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Critical reflection among elementary school teachers: an examination of content, cognitive style, and integrative complexity

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Critical reflection among elementary school teachers: an examination of content, cognitive style, and integrative complexity

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CRITICAL REFLECTION AMONG ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS:
AN EXAMINATION OF CONTENT, COGNITIVE STYLE,
AND INTEGRATIVE COMPLEXITY

by

Jo-Ann H. Yun

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2008

Copyright 2008 Jo-Ann H. Yun

ii

DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my wonderful parents, Susan and Ko-Song Yun,
and brother, Joseph Yun, who have always supported and believed in me throughout this
whole process. My family truly has shown me the importance of education. Without
their patience and encouragement, the completion of this work would not have been
possible. I am eternally and sincerely grateful for their unconditional love.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to acknowledge and thank the individuals who have contributed their time,
thoughts, energy, and support during the completion of this project.
It is with the greatest love and appreciation that I acknowledge my family, my
mom, dad, and brother. I am truly blessed and want to thank and tell my family how
much I appreciate and love them. Without their continuous support, I could never have
completed this endeavor. I thank them from the bottom of my heart for all of the
sacrifices they made for me during this project. They never doubted that I would
succeed.
My sincere appreciation and gratitude goes to all my friends, especially John, and
many of my co-workers. In particular, I want to recognize Pam, Lynn, Joyce, My Nga,
Luz C., and Sara, for their patience, support, and “cheers” of encouragement. They have
consistently helped me keep perspective. In addition, I would like to thank a special
Ed.D. colleague, Elda Pech, for her words of motivation and friendship. Through her I
was able to keep my mind on the goal and persevere.
A heartfelt thank you is extended to my dissertation chair, Dr. Rodney K.
Goodyear. I am grateful for the opportunity of working with Dr. Goodyear. His
guidance, time, and expertise throughout this process were invaluable and I greatly
appreciate his support and contributions.
Additionally, I would like to thank my committee members, Dr. Robert Keim, and
Dr. Kimberly Hirayabashi. Moreover, a special gratitude goes to my dissertation group
colleagues for their collaboration, particularly Moreen Logan, R.N., Ed.D., for endless

iv

hours of hard work, motivation, encouragement, and friendship. Also, I want to thank
Cecilia Olmos, Administrative Services Coordinator for the Office of Associate Dean for
Faculty at the U.S.C. Rossier School of Education, for all the scheduling, hospitality, and
friendship.
Last but not least, I want to thank all the teachers who volunteered to provide their
time to complete this study’s survey. With your help, I was able to complete this project
and provide information to teacher educators about the importance of reflection among
elementary school teachers. Without you, this study could not have been completed. I
will forever be grateful to these people and many more who were involved with my
journey.

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................ ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................... iii

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. vi

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... vii

ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................... viii

CHAPTER ONE: CONCEPTUAL AND EMPIRICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR
THE STUDY ........................................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER TWO: METHOD ............................................................................... 48

CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS ........................................................................... 58

CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSIONS ..................................................................... 69

REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 78

APPENDICES ....................................................................................................... 84

vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Number of Reflections Based on Themes ............................................... 58

Table 2: Content Comparison between Novice and Expert Teacher .................... 62

Table 3: Reflections Described by Level of Integrative Complexity and Teacher
Level of Expertise ................................................................................................. 62

Table 4: Descriptive Statistics for Level of Integrative Complexity by Cognitive
Variable ................................................................................................................. 64

Table 5: Multiple Regression with Cognitive Style Variables as IVs; Integrative
Complexity as DV ................................................................................................. 68

vii

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: The experiential learning method described by Kolb .............................. 9

Figure 2: Atkins and Murphy’s model of reflection (1994) .................................. 13

Figure 3: Mezirow’s Critical Reflection (after Mezirow, 1990) ........................... 15

Figure 4: Level of Integrative Complexity Score and NCS Mean ........................ 64

Figure 5: Level of Integrative Complexity Score and BFPI Openness Mean ....... 66

Figure 6: Level of Integrative Complexity Score and BFPI Neuroticism Mean ... 67

viii

ABSTRACT

Elementary School Teachers (N= 34) were asked to identify incidents or events
that had occurred during the previous month that in some way had been confusing or that
otherwise made them uncomfortable. Through a series of prompts, they then were to
reflect in writing on that experience (their reactions; factors that affected their responses;
what they might do differently; etc.). As well, they completed two measures of cognitive
style: the Need for Cognition Scale (NCS) and Big Five Personality Inventory (BFPI)
scale.
These written reflections were then assigned an integrative complexity score
using the Hatton and Smith (1995) four-point coding system; coding was done by a team
of five raters. The modal level of integrative complexity score was two, and only three
teachers provided a reflection that was scored a Four. The measures of cognitive style
were used to predict complexity. Although some Ns were too small to permit definitive
conclusions, the data seemed to indicate a relationship between cognitive style and
integrative complexity. When comparing the BFPI and NCS to the Level of Integrative
Complexity (LIC) scores of elementary school teachers’ reflection, the BFPI and NCS
scores went up as the LIC scores went up.
The content of the reflections then was analyzed by two of the five raters who
identified five themes or categories that they labeled: Student Success, Teacher
Interaction, Student Behavior, Professional Development, and Classroom Instructions.
Nearly half of the reflections were focused on students and their achievements (versus,
for example, the teachers’ own behavior). When teacher experience was considered,

ix

novice teachers seemed more likely to reflect on student success, teacher interaction, and
student behavior, than on professional development and classroom instruction.

1

CHAPTER ONE: CONCEPTUAL AND EMPIRICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR THE
STUDY

A large professional literature has developed during the last few decades
concerning reflective practice. The seminal work was done by John Dewey (1933), who
believed reflective thinking is turning an idea over in the mind and giving it serious
consideration; that it is a form of problem solving, where one resolves an issue by
actively linking ideas with previous ones. Many other researchers since have used
Dewey’s work as a theoretical foundation for their own theory and research.
Despite what has been a proliferation of literature devoted to it, reflectivity is still
a broad concept for which there is no universal definition (Ginsburg & Clift, 1990;
Goodman, 1984; Grimmett, 1988; LaBoskey, 1993; Mewborn, 1999). The term
“reflection” remains ill-defined and therefore used loosely as a descriptor of processes.
But even though there is no consensus on what it is, there is a general agreement
that reflection is an essential tool for learning and self-supervision. There also is general
consensus that reflection is not just thinking about something but rather an intentional
thought process. Moreover, it is assumed that this intentional process is triggered when a
person is provoked to reflect based on an incident that provokes surprise, puzzlement,
confusion, or discomfort. As a result of this reflective process, the person attains a
deeper meaning and understanding of the critical incident.
Dewey (1933) defined reflection as, “The active, persistent and careful
consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds
that support it and the further consideration to which it tends (p. 9).” The concept,
though, really began to attract professionals’ imagination when Schön (1983) explored

2

and explained the role of reflection among professional educators. Schön discussed two
types of reflection: reflection-on-action and reflection-in-action. These, though, are
qualitatively different and it would be difficult to argue that reflection-in-action (i.e.,
“thinking on one’s feet”) permits the process described above. This study, therefore, will
focus on Schön’s reflection-on-action among professional educators.
Because of this vast interest on reflectivity, research-based understandings of
reflection and reflective process are crucial. Yet, despite the enthusiasm for using
reflection to improve practice, supporting research has been scant. Most writing about
reflection is theoretical and begins with the assumption that reflection will lead to
improved practice, skills, knowledge, and abilities. However, there is little evidence that
reflection actually increases learning or self-knowledge.
Nevertheless, beliefs in its effectiveness are strong. In fact, reflectivity is
considered so important that it has been built into teacher education credentialing
programs in California. Executive Director of the California Commission on Teacher
Credentialing (CCTC), Sam Swofford, (2003) stated that the recent (2003) California
teacher education credential Senate Bill 2042 (Chapter 548, Statutes of 1998):
The credential requires that all candidates for a preliminary Multiple Subject and
Single Subject Teaching Credential are to pass an assessment of teaching
performance in order to earn a teaching credential. In accordance with this
provision of SB 2042, the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing
(CCTC), in cooperation with Educational Testing Service (ETS), designed the
California Teaching Performance Assessment (CA TPA). The CA TPA includes
four tasks, which collectively measure the attributes of the Teaching Performance
Expectations (TPEs). TPEs describe what all California beginning teachers need
to know and be able to do to qualify for the Preliminary Multiple or Single
Subject Teaching Credential. Each task measures aspects of a number of TPEs,
and many TPEs are measured in more than one task.

3

There are four tasks within the TPE: Task 1: Principles of Content-Specific and
Developmentally Appropriate Pedagogy; Task 2: Connecting Instructional
Planning to Student Characteristics for Academic Learning; Task 3: Classroom
Assessment of Academic Learning Goals; and Task 4: Academic Lesson Design,
Implementation, and Reflection after Instruction.

It is within the TPE task 4 that reflection is legitimized as a major part of the
teacher education program. This task allows preservice teachers to develop themselves
as a professional educator.
This type of task assumes that effective reflective practice develops as a function
of training. Another factor, though, is experience: with experience, the content of
reflection is assumed to differ between more expert teachers compared to novice
teachers. For example, it is more likely that a novice teacher will reflect on classroom
management issues and behavioral incidents and situations, whereas an expert teacher
will reflect more on improving curriculum based situations.
A high quality reflection reasonably will have several defining aspects. For
example, it will be self critical. Reflection will allow oneself to critically analyze the
situation or incident. As well, it will display richer and deeper thought, allowing the
reflecting practitioner to consider more facts of a situation. It makes sense that level of
cognition, or integrative complexity, is one indicator of that type. Suedfeld and Bluck
(1993) stated, “Integrative complexity is a state cognitive style variable characterized by
differentiation (the recognition of different dimensions within or perspective on, a given
stimulus) and integration (the recognition of trade-offs, synthesis, and higher order
concepts relating the differentiated units.)”

4

Therefore, to the extent this is true, integrative complexity would be a useful
indicator of quality of reflection. Reasonably, experience would predict that level of
quality.
Experience also would predict what teachers reflect on. For example, a novice
teacher would reflect more on classroom management such as student behavior issues,
classroom organization, or how to best please their administrator, etc. This is perhaps
due to the lack of experience and knowledge. The novice teachers are still in the
beginning stages of settling and adapting to the routines of a teacher. On the other hand,
an expert teacher would reflect more on the quality of the instruction and less on issues
that novice teachers might reflect on and this might be due to the amount of experience
and knowledge an expert teacher gains throughout the years of teaching. An expert
teacher would already be settled and adapted to the daily routines of a teacher, so their
focus and reflectivity will rely heavily on instruction.
This study used a mixed method design, both qualitative and quantitative, to look
at integrative complexity as it is associated with critical reflection. The purpose of this
study was not to solve problems, rather to examine the concept of critical reflection by
thematically identifying the content of critical events in surveys reflected by elementary
school teachers; and to compare the content between novice and expert elementary school
teachers. Furthermore, this study also determined the level of integrative complexity of
the reflections. In addition, this was the first study that looked elementary school
teachers BFPI type and the Need for Cognition Scale (measures of cognitive style) as
predictors of the level of integrative complexity in the critical event survey.

5

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this descriptive study was to examine: (1) surveys of critical
reflections among novice and expert elementary school teachers to identify types of
content they would identify as puzzling or in some way troublesome; (2) to determine the
level of integrative complexity of these teachers’ reflections; and (3) to examine whether
Need for Cognition Scale (NCS) and Big Five Personality Inventory (BFPI) scale (as
measures of cognitive style) were useful in predicting to the level of integrative
complexity in these teachers’ reflections.
Teachers were asked, first to identify incidents or events during the last month
that in some way were confusing to them or that otherwise were even uncomfortable or
puzzling. Then they included a statement about how their beliefs about that event may
have changed as a result of reflecting.
These written reflections were then coded for integrative complexity using the
coding system developed by Hatton and Smith (1995). The coding was done by a team of
five raters who developed proficiency in the Hatton and Smith (1995) coding system.
Then these incidents or events were analyzed by the focused on the content of the
reflections. Then two of the five raters reviewed and examined the reflections and
developed content categories from them. Once these categories were developed the
proportions of reflections of novice teachers that belong in each categories were
compared with the corresponding proportions of the more expert teachers.
The last analysis was to compare Need for Cognition Scale (NCS, Cacioppo,
Petty, and Kao, 1984) and Big Five Personality Inventory (BFPI, Howard & Howard,

6

1995) scale (as measures of cognitive style) to the level of integrative complexity in
teacher reflections, with the hypothesis that a higher cognitive style will have a higher
level of integrative complexity.
Review of the Literature
In this section, I discussed the theoretical framework for reflection. This section
discussed the definition of reflection as explained by several researchers. Furthermore,
this section also discussed general terms associated with reflection, such as critical
thinking versus reflective thinking, metacognition, self-regulation, etc.
Reflection has been accepted by many professions as having great value,
particularly to learning and self-regulation. Nevertheless, “reflection” is a broad concept
with an unclear definition. The following section attempted to define the term
“reflection” as described by several researchers.
Theoretical Framework: What is Reflection?
John Dewey
Dewey (1933) explored the concept of reflection in the early twentieth century.
He drew on the ideas of many earlier educators, including Plato, Aristotle, Confucius,
Lao Tzu, Solomon and Buddha (Houston, 1988). Dewey believed that reflection was a
part of problem-solving or thinking about an issue that needs to be resolved. A particular
reflective episode originates then, with a trigger point. He asserted that reflection was
more than just thinking about something: it was a thinking process that linked prior ideas
and knowledge to the new ideas and knowledge. It was a deliberate cognitive process

7

that addressed problems that created doubt and perplexity as an impetus to possible
solutions.
Yinger (1988) stated:
Dewey describes a reflective experience as following general features: 1)
perplexity, confusion, doubt, due to the fact that one is implicated in an
incomplete situation whose character is not yet fully determined; 2) a conjectural
anticipation- a tentative interpretation of the given elements, attributing to them a
tendency to effect certain consequences; 3) a careful survey (examination,
inspection, exploration, analysis) of all attainable considerations which will define
and clarify the problem at hand; 4) a consequent elaboration of the tentative
hypothesis to make it more precise and more consistent, because of its squaring
with a wider range of facts; 5) taking one’s stand upon the projected hypothesis as
a plan of action which is applied to the existing state of affairs: doing something
overtly to bring about the anticipated result, and thereby testing the hypothesis.

Donald Schön
Schön (1983, 1987) extended Dewey’s work by relating reflection to professional
action and setting. Schön's views and theories of reflective practice were focused
towards educators and their problems and experiences within a situation. Schön
discussed two types of reflection: reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action.
Reflection-in-action was described as reflecting while engaged in action; it is
“thinking on one’s feet.” The practitioner is able to think consciously about what is
taking place and modify actions instantly. Schön explained that the practitioner is
reflecting not on decision-making steps but rather on previous experiences relating to the
particular incident.
On the other hand, reflection-on-action was described as reflecting and looking
back after a particular situation had already occurred. Schön explained that the
practitioner should consider particular situations at times rather than in the moment. This

8

type of reflection helps the practitioner to reflect and have a better understanding of
practice and learn from the situation.
Grimmett, Erickson, Riecken, and Mackinson (1988) stated, “Schön argues that
professional knowledge is constructed by practitioners through reflection-in-action (i.e.,
an action is generated and tested through ‘on-the-spot experimenting’) and reflection-on-
action (i.e., an action planned on the basis of post-hoc thinking and deliberation) (p. 9).”
Both situation and reflection occurs where the practitioner is able to reflect on the
problem at hand. Schön (1987) stated, “[students] learn by undertaking projects that
simulate and simplify practice; or they take the real world projects under close
supervision (p. 37).” These, though, are qualitatively different. The focus of this
research is on what Schön called reflection-on-action.
David A. Kolb
Kolb’s (1984) theories of reflection were anchored in his work on experiential
learning. He believed that experiential learning, change and growth was a continuous
cycle consisting of four elements: concrete experience, observation and reflection, the
formation of abstract concepts and active experimentation through new situations (See
Figure 1). Kolb (1984) hypothesized that learning occurs in a cycle in which students
engage in and then observe and reflect on experiences, assimilate reflections in a theory,
and then consider implications for future action from that theory.
Kolb strongly believed that experiential learning is formed and modified through
concrete experiences. Kolb (1984) stated, “Learning is an emergent process whose
outcomes represent only historical record, not knowledge of the future (p. 8).” This type
of reflective process helped ensure that a person does not repeat the same experience over
and over again, but rather learns from an experience and makes cognitive changes from
the experience for future similar situations.
affect future actions, but not necessarily the current situation. The learner reflects on and
observes experiences from different perspectives.
Kolb defined learning as the process whereby knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience. Thus, reflection is a critical process for transforming
experiences into genuine learning. The learn
in a situation and sees the effect of the action in the particular situation. These
experiences and learning are used to make decisions and solve problems for future
incidents. As a result, the person who exper
to do if a similar situation occurred again. The learner would acknowledge that there is a
particular protocol for a particular situation that arises in the future.
Figure 1. The experiential learning method de

of reflective process helped ensure that a person does not repeat the same experience over
ather learns from an experience and makes cognitive changes from
the experience for future similar situations. His concern for reflecting was to learn to
affect future actions, but not necessarily the current situation. The learner reflects on and
es experiences from different perspectives.
Kolb defined learning as the process whereby knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience. Thus, reflection is a critical process for transforming
experiences into genuine learning. The learning part begins when the person is involved
in a situation and sees the effect of the action in the particular situation. These
experiences and learning are used to make decisions and solve problems for future
incidents. As a result, the person who experiences the same situation would know what
to do if a similar situation occurred again. The learner would acknowledge that there is a
particular protocol for a particular situation that arises in the future.
Figure 1. The experiential learning method described by Kolb.

9

of reflective process helped ensure that a person does not repeat the same experience over
ather learns from an experience and makes cognitive changes from
His concern for reflecting was to learn to
affect future actions, but not necessarily the current situation. The learner reflects on and
Kolb defined learning as the process whereby knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience. Thus, reflection is a critical process for transforming
ing part begins when the person is involved
in a situation and sees the effect of the action in the particular situation. These
experiences and learning are used to make decisions and solve problems for future
iences the same situation would know what
to do if a similar situation occurred again. The learner would acknowledge that there is a

10

David Boud
Boud (1985) believed that reflection was a serious thought or contemplation that
addressed emotions. Boud, Keogh and Walker (1985) addressed reflection and emotions
as it considered past knowledge and experience. They asserted that reflection was an
activity in which people recapture their experience, think about it, mull it over and
evaluate it. Reflection was to be deliberate and a conscious thought process was to occur.
Boud et al. (1985) suggested that structured reflection was the key to learning
from experience, moreover, that reflection can be very difficult. Boud et al., (1985)
expressed, “Perhaps if we can sharpen our consciousness of what reflection in learning
can involve and how it can be influenced then we may be able to improve our own
practice of learning and help those who learn with us (p. 8).” Boud believed that
reflective learning is the element for learning from experiences. Reflection is described
in the context of learning as “a generic term for those intellectual and affective activities
in which individuals engage to explore their experiences in order to lead to new
understandings and appreciations” (Boud et al., 1985; Brown & McCartney, 1999).
Boud et al. (1985) examined reflection within experience-based learning and
categorized them into three elements: preparation, engagement, and processing.
• Returning to experience - this aspect of recalling or detailing salient events.
• Attending to (or connecting with) feelings – this aspect has two aspects: using
helpful feelings and removing or containing obstructive ones of the learning
experience.

