continued).
Thematic Category Quotation
School Climate (continued)
Positive perception of others: “I have expanded my friends based on this class getting to know people
better it made me not be scared to get to know other people outside of the
whole school which can hopefully bring everybody closer than everybody
being separated into their own little groups”.
63
Some of the more interesting changes in perceptions indicated by the survey
responses were on questions related to policies and staff responses, as well as the
importance of the student’s role in the school environment. For instance, students
in the peer helper group demonstrated a positive change, made evident by paired t-
test analysis of their responses on the survey for Time 1 and Time 2. Comparison
of the following questions demonstrated statistical significance: When students
had an emergency (or a serious problem), an adult was always there to help
(p=.035); Students of all racial and ethnic groups were respected at my school
(p=.002); The staff in my school made efforts to involve students in important
decisions (p=.037).
Comparison of Peer Helpers and Non-Peer Helpers
on School Violence Variable
Survey data was obtained from both groups of students on the topic of
school violence. Students’ perceptions were gathered on topics such as the theft
and destruction of property, threats of verbal and physical assault, assault with a
weapon, bullying and harassment, and other areas related to being personally
victimized on the way to school, on school grounds, or on the way home from
school. Additionally, school policies and staff responses to student reported
violence was also included under this variable. The higher the score on this
particular variable, the greater the violence problem is perceived by the student. As
is indicated by the mean scores, on the initial administration of the survey, the peer
64
helper group perceived the school to have a greater problem with regards to
violence than did the control group.

Table 10. Between Group Comparison of School Violence Index
Independent t-test for the Scale of School Violence
N Mean Std. Dev
Std.
Error df P value
Peer Helpers 18 37.94 7.3 1.72
Non-Peer helpers 18 33.44 4.51 1.06
Equality of Means 34 0.033
An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the school
violence index scores between the two groups. There was a statistically significant
difference in scores for controls (M=33.44, SD=4.51), compared to peer helpers
(M=37.94, SD=7.30); t(34)=2.22, p=.033). Therefore, from the student perceptions
obtained from the survey questions, students in the peer helper group felt that their
particular school site had more problems with violence than did the control group.
The second administration of the survey revealed a change in the opinion of both
groups as to the severity of the school violence.
Students in the control group demonstrated an opinion of the school
violence problem that changed to a significant degree. A paired samples t-test was
conducted to evaluate the impact of the peer helper participation on students’ scores
of the school violence index. There was a statistically significant decrease in their
score from Time 1 (M=37.94, SD=7.30) to Time 2 (M=33.50, SD=5.84),
65
t(17)=3.02, p=.008, indicating that students viewed the school as having less of a
problem with violence on campus for the school year 2005-06 compared to the
previous school year. Students in the control group also made evident a
statistically significant change from Time 1 (M=33.44, SD=4.51) to Time 2
(M=29.44, SD=5.95), t(17)= 3.02, p=.008. This would appear to indicate that
students in both groups perceived their school as less violent on the second
administration of the survey when asked to base their answers on the current school
year.

Table 11. Within Group Comparison of School Violence Index
Paired t-test for the Scale of School Violence
N Mean Std. Dev
Std.
Error p-value
Peer helpers (Time 1) 18 37.94 7.3 1.72
Peer Helpers (Time 2) 18 33.5 5.84 1.37
Paired Differences 4.44 6.24 1.47 p=.008
Non-Peer helpers(Time 1) 18 33.44 4.51 1.06
Non-Peer helpers (Time 2) 18 29.44 5.95 1.4
Paired Differences 4 5.6 1.32 p=.008
Of particular interest was that students in both groups felt that gang activity
was less a problem than had been in the previous year, and that crime and violence
from the neighborhood had less of an effect on the school for the current school
66
year as opposed to the previous school year. Additionally, students in the peer
helper group, indicated by their responses, perceived the magnitude of the school
violence problem to be greater for the school year2004-05 than for the school year
2005-2006. It should be noted at this point, the school year 2004-05 was a
particularly violent year with regards to large scale fights and strained relations
between groups of students, which, in part, was the reason for the initiation of the
peer helper program.

Qualitative Data
As previously mentioned, in an attempt to elucidate the results of the survey
data, focus groups were utilized to triangulate the quantitative data with qualitative
methods. As a follow up on the information obtained by the survey, confirmatory
questions were asked of students in a semi-structured format with four groups of
three students. Transcripts from the four focus groups were subjected to content
analysis revealing several statements that shed some light on student s’ perceptions
of the variables being investigated.

School Connectedness
Students’ views on what being connected to school means to them were
consistent across groups as well as consistent with the previous research on this
topic. The most prevalent theme with regards to connectedness was students being
involved in extracurricular activities such as sports, clubs, and student government.
Another less prevalent theme consistent across groups was that connectedness was
67
encouraged by respectful interactions with teachers. These explanations were
utilized by both the peer helper group as well as by the control group. This also led
to a discussion on unequal treatment and enforcement of policies for those students
that are involved in more activities and are considered “good” students by teachers.
It was clear that students felt that such a scenario lead to feeling less connected to
the school. The following quotation from a student in the control group makes this
evident: “… let’s say I have a “C” in that class and there is this girl that has an
“A.” I just think they pick them over me just because they have a better chance of
something.”
The other most prevalent theme that is consistent across peer helper groups
only, was connected being closely linked to helping others and reaching out to
others. When peer helpers were asked to compare their feelings of connectedness
from this year to previous years, many indicated that their work within the program
significantly affected their feelings of belonging to the school. One student put it
this way:
“I didn’t feel connected at all. I just felt like I just showed up
everyday and you know they got tax money for it, you know, that’s
how I felt like I had to come because they needed the money, now
its like I am helping out, I am part of it now, I feel like I belong
here.”

It was clear for the peer helper group that feelings of connectedness and
belonging to school were closely related to having and active role in the school.
Another student from the peer helper group commented on how serving as a
resource for the school made him feel part of the school:
68
“I feel more part of the school because now like the students know
that we are here for them and also the teachers involved know we
are here for them (the students), they come to us whenever they are
in a situation.”

Other student comments related to the connectedness variable were focused on
feeling comfortable with teachers and being aware of the resources on campus
available to students.
As previously mentioned, students feeling respected by teachers and staff
were closely associated with feelings of connectedness. However, this discussion
differed between the students in the control group and the peer helper group. The
control group students’ descriptions of teachers and staff taking part in respectful
interactions with students were consistently of receptive and accessible teachers to
students requesting assistance. This was in contrast to the peer helpers who
described the respect that they often encountered to be associated with being treated
as a contributor to the school and not like a “kid” or “just a student.” These
descriptions of being an active participant in the school were vital to their stated
feelings of connectedness and belonging.
The focus group revealed that students in the control group seemed to find it
difficult articulating ways that they felt connected to school. They were limited in
their ability to reference examples in their personal experience that demonstrated a
connection to school staff. Much of the non-peer helpers’ discussion centered on
descriptions of teachers that they felt were fair and open to assisting them. This
was in contrast to the peer helper group that articulated scenarios that brought to
69
light the importance of working collaboratively with staff as critical to feeling
connected to school.

School Climate
Peer helper group student perceptions of the school climate did make
evident positive change according to the two separate administrations of the survey.
However, a look at the qualitative data on this variable would not appear consistent
with this positive change. Although students in both the peer helper and control
groups stated that the school climate was positive because of positive relationships
with teachers, students did have several statements which indicated negative
perceptions of the school climate. For instance, student statements that were
consistent across the various peer helper focus groups were that the climate of the
school is negatively affected by students that bully other students, as well as
numerous comments that were indicative of poor relationships between
administrators and students.
Students across groups articulated feelings of the school’s climate being
negatively affected by inequity in the manner in which students are treated. For
instance, several students commented on how the concern for and the respect of
students often appears proportional to their academic achievements and status. The
following quotation, although lengthy, appears to clearly express these sentiments:
I also think that the more advanced your classes are, the more
teachers put their time into it. Because when you have regular
English, you know there are kids working at different levels and
some shouldn’t even be in the class. They should be in a higher
70
class and those kids that are off on their own and the teachers are
more concentrated on the students that aren’t doing so, they’re not
even concentrating on them at all. They’re just giving lessons, just
to give lessons and meet all the standards. And they don’t, it
doesn’t really matter to them whether you pass or fail and that’s
just, it happens more with regular classes, say if you have like
Earth Science, the teacher basically won’t care and she’ll say, “Oh
yeah just do your work and if you don’t it’s on you,” but if you
have like let’s say AP Chemistry, the teacher will be, “Oh do you
work, do this and this, I’m here, I’m here on Saturdays and here
after school, I’m here all the time if you need help,” you know, and
I really see that concerning the different levels of class”.
Students’ negative feelings about the perceived inequities were also
expressed in regards to school policies and their execution by the administrative
staff. Much of the current research has made evident that a fair, even-handed, and
consistent discipline policy is critical to fostering a positive school climate.
Students in both groups appeared to agree with this analysis, made evident by the
consistent and prevalent theme. Students commented on the frustration felt when it
is obvious that rules are not often for everyone. The following statement made by a
student in the control group seems to express these sentiments well:
“There are a lot of people here that just ‘cause they have Dads
working in the district or stuff like that they get away with a lot
more things where other students would be expelled or they would
be suspended or they would get a ticket or something, I think a lot
of people get away with stuff.”

Such inequitable enforcement of policy may not only lead to negative
feelings of the school climate in general; it can also lead to a social context that
may lead to intimidation. Another student in the control group put it this way: “It
could make it a little more intimidating to others, toward those people um that they
71
could get away with things and no one will talk to them or anything or get involved
with them.” Students consistently made it clear that although they believed the
school staff did a fair job of monitoring students and enforcing the rules, it was
situations such as the one just described that created the most difficulties, especially
if the person or persons were part of gang or crew.
Being heard and having a voice in school matters were also themes that
students mentioned as having some significance in affecting their perceptions of the
school climate. As made evident by the survey items, students found it important
that their opinions were heard and their comments and suggestions considered in
school policy. Opportunities for such interactions with staff are few and far
between and it was evident through their comments that the peer helper group
began to reconsider the importance of their opinion to the school. One peer helper
explained it this way:
“Now I do cause we have administration involved, kind of they are
kind of involved in this class, they come in here and I see them on
campus they ask us, oh what’s going on, or like with fights and
stuff like that you know how sometimes we get called up to talk
about people getting in to arguments and stuff, so I do feel like we
do have some impact now, but before, never.”

This was in contrast to the control group that expressed a much different
view with regards to how the administration viewed their input. Students in this
group found it difficult to be heard by the administrative staff and stated that it
created a sense that what they had to contribute was of no consequence. This was
appropriately conveyed by the following:
72
“They (administrators) kind of categorize you as a student and like
you’re younger and immature like that kind of attitude, like oh
you’re a kid I don’t know they kind of treat you like that. It makes
you feel like Oh then I guess it doesn’t matter what I say right? —
that kind of thing.”

With consistent student comments such as this, the qualitative data made a distinct
connection between students feeling as though they are taken seriously with a more
positive feeling of the climate of the school.
School Violence
Content analysis also revealed themes within the focus group data on
students’ feelings of the violence problem at their school. For the most part,
students in both the peer helper group and the control group perceived their school
to be safe. Students expressed that the aspects of the school that encouraged these
feelings of safety were the supervision that was provided by school staff such as
proctors, administrators, and police officers. Another prevalent theme that arose
from the transcripts were policies and routines that are followed by the school that
have given them the impression that the school does well in keeping the school free
from strangers and other dangers within the community. It is relevant to note that
the school had an extraordinarily violent 2004-05 school year. Many students
experienced lock downs and evacuations of the school, which, according to the
students, were carried out in a manner that gave them confidence in the school’s
staff’s ability to manage such situations. It would appear that the previous school
year also played a role in the students’ assessment of the school violence problem;
73
several considered it to be safe in comparison to the previous school year, one
stating that the she was aware of weapons on campus but no longer felt that it was a
significant issue.
Other less prevalent themes were the fact that students perceived the school
to be well cared for and maintained, which gave the impression to students that the
school was a safe place. The most prevalent theme, however, was that students
considered the school to be safe because they had not experienced being victimized
on school grounds or on the way to and from school. This is consistent with the
research literature which indicates that students’ assessment of the school violence
problem is closely associated with being personally victimized.
There were exceptions to the majority of students that perceived the school
to be a safe place. There were some students from both the peer helper and control
groups that commented on the difficulty that the school has with gangs and party
crews. The community that surrounds the school is considered to have a significant
gang problem and these issues do permeate into the schools, especially the high
schools. Students mentioned the reputation that the school has to be an unsafe
place and cite the gang problem as the primary reason for this negative reputation.
Although the majority of students articulated that they felt that the school was safe,
several did acknowledge the negative reputation of the school by stating that when
they first enrolled at the school, they expected it to be much more dangerous than it
turned out to be. A less prevalent but seemingly significant theme that was, evident
from two of the students in the peer helper group, the issue of drugs on campus.
74
These students commented that drugs were readily available on campus and also
stated that they were aware of where they could obtain some at any time during the
school day. When these students were questioned further as to how they felt the
administration managed this problem, they responded that they make efforts but the
problem is too big. In general, it appeared as though that student s’ assessment of
how the school staff manages violent situations on campus, including drug use,
plays a critical role in how violent students perceive their school to be.

Personal Development and Creating School Community
Although the peer helper students’ perceptions of their personal
development was not a variable measured by the survey, transcripts of the focus
groups revealed a prevalent theme that appeared to link social skill development
with changes in perceptions of the school’s social contexts. As was previously
stated, peer helper students expressed that they felt more connected to the school
through participation in the program in helping others and having a more active
role in the school. A prevalent theme that seemed to be associated with this, and
also seemed to play a role in students’ perceptions of their school’s social
environment, was what they consistently articulated to be an increase in social
skills and awareness. Students expressed that their participation in the peer helper
class, as well as their experiences throughout the school year, served to increase
their confidence in dealing and coping with difficult situations with peers. Every
student within the peer helper group that participated in the focus group discussions
75
expressed that they now possess an increased ability to assess social situations that
may result in conflict. They also perceived themselves to be better at initiating
interactions that they felt could diffuse a potentially volatile situation. This
perceived confidence and ability felt by students would appear to have implications
for students to potentially affect the social contexts in which they find themselves,
and ultimately have an effect on their perception of the violence that takes place
around them.
In addition to student s’ personal development, questions were posed in the
focus group discussions on what students felt community and forming a community
within the school meant to them. Both groups of students expressed that forming
community meant one had to go outside their immediate social circle.
Additionally, students in the peer helper group expressed that community meant
serving others and doing one’s part in making some sort of positive change. This
group clearly associated feeling part of a greater purpose that one’s own personal
achievement was critical to community formation. Additionally, some of these
students expressed a change in their view of the work that teachers and
administrators do, as they commented on feeling as if they were working with staff
as opposed to simply critiquing their efforts. It was evident that the peer helpers
newfound role of active member and resource to their fellow students served to
influence their views on themselves, as well as how they fit into the school
community. This was made most evident when it was stated by the peer helpers
that they now felt necessary to the school.
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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS

This study followed a sample of 36 high school, 11
th
and 12
th
graders, from
a Los Angeles County urban school. Students were equally distributed into two
groups — participants and non participants in a peer helper program. The intention
was to investigate what effects participation had on students’ perceptions of school
connectedness, school climate, and school violence. Analyses conducted with
survey data on these variables revealed positive effects on peer helpers’ perceptions
corroborated by qualitative data obtained through focus groups at the completion of
program participation. Compared to the control group, peer helpers expressed a
more positive outlook about their school. Students reported increases in feelings of
connectedness, or belonging, that were closely associated with reaching out and
helping others. Program participants also reported an increase in positive
perceptions of school climate with both quantitative and qualitative data pointing to
peer helpers’ assessment of school staff’s responses to violent incidences on
campus.
With regards to school violence, peer helpers indicated that they perceived
the school to be less violent than the prior school year. Finally, compared to the
control group, peer helpers demonstrated an increase in academic achievement, as
well as attendance, which was based on focus group interview where they
attributed to program participation. The following discussion centers on the
77
implications for similar school sites with regards to theory, policy, and practice that
are based on these findings.

Discussion
Interventions aimed at preventing school violence often take on the role of
assessment, enforcement, and punishment, leaving the role of the student as a
passive recipient to be protected or disciplined (Kitsantas, Ware, & Martinez-Arias,
2004). Although methods that use a law enforcement model have their place
within the context of creating safer schools, they fail at a fundamental level. Such
models do not address the constructive and meaningful steps that schools can take
to create opportunities for students to take part in the creation of their school
environments. School sites that are more dependent on a law enforcement model
of school safety may undermine the school’s authority to make critical decisions.
Consequently, decisions would be made by law enforcement personnel that may
lack the desire and opportunity to connect to students (Hyman & Snook, 1999).
Most importantly, school personnel would miss the opportunity to enlist students in
taking part in the process of making their school a safe place. The current study
researched for ways to shed light on interventions and experiences that view the
role of the student as an active member of their school community.
It was expected that students’ perceptions would be positively influenced by
feelings of empowerment that would be created through social skills development.
This increase in awareness and confidence in social settings would subsequently
78
affect participants’ views of the school’s social context, including those that are
potentially violent. These findings have implications regarding the future study
and practical applications that may include the study variables of school
connectedness, school climate, and school violence.

School Connectedness: Implications for Theory
Current research efforts in the field of education have given the construct of
school connectedness a prominent role. School connectedness has been associated
with protective effects against such behaviors as risky sex, violence, and drug use
in school-aged children and adolescents (Catalano, Haggerty, Oesterle, Fleming, &
Hawkins, 2004). This study reveals that peer helping programs could serve to
increase students’ feelings of connectedness.
Positive effects of the peer helping experience may influence perceptions
that students have of their school environment, through a sense of empowerment
and increased feelings of control (Turner, 1999). With the exception of some of the
most recent studies, the construct of school connectedness depicts students, not as
active and empowered participants, but as passive recipients of care and protection.
This conceptualization would appear to be insufficient, as it fails to recognize the
reciprocal nature of connectedness. After all, when one thinks of connecting with
someone, it is assumed that it is a reciprocal relationship; why would connecting
with school personnel be different?
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Students are active participants in their school environments and their
actions, whether they are viewed as positive or negative by school staff, and have a
direct effect on how they feel about their school. Every student action has a
reaction by school staff. These staff reactions are observed by students for cues to
help them decide whether or not to invest more of themselves. This study would
indicate that when student actions include reaching out to their fellow students,
those feelings of purpose and belonging are fostered.

School Connectedness
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
12
2004-05 2005-06
SC Index score
Peer Helpers
Non Peer Helper
Figure 1. Year-to-Year Comparison of Students on School Connectedness Index

As Figure 1 indicates, the peer helper group made a statistically significant
gain in their score on the School Connectedness Index from time point 1 to time
point 2. This was in contrast to the non-peer helper group, whose score indicates
little change in their feelings of school connectedness at time point 2. These scores
80
may suggest that students in the peer helper group perceived themselves as more
connected to the school from one school year to the next due to their experience
within the program. The program experience placed students in a new and more
responsible role as a contributor to the school’s social environment. The
experience also provided structured opportunities to interact with staff in a manner
that fostered collaboration; it also highlighted their importance to the process of
creating a positive school environment.
The current definition of school connectedness fails to capture the feelings
of purpose and belonging shared by the peer helpers in this study, feelings that they
associated closely with connectedness. It may serve research efforts well if the
construct of school connectedness were expanded to conceptualize connectedness
as not just received but reciprocated as well (Whitlock, 2006).
Much of the research that spearheaded the development of the construct of
school connectedness is based on survey data that defines connectedness in only 8
questions. These questions are all related to being cared for by school staff in a
passive manner, as opposed to being related to social interaction with adults at
school. There are clear limitations that such a definition can create.
The concept of connectedness is an important one; it demonstrates how
feelings of belonging and concern can have protective effects to students.
However, the current definition of connectedness fails to view students as actual
players in the context of school. Future research needs to look at what students
actually do as members of the school community that fosters feelings of
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connectedness and potentially alters their perceptions of the social context. How
do student actions and interactions with school staff affect connectedness? This
study would suggest that the quantity and quality of positive student interactions
with staff changes dramatically when students are viewed as contributors. It is the
reciprocal social dynamic between students and staff members that should define
the construct of school connectedness, not the current definition that would appear
to place students in a static and passive role.

Implications for Practice and Policy
As has been the case in previous studies, students state that involvement in
extracurricular activities is associated with connectedness. However, the type of
activity should be considered because it may also play a role in student s’ feelings
of belonging. Although extracurricular group activities such as sports and clubs
may serve to promote feelings of belonging to the school (Fletcher, Nickerson, &
Wright, 2003), they often do little in providing students opportunities to reach out
to others. School sites should seek to create programs and provide students
opportunities to reach out to others and build school community. Building feelings
of community within the school, through service to the school and the immediate
community, could be an important component to school safety policies.
Reaching out to others beyond one’s immediate social circle as a school
resource was a prominent theme that peer helpers expressed. They reported
reaching out to others within the school to be associated with a meaningful
82
connection to the school and their fellow students. This was in contrast to the
control group who associated helping and connecting to the school with not doing
something bad. Interviews with students from the peer helper group made it clear
that reaching out was critical to their feelings of connection to the school. Whereas
students in the control group, lacking the opportunity provided by program
participation, found it difficult to articulate how they were connected to the school.
Schools that create and structure opportunities for students to work cooperatively
and collaboratively with school staff and other students, will help to foster students
feelings of connectedness.

School Climate: Implications for Practice and Policy
There has been a wealth of research that has demonstrated how a positive
school climate can have a positive effect on how students feel about their school.
Additionally, a school that is proactive in creating a positive school climate can be
influential in creating feelings of safety in its students (Astor & Benbenishty,
2006). This current study indicates that students are interested to know how staff
manages a violent situation. It would further indicate that this evaluation is critical
to student s’ perceptions of the overall climate of the school. This is consistent
with the most thorough and comprehensive research on the topic, which makes
evident that staff’s response to violence plays a major role in student s’
determination of the violence problem on their campus.
83
This study also made clear that part of a student’s evaluation of how school
staff manages violent incidences is whether students feel they have a voice.
Students who are required to attend schools in problem areas want to be part of the
solution with regards to how to make their school a safer place. Students wish to
be heard and seen by the staff at their school. This is the essence of a democratic
social setting that research has proven to be influential in creating a more positive
school climate. Students that take part in a more democratic school environment
feel the respect that is sorely lacking from most of today’s models of school
management. Schools should strive to be places where students have opportunities
to contribute and feel supported, and where they sense respect and belonging from
peers and adults (Comer, 1997). These students must be exposed to training and
opportunities to acquire skills such as effective communication, cooperation, care,
as well as the ability to work with diverse groups of people (Poussaint, 1997).
School Climate
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
12
2004-05 2005-06
School Climate Index
Peer Helpers
Non Peer Helpers
Figure 2. Year-to-Year Comparison of Students on School Climate Index
84
As with school connectedness, students in the peer helper group made
evident a statistically significant increase in their feelings of School Climate when
comparing the two data collection time points. The peer helper group’s survey
responses changed over time to make evident a more positive perception of the
school climate. This is compared to the non-peer helpers whose change, although
positive, was not statistically significant. The qualitative data suggests that
students’ perceptions of the school climate were closely associated with the manner
in which they related to teachers.
The figure also makes evident that at time point 1, students in the non-peer
helper group initially viewed the school climate more positively than did the peer
helper group to a statistically significant degree. This would indicate that students
in the peer helper group, at least to some degree, based their more positive
perception of the school climate on their newly developed relationships with
teachers and staff. Prior to their participation in the peer helper program, students
in this group lacked the opportunity to relate to teachers on a cooperative or
collaborative level. It is believed that the peer helper experience fostered this type
of relationship with staff (especially teachers), and in so doing, significantly
affected students’ views of the receptivity of staff and their overall perception of
the climate of the school.
Peer helpers in this study also made it known that they notice the
differences in the manner that students are treated based on their status and
standing within the school. Staff’s inequitable treatment of students based on
85
academic achievement can alienate “at-risk” students. Oftentimes, these are the
same students that are most at risk to be victimized or to perpetrate violence on a
school campus. In many secondary schools within the United States, there are few
opportunities made available for students of lesser social status to be heard. These
students are rarely, if ever, seen in any light other than victim or perpetrator.
Schools that only focus on the physical aspects of keeping their students safe have
a myopic view of the issue. Only those schools that strive to create a sense of
community will prove to be successful in the long run (Astor, Benbenishty, &
Meyer, 2004). This community building must also include those same “at-risk”
students. Schools need to adopt policies that seek out students that typically lack
opportunities to work collaboratively with staff. Such a practice could serve two
vital purposes: (i) to obtain site specific information pertinent to creating a safe
school; and (ii) it can foster positive perceptions of school climate from a faction
of the student population that is often ignored.

School Violence: Implications for Practice
Astor and Benbenishty’s (2005) work indicated that student judgments
about school violence are primarily associated with their perceptions of the risky
behaviors by their peers. A look at the survey data for this study would appear to
be consistent with this link between students’ views of their school as violent and
their perceptions of their classmates’ behaviors. As previously stated, the school
year 2004-05 was significantly more violent than the school year 2005-06 at this
86
particular school site. Figure 3 indicates that both group’s view of their school site
as violent improved from one year to the next to a statistically significant degree.
Peer helpers perceived the school site as more violent at both time points compared
to non-peer helpers. The qualitative data indicated that both groups’ views of their
school site were affected by their being witness to violent behavior on campus.
There was no indication from the data that peer helper group students’ views of
their school changed significantly due to their experience within the program.
Therefore, it would appear that students in the peer helper group viewed their
school as less violent because they were exposed to less violence throughout the
school year and not because of their participation in the program. This is consistent
with the non-peer helper group demonstrating an equally significant change in their
scores on the School Violence Index.

School Violence
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
12
2004-05 2005-06
School Violence Index
Peer Helpers
Non Peer Helpers
Figure 3. Year-to-Year Comparison of Students on School Violence Index
87
Additionally, interviews indicated that peer helpers considered drugs to be a
significant problem at school. Being witness to their sale and use on school
grounds played into the student’s assessment of the violence problem that the
school has. Despite indicating an overall feeling of safety, students did not feel that
the school’s efforts had an effect on the school’s drug problem. However, peer
helpers indicated that their perceptions of the problem did change due to program
participation. Peer helpers began to recognize some of the efforts by school staff.
They also expressed an understating of the need for student cooperation for
interventions to be successful. The resistance that peer helpers encountered in their
efforts at helping others, seemed to give these students a more sophisticated
perspective on the issue. Such a shift in perspective could affect student s’
perceptions of their classmates’ risky behaviors. Peer helpers consistently
expressed that they believed the class and experience assisting students in various
situations, enabled them to view situations with classmates differently. They also
expressed that this positively influenced their assessment of how the school staff
was attempting to address these issues.
Schools could develop programs that encourage students to view the social
contexts of the school in a more analytical manner. Students expressed the need to
be treated as more responsible members of the school community. Through open
discussions and a genuine intent to hear students’ concerns and ideas, both students
and staff can grow in their analysis of the school’s social context.

88
Implications for Policy
The utilization of students as resources to prevent, monitor, and intervene
against all forms of violence on school grounds, could help to build a sense of
community. More and more research view this sense of community as necessary to
implement a comprehensive plan against school violence.
A great deal of research has also shed sufficient light on how to include
students in the process of creating safer schools. The extensive work on mapping
and monitoring violent and potentially violent spaces on campus would appear to
have profound potential in this regard (Astor & Benbenshty, 2006). If consistently
implemented with a genuine concern and interest into the perceptions of students,
such a policy would serve to give the students a much needed voice on vital school
issues. Issues such as student victimization that directly affect students and their
perceptions of their school as a safe place can be addressed.
Implementation of such a policy would also provide the school with the
most reliable, accurate, and site specific information to be utilized in a timely
manner. Additionally, this sort of inclusion of students into the process could
encourage students in much larger numbers to be peer helpers. Students would be
provided the much needed opportunity to connect with both peers and staff as
active members in the school environment. Students need these opportunities to
reach out and form the community necessary for positive change.
This conceptualization of how to design programs to prevent and intervene
against school violence is consistent with other studies that also view students as
89
resources (Smith & Sharp, 1994). Kassabri, Benbenishty, and Astor (2005)
reported that schools with more internal resources can serve to protect even the
most economically disadvantaged students such as those in urban areas like the
students in this study.
School sites need to be creative in expanding the view of students as
internal resources. More effective programs against violence would result from
schools that take the time and money necessary to develop programs that encourage
students to be active contributors to their school community and climate. It would
also make strides in building a more democratic school. Students would then have
a role that can be defined and structured according to specific school site needs.
Finally, such a policy would have effects on the social environment that help
toward becoming the community necessary for effective change.
Enlisting students into a more meaningful and collaborative role as a school
member, and not “just a student,” could encourage positive, pro-social behaviors
(Solomon, Watson, Delucchi, Schaps, & Battistich, 1988). In this study, the
participants of the Peer Helping program made evident positive changes as a group
and individually in school grade point average and school attendance. Qualitative
data indicated that some peer helpers actually attributed their increases in these
behaviors to program participation. Students felt that they needed to “practice what
they preached” to their 9
th
grade mentees, or they found themselves feeling a sense
of responsibility to someone other than themselves. This appeared to compel them
to attend school more regularly.
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With regards to grade increases, students expressed that they were more
motivated to achieve academically. This increase, however, could be due in large
part to the grades that they received for program participation which tended to be
no lower than a “B.” It should also be noted that this program did not only seek to
include high academic achievers but looked into including those with marginal
academic records. Interestingly enough, it was these “marginal” students that made
the most academic improvement for the current school year. Overall however, it
was clear that program participation had an effect on students that would be
considered positive by any standard. When compared to the control group, peer
helpers felt as though their more meaningful role in the school community played a
critical role in this result. As was previously mentioned, when students’ school
experience includes what they perceive to be a meaningful role, they in turn feel
more connected and more compelled to achieve.

Limitations
Although the study did generate some interesting results worthy of some
future consideration, there are several limitations. First and foremost, the initial
administration of the survey was not completed until April of the school year 2005-
2006. Even though it was administered with the direction to answer as they
perceived their school for the previous school year, the timing of the administration
could clearly have had an effect on student responses. The second administration
of the survey at the end of the school year benefited the study because it ensured
91
that the class and experience of being a peer helper was for the entire school year.
However, due to the timing of the initial administration, it cannot truly be
considered a pre-test, post-test design; therefore, differences between the two
administrations should be considered with caution.
Secondly, although the triangulation of the data assisted in compensating
for some of the survey limitations through qualitative methods which revealed
several noteworthy themes, students who participated in the focus group sessions
were all voluntary. This may have possibly increased the likelihood of a positive
outcome. Additionally, the focus groups were only post-intervention, thereby
eliminating the possibility for comparison. Finally, the study sample was small,
only 36 students, and it consisted of more females than males.

Recommendations for Future Research
The current study raises several questions that are worthy of future
consideration to assist in shedding some light on shifting the focus from viewing
students as receivers of service to viewing students as resources for the school
community. The following is a list of areas that should be addressed by future
research.
1) What effects are associated on students who participate in larger scale or
school-wide peer helper programs on such variables as school connectedness
and school violence?
92
2) What effects are associated with students assisted by peer helper services on
their perceptions of school connectedness, school climate, and school
violence?
3) Can peer-helper programs be integrated with other programs designed to
prevent, intervene, and combat school violence such as monitoring and
mapping interventions?
4) Investigations that include a broader conceptualization of school
connectedness that includes a more active and reciprocal role for the student
within the school context.
5) Research on the effects of providing students with opportunities for more
meaningful roles within the school environment including policy design and
implementation.
In addition to this brief list, the following discussion on the implications of
peer helper group selection, size, and structure, is considered due to its proposed
importance to policy and practice of peer-led interventions.

Group Selection
Future studies that investigate the effects of peer helping on students’
perceptions should play close attention to the selection of groups. Although the
comparison of the behavioral variables make evident that the groups were
extremely similar with regards to grade point average, attendance, and behavior
93
referrals, there was a distinct difference that may have played a significant role in
the resulting data.
The initial screening of students and subsequent interviews narrowed the
selection to approximately 48 students. Final decisions on group membership were
considered based on students’ perceived school connectedness by the coordinators
of the program. Although there were equal number of athletes in both the peer
helper group and the control group, an effort was made to choose students that
appeared to lack the experience working collaboratively with staff. Program
coordinators looked specifically for students that would be seen by the school
community as average students, as opposed to over-achievers. For instance, given
the choice between a student that had served within student government (ASB) and
a similar student without such experience, the choice was typically the less
“connected” student. This selection process would appear to be confirmed by
initial survey data that makes evident that the control group viewed themselves as
more connected than did the peer helper group. Although it is believed by this
researcher that such a selection process would be beneficial to a peer helper
program, future studies may consider a matched non-peer helper group to minimize
the initial variance between the two groups.

Group Size and Structure
The twenty-one students who participated in the peer helper group proved
to be an exceptional group of young adults. The students’ creativity, dedication,
94
and efficiency, allowed them to accomplish a great deal for their high school
community. Their diligence was even recognized by the California Peer Assisted
Leadership (PAL) organization as the Most Outstanding New Peer Program. The
program’s success in such a short amount of time raises some interesting questions
regarding group structure and group size. For instance, is there an optimal group
size? Did the small number of students help to facilitate not only their experience
as helpers, but also their success and effectiveness as a resource to the school?
The number of students who participated as peer helpers may have played a
critical role in the program’s overall success. The group size allowed for the
development of strong working relationships between students and with the school
staff involved with the program. Student strengths were more efficiently
recognized and utilized by program organizers because the limited number of
students necessitated closer collaboration between staff and students. The limited
size of the program also permitted student work groups to work more efficiently
because students’ natural leadership skills were fostered and utilized. The small
work groups also permitted staff to monitor the peer helpers’ participation more
closely and limited the opportunities students may have had to take advantage of
time out of class for unproductive activity. Finally, because of the size of the
program, students were not only allowed but encouraged to be involved in all
aspects of planning and implementing all interventions attempted by the program
for the school. This aspect was critical to students’ feelings of connectedness,
95
because students took ownership of the program, its purpose, and its presentation to
the school community.
Much of the outstanding work that the students carried out was directly
related to their ability to work collaboratively with one another, as well as with the
coordinators of the program. The working relationships that the peer helpers
developed throughout the school year appeared to be closely associated with the
small group environment that was created by the small number of students in the
program. This poses questions and concerns for the future of the program. The
student’s success has generated a great deal of interest by the administration of the
school site to expand the program, especially since a school population of 2,500
requires more than 21 students to serve as resources. However, expanding the
program may have a negative effect on the development of the close working
relationships generated when there is a low teacher-student ratio such as the case
during this study with a ratio of 2:21. Future studies need to investigate this issue
because successful implementation of such a program at other school sites could be
depend on it. Students’ feelings of ownership of the program and the work they
undertake could also be closely associated with the program’s size and structure.
Studies looking into the key elements that promote successful programs while
scaling the program to the size and needs of a particular school site are clearly
necessary because they could aid during planning and implementation.

96
Summary
This mixed-methods study was intended to further the understanding of
effects of Peer Helping programs on participants, specifically their perceptions of
the variables of school connectedness, school climate, and school violence. This
understanding helps to guide efforts at program development against school
violence that would include students in a more proactive role than is typically
envisioned by school districts and site administrators. Results indicate that students
can be equipped and prepared to serve as resources to their school community.
This service to the school and their fellow classmates also contribute to the peer
helpers’ sense of connection to the school including school staff. Students came to
learn a great deal about their school and the staff that they were now asked to
corroborate with. This newfound knowledge appeared to have the effect of
decreasing the peer helpers’ perception of their school as a violent place, a school
that by any standard would be considered, at the very least, moderately violent.
School administrators, school program designers, and curriculum developers,
would benefit from creating opportunities for students to take part in a more
meaningful role within the school community. This researcher points out that peer
helpers welcome this responsibility and current research on school violence
indicates that there are avenues for students to provide critical service and
information in making their school a safer place.
97
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102
APPENDIX
SCHOOL CONNECTEDNESS INDEX

The average of the following fourteen items on the survey will serve to
define the school connectedness scale for the current study.

1) I feel very safe and protected at this school.
2) The teachers in my school are nice people.
3) My teachers respect me.
4) When students break the rules, they are treated firmly but fairly.
5) Rules at school are stupid.
6) My teachers are fair.
7) I have close and good relationships with my teachers.
8) It pays to obey the rules at my school.
9) Teachers let me know when I am doing well in my studies.
10) Adults at this school don’t care about students.
11) At this school, students and teachers really care for each other.
12) The rules at this school are fair.
13) I do not feel safe at this school.
14) I am comfortable talking to teachers when I have a problem.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This mixed-methods study was intended to further the understanding of the effects of Peer Helping programs on participants, specifically their perceptions of the variables of school connectedness, school climate, and school violence. A total of 36 high school students from an urban area of Los Angeles County participated. Students that participated in the Peer Helping program facilitated by the school were the experimental group (n = 18), and those students that were interviewed but not chosen to participate in the program were the control group (n = 18). Survey data collected at two different time-points, and focus group data collected at the completion of the school year, compared students' perceptions comparing school year 2004-05 to school year 2005-06 on the variables of school connectedness, school climate, and school violence. Results indicated that students that served as peer helpers to their school (experimental group), made evident statistically significant positive changes in both school connectedness and school climate when compared to the control group. Confirmatory focus group data indicated that students in the experimental group found that their collaborative working relationships with school staff made a significant impact on their perceptions of the school. The students' service to the school and their fellow classmates also contributed to the peer helpers' sense of connection to the school including school staff. This was in contrast to the control group that viewed their relationships with teachers and administrators more negatively and perceived their opportunity to connect with the school community limited. Schools would benefit from creating opportunities for students to take part in a more meaningful role within the school community.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Salce, Michael A. (author)

Core Title The effects of peer helping on participants' perceptions of school climate, school connectedness, and school violence

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Defense Date 09/06/2006

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,peer helping,school climate,school connectedness,school violence

Language English

Advisor Sundt, Melora A. (committee chair), Astor, Ron Avi (committee member), Lew, Carol (committee member)

Creator Email salce@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m275

Unique identifier UC1327750

Identifier etd-Salce-20070215 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-159014 (legacy record id),usctheses-m275 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Salce-20070215.pdf

Dmrecord 159014

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Salce, Michael A.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu