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A gap analysis on improving teacher retention in kindergarten: a case of a private kindergarten in Hong Kong

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A gap analysis on improving teacher retention in kindergarten: a case of a private kindergarten in Hong Kong

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Content Running head: KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 1
A GAP ANALYSIS ON IMPROVING TEACHER RETENTION IN KINDERGARTEN: A
CASE OF A PRIVATE KINDERGARTEN IN HONG KONG
by
Stephen Kai Ming Luk
A Dissertation Proposal Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
Global Executive
August 2020
Copyright 2020 Stephen Luk
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 2

To my late grandmother,
Law Noi Man
who founded Cannan Kindergarten fifty-five years ago,
and spent all her life providing the best education possible
to preschool children

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 3

Acknowledgement
First and foremost, I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my family, especially
my wife, Shirley, and my mother, Lam Mei, for their unwavering support for me to pursue my
second doctoral degree. I would also like to thank my two children, Sabine and Sean, for their
understanding of a father who is always on the road working, studying, and writing dissertation. I
hope one day they will understand the importance of education and they can accomplish
anything if they believe in themselves and put in hard work and determination.
I would especially like to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Cathy Krop, for all of her
support, guidance, and encouragement throughout the challenging research and dissertation
writing process. Her positive attitude and many rounds of revisions and feedback were inspiring
and motivating. My deep gratitude also goes to my dissertation committee members, Dr. Ruth
Chung and Dr. Larry Picus, for their insightful guidance and support. And I owe much gratitude
to all the wonderful faculty members and the administrative team of the Global Executive Ed.D.
Program for their support, guidance and encouragement. And my sincere thanks to Dr. Mark
Robison, who created this wonderful program that brings us to different parts of the world and
allow us to learn from the best educators around the globe. It’s indeed an eye-opening and
memorable experience.
Finally, I wish to thank all my classmates from Cohort 7 for all the wonderful memories
and laughter, they have made this journey truly remarkable and rewarding.
FIGHT ON!

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 4

Table of Contents
List of Tables 6
Chapter One: Introduction 8
Background of the Problem 9
Importance of Addressing the Problem 12
Organizational Context and Mission 13
Organizational Performance Status 14
Organizational Performance Goal 15
Description of Stakeholder Groups 16
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals 17
Stakeholder Group for the Study 17
Purpose of the Project and Questions 18
Conceptual and Methodological Framework 18
Definitions 19
Organization of the Project 19
Chapter Two: Literature Review 21
Background and Causes of High Teacher Attrition 21
Global and Regional Trends in Teacher Attrition 22
Possible Causes of High Teacher Attrition 23
Consequences of High Teacher Attrition 29
Effects on Student Performance 29
Costs to Schools 32
Effects on Organizational Culture and Performance 33
Effective Practices to Retain Teachers 34
Practices to Build Teacher Prestige and Commitment 35
Practices for Enhancing Teacher Efficacy 35
Practices that Build a Supportive Culture for Teachers 37
Teachers’ Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 39
Knowledge and Skills 40
Motivation 44
Organizational Influences 47
Conclusion 52
Chapter Three: Methodology 53
Stakeholders of Focus 53
Sampling and Recruitment 53
Data Collection 54
Data Analysis 59
Credibility and Trustworthiness 59
Ethics 60
Limitations and Delimitations 62
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 64
Overview of Purpose and Questions 64
Definition of Validation 65
Respondent Demographics 66
Findings 67
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 5

Results and Findings for Knowledge Influences 68
Summary of Knowledge Influences 78
Results and Findings for Motivation Influences 78
Summary of Motivation Influences 84
Results and Findings for Organizational Influences 84
Summary of Organization Influences 97
Chapter Summary 97
Chapter Five: Recommendations, Implementation, and Evaluation 98
Proposed Solutions to Address the Validated Influences on Novice Teacher Retention 100
Recommendations to Address Validated Knowledge Needs 101
Recommendations to Address Validated Organizational Needs 103
Implementation Plan 110
Evaluation Plan 112
Mentoring Novice Teachers 113
Classroom Autonomy 114
Improving Compensation Package 116
Future Research 117
References 120
Appendix Focus Group Interview Protocol 140

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 6

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Organizational Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals 17
Table 2: Assumed Knowledge Influences 43
Table 3: Assumed Motivation Influences 46
Table 4: Assumed Organizational Influences 51
Table 5: Assumed Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Assets of the Teachers 57
Table 6: Interview Participants Employment Background 67
Table 7: Validation and Results for Knowledge Influences 69
Table 8: Validation and Results for Motivation Influences 79
Table 9: Validation and Results for Organization Influences 85
Table 10: Summary of Validated Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences 99
Table 11: Proposed Recommendation to Address Validated Knowledge Need 101
Table 12: Proposed Recommendation to Address Validated Organization Need 103
Table 13: Summary of Policy Recommendations, Related Action Steps, and Timeline 111
Table 14: Four Levels of Evaluation of Mentoring Novice Teachers 114
Table 15: Four Levels of Evaluation of Introducing Classroom Autonomy 115
Table 16: Four Levels of Evaluation of Improving Compensation Package 117

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 7

ABSTRACT
This research investigates the factors that contribute to high novice teacher attrition in a
privately-owned kindergarten in Hong Kong. Utilizing Clark & Estes’ (2008) gap analysis
framework as a guideline, the study evaluates the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences behind teachers’ decision to leave their job. Qualitative data collected through four in-
person focus group interviews validated five assumed influences, among them one knowledge
influence and four organizational influences on performance. Based on the findings and analysis,
a set of intervention plans are proposed, including a mentoring program for novice teachers,
allowing some degrees of classroom autonomy, and improving teachers’ compensation package.
These interventions plans, together with a comprehensive implementation plan and an evaluation
procedure, are outlined in detail to ensure that the organization goal of reducing teacher attrition
can be reached.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 8

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Teacher retention is an important issue facing school administrators globally. A school’s
ability to recruit, retain, develop, and nurture a sufficient number of effective and high-
performing teachers will have a positive impact on the quality of education provided and the
school’s smooth and efficient running (Ingersoll & May, 2012; Ronfeldt et al., 2013). Much
research conducted in the United States suggests that, on average, between 14% and 17% of
teachers across elementary and secondary schools choose to leave their job at the end of each
school year (Ingersoll, 2001; Luekens et al., 2004; Yesil Dagli, 2012). In Hong Kong, the drop-
out rate of kindergarten teachers is 10.5%, while that of primary school and secondary school
teachers are 4.6% and 5.1% respectively (Education Bureau, 2017). Also, according to the latest
Hong Kong government statistics, the attrition rate for preschool teachers was approximately
12% for the 2018–2019 academic year (Education Bureau, 2018a).
Teachers’ high turnover rates exert a negative impact on schools and students. In
particular, frequent teacher changes create instability that adversely affects teaching quality and
creates adjustment problems for students, leading to poor student academic achievement (Barnes
et al., 2007; Boyd et al., 2008; Ingersoll, 2001; Wells, 2015). Research also suggests there is a
direct relationship between teacher turnover and students’ misbehavior and emotional exhaustion
(Tsouloupas et al., 2010).
From an organizational perspective, a high turnover rate increases schools’ administrative
and financial burden to recruit and train quality teachers (Hong, 2012; Theobald, 1990).
Oftentimes, new teachers need help from experienced teachers to learn elements of teaching that
cannot be learned in teacher education programs or in the classroom. As such, induction and
orientation programs that help acculturate new teachers need to be developed, requiring extra
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 9

resources (Feiman-Nemser, 2003). A stable and experienced teaching staff is the cornerstone of
consistent high-quality education. Any adverse consequences of high teacher turnover work
against the fundamental principle that any school sets out to achieve providing quality education
and teaching students to be lifelong learners.
This study focuses on a privately-owned kindergarten in Hong Kong, the Cannan
Kindergarten (Cannan). The problem Cannan faces is high teacher attrition. Within the past
decade, the teacher attrition rate has fluctuated between 24% and 31%, an unusually high level as
compared to the average rate of 12.3% in all kindergartens within the city during the 2018–2019
academic year (Education Bureau, 2018a). The problem of practice of this study is determining
the root causes of such attrition and, based on the findings, to provide policy recommendations to
rectify the problem.
Background of the Problem
Research indicates that high teacher turnover is an important issue affecting the quality of
education in much of the world. In the case of Hong Kong, turnover rates in public schools
increased from less than 10% in the late 1970s to approximately 20% in 1989 (Wong & Li,
1995). Between 2013 and 2018, annual attrition rates have ranged from 4% to 5% for primary
schools and around 5% for secondary schools (Education Bureau, 2018a). Nonetheless, job
dissatisfaction and low morale have also been widely reported (Cheng, 2009a), prompting them
to consider leaving their jobs. According to the Education Bureau of the Hong Kong
Government (2018a), the attrition rate of kindergarten teachers, specifically, during the 2017–
2018 school year ranged from 9% for those with a certificate in early childhood education to
26% for those with a Qualified Kindergarten Teacher qualification, a requirement for newly
appointed kindergarten teachers (Education Bureau, 2018b).
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 10

Various factors lead to high teacher attrition in Hong Kong. Part of the increase in
attrition during the 1980s and early 1990s was caused by migration out of the city due to various
political and economic uncertainties prior to the handover of sovereignty to China in 1997
(Wong, 1990). Many who left were educated teachers. In the aftermath of the political transition,
educational reforms were introduced. The government’s proposals covered a wide range of
issues and large-scale changes, such as school-based management, changes in school
governance, revision of curriculum, and changes in the examination system (Board of Education,
1997).
As many of these changes were to be implemented over a short period of time (Cheng,
2009a), the pressure to carry out the required reforms frustrated many teachers, and that led to
low morale among both teachers and school administrators (Cheng, 2009b). During the wave of
educational reforms, many schools reported a lack of qualified candidates to fill vacancies, as
many experienced teachers left the profession. Between 2003 and 2004, over 1,000 experienced
teachers departed the profession entirely (Choi & Tang, 2005). In fact, according to a study
commissioned by the Professional Teachers’ Union (2018), 30% of the 1,836 teachers
interviewed showed symptoms of moderate or serious depression, including feelings of
hopelessness, fatigue, and sleeping disorder. More than 10% of them showed severe depression
(Hong Kong Professional Teachers’ Union, 2018).
The problem of high teacher attrition remains a concern to educators and the government.
To the educators, high attrition can cause various problems, such as lower student academic
achievement, increased financial burdens, and hinderance of academic reforms, each of which is
addressed below (Barnes et al., 2007; Darling-Hammond, 2003; Hanushek et al., 1999; Ingersoll,
2001; Nweke & Eads, 2007; Ronfeldt et al., 2013; Theobald, 1990; Wushishi et al., 2014). For
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 11

the government, which prides itself on offering one of the best education systems in the region,
high attrition means the city falls behind its regional counterparts. For example, in Singapore,
teacher attrition rates have never reached double digits (Ministry of Manpower, 2018).
Understanding the reasons teachers leave the profession can help correct these problems.
Numerous studies have suggested that a high teacher attrition rate leads to adverse
consequences for students’ learning (Barnes et al., 2007; Boyd et al., 2008; Connors-Krikorian &
Twomey, 2005; Darling-Hammond, 2003; Guarino et al., 2006; Hanushek et al., 1999; Ingersoll,
2001; Rockoff, 2004; Ronfeldt et al., 2013). Ingersoll (2001), for instance, found that school
quality is damaged by high turnover rates, as these rates may imply underlying problems within
the school. Ingersoll (2001) points out that, from an organizational perspective, loss of key
teachers or administrators may create discontinuity, disrupt operations, and adversely affect
instructional programs’ quality.
Similarly, Darling-Hammond (2003) suggests the most important actions an
administrator can take to improve student achievement are to attract, retain, and support the
continued learning of well-prepared and committed teachers. Teachers who have the training and
experience to be effective in teaching and communicating with students are a valuable human
resource. As such, recruiting and keeping capable teachers is critically important for all schools,
and school leaders need to understand the reasons behind attrition if they are to develop and
maintain an effective learning environment.
Further, in a pilot study on the cost of teacher turnover in five U.S. school districts,
Barnes et al. (2007) found that schools with high turnover constantly rebuild their staff, and an
inordinate amount of human and financial capital are consumed by the constant recruiting of
candidates. The authors also suggest that high-turnover schools, regardless of their size or
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 12

geographic location, are also extremely costly to operate as they fall into a cycle of teacher hiring
and replacement. Such constant searching drains their districts of funding that could be spent on
improving teaching quality and student achievement (Barnes et al., 2007).
Finally, researchers have also suggested that high attrition may prevent teaching
effectiveness and hinder reform efforts. Theobald (1990) points out that high attrition rates
provoke discontinuity in classrooms, which is detrimental to students’ learning. In particular, as
schools need to regularly recruit new teachers, teaching quality and the continuity of school
reforms will be adversely affected. Although newly-recruited candidates may be well-prepared
and well-educated, their learning and effectiveness will peak only after they have actually taught
for some years (Theobald, 1990).
A brief overview of past research indicates persistent high teacher turnover in public
schools globally and that problems associated with high teacher turnover are well-documented.
Many of the aforementioned problems arising from teacher attrition are experienced by Cannan
Kindergarten, the focus of this study. As such, it is imperative to have a thorough understanding
of this problem of practice so that appropriate solutions and policy changes can be devised.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
Gaining a better understanding of the reasons behind high teacher attrition could inform
practice and help address the issue at the school level. Much research on high teacher attrition
has been conducted in the United States and European countries, but less has been conducted in
the Asian regions. It is important to study and understand the problem in these regions to
generate context-specific solutions. While some underlying problems affecting teacher attrition,
such as lack of training or school resources, may be universal, others are likely to be context-
specific. To best address this problem in Hong Kong, and perhaps other Asian countries with a
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 13

similar historical and cultural background, in-depth research is required to understand the
underlying issues and problems affecting teacher turnover.
High teacher attrition and the resulting frequent changes of teaching style can create
instability and adjustment issues that negatively influence the quality of education students
receive. As Wells (2015) points out, high teacher attrition not only affects teachers’ overall work
motivation, but it also disrupts the continuity of students’ learning and has a negative effect on
early childhood development. The frequent turnover of teachers at Cannan has imposed many of
those adverse consequences on the school, the teachers, and, most importantly, the students. As
such, addressing and finding solutions to high teacher attrition will enable Cannan to attain the
goal of nurturing well-rounded students with high academic performance.
Organizational Context and Mission
The organization this study focuses on is Cannan Kindergarten in Hong Kong. Founded
in 1965, Cannan is a family-owned and operated kindergarten chain which consists of 12
campuses with close to 300 teaching staff and over 5,000 students. The senior management team
is comprised mainly of immediate family, with the help of a group of senior administrators who
have been employed by Cannan for over a decade. These senior administrators are one senior
principal and the 12 campus principals. The senior principal oversees the day-to-day operations
of the entire organization, helps manage the principals, and serves as the conduit between senior
management and the teaching staff. On each campus, there are, on average, close to 30 teachers.
The number of teachers at each campus depends on the size the campus, with 52 teachers
working at the largest campus and only seven at the smallest one.
The mission of Cannan is to provide a child-based curriculum designed to help children
attain knowledge, skills, values and attitudes on which to base future learning (Cannan
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 14

Kindergarten, 2018). The school’s leaders believe that children learn best through doing, and the
curriculum integrates six learning areas that enable children to progress through hands-on
experiences. Cannan focuses on children’s well-rounded, balanced and appropriate development
and strives to balance moral, cognitive, language, physical, affective, social, and aesthetic
development. In particular, the curriculum allows flexibility in coping with students’ varying
needs and encouraging them to explore the environment and build knowledge (Cannan
Kindergarten, 2018).
Organizational Performance Status
The organizational performance problem at the root of this study is the high teacher
attrition rate at Cannan. This is a serious problem for this multi-campus kindergarten chain
because well over 25% of teachers leave their employment at the end of each academic year, a
rate that is much higher than that of other local schools and of schools in comparable countries,
such as Singapore. In Singapore, the school system has consistently maintained a teacher
attrition rate of 3% (Ministry of Education, Singapore, 2016). Also, according to research on
teacher turnover in the East Asia Regional Council of Schools (Tkachyk, 2017), the attrition rate
at Cannan is higher than normal, averaging a few percentage points higher than most schools.
Data on the number of teachers joining and leaving Cannan during the past 10 years suggest that
the trend of attrition is roughly consistent, and the numbers indicate that the same is true across
all campuses. The lowest attrition rate was 24% during the 2011–2012 school year, while the
highest rate, 31%, was found during the 2015–16 and 2016–17 school years. Although individual
campuses may experience varying levels of attrition in a particular year, overall fluctuations are
relatively stable with no indication of increasing or decreasing patterns.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 15

If Cannan fails to ascertain the cause of the problem and is unable to find a solution,
significant talent loss and other adverse consequences discussed above will prevent the school
from achieving its principal mission. As such, the school must achieve sustainable recruitment
and development of effective teachers and implement feasible and effective policies to retain
them.
Organizational Performance Goal
As stated in its mission statement, Cannan strives to provide a well-rounded quality
education and engage in continuous improvement. It endeavors to foster children for well-
rounded development through a balanced curriculum to lay the foundation for whole person
development. However, persistently high teacher attrition is a major obstacle to reaching that
target. As such, the organizational performance goal is to devise policy changes to reduce the
annual teacher attrition rate by half, from 25% to 12%, by the year 2025.
This organizational performance goal was set by the senior administrators due to
concerns that high teacher attrition will hinder the school’s growth and smooth operation and
disrupt students’ learning. Frequent instructor change also implies continually allocating
resources to recruiting and training new teachers, which hinders operations and diverts resources
away from other needs such as better and up-to-date instructional materials or teacher training.
Therefore, the administrators’ goal is to examine the problem and make appropriate policy
changes to cut the attrition rate by half in five years’ time. Cannan seeks to retain teachers,
especially the experienced and high-performing ones, and to foster an effective learning
environment through a stable teaching force.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 16

Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are three distinct stakeholder groups who are integral to the organization’s
achieving its performance goal. They are the senior management team, the teaching staff, and
faculty members at the universities where the teachers received their education. These
stakeholder groups are all essential to the organization and they interact inter-dependently to
ensure the smooth running of the school, enhance an effective learning environment, and
maintain a low attrition rate.
The senior management team has significant impact on the operation of the school, as its
members make all decisions concerning every facet of the school. They set the expectations for
teachers, devise their job requirements and set the level of their renumerations, which directly
and indirectly ensure smooth operation of the entire organization. The teachers, on the other
hand, are who ultimately decide whether to stay or leave the school and have great influence on
how well students learn, as they impart knowledge and interact with students daily. Teachers’
performance and effectiveness determine how well students learn. Lastly, the faculty members at
the Education University of Hong Kong, who educate most kindergarten teachers in the city, are
also an important stakeholder group. These instructors impart basic knowledge and training to
future kindergarten teachers and influence their expectations of the profession. They also ensure
that new teachers’ skills and knowledge are adequate for the ever-changing teaching
environment and that they can cope with demands from schools, students, and parents.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 17

S tak e h ol d e r s ’ Performance Goals
The performance goal of the stakeholders in this study are illustrated in the following
table:
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Organizational Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
To foster children for well-rounded development through a balanced curriculum in the
domains of moral, cognitive and language, physical, affective and social, as well as aesthetic,
to lay the foundation for whole person development.

Organizational Goal
By 2025, Cannan Kindergarten will make appropriate policy changes to cut the annual
teacher attrition rate by half, from 25% to 12%.
Senior Administrators Teachers Faculty members at the
Education University of
Hong Kong
By 2021, senior administrators
will design and implement a
strategic plan that includes
fostering a sense of belonging for
teachers and encouraging open
communication, with a view to
reduce the annual attrition rate to
12%.
By 2023, all teachers, new and
incumbents, will choose to
stay in their positions for a
minimum of 5 years.
By 2025, faculty members will
revamp their curriculum to
ensure that it is more in line
with the requirements and
expectations from school
administrators, and be able to
prepare teachers to succeed in
the classroom.

Stakeholder Group for the Study
While the different stakeholder groups are inter-dependent and all contribute to the
achievement of the overall organizational goal, a focus on the teachers will reveal the reasons
they stay in or leave their employment. Senior school administrators are central to solving this
problem, but without understanding teachers’ needs, expectations, and grievances, making policy
changes based simply on what school administrators know and believe can lead to detrimental
outcomes. As such, this study treats teachers as the key stakeholder group and will explore
policy options to improve their retention rate.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 18

Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this research was to determine the root causes of the high teacher attrition
rate at Cannan and to devise policies to ameliorate the problem. This study will consist of a gap
analysis to examine teachers’ knowledge, motivation and organizational needs to increase their
retention. Three questions will guide the gap analysis:
1. What are the teachers’ knowledge, motivation and organizational needs related to the
organization’s goal of improving retention?
2. What are the interactions between the organizational influences and teachers’ knowledge
and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation and organizational solutions for
Cannan?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
Gap analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008) is a systematic, analytical process that helps clarify
organizational goals and identify the gap between actual and preferred performance levels. It will
be implemented as the main conceptual framework in this study. The methodological framework
employed is a qualitative case study with descriptive statistics. Assumed teachers’ knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that interfere with organizational goal achievement
were generated based on personal knowledge and related literature. These influences were
assessed by conducting focus group interviews, literature review, and document analysis. Policy
changes are recommended and evaluated carefully and comprehensively.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 19

Definitions
The following definitions were applied throughout this study:
Teacher attrition: Teachers leaving the teaching profession prematurely for reasons other
than retirement. Various terms such as teacher mobility, teacher retention rate, teacher turnover,
can often be found and used interchangeably in the literature. In general, these terms are inter-
related and all refer to the number of teachers who quit, or remain on, their jobs. Throughout this
study, the researcher will generally use the term teacher attrition, except when citing specific
authors’ choice of terms.
Teacher attrition rate: The number of teachers who choose to quit their job in proportion
to the total number of teachers at the school, expressed as a percentage.
Hong Kong drop-out rate: Teachers in Hong Kong who served in a local kindergarten as
of mid-September of a school year and who no longer served as of mid-September of the
following school year (Education Bureau, 2018a).
Kindergarten: In Hong Kong, kindergarten combines what is called preschool, pre-K, and
kindergarten in the United States, and it caters to children aged between 3 and 6.
Kindergarten teachers: Teachers who work in early childhood institutions in Hong Kong.
In particular, teachers who teach young children from birth to age 8 and up to the lower primary
school level.
Organization of the Project
The research is divided into five chapters. This chapter introduces the problem to be
addressed in the study, and provides the main concepts and terminology related to the effects of
high teacher attrition. The mission, goals, and stakeholders of the kindergarten under study, as
well as the initial concepts of gap analysis, were introduced. Chapter Two provides an overall
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 20

review of current literature surrounding teacher attrition. Causes and adverse consequences
associated with high teacher mobility are addressed in detail. Chapter Three discusses the
procedure and methodology, in particular focus group interviews, data collection and relevant
analysis employed in this research. In Chapter Four, results and findings are assessed, analyzed,
and presented. Finally, Chapter Five provides solutions, based on data and literature, for closing
the perceived gaps as well as provides a discussion of policy implications and an implementation
and evaluation plan for the solutions.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 21

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Considerable research has been conducted on teachers’ attrition. In general, researchers
have pointed to teachers’ high mobility as negatively affecting schools and students. Frequent
teacher change creates instability that adversely affects teaching quality and creates adjustment
problems for students (Barnes et al., 2007; Boyd et al., 2008; Ingersoll, 2001). High attrition
rates also increase administrative and financial burdens related to recruiting and training quality
candidates (Hong, 2012; Theobald, 1990). A group of stable and devoted educators is the
building block of high-quality education, and the undesirable consequences of teacher attrition
work against schools’ fundamental principles.
This chapter provides a review of research on teacher attrition, an understanding of the
various issues associated with this attrition, and practices around the world that show promise in
ameliorating the problem. It also relates the present study and organization of focus to the
ongoing dialogue in the literature through a discussion of teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences on their decisions to stay or leave their positions.
Background and Causes of High Teacher Attrition
Attrition is one of the main contributors to the shortage of qualified and effective teachers
around the world (Dove, 2004; Fern, 2017; Ingersoll, 2001, 2004; Sutcher et al., 2016;
Macdonald, 1999). Asia is not exempt from this problem (Chen, 2010; Fong, 2018; Mancuso et
al., 2011). To understand what can be done to mitigate the problem of high attrition, it is
necessary to examine the background of this problem through trends over time to determine
possible causes. The following section presents global and regional trends in this attrition
followed by a review of its possible causes and effects and a discussion of effective practices to
retain teachers.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 22

Global and Regional Trends in Teacher Attrition
High attrition remains an ongoing concern in education, especially early childhood
education (Sumsion, 2002). Wu (2011) points out that high attrition rates among kindergarten
teachers are a global trend. Taking the United States as an example, the average annual attrition
rate for early childhood educators is 30% (Porter, 2012). The supply of kindergarten teachers is
not sufficient to meet the demand in western or eastern countries (Dowling & O’Malley, 2009;
Lindahl, 2015; Wu, 2011). Wells (2015) states that a high kindergarten teacher attrition affects
work morale, interrupts attachment between students and teachers, and generates adverse
consequences to educational development.
A shortage of qualified kindergarten teachers is a common problem in many countries
(Dowling & O’Malley, 2009; Lindahl, 2015; Wu, 2011). In Australia, for example, the supply of
qualified early childhood teachers cannot meet the ever-growing demand, and the country has
difficulty recruiting and retaining qualified candidates (Purcal & Fisher, 2007). Dowling and
O’Malley (2009) point out that the Northern Territory saw a reduction of 67% in early childhood
education teaching graduates between 2001 and 2007.
In the United States, the National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future (2003)
declared teacher shortages a national crisis, which was reiterated as a pressing concern in 2009
(Flynt & Morton, 2009). Ingersoll (2004) estimates that, each year, over one million teachers
enter, exit, or transit between schools and districts in the United States, and this mass movement
can wreak havoc on students, coworkers, parents, school administrators, and school districts.
During the 2011–2012 school year, over 15% of all public school teachers nationwide either
switched schools or quit the profession entirely (Ingersoll, 2004). When comparing the 1990–
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 23

1991 and 2012–2013 school years, the rate of public school teachers transitioning schools or
leaving the profession almost doubled (Goldring et al., 2014).
Similarly, high attrition rates can be found in kindergartens in Hong Kong. Data from the
Hong Kong government (Education Bureau, 2018b) suggests that these rates have risen over the
past decade. In the 2013–2014 school year, the overall kindergarten teacher attrition rate was 8%
10.5% in the 2016–2017 school year, and 12.3% in the 2018–19 school year (Education Bureau,
2018a). This increase in the kindergarten teacher attrition rate adversely affects the stability of
the teaching force and has a negative impact on students’ learning (Yuen, 2017).
Possible Causes of High Teacher Attrition
Much research has examined the causes of teacher attrition around the globe. In
particular, research has examined factors that spur teachers to leave the profession, including low
salaries (Ingersoll, 2001, 2004; European Union, 2013; Mertler, 2016), quality of teacher
preparation programs (Ronfeldt, 2012; Goldhaber & Cowan, 2014; Goldhaber et al., 2016),
principal leadership (Allensworth et al., 2009; Boyd et al., 2011; Wynn et al., 2007), workload
(Hakanen et al., 2006; European Union, 2013; Ingersoll, 2012), and working conditions
(Ingersoll, 2003; Elfers et al., 2006; European Union, 2013; Geiger & Pivovarova, 2018). Each
of these factors is briefly examined below.
Teacher Salaries
Salary is one of the many factors in teacher attrition. Education has lower starting salaries
and lower lifetime earnings than most other careers, which directly affects teacher attrition as the
opportunity cost of leaving their jobs is lower than in other professions (Darling-Hammond,
2010; Gilpin & Kaganovich, 2012; Walker et al., 2010). Low salaries lead to “brain drain” and
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 24

lower quality in education as schools fail to attract the brightest and best candidates when
compared with other professions (Gilpin & Kaganovich, 2012).
Walker et al. (2010) compared teaching salaries to a range of occupational groupings that
one might view as similar, in terms of unobserved characteristics, to academics. They concluded
that teaching professionals generally earn lower salaries than most public sector graduates, and
teachers’ earnings measure unfavorably against most other comparable professionals (Walker et
al., 2010). Similarly, utilizing data from the Current Population Survey and the National
Compensation Survey to trace and compare teacher compensation with that of other professions
over two decades, Allegretto et al. (2004) found that, since 1996, teachers’ inflation-adjusted
weekly wages have risen 0.8% while those of other college graduates rose 12%. These statistics
prompt policymakers to analyze what ought to be done to teachers’ compensation to retain a
stable teaching force. Furthermore, Cowan and Goldhaber (2018) suggest that financial
motivation has a direct relationship with teacher turnover. The authors studied a teacher
incentive policy in Washington State that awards a financial bonus to National Board certified
teachers in high-poverty schools. They found that the policy increased the proportion of certified
teachers in bonus-eligible schools by improving hiring, increasing incumbent teachers’
certification rates, and reducing the turnover rate.
Outside of the United States, low salaries also exacerbate the loss of talented workers in
the teaching profession. In a cross-countries study by the Organisation for Economic Co-
Operation and Development, McKenzie, and Santiago (2005) examined economic data across 25
countries and found that teachers’ relative salaries are declining in most countries when
compared with those countries’ GDP per capita. Related research pointed out that, to compete for
highly qualified candidates and retain them, schools must use signing bonuses and increases in
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 25

starting pay. Studies on salaries have concluded that teachers would stay if districts offered
signing bonuses and higher pay, despite the many difficulties and adverse conditions teachers
may face in the workplace (Figlio, 1997; Imazeki, 2005; Ingersoll & May, 2011).
Quality of Teacher Training Programs
Adequate and high-quality training programs can better prepare candidates to meet the
challenges they will face in classrooms and, therefore, reduce turnover. Guha and colleagues
(2017) point out that turnover is higher in school districts that meet shortages by hiring
candidates who have not completed adequate preparation. In those school districts, novices
without proper and completed training tend to leave after their first year at more than twice the
rate of those who have had rigorous preparation. Also, the authors suggest that teachers who do
not receive mentoring and support in their first years leave at much higher rates than those whose
school or district provides such support. In a similar study, Ronfeldt and McQueen (2017)
suggest that policymakers should work to combat turnover by implementing induction programs
for early-career teachers. They found that teachers receiving induction support in the first year
had lower migration and attrition, and this result is fairly consistent across disciplines and
schools.
Principal Leadership
Studies in different countries have suggested that strong principal leadership can enhance
teacher retention. Boyd et al. (2011) examined the impact of six aspects of school context on the
retention of first-year K-12 teachers in New York City: school leadership, teachers’ classroom
autonomy and influence on school policies, teachers’ relations with colleagues, student behavior,
school safety, and school facilities. The authors found that school leadership was the only factor
that significantly predicted retention (Boyd et al., 2011). Their measure of school leadership was
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 26

based on several survey items including whether an effective school discipline policy was in
place, whether the school administration was perceived as evaluating teachers fairly, and whether
the school administration consulted with faculty before making decisions. The results from this
research indicate that schools with poor leadership will have higher levels of attrition (Boyd et
al., 2011).
Research outside of the United States also suggests that the nature and quality of school
leadership are strongly associated with teacher retention. Hulpia and colleagues (2011) drew on
data from more than 1,500 secondary school teachers in Belgium to consider factors that affect
their commitment to their schools. Their findings suggest that commitment was related to the
quality of support provided by school leaders, the degree of cooperation among school leaders,
and the extent to which teachers contribute to school decision making (Hulpia et al., 2011). In
their study on the Norway school system, Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2011a) used data from over
2,500 elementary and middle school teachers to examine how supervisory support and other
aspects of the school context affected teacher satisfaction and commitment to the teaching
profession. The authors suggest that supervisory support was directly related to teachers’ feeling
of belonging at their schools and indirectly related to job satisfaction; the indirect relationship
between supervisory support and satisfaction was mediated by a sense of belonging (Skaalvik &
Skaalvik, 2011b).
The aforementioned research all points to strong principal leadership and adequate
support to retain teachers. Schools that experience high attrition are associated with poor
leadership and deficient support. As such, policy reform and improvement in principal leadership
are requisite steps to reduce teacher attrition.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 27

Teacher Workloads
Heavy workload is another factor that leads to high attrition. In a survey study of 246
teachers in England and Wales, Barmby (2006) found that, although more intrinsic and altruistic
reasons were given by teachers for going into the profession, the issue of workload was
important in dissuading candidates from entering the profession or causing them to leave it.
Employing both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, Thibodeaux and colleagues
(2015) asked which factors contributed most to teachers leaving the profession and found that
workload, lack of administrative support, and student discipline were major decisive factors. In
Hong Kong, when the government initiated measures to improve the quality of early childhood
education, kindergarten teachers began to feel pressured to provide the preschool education that
parents desire in terms of a more academic-oriented approach rather than the more child-centered
and developmentally appropriate approach. Such drastic changes imposed significant workloads
and expectations on kindergarten teachers (Ho, 2006; Leung, 2012; Rao & Li, 2009).
Teacher Working Conditions
Working conditions, a component of school climate, have been linked with teacher
retention. Typically, schools serving lower-income or lower-achieving students have higher
teacher attrition rates (Darling-Hammond, 2003). These increased rates may be attributed to the
poorer working conditions typically found in schools serving lower-income or lower-achieving
students. A California survey indicated that teachers in schools serving higher numbers of poor
and minority students reported poorer working conditions than those typically found in higher-
wealth schools (Harris, 2002). The working conditions reported included inferior facilities, lack
of supplies, inadequate administrative support, and larger class sizes. The author points out that
if the working conditions are poor, teachers have a higher tendency to leave.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 28

In related research, Elfers et al. (2006) conducted a two-part study focused on attrition of
the teaching force in the state of Washington. They found the percentage of stayers at a school is
negatively associated with the poverty level of the school’s student population. The authors point
out that certain conditions are likely to make a difference in teachers’ desire to stay at a school.
In particular, the amount of support at home for students’ learning and the level of disciplinary
issues in teaching students vary considerably depending on the poverty level of the school. In
high-poverty schools, teachers found it more difficult to communicate with parents about their
children’s learning, and the degree to which parents and community actively participated in the
school was lower. Elfers et al. suggest that these factors help explain the negative correlation
between teacher retention and school poverty.
Using Arizona public school teachers’ employment data along with their responses to a
working conditions survey and information about schools where they were employed, Geiger
and Pivovarova (2018) related perceptions of working conditions to attrition rates and school
characteristics. The authors suggest there are no significant differences in attrition rates based on
student poverty level and a school’s percentage of minority students alone. Instead, it is
perceived working conditions that result in the relationship between high attrition rates and
school demographics. The findings have implications for policy and school leadership, as
working conditions, including supportive and effective school leadership as well as training and
professional development, might mitigate attrition.
In Hong Kong, kindergarten teachers perceive a lesser image and status of their
profession when compared to their counterparts in primary and secondary schools (Ho, 2006).
Parents and society as a whole generally do not see teaching kindergarten as prestigious as
teaching primary or secondary grades. This is partly due to a history of inadequate and
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 29

inappropriate training in preschool teaching (Ho, 2006). Kindergarten teachers’ desire for
professional status and autonomy increases as they receive more training and obtain higher
qualifications in early childhood education (Ho, 2006). However, they do not receive sufficient
acknowledgement or support at their workplaces as, often, there are inadequate incentives or
promotion opportunities despite successful performance (Li, 2015). In addition, kindergarten
teachers have very limited opportunities to reflect on their teaching due to heavy workload, time
constraints, and lack of a supportive work environment (Li, 2009, 2015).
This section presented various underlying causes that give rise to high teacher attrition.
To understand what this attrition means and how its adversely affects students, one needs to look
into the possible consequences of frequent turnover.
Consequences of High Teacher Attrition
High teacher attrition leads to various adverse effects on students, teachers, education
institutions, and society. High attrition leads to inconsistency and discontinuity in teaching,
adversely affects the cohesiveness and effectiveness of school communities, hinders students’
academic attainment, prevents the smooth operation of schools, disrupts school reforms, and
imposes teachers’ recruitment and training costs on schools (Bryk et al., 1990; Ingersoll, 2001).
This section reviews some representative research on these issues.
Effects on Student Performance
A vast body of research examines adverse consequences related to low teacher retention
on student academic achievement (Barnes et al., 2007; Boyd et al., 2005; Boyd et al., 2008;
Connors-Krikorian & Twomey, 2005; Darling-Hammond, 2003, 2007; Guarino et al., 2006;
Guin, 2004; Hanushek et al., 1999; Ingersoll, 2001; Kane et al., 2006; Rivkin et al., 2005;
Rockoff, 2004; Ronfeldt et al., 2013). Ingersoll (2001), for instance, found that quality of school
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 30

performance is disrupted by a high rate of teacher turnover, and this high turnover may imply
underlying problems within the school. Ingersoll pointed out that loss of key teachers or
administrators may create discontinuity, disrupt the smooth operation of the school system, and
adversely affect the quality of instructional programs. In a second example, Guin (2004) looked
at the relationship between school-level teacher turnover and the proportion of students meeting
standards on statewide assessments in reading and mathematics. Guin found that students at
schools with high teacher turnover will have lower academic achievement. This finding is
consistent with other correlational evidence (Boyd et al., 2005; Hanushek et al., 1999).
In a related study, Darling-Hammond (2007) found that expert teachers are the most
important school resource. Without those who have sophisticated skills for teaching challenging
content to diverse learners, there is no way that children from all socioeconomic, racial, and
ethnic backgrounds can attain high academic standards. Underprepared and inexperienced
candidates who know little about effective instruction enter the classroom and leave soon after
create instability in the school and adversely affect student learning. Similarly, using New York
City school’s data from 2000 to 2005, Boyd et al. (2008) found a strong correlation between
teacher attrition and quality of learning. The authors found that in schools with high teacher
turnover, students are more likely to be taught by inexperienced and less effective teachers.
Applying a unique identification strategy and two classes of fixed-effects regression
models, Ronfeldt et al. (2013) illustrated that students in schools with higher teacher turnover
rates earn lower scores in both English language arts and mathematics. Their results also suggest
a disruptive effect of turnover beyond simply changing the composition of teachers and their
quality.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 31

This consequence of high attrition on student outcomes is particularly important in early
childhood education as research has shown that success in early school years is a strong indicator
for later school success (Belsky & MacKinnon, 1994; Hausken & Rathbun, 2002; Ramey &
Ramey, 1992; Reynolds, 1991). Raikes (1993), for example, points out that frequent turnover
among kindergarten teachers prevents children from developing a secure attachment with
teachers. In addition, teachers’ high turnover will impose a negative effect on children’s social,
emotional, and language development (Korjenevitch & Dunifon, 2010; Porter, 2012).
Research also suggests that teachers’ attrition may prevent teaching effectiveness.
Theobald (1990) points out that a high attrition rate provokes discontinuity in the classroom,
which is detrimental to students’ learning. In particular, as schools need to recruit new teachers
on a regular basis, schools’ overall teaching quality will be adversely affected. Even though
newly-recruited teachers may be well-prepared and well-educated, much of their effectiveness
will only develop through experience (Gilbert, 2005; Rice, 2003). Other researchers (Kane et al.,
2006; Rockoff, 2004; Rivkin et al., 2005) echo Theobald’s work by showing that low teacher
retention may adversely affect students. Students are more likely to have inexperienced and less
effective teachers in high-turnover schools. Second, high turnover creates instability, making it
more difficult to maintain a coherent form of instruction (Rockoff, 2004). Lastly, students’
learning will be adversely affected if those leaving are the more effective teachers (Kane et al.,
2006).
In addition to adverse effects on student performance, research suggests attrition has
significant monetary and non-pecuniary costs to schools.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 32

Costs to Schools
High teacher attrition imposes various kinds of costs to schools as administrators need to
continuously divert resources to recruit and train new candidates. Barnes et al. (2007) found that
schools with high teacher turnover are constantly rebuilding their staff, and an inordinate amount
of human and financial capital are consumed by recruiting and replacing teachers. High-turnover
schools are also extremely costly to operate due to the cycle of hiring and replacement. This
constant searching drains districts of funding that could be spent to improve teaching quality and
student achievement (Barnes et al., 2007).
A study by Nweke and Eads (2007) on the cost of teacher attrition in Georgia found that,
within the year of research, it cost the state almost $400 million to replace teachers lost to
attrition. Nweke and Eads indicate that if the state had reduced attrition by about 35%, that cost
would have been reduced by more than $136 million. Elsewhere around the globe, high attrition
also imposes significant costs to the education system. In a qualitative study conducted in
Nigeria, Wushishi et al. (2014) found that a considerable amount of money was spent whenever
the government wanted to recruit teachers. The funds went to advertising, hiring of facilitators to
train new candidates, the process of posting, and related costs. The authors noted that this cost
could have been reduced and diverted to improve the quality of education if attrition were
reduced (Wushishi et al., 2014).
Costs of teacher attrition are not confined to financial costs to schools and the adverse
effects on students, but they also impose a detrimental effect on teachers, affecting their sense of
belonging and their motivation to be effective.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 33

Effects on Organizational Culture and Performance
Research suggests that the organizational culture, including a sense of belonging and
motivational and social well-being, are negatively affected by high teacher attrition.
Sense of belonging. Cueto and colleagues (2010) define sense of belonging as the degree
to which people feel socially connected. Following this conceptualization, teachers’ feeling of
belonging at school may be viewed as the degree to which they feel integrated with the school,
administrators, each other, students, and the larger community. Moreover, according to
Goodenow (1993), belonging requires experiences of being liked, respected, and valued. If
teachers do not share the norms and values prevailing in the school or do not feel respected or
liked, they are likely to hear deprecatory comments about themselves and their practices
(Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2011a). As a result, they are increasingly likely to quit their job. In
addition, a high attrition rate affects the sense of belonging at a school due to lack of a sense of
community or prevailing norms and values (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2011b).
In Hong Kong, Choi and Tang (2009, 2011) employed a life history method to investigate
teachers’ self-appraisal of their commitment levels. The authors found that the interplay of
personal, workplace, and education systemic factors affects how teachers feel about their
relationship with their school and their level of commitment to the school. Choi and Tang
suggest that commitment involves assuming one’s responsibility for choice and acting
intentionally in the world. When teachers are caught by a feeling that they must trade in their
personal time for the continuation of employment, teachers as employees may approach the
whole process of commitment negatively, or feel discouraged.
Motivational and social well-being. Another consequence of high attrition is the effect
on teacher motivation and social well-being. Connors-Krikorian and Twomey (2005) argue that a
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 34

teacher’s sense of community with the school, or social well-being, is one of the most important
characteristics of an effective school. Rapid and consistent teacher turnover creates a barrier to
developing a consistent and coherent school culture sensitive to students’ developmental needs
and in which there is strong relationship building among students, teachers, and parents.
Darling-Hammond (2003) suggests that, to improve student achievement, administrators
must attract, retain, and support the continued learning of well-prepared and committed teachers.
Teachers with training and experience to be effective in teaching and communicating with
students are more motivated and are a valuable human resource. The researcher also stresses that
student achievement has been strongly correlated to teachers’ preparation in both subject matter
and teaching methods as well as to their preparation to work with diverse students (Darling-
Hammond, 2003). Further, student performance on state tests is significantly higher for students
whose teachers are fully certified and have higher scores on teacher certification tests. As such,
recruiting and keeping capable teachers is central to student achievement, and school leaders
need to study and understand the reasons behind attrition if they are to develop and maintain an
effective learning environment (Darling-Hammond, 2003).
An overview of literature suggests educational reform and policy change is imperative to
ameliorate the adverse effects of high teacher attrition. Various practices to retain teachers have
shown promise, as discussed below.
Effective Practices to Retain Teachers
A variety of practices have shown promise in retaining teachers, including practices that
build teacher prestige and commitment, enhance teacher efficacy, and build a supportive culture
for teachers.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 35

Practices to Build Teacher Prestige and Commitment
Prestige and commitment are the strength of teachers’ involvement and identification
with their school and are positively related to job satisfaction and fulfillment (Chan et al., 2008).
High attrition rates of kindergarten teachers early in their careers implies that some novices may
feel pressured and over-burdened by the transition from teacher education to work (Mischo,
2015). Low teacher attrition, on the other hand, provides stability, continuity care, and a secure
environment for young children (Holochwost et al., 2009). By witnessing children develop their
abilities and achieve to their full potential, teachers may view teaching as a prestigious,
rewarding, and meaningful job (Moloney & Pope, 2015). Such intangible feelings, in turn,
enhance retention. In addition, strong incentive programs can reinforce commitment to the job. A
strong incentive package can include comprehensive health insurance, paid leave, and childcare
so that teachers may feel the school cares for their health and well-being (Holochwost et al.,
2009). Hall-Kenyon, Bullough, MacKay, and Marshall (2014) also point out that wage incentive
programs that link to educational attainment or relevant achievements could be effective in
retention. Further, higher job retention rates imply longer tenures in the field and can lead to
promotions such as to senior teacher or supervisor, which may build prestige and enhance
commitment to early childhood education (Bridges et al., 2011).
Practices for Enhancing Teacher Efficacy
Teacher self-efficacy affects teacher’s perceived competence in performing their job.
They are not likely to be retained if they do not feel confident and comfortable in their practice.
Bandura (1993, 1997) points out that motivation, learning, and performance are enhanced when
people have positive expectations about their own ability and role in achieving success. Teacher
efficacy is described as the teacher’s own perception of their capacity to affect students’
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 36

performance, or perceived capacity to achieve educational goals, despite facing various obstacles
(Mischo, 2015). A high level of self-efficacy has been shown to be correlated with expressed job
commitment by both pre-service and in-service-teachers (Jamil et al., 2012). Kindergarten
teachers with high self-efficacy have stronger commitment and tend to stay in their job longer.
Improvement in the quality of teacher education and related training can enhance their self-
efficacy, which, in turn, strengthens their effectiveness and affects their decision to stay in their
job.
To enhance self-efficacy, kindergarten teachers need to possess the educational
qualifications, knowledge, and professional commitment to promote young children’s learning
and holistic development (Holochwost et al., 2009). To teach children effectively, kindergarten
teachers need to have knowledge about early childhood foundations, domain-specific curriculum
content, and issues related to working with parents and children with diverse linguistic and
cultural needs (Lobman et al., 2005). The last is important in the context of Hong Kong as many
Chinese families have immigrated to the city from Mainland China since the turnover of
sovereignty (Law & Lee, 2006).
Brill and McCartney (2008) note induction (onboarding) and mentoring as effective
practices that enhance teacher efficacy and reduce attrition. Watlington and colleagues (2010)
point out that the experience a teacher has during the first few years on the job is a strong
indicator of whether they will stay or leave. If administrators devote time and provide adequate
resources to induction and mentoring programs, teachers are likely to stay longer at the job.
In a study on teachers’ perceptions of student misbehavior, emotional exhaustion, and
efficacy beliefs, Tsouloupas et al. (2010) found that burnout lies behind the struggle to keep
teachers satisfied and committed at work (Chan, 2006). Based on analysis of data collected from
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 37

610 elementary, middle, and high school teachers, Tsouloupas et al. (2010) found a significant
relationship between emotional exhaustion and turnover intentions. Their findings signify the
importance of developing strategies that enhance teachers’ situation-specific efficacy beliefs.
In the context of Asia, teacher attrition is especially low in Singapore, averaging only 3%
annually (Ministry of Education, Singapore, 2016). Ng, Lim, Low, and Hui (2018) suggest that
appropriate and sufficient training can significantly improve retention. In particular, the authors
highlight the practice of providing candidates with early field experiences, which may enhance
retention and promote resilience. Early field experiences involve direct teaching responsibilities
over a substantial period of time, which help promote student teachers’ passion for teaching, self-
efficacy beliefs, and positive emotions. Ng et al. (2018) conclude that these resilient qualities
should vastly contribute to retention.
Practices that Build a Supportive Culture for Teachers
To retain teachers, a supportive culture in terms of adequate support and training is also
essential. A supportive culture helps teachers understand how to apply knowledge in program
planning and execution in the classroom. Bridges et al. (2011) point out that indicators of good
teacher quality include child-teacher interactions bonded in secure and trusting relationships that
will foster children’s curiosity, reasoning, and problem-solving skills while promoting and
developing their cognitive and social-behavioral skills.
In Finland, for example, pedagogical reform and restructuring of teachers’ work has been
carried out to establish a new level of professionalism for teachers. Reform is predicated on
teacher autonomy, a commitment to enabling students to become active independent learners,
engagement in lifelong learning, and collaboration with the various educational stakeholders
(Webb et al., 2004). The intention of this policy is to empower teachers and enable them to
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 38

influence the direction and development of educational reform. Trust is placed in teachers, and
schools are seen as learning communities in which teachers as well as pupils seek to extend their
knowledge and skills (Webb et al., 2004).
Boyd et al. (2011) and Evans (2017) point out the connection between classroom
autonomy and working conditions in relation to retention decisions. Evans (2017) suggests there
is a strong correlation between autonomy and the decisions to stay or leave the job. The author
notes that teachers want to have control and freedom from interruption by school administrators,
and having such autonomy could be an indicator of how the school values their work.
Another aspect of a supportive culture is good school leadership (Allensworth et al.,
2009; Fisher, 2011; Simon & Johnson, 2013). Allensworth et al. (2009) examined the effect of
principal leadership and other school organizational conditions on the retention of beginning K-
12 teachers in Chicago. Their results suggested that the retention rate was higher in schools
where teachers viewed their principal as a strong instructional leader, where teachers expressed
high levels of trust in their principals, and where teachers reported having influence over school
decisions. Simon and Johnson (2013) point out the quality of school leadership plays an
important role in whether a teacher decides to stay or leave. Teachers’ belief that administrators
care and work toward a common goal with the teaching staff, trust among teachers and
administrators, open and constant communication, clear guidance, and timely support, are
indicators of a supportive culture. In a study of teacher stress and burnout, Fisher (2011) found
that having trust in school leadership will reduce the amount of stress and burnout teachers have,
and this culture of trust will aid retention.
In addition, Choi and Tang (2011) suggest that teacher educators need to help candidates
unfold their beliefs regarding teacher commitment (Day et al., 2005; Easthope & Easthope,
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 39

2007), which has to be balanced with the perspective of overall life satisfaction (Lent & Brown,
2008; Yilmaz, 2008). As Easthope and Easthope (2007) point out, teachers often perceive a
decrease in workload as a decrease in teaching quality, forcing themselves to work longer hours,
threatening physical and emotional well-being. As such, school administrators need to re-
examine their concept of commitment and regulate excessive school initiatives and community
expectations (Ware & Kitsantas, 2007).
Following this review of literature on the causes and consequences of teacher attrition,
and effective retention practices, the following section turns to Cannan Kindergarten specifically
and the teacher knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that may be causes of their
high teacher attrition.
Te ac h e r s ’ Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Clark and Estes (2008) provide a systematic, analytic framework that clarifies
organizational and stakeholder performance goals and identifies the gap between current
performance level and the performance goal. Once the gap is identified, this framework
specifically examines stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that may
affect performance gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008). The analytical framework of Anderson and
Krathwohl (2001) suggests four different knowledge types: factual, conceptual, procedural and
metacognitive. These types of knowledge and skills are defined below and herein used to
determine if stakeholders know how to achieve a specific performance goal. Each type of
knowledge that teachers need to possess are categorized into one of these knowledge types
because each knowledge type is evaluated differently.
Clark and Estes (2008) discuss three types of motivational processes: active choice,
persistence, and mental effort. Active choice refers to taking action to work toward a
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 40

performance goal. Persistence describes the continued work toward that goal, regardless of
distractions. Mental effort denotes working smarter to find solutions to achieve performance
goals. Motivational principles such as self-efficacy, attributions, utility value, and goals can be
considered when analyzing the performance gap (Rueda, 2011).
As it pertains to organizations, Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) explore the idea of
culture through two main concepts: cultural model and cultural settings. Cultural models are the
values and beliefs that are intangible and automated in daily life. Cultural models may include a
sense of belonging to an organization and mutual trust between colleagues. Cultural settings are
visible within an organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Examples of cultural settings are
open communication channels within the school and adequate teacher training.
Each of these elements of Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis are addressed in the
following sections in terms of teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs to meet
the performance goal of remaining at Cannan Kindergarten for at least 5 years. The first section
below provides a discussion of the assumed influences on the stakeholder performance goal in
the context of knowledge and skills. Then, assumed influences on the attainment of the
stakeholder goal from the perspective of motivation are examined. Lastly, assumed
organizational influences on achievement of the stakeholder goal are explored. Each of these
assumed stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on performance are
examined through the methodology discussed in Chapter Three.
Knowledge and Skills
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) suggest a revision to Bloom’s (1956) hierarchical
taxonomy of cognitive skills that re-conceptualized the location of knowledge within the
taxonomy. The revised taxonomy identifies four sub-categories of knowledge: factual,
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 41

conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. The definition of factual knowledge is the
understanding of definitions and terms. Conceptual knowledge refers to knowledge pertaining to
relationships, processes, and categories. Procedural knowledge describes how-to steps and
strategies. Metacognitive is one’s action of self-assessing or self-monitoring. The types of
knowledge important for teachers at Cannan Kindergarten to continue their employment will fall
in one of these four categories. The following sections present the different assumed knowledge
influences in a comprehensive and holistic way to understand the degree to which teachers are
likely to continue their employment.
Factual Knowledge
Factual knowledge is considered the basic knowledge or information required within a
discipline to solve a problem. Factual knowledge includes standard terminology used in a field or
discipline, and any knowledge related to job requirements. At Cannan, teachers need to be aware
of the potential benefits of remaining at their jobs. Oftentimes, the deferred compensation for not
leaving, such as opportunities for promotion, improved health and medical insurance packages,
higher salary, longer annual leave, long-term service awards, and other non-pecuniary benefits
related to seniority, can be attractive and significant enough for teachers to choose to stay in their
job (Adams & Heywood, 2011; Huck et al., 2011). Without clear understanding and knowledge
of these future benefits, the opportunity cost of leaving the job early could be substantial.
Conceptual Knowledge
Conceptual knowledge is defined as the interrelationships among the basic elements of
knowledge, which include principles, structures, categories, and theories within a field, and the
way these elements are organized to function efficiently (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). At
Cannan Kindergarten, teachers need to have knowledge of job expectations. They need to
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 42

understand what is expected of them, such as the workload and expectations of school
administrators and parents to ensure that the children’s performance in class supports the mission
of the organization. Without such prior knowledge, teachers may find it difficult to immerse
themselves in their profession, thus affecting their decision to stay on their job (Aslanargun,
2015).
Also, teachers at Cannan must understand the basic terminology and up-to-date
information relating to early childhood education. Lack of such knowledge may adversely affect
the effectiveness and quality of their teaching, causing unnecessary stress and dissatisfaction in
their work. The resulting poor students’ performance and pressure from school administrators
and principals may prompt teachers to consider leaving their job and switching to another school,
or moving on to a completely different profession.
Procedural Knowledge
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) define subject-specific skills required to complete a task
as one of the main components of procedural knowledge. At Cannan, teachers may not know
how to communicate with senior school administrators regarding the problems and challenges
they encounter in the classrooms. If that is the case, it is important that teachers know whom they
should contact, how to voice their opinions, and how to suggest improving students’ learning.
Lack of procedural knowledge related to communication with leadership may discourage
teachers and prompt them to consider whether they should seek a different, more supportive
working environment.
For teachers to remain continuously employed at the school, they need to proactively
communicate with senior administrators regarding their views on various policies so as to
improve efficiency and enhance the quality of their work.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 43

Metacognitive Knowledge
The ability to reflect on one’s own thinking process to adjust the skills, behavior, and
understanding to complete a task is defined as metacognitive knowledge (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001). Metacognition is an aspect of critical thinking or, at a minimum, a related
attribute. Teachers at Cannan need to understand whether their aptitude and character are suitable
for the teaching profession, reflect on their performance and effectiveness in the classroom, and
make adjustments and improvements whenever and wherever appropriate. Failing to do so may
lead to disappointment and discouragement, which may trigger teachers to consider leaving their
job.
The following table provides a summary of the stakeholder’s assumed knowledge and the
corresponding knowledge type.
Table 2
Assumed Knowledge Influences
Teachers’ Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Knowledge Type
Knowledge about job expectations

Knowledge on the potential future
benefits (promotions, pay raise, etc.) of
staying on the job

Declarative (Conceptual)

Declarative (Factual)
Knowledge on how to communicate with
senior school administrators if they
encounter difficulties on the job

Procedural
Knowledge to reflect on their
performance and make improvements if
necessary

Metacognitive

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 44

Motivation
Motivation is another key contributor to reducing teacher attrition. A teacher may be
motivated to succeed in a task or to accomplish a goal as much as they may be motivated to
avoid failing at a task or a goal (Rueda, 2011). Clark and Estes (2008) define motivation as what
“gets us going, keeps us moving, and tells us how much effort to spend on work tasks” (p. 80).
They point out that unmotivated people, regardless of how experienced and intelligent they are,
lack the direction, persistence, and energy to accomplish the goals they set themselves (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Motivation is important because it affects individuals’ behavior and their likelihood
of successfully achieving a goal. There are three indices of motivated behavior: active choice,
persistence, and mental effort (Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). Active choice refers to taking action
to work towards a specific goal. Persistence implies a person’s perseverance on working towards
that goal, regardless of the distractions he or she faces. Mental effort means understanding how
much is needed and using appropriate strategies to press forward for goal attainment. These three
factors play an important role in motivational behavior. A close and purposeful examination of
these factors enables researchers to understand what motivates teachers to show up at work every
day, do their best to provide a good educational experience for their students, and remain
enthusiastic in staying at their job.
Two important underlying motivation constructs are utility value and self-efficacy. Both
were explored in depth as relevant to teachers’ retention decisions at Cannan Kindergarten.
Utility Value
Utility value is defined as the perceived usefulness of a task (Pintrich, 2003), or the task’s
alignment with personal goals and psychological needs (Eccles, 2006). Utility value focuses on
the benefits and values of completing a task rather than enjoyment of completing the task (Clark
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 45

& Estes, 2008). In the context of this study, teachers at Cannan should understand the attainment
value of their job is to educate the children well and need to perceive being employed at Cannan
as supportive and in alignment with their professional goals. Utility value, in the case of Cannan,
is about the teacher recognizing that remaining in their organization of employment holds some
value for their future goals; it has to be useful and of value for their goals. Teachers at Cannan
must believe in the utility, or usefulness, of remaining employed at the school. If they do not
perceive that being employed at Cannan is aligned with their professional goals, they are not
likely to remain, and they will not persist through difficult times in their work nor mentally
sustain their effort (Rueda, 2011).
Research has pointed out promising practices in reducing teacher attrition by focusing on
the utility value of remaining employed, such as autonomy and decision-making capacity at the
school level (Whipp & Geronime, 2017; Wronowski, 2018). Allowing classroom autonomy and
decision making can enhance teachers’ perceptions of the school as aligned with their
professional goals. As Rueda (2011) suggests, there is a certain amount of intrinsic value in this
as the teacher may enjoy their work more by having more control over what they do in school.
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is the internal belief that the task or goal can be accomplished successfully
(Rueda, 2011). In his social-cognitive research, Bandura (1993, 1997) demonstrated that
motivation, learning, and performance are enhanced when learners have positive expectations
about their own ability and role in achieving success. Pajares (2006) suggests that high self-
efficacy can positively influence motivation. Oftentimes, if learners feel competent and confident
in succeeding at a task, they will apply sufficient effort to succeed despite encountering
difficulties and setbacks. Without adequate self-efficacy, individuals will have difficulty
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 46

beginning a task or working to accomplish a goal, persisting through it and mentally sustaining
the effort required to complete the task (Bandura, 1993).
In the context of Cannan, for teachers to continue their employment, they need to feel
confident in their practice. If they do not perceive they can be effective, they will not choose to
continue, to persist, and to mentally sustain the effort needed to be successful. Lacking such self-
efficacy will likely lead to their leaving the school or even the profession. As many of the
teachers who leave have worked at the school for less than 5 years, it is likely that these novices
struggle more with their professional self-efficacy than the incumbent teachers. As such, they are
more likely to leave the school than the experienced teachers. Findings from past research
support the notion that confidence in one’s own ability takes years to build, so the more
experienced teachers are less likely to quit (Helfeldt et al., 2015; Shen, 1997).
These two motivation influences, utility value and self-efficacy, are the main underlying
constructs necessary for teachers to proactively choose to remain employed, persist in
performing their duties the best they can, and mentally sustain their efforts.
Table 2 presents a summary of the stakeholder’s assumed motivation influences and the
corresponding motivation constructs.
Table 3
Assumed Motivation Influences
Teachers’ Assumed Motivation Influence Motivation Construct
Teachers need to perceive working at
Cannan as a supportive environment

Utility Value
Teachers at Cannan need to feel
confident in their ability to be effective
in their practice as teachers

Self-Efficacy
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 47

Organizational Influences
Organizational influences play an important role in teacher retention. To attain the
stakeholder goal, it is imperative to understand the role of the organization and how it influences
the achievement of retaining teachers. In their gap analysis framework, Clark and Estes (2008)
stipulate that organizational influences have an impact on performance. Organizational issues
can contribute to knowledge and motivational gaps and are often the root cause of performance
problems (Rueda, 2011). Organizations have their own cultures (Clark & Estes, 2008), and
Schein (2004) suggests that culture reflects an organization’s personality. The study of an
organizational culture closely resembles the study of an individual’s personality and
characteristics. Organizational culture analysis is warranted when stakeholders identify a need to
change or an area to improve (Kezar, 2001). Organizational culture can be analyzed from
different angles, from the visible aspects of the culture to the underlying assumptions that have
been internalized by the individuals within the culture. Two useful and intricately linked tools to
analyze organizational culture, cultural models and cultural settings, are proposed by Gallimore
and Goldenberg (2001) and Rueda (2011).
Cultural Models
Cultural models are the shared assumptions and understandings held by members of an
organization; they are really what is unseen or invisible within the organization (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001; Rueda, 2011). Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) denote cultural models as
“shared mental schema or normative understandings of how the world works, or ought to work.
The concept incorporates behavioral as well as cognitive and affective components” (p. 47).
Cultural models represent the customs that take place in an organization. Customs include the
mutual trust between school administrators and teachers, and teachers’ sense of belonging to the
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 48

school, for example. These invisible elements may influence the cultural model of the school or
the organization, and how school administrators value and respond to these invisible elements
will have an effect on teachers’ retention decisions.
In the context of this study, for teachers to extend their employment with the
organization, administrators need to focus on the invisible aspects of the school’s culture. In
particular, administrators need to cultivate a sense of belonging among teachers and a culture of
mutual trust between administrators and teachers to encourage teachers to perform effectively
and value their employment at the school. Trust is an essential building block for achieving
performance goals. As Fisher (2011) points out, having trust in school leadership will help
ameliorate teacher stress and burnout, lead to reduction in grievances, and help retain teachers.
Teachers at Cannan must feel confident that their senior administrators will act on their behalf
and prioritize teachers’ interests. Likewise, administrators need to maintain open communication
with teachers and give clear guidance and support to ensure teachers will devote themselves to
the job wholeheartedly and professionally to achieve the performance goal of remaining at their
job.
Cultural Settings
Cultural settings refer to the visible and tangible manifestations of a culture. Examples of
settings include the physical work environment and the daily routines and practices of an
organization’s members: the more concrete, visual aspects of the organization (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001; Rueda, 2011). Cultural settings are the “who, what, when, where, why, and
how of the routines which constitute everyday life” (Rueda, 2011, p. 57). Cultural settings of any
organization affect the individuals operating within the cultural model (Rueda, 2011). In a school
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 49

setting, the cultural settings influence may refer to pedagogical or disciplinary practices in place
for students to learn effectively and be successful.
There are many forms of cultural settings influences. In the context of Cannan, the school
can establish open communication to enable teachers to voice their needs, concerns, and
suggestions on improving teaching quality. In addition, the school may increase teaching
resources, training, and professional development for them to be effective in the classroom and
empower teachers with more autonomy in decision making. Cannan can also provide teachers an
attractive incentives package and a better deferred compensation scheme if they choose to
remain in the job. Administrators’ leadership behavior plays a role in teachers’ professional
satisfaction and retention decisions (Chapa, 2012; Dajani, 2014; Welch, 2014).
To be effective and successful in the classroom and to continue teaching, teachers need
ample support and resources. Clark and Estes (2008) describe resources as the “tangible supplies
and equipment to achieve goals” (p. 104). At Cannan, school administrators can provide better
and more up-to-date resources such as new computers, textbooks, and teaching aids to enable
efficient job performance. Enhanced support can contribute to the school’s overall climate and
entice teachers to feel valued and cared for.
Cannan can also consider a more attractive incentive package. School administrators
should reward teachers with a salary that rightfully reflects the effort they put into their work, or
a better health insurance policy such that they feel the school cares for their health and well-
being. Cannan can also make use of a good deferred compensation scheme as a positive
incentive to reward teachers for not leaving. Such schemes may include higher pecuniary
compensation, promotion to senior teaching or administration positions, and a better health
insurance package.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 50

Training and continuous professional development are also examples of cultural settings.
To ensure that Cannan teachers are effective and successful in the classroom, and to achieve the
performance goal of teacher retention, school administrators must be responsible for monitoring
the professional development of their staff and offer training when improvements are called for.
Ambrose and colleagues (2010) point out that teachers’ inability to understand how students
learn and identify effective and appropriate instruction methodology are possible causes of
students’ failure in the classroom. As such, leadership at Cannan should have a mechanism in
place for teachers to improve their knowledge and skills to ensure the performance goal is met.
With the stakeholder performance goal of having all teachers at Cannan remain employed
for at least five years, and given that many teachers who quit prematurely are novices, research
suggests the benefits of early teacher mentorship (Odell & Ferraro, 1992). Cannan needs to help
novice teachers smoothly integrate into the school system and ensure that all parts of the school
are aligned with their expectations. In particular, school leadership needs to help novice teachers
align with incumbent teachers of same grade and subject and align with the school’s academic
and performance goals. It is imperative for the organization’s human resources to help integrate
teachers into the school to ensure that the school attains its performance goal.
Finally, research suggests that for teachers to remain in their positions, Cannan needs to
allow teachers a certain level of classroom autonomy and empower them with decision-making
ability (Evans, 2017; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2014). Teachers carry out their duties daily, and they
know what is best for their students to learn effectively. Thus, instead of relying on school
leadership to make decisions or being micro-managed by administrators, teachers need to be
encouraged to work with their colleagues and be allowed a certain level of independence.
Classroom autonomy enables teachers to feel valued and trusted by the school, which reduces
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 51

their incentive to leave their job (Evans, 2017). Wronowski (2018) points out that increasing
teachers’ autonomy can improve teacher retention rates.
Table 4 presents a summary of the teachers’ assumed organizational influences on
performance and the cultural categories.
Table 4
Assumed Organizational Influences
Teachers’ Assumed Organizational
Influence
Cultural Influences Category
The school cultivates a sense of
belongings among teachers

The school cultivates a culture of mutual
trust between administrators and teachers
Cultural Model
The school provides adequate teaching
resources and training for teachers

The school establishes open
communication channels between
administrators and teachers

The school provides an incentive
package that appropriately reflects
teachers’ efforts

The school provides teachers with
teacher training and professional
development

The school needs to have a mentoring
procedure for the teachers to ensure that
they succeed in the classroom

The school empowers teachers with a
certain level of autonomy and decision-
making power in the classroom

Cultural Setting

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 52

Conclusion
This chapter provided a view of existing literature relating to teachers’ retention. Possible
causes of high attrition, resulting costs and adverse effects on students and schools, and best
practices to reduce teacher attrition were outlined and discussed. This chapter also provided a
conceptual framework for examining teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences to better understand the reasons behind their attrition. The following chapter discusses
the methodological approach employed in this study to understand these assumed knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences at Cannan Kindergarten.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 53

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this study was to conduct a gap analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008) to identify
the causes of high teachers’ attrition at Cannan Kindergarten. The stakeholders of focus were the
teachers who carry out the day-to-day operations and teaching duties. Three research questions
guided this study:
1. What are the teachers’ knowledge, motivation and organizational needs related to the
organization’s goal of improving retention?
2. What are the interactions between the organizational influences and teachers’ knowledge
and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation and organizational solutions for
Cannan?
Stakeholders of Focus
As the problem of practice this study addressed was the high teacher attrition rate at
Cannan Kindergarten, the stakeholders of focus were the teachers. Close to 30% of them leave
their job at the end of each school year. This research sought to better understand the underlying
reasons behind their decisions to leave and to propose policy changes to ameliorate the problem.
Sampling and Recruitment
The population of interest for this research study was the population of teachers
employed by Cannan Kindergarten who carry out the day-to-day teaching duties. The
stakeholder goal for teachers was that, by 2023, all teachers stay at Cannan for a minimum of 5
years. There were three main criteria for recruiting participants.
Criterion 1. Must be regular, full-time teachers currently employed at Cannan
Kindergarten. The rationale was that they could offer insight and detailed information regarding
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 54

their job expectations, job satisfaction, and other relevant information pertinent to their decision
to stay in or leave their position.
Criterion 2. Teachers who have worked at Cannan for no more than five years. The
rationale was that the attrition rate is highest among those in their positions less than five years,
many of whom leave within the first two years of employment. The opinions of those with no
more than five years of teaching at Cannan form a good basis for what the school needs to do to
ensure the long-term stability of the teaching staff.
Criterion 3. Teachers who satisfied the above two criteria were chosen randomly by the
Principal of that campus to participate in the focus group interviews. This step was taken to
avoid selection bias.
Data Collection
This study utilized in-person focus group interviews to probe for in-depth responses
related to teachers’ knowledge, motivation and organizational influences on their decisions to
stay or leave their positions. The research questions stated above guided the data collection and
the development of the interview instrument used. There were two reasons for using in-person
focus group interviews. First, focus groups allowed the researcher to gather the insights of a
larger population. The teachers invited to the focus group interview, which will be further
elaborated on below, covered the majority of teachers who met the criteria set above. Second,
given the dynamics of the school and cultural context, allowing teachers to participate and speak
together in a group, elaborating on what their colleagues had to say, provided a more
comfortable setting to offer insights on relevant issues.
As Patton (2002) explains, “Unlike a series of one-on-one interviews, in a focus group,
participants get to hear each other’s responses and to make additional comments beyond their
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 55

own original responses as they hear what other people have to say” (p. 386). High-quality data
can be obtained in a social context where the interviewees can consider their own views in the
context of the views of others (Patton, 2002).
In particular, focus group interviews allowed interaction among participating teachers,
thereby allowing the interviewer to probe for more in-depth understanding on the questions
asked. In the context of Cannan, conducting a focus group interview allowed teachers to
establish a level of comfort and informality and allowed the researcher to follow up and
elaborate on important points when considering their views in the context of fellow interviewees’
discussions. This form of discussion-type interview enabled the researcher to gather more in-
depth data in a comfortable and familiar setting.
The focus group was also part of data triangulation and of member checking, as described
by Merriam and Tisdell (2016). Triangulation using multiple sources of data compares and cross-
checks data collection through different sources, from different people with different
perspectives (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In this study, data were collected through interviews
with multiple participants. Different perspectives were gathered from the participants, and
further discussion and elaborations by the same participants generate further accuracy in
analyzing the data. This kind of member checking can verify the statements made by participants
from the focus group interview and foster the accuracy of the interview findings (Creswell,
2014).
At the time of the study, there were 12 campuses of various sizes at Cannan
Kindergarten, ranging from employing over 50 to about 10 full-time teachers. To ensure data-
gathering covered the entire spectrum of campus size, teachers from large schools and small
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 56

schools were included in the focus groups. Four focus groups, one at each of the selected
campuses, was conducted.
As of the 2018 school year, the main campus of Cannan had 52 full-time teachers,
whereas the numbers at the other campuses ranged from fewer than 10 to between 20 and 30. As
such, four campuses were selected for focus group interviews based on campus size. The first
was a school with the smallest number of teachers, the second was a campus with between 10
and 20 teachers, the third with between 20 and 30 teachers, and the last one was the main campus
where there were 52 teachers. This stratification of campus size enabled the researcher to
understand how teachers in large and small campuses thought and felt about their job and to
determine if there were any underlying similarities or discrepancies that led to teachers’
employment decisions across campus size.
Five teachers, as long as they satisfied the above criteria, were included in a focus group
interview at each campus, making the total number of teachers interviewed to 20. All in-person
focus group interviews were carried out after class on campus to minimize inconvenience for the
participating teachers. To ensure teachers did not feel tired and exhausted, the duration of the
interviews was limited to one hour.
While the focus group interviews were structured based on predetermined questions and
directions, participating teachers were encouraged to provide open-ended answers. Allowing
teachers to provide open-ended answers in their individual and personal ways, and react to the
questions and follow up on other participants’ responses in an unrestricted and personalized
manner, was an important element of the study design and framework. As pointed out by
Merriam and Tisdell (2016), formal but unrestricted interviews support a fluid and flexible
conversation. Such interview structure ensures that no predetermined set of wording or order of
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 57

questions will obstruct the flow of the discussion, and it allows the researcher to freely respond
to any unexpected change of situation and new information.
Table 5 below shows the methodology for obtaining information from teachers about
their knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on their decisions to stay or leave
their positions at Cannan Kindergarten.
Table 5
Assumed Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Assets of the Teachers
Assumed Influences Method for Assessing the Influence
Factual: Teacher’s knowledge on the
potential future benefits if staying on
their job

Interview
Conceptual: Teacher’s knowledge about
job expectations

Interview
Procedural: Teacher’s knowledge on
how to communicate with school
administrators if they encounter
difficulties on the job

Interview
Metacognitive: Teacher’s knowledge to
reflect on their performance and make
improvements accordingly if necessary

Interview
Utility Value: Teachers perceive
working at Cannan as a supportive
environment

Interview
Self-Efficacy: Teachers at Cannan need
to feel confident in their ability to be
effective in their practice as teachers

Interview
Cultural Setting: The school needs to
provide adequate teaching resources and
training for teachers

Interview

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 58

Assumed Influences Method for Assessing the Influence
Cultural Setting: The school establishes
an open communication channel between
senior management and teachers

Interview
Cultural Setting: The school needs a
mentoring procedure for teachers to
ensure that they succeed in the classroom

Interview
Cultural: The school needs to provide an
incentive package that appropriately
reflects teachers’ efforts

Interview
Cultural Model: The school cultivates a
sense of belongings among teachers

Interview
Cultural Model: The school cultivates a
culture of mutual trust between
administrators and teachers in order to
allow teachers more autonomy in the
classroom

Interview

The focus group interview protocol and questions are available for review in Appendix
A. This includes the alignment of the interview questions with the assumed knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences on teachers’ performance. Given that all participating
teachers were native Chinese nationals and their mother tongue was Cantonese (a Chinese dialect
in the southern part of China), the interviews were conducted in Cantonese as the responses from
the participants could be more candid and information drawn out of the interviews were richer
without distortion caused by a language barrier. The interview protocol was constructed and
developed in English before being translated into Traditional Chinese. The interviews, and all
data collected, were transcribed back into English for analysis.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 59

Data Analysis
After the in-person focus group interviews were conducted, the researcher organized and
prepared the data for analysis, which involved transcribing and translating each of the interviews,
typing up field notes and cataloguing the data into pattern and themes (Creswell, 2014). Utilizing
the conceptual framework, focusing on the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
related to the performance gap, the transcripts of the interviews were coded at different levels.
Coding was used to organize the data by bracketing chunks and writing a representative word on
the margins. From the keywords and main issues commonly raised by the teachers, patterns and
emergent themes were identified by the researcher for the ease of data analysis.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
As with any study, it is imperative for the researcher to ensure the data are believable and
trustworthy (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Since qualitative research does not utilize instruments
with established metrics about validity and reliability, it is pertinent that the researcher establish
that the research findings are credible, transferable, dependable, and confirmable (Guba, 1981).
To establish the credibility and trustworthiness of this study, a strategy of triangulation was
applied (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The interviewer ensured rich and comprehensive data by
taking detailed notes during the interviews and recording the interviews with interviewee
consent. Following the interviews, a full transcript of the interviews was generated. As the
interviewer and researcher of the study were not the same, as discussed below, the researcher, in
conducting the analysis of the data, performed respondent validation and bracketing to reduce
bias (Marshall & Rossman, 2016). Bracketing requires the process of the researcher’s self-
reflection to address the issue of bias by the researcher. Once the biases were written down, the
researcher was to hold them in awareness and not allow them to bias the findings. This process
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 60

of bracketing required journal entries of the self-reflection that supported the trustworthiness of
the data by limiting the researcher’s bias. As reflectivity is a core characteristic of qualitative
research, and comments about the researcher’s interpretation of the findings are shaped by one’s
background and perspectives, clarification of bias adds credibility to the research (Creswell,
2014). In addition to triangulation of data, confidentiality was maintained of all interviewees to
further safeguard data trustworthiness (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Ethics
One of the key considerations in conducting research is ethics. It is imperative for the
researcher to demonstrate respect for all participants involved, to be honest and transparent in all
communications, and be mindful and demonstrate respect for any potential power imbalances as
pointed out by Creswell (2014).
As a member of the family that founded and operates Cannan Kindergarten, the identity
of the researcher was known to teachers. The researcher’s job was confined only to providing
advice to school administrators as an external advisor and did not require involvement in any
day-to-day operations. The researcher did not participate in contract renewal decisions or have
any direct contact related to teachers’ daily work. Nonetheless, it was important that an impartial
and impersonal relationship was maintained throughout the study. As such, someone other than
the researcher, who had participated in CITI training and received institutional approval,
conducted the interviews to ensure the participating teachers did not feel coerced to say
something they believed school administrators would like to hear, and to eliminate concerns that
participants might be reprimanded for criticizing the schools.
This research was conducted with integrity as described by Merriam and Tisdell (2016),
satisfied the three fundamental ethical principles laid out in the Belmont Report (U.S.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 61

Department of Health & Human Services, 1978), and followed all the protocols set forth in the
report. The three ethical principles are respect, beneficence, and justice. Respect refers to the
protection of autonomy of all people and treating them with courtesy and respect and allowing
for informed consent (Belmont Report, 1979). Researchers must be truthful and conduct no
deception. Beneficence asserts the philosophy of “do no harm” while maximizing benefits for the
research project and minimizing risks to the research subjects (U.S. Department of Health &
Human Services, 1979). Justice ensures reasonable, non-exploitative, and well-considered
procedures are administrated fairly and equally (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services,
1979). Throughout this study, the researcher allowed the participants to decide whether they
would like to participate out of respect. For beneficence, the philosophy of “do no harm” while
maximizing benefits for the research and minimizing risks to the participants was strictly
followed. Finally, reasonable, non-exploitative, and well-considered procedures were used to
determine who could and should participate so as to ensure justice.
In the context of this study in particular, teachers were informed beforehand about the
research purpose to develop a doctoral dissertation on teacher retention, and steps were taken by
the researcher to ensure the anonymity of interview participants. Per the interview protocol,
teachers were informed that the primary purpose of the interview was to gather information
solely for the purpose of improving the understanding and retention of teachers. Participating
teachers were also notified that any information obtained during the study would be reported
anonymously and used solely for the research study. No identifiers were collected to ensure the
highest possible level of participant confidentiality. Teachers were reminded and assured that
their participation in this study was entirely voluntary, and there would be no consequences for
refusing to participate. Finally, teachers were informed that the anonymous findings would be
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 62

presented to the school administrators and relevant policy changes would be devised
accordingly.
The detailed outline of this study was submitted to the University of Southern
California’s Institutional Review Board for approval before any data collection began, and all
aspects related to this research were bounded by their rules and guidelines regarding the
protection of the rights and benefits of the participants.
Limitations and Delimitations
As with any study, there were limitations and delimitations within the scope of the
project. It is important and necessary to discuss them to analyze possible threat to the study’s
validity, to acknowledge existing flaws to the research design, and to define the boundaries of
the study. Every study, no matter how well it is constructed and conducted, has limitations.
Limitations occur in all types of research and are, for the most part, outside of the researcher’s
control. Limitations are included within the method, design, and approach of the study (Nenty &
Nenty, 2009) and may serve as threats to the study’s internal and external validity. In this study,
the limitations stem from the ability to interview only the teachers who were still employed at the
school. No information could be gathered from those who had left the kindergarten, although
their views may have offered very different perspectives of what led to their decisions to leave.
Another limitation of the study was the issue of social desirability bias given the nature of the
research topic. Social desirability bias is a type of response bias in which there is a tendency of
survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that would be viewed favorably by others.
As pointed out by Preti and Miotto (2011), social desirability speaks to possible
misrepresentation of the respondent, aligning responses with perceived socially positive qualities
and limiting negative qualities. To put it succinctly, respondents may over-report “good”
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 63

behavior or under-reporting “bad” or “undesirable” behavior. As such, the researcher ensured
that strategies such as a confidential data collection process and internal member checking with
the interview process were in place in an effort to offset such issues. Another aspect of limitation
concerns confidentiality of data. If the interviewees cast any doubts about data confidentiality
and worry the information they gave may leak out, there is a possibility that they will choose to
not speak the truth or hold off on providing information that is essential to the research.
Like limitations, delimitations are a part of every research project. Delimitations are
factors that can restrict the questions the researcher can answer or the inferences the researcher
can draw from the findings. However, they are based on intentional choices the researcher made
a priori about where to draw the study’s boundary, meaning they are the elements over which
the researcher has control and reference how a researcher focuses a study (Nenty & Nenty,
2009). In this study, limiting the number of teachers interviewed was a choice made by the
researcher. This decision was made based on the limited time available to conduct the data
collection, the burden on the outside interviewer and the teachers, and the assumption that
including all teachers would make the interview process cumbersome and unwieldy without
adding value once saturation was reached. In addition, only teachers who had worked at the
schools for no more than five years were interviewed by design due to the fact that the attrition
rate of beginning teachers was considerably higher than the overall rate (Achinstein, 2006;
Chronister, 2000; Darling-Hammond, 1999; Fantilli & McDougall, 2009).

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 64

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
Overview of Purpose and Questions
The purpose of this study was to conduct a gap analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008) to explore
the factors that contribute to the high teacher attrition rate at Cannan Kindergarten. This analysis
evaluated the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affected teachers’
decision to stay or leave their positions at Cannan. While a comprehensive evaluation should
engage all stakeholders in question, this study focused on teachers who had worked at Cannan
for five years or less as these novice teachers, historically, were most likely to leave their
teaching positions at Cannan Kindergarten. Three research questions guided this study:
1. What are the teachers’ knowledge, motivation and organizational needs related to the
organization’s goal of improving retention?
2. What are the interactions between the organizational influences and teachers’ knowledge
and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation and organizational solutions for
Cannan?
This chapter addresses the first two questions guiding this study. Data and findings
obtained from the in-person focus group interviews are summarized and discussed. Results are
organized and presented based on teachers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences in relation to their decision to remain employed at Cannan Kindergarten. Based on the
findings, policy recommendations to close the performance gap are presented and discussed in
the ensuing chapter.
As discussed in Chapter Three, the researcher is a member of the family who founded
and operates Cannan Kindergarten. As such, someone who was not associated with Cannan and
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 65

who had participated in CITI training and received institutional approval conducted the four in-
person focus group interviews on behalf of the researcher to gather qualitative data. After the
interviews were conducted, the researcher organized and prepared the data analysis, which
involved transcribing and translating each of the interviews with integrity as described by
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) and drawing out emerging themes to answer the above questions.
Once the root causes of the problem were identified and validated, policy recommendations to
rectify them are suggested and discussed in Chapter Five.
Definition of Validation
Validation is the process of gathering evidence that supports or refutes the researcher’s
interpretation or inferences and examining those interpretations for their relevance (Johnson &
Christensen, 2015). Each of the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
on teacher decisions to remain or leave their positions at Cannan Kindergarten discussed in this
study were validated or not validated based on the data analyzed. An influence was considered
validated when 50% or more of the respondents concurred that there was a gap in the area
influencing their decision to remain in their position and a solution was required to close that
gap. An influence was considered not validated when more than 50% of the respondents
expressed that there was no gap in the area affecting their decision to remain in their position and
no changes were required to close the gap. In the context of this study, validation suggested that,
based on the in-person focus group interview data, teachers at Cannan Kindergarten had a need
for additional knowledge, motivation, or organizational supports that were not currently in place
to improve their retention decision. Likewise, an influence that was not validated suggested that
teachers had the sufficient knowledge, motivation, or organizational supports to encourage them
to reach their performance goal, which was to remain in their positions at Cannan Kindergarten.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 66

Respondent Demographics
Four in-person focus group interviews were conducted at four different campuses of
Cannan Kindergarten, ranging from the smallest campus with fewer than 10 teachers to the
largest one with over 50 teachers. As discussed in Chapter Three, this stratification of campus
size enabled the researcher to understand how teachers in large and small campuses think and
feel about their job and to find out if there were any underlying similarities or discrepancies that
led to teachers’ employment decisions across campus size. Five teachers from each of the
campuses were invited to participate in the in-person focus group interview, making the total
number of teachers interviewed 20. These participants, all full-time teachers who have worked at
Cannan for no more than five years, were chosen randomly according to the three criteria set
forth in Chapter Three.
Table 6 summarizes the number of years each participating teacher had been employed at
Cannan Kindergarten. To maintain the anonymity of the teachers, they are signified by a number
according to the order of who spoke first during the interview. As explained in the previous
chapter, teachers at Cannan Kindergarten are employees of the researcher’s family, and, thus, the
researcher purposely did not conduct the interviews and cannot identify the individual teachers.
With that, teachers in the following table, and throughout this chapter, are denoted with a letter
(A, B, C, and D) to indicate which campus they were from. This is intended to provide some
information while protecting the anonymity of the participating teachers.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 67

Table 6
Interview Participants Employment Background
Number of Years Employed at Cannan Kindergarten
Teacher (Campus) 1 2 3 4 5
1 (A) √
2 (A) √
3 (A) √
4 (A) √
5 (A) √
6 (B) √
7 (B) √
8 (B) √
9 (B) √
10 (B) √
11 (C) √
12 (C) √
13 (C) √
14 (C) √
15 (C) √
16 (D) √
17 (D) √
18 (D) √
19 (D) √
20 (D) √

Of the 20 teachers, all female, who participated in the in-person focus group interviews,
seven had worked at Cannan for one year, four for two years, six for three years, two for four
years, and one for five years. This distribution indicates that most of the teachers interviewed had
been employed at Cannan Kindergarten for three years or less, which best represents the group of
teachers who traditionally have been more likely to leave their position.
Findings
This chapter presents findings of the study with reference to the Clark and Estes (2008)
model wherein knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences are explored in relation to
attaining the organizational goal. Qualitative data from the in-person focus group interviews
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 68

were analyzed and synthesized into themes and categorized under each of the assumed
influences on performance to provide insights and understanding to the research questions
guiding the study. This chapter consists of three main sections: results and findings for
knowledge influences, and results and findings for motivation influences, and results and
findings for organizational influences. Each section highlights and discusses the assumed
influences that were validated and those that were not validated. For those validated, the ensuing
Chapter Five proposes evidence-based policy recommendations to improve organizational
practice and goal achievement.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Influences
This study assumed four knowledge influences that underpin kindergarten teachers’
retention decisions. It was assumed that teachers at Cannan Kindergarten need to possess a range
of relevant knowledge, namely factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive, to be a
successful and effective teacher and choose to stay on at their job.
Based on the data generated from the in-person focus group interviews, only one of the
four assumed knowledge influences was validated. In particular, more than half of all
respondents believed there was a gap in teachers’ job expectations that impedes their decisions to
stay in their positions. Table 7 below summarizes the results for knowledge influences:

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 69

Table 7
Validation and Results for Knowledge Influences
Category Assumed Influence Validated Not Validated
Factual Teachers need knowledge on the
potential future benefits (promotions,
pay raise, etc.) if stay on the job

√
Conceptual Teachers need knowledge about job
expectations
√
Procedural Teachers need knowledge on how to
communicate with senior school
administrators if they encounter
difficulties on the job

√
Metacognitive Teachers need knowledge to reflect on
their performance and make
improvements if necessary

√

Factual knowledge: Knowledge of Future Benefits
Factual knowledge is considered the basic knowledge or information required within a
discipline to solve a problem. Factual knowledge includes standard terminology used in a field or
discipline, and any knowledge related to job requirements. At Cannan Kindergarten, teachers
need to be aware of the potential benefits, such as opportunities to be promoted to senior
teachers, principals, administrators, or improved health and medical insurance package, higher
levels of salary, longer annual leave, long service award, or other non-pecuniary benefits related
to seniority, of remaining at their jobs.
Based on the data from the focus group interviews, this knowledge influence was not
validated. Teachers understand the potential future benefits if they remain in their position. They
also understand that the salary level, in general, for kindergarten teachers, and particularly novice
kindergarten teachers, is low and not appropriately reflective of the effort they put into their
work. One of the teachers (D) indicated,
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It is not related to Cannan. Everyone knows that it is not fair in terms of the effort that we
put in and how much we get paid. There is no standard salary system for kindergarten
teachers like primary school teachers and secondary school teachers, and the financial
support from the government is not enough.
Teachers who were interviewed all stated that they chose this profession because they
like to teach children and enjoy being with them. It gives them pleasure seeing the children grow
and learn. Earning a relatively low salary as a kindergarten teacher is not unique to Cannan
Kindergarten, as this is an industry-wide issue. When asked to elaborate, another teacher (D)
indicated that the effort she puts into her work is not positively related to the level of
compensation and that kindergarten teachers are often treated differently from their colleagues in
primary and secondary schools:
If I have a higher salary, I will be willing to work hard, but sometimes the reality makes
me want to leave. When you worked in a primary or secondary school, people consider
your experience and the number of years you have worked in the profession, but in
kindergarten, our experience is not worth much at all. If you switch to another school,
you start from the bottom.
In Hong Kong, the profession’s standard practice is that, every time a kindergarten
teacher switches their job to a different kindergarten, their experience does not count, and the
teacher has to start over in terms of pay as a novice teacher. With this in mind, the interviewer
asked if the teachers knew that, once they get into a school, the opportunity cost of leaving
increases by the year as the potential benefits and expected, or deferred, earnings will grow the
longer they stay at their job. Teachers did understand this, and as one teacher (C) said,
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 71

If you work at the school for a year and realize that others are paid better than you, it is
not too late to leave because you do not lose much from switching school, and this is why
teachers tend to leave early if they want to move to another school. It is always better to
leave early than when I have worked here for five years. By then, it will be too late, as I
will have to give up a lot for switching jobs.
Data from the interviews also suggested that teachers know very well what the deferred
compensations is and how they can earn that. Teachers pointed out that one major incentive for
them to continue to be employed at Cannan Kindergarten is promotion to senior positions such
as senior teachers or supervisors. And, to be considered for promotion, the teachers would have
to obtain further academic qualifications such as a master’s degree, or equivalent certification, in
early childhood education. To put it succinctly, the higher their academic qualifications, the less
likely they would be to switch jobs as their compensation packages, both pecuniary and non-
pecuniary, would be more attractive, making the opportunity cost of quitting larger.
In all, data indicated that teachers understood the fact of low salary levels for
kindergarten teachers and expressed their decision to remain in this profession would be
motivated partly be non-pecuniary satisfaction. Teachers also knew that, when they quit their
current job and moved to another school, they would most often have to start from scratch and be
treated as a novice teacher regardless of how many years they had worked in the industry and
how experienced they were working with children. Their salary would be roughly the same as a
first-year teacher who had just completed their early childhood education training. Therefore,
this assumed influence was not validated, as teachers demonstrated that they have knowledge of
the potential future benefits, including promotions and pay, if they stay employed at Cannan
Kindergarten.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 72

Conceptual Knowledge: Knowledge About Job Expectations
Conceptual knowledge is defined as the interrelationships among the basic elements of
knowledge which include principles, structures, categories, and theories within a field, and the
way these elements are organized to function efficiently (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). At
Cannan Kindergarten, teachers need to have knowledge of job expectations. They need to
understand what is expected of them, such as the workload and expectations of school
administrators and parents, to ensure that the children’s performance in class supports the
mission of the organization. Without such knowledge, teachers may find it difficult to immerse
themselves in their profession, thus affecting their decision to stay in their job (Aslanargun,
2015).
Based on the information obtained through the interviews, this assumed knowledge
influence was validated. As they completed through their early childhood education (ECE)
coursework in preparation to becoming kindergarten teachers, participants received teaching
practices and most of them worked as interns at various kindergarten. As such, they knew what it
was actually like working in the field. One teacher (A) stated,
When I studied ECE in university, I learnt all the theories in this profession, and I had the
opportunity to work as an intern in a kindergarten. So, I have some experience on being a
kindergarten teacher, know what it is like teaching a group of kids, and know what to
expect when I formally started my job as a full-time teacher.
However, further discussions revealed that many teachers realized once in their position
that they had a misconception of what a teaching job actually entailed, and there was a mismatch
between their job expectations and their work in the profession as a full-time teacher. One area
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 73

where many teachers experienced difficulty was how to interact with parents. This facet of ECE
was not thoroughly covered during teachers’ training. As one teacher (B) indicated,
We do not know what to expect when interacting with parents until we work full time and
realize that there are a lot of things we must pay attention to. Parents want to know what
happened with their children at school, and we need to constantly communicate with
them. However, it takes some skills to talk to the parents, as we cannot criticize their
children even if they don’t perform or behave well at school. We need to tell parents what
happened at school, and we need to communicate very well with them. We cannot be too
straightforward and have to praise their kids appropriately.
Another area that caught novice teachers by surprise after they entered the profession was
the amount of work they needed to complete every day. Novice teachers generally had the false
perception that all they had to do every day was simply play with the children and ensure that the
kids had a good time and enjoyed school. What novice teachers did not realize was that their
workload actually included a significant amount of paperwork and curriculum preparation. As
pointed out by one teacher (B),
There are many misunderstandings about our profession. People outside the school may
think we just play with kids at work and we can get off work early, but actually the three-
hour schedule every day is very intense. We have a lot of things to do, taking care of
documents, preparing class materials, artwork, printing handouts, and also
communication with parents, which is very frequent. I have been here for three years now
and can say it’s not really that simple as seen by other people. The workload is really
heavy. It’s absolutely tough.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 74

In addition to the heavy workload, teachers mentioned that they had to spend much time
after work studying to equip themselves with knowledge in the areas with which they were not
familiar. As the school curriculum is constantly evolving, either initiated by the school or under
the directive of the Hong Kong Education Bureau, new materials are added every academic year
and, often times, teachers do not have the relevant knowledge on those new topics. One teacher
(C) echoed this by saying,
The standard is getting higher and higher. When I was at school, I studied literature, but
now I have to teach STEM. I am not familiar with it, but I need to teach my students, so I
must spend my own spare time learning this topic. Every year, there are many new things
to pick up. The school expects us to be all-round, be able to teach, do paperwork and
administrative duties, not just being good at teaching children.
Evidence provided by the teachers on their knowledge on job expectations suggested that,
while the ECE training they received at their university covered many facets of teaching theories
and skills, once they actually entered the profession, there were still many areas with which they
were unfamiliar. They needed to learn the knowledge and skills quickly on the job as the
discrepancies between what they knew and the reality was often times too large to ignore. Hence,
the assumed influence that teachers need to have more knowledge of job expectations to remain
in their positions was validated.
Procedural knowledge: Knowledge of How to Communicate With Senior Administrators
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) define subject-specific skills required to complete a task
as one of the main components of procedural knowledge. In the context of Cannan Kindergarten,
teachers need to know how to communicate with senior school administrators regarding the
problems and challenges they encounter in the classrooms, and they need to proactively
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 75

communicate with administrators regarding their views on various polices so as to improve
efficiency and enhance the quality of their work. This knowledge influence of how to
communicate with school administrators was not validated as revealed by the data from the
interviews.
At Cannan Kindergarten, school administrators or principals hold regular daily briefings
with teachers, meeting with everyone, discussing the goals for the day, and sharing among
teaching staff the problems they may have and difficulties they encountered in class. Teachers
are invited to share with others their thoughts on teaching, solutions to problems they have, and
present suggestions to improve classroom experiences and curriculum refinements. When asked
if school administrators are easy to approach and if they will make time for the teachers, one
teacher (A) said,
They are very easy to talk to. Our senior administrators are always busy with various
school administrative duties as Cannan is a big organization, but, if we want and need to
talk to them, they will always make themselves available for us, we might have to wait a
little bit, but we can still talk to them as soon as they are free. Also, they will listen and
are willing to give us guidance.
In the case where a teacher encounters difficulties in or out of the classroom, they know
there is a channel to bring the issue to their administrator’s attention, and solutions will be found.
As one teacher (B) described,
Every day, we can see our administrative staff or directors during our regular meeting or
briefing. The senior administrator will talk about some important things that we need to
pay attention to, and we can raise things up during that time. Teachers can ask questions,
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 76

in particular where they need help. It’s very welcome for us to talk about issues that we
have.
The system of holding daily meetings between school administrators and teachers at
Cannan Kindergarten helped ensure that any problems experienced by the teachers were dealt
with promptly before they escalated into something more serious and unmanageable. As such,
teachers demonstrated that there was no performance gap related to communicating with
administrators that needed to be addressed in this area.
Metacognitive Knowledge: Knowledge to Reflect and Make Improvements
The ability to reflect on one’s own thinking process to adjust the skills, behavior, and
understanding to complete a task is defined as metacognitive knowledge (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001). Teachers at Cannan need to be able to reflect on their performance and
effectiveness in the classroom, and if a performance gap exists, they need to make adjustments
and improvements as necessary. This assumed knowledge need is not validated based on the data
from the focus group interviews as teachers regularly reflect on their practices and use that
reflection to make improvements.
During the in-person focus group interviews, teachers discussed how Cannan
Kindergarten organized reflection meetings after school occasionally with a view to offering
teaching staff a place to reflect on issues related to their work and performance in the classroom.
Senior teachers worked with novice teachers in areas where they had problems, guiding them
through difficult times and helping them tackle problems they faced. Teachers who experienced
difficulties in the classroom were welcome to share their experience with colleagues during the
reflection meetings and workshops, and they utilized this opportunity to seek advice from
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 77

experienced teachers and school administrators on how to make improvements and rectify
performance gaps. One teacher (A) summarized this by stating,
Both young and experienced teachers attend the workshops. We, the novice teacher, are
often paired with an experienced colleague. I can discuss with her the problems I have in
classroom, what I don’t do well, and the areas that I think I need to improve upon in order
to be a more effective teacher. The meetings are held after school and the atmosphere is
pretty good.
Teachers revealed that Cannan Kindergarten had implemented a system under which
teachers, especially new teachers, were encouraged to self-reflect, to identify areas where they
were underperforming, and where improvements were warranted. Where needed and
appropriate, assistance was offered by the school to rectify the problems. This was to ensure that
all issues experienced by teachers were promptly dealt with and potential problems rectified at an
early stage. One interviewed teacher (C) stated,
When I inform the school a certain problem I have in class and don’t know how to deal
with it, I will be paired with a more experienced teacher in the classroom. I can observe
how she deals with the same problem during the morning class, and I will do the same in
the afternoon. There is always something new young teachers can learn from the
experienced ones, and so it is very important for us to be with a more experienced
teacher, and we learn how to come up with solutions to our problems as time goes by.
The reflection workshops organized for teachers helped to ensure that all teaching staff at
Cannan had the opportunity to think through issues that they encountered, identified areas where
teachers were not performing as well as expected, and where appropriate, adjustments or
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 78

improvements to narrow the performance gap were made. Hence, the assumed continuing
knowledge need to reflect on their performance and make improvements was not validated.
Summary of Knowledge Influences
This section discussed the findings related to four assumed knowledge influences on
teacher retention decisions at Cannan Kindergarten. Only one assumed knowledge influence was
validated and three were not. Teachers’ knowledge of job expectations was validated as a
continuing knowledge need while knowledge related to potential future benefits associated with
remaining on the job, how to communicate with school administrators if they encountered
difficulties on the job, and how to reflect on performance and make needed improvements were
not validated as continuing knowledge needs.
The following section focuses on the influences on novice teacher decisions to remain in
their positions in the area of motivation.
Results and Findings for Motivation Influences
There were two motivation influences assumed to affect teachers’ retention decisions:
self-efficacy and utility value. These underlying constructs were seen as necessary for teachers to
proactively choose to remain employed, persist in performing their duties the best they could,
and mentally sustain their efforts. Self-efficacy and utility value are recognized as specific
motivational assets rather than indicators of performance (Bandura, 1997; Clark & Estes, 2008;
Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).
Recall that, in the context of this study, validation implies that, based on the interview
data, teachers demonstrated there was a need for additional motivation not currently in place to
improve their retention decisions. An influence not validated suggests that teachers have the
sufficient motivation in place to remain in their positions at Cannan Kindergarten. Analysis of
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the data generated from the in-person focus group interviews showed that both of the assumed
motivation influences were not validated, as shown in the following table.
Table 8
Validation and Results for Motivation Influences
Category Assumed Influence Validated Not Validated
Self-Efficacy Teachers need to feel confident in
their ability to be effective in their
practice as teachers
√
Utility Value Teachers need to perceive working
at Cannan as a supportive
environment

√

Self-efficacy: Teachers believe they can be effective. Self-efficacy is the internal belief
that the task or goal can be accomplished successfully (Rueda, 2011). At Cannan Kindergarten,
for teachers to continue to stay at their jobs, it was assumed that they needed to feel confident
and comfortable in their practice and their ability to execute their job as effective kindergarten
teachers. If they did not perceive themselves to be effective teachers, they would not choose to
continue, to persist, and to mentally sustain the effort needed to be successful in the classroom.
Lacking such self-efficacy would likely lead to their leaving the school or even the profession.
During the in-person focus group interviews, some teachers revealed that they chose to
attend various workshops organized by the school to improve their knowledge and skills to be a
more effective teacher, and some indicated that they were overwhelmed by the heavy workload
which impeded their efforts to be as effective as they would like. However, their concerns had
little to do with their own self-efficacy.
When asked how Cannan teachers strengthened their beliefs about their effectiveness in
the classroom and the workplace, some teachers revealed that they attended workshops
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 80

organized by the school to brush up on their knowledge and teaching skills. As one teacher (A)
stated,
We often attend the many workshops that the school organizes for us to improve our
knowledge on the latest development in teaching and further refine our teaching skills.
Teachers also take this opportunity to get acquainted with other colleagues to build on
our team spirit and sense of belongings, especially novice teachers are often paired with
experienced one during the workshops. We think these activities can help make us a
better teacher over time.
The fact that both young and experienced teachers choose to attend workshops implies
that teachers were reflective of their shortcomings and were motivated to continue to build their
classroom skills and competencies. This is satisfying from the school’s standpoint as the teachers
voluntarily enhanced their knowledge and classroom skills instead of waiting for problems to be
pointed out before they sought help.
When asked to elaborate on what elements drove their motivation at work and how they
related to making them feel they are, or not, effective teachers, one teacher (C) stated,
I like kids. When I see my students, I am motivated to work and will do my best to be an
effective teacher. However, we have so much paperwork and documents to take care of at
school, and dealing with parents drains a lot of energy away from us, too. These things
are imperative. They are part of our job and we have to deal with them repetitively. It is
really boring and has a detrimental effect on how we perform in class as we cannot work
as effectively as we would like to. Especially, we were not trained to handle the parents.
If we failed to perform well in this area, it hurts our self-efficacy as a good teacher.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 81

Another teacher (C) echoed that sentiment by stating,
Every time I see my students in the classroom, I get the motivation to be a good
kindergarten teacher, and I know I can do it well. However, I hate doing paperwork and
all those tedious administrative duties. Sometimes, they make me question myself why I
am here and whether I can be an effective teacher teaching my students.
The interviewer dug deeper and asked if there was anything that the school provided to
help teachers be more effective in the workplace. One teacher (A) responded by saying,
When I was a college student studying early childhood education, I had teaching
practices and worked as an intern at a kindergarten, so I had a good idea of how it is like
to work as a kindergarten teacher. However, as school curriculum constantly evolves,
sometimes I am not familiar with the up-to-date development in curriculum and teaching
methods, dealing with special education needs students, for instance. In this regard,
Cannan has done a tremendous job in providing us assistance, whether by hiring
specialists to give us training or creating programs for students with special needs.
Although these have nothing to do with our confidence level or change our beliefs that
we are effective teachers, they can help make us feel more comfortable at the job.
Based on the information obtained from the interviews, teachers generally had confidence
in their practice and sought out additional workshops to further advance their skills. At the same
time, undesirable amounts of non-teaching duties and paperwork were suggested as imposing a
negative force on making teachers less effective in the classroom. However, these issues did not
imply that teachers do not have confidence in their ability to execute their job as kindergarten
teachers nor indicate that teachers do not have self-efficacy in terms of being effective teachers.
As such, there is no continuing need to improve teachers’ beliefs that they can be effective
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 82

teachers related to their decisions to remain in their position, and this assumed motivation
influence was not validated.
Utility Value: Teachers Perceive Working at Cannan as a Supportive Environment
Utility value is defined as the perceived usefulness of a task (Pintrich, 2003), or the task’s
alignment with personal goals and psychological needs (Eccles, 2006). In the context of Cannan
Kindergarten, teachers need to perceive being employed at Cannan as supportive and in
alignment with their professional goals. If they do not perceive that being employed at Cannan is
aligned with their professional goals, they are not likely to remain, and they will not persist
through difficult times in their work nor mentally sustain their effort (Rueda, 2011). The
interviewed teachers suggested that Cannan Kindergarten has various programs and supports in
place to help teachers attain their professional goals and be effective in their teaching duties.
One important element that affects teachers’ retention decisions is whether they feel their
school is a supportive environment, including that support provided is in line with their
professional goals. When asked to what extent Cannan provided a supportive environment to
work at and what makes it more or less supportive, teacher responses were generally positive.
For example, one teacher (D) stated,
The encouragement and understanding from the management level are very important.
Administrators are aware of the hard work of the teachers, and they are willing to listen
and try their best to help us tackle any problems that we may encounter in class. Their
encouragement is vital in keeping our motivation at work.
When teachers were invited to provide an example to illustrate how the school supported
them to be effective in their classroom, one teacher recollected an incident that happened in
school in which one child slapped another child’s back. The parents of both students complained
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 83

and were very upset at what happened. One teacher (A) pointed out that school administrators
helped talk to the parents and explained what happened. The teachers were spared from having to
deal with the parents directly and were able to continue to focus on their teaching duties. When
the ordeal was over, the school principal had a discussion with the teachers and used that
incident as a learning example to illustrate how to properly talk to the parents and handle similar
situations in the future. The teacher (A) went on to say,
The school director helped contact and talk to the parents. Even though we were not at
the scene, she informed all of us of every little detail, making us comfortable with the
situation and that we need only to focus on our work in the classroom. We feel that we
are well looked after and protected.
In the area of support for students, Cannan teachers expressed their contentment in
getting the help they need so that they can perform their teaching duties in a satisfactory fashion.
One teacher (B) gave an example of a time she had a special education needs student in her class,
and she had limited training on how to best educate this student. She discussed how the school
came to her rescue:
The school established a special program with one specialist who taught me how to
handle this kind of student. The specialist explains to me what I need to pay attention to,
and shows me specific teaching skills to deal with various situations. I feel comfortable
after talking to her, and now I know I can do a good job teaching this kid. The school also
encourages teachers who received such training to share their experience with others so
no one is left behind.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 84

In regards to further education and training, interviewed teachers also pointed out that the
school has a work schedule that allows teachers the time and freedom to attend evening school
for further ECE training to enhance their skills.
All in all, feedback from the interviews indicated that teachers were generally positive in
regards to perceiving Cannan as a supportive environment in relation to their professional goals.
Teachers demonstrated that Cannan Kindergarten and its senior administrators were willing to
lend a hand and build a supporting environment for all of its teaching staff. Thus, teachers
already perceived working at Cannan as a supportive environment, and this was not a continuing
need.
Summary of Motivation Influences
This section discussed the findings related to two assumed motivation influences on
teacher retention decisions at Cannan Kindergarten. Both of the two assumed influences,
teachers feel confident in their ability to be effective and teachers perceive working at Cannan
Kindergarten as a supportive environment, were not validated as continuing needs. Data
provided by the teachers demonstrated that there was not a performance gap in these areas.
The following section focuses on organizational influences on performance.
Results and Findings for Organizational Influences
This study assumed six organization influences that affect teachers’ retention decisions.
These six assumed influences can be categorized under cultural settings and cultural models,
each representing an area Cannan Kindergarten must provide or cultivate to entice teachers to
stay in their job and attain the organization performance goal. Based on the information revealed
from the in-person focus group interviews, four of the six assumed organization influences were
validated as continuing needs, as shown in Table 9 below.
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Table 9
Validation and Results for Organization Influences
Category Assumed Influence Validated Not Validated
Cultural
Setting
The school needs to establish an open
communication channel between
administrators and teachers

√
Cultural
Setting
The school needs to provide adequate
training resources and training for teachers
√
Cultural
Setting
The school needs a mentoring procedure for
teachers to ensure that they succeed in the
classroom

√

Cultural
Setting
The school needs to provide an incentive
package that appropriately reflects teachers’
efforts
√
Cultural
Model
The school needs to cultivate a sense of
belongings among teachers
√
Cultural
Model
The school needs to cultivate a culture of
mutual trust between administrators and
teachers in order to allow classroom
autonomy

√

Cultural Setting: School Establishes an Open Communication Channel
Minarik and colleagues (2003) suggested that the most crucial variable in faculty
productiveness and commitment is the quality of the relationship between faculty and their
administrators. The core concepts include relationship building, growth mindset development,
positive communication, and empowering and listening to teachers (Edvantia, 2007). In the
context of Cannan Kindergarten, the school needs to establish an easy and open communication
channel with the teachers, allowing all teaching staff to talk to the school administrators to
express their views, raise issues or concerns, and provide suggestions to improve classroom
learning experiences. School administrators should also ensure that teachers feel welcome to
talk, to complain, and to present suggestions, whenever necessary.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 86

The in-person focus group interviews suggest that Cannan Kindergarten has established a
culture where teachers find it easy and feel welcome to talk to their senior administrators about
problems, and the school also proactively meets with teachers to review issues related to their
work. When asked the extent to which the administrative staff at Cannan are easily accessible
and willing to talk to the teaching staff, a teacher (A) stated,
Yes, they are easy to talk to. Cannan is a big organization and the senior administrators
are often busy, but if we need to talk to them, they are willing to make time for us. We
might have to wait for a little bit at times, but in the end we can still talk to them.
The interviewer further asked about the structure of the communication channel and how
teachers contact school administrators to voice their opinions. One teacher (C) explained,
We have a meeting or briefing everyday during which many of us attend, and we can see
the administrative staff or school director at the meeting. They talk about certain
important things that we need to pay attention to for the day, and we can ask questions
during that time. In addition, we have teachers’ meeting on our own. We can bring up
issues in turns and discuss problems that we need help on. It is really welcome for us to
talk about anything we want.
In addition to the daily briefing, teachers indicated there are other ways to contact the
senior school administrators if they need to. As pointed out by another teacher (C),
If I have a question, especially something urgent that I need to get an answer to, I can just
walk out of the classroom and knock on their door, or simply call them. For an
inexperienced teacher like myself, this is great because I can ask them for advice to get
problems fixed whenever I need.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 87

The interviewer probed further and asked if the school takes the initiative and proactively
communicates with teachers on a regular basis. A teacher (B) indicated that there is a scheduled
meeting between the principal and each teacher twice a year:
Every six months, our principal will talk to every one of us individually face to face. We
will cover various facets of our work, such as our teaching skills, problems that we face
in classroom, suggestions that we have to improve both our teaching experiences and
school curriculum. She will then provide suggestions and advice, and we work together
to get issued solved. Normally this individual meeting lasts about 30 minutes, sometimes
longer.
As the data suggest, Cannan Kindergarten has established a clear and open
communication channel between school administrators and teachers. Both sides can talk, discuss,
and share ideas on anything related to their work. There were no barriers expressed between the
two sides, and there were no indications that teachers might feel uncomfortable voicing their
opinions or at any time feel uneasy to talk about issues that senior administrators might not like
to hear. With that, the assumed gap in an open communication channel between administrators
and teachers contributing to teacher attrition was not validated.
Cultural Setting: School Provides Adequate Training
According to Darling-Hammond (2003), good teachers can be retained if the school
provides effective teacher preparation and establishes a positive support system for them. School
administrators at Cannan need to understand that, for the school to retain effective teachers, they
should provide sufficient training for them so they feel comfortable and confident in performing
their teaching duties effectively. During the focus group interviews, teachers revealed that
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 88

Cannan Kindergarten does organize various workshops and development programs to enhance
teachers’ teaching skills. One teacher (A) indicated,
Our school organizes a wide range of trainings and workshops for us during the academic
year, such as teacher development day, picture book teaching workshop, training for
teaching phonics, etc. And often times Cannan invite specialists from outside to come run
these workshops. One example is that we are seeing more students with behavioral
problems, in light of this, our school organizes a special workshop for us, and it is taught
by a behavioral specialist. I found this workshop extremely helpful and it gives us
confidence in dealing with those students as now we know how to handle those cases
properly.
When asked if these training workshops were offered to all teaching staff or only novice
teachers, the teachers participating in the interviews pointed out that they are generally arranged
for all teaching staff. However, the school does provide separate training programs for novice
teachers, with a specific focus on problems that new teachers may encounter. As discussed by
one teacher (B),
For myself as a newcomer, there are some training programs that I found very helpful.
For example, they show novice teachers how to write a teaching plan, and how to do a
better job at work. In addition, there is a first aid training which I think is very valuable,
we have never learnt that during our early childhood education training when we were at
school.
Asked if novice teachers were able to keep up with all these trainings and workshops
while fulfilling their daily teaching duties, the teachers stated that this was not a problem. A
teacher (A) said,
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 89

Our work schedule and structure are very clear. All new teachers know what they need to
do as the school provides an instruction list for us. It has our work schedule clearly
outlined, and senior teachers will always give us help.
Based on the information and evidence provided, Cannan Kindergarten does provide
adequate training resources for its teaching staff, and teachers were content with the various
workshops and assistance organized by the school. As such, there is not a performance gap
identified in this area, and this particular assumed organization influence on performance was not
validated.
Cultural Setting: School Has a Mentoring Procedure for Teachers
Research has shown that mentoring is an effective practice that enhances teacher efficacy
and reduces attrition (Brill & McCartney, 2008). Watlington and colleagues (2010) also point out
that the experience a teacher has during the first few years on the job is a strong indicator of
whether they will stay or leave. In the context of Cannan Kindergarten, if school administrators
devote time and provide adequate resources to mentor novice teachers, they are likely to stay
longer at the job.
During the in-person focus group interviews, teachers pointed out that Cannan
Kindergarten has a mentoring scheme under which a more experienced teacher provides
guidance to less experienced teachers. In addition, there is a grade-level leader who is in charge
of all teachers in the same grade to whom teachers can ask questions and seek advice. However,
when asked if the teachers think the help they received from this mentoring program was
sufficient, the responses are not overly positive. One teacher (A) stated,
Normally, fresh graduates will be assigned a mentor. For me, [having] worked at another
kindergarten for three years before coming here, the school assumed that I know how to
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 90

teach and have all the skills and experience to handle a class, so I was not assigned to
work with a mentor here. At times, I find it frustrating because for me this is a new
school. The system and culture here is different from my old school. I need to learn
everything from scratch. So, it will definitely help if I could have a mentor, too.
The interviewer asked teachers to elaborate on the lack of mentors for all new teachers to
the school. A teacher (D) pointed to a likely lack of resources:
Cannan seems to focus on new teachers’ development only. I think there is not enough
resources to look after everybody. Perhaps due to the turnover of experienced teachers,
sometimes there are not enough mentors for us. It is common that two or more new
teachers will work under one mentor. And, occasionally, we do not have mentors, and we
need to figure out things ourselves.
Examination of the data provided by the teachers suggested that, although there was a
mentoring program established at the school, teachers found the help it provided insufficient and
unable to cover every teacher’s needs. Feedback from teachers indicated there were gaps in the
policy, and input of additional resources was needed to improve the mentoring program and
address novice teacher retention. As such, this assumed organization influence is validated.
Cultural Setting: School Provides an Appropriate Incentive Package
Salary is one important element that affects teachers’ retention decisions. Education has
lower starting salaries and lower lifetime earnings than most other occupations (Darling-
Hammond, 2010; Gilpin & Kaganovich, 2012; Walker et al., 2010). To retain effective teachers,
school administrators need to focus on incentive packages that could include rewarding teachers
with a salary that appropriately reflects the effort they put into their work, a better health
insurance policy such that they feel the school cares for their health and well-being, or a deferred
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 91

compensation scheme as incentive to stay. Such a scheme may include future opportunities for
promotion into senior teaching or administration positions.
In the case of Cannan Kindergarten, teachers need to believe their pay appropriately
reflects the effort they put into their work, and it should be high enough to incentivize teachers to
stay on their job. Data from the focus group interviews pointed out that teachers at Cannan were
generally not satisfied with the level of compensation they received from the school. They
believed the salary level offered by Cannan was not competitive when compared with other
schools, while acknowledging that the overall wage rates for kindergarten teachers are usually
low relative to other professions. One teacher (D) stated,
Compared with other professions, kindergarten teachers generally don’t get paid well.
This is not unique to Cannan. Every one of us knows this is the norm in this industry.
There is very little financial support from the government, and there is no standard pay
scale in this profession. Some schools, say those private international schools or schools
owned and operated by different charity organizations, may offer higher level of wages
than others.
As for the non-pecuniary compensation, teachers also believed that what they receive is
not sufficient to entice them to stay on their job. One example is their medical insurance, as one
teacher (D) stated,
Our medical insurance is not comprehensive enough. If we get sick, we can only consult
the medical doctors who are associated with the school’s medical insurance company. If I
go see my own doctor, they will not reimburse the medical bill. Also, there is no sick
leave at Cannan. If I don’t feel well and call in sick, the school will deduct the salary of
the day I miss work unless I go see a doctor and get the paper to prove that I am sick.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 92

As far as promotion and deferred compensation, Cannan Kindergarten does not fare well
in teachers’ points of view. One teacher stated that, to be considered for promotion, teachers not
only need good teaching experience, but they also need further study such as getting a master’s
degree in ECE or a related training certificate. Knowing that continuous education would allow
teachers to be promoted, the interviewer asked why not all teachers chose to do that. A teacher
(C) responded,
We know getting a master’s degree will put us in a better position for promotion, but the
school won’t sponsor our study. It is a big financial pressure for many of us. In addition,
we are tired of work every day. We don’t have the energy or incentive to study after
work, we just want to go home and relax.
Regarding their annual salary adjustment, teachers revealed they do not get paid more for
putting in extra work and their annual level of increase does not appropriately reflect the effort
they put into their job. As one teacher (D) suggested,
The school’s expectation of teachers gets higher every year, but the salary never increases
correspondingly. We all have a heavy workload, but our compensation packages do not
reflect that. School administrators often tell us that our salary adjustments will be based
on our performance and teaching evaluation, but we found out that, each year, all
teachers get more or less the same percentage increase in salary. That means, even if I
work really hard this year, my salary increase will just be the same as the other teachers
who put in minimal effort in their job.
Finally, when asked what they thought could improve regarding their compensation
packages other than increasing their salary, a few teachers suggested that, instead of going to
work on every Saturday morning, Cannan should consider changing this system to long and short
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 93

weekends, meaning that teachers need to work only on alternate Saturday mornings so that they
could spend more time with their families.
In all, feedback from teachers revealed that Cannan Kindergarten falls short of teachers’
expectations in terms of their compensation package and the extent to which their compensation
reflects the level of effort they put into their jobs. Therefore, the assumed organizational need for
Cannan Kindergarten to provide an incentive package that appropriately reflects teachers’ effort
to improve teacher retention was validated.
Cultural Model: School Cultivates a Sense of Belonging
Cueto and colleagues (2010) define sense of belonging as the degree to which people feel
socially connected. Following this conceptualization, teachers’ feelings of belonging at Cannan
Kindergarten may be viewed as the degree to which they feel integrated with the school,
administrators, other teachers, students, and the larger community.
During the in-person focus group interviews, some teachers expressed that, although
Cannan has some activities in place to bring teachers together and to build their sense of
belongings, they do not meet the teachers’ expectations, and there is room for improvement.
Failure to address this lack of a sense of belonging may tempt teachers to leave their position for
somewhere they can feel more integrated. When asked how they feel about working at Cannan as
a family, a teacher (B) stated,
I have worked at another school, and compared with my experience at Cannan, I find
communication here is much easier. There is no barrier to talk to my colleagues, the
principals, and school administrators, because of their attitudes. They are very open and
always treat you like their family.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 94

However, when asked what else the school could do to make teachers feel more
integrated, some pointed out that Cannan has not done enough to foster a tighter bond among
teachers across campuses. One teacher (B) pointed out that other schools have exchange
opportunities where there is no such opportunity at Cannan:
I know some schools in Hong Kong have exchange programs. They work with other
campuses, or even overseas schools, to provide opportunities for team building and build
better relationships between teachers. We can learn from each other and also other
countries if we have something similar.
Another teacher (B) echoed this by saying,
Every now and then, Cannan organizes retreats for its teaching staff. In the past, I have
been to Mainland China with colleagues, but, often times, the school organizes this event
during school holidays, meaning that, when I attend the retreat, I must sacrifice my
holiday which I could have spent with my family.
The interviewer further asked how important their feeling of belonging at the school was
in their decision to stay employed at Cannan Kindergarten. The teachers all agreed that their
relationships with their colleagues played a very important role in their employment decisions.
As a teacher (D) stated succinctly:
Cannan is a big organization. We have new teachers every year, and we need to establish
a good relationship with all. When I consider switching jobs, one area I place emphasis
on is my relationship with my colleagues. If I don’t have this sense of a family, I will not
be happy and will choose to leave.
Based on the information provided by the teachers, there is a performance gap in
fostering teachers’ sense of belonging at Cannan. This issue affected teachers’ propensity to
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 95

leave their position. Therefore, this assumed organizational influence on performance was
validated.
Cultural Model: School Cultivates a Culture of Mutual Trust to Allow Classroom Autonomy
Research indicates that, for teachers to remain in their positions, schools need to allow
teachers a certain level of classroom autonomy and empower them with decision-making ability
(Evans, 2017; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2014). Teachers carry out their duties daily, and they know
what is best for their students to learn effectively. As such, teachers need to be encouraged to
work with their colleagues and be granted a certain level of independence. Classroom autonomy
enables teachers to feel valued and trusted by the school, which reduces their incentive to leave
their job (Evans, 2017).
Teachers at Cannan Kindergarten are motivated to be effective and perform well in their
classrooms. However, the focus group interviews conveyed concerns about not having autonomy
to do what teachers thought was necessary to provide students an enjoyable and effective
learning experience. Based on the interview data, class time at Cannan is packed with materials
to be covered, and the school seems to be overly ambitious in doing more than teachers and
students can handle. This leaves teachers feeling frustrated and dejected at times, which is not
conducive to improving teacher retention.
Asking teachers to share their experiences in class and if they have any autonomy to do
what they want to enhance students’ learning experiences, one teacher (D) pointed out that there
is simply not enough time to cover all the required materials, let alone doing something else:
We have only three hours a day, but we are expected to do many things, such as
homework, topics listed in the curriculum, picture book teachings, to name a few. So, for
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 96

us, the schedule is already very full, but, every year, more new topics are added. The
school wants to accomplish a lot, but there is not enough time.
The interviewer invited teachers to provide an example to illustrate what could be
improved if they were given more autonomy. Another teacher (D) mentioned,
Taking the phonics that I am teaching, there are different ways to teach it, and how you
teach it effectively depends on the student. You should cater for different students
differently. But, no matter how you teach it, you need to make the student feel happy
first. If the student hates the subject, he or she will not learn. That said, we have no
choice but to follow the teaching instruction. The teaching method adopted by Cannan is
too systematic with a lot of restrictions. We cannot make any changes to it, and our
students find it hard to enjoy the subject.
Teachers further indicated that the school strictly followed its curriculum and method of
instruction, and they believed it was too stringent to improve students’ learning experiences. One
teacher (C) summarized this by saying,
They [the school] have their own approaches. They just tell us to follow their approaches
and not attempt to deviate. In this regard, it is pointless to say to the principal that I don’t
agree with it and I want to do it my own way.
As suggested by the teachers, there is a performance gap in this area which warrants more
in-depth analysis and attention. Failure to address this issue would likely further frustrate
teachers and may prompt them to consider leaving their job. As such, this assumed organization
influence is validated.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 97

Summary of Organization Influences
This section discussed the findings related to six assumed organization influences on
teacher retention decisions at Cannan Kindergarten. Of the six assumed organizational
influences, four were validated and two were not. Assumed organization influences that were
validated were the need for additional teacher mentoring, an incentive package that appropriately
reflected teachers