11

• Evaluating experience – this aspect involves re-examining experience in the
light of learner's intent and exploring existing knowledge. It also involves
integrating this new knowledge into one's conceptual framework. (p. 26-31)
In each aspect, Boud et al. (1985) emphasized the importance of reflecting and
that reflection can be helpful during and after each learning experiences. Consideration
of the affective dimension of the experience enhances insight and learning gained through
reflection (Boud et al., 1985). Therefore, the conscious reflectivity allows people to
make active, personal decisions about their learning which would eventually turn
experience into learning.
King and Kitchener
King and Kitchener (1994) based their work on Dewey and Kolb to present a
deeper reflective process model they called the Reflective Judgment Model (RJM). The
RJM specifically focuses on controversial situations where a person has real complex
conflict about a solution to a particular problem. This model consisted of assumptions
and evaluations about their knowledge and their concepts of justification that were
developed based on seven stages of how people approached complex problems.
Within each stage, the person used a different strategy for solving a problem or
situation. These stages were of three types: pre-reflective thought, quasi-reflective
thought, and reflective thought. In the pre-reflective phase, the knowledge is simple and
the person starts to develop knowledge of what they know and their thoughts of
uncertainty. In quasi-reflective thought, the person understands that knowledge is
uncertain and some problems are not easily solved. The person was unable to justify his

12

or her beliefs and reasons with the evidence available. King and Kitchener (1994) stated,
“In the reflective phase knowledge is seen not as a given but as a means of reasoned
inquiry and problem solving (p. 15).”
The RJM was also described as a reflective process wherein the person is able to
promote higher-order thinking skills. Higher order thinking skills (i.e., analysis,
synthesis, evaluation) are important because the person was able to learn, inquire, reason,
and make sense of new information. King and Kitchener believed that these stages of
cognitive process were a result of reflective thinking.
Atkins and Murphy
Atkins and Murphy (1995) described that reflection was a deliberate process
which consisted of thinking about and interpreting experiences as a learning tool. They
stated that, “Reflection relates to a complex and deliberate process of thinking about and
interpreting experience, either demanding or rewarding, in order to learn from it.”
Reflectivity was used as a tool for practitioners to understand that they must approach
their situations with a thorough thought process.
Atkins and Murphy (1995) provided a stage model for the reflective process.
First, the person must be aware of the uncomfortable thoughts and feelings. This usually
would occur due to new, unfamiliar, or negative situations. This allowed the person to
describe and examine the situation, including any of the thoughts and feelings, and
explore alternative actions. Then the person would be able to analyze and summarize the
feelings and knowledge that were relevant to the situation. Next, the person identified the
new learning that occurred as a result of reflection and put it into action in a new situation
(See Figure 2).
Figure 2. Atkins and Murphy’s model of reflection (1994).
Jack Mezirow
Mezirow (1994) claimed that reflection was ‘involving the crit
assumptions about the content or process of problem solving…The critique of premises
or presuppositions pertains to problem solving as distinct from problem solving. Problem
posing involves making a taken
regarding its validity (p. 105) (Mezirow 1991; Kember, Jones, Loke, et al., 1999).’
new learning that occurred as a result of reflection and put it into action in a new situation
Figure 2. Atkins and Murphy’s model of reflection (1994).
Mezirow (1994) claimed that reflection was ‘involving the critique of
assumptions about the content or process of problem solving…The critique of premises
or presuppositions pertains to problem solving as distinct from problem solving. Problem
posing involves making a taken-for-granted situation problematic, raising
regarding its validity (p. 105) (Mezirow 1991; Kember, Jones, Loke, et al., 1999).’

13

new learning that occurred as a result of reflection and put it into action in a new situation

ique of
assumptions about the content or process of problem solving…The critique of premises
or presuppositions pertains to problem solving as distinct from problem solving. Problem
granted situation problematic, raising questions
regarding its validity (p. 105) (Mezirow 1991; Kember, Jones, Loke, et al., 1999).’ The

14

work by Mezirow (1994) addressed the practitioner to reflect on past events to enhance
future behaviors and interactions. He believed that multiple points of view, free from
coercion, could provide opportunities for critical reflection.
Mezirow (1994) believed the reflection was not something that suddenly could be
stopped to ponder and problem solve for future actions based on the current knowledge.
Instead, he believed that it was critical to analyze the process, content, and premise
underlying the situation in an attempt to make meaning or to better understand the
situation. Mezirow divided reflective thinking into three elements: content reflection,
process reflection, and premise reflection. Plack and Greenberg (2005) stated, “Mezirow
contends that reflection is a higher-order, conscious thought process. He suggested that
using all 3 elements of reflection (i.e., content, process, and premise) resulted in changes
in behavior that reflected changes in underlying values, attitudes, and beliefs as novices
move toward becoming professionals (p. 1547).”
Content reflection was thought as reflecting on the situation. It involved
analyzing the problem or situation itself. Mezirow (1991) defined content reflection as
‘reflection on what we perceive, think, feel or act upon (p. 23) (Kember, et al., 1999).’
Process reflection was thinking about how the situation was handled. The process
reflection required practitioners to analyze the problem-solving strategies they chose,
determine the effectiveness of the strategies chosen and explore what other strategies that
were available. Mezirow (1991) declared that the process of reflection was defined as
‘examination of how one perform the functions of perceiving, thinking, feeling, or acting
and an assessment of efficacy in performing them (p. 23) (Kember et al., 1999).’
Premise reflection wa
through this process, a person adjusted meaning as it opened the possibility of perspective
transformation. Mezirow (1991) described premise reflection
why we perceive, think, feel or act as we do
Mezirow (1994) addressed an instructional process for promoting critical
reflection and transformational learning. He
process of critical reflection in his theory of transformative learning.
had a specific sequence which was written as follows:
examination of affect, cri
planning a course of action, a
trying out new roles (See Figure 3).
Figure 3. Mezirow’s Critical Reflection (after Mezirow, 1990).
Premise reflection was a higher level of reflective thinking. He believed that
his process, a person adjusted meaning as it opened the possibility of perspective
transformation. Mezirow (1991) described premise reflection as ‘becoming aware of
why we perceive, think, feel or act as we do (p. 23) (Kember et al., 1999).
4) addressed an instructional process for promoting critical
reflection and transformational learning. He suggested that a person adapted
process of critical reflection in his theory of transformative learning. Mezirow’s model
quence which was written as follows: a disorientating dilemma
ritical assessment of assumptions, exploration of new roles,
planning a course of action, acquiring knowledge and skills for implementation, and
s (See Figure 3).
Figure 3. Mezirow’s Critical Reflection (after Mezirow, 1990).

15

He believed that
his process, a person adjusted meaning as it opened the possibility of perspective
becoming aware of
23) (Kember et al., 1999).
4) addressed an instructional process for promoting critical
adapted through a
Mezirow’s model
disorientating dilemma, self
tical assessment of assumptions, exploration of new roles,
e and skills for implementation, and

16

Summary
Reflection is the interest of many researchers yet the definition of reflection is still
complex and abstract. It is evident that reflection is a process of stepping back from a
situation in order to think clearly about the particular situation, ponder and interpret the
situation and make meaning of it, which results in deeper learning. This type of a process
helps a person to become more aware of one’s own thinking and reasoning.
There are several key educational theorists who have proposed reflection as a
learning tool and analyzed the processes of reflection (Boud et al., 1985; Mezirow, 1981;
Schön, 1991, Atkins & Murphy, 1993). Majority of the beginning research on reflection
focused on the process of reflectivity (Dewey, 1933; Schön, 1983; Kolb, 1984; Boud,
1985). However, more recently, there has been more investigation on the reflection in
terms of higher order levels of learning and thinking (King & Kitchener, 1994; Atkins &
Murphy, 1995; Mezirow, 2004).
There are numerous other researchers and literature that discuss the issue of
reflection; however, even with the plethora of literature and research, there is still a lack
of definition and clarity of this concept. Although, this section looked at multiple
perspectives of reflection from different literature, ultimately it shows that the purpose of
the description is important. Also, it shows how all these dimensions of reflection
mutually intertwine with each other.
Differentiating Reflection from Related Processes
Reflection is a broad concept that overlaps with similar concepts. I will discuss
five of those, differentiating them from reflection. The overlapping concepts that will be

17

discussed are: critical reflection, reflective practice, reflection with problem-solving,
metacognition, and self-regulation. Before doing so, it is useful to briefly summarize the
key aspects of the broad concept of reflection.
Reflection is the process of examining one’s ideas, beliefs, and behaviors.
Through reflection, an individual can learn more about him or herself, the situation, and
the purpose of particular choices. It can make a person be more aware and conscious.
Reflection is also a natural way to revisit past experiences and work through those
particular thoughts and feelings associated with those experiences, often to find solutions
to those certain problems.
Without time for reflection, an individual can become frustrated, emotionally
overloaded, and worn out. Reflection can help to develop internalize choices and actions.
It helps to connect experiences through previous choices and behaviors made. Reflection
also leads to thoughtful and more effective outcomes and actions, and it validates the
feeling of each individual to who feel uncomfortable, frightened, or discouraged during
an experience.
Critical Reflection
Critical Reflection. Critical reflection is a more specific version of the broader
concept of reflection. Most researchers (e.g., McPeck, 1981; Gray, 1993; Halpern, 1994;
King, 1995) agree that critical thinking involves (a) the process of reflecting upon
thought provoking ideas and concepts, (b) actively generating hypotheses about those
ideas and concepts, preferably in a way that has personal relevance and, (c) gathering
pertinent information in an effort to either confirm or disconfirm the hypotheses

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generated. Critical thinking stimulates high-level cognitive thinking such as inference,
evaluation, analysis of ideas, and analysis of cause-effect relationships (King, 1995).
Critical thinking is likely to occur when questions are both thought provoking and
personally challenging (Halpern, 1994; King, 1995).
Through critical reflective practices, a person evaluates experiences and creates
opinions. However, critical reflection, in connection and extension to critical thinking,
involves a wide range of thinking skills leading toward desirable outcomes. The use of
those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a desirable
outcome…thinking that is purposeful, reasoned and goal directed - the kind of thinking
involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and
making decisions when the thinker is using skills that are thoughtful and effective for the
particular context and type of thinking task (Halpern, 1996).
Critical thinking is sometimes called directed thinking because it focuses on a
desired outcome.” Critical reflection is a process where you think and reflect about the
practice, ideas, and challenges that are confronted by one’s own thinking which results in
asking critical questions.
Critical reflection is incorporated into critical thinking or actions. Scriven and
Paul (2001) stated:
Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully
conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information
gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or
communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based
on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity,
accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth,
breadth, and fairness (p. 1).

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Scriven and Paul (2001) professed that critical thinking entails the examination of
those structures or elements of thought implicit in all reasoning: purpose, problem, or
question-at-issue; assumptions; concepts; empirical grounding; reasoning leading to
conclusions; implications and consequences; objections from alternative viewpoints; and
frame of reference. Furthermore, critical thinking is stated to have two components: 1)
set of information and belief generating and processing skills, and 2) the habit, based on
intellectual commitment, of using those skills to guide behavior. As a result, in contrast
to reflective practice, critical thinking: 1) involves a particular way in which information
is sought and treated in comparison with the mere acquisition and retentions of
information alone, 2) it involves the continual use of them in comparison with the mere
possession of a set of skills, and 3) accepting the results in comparison to just the use of
those skills.
Critical thinking consists of analyzing and evaluating ideas with reasoning and
self-discipline. This process of reflection is a result of understanding the meaning of
statements, examining evidence and reasoning, and forming a judgment.
In conclusion, many practitioners use critical thinking and reflective thinking
concepts in a variety of ways to understand and explain the dynamics of problem-solving
and reasoning. Reflection is a way to learn from experiences along with critical
reflection and problem-solving.
Reflective Practice. There is a considerable difference between reflective
practices and critical reflection. As informative information is becoming more available
and changing, it makes a person to constantly rethink and switch strategies. Due to this

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type of information and change, it is important to practice reflective thinking. This type
of thinking is called reflective practice. Some explanatory models suggest that reflection
is best described and defined as phases and transitions between phases (Atkins &
Murphy, 1993; Boud, 1995; Kolb, 1984; Kuiper & Pesut, 2004).
Reflective practice is associated with learning from experience. Reflective
practice in relation to experience is pertinent to improving one’s practice and ability to
the quality of their work. A reflective practitioner becomes aware of and controls their
learning by actively participating in reflective thinking. This type of learning helps
develop strategies to apply to a person’s day-to-day activities.
Reflective practice is combined with analyzing what they know, what they need
to know, and how they will bridge the gap of that knowledge. It focuses on the process
of making judgments about what has happened. Reflective thinking is most important in
prompting learning during problem-solving situations because it provides a person with
an opportunity to step back and think about how they solve problems and how their
problem solving strategies is related to reaching their goals.
Reflective thinking involves metacognition through cognitive process and
reflection about critical incidents. A person who is exposed to situations in their
particular field is able to reflect and learn from those experiences. This type of learning
is important for people who support the idea of lifelong learning. Reflective practice
helps encourage personal and professional growth and closes the gap of theory and
practice, especially in the educational field.

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Reflection with Problem-Solving
Reflection is a way to look back at one’s experiences, evaluate them, and apply
what is learned to future experiences. A person can build skills necessary for analyzing
and solving problems and developing creative solutions through reflection. Without
reflection, a person just remembers experiences instead of examining how and what they
need to do to impact or alter the situation. Reflections that are well thought out allow one
to acquire a deeper understanding of the situation.
Reflection is a tool to integrate prior knowledge and experience with new
experiences developed by critical thinking and problem solving skills. Through
reflection, one can examines a situation and learn from it. As Bringle and Hatcher (1999)
stated, “Experience becomes educative when critical reflective thought creates new
meaning and leads to growth and the ability to take informed action (p. 180).”
Reflection, learning and problem-solving are processes that are interrelated. The
commonly known word ‘intelligence’ is the result of the interaction of a great number of
cognitive abilities such as motor control, vision, learning, problem solving, and language
use, etc. (Stroulia and Goel, 1994). In order to problem-solve, a person must have
knowledge to learn and enable problem-solving skills.
Problem-solving includes several steps and processes. First, the person must
understand the problem by defining it considering how it is similar to other problems
previously solved, set goals, and identify variables. Second, the person must gather
knowledge and information by considering which variables are critical; explore the
relationships between variables, consider different strategies for solving the problem.

22

Third, the person must generate possible solutions by determining possibilities through
one’s own knowledge. Fourth, a person must choose a solution by making a decision
which includes developing criteria to evaluate and rank possible solutions. Last, the
person must evaluate and reflect on the solution and make recommendations by
identifying alternative means for meeting the goals and generate continuous
improvement.
In order to problem-solve, a person must first come into a puzzling,
contemplating, confusing, or critical incident, then reflect on what caused it, what the
result was, and what alternative actions could be utilized from this situation. Reflection
occurs when a person examines themselves due to a problematic, puzzling, confusing, or
perplexing situation (Dewey, 1933). This will result a person to reflect on alternative
solutions to solve the problem. Reflection is a core process for recognizing the needs of
problem-solving, learning the knowledge that can fulfill these needs, and effectively
integrating it in the current problem-solving process (Stroulia & Goel, 1994). After the
person has effectively integrated solutions to the problem, the person should have learned
an alternative solution to the problem.
As a person thinks about strategies to use and steps to follow to solve a problem,
it allows a person to experience the importance of reflection in the problem-solving
process. The effective way of solving a problem includes an initial analysis and
reflection of the problem followed by reflecting on the problem solving process in order
to extend and organize one’s knowledge. With reflection, the person learns to examine
themselves and have a deeper meaning and understanding of the critical incident.

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Metacognition
Broadly defined, metacognition is any knowledge or cognitive process that refers
to, monitors, or controls cognition. The concept of metacognition was first introduced by
Flavell (1976). He described three different kinds of metacognitive knowledge:
awareness of knowledge (understanding what one knows, does not know, and wants to
know), awareness of thinking (understanding cognitive task and the nature of what is
required to complete them), and awareness of thinking strategies (understanding
approaches to directing learning).
There are three elements to the metacognitive strategies: awareness, planning,
and monitoring and reflecting. The three strategies are further described below:
• Awareness-a person must do the following to be aware: consciously identify
what they already know, define the learning goals, think about personal
resources, consider the task requirements, determine how your performance
will be evaluated, consider the motivation level, and determine your level of
anxiety.
• Planning-to plan, a person must do the following: estimate the time required
to complete the task, plan study time into your schedule and set priorities,
make a checklist of what needs to happen when, organize materials, and take
the necessary steps to learn by using strategies like outlining, mnemonics,
diagramming, etc.
• Monitoring and Reflecting-to monitor and reflect, a person must reflect on the
learning process, keeping track of what works and what doesn't work for you,

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monitor one’s own learning by questioning and self-testing, provide own
feedback, and keep concentration and motivation high.
Metacognitive regulation involves the ability to think strategically and problem-
solve, plan, set goals, organize ideas, and evaluate what one knows. Flavell (1979)
described that “metacognitive knowledge leads to select, evaluate, revise or abandon
cognitive tasks, goals and strategies in light of their relationships with one another and
with their own abilities and interest with respect to an enterprise (Kuiper & Pesut, 2004).”
Metacognition is an important concept in cognitive theory and researchers
explained that is consists of two basic processes that occur simultaneously. The first
process is reflection, which is monitoring what a person already knows and thinks about
one’s own progress as you learn. The second process is self-regulating, which is to think
about how one can go about learning to make changes and adapt strategies if they think
that they are not doing so well. Metacognition is about self-reflection, self-responsibility
and initiative, as well as goal setting and time management (Winn & Snyder, 1998).
To become a good problem-solver, a person needs to learn to develop
metacognitive skills. When a person is able to use metacognitive skills, “they know how
to recognize flaws or gaps in their own thinking, articulate their thought processes, and
revise their efforts (Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, & Campione, 1983).”
To develop metacognitive skills, one must think about the way he or she learns
best and to be aware of his or her capabilities, strengths, and weakness. Ridley, Schutz,
Glanz, and Weinstein (1992) claimed that “metacognitive skills include taking conscious
control of learning, planning and selecting strategies, monitoring the progress of learning,

25

correcting errors, analyzing the effectiveness of learning strategies, and changing learning
behaviors and strategies when necessary.”
Metacognition, or "thinking about how a person thinks," is one of the most
important tools for lifelong learning. People who utilize metacognition understand the
power of asking themselves “why” and reflecting as well as seeking answers to that
question in a multitude of scenarios.
Self-Regulation
Self-regulation usually refers to “a set of behaviors that are used to guide,
monitor, and direct one’s thinking to become successful.” It is used to manage and direct
interaction within the learning environment in order to succeed. Self-regulation involves
controlling behavior, motivational beliefs, and cognitive strategies for learning. In order
to self-regulate, a person must learn to compare their critical incidents and become
proactive learners.
In the 1980’s, the term self-regulated learning (SRL) became well-known because
it emphasized the responsibility of oneself to take charge of their own learning. It was
regarded as an important term because it emphasized how each individual was the one
establishing learning goals and the quality of learning were through each individual’s
perceptions of the task.
Self-regulation skills can be taught, learned, and controlled. There are three
cyclical phases for achieving self-regulation skills. These three phases of self-regulation
are: self-monitor, self-evaluation, and self-reaction.

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• Phase one: Self-monitor-a systematic monitoring and observation of one’s critical
incidents, setting goals, and deciding on strategies to set
• Phase two: Self-evaluation-a systematic comparison and evaluation of critical
incidents with a standard or goal. It involves monitoring processing during
learning and the active attempt to utilize specific strategies to help a person to
become more successful.
• Phase three: Self-reaction-an engagement in personal processes (such as
metacogntition, goal setting), self-administering praise or criticism; behavioral
adjustments.
Each of these phases is used to self-reflect during a critical incident. Self-reflection
involves reflecting after a critical incident, a self-evaluation of outcomes compared to
certain goals. Ertmer and Newby (1996) declared that “reflection makes it possible for
learners to utilize their metacognitive knowledge about task, self, and strategies during
each stage of the regulator (carryover) process: planning, monitoring, and evaluating (p.
14).” Furthermore, self-evaluation, or metacognitive self-regulation, refers to the
reflective thinking about experiences and situation to determine if knowledge is adequate,
what goals are to be set, and if there is the self-efficacy require to reach them (Schunk,
1990; Kuiper & Pesuit, 2004). Self-regulation is a vital element to reflection and critical
thinking.
Self-regulation is another form of lifelong learning. With the use of self-regulation,
one can learn to enhance their learning. This type of learning needs to be developed and
adopted for each task. In fact, it is stated that self-regulation strategies have been found

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to be predictors of problem-solving success, and a high level of metacognitive skills has
compensated for low abilities (Swanson, 1990; Howard, McGee, Shia, & Hong, 2001;
Kuiper, 2005).
Integrative and Cognitive Complexity
This section will discuss the related concepts of integrative complexity and
cognitive complexity. The first section discusses integrative complexity and the next
section will discuss cognitive complexity. The first subsection under integrative
complexity will define and explain integrative complexity. The second subsection under
integrative complexity will discuss Stoltenberg and his theory on counselor supervision
and its similarities to teacher education.
Integrative Complexity
Integrative complexity consists of two different terms: differentiation and
integration. Differentiation is referred to the way a person perceives different things and
looks at things in different perspectives when thinking about one issue. Integration is
referred to the recognition of cognitive connections among different perspectives with
regard to a particular situation. Suedfeld and Bluck (1993) declared that “integrative
complexity is a state cognitive style variable characterized by differentiation (the
recognition of different dimensions within, or perspectives on, a give stimulus) and
integration (the recognition of trade-offs, syntheses, and higher order concepts relating
the differentiated units) (p. 124).” More simply stated, it is a measure of an individual’s
intellectual style in processing information, solving problems, or making decisions.

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There are three levels of integration: no integration, some integration, or complex
integration. If there is greater integration, then there is greater integrative complexity.
For example, if a person shows low levels of integrative complexity, he or she’s
reflection would show a low evaluative differentiation and a low conceptual integration.
He or she is able to recognize only one perspective on a certain issue. However, if a
person who shows higher levels of integrative complexity, he or she’s reflection would
reflect on simultaneous presence of evaluative differentiation and conceptual integration.
He or she is able to recognize the multiple perspectives to a certain issue.
For example, an elementary school teacher with low levels of integrative
complexity might take the Language Arts Open Court Reading Program and believe that
it is simply either effective or ineffective. However, a person with high levels of
integrative complexity would be able to have multiple views and state that the program
has both a negative and positive aspects to the program. He or she would believe that
different perspectives need to be taken into account before deciding if the Language Arts
program is considered to be either effective or ineffective.
Research shows that integrative complexity is useful within the educational field.
First, it focuses on the development of critical thinking skills and second it focuses on the
effects of critical thinking skills and the way it affects people’s actions.
Cognitive Complexity
There are multiple definitions of cognitive complexity, dating back to the work of
Kelly (1955). For the purpose of this study, “Cognitive complexity refers to the number
of logically distinct reasons that a decision-maker advances in support of or in opposition

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to a point of view (Tetlock and Tyler, 1996) (p. 153).” A person with a decision to make
would display no evidence of evaluative differentiation, but instead list reasons to why he
or she agrees or disagrees with the situation.
A person with a low level of cognitive complexity is prone to seeing the world in
terms of black and white, with few shades of gray. There are no alternative choices or
reasons to prove that the situation can be changed; the person’s answer is very linear. On
the other hand, a person with a high level of cognitive complexity will provide multiple
reasons or answers to a particular situation; that is, she or he is able to see multiple
perspectives. Tetlock and Tyler (1996) stated, “To count as cognitively differentiated,
the person needs to distinguish two or more logically or semantically distinct reasons for
taking a position (reasons that need not be in evaluative tension with each other) (p.
155).”
Cal Stoltenberg
Stoltenberg (1981) believed that counselor training lacked a systematic
developmental model. The one he suggested focused on changes in the individual
counselor trainee as he or she progresses through stages or levels of training.
Specifically, he asserted that a beginning student would be low in cognitive (or
integrative) complexity in this particular domain (regardless of that student’s more
general level of complexity). As the student developed, he or she gradually would
become more cognitive complex in this particular domain.
He mentioned, for example, that a trainee functioning at Level I would have
minimal amount of experience with counseling because they are going through the

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process of being introduced to the theories, assessment/diagnosis, and other academic
knowledge in human behavior. A Level I trainee lacks confidence and is more dependent
on the supervisor for advice. Stoltenberg (1981) stated, “The developing counselor is
quite concerned with rules of counseling at this point and is searching for the right way to
do things (p. 61).”
A trainee functioning at Level II would develop a more dependency-autonomy
conflict. The trainee is learning to be more independent and self assertive while at the
same time depending on the need of his or her supervisor.
A trainee functioning at Level III would have built an increase sense of personal
counselor identity and professional self-confidence. Stoltenberg (1981) stated, “The
trainee has developed into a counselor who is characterized by an increase empathy
toward others and a more highly differentiated interpersonal orientation (p. 63).”
A trainee functioning at Level IV would develop into a master counselor. This
trainee would be personal secure and aware of his or her insight, function adequately, and
have some degree of motivational changes. The trainee would become interdependent
with others and build a better understanding of the profession. Stoltenberg (1981) stated,
“This individual is capable of independent practice due to the development of an
adequate awareness of his or her personal limitations (p. 63).”
Stoltenberg posited through experience, and with proper support and assistance
from the supervisor, it is possible for an individual to become more effective and also
more cognitively complex.

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Whereas Stoltenberg was writing about counselors, teachers, too, can be
understood to go through a similar process. A beginning teacher would be considered to
be at Level I and have low integrative complexity in teaching. He or she would be very
dependent on the master-teacher or supervisor for support and assistance. He or she
would want to produce a perfect lesson for his or her master-teacher or supervisor.
However, with more experience and years in teaching, he or she would build on his or her
ability to teach and gradually be at a higher level of integrative complexity (LIC), Levels
II, III or IV. Ultimately, a Level IV teacher would become less dependent on a mentor or
supervisor and he or she would become a master teacher and interdependent with others.
He or she would build a better understanding of the teaching profession and depend on
his or her intelligence and know the limitations of what he or she can do.
Personality Traits that Predict Integrative Complexity
Reasonably the characteristic ways a teacher thinks about situations will be
evident in the quality of reflections. Two measures of cognitive style seemed particularly
relevant to the questions addressed in this study.
Need for Cognition Scale (NCS; Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao, 1984)
People with high levels of NCS enjoys thinking, learning, and engaging in
cognitive activities. Cacioppo et al. (1984) reported, “Need for cognition refers to an
individual’s tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive endeavors…this
characteristic is predictive of the manner in which people deal with tasks and social
information (p. 306).” Higher scores indicate a greater level of engagement and
enjoyment in effortful cognitive endeavors.

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The purpose of using NCS in this study was to look at reflection and
temperament/personality types as it relates to teaching. It helps to observe personal
characteristics that may influence one’s success as a teacher. An individual’s NCS is
predictive of the cognitive manner in which individuals deal with tasks and events.
Because NCS is an easy and efficient tool, it is a useful measurement for assessing
cognitive engagement.
Big Five Personality Inventory (BFPI; Howard & Howard, 1995)
The theory of personality types has been researched for over 50 years and through
factor analytic means, researchers have proposed five basic personality dimensions. The
Big Five Personality Inventory (BFPI) was designed to measure these five core
dimensions of personality (Howard & Howard, 1995) (p. 2): Openness,
Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. Two of these BFPI
scales were examined in this study: Openness and Neuroticism. People who score high
on openness love adventure and trying new things and ideas; they are creative,
imaginative, curious, and insightful. A person high on neuroticism has difficulty
handling an unpleasant emotional experience, such as anger, anxiety, impulsiveness,
vulnerability, and depression.
Teachers and Reflection
This section will provide background information on teachers and reflection. The
first part defines an elementary school teacher. The second part discusses teacher
preparation programs and how elementary school teachers obtain their credential and the
incorporation of reflection. The third part explains the various types of reflective

33

practices in both preservice teachers and in-service teachers. The fourth part describes
the importance and connection between teachers and reflection. And, finally, the last part
compares the difference between novice teachers and more expert teachers.
Elementary School Teachers
An elementary school teacher is someone who has a multiple subject teaching
credential authorized in a particular state to teach in a self-contained classroom such as a
classroom setting in most elementary schools. Teachers work in both public and private
schools and they usually work with between 20 and 30 children at a time.
Elementary school teachers teach children the basic skills needed to get through
life (i.e. reading, writing and arithmetic) but they also introduce children to many other
topics, including the sciences, foreign languages and social studies. They broaden a
child's understanding of the world and set an example through their words and actions.
At most schools, a teacher instructs one class on several subjects. In some schools,
however, one teacher who specializes in a particular topic teaches that subject to several
different classes.
Teacher Preparation Programs in California
In order to become a credentialed public school teacher in the state of California,
people need to enroll and complete a teacher preparation program. Teacher education
programs help educators to acquire a credential granted by the state in order to serve in a
public school setting. To qualify as a teacher, a teacher must graduate from a California
state approved teacher preparation program, or an alternative state approved program.

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Through a California state approved teacher program, several requirements need
to be met in order to obtain a preliminary credential, which is only valid for five years.
An individual must first obtain a Bachelor’s Degree or higher from an accredited
university and complete specific education courses, including human growth and
development, curriculum and instructional procedures, reading, and foundation of
education courses. Early childhood education or teacher education in elementary
education programs, or any degree related to education (i.e. a liberal study, or liberal arts
bachelor's, or a child and adolescent studies degree) is required which will help an
individual qualify for a preliminary credential.
Next, the individual must enroll in a teacher preparation program. Many colleges
and universities offer Teacher Education programs. Some schools offer a program to
help an individual qualify for a degree and credential simultaneously.
Like many other states, California established standards and requirements for
teacher education programs in order for preservice teachers to earn a credential. The
handbook called Standards and Quality of Effectiveness for Teacher Preparation
Programs (SQETPP) for Preliminary Multiple Subject and Single Subject Teaching
Credentials was created by the state of California. California Commission on Teacher
Credentialing (CCTC) (2007) stated, “These certification standards and requirements are
among the ways in which states can exercise their constitutional responsibility for
governing public education (p.1).”
It is believed that professionalism mostly depends on the initial teacher
preparation programs. Therefore, this type of requirement and standards helps to ensure

35

quality teacher education programs. CCTC (2007) stated, “State legislatures adopt such
requirements because they recognize the critical role of professional preparation in
subsequent professional performance (p. 1).” The handbook discussed three types of
standards: preconditions or prerequisites, common standards of program quality and
effectiveness, program standards, of quality and effectiveness for preliminary multiple
and single subject credentials.
Specifically, CCTC created a category in the handbook that discussed the
program design, governance, and quality. In this category, there are 18 program
standards. Program standard 4 specifically discussed the importance and process for
pedagogical thought and reflective practice. CCTC (2007) stated, “By design, the
professional teacher preparation program fosters the ability of candidates to evaluate
instructional alternatives, articulate the pedagogical reasons for instructional decisions,
and reflect on their teacher practices (p. 40).” A teacher preparation program must ensure
that the pedagogical thought and reflective practice elements are clearly and effectively
provided through the program. The following excerpt from the SQETPP (2007) provides
detailed explanation of the elements in program standard 4:
• 4(a) The program consistently articulates and models the importance of reflecting
on practice and assessing alternative courses of action in teaching. Candidates
learn to select and use materials, plan presentations, design activities and monitor
students learning by thoughtfully assessing students needs, defining important
instructional goals, considering alternative strategies, and reflecting on prior
decisions and their effects.

• 4(b) In the program, each candidate reads, begins to analyze, discusses and
evaluates professional literature pertaining to important contemporary issues in
California schools and classrooms. Each becomes acquainted with and begins to
use sources of professional information in making decisions about teaching and
learning.

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• 49(c) As candidates begin to develop professionally, the program encourages
them to examine their own pedagogical practices. Through reflection, analysis,
and discussion of these practices, each candidate learns to make informed
decisions about teaching and learning.

• 4(d) In each program, each candidate learns to teach and reflect on curriculum-
based subject matter content in relation to (1) pedagogical perspectives embedded
in state-adopted academic content standards, curriculum frameworks and
instructional materials; (2) the intellectual, ethical, social, personal and physical
development of students; (3) significant developments in the disciplines of
knowledge; and (4) the context of California’s economy and culture.

• 4(e) The program fosters each candidate’s realization that the analysis and
assessment of alternative practices promote a teacher’s professional growth. Each
candidate learns to make pedagogical decisions based on multiple sources of
information, including state-adopted instructional materials and curriculum
frameworks, other professional literature, consultations with colleagues, and
reflections on actual and potential practices (pg. 40).

For additional requirement, each individual will also need to complete student
teaching through their credential program. Teachers must also pass three exams. The
first one is the California Basic Educational Skills Test (CBEST) exam, which tests
reading, writing, and math skills. The second one is the California Subject Examinations
for Teachers (CSET), which is a subject matter examination for knowledge and
competencies of prospective teachers in California. The third one is the Reading
Instruction Competence Assessment (RICA) exam, which tests individuals’ knowledge
and skills important for provision of effective reading instruction to students.
Furthermore, teachers must also complete a reading instruction course (Developing
English Language Skills), a United States Constitution course, and a foundational
computer technology course.
All individuals who complete their teacher preparation programs through a
commission approved program must be formally recommended for the credential by the

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university or college where the program was completed. After obtaining a preliminary
credential in California, teachers need to earn a “clear” credential by complete another
program such as the professional teacher induction program. For example, in the Los
Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD), there is a two year mandatory program, called
Beginning Teacher Support and Assessment (BTSA). All teachers must attend this
induction program in order to receive a “clear” credential. The other option is to enroll in
a universities’ fifth year professional education "clear" credential program. Afterwards,
credentials must be renewed every five years.
Types of Reflective Practice / Process of Reflection for Teachers
Pre-Service Teachers. In California, teacher preparation programs from multiple
universities came together to create a standardized teacher performance assessment called
Performance Assessment for California Teachers (PACT). The participating universities
include 7 University of California (UC) campuses, University of Southern California
(USC), Stanford University, and 4 California State University (CSU) campuses. This
assessment was developed in order to help measure and earn a California Preliminary
Multiple Subject Teaching Credential.
The teacher performance assessment also helps to measure the CCTC Teaching
Performance Expectations (TPEs). In the TPEs, there are five major areas that teachers
need to master. These five areas are making subject matter comprehensible to students,
assessing student learning, engaging and supporting students in learning, planning
instruction and designing learning experience for students, creating and maintain

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effective environments for student learning, and developing as a professional educator.
In the SQEPTPP, TPE number 13 (professional growth) stated (2007):
Candidates for a teaching credential evaluate their own teaching practices and
subject matter knowledge in light of information about the state-adopted academic
content standards for students and student learning. They improve their teaching
practices by soliciting feedback and engaging in cycles of planning, teaching,
reflecting, discerning problems, and applying new strategies. Candidates use
reflection and feedback to formulate and prioritize goals for increasing their
subject matter knowledge and teaching effectiveness (p. A-11).

These standards are also incorporated and enforced among in-service teachers and are
called the California Standards for the Teaching Profession.
In teacher preparation programs, it is a requirement by law to incorporate
reflection as part of the program. There are a variety of activities that can be used to
facilitate reflection. Leino (1995) claimed, “Reflection in teaching can be carried out in
different ways and with different purposes (p. 33).” Some programs ask students to keep
journals, organize presentation, discuss their experiences and learning with others, and/or
prepare reports to demonstrate their learning.
When constructing reflective activities, university should consider several factors.
First, reflection activities should involve individual learners and address interaction with
peers, community members and staff. Second, students with different learning styles
might prefer different types of activities. Next, there should be a wide range of activities
for learners to choose from to meet the needs of different learners. Lastly, some of the
activities might be appropriate at different parts of the teacher preparation programs.
Reflection can be involved through reading, writing, presenting, and telling. The
reflection can also be involved through integration of technology such as a variety of

39

web-based activities, electronic journaling, video journaling, multimedia projects, and
electronic portfolio system. Below is a list of examples of reflective activities that some
teacher preparation programs incorporate.
• Case studies- Assign case-studies to help students think about what to expect from
the service project and to plan for the service activity. Use published case-studies
or instructor developed case-studies based on past service-learning projects.
• Journals- Ask students to record thoughts, observations, feelings, activities and
questions in a journal throughout the project. The most common form of journals
is free form journals. The journal should be started early in the project and
students should make frequent entries. Professors should explain benefits of
journals to students such as enhancing observational skills, exploring feelings,
assessing progress and enhancing communication skills. Professors should
provide feedback by responding to journals, class discussions of issue/ questions
raised in journals or further assignments based on journal entries.
• Structured journals- Use structured journals to direct student attention to
important issues/questions and to connect the service experience to class work. A
structured journal provides prompts to guide the reflective process. Some parts of
the journal may focus on affective dimensions while others relate to problem-
solving activities.
• Team journal- Use a team journal to promote interaction between team members
on project related issues and to introduce students to different perspectives on the

40

project. Students can take turns recording shared and individual experiences,
reactions and observations, and responses to each other’s entries.
• Critical incidents journal- Ask students to record a critical incident for each week
of the service project. The critical incident refers to events in which a decision
was made, a conflict occurred, a problem resolved. The critical incident journal
provides a systematic way for students to communicate problems and challenges
involved in working with the community and with their teams and can thus help
in dealing with the affective dimensions of the service experience.
• Portfolios- Ask students to select and organize evidence related to
accomplishments and specific learning outcomes in a portfolio. Portfolios can
include drafts of documents, analysis of problems/ issues, project activities/plans,
annotated bibliography. Ask students to organize evidence by learning objectives.
• Papers- Ask students to write an integrative paper on the service project. Journals
and other products can serve as the building blocks for developing the final paper.
• Discussions- Encourage formal/informal discussions with teammates, other
volunteers and staff to introduce students to different perspectives and to
challenge students to think critically about the project.
• Presentations- Ask students to present their service experience and discuss it in
terms of concepts/theories discussed in class.
• Interviews- Interview students on service experiences and the learning that
occurred in these experiences.

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In-Service Teachers. The Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD) BTSA
Induction Program is a CCTC approved program. Participants who are in this program
are able to fulfill the requirements for obtaining a Professional Clear Teaching Credential
through professional development and formative assessment activities.
Through BTSA, participants increase their knowledge and are able to implement
the elements of the California Standards for the Teaching Profession (CSTP). There are a
total of six standards in the CSTP. One of the standards from the CSTP, standard six
“Developing as a Professional Educator,” deals with reflection; more specifically,
standard 6.1 deals with “Reflecting on teaching practice and planning professional
development.” This standard is heavily imbedded into the induction program.
After every professional development or activity, teachers are required to reflect
on the situation. The reflective statement is used to give the reader insight into the
teachers’ growth over time as a professional educator. Teachers need to write their
reflection statement so that educators are able to synthesize their experience in
relationship to the standards. Furthermore, the reflective writing should allow readers to
assess the knowledge and practice gained in connection with the standards. There are
several reflective guiding steps and questions that teachers are to address through their
own personal reflective writing. The following excerpt from the BTSA website
(undated) provides the questions teachers need to address:
Plan:
• In which professional development did you engage?
o Workshops, seminars, salary point classes, professional readings,
observations, professional conversations…

42

• With whom did you engage in these activities?
o Support provider, colleagues, presenters, study group, university
courses…
• What concepts or strategies did you gain related to the elements within the
standard?
Teach:
• How did you implement what you learned to change/enhance your classroom
practice?
• How did this implementation provide all students with opportunities to access
the curriculum and achieve academic success?
• What other domains of success were impacted?
Reflect:
• How has your practice grown over time?
• What evidence do you have of your growth in connection with the Induction
Standard and the California Standards for the Teaching Profession?
• What were the results of implementing what you learned?
• What conclusions can you draw?
Apply:
• How will you apply this knowledge to continue your growth as a professional
educator?
• What evidence have you included in the portfolio? (p.1)

Importance and Connection between Teachers and Reflection
As it is true in all other professions, reflection has many definitions in the context
of teacher cognition. Dewey believed that reflection commences when one inquires into
his or her experience and relevant knowledge to find meaning in his or her beliefs. With
respect to teachers and educators, he believed that reflection will change a teacher’s
ability to teach students. It has the potential to enable teachers to direct their activities
with foresight and to plan according to ends-in-view (Dewey, 1933, p. 17).
Most reflection occurs by describing the situation, questioning one’s thoughts,
assumptions, and understandings, and trying to find solutions to problems with an open
mind. Reflection should also take into consideration other aspects that might lead to
better teaching abilities. Jay and Johnson (2002) professed, “traditional ways of thinking

43

about practice can be enhanced and strengthened…reflection should take into
consideration the social, moral, and political aspects of teaching (p. 75).”
As mandated by law, teacher education programs incorporate reflective practices
into the curriculum in order to help preservice teachers become more effective. Allen
and Casbergue (1997) declared, “Reflective teaching is viewed as a paramount vehicle
for enhancing the development of effective teachers; therefore, it is the aim or salient
theme of a vast and increasing number of teacher education programs (Kennedy, 1989;
Loughran, 1995; Richardson, 1990; Ross, 1989; Wildman, Niles, Magliaro &
McLaughlin, 1990) (p. 741).”
Teacher education program believes that reflection leads to professional growth.
Rueda and Garcia (1996) stated, “Reflection is an essential part of improving both
professional preparation and later teaching effectiveness (Clark, 1998; Cole, 1989;
Dinhan & Stritter, 1986; Eisenhart, Shrum, Harding, & Cuthbert, 1988; Goodman, 1988;
Nespor, 1987) (p. 312).” Allen and Casbergue (1997) further professed, “Wildman et al.
(1990) not only state that reflectivity leads to professional growth, they argue that
professional growth is unlikely without systematic reflection (p. 741).”
Teaching teachers how to reflect continues to struggle as universities and other
programs continue to evolve the way teachers should reflect. Jay and Johnson (2002)
stated, “While our understanding of reflection continues to grow and change, our efforts
are powerfully motivated by the potential of reflective practice to create effective
teaching (p. 85).” Teachers need scaffold and reminders that teaching reflection is much
more than a reflective seminar or a creation of a portfolio to pass a course. Reflection

44

should be taught as an ongoing process that continues even after teacher education
programs ends. Ward and McCotter (2004) stated, “As teacher educators, we must be
able to make a clear case for reflection as an outcome above and beyond its short-term
instrumental value (p. 255).”
Reflection is taught from teacher education programs as something that preservice
teachers should practice to broaden perspectives and develop concern for their students.
Ward and McCotter (2004) stated, “We want preservice teachers to think about the moral
enterprise of teaching and what is taken-for granted (p. 244).” The central goal of
teaching reflection in a teacher education program is to ensure that teachers develop the
ability to improve their teaching and to have a positive effect on their students. Lee
(2005) stated, “Therefore, it is recommended that preservice teacher engage in reflective
activities not only to better learn new ideas but also to sustain professional growth after
leaving the program (p. 699).”
Rodgers (2002) stated, “Due to the lack of clear definition of reflection and vague
criteria to assess the quality of reflective thinking, there have been problems in
implementing reflective activities in teacher education program (Lee, 2005) (p. 699).”
However, it is apparent that any and all types of reflection are important to improving
teacher’s ability to teach. When teachers reflect, they need to critically examine their
values within their practice. Teachers need to think beyond simple questions about
whether or not their practice worked, but rather focus on understanding how it works and
for whom it works for. This type of reflection will help teachers to improve their
teaching ability.

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Comparison between Novice Teachers versus Expert Teachers
Novice Teachers. A novice teacher is someone who is considered to have worked
in the educational field for one to three years. Through the teacher education program, a
novice teacher will have acquired excellent subject matter expertise, studies theories of
child development, and knowledgeable in the various models of teaching; and although a
novice teacher might be knowledgeable well-prepared, frustration will be encountered
once they set foot into a real classroom. Van Marten (1995) stated, “Now, facing the
students, the new teacher finds, to his or her disillusionment, that all the planning still
falls short of what is required by the classroom reality (p. 36).” As a result, teachers daily
life in a classroom is filled with discovering what they need to do to incorporate what
they have learned from a teacher education program and how to incorporate that into the
daily classroom instruction without falling short of the requirement. Van Marten (1995)
declared:
The concept of the teacher as a reflective practitioner is, in part, a response to the
sense that a technical theory-into-practice epistemology does not seem sensitive to
the realization that teacher knowledge must play an active and dynamic role in the
ever-changing challenges of the school and classroom. Yet, much teacher
preparation remains stuck in the traditional epistemology of practice and the
concept of the teacher as reflective practitioner; and the knowledge-in-action
model suffers from practical flaws as far as the interactive reality of the classroom
is concerned (p. 37).

A novice teacher is less likely to evaluate the material and instruction of the
lesson. They generally do not examine the quality of their work or stop to make
modifications as they are teaching. They are more likely to just teach the basic of what
they know rather than attempting to examine a lesson in depth. They are unable to make
connections or relevance of the instruction, or have the expertise or proper training to

46

assess the quality of the lesson or instruction. Novice teachers tend to focus more on
organizational and environmental issues rather than on instructional issues. Moore and
Ash (2002) stated, “Many new teachers choose not to reflect on their practice
constructively and critically, preferring to fall back on pre-conceived understandings of
how they and their pupils should conduct themselves in the classroom (Wilson and
I’Anson, 2006) (p. 354).”
Expert Teachers. An expert teacher is someone who is considered to have
worked in the educational field for four or more years. When expert teachers reflect, they
are more likely to be aware of the errors or problems, make modifications, comprehend
the quality, and evaluate the instruction. They are more likely to make efforts to evaluate
and question the quality and effectiveness of their instruction because they have more
experience and trainings than a novice teacher. Ertmer and Newby (1996) declared that
“expert teachers are more aware than novices of when they need to check for errors, why
they fail to comprehend, and how they need to redirect their efforts.”
An expert teacher has the ability to accurately and thoroughly recall meaningful
situations that allow them to recall unlike the novice teachers. Allen and Casbergue
(1996) asserted, “Typically, experienced teachers have grown in cognition in their years
of teaching and possess rich schemata which allow them to demonstrate significantly
better recall ability of meaningful classroom occurrences than novices (p. 3).”
For example, a novice teacher would give a grade based on what they think is the
correct average grade, the grade written in the grade book, or based on a few tests.
When thinking about a students’ grade, the novice teacher would not think about other

47

reasons or other factors that could influence a students’ grade. It is also possible for a
novice teacher to use their own personal judgment on what the students should receive
rather than basing the students’ grades on standards, evidence of tests and class work, and
growth of the mind.
On the other hand, an expert teacher would think twice about a students’ grade
prior to giving the grade. The expert teacher would look into each of the tests and the
class work. The expert teacher would analyze the grades and see what other factors
influenced a student to receive a particular grade on the test or class work. The teacher
would also think about the students’ family and environmental factors that might have
influenced the student to do either poorly or well. For example, a student who received a
poor grade on a test could have been caused by a family issue such as a death or illness in
the family.
Research Questions
This study used a mixed method, both qualitative and quantitative, design to look
at integrative complexity as it is associated with reflection. This study used information
gained from the literature reviews as a foundational knowledge to understand the
importance of reflection skills and examine the level of integrative complexity among
elementary school teachers. Furthermore, this study was not to “solve problems” but,
rather, to explore the concept of reflection and compare the content of reflection between
novice and expert elementary school teachers.

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The four research questions that guided this study are:
1. What themes are reflected in the reflections of elementary school
teachers?
2. Do more novice teachers focus on different types of content than
more expert teachers?
3. What levels of integrative complexity are evident in elementary
school teachers’ reflections?
4. To what extent do the variables of Need for Cognition Scale (NCS)
and Big Five Personality Inventory (BFPI) scale predict the level
of integrative complexity (LIC) in the reflections of elementary
school teachers?

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CHAPTER TWO: METHOD

This chapter describes the method used in this study. Specifically, it describes the
participants, raters, measures, stimulus material, procedures, and data analyses.
Participants
Participants were 34 (33 female, 1 male) teachers from at least 17 different
elementary schools in Southern California, whose mean age was 43.82 (SD = 12.34).
They reported their ethnicity as Asian-American (7), African-American (4), Hispanic (8),
White (12), Mixed (2), Other (1).
The participants reported an average of 12.29 (SD = 9.45) years of teaching.
With respect to highest earned degree, 15 reported a bachelor, 18 reported a masters, and
1 reported a doctoral degree.
When broken down by level of expertise, eight were considered novices for the
purpose of this study (i.e., one to three years of teaching experience). The remaining 26
were assigned to the expert category.
Raters
Raters were four Ed.D. students, 3 female, 1, Asian-American (dissertation
author), 1, African American, and 1, Caucasian; 1 male Caucasian; and one male
Caucasian professor from University of Southern California’s Rossier School of
Education. The raters ranged in age from 27 to 60. All students were engaged in mixed-
methods dissertation research, had completed two doctoral level inquiry courses, and had
participated in mock rating sessions with the professor which utilized data gathered when
piloting the critical reflection survey. The raters reviewed, analyzed, and coded the

50

reflection data the participants completed. The raters had two tasks. One was to conduct
a content analysis of the critical incidents the participants reported, using that to create
categories. The second was to score the reflections according to their LIC.
Prior to rating the participants’ reflections, the raters scored several practice
vignettes to calibrate their ratings. Each rater read the participants’ reflections, then, the
group discussed each reflection until group consensus was reached.
Measures
This study used four measures. These were a demographic questionnaire, the
Need for Cognition Scale (NCS), the Big Five Personality Inventory (BFPI), and the
Framework for Evaluating Participants’ Level of Reflection (FEPLF). Each measure will
be discussed in turn.
Demographic Questionnaire
There were nine demographic questions in the study. Specifically, participants
were asked to state their age, gender, race or ethnicity, number of years as a full time
teacher, the university from which they had obtained their teaching credential, the year
they obtained their teaching credential, the school at which they worked, and their highest
degree.
Need for Cognition Scale (NCS; Cacioppo, Petty, & Kao, 1984)
Cacioppo et al. (1984) reported, “Need for cognition refers to an individual’s
tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive endeavors…this characteristic is
predictive of the manner in which people deal with tasks and social information (p. 306).”
The short (18 item) version of the NCS was used in this study. The items were in a five

51

point Likert format where 1 = extremely uncharacteristic of me, 2 = somewhat
uncharacteristic of me, 3 = uncertain, 4 = somewhat characteristic of me, and 5 =
extremely characteristic of me. Higher scores indicate a greater level of engagement and
enjoyment in effortful cognitive endeavors. Sample item questions include: I would
rather do something that requires little thought than something that is sure to challenge
my thinking abilities; I try to anticipate and avoid situations where there is a likely
chance I will have to think in depth about something;, and, I prefer to think about small,
daily projects than long-term ones. Nine items were reversed scored. In this study, the
coefficient alpha was .84.
Big Five Personality Inventory (BFPI; Howard & Howard, 1995)
The BFPI was designed to measure five core dimensions of personality (Howard
& Howard, 1995) (p. 2). Two BFPI scales were used in this study: Openness and
Neuroticism.
Openness. Openness is the appreciation for things such as art, adventure, creative
ideas, imagination, and curiosity. There were 10 items related to Openness. Examples
were, “I see myself as someone who is original, comes up with new ideas,” and “I see
myself as some who is curious about many different things.” Of the 10 openness
questions, two were reversed scored.
A person who receives a high score on Openness tends to be considered to be
intellectually curious, open and aware of emotion, and interested in art. Some might have
a high interest in learning and exploring, yet have no interest in art. However, a person
who had a low score in openness was considered to have little, common interest with

52

others, conservative, and prefer familiarity over spontaneity. These people were more
straightforward and simple rather than complex. To them, art is considered to have no
practical use and uninteresting.
Neuroticism. Neuroticism is the inability to comfortably handle an unpleasant
emotional experience, such as anger, anxiety, and depression. There were eight items
related to Neuroticism. An example of a neuroticism questions was, “I see myself as
someone who remains calm in tense situations (reversed scored),” and “I see myself as
someone who is emotionally stable, not easily upset.” Three of the eight neuroticism
questions were reverse scored.
A person who receives a high score on Neuroticism tends to respond to certain
events with more intensified emotions compared to others. They might perceive and
interpret negative emotional experiences with difficulty and frustration. Their negative
emotions will last a longer period of time and can diminish their ability to think clearly,
make just decisions, and cope effectively with stress.
However, lower scores in Neuroticism suggest someone who is less easily upset
and to react emotionally. They are calmer and more emotionally stable. It is important to
remember that a low score in Neuroticism does not necessarily mean that the person
always has positive feelings and emotions, but rather that they are able to handle certain
situations without intense emotions.

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Framework for Evaluating Participants’ Level of Reflection (Hatton & Smith, 1995)
Evaluations of the quality of reflections’ integrative complexity were made using
the framework developed by Hatton and Smith. Their four categories, which were
treated as scores (One to Four) for the purpose of this study, are as follows:
–Descriptive Writing (Level One)
-Not reflective.
-Description of events that occurred/report of literature.
-No attempt to provide reasons/justification for events.

–Descriptive Reflection (Level Two)
-Reflective, not only a description of events but some attempt to provide
reason justification for events or actions but in a reportive or descriptive
way. For example, “I chose this problem-solving activity because I
believe that students should be active rather than passive learners.”

-Recognition of alternate viewpoints in the research and literature which
are reported. For example, Tyler (1949) because of the assumptions on
which his approach rests suggests that the curriculum process should begin
with objectives. Yinger (1979), on the other hand argues that the “task” is
the starting point.

– Dialogic Reflection (Level Three)
-Demonstrates a “stepping back” from the events/actions leading to a
different level of mulling about, discourse with self and exploring the
experience, events, and actions using qualities of judgments and possible
alternatives for explaining and hypothesizing. Such reflection is analytical
or/and integrative of factors and perspectives and may recognize
inconsistencies in attempting to provide rationales and critique, for
example, “While I had planned to use mainly written text materials I
became aware very quickly that a number of students did not respond to
these. Thinking about this now there may have been several reasons for
this. A number of students, while reasonably proficient in English, even
though they have been NESB learners, may still have lacked some
confidence in handling the level of language in the text. Alternatively, a
number of students may have been visual and tactile learners. In any case
I found that I had to employ more concrete activities in my teaching.”

– Critical Reflection (Level Four)
-Demonstrates awareness that actions and events are not only located in,
and explicably by reference to multiple historical, and socio-political

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contexts. For example, “What must be recognized, however, is that the
issues of student management experienced with this class can only be
understood within the wider structural locations of power relationships
established between teachers and students in schools as social institution
based upon the principle of control” (Smith, 1992).

Stimulus Material
Reflection Task
The stimulus material for this study consisted of seven open-ended questions that
were developed as an iterative process in working with the team of four doctoral students
and one professor. The final versions of those questions were (see appendix A):
1. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that
meets the following criteria:
a. You were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
b. Your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
c. It occurred within the last thirty days
If there has been more than such experience during this period, please choose
the one that had the greatest impact on you. Please describe the experience in
detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved, (c) and
what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
2. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
3. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e. thoughts and feelings) to the
experience.
4. What internal factors (i.e. your personality, traits, and emotional reactions)
influenced your response to that experience?

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5. What external factors (i.e. setting, other people, time of the event, and so on)
influenced your response to that experience?
6. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about
this experience?
7. If faced with a similar experience in the future, do you think you would react
differently?
Procedures
Recruitment
Participants initially were recruited through email and verbal requests to
elementary school teachers who were colleagues. Also, fellow doctoral students were
asked to recruit others who met inclusion criteria, such as Los Angeles Unified
elementary school teachers. These participants were guided to a website and asked to
complete the survey online. Reminder emails were sent out to those who volunteered
about a week later.
Because the number of returns was inadequate, the same people again were
approached and asked to distribute the questionnaire to elementary school teachers in
additional southern California school districts. Again they were guided to go to a website
and asked to complete the survey online. Reminder emails were sent out about a week
later.
The web survey explained to participants that their participation was strictly
voluntary, explained the purpose of the survey, and informed participants of any dangers
or obligations in the case study. Participants then were asked to respond to (a) open-

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ended questions posed as part of the reflection task and (b) the items on the NCS and on
the two Big Five scales.
Sixty four people completed some portion of the questionnaire. However, only 34
provided usable responses to the reflective task. Of these, only 21 completed the
questions necessary to score the Need for Cognition Scale (NCS) and the two Big Five
Personality Inventory (BFPI) scales.
Data Analyses
Descriptive Theme Development
After the reflection task survey was closed, the author downloaded the responses
from the online service and generated a Microsoft Word file that contained all of the
events, and the Word file was photo copied in preparation for two of the four doctoral
student raters to review the theme development. Using the file, the two raters
independently read each event and generated a list of themes they found present. Theme
generations were limited to one theme per event.
To reduce bias, the two raters meet to review their independent themes list and
those themes that were common were placed on a master list. The two raters agreed upon
the master list containing five overarching themes which emerged from a total of 34
individual events.
Descriptive Evaluation of Participants’ Level of Reflection
Four doctoral students and one professor employed the Hatton and Smith (1995)
coding schema in reviewing the teacher reflection to assign a LIC score during two group
meeting sessions. Each rater independently read each teacher reflection event and

57

assigned a LIC score (One to Four). Then a discussion occurred among the raters to
agree upon a final integrative complexity score for each reflection.

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CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS
This chapter presents the study’s results. Each section begins with the research
question that was used to guide the study, and then presents the results. The first section
describes the themes present in the reflection task. The second section describes the
Level of Integrative Complexity (LIC) from each teacher’s reflection. The third section
describes the relationships between quality of reflection and the several personality traits.
The fourth section describes the content comparison between novice and expert
elementary school teachers.
Research Question One
What themes are reflected in the reflections of elementary school teachers?
The raters identified five themes in the 34 critical incidents/events that were
collected. Table 1 reports the number of reflections assigned to each.
Table 1
Number of Reflections Based on Themes

Themes
Student
Success
Teacher
Interactions
Student
Behavior
Professional
Development
Classroom
Instruction
Number of
Reflections

15

10

5

3

1

The first theme, Student Success, had the greatest number of events (n = 15). The
other events were reported to have occurred as follows: 10 concerned Teacher
Interaction; five events concerned Student Behavior; three events concerned Professional
Development; and one concerned Classroom Instruction.

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Theme Event Examples
The following examples each represents one of the five themes that emerged from
the teacher reflections:
Student Success. A student kept leaving at the end of the day without telling me
he was leaving. This same student's mother completed his homework for
him. Because of the reasons listed above, I had to speak with this child's
mother…I asked his mother why she completed her son's homework for
him. She had no reason only that she was trying to give him a head-start
[but he always would leave to play at their neighbor’s house]…She says
she has a belt that hangs and she threatens to use it [if he does not comply
with her orders]. I asked her if she had ever used the belt, and she told me
that she can't use it because her son will call the cops on her! At this
point, I became livid, and became EXTREMELY upset…I had
recommended her son for after school intervention because he is a
struggling student. I found out that she did not continue to send him
because she said her son didn’t want to go anymore and he got too tired…I
have come to the conclusion that this parent allows her son to control her.
Whatever he wants, he gets. This is part of the reason he struggles in
school: lack of discipline.

Teacher Interaction. It is not very often that I have experiences with kids or
parents that upset or confuse. Over the years I have learned how to deal
with people to limit problem situations. However, I have had an upsetting
situation with my instructional assistant within the past 30 days. It
appears that her lack of initiative is greatly affecting her work production.
She will often sit and do nothing, or go on the internet when there is work
to be done. She is not proactive, and will not ask me if she does not know
what to do. Instead, she will sit, or does her school work…I try to give
her tasks when she is just sitting, or if I need something done. But there
are many times when I am too busy to remind her for the 3rd or 4th time
that something needs to be done. It is very frustrating for me…Also, it
makes me very mad when she tells me she did something and it is not
done. I am usually a forward enough person that I would at least
indirectly deal with the issue, and directly address specific issues if I
thought it would be productive…I was trying to make the best of the
situation through the end of the school year…..that I will have to pick and
choose my battles. I think I am going to have to pick issues that directly
affect kids and our program and specifically address them with her. I think
I will over look some other issues because our time together will be over
in June. [In the future,] I will be clearer with job expectations from the

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beginning, and take the time to follow through regularly to make sure
things are being done.

Student Behavior. Trying to manage a negative situation between a boy and a girl
in my class that occurred on the playground, both have behavioral issues,
and have had negative interactions with other students already. I was
unsure how to handle both of them telling me the other was to blame,
deciphering truths from lies, and having the wisdom to deal appropriately
with them. My immediate reaction was to doubt the veracity of their
words, and to feel helpless because both have had histories of lying. I
think my next reaction was to pray to God for wisdom in this situation,
and to know I need His wisdom for all situations, especially ones like this.
I guess I had an automatic negative reaction because I already had a "bias"
against these students given their previous actions…My influence is
mostly from what I know to be true of human nature: we look out for
ourselves, and consider others below us. This is a problem because when
we act on this base tendency, selfishness is inevitable. I just wanted to
teach/remind them to treat others as they would want to be treated…It was
just after recess, and the class tends to get noisy even if my full attention is
theirs, but when it is diverted...noise level rises, work is not accomplished,
etc. Perhaps I ought to come up with a more solid plan of how and when
to deal with situations that arise during recess or lunch so that they do not
conflict with teaching time. I would probably follow the plan of having
them speak to me at the next available break (lunch, after school) or have
them leave a note for me in my class mailbox.

Professional Development. At the most recent staff meeting, we had yet another
session on yet another piece of technology that I don't think enhances the
learning experiences of my students. Frustration, helplessness,
hopelessness, silence I firmly believe that we must be sure that something
new is an improvement, and also look at the big picture of learning,
environmental impact, etc. Just because you can, doesn't mean you
should. I chose not to respond because I feel that I need to pick my
battles, and this one wasn't big enough to risk my credibility. No surprises.
Nope.

Classroom Instruction. I was scolded by my literacy coach that I was using non-
Open Court Reading program. She came in and saw me using one of the
store-bought posters to help students' learn and review long vowels'
spelling patterns. The main concern expressed by my literacy coach was it
was not Open Court Reading. Later she admitted that she immediately
assumed that I was using one of old reading program that our district had
spent many years trying to get rid of the materials. I was a bit upset at
what was the big deal with me using supplementary materials…If I were

61

to draw out pictures and write out the spelling patterns on poster paper, it
would be the same except the poster that I bought was premade and more
convenient. I felt a bit confused on what was the big deal…I was
receptive to listen to her concern and explanation. I am the person that
can be convinced based on good reasons and justification. Being new to
Open Court teaching, I wanted to know why my approach was considered
‘wrong’…Under Open Court Reading Program, teacher’s reflection on
improving students’ learning are not valued. You must do as the program
is designed. [In the future,] I will do the same and listen to valid
explanations. However, I will express my rationale and justify the
importance of providing different modalities to support my students'
learning.

Research Questions Two
Do more novice teachers focus on different types of content than more expert
teachers?
The raters in this study compared the five themes to either a novice (N= 8) or
expert (N= 26) elementary school teacher. The themes were coded as follows: two
novice teachers reflected on student success, whereas, 13 expert teachers reflected on
student success; two novice teacher reflected on teacher interaction, whereas, eight expert
teachers reflected on teacher interaction; two novice teacher reflected on student
behavior, whereas, three expert teachers reflected on student behavior; one novice teacher
reflected on professional development, whereas, two expert teacher reflected on
professional development; one novice teacher reflected on classroom instruction,
whereas, no expert teachers reflected on classroom instruction.
Expert teachers reflected most on student success and the least on classroom
instruction. The highest number of reflections by novice teachers was on student success,
teacher interaction, and student behavior. The lowest number of reflections by novice
teachers was on professional development and classroom instruction. Table 2 represents

62

the number of reflections assigned to each theme by either a novice or expert elementary
school teacher.
Table 2
Content Comparison between Novice and Expert Teachers.

Themes
Student
Success
Teacher
Interaction
Student
Behavior
Professional
Development
Classroom
Instruction

Total
Novice
Teacher
2
(25%)
2
(25%)
2
(25%)
1
(12.5%)
1
(12.5%)
8
(100%)
Expert
Teacher
13
(50%)
8
(30.8%)
3
(11.5%)
2
(7.7%)
0
(0%)
26
(100%)

Total:

15

10

5

3

1

34

Research Question Three
What levels of integrative complexity are evident in elementary school
teachers’ reflections?
The teacher reflections were coded as follows: 10 at level One, 14 level Two,
eight at level Three, and three at level Four (see Table 3). Appendix D presents all of the
reflections, ordered by LIC One - Four, with the first reflection in each category
representing a “best example” for that group.
Table 3
Reflections Described by Level of Integrative Complexity and Teacher Level of Expertise.

Level of Integrative Complexity
Level 1
N %
Level 2
N %
Level 3
N %
Level 4
N %
Total
N %
Novice
Teacher

2 25% 4 50% 1 12.5% 1 12.5% 8 100%
Expert
Teacher 8 30.8% 10 38.5% 6 23.1% 2 7.7% 26 100%
Total 10 14 7 3 34

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When the data were broken down by teacher expertise level and level of
integrative complexity score, it was coded as follows: 2 novice teachers at level One, 4
novice teachers at level Two, 1 novice teacher at level Three, 1 novice teacher at level
Four, 8 expert teacher at level One, ten expert teacher at level Two, 6 expert teacher at
level Three, and 2 expert teachers at level Four (see Table 3).
Research Question Four

To what extent do the variables of NCS and Big five predict the level of
integrative complexity in the reflections of elementary school teachers?
There were 21 surveys that included both the reflections and the completed scale
questions necessary to score the Need for Cognition Scale (NCS) and the two Big Five
Personality Inventory (BFPI) scales (Openness; Neuroticism). The LIC from the
participants’ reflections was compared to both the NCS and BFPI. Table 4 provides
descriptive statistics for Level of Integrative Complexity by each of the three Cognitive
Variables.

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Table 4
Descriptive Statistics for Level of Integrative Complexity by Cognitive Variable

Level of Integrative Complexity

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 TOTAL
(N= 4) (N= 5) (N= 5) (N= 1) (N= 15)
Cognitive
Variable M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
Neuroticism 19.00 2.00 20.80 2.28 22.40 1.82 24.00 . 21.07 2.40
Need for
Cognition 70.25 11.12 70.00 7.91 68.60 14.42 74.00 . 69.87 10.27

Level of Integrative Complexity

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 TOTAL
(N= 3) (N= 5) (N= 5) (N= 1) (N= 14)
Cognitive
Variable M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
Openness 13.33 .58 15.00 4.30 13.40 3.44 17.00 . 14.21 3.26

The possible NCS mean ranged between 0 and 80 points. The results indicated
that an integrative complexity level of “one” had a mean of 70.25 (SD= 11.12); those
with level two had a mean of 70 (SD= 7.91); those with a level three had a mean of 68.60
(SD= 14.42); and, those with a level four had a mean of 74. The Ns for each of the four
levels were 4, 5, 5, and 1, respectively. The bar graph representation (see Figure 4)
depicts these results graphically.

65

Figure 4. Level of Integrative Complexity Score and NCS Mean.

The possible BFPI Openness mean ranged between 0 and 20 points. The results
indicated that an integrative complexity level of “one” had an Openness mean of 13.33
(SD= .58); those with a level of “two” had an Openness mean of 15 (SD= 4.30); those
with a level of “three” had an Openness mean of 13.40 (SD= 3.44); and, those with a
level of “four” had an Openness mean of 17. The Ns for each of the four levels were 3, 5,
5, and 1, respectively. The bar graph representation (see Figure 5) illustrates these results
graphically.

Integrative Complexity
4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00
Mean Need for Cognition
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00

66

Figure 5. Level of Integrative Complexity Score and BFPI Openness Mean.

The possible BFPI Neuroticism mean ranged between 0 and 25 points. The
results indicated that an integrative complexity level of “one” had a Neuroticism mean of
19 (SD= 2); those with a level of “two” had a Neuroticism mean of 20.80 (SD= 2.28);
those with a level of “three” had a Neuroticism mean of 22.40 (SD= 1.82); and, those
with a level of “four” had a Neuroticism mean of 24. The Ns for each of the four levels
were 4, 5, 5, and 1, respectively. The bar graph representation (see Figure 6) illustrates
these results graphically.

Integrative Complexity
4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00
Mean Openness
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00

67

Figure 6. Level of Integrative Complexity Score and BFPI Neuroticism Mean.

Finally, the usefulness of these three cognitive variables in predicting integrative
complexity was examined using multiple regression (see Table 5) in which the
independent variables were entered step-wise. Only neuroticism predicted integrative
complexity (p < .01).

Integrative Complexity
4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00
Mean Neurotic
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00

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Table 5
Multiple Regression with Cognitive Style Variables as IVs; Integrative Complexity as DV.

Model Summary

Model R R Square
Adjusted R
Square
Std. Error of
the Estimate
1 .660
a
.436 .389 .71425

ANOVA
c

Model Sum of
Squares
df Mean
Square
F Sig.
1 Regression
Residual
Total
2.73
6.12
10.85
1
12
13
4.735
.510
9.282 .010
b

Coefficients
Model
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
T Sig B Std. Error Beta
1 (Constant)
Neurotic
-2.867 1.702
.244 .080 .660
-1.685
3.047
.118
.010

Excluded Variables
e

Model Beta In T Sig.
Partial
Correlation
Collinearity
Statistics
Tolerance
1 Openness
Need for Cognition
.223
d

-.274
d

1.014
-1.284
.332
.226
.292
-.361
.972
.980

a. Predictors: (Constant), Neurotic
b. Predictors: (Constant), Neurotic
c. Dependent Variable: Integrative Complexity
d. Predictors in the Model: (Constant), Neurotic
e. Dependent Variable: Integrative Complexity

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CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION
This study provides valuable insight about the type and quality of reflections
generated by elementary school teachers in response to critical incidents they had
encountered. This chapter is organized into three sections. The first presents the
conclusions to be drawn from this study and discusses the relationship between them and
existing literature. Second, limitations and delimitations are presented. Lastly,
recommendations for future research and implications for teacher educators/teacher
education practitioners (pre-service educators, in-service educators, and administrators)
are offered.
Conclusions
Based on the analyses and results presented in this study, four conclusions were
reached:
Conclusion One: The Type of Themes Evident in the Reflections
Five distinct themes were identified in the teacher reflections. These themes were
labeled: (1) student success, (2) teacher interaction, (3) student behavior, (4) professional
development, and (5) classroom instruction. It is interesting to see that almost half of the
teachers (15 of 34), reflected on some issue related to student success. This suggests that
for elementary school teachers bettering their students’ academic success is more salient
than teacher interaction, student behavior, professional development, and classroom
instruction. In the one other study that had examined themes in incidents teachers
reported, Goodell (2006) concluded, “the issues raised focused on four main areas:
teaching and classroom management; student factors such as pre-requisite knowledge,

70

understanding, resistance and motivation; issues concerning relationships with
colleagues, students and parents; and school organizational issues such as policies and
access to resources (p. 231-232).” The topics of critical reflection from elementary
school teachers seem to be similar.
Conclusion Two: The Effect of Teacher Expertise on the Content of their Reflections
Because so few beginning teachers responded to the study, it is difficult to draw
firm conclusions about the role experience plays in teachers’ reflections. In fact, the
types of issues teachers addressed seemed similar, regardless of their experience.
I had expected the beginning teachers to be similar to student teachers in their
focusing on applications of theories and practices learned previously through a pre-
service education programs. Graduates of a teacher education program might be highly
knowledgeable in the acquired subject matter and experiences learned from student-
teaching but experience complications once they are in their own real classroom. Clarke
(1995) observed, for example, that, “[teachers] did not reflect on broad educational issues
(e.g., school policies, curricula organization, etc.), but rather on problems within their
own immediate sphere of influence (e.g., pupil learning, ownership, etc.) (p. 259).”
Reflection, then, would be a useful tool to address these complications. Ferraro
(2000) stated, “The use of reflection encouraged student teachers to challenge existing
theories and their own preconceived views of teaching while modeling for them a
collaborative style of professional development that would be useful throughout their
teaching careers (p. 2).”

71

Interestingly, though, expert teachers seemed to have a similar focus, so that
virtually half (13 of 27) of their reflections concerned helping students be successful.
Perhaps these issues are enduring, regardless of teachers’ experience.
It was interesting, though, that nearly a third (8 of 26) of the experienced teachers
reflected on teacher interaction. One might assume that working with the same teachers
year after year, the type and quality of interaction with those colleagues would assume
particular importance.
Garmston (2001) emphasized that, “While experience in the classroom is an
important factor, it is reflection, not experience alone that is found to be our teacher (p.
72).” In this study, those reflections tended to concern the same issue – student success
– regardless of experience level.
Conclusion Three: Characteristic Levels of Reflection Quality
The modal LIC score for the entire group, two (of a possible 4), is relatively low.
Moreover, fewer than one in 10 (8.8%) provided a reflection that was scored at Four.
Given the amount of training and education among pre-service teachers, it seems logical
to conclude that many elementary school teachers would possess a fair amount of self-
regulation skills. Yet the teachers in this study did not demonstrate them.
It is possible that motivation was a factor. That is, these teachers were asked to
complete something as a favor to a colleague (rather than attempting to address some
vexing problems in their lives) and so the task did not have ecological validity. Perhaps
as a result, the participants did not truly seem involved in this critical reflection task.

72

Another possible explanation is that participants were doing their best, but simply
were incapable of generating quality responses. But, is not possible to know though,
from this design whether the issue was motivation versus reflection.
Interestingly there was a confound between reflection length and the LIC score
assigned to the reflection. In general, the length of the reflection (which affected the
amount of detail and so on) correlated very highly with level of integrative complexity.
Therefore the fewer words – an indicator of motivation – the lower the LIC score.
Conclusion Four: Cognitive Style as a Moderator
Although the very small Ns preclude clear conclusions, it is possible to conclude
tentatively that cognitive style was useful as a predictor of reflection quality. In general,
the respondents’ LIC score corresponded to their levels of openness, neuroticism, and
need for cognition. The relationship between neuroticism and LIC was particularly
interesting. Apparently, the more intense emotional responses associated with
neuroticism elicited higher quality reflections. To put in another way, worrying may
have some good among professionals as it elicits deeper reflective practice.
Again, the caveat of having some very small cell sizes (occasionally only one or
two people) indicates caution in interpreting the result. Furthermore, BFPI and NCS, as a
measure of cognitive style, may change as a natural part of growth in teaching and
personality changes.
Summary
The purpose of this article was to examine the concept of reflection as a strategy
for development of a teachers’ professional perception and the approach to challenging

73

situations. Ferraro (2000) stated, “By gaining a better understanding of their own
individual teaching styles through reflective practice, teachers can improve their
effectiveness in the classroom (p. 4).” I hope that this study will encourage dialogue
about new ways and improvements on a teacher’s perspective and practice of reflection.
Through reflection, teachers can identify gaps between theory and their practices,
contrast their practices with those of others in the school, and become aware of
discrepancies between their immediate interpretations about what transpires in their
classrooms and their retrospective analyses (Wesley & Buysee, 2001; p. 115-116).
Limitations
There are a few methodological limitations that must be considered when
discussing the findings in this study. First, the representativeness of participants must be
considered. This study was limited those who agreed to participate voluntarily; therefore,
selection bias may have affected the results in some way. As well, all participants lived
in Southern California and so may have had unique experiences that would affect the type
and quality of their reflection.
Participants’ motivation also needs to be considered when discussing the findings.
Perhaps the largest threat to external validity was that a participants’ motivation to
complete the reflection survey was a desire to assist the author in completing this study
rather than to engage in the hard work of critical reflection.
Third, survey limitations that specifically relate to the use of the internet for data
collection are important because this study used an online survey. A non-response error
on the online survey may be an issue. This occurs when not all participants included in

74

the sample are willing or able to complete this survey in its entirety. This error is a
function of the differences between those who respond to the survey and those who do
not. Several studies have shown that email surveys failed to achieve the response rate
levels of mail surveys (Couper, 2000).
Recommendations for Future Research
The finding and conclusions have lead to the following recommendations for
future research. First, it may be better to have an in-person or face-to-face interview to
obtain data of this type, rather than to rely on an online survey. As a related matter, it
would be ideal to have a face-to-face recruitment method rather than an email or verbal
communication.
Additionally, this study had relatively few participants. Because the number of
participants was low, results of this study need to be carefully interpreted. Therefore,
future research should recruit more teachers and expand the study beyond Southern
California.
Last, to getter a better sense of reflection and to promote team learning through
reflection, it would be useful for future studies to examine and observe reflection through
team reflection via dialogue. Senge (1990) stated that in order to create team learning,
there must be a “balance between discussions, where different viewpoints are presented
and defended to support a decision, and dialogue, where people suspend their views to
enter into deep listening as a means of exploring the mental models of others” (Wesley &
Buysee, 2001; p. 117). This helps both the reflector and listener to hear each other’s

75

thoughts and creates a discussion and dialogue as a way to encourage reflection and
inquiry about a critical incident.
Another area for future research would be to explore critical reflections
longitudinally as a means to understand in-service training throughout a teacher’s career.
Besides continuously focusing on what reflection is and how to define the meaning,
future research should focus continuously on how reflective thoughts affect a person’s
thoughts, actions, abilities, and on future decisions.
We still do not know enough about reflection and how it can enhance learning to
be able to assess it properly. As I asserted in Chapter One, much of what we know is still
speculative and theoretical. Therefore, a really ambitious study would be to attempt to
link type and quality of reflections to teacher outcomes.
Implications for Teacher Education Practitioners
Skillful reflectors become critical thinkers, and in turn, effective professional
decision makers. But, the skill of reflection is not instinctive; it is a skill which must be
learned and perfected with practice. Critical thinking must be taught from the beginning
of the teacher education program and throughout a teacher’s career.
Reflection needs to be emphasized throughout the several stages of a teacher’s
career. Teacher education faculty has the opportunity to ensure that happens. In this
case, students’ improvements and understanding the importance of reflection must be
practiced.
But proper steps and procedure need to be taught for that training to be effective.
For example, teacher education faculty could provide students with the steps on how to

76

reflect (i.e., describe possible immediate reactions, what possible steps could be taken,
what outcomes might occur, etc.), give a sample scenario that would normally occur in a
classroom setting and ask students to reflect on the scenario. Afterwards, students can
have a group discussion on their reflection. Another example is to have students reflect
on their actual student teaching experience and reflect on one event that they felt in some
way left them confused, upset, uncomfortable, or wondering. Although some universities
already provide students to reflect, further practice of broaden the reflective practice and
deepening critical thinking needs to be administered.
In addition, faculty must act as role models with respect to reflection. One
example is to have pre-service teachers to be involved in teacher reflection practice prior
to the actual teaching. The faculty can model reflective practice aloud and have student
teachers practice after. Another strategy would be to have the novice teacher respond to
scenarios, thinking aloud to themselves while playfully responding to children and
observe how to manage a classroom.
Reflective practice and critical thinking must be present throughout the pre-
service teacher programs. But, they must not stop there. Reflective practice and critical
thinking continues throughout the in-service teacher programs. Many in-service
programs, such as BTSA, ask teachers to constantly reflect on their assignments and
teaching skills and abilities. This can also help a teacher to learn and practice over time
so that a teacher can become reflective on their own. However, if proper reflective skills
were not taught through a pre-service teacher education program, in-service teacher

77

education programs must show proper steps and procedures, as well as providing role
models to help teachers reflect.
Administrators at schools must help and encourage teachers to practice reflective
thinking and pose questions that help teachers to think critically. For example, time and
opportunities should be given to teachers to reflect, either individually or in group setting,
during professional development meetings. Teachers and administrators alike must
encourage and motivate reflective practice and critical thinking.
Most importantly, reflection can be taught and mandated during a teacher
education program, practiced throughout the in-service teacher program, and utilized by
school administrators as a tool to better oneself; nevertheless, it is truly up to the
teacher’s own will to continue reflective practice in their professional setting.

78

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Mewborn, D. S. (May, 1999). Reflective Thinking among Preservice Elementary
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Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. San Francisco:
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Mezirow, J. (1994). Understanding Transformation Theory. Adult Education Quarterly,
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Yinger, R. J. (1988). The Intelligence of Practice. In H. Waxman, H. J. Freiberg, J. C.
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APPENDIX A: INFORMATION SHEET
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education

INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

Critical Reflection among Elementary School Teachers: An Examination
of Content, Cognitive Style, and Integrative Complexity

You are asked to participate in a research study conducted by Jo-Ann Yun, Ed.D. student,
and Rodney Goodyear, Ph.D., from the Rossier School of Education at the University of
Southern California. The results from this study will be contributed to a dissertation. You
were selected as a possible participant in this study because you are currently an
elementary school teacher. A total of 40 subjects will be selected from among numerous
elementary school teachers within Southern California to participate. Your participation
is voluntary.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
We are asking you to take part in a research study because we are trying to learn more
about reflection and how it relates to elementary school teacher development. We are
trying to address what reflective practice looks like among elementary school teachers.
This study will analyze the content of written reflections. The specific focus will be on
teacher differences – e.g., novice vs. expert.
Completion of the web based survey will constitute consent to participate in this research
project.
PROCEDURES
You would be asked to participate in a study that will require approximately 20-30
minutes of your time. You will be provided a link to a web based survey that asks you
demographic information, including age, ethnicity, level of education, and years of
teaching experience.

You will be asked to identify and write about one teacher related situation that has
occurred during the past 30 days, in which your own behavior or reactions directly
affected the event that resulted in your feeling confused, upset, or left you wondering.
You will be asked to describe in detail, the event including a) what you were doing, b)
who else was involved, and c) what about this experience left you confused, upset, or
wondering.

85

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks to your participation; however, you may experience some
discomfort at completing the survey or you may be inconvenienced from taking time out
of your day to complete the survey.

Date of Preparation: [September 1, 2007] – Info Sheet
USC UPIRB # UP_07-00276

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
You may not directly benefit from your participation in this research study.
We hope the results will help us better understand the manner in which teachers’ solve
professional problems they encounter in their work. Those results might then inform
professional education programs.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not receive any payment for your participation in this research study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no information obtained in connection with this study and that can be
identified with you. Your name, address or other information that may identify you will
not be collected during this research study.

Only members of the research team will have access to the data associated with this
study. The data will be stored in the investigator’s office in a locked file
cabinet/password protected computer. The data will be stored for three years after the
study has been completed and then destroyed.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, there will be
no information that will be included that may reveal your identity since no identifiers are
being collected from you.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this study,
you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may also refuse
to answer any questions you don’t want to answer and still remain in the study. The
investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise which warrant
doing so.

ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate.

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without
penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your

86

participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your rights as a
research subject, contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for
Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213)
821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact the
principal investigator, Jo-Ann Yun, via email at JoAnnYun@usc.edu. Or, you may
contact the faculty sponsor, Dr. Rodney Goodyear, via email at Goodyea@usc.edu.

Date of Preparation: [September 1, 2007] – Info Sheet
USC UPIRB # UP_07-00276

87

APPENDIX B: EMAIL SOLICITATION LETTER
Date: January 18, 2008

From: Jo-Ann Yun

Subject: Reflective Practice

Dear Experienced Educator:

You are being invited to participate in a research study related to the use of reflective
practice by elementary school teachers. The purpose of my study is to understand
elementary school teacher’s reflective practices. I am requesting that you participate in
this study because of your training and experience as an educator. Your participation is
voluntary. If you agree to participate, you will be asked to complete a brief web-based
survey that takes approximately 20-30 minutes to complete. Your identity will be kept
anonymous and none of the information gathered through the survey will be shared with
anyone. If you would like any additional information about this study please email me at
joannyun@usc.edu. The attached information sheet provides a more detailed description
of the study.

If you agree to participate, please access the web survey at the following WEBLINK:

http://www.surveymonkey.com/s.aspx?sm=3cb3Fdlrf6UJQm7BOB4nkg_3d_3d

Please pass this email to anyone you know who is currently an elementary school teacher
within Southern California. I would greatly appreciate it.
The web survey needs to be completed by February 5, 2007.

Thank you in advance for your participation.

Sincerely,

Jo-Ann Yun, Ed.D. student

APPENDIX C: CRITICAL REFLECTION SURVEY
Critical Reflection Study
1. Introduction to the study
Critical reflection is an important skill.
professionals to keep developing long after they have completed their graduate programs.
In fact, a number of professions (e.g., teaching, nursing, and social work) stipulate that
students preparing for those professions learn reflection skills.

Many authors have described the reflection process. Although there are some differences
among them, they all agree that reflection begins with an incident that somehow is
confusing or upsetting. This stimulates cr
understanding of the incident.

Despite this convergence of opinion about the importance of the process, there has been
curiously little actual research on it or its outcomes.

The first step in any domain of research
spirit, we are interested in your reflective process.

If you are willing to participate in this study, please complete the questions that follow.
Your responses will help us to learn more about this ubiqu
practice.
1. Your age

2. Your gender
Female
Male

3. Your race or ethnicity
Asian-American
Pacific Islander
African-American
Native-American
Hispanic
White, nonHispanic
Other
Mixed
APPENDIX C: CRITICAL REFLECTION SURVEY
Critical Reflection Study
1. Introduction to the study
Critical reflection is an important skill. It is a mechanism of self-supervision that enables
professionals to keep developing long after they have completed their graduate programs.
In fact, a number of professions (e.g., teaching, nursing, and social work) stipulate that
hose professions learn reflection skills.
Many authors have described the reflection process. Although there are some differences
among them, they all agree that reflection begins with an incident that somehow is
confusing or upsetting. This stimulates critical reflection that ends with a new
understanding of the incident.
Despite this convergence of opinion about the importance of the process, there has been
curiously little actual research on it or its outcomes.
The first step in any domain of research is to examine the phenomena of interest. In that
spirit, we are interested in your reflective process.
If you are willing to participate in this study, please complete the questions that follow.
Your responses will help us to learn more about this ubiquitous – but little

3. Your race or ethnicity

88

supervision that enables
professionals to keep developing long after they have completed their graduate programs.
In fact, a number of professions (e.g., teaching, nursing, and social work) stipulate that
Many authors have described the reflection process. Although there are some differences
among them, they all agree that reflection begins with an incident that somehow is
itical reflection that ends with a new
Despite this convergence of opinion about the importance of the process, there has been
is to examine the phenomena of interest. In that
If you are willing to participate in this study, please complete the questions that follow.
but little-understood –

4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher

5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?

6. Year you obtained your teacher credential

7. Name of school at which you currently are working

8. Your highest degree
BA/BS
Masters
Doctorate

9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
No

years as a full time classroom teacher

5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?

6. Year you obtained your teacher credential

7. Name of school at which you currently are working

9. Is English your primary language?

89

90

Critical Reflection Study
2. Reflective Practice
*1. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that
meets the following criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose
the one that had the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who
else was involved, (c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or
wondering.

*2. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?

*3. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the
experience.

*4. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions)
influenced your response to that experience?

91

*5. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on)
influenced your response to that experience?

*6. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about
this experience?

*7. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you
react differently?

Critical Reflection Study
3. NCS Scale
Each of us has a characteristic way of thinking about problems we encounter. The
following items are designed to assess your particular style.
For each item, please check the single answer that best describes you.
1. I would prefer complex to simple probl
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

2. I like to have the responsibility of handling a situation that requires a lot of
thinking.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

3. Thinking is not my idea of fun.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

Critical Reflection Study
Each of us has a characteristic way of thinking about problems we encounter. The
following items are designed to assess your particular style.
For each item, please check the single answer that best describes you.
1. I would prefer complex to simple problems.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you
2. I like to have the responsibility of handling a situation that requires a lot of
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you
3. Thinking is not my idea of fun.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you

92

Each of us has a characteristic way of thinking about problems we encounter. The
2. I like to have the responsibility of handling a situation that requires a lot of
4. I would rather do something that requires little thought than something that is
sure to challenge my thinking abilities.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

5. I try to anticipate and avoid situations where there is a likely chance I will have to
think in depth about something.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

6. I find satisfaction in deliberating hard and for long hours.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteris
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

7. I only think as hard as I have to.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

4. I would rather do something that requires little thought than something that is
sure to challenge my thinking abilities.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you
5. I try to anticipate and avoid situations where there is a likely chance I will have to
think in depth about something.
cteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you
6. I find satisfaction in deliberating hard and for long hours.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you
7. I only think as hard as I have to.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you

93

4. I would rather do something that requires little thought than something that is
5. I try to anticipate and avoid situations where there is a likely chance I will have to
8. I prefer to think about small, daily projects than long
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic

9. I like tasks that require little thought once I’ve learned them.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

10. The idea of relying on thought to make my way to the top appeals to me.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

11. I really enjoy a task that involves coming up with new solutions to problems.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

8. I prefer to think about small, daily projects than long-term ones.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you
9. I like tasks that require little thought once I’ve learned them.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you
10. The idea of relying on thought to make my way to the top appeals to me.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you
11. I really enjoy a task that involves coming up with new solutions to problems.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you

94

10. The idea of relying on thought to make my way to the top appeals to me.
11. I really enjoy a task that involves coming up with new solutions to problems.
12. Learning new ways to think doesn’t excite me very much.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

13. I prefer my life to be filled with puzzles that I must solve.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

14. The notion of thinking abstractly
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

15. I would prefer a task that is intellectual, difficult, and important to one that is
somewhat important but does not require much thought.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

12. Learning new ways to think doesn’t excite me very much.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you
13. I prefer my life to be filled with puzzles that I must solve.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you
14. The notion of thinking abstractly is appealing to me.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you
15. I would prefer a task that is intellectual, difficult, and important to one that is
somewhat important but does not require much thought.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you

95

15. I would prefer a task that is intellectual, difficult, and important to one that is
16. I feel relief rather than satisfaction after completing a task that required a lot of
mental effort.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristi
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

17. It’s enough for me that something gets the job done; I don’t care how or why it
works.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

18. I usually end up deliberating about issues even when they do not affect me
personally.
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
Uncertain
Somewhat uncharacteristic of you
Extremely uncharacteristic of you

19. I see myself as someone who is depressed, blue
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

16. I feel relief rather than satisfaction after completing a task that required a lot of
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you
17. It’s enough for me that something gets the job done; I don’t care how or why it
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you
18. I usually end up deliberating about issues even when they do not affect me
Extremely characteristic of you
Somewhat characteristic of you
characteristic of you
characteristic of you
19. I see myself as someone who is depressed, blue.
Neither agree nor disagree

96

16. I feel relief rather than satisfaction after completing a task that required a lot of
17. It’s enough for me that something gets the job done; I don’t care how or why it
18. I usually end up deliberating about issues even when they do not affect me
20. I see myself as someone who is or
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

21. I see myself as someone who is relaxed, handles stress well
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

22. I see myself as someone who is curious about many different things
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

23. I see myself as someone who can be tense
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

24. I see myself as someone who is ingenious, a deep thinker
Diagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly
20. I see myself as someone who is original, comes up with new ideas.
Neither agree nor disagree
21. I see myself as someone who is relaxed, handles stress well.
Neither agree nor disagree
22. I see myself as someone who is curious about many different things
Neither agree nor disagree
23. I see myself as someone who can be tense.
Neither agree nor disagree
24. I see myself as someone who is ingenious, a deep thinker.
Neither agree nor disagree

97

iginal, comes up with new ideas.
22. I see myself as someone who is curious about many different things.
25. I see myself as someone who worries a lot
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

26. I see myself as someone who has an active imagination
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

27. I see myself as someone who is emotionally stable; not easily upset
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

28. I see myself as someone who is inventive
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

29. I see myself as someone who can be moody
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly
25. I see myself as someone who worries a lot.
Neither agree nor disagree
26. I see myself as someone who has an active imagination.
Neither agree nor disagree
27. I see myself as someone who is emotionally stable; not easily upset
Neither agree nor disagree
myself as someone who is inventive.
Neither agree nor disagree
29. I see myself as someone who can be moody.
Neither agree nor disagree

98

27. I see myself as someone who is emotionally stable; not easily upset.
30. I see myself as someone who values artistic, aesthetic experiences
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

31. I see myself as someone who remains calm
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

32. I see myself as someone who prefers work that is routine
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagre
agree a little
Agree strongly

33. I see myself as someone who gets nervous easily
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

34. I see myself as someone who likes to reflect, play with
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly
30. I see myself as someone who values artistic, aesthetic experiences.
Neither agree nor disagree
31. I see myself as someone who remains calm in tense situations.
Neither agree nor disagree
32. I see myself as someone who prefers work that is routine.
Neither agree nor disagree
33. I see myself as someone who gets nervous easily.
Neither agree nor disagree
34. I see myself as someone who likes to reflect, play with ideas.
Neither agree nor disagree

99

.
35. I see myself as someone who has few artistic interests
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

36. I see myself as someone who is sophisticated in art, music, or literature
Disagree strongly
Disagree a little
Neither agree nor disagree
agree a little
Agree strongly

35. I see myself as someone who has few artistic interests.
Neither agree nor disagree
36. I see myself as someone who is sophisticated in art, music, or literature
Neither agree nor disagree

100

36. I see myself as someone who is sophisticated in art, music, or literature
Critical Reflection Study
4. Final page
1. On a 7-point scale, where 1 =
upsetting or confusing, how would you rate this experience that you have written
about?
1 (not at all upsetting or confusing)
2
3
4
5
6
7 (very upsetting or confusing)

2. On a 7-point scale, where 1 =
been thinking about this experience since it occurred?
1 (not at all)
2
3
4
5
6
7 (constantly)

3. On a 7-point scale, where 1 =
reflection you have just completed match the quality of reflections in which you
engage in your everyday professional practice?
1 (not at all)
2
3
4
5
6
7 (completely)

Critical Reflection Study
point scale, where 1 = not at all upsetting or confusing and 7 =
, how would you rate this experience that you have written
1 (not at all upsetting or confusing)
upsetting or confusing)
point scale, where 1 = not at all and 7 = constantly, how much have you
been thinking about this experience since it occurred?
point scale, where 1 = not at all and 7 = completely how well does the
reflection you have just completed match the quality of reflections in which you
engage in your everyday professional practice?

101

and 7 = very
, how would you rate this experience that you have written
, how much have you
how well does the
reflection you have just completed match the quality of reflections in which you
4. Have you received formal
practice?
No
Yes
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey. We appreciate your input.
If you would like the survey results, please
arrive independent of this survey, so the two will not be linked.

4. Have you received formal training in the use of reflection in your professional
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey. We appreciate your input.
If you would like the survey results, please click here to send request. Your email will
arrive independent of this survey, so the two will not be linked.

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training in the use of reflection in your professional
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey. We appreciate your input.
. Your email will

103

APPENDIX D: CRITICAL REFLECTION SURVEY RESPONSES
(ORGANIZED BY LEVEL OF INTEGRATIVE COMPLEXITY SCORE)

104

CRITICAL REFLECTION SURVEY RESPONSES
LEVEL OF INTEGRATIVE COMPLEXITY SCORE: 1

105

1. Your age
61
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
African-American
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
30
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
University of California Los Angeles
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
1970
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
I was involved with a 2nd grade student who had to be referred to the Police Department, Social Services,
and Psychiatric Counseling for evaluation. I left me wondering what will become of him.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
Yesterday
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
It made me feel helpless.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
Being a mother and a grandmother.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
Administrative responsibilities.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
I made the best decision for this child.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
No.

106

1. Your age
30
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Asian-American
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
2
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
uc irvine
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
2005
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
BA/BS
9. Is English your primary language?
No
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
I started teaching my first graders the writing process. On day 1, we learned the prewriting stage where we
brainstormed and wrote some facts on hermit crab onto a thinking map. On day 2, we learned second stage
of drafting. I was teaching my students to transfer our information on the thinking map from the prewriting
stage onto the drafting paper. On purpose I wrote down the information with some mistakes and incorrect
punctuations. My students noticed all the mistakes and insisted that I corrected them. They suggested to
circle the mistakes like how we had edited during our dictation. I played it off by telling them I made the
mistakes, but it was ok. In the drafting stage, it was ok to make mistakes as long as we had all our ideas on
paper and in sentences. At the end of the lesson, I checked many of my students' work and found that most
had self-corrected their work . As I reflected on my students' level and our writing lesson, I wondered what
should I do for tomorrow's lesson on revising when students were cognitively at the revising stage. I also
doubted whether I did the right thing to tell my students to wait until tomorrow to look at and proofread our
mistakes.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
5
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
Wow! They are good. I was impressed at how high their level of thinking and proofreading skills. I was
also surprised to find that those students corrected the mistakes in their own writing.

107

13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
My emotional reaction of joy and praise that they recognize my mistakes probably encouraged my students
to pay attention to my model writing and mistakes.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
The classroom environment played a big part in helping students stay focused on the lesson. About an hour
before we did writing, students had practice proofreading skills from our dication and spelling lesson. The
initial mistakes were probably noticed by only a few students. Other students probably began to notice the
mistakes afterward.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
No Response
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
I will definitely be more prepared when I implemented the lesson and objective.

108

1. Your age
29
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Asian-American
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
5
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
UCLA
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
2002
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
Creating a project and running with it, but not knowing how to get there. I realized that it is in the creating
that I should be involved with and not worrying about the how it will happen. This relaxed me and made
me able to concentrate on the task at hand and do the best with what I had instead of worrrying about all the
details. I like ideas so soak and be inspired at the moment and not force it.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
1 week ago
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
allowing and understanding that anything worth something takes time, thought, care and patience
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
Over time I have learned and realize there is only this moment and that it is in this moment enjoying the
journey do we see every step as an adventure
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
Relationships with people, self seeking knowledge through books, experiences and interactions with others

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15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
That life is what it is and there needs to be no external factors that play into we are working on or goal
setting. We must allow it to be and envision our dream and allow it to come and work towards it when it is
time. To have faith in what we do and know that we are doing the best we can when it comes to something
that matters to us and what we love.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
learn from it and go with it

110

1. Your age
44
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
White, nonHispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
22
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
Cal State LA
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
1987
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
BA/BS
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
Mainstreaming special education students into my room. The students' primary teacher quite upset with the
status of these students.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
7 days
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
Listening, trying to be the calming influence. Accepting the situation and thinking/planning my next
lessons.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
A tiny idea that something was in the works to mainstream, but nothing definite.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
End of the day - I was quite tired. I also find the easiest way to defuse a situation is sometimes to back off
and listen (students and adults)
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
Because I had a suspicion as to changes, I was able to think about possible scenarios in the classroom. My
thinking led me not to overreact.

111

16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
I will probably react the same way the next time (and there will probably be a next time).

112

1. Your age
54
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
White, nonHispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
23
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
CSUN
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
1976
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Doctorate
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
I applied for a position within the school. I was one of 8 people who interviewed. The committee of five
voted on their top three choices after all of the interviews were completed, and my name appeared as
number 1 on each ballot. The Superintendent chose someone that the committee didn't recommend. I felt
very angry and confused that I was not chosen when I was clearly more qualified.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
3 weeks ago
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
I was shocked and angry.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
I am very open with my emotions, so I cried after I heard the news.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
The principal openly cried and expressed similar disappointment.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
That the Superintendent is an idiot.

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16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
I would speak up to the Superintendent rather than just take it.

114

1. Your age
37
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Hispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
10
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
CSULA
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
1998
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
BA/BS
9. Is English your primary language?
No
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
There was a special education issue about student accommodations and general education teachers disagree
with some of what I recommended they do.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
2 days ago
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
I couldn't believe that a SDC teacher felt the need to not accommodate the student
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
I was initially upset and wanted to insists.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
I had to ask our cordinator for help
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
We are going to discuss what and how we can help the student acheive without the teacher being a major
factor
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
approach is the key....I think I would present my case differently.

115

1. Your age
52
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Hispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
29
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
CSULA
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
1982
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
BA/BS
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
I think it is very important to meet with parents and discuss the progress being made at school, I scheduled
conferences to accomodate working parents. My concern was that on Tuesday we had a Professional
Development, I felt that this time could have been given to the teachers so that we would could meet with
parents. We all stay late, and use much of our own personal time to prepare for conferences etc.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
3 days
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
My feeling is that we have to always work beyond our work hours to prepare for confernces, this Tuesday
would have been a good day to "catch" that parent that we really need to meet with.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
From experience I know that parents appreciate when we take time to see them, but because we are trying
to schedule everyone, it makes it difficult to take extra time with each parent. If working parents have to
take time off of work to attend the conferences, then we should be given the extra time to be prepared for
conferences.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
Our busy work schedule and confernces plus getting ready for the Winter program not enough time to

116

15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
Nothing has changed. We have to many deadlines to meet, not enough time, and everything we do is
always during our own personal time
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
I always tell the parents that I will meet with them anytime, not just on confernce night, I think that when
parents meet with the teachers, the confernce is more productive if the parent and teacher are relaxed and
not rushing through to meet with another parent. We need more time during our work hours to meet with
parents.

117

1. Your age
29
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Hispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
7
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
CSUN
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
2001
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
BA/BS
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
New student that was emotionally disturbed
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
7
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
Confused- didn't know how to treat student while maintaining whole class engaged.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
my patience
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
my other 19 students
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
I am submitting an SST (student success team) for further help
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
Don't know

118

1. Your age
32
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Mixed
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
7
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
csun
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
2005
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
i was talking on the air phone with another teacher. i felt upset that i may have said something that wasn't
totally positive about a practice done at school
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
3
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
shame
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
i always try to remain positive and kind to everyone and their beliefs
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
no one was there to listen it was a private 1 to 1 conversation
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
to always stick to my convictions of speaking no ill about anyone or their practices
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
i would reword it in a more appropriate way

119

1. Your age
37
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
African-American
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
3
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
USC
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
2005
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
BA/BS
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
A co-worker went into my classroom and took my usb drive, opened up a personal file and shared it with
others
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
25 days ago
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
I was hurt, upset, pissed!
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
I did nothing. Doing something would have just caused more problems, embarassment to myself.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
The principal judgement of the situation.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
It's time for me to move on to a school.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
I don't know.

120

CRITICAL REFLECTION SURVEY RESPONSES

LEVEL OF INTEGRATIVE COMPLEXITY SCORE: 2

121

1. Your age
63
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
African-American
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
13
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
Cal-State Dominguez Hills
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
2001
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
BA/BS
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
I was asked by my new principal to take on a position that I wouldn't have normally excepted. It was
dealing with Math and she stated that she heard I was good at the subject and wanted me to do it for the
school. I reluctantly accepted. I was later upset with myself for taking on a job I didn't want.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
25
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
Once she left my room, I couln't believe I had taken on this responsiblity. I was mad at myself.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
Since my personality is one of assurance, I knew I could do the job. That wasn't the point.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
The external factor was the principal asking me in the first place.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
I feel that in the future I will ask to be given a little time to think it over, before I make a decision.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
A similar experience came up last week, this time I just politely said NO, not now.

122

1. Your age
43
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
White, nonHispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
0
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
N/A
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
N/A
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
In a meeting regarding a work issue one of the members of our team was insisting on bringing a point of
view about a subject. Although he had gone over his opinion two or three times he continued to try and
make us understand what he was saying. I stopped him abruptly and told him that I understood what he was
saying but I disagreed with his point of view and it created an uncomfortable lull in the meeting and flow of
information.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
1
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
At first I was confused by his point of view because he has a thick accent and speaks in big circles. After I
began to understand what he was trying to say I became irritated that he was spending so much of our time
going over and over the situation. I finally lost patience with him and that's when I told him I disagreed,
which made him stop talking on the subject.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
My want to understand, my need to allow everyone to have a voice and to be heard and my impatience at
wasting everyone's time.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
We were in a meeting with four other people, we had scheduled the meeting to last two hours, and we are
all very busy with other tasks. It was also lunch time and everyone was getting hungry.

123

15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
No Response
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
Perhaps not be so short in my response but explain why I disagreed. I did this as did others but he didn't
want to hear our opinions and part of his going on was to convince us he was right. I might have asked him
what action he wanted us to take and redirected him.

124

1. Your age
31
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Hispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
8
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
California State Univesity, Los Angeles
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
2002
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
No Response
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
No
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
I guess it would have to be the way I respond to several students' behavior. Sometimes, I forget to state the
behavior and how that has affected the classroom instruction and instead react and threaten with taking
away recess. I forget to be proactive all the time.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
Yesterday was the latest incident
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
One of my students threw a spitball across the room and then tossed a sticky hand up in the air which got
stuck in the ceiling. I was so angry that my first reaction was to take away his priviledge to attend the
pajama party. I was outraged, angry, rattled, and wanted to punish him.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
My desire to make him see that instructional time is precious for me. I wanted to hurt him by taking away
fun activities.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
The constant pressure to make these kids perform on the state exams!
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
No Response

125

16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
I think I would make him take the sticky hand down and then speak to him privately at a later time.

126

1. Your age
50s
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Asian-American
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
14
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
csula
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
1993
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
Slightly upset & wondering when parent(mom) called to talk about son not wanting to go to school. I don't
like to have unpleasant things happen & don't know how well I will be able to resolve or address the
problem. Rcd msg in box & picked up after school. Son was being picked on by another boy in our class,
especially at recess. Also, bothered by him on (sitting together on) rug. No one answered phone, but left
msg. Saw mom in hallway next day & she said she got my msg & was reassured. I said I would try to keep
apart as much as possible; talked to both boys (separately with me); told her son to remind me if I forget.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
about 2 weels agp
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
My reaction was an "uh-oh, I wonder what's wrong." I approached the problem w/ apprehension,
wondering how the parent would react.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
From previous experiences, I approach the parents cautiously, try not to be defensive, remind myself to try
to listen & then try to deal with the problems that may be present. I tend to be a peacemaker & do not enjoy
discord. So, I will try to calm others & try to be open to when interacting with others.

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14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
During school, I tried to crave out a little bit of time as the students came in from recess (& settling down
w/ a warning) to quickly talk to both boys (separately). By doing 1 to 1, both of us had each other's
undivided attention & went quickly. After school and trying to do just before I left school grounds, I left a
quick, but detailed message on what I had done & would do.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
So far, all partied seem to be ok. No complaints from mom or son. I have to watch out for the other boy
since he is more active & has less self control than most students.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
No, the solution may vary slightly due to different occurences, the type of personalities involved, etc.

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1. Your age
31
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Hispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
1 year
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
University of La Verne
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
2006
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
The recent experience that I had was one of being in a class of 11 1st graders and 6 2nd graders. I was
confused at the job that needed to be done it was a little nerve wracking because I did not have any supplies
to teach my students and every free time I had was spent in the copy room photocopying work for the
students. I felt I was left alone with no support. So I was Confused in how I was going to teach both grades,
because they weren't going to other classes to be taught while I stood with the other group! and it was
upsetting that I didn't get support from the Principal and other faculty members that I needed having
questions answered.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
about 30 days ago
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
I did think that IT was a good experience for me to go through because I know in the future I can or will get
a class with two grades.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
I just stuck it out and smiled and I did my best not to stress out because the students might sense my
emotions. I wouldn't want the students to get any bad vibes if I was ever stressing and then they can get any
bad feelings and start to act out or shy away from wanting to learn.

129

14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
I tried my best to be understanding to the whole situation since the students were having a whole new
teacher and a different schedule that they needed to get used to, so there needed to be some time for the
students to get used to the new experience. They rest I didn't care too much I just knew I needed to do my
best for the students to do well in class.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
it's an experience that needed some learning and I have no regrets having this experience. I am happy I
went through this experience and now I have experience with a combo class.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
just ask more questions!!! and if I don't know what to do keep asking more questions!!!!!

130

1. Your age
58
2. Your gender
Male
3. Your race or ethnicity
White, nonHispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
10
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
Calvin College
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
1972
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
BA/BS
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
Our principal reversed a plan to combine our professional development and a Holiday Party when teachers
questioned the use of a private, primarily white, male club of which he is a member. His decision to change
to a mandatory, on campus meeting could only be perceived as vindictive. I felt his initial plan to use a
facility that had been opposed by the staff in prior years could only be perceived as him wanting to look
like the big spender for his fellow members at the private club using LAUSD finds, and I actually think
LAUSD would be opposed to the idea of any principal using an LAUSD "Discretionary Fund" to celebrate
at an exclusionary club. I was hurt and felt the decision was small-minded and petty. It seemed to build
animosity in an already somewhat divided staff. Instead of the Holiday party being a time to celebrate the
year together, it seems to be doing the opposite.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
It's still festering.
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
I wanted to talk to him directly, but I feel it is importatnt not to resond when angry and to think the
situation over for a while before reacting.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
Good sense on my part.

131

14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
Observation of the importance of the event in the "grand scheme" of education at City Terrace.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
You will not always have a perfect principal. One bad decsion by a relatively new administrator needs to be
balanced by how supportive he has always been to me regarding advice, materials, and general support.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
No, I was taught that you should never react to a situation in anger. It distorts good judgement. I know
some percieve this as weakness, but I have found over many years that it is, for me, a strength that needs to
be developed.

132

1. Your age
42
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Asian-American
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
7 years
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
California State University, Los Angeles
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
7 years
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
No
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
I have been upset about the way I am treated in the Dual Language Program. I am abused because I am
required to do the groundwork and am not paid rightfully.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
since school started in Sept.
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
Thinking about leaving the school to stay out of the program.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
It is hard to fight against the administrator and the district--those redtapists; the only solution at this point is
walking out of the program and leaving the school. I guess it is my personality that influenced me on this
decision.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
My administrator, my close coworker and a newly hired teacher who is not really enthusiastic in teaching
the language program shatter my vision as an educator.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
Think carefully and thoroughly about a far and between assignment.

133

16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
Set the boundary for job responsibilities in advacne and protect my rights.

134

1. Your age
54
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
White, nonHispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
31
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
CSULA
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
1980
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
BA/BS
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
working with a student with severe behavioral issues and self control--parent and administration are trying
to see him as doing well or better when in fact I am adjusting my day to him and his moods to keep him
from "going off".
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
daily
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
I feel we are doing this child an injustice. I am able to adjust to him. I am extremely patient flexible and
have strong special ed experience. But the day will come when he is expected to sit in a chair and follow
directions which he does not do. He would benefit from a focused behavioral plan based on his attentional
and physical limitations, to try to train him to control them more and more.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
I am extremely sensitive and responsive, and I don't lie to myself. I have accepted however that I can only
do a limited amount with everyone else living in a fantasty.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
The resource teacher agress with me but we're voices crying in the wilderness.

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15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
I am trying to keep the rest of the class focused and then I'll do the best I can for this child, but slowly and
gently, so people don't freak out.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
NO, I've faced this before. Actually I now have resigned myself to the limitations of my influence to
change things.

136

1. Your age
33
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Other
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
3
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
S.D.S.U.
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
2005
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
BA/BS
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
I had a student who could not stay in his seat, yelled out negative comments, and disrupted the work of the
students around them. I snapped at him and would get very angry when he would be disruptive. I decided
that I needed to find a less aggressive way to handle the situation.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
14
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
I was feeling very frustrated.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
I was very tired that day.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
There are a lot of other students in the class. It was the end of the day and the student had been
misbehaving all day (and all week).

137

15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
I've decided that I needed to find an alternative way to have the student settle down. I decided to have a
"secret message" with the student, to let that student know that he was misbehaving. I would touch a part of
my face to let him know I saw what he was doing, and it would be a warning to improve his behavior. It
was effective because my getting angry at the student was only a stimuli for further disruptive behavior.
Using this technique, the student understands we are working together.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
It would depend on the personality of the student.

138

1. Your age
27
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
African-American
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
1
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
University of Southern California
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
2006
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
Student profile forms were to be filled out by teachers detailing their students academic level according to
the cst's. However the form provided was not self explainitary and no directions was given, and so I had no
clue as to how to fill them out.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
two weeks ago
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
Because I didn't know how to fill them out I decided just not to do it.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
Due to my indeference to the form, it caused me to forget about it and there for not fill it out promptly.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
My setting probably influenced me because there were no reminders about the forms given to the teachers.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
Next time ask for helf early on.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
Express my confusion immediately opposed to waiting to the last minute to get it done.

139

1. Your age
52
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
White, nonHispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
12
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
Uof I, Cal State, -LA
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
1975, 2000
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
I was in the office talking to the VP about a students' IEP. The bell had rung and we finished talking, then I
went to get my students. The new prinicipal (her 3rd day at our school) was taking my students to the
classroom. As I approached her, she started to tell me, "If you are going to be late, you need to call me". At
first I was thinking ok -so if I'm in the office and I'm going to be late, I need to call you and tell you. I was
confused and then I realized that she thought I was just getting to school, when actually I had been on
campus since 6:00 a.m. that morning. She did not give me a chance to explain that I was in the office
talking to the VP. As I went into the classroom, I was upset.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
60 days
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
I was hurt and upset that she just assumed I was tardy to work and did not bother to ask me.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
I felt like I had been attacked- been blamed for something I had not done.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
I was surprised by how the new principal handled the situation. I thought it was not a good way to start at a
new job.

140

15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
She didn't know me or had a chance to see my work habits. Maybe at her last job, she had to deal with
people who were late and just assumed I was one of those people.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
I would take the time to tell her what I was doing. I would talk up.

141

1. Your age
56
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
White, nonHispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
30
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
CSU Fresno
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
1978
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
At the most recent staff meeting, we had yet another session on yet another piece of technology that I don't
think enhances the learning experiences of my students.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
20
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
Frustration, helplessness, hopelessness, silence
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
I firmly believe that we must be sure that something new is an improvement, and also look at the big
picture of learning, environmental impact, etc. Just becaue you can, doesn't mean you should....
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
I chose not to respond because I feel that I need to pick my battles, and this one wasn't bit enough to risk
my credibility.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
No surprises.

142

16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
Nope.

143

1. Your age
55
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Mixed
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
23
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
CSULA & CSULB
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
1985 & 1989
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
BA/BS
9. Is English your primary language?
No
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
I was directed by the principal to teach OCR Reading to a regular 1st grade class when I am a special
edcucation teacher with a special day class.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
1 week
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
I was furious. I visited other teachers on campus and I was fuming!My entire classroom organization was
reorganized and my students are being sent out to a regular classroom!
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
Internally, my emotional state was out of control. I felt as if I had no support or in fact the decision/or
change in structure to my classroom, I had taken VERY personal.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
I was upset because this occurred at the end of the day. It is difficult to contact those who may/or could
help, at a late hour. Also, the special ed. union representative was out for the entire week and I had to wait
for his return to receive any feedback regarding this classroom change.

144

15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
I think that my reactions were justified since I was not "asked" regarding this reorganization or given any
chance to assist in this decision. Also, I think there probably could be a better solution for the children. I am
a special ed teacher not a regular teacher. My teaching techniques are very different for my students. I
provide lots of one-to-one support, small groups, constant repetition. I have begun the OCR Reading with
the regular 1st graders & I find that I am lagging behind due to the fast pace required for the reding
program.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
No, I think I will probably react the same, but I may have better verbal responses to those who are in
charge.

145

1. Your age
46
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Asian-American
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
24
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
California State University, Los Angeles
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
1984
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
BA/BS
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
Some students in my class did not score well on their assesment in reading fluency, spelling and word
reading. I spent a good deal of time teaching the spelling patterns and I am confused, upset and wondering
how I can be a more effective teacher.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
3
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
My immediate reaction is one of frustration.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
My self doubt, lack of trust of my judgement
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
The students responses to the questions on the assessments were incorrect, which caused my frustration.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
I need to think about how I can better teach my students so they will be better readers.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
I would try not to react with frustration, just try to think of other ways to teach.

146

CRITICAL REFLECTION SURVEY RESPONSES
LEVEL OF INTEGRATIVE COMPLEXITY SCORE: 3

147

1. Your age
50
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Hispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
12
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
CSULA
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
1990
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
BA/BS
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
A meeting with a parent, the principal and myself to discuss what modifications can or should be made to
the student's homework so it can be completed in a timely manner. The parent speaks without considering
that she has said the same thing over and over again and she will not listen. I usually deal very well with
parents and this one has complained to the principal that I have no understanding of or sympathy towards
their home situation. That I am arrogant and condescending. I sat during the conference and listened to her
talk. I gave what I hope were appropriate verbal and physical responses to show I was listening. When the
principal would attempt to bring her focus back to the problem (no homework completed) she would again
go off on a description of how hard their life is. I would speak when the principal indicated I needed to.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
7 days ago
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
I was glad that the principal took the time to help with the situation, but I am very wary of the parent and
unhappy that my usual way of dealing with parents could be so misconstrewed so that I feel awkward and
too careful.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
Whenever possible, I like to make people happy. I am a people pleaser. As a teacher, I sometimes have to
give parents and/or students information that is not happy. I usually stick to the facts and work on a
solution together. I like having a resolution to things. With this parent, things are left sort of hanging.

148

14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
The parent had gone to the principal and he left it to me to schedule a meeting for the 3 of us at the parent's
convenience. I set up a time and date with her. She called the principal back to change it two times. I think
this caused a sense of dread in me. I like to get things over with, especially unpleasant things, as quickly as
possible.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
I probably do not understand the parent or her situation fully. It does not matter how well intentioned I am,
I cannot please everyone. Also, the principal is supportive.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
I will try to listen more and ask questions like "What do you think should be done?" rather than make
suggestions. I will invite the parent to meet again rather than try to sum things up when the conference time
has run over.

149

1. Your age
26
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Asian-American
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
2
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
USC
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
2005
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
a) Trying to manage a negative situation between a boy and a girl in my class that occurred on the
playground. Both have behavioral issues, and have had negative interactions with other students already. b)
Boy and girl. c) I was unsure how to handle both of them telling me the other was to blame, deciphering
truths from lies, and having the wisdom to deal appropriately with them.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
about 2 weeks ago
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
My immediate reaction was to doubt the veracity of their words, and to feel helpless because both have had
histories of lying. I think my next reaction was to pray to God for wisdom in this situation, and to know I
need His wisdom for all situations, especially ones like this.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
I guess I had an automatic negative reaction because I already had a "bias" against these students given
their previous actions. But I knew that I had to let those go, and deal with the situation at hand, and in order
to do so, I needed to truly care for them, and impress upon them the importance of treating one another
respectfully, regardless of the other's behavior. My influence is mostly from what I know to be true of
human nature: we look out for ourselves, and consider others below us. This is a problem because when we
act on this base tendency, selfishness is inevitable. I just wanted to teach/remind them to treat others as they
would want to be treated.

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14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
Timing...my class was waiting. It was just after recess, and the class tends to get noisy even if my full
attention is theirs, but when it is diverted...noise level rises, work is not accomplished, etc.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
Perhaps I ought to come up with a more solid plan of how and when to deal with situations that arise during
recess or lunch so that they do not conflict with teaching time.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
I would probably follow the plan of having them speak to me at the next available break (lunch, after
school) or have them leave a note for me in my class mailbox.

151

1. Your age
60
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
White, nonHispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
7
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
LAUSD District Intern program
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
2003
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
Our grade level had been visited by the district manager for our school and the principal was sharing the
results in a way that was not placing value on any particular observation. However, in the report, the
principal mentioned the supervisor didn't see "evidence" of teaching tree maps in all rooms. Then the
principal used my room as an example of showing that evidence and mentioned rooms where there was
writing, but no evidence of the use of tree maps. I pointed out that I had learned my use of tree maps from
those teachers. The principal restated that the district manager did not "see evidence" that it was taught.
This kind of criticism always leaves me frustrated. I just happened to attach the tree maps because I thought
it would be interesting to see how the child developed his writing....not because I wanted to show evidence
that I had taught tree maps and used them to produce writing. Anyway, it left me worrying about other
areas where I might be teaching what they want but not leaving "evidence" that an outsider can see that I
taught it without coming and directly observing the lesson.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
8 days ago
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
I felt irritation at a system that wants to evaluate your work without observing it.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
I have a low tolerance for bureacracy and blanket rules and statements that cover ALL situations. I prefer
guidelines and mutual professional respect.

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14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
I did admire the teaching of the two colleagues that I felt was being criticized, especially since I knew that
they indeed do use the tree maps in their teaching.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
If I wish to be evaluated well I must constantly think of how to "show" (after-the-fact) that I am indeed
teaching the way the district wants. Everytime I teach a comprehension strategy and I put the sign on the
white board, I always think (when I put the strategy sign away), administration will come into my room and
not know that I just taught this...despite the fact my lesson plans indicate it and, hopefully, my students
would at least show knowledge of the term.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
I doubt I will react differently as my nature really doesn't respect that simplistic way of making a teaching
observation. I believe anyone can stage a classroom to look like certain things are being taught...regardless
of whether that is actually happening in the classroom.

153

1. Your age
30
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Hispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
7
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
Cal State Los Angeles
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
2003
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
A) A student kept leaving at the end of the day without telling me he was leaving. B) This same student's
mother completed his homework for him. Because of the reasons listed above, I had to speak with this
child's mother. On this same day, the student left without permission, so when I saw him with his mother, I
called them both over to me so that I could speak with her. I let the student know (in front of his mother
and with a stern voice) that he is not allowed to leave my side until I can see his mother. THEN, I asked his
mother why she completed her son's homework for him. She had no reason, only that she was trying to give
him a head-start (with the intention that he'd finish it), however, he ran to the neighbor's house and never
completed his work. I asked her why she didn't call her son back from the neighbor's house to complete his
work. She had no answer. I asked her what the consequences were for him not doing what he's supposesd to
do. She says she has a belt that hangs and she threatens to use it. I asked her if she had ever used the belt,
and she told me that she can't use it because her son will call the cops on her! At this point, I became livid,
and became EXTREMELY upset at my student AND his mother for allowing that kind of behavior! I
raised my voice at her and asked WHY she allows this! I asked her, "Who is the PARENT in your
household?!? I'm asking because he NEVER talks to me that way or threatens ME that way! He knows
better! Why do you ALLOW that?!?" I was livid and the parent became embarrassed because this happened
on the playground and she saw the other parents staring at us.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
one week ago
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
I was completely shocked by everything she was telling me. Then it turned into anger.

154

13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
It was *that* time of the month (I get really emotional) and I was catching a cold.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
None that I can think of. I suppose a past experience with this parent might have influenced my response. I
had already had a situation in the past with this parent. I had recommended her son for after school
intervention because he is a struggling student. I found out that she did not continue to send him because
she said her son didn't want to go anymore and he got too tired. At that time I asked her again, "Who's the
parent and who makes the decisions for this child?"
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
I have come to the conclusion that this parent allows her son to control her. Whatever he wants, he gets.
This is part of the reason he struggles in school: lack of discipline.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
I would take the parent inside my classroom. Other than that, I would have proceeded with the same line of
questioning.

155

1. Your age
60
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
White, nonHispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
20
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
University of Cincinnati
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
1974
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
I was checking with one of my small RSP groups to see how they were progressing on their homework for
the week. One of my students admitted that he had not begun. I asked him why he was not working on it
during our after school program. He announced that he was quitting the program because it was not fun. As
he had been doing much better with homework return and seemed to be proud of his new responsibility, I
was left feeling frustrated.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
5 days
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
Besides frustration, I wondered why he was so obviously sabotaging his success.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
I was pretty sure that just throwing up my hands (or throwing in the towel, take your pick) would just
reinforce what I decided was a feeling the student had that in the end no one really cared what he did. I
don't give up on my students even if I myself never see any positive results.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
The staff at my school are all pretty involved with trying to find ways to help their students succeed. As an
RSP teacher, I "team" with the homeroom teachers of my students, so there is always mutual support. Our
principal is also very people oriented.

156

15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
I think our follow through with this student will pay off in the long run.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
My reaction in class was fairly business like, letting the student know I was going to follow up on the
information he gave me. If it happened again, I think I would do the same thing.

157

1. Your age
60
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
White, nonHispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
17
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
Claremont Graduate University
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
1991
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
While teaching small group in back of classroom, responded to another student who complained that
student sitting beside her was repeated reaching over and closing her math book. Told offending student to
erase a star from his table group points. Student began mumbling to self on way to board. I asked, "What
are you saying?" Student responded with "I told you not to do that." "Who are you talking to?" "Myself"
student responded.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
About 20
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
Puzzled over double meaning of response. He could have meant that he was just mumbling to himself or
that he had been telling himself not to misbehave.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
Like to think about my students.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
Sitting in back of classroom. Didn't want to leave my small group. Would probably have done things
differently if I had been standing nearer to the child.

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15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
Concluded, from conversation and continued observation, that he had been telling himself not to
misbehave. Also tells himself not to do a whole range of small, repetitive acts. Made referral to nurse, set
meeting with parents, involved guidance team.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
Have quit doling out "consequences" for these behaviors. Giving student a bit more physical space and
leeway.

159

1. Your age
56
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
White, nonHispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
14
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
CSULA
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
2005
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
BA/BS
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
I was reminded by the assistant principal of the principal's request for a behavior support plan (a lot of
paperwork) on a student whose behavior is not a problem in my venue (RSP). The reminder came before
school when I was able to put my clear, undistracted thinking to it. The original request came weeks ago in
the middle of our crowded (with students, parents, other staff) main office. The student's general education
teacher never approached me about the behavior, but the principal had been confronting the student in my
classroom, in the main office, and in the hallways in my presence in the weeks previous to this reminder
from the AP. The principal asked me to scold the student for being sent to the office so much.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
today was the reminder, the original request from the principal was probably 20 days ago.
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
First, I felt panic that I had not taken any action-even to cover myself against the charge of neglecting my
student. Then I felt resentful that I had been given so much extra work which I believed was unnecessary.
The student's general education teacher
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
I often expect too much of myself and shame is an old companion.

160

14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
The VP is a fair and reasonable administrator. The fact that she brought the principal's message kept me
from going into a tailspin. Also, it was before the students arrived, so I was calmer. However, the earlier
encounter with the principal was not so calm. The principal announced the need for a BSP in the middle of
a class which made it hard for me to get all the information.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
After the reminder, I spoke to the student's general education teacher who confirmed that the behavior is
not a problem in the classroom, but on the yard.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
I hope I would keep my cool, ask for the request in writing or to get back to me at a more convenient time.

161

CRITICAL REFLECTION SURVEY RESPONSES
LEVEL OF INTEGRATIVE COMPLEXITY SCORE: 4

162

1. Your age
31
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Hispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
8
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
California State University, Los Angeles
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
2002
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
No
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
One of my students is an RSP student who has learning disabilities. I was informed that there might be a
possibility that he might be sent to a Special Day Class (SDC). I went to see the vice-principal to ask for his
honest opinion about the program that student might be placed in. I asked if he believed the student would
receive more support than in my classroom, since I already provide him with many accomodations and
modifications. The vice-principal made me see that eventhough I am trying my best, I am still probably not
serving his needs. He is in fifth grade and is still reading at a first grade level. His word recognition is
below kindergarten. I wasn't fully conviced, but I entertained the idea that an SDC might the best placement
for him. I know this boy and I feared he would be devistated if he knew we wanted to move him to another
school. I guess my greatest concern was that even if he was in a smaller classroom setting, the teacher
might not provide him with all the experiences I've given him. I try and teach to all the learning modalities
so my needier students succeed. Finally, the IEP day came. His mother came and the committee and I
informed her of our recommendation. She agreed that it would be nice if he were in a smaller classroom
setting so that he would receive more support. The IEP was in progress and I still was not fully conviced
this was a good idea, but I went with it because I didn't want him to come back 10 years from now and ask
me why I denied him of an opportunity to flourish in a smaller classroom setting. I also thought about
junior high. If he doesn't get into this program now, he will be in regular classrooms the entire day and will
continue to fall farther behind! Many thoughts flew through my mind. I honestly felt lost. I didn't know
what the correct decision was. Towards the end of the IEP the vice-principal decided to call the boy in to
inform him of our decision. My gut feeling told me this was a bad idea. Sure enough, when the boy came,
the principal informed him that I felt he wasn't making enough academic progress and that we as a
committee felt he would be better in an SDC setting, he broke down and cried like a baby. He was clearly

163

heartbroken. I knew then that my decision to okay the move was a mistake. I, we as a committee, probably
damaged this boy more than I'll ever know. Even if he is moved to an SDC class, if his self-esteem drops
and he gets depressed, he won't try and give up! Everyone in the committee was crying along with this
child. Sometimes we adults think we know what's best for students becuase we look at numbers, at scores.
However, there is more to success than numbers. We need to look at the child as a whole. I let myself get
caught up by the fact that he is a struggling learner but I didn't think about what's best for his soul. I killed
his spirit!
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
Yesterday
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
I cried and cried and cried. I felt rotten and evil. I wasn't trying to hurt this child. I wanted to make sure he
was in the appropriate learning environment. I guess sometimes what is "appropriate" should be determined
by the individual and not a committee of outsiders.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
I'm sensitive to other people's suffering. I don't like seeing others in pain. My immediate reaction is to try to
jump in and save them.
14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
I was already feeling tired and emotional that day because I had an incident where two boys were being
accussed of being "homosexuals." I shared some stories with my students about past experiences with
students and "gay" issues and cried a little. I guess I was a already a little saddened by the cruelty of some
of my students. I think what upset me the most is that I felt inadequate becuase I couldn't protect my
students from these comments. I felt that there was something I missed in my instruction.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
Next time, I need to think about the consequences of making such a recommendation. I mean, moving a
child from a regular classroom to a special education classroom can be pretty devastating to a child on both
emotional and social levels. I don't think I thought about enough before I agreed to the move.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
I would definitely think about the impact such a recommendation might have on that student. I would
consider not only the academic aspect of the situation, but look at the child as a whole.

164

1. Your age
30
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
Asian-American
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
2
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
csula
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
2005
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
BA/BS
9. Is English your primary language?
No
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
I was scolded by my literacy coach that I was using non-Open Court Reading program. She came in and
saw me using one of the store-bought poster to help students' learn and review long vowels' spelling
patterns. The main concern expressed by my literacy coach was it was not Open Court REading. Later she
admitted that she immediately assumed that I was using one of old reading program that our district had
spent many years trying to get rid of the materials. I was a bit upset at what was the big deal with me using
supplementary materials. She continued with coming up with different rationalization for the purpose of me
having it and trying to support my students' needs. If I were to draw out pictures and write out the spelling
patterns on poster paper, it would be the same except the poster that I bought was premade and more
convenient.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
7
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
I felt a bit confused on what was the big deal. My literacy coach is being Open Court police.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
I was receptive to listen to her concern and explanation. I am the person that can be convinced based on
good reasons and justification. Being new to Open Court teaching, I wanted to know why my approach was
considered "wrong."

165

14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
I was preoccupied after school hours trying to complete one of my class assignments. A fellow colleague
was present with me in my class. I wanted her to hear her reasoning as well as why I shouldn't use the
poster to help build conceptual knowledge of letters and prints.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
Under Open Court REading Program, teacher's reflection on improving teaching practice and freedom to
incorporate new ways to improve students' learning are not valued. YOu must do as the program is
designed.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
I will do the same and listen to valid explanations. HOwever, I will express my rationale and justify the
importance of providing different modalities to support my students' learning

166

1. Your age
39
2. Your gender
Female
3. Your race or ethnicity
White, nonHispanic
4. Number of years as a full time classroom teacher
14
5. At what university did you obtain your teaching credential?
Cal Poly Pomona
6. Year you obtained your teacher credential
1993, 2005
7. Name of school at which you currently are working
--
8. Your highest degree
Masters
9. Is English your primary language?
Yes
10. Please think of an experience that occurred in your professional setting that meets the following
criteria:
* you were left feeling confused, upset, or wondering
* your own behavior or reactions directly affected the experience
* it occurred within the past 30 days
If there has been more than one such experience during this period, please choose the one that had
the greatest impact on you.
Please describe the experience in detail, including (a) what you were doing, (b) who else was involved,
(c) and what about this experience left you confused, upset, or wondering.
It is not very often that I have experiences with kids or parents that upsed or confuse. Over the years I have
learned how to deal with people to limit problem situations. However, I have had an upsetting situation
with my instructional assistant within the past 30 days. It appears that her lack of initiative is greatly
affecting her work production. She wil often sit and do nothing, or go on the internet when there is work to
be done. She is not proactive, and will not ask me if she does not know what to do. Instead, she will sit, or
do her school work.
11. How long ago (in days) did this experience occur?
specifically 14 days ago, but on going
12. Please describe your immediate reactions (i.e., thoughts, and feelings) to the experience.
This is the problem. I do confront her regarding the situation. I try to give her tasks when she is just sitting,
or if I need something done. But there are many times when I am too busy to remind her for the 3rd or 4th
time that something needs to be done. It is very frustrating for me when I am working to see her sitting,
when we both know there are tasks to complete. Also, it makes me very mad when she tells me she did
something and it is not done.
13. What internal factors (i.e., your personality, traits, emotional reactions) influenced your response
to that experience?
I am usually a forward enought person that I would at least indirectly deal with the issue, and directly
address specific issues if I thought it would be productive. However, with current trauma in my personal
life (a sick father who just recently passed away) I did not have the mental energy to address the issue. I
know... my fault I am in this situation.

167

14. What external factors (i.e., setting, other people, time of the event, and so on) influenced your
response to that experience?
She is a graduate student and her job with me will be over in June. I think she is a nice girl, and she has
some strengths. I was trying to make the best of the situation through the end of the school year.
15. What conclusions have you reached based on your subsequent thinking about this experience?
....that I will have to pick and choose my battles. I think I am going to have to pick issues that directly
affect kids and our program and specifically address them with her. I think I will over look some other
issues because our time together will be over in June.
16. If faced with a similar experience in the future, how do you think you would you react
differently?
I will be more clear with job expectations from the beginning, and take the time to follow through regularly
to make sure things are being done.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Elementary School Teachers (N= 34) were asked to identify incidents or events that had occurred during the previous month that in some way had been confusing or that otherwise made them uncomfortable. Through a series of prompts, they then were to reflect in writing on that experience (their reactions

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Asset Metadata

Creator Yun, Jo-Ann H. (author)

Core Title Critical reflection among elementary school teachers: an examination of content, cognitive style, and integrative complexity

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Publication Date 10/22/2008

Defense Date 09/09/2008

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag cognitive style,continents,critical reflection,Education (Curriculum,elementary school teachers,integrative complexity,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Goodyear, Rodney K. (committee chair), Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee member), Kiem, Robert (committee member)

Creator Email dr.jyun@gmail.com,joannyun@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m1692

Unique identifier UC1327851

Identifier etd-Yun-2380 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-117970 (legacy record id),usctheses-m1692 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Yun-2380.pdf

Dmrecord 117970

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Yun, Jo-Ann H.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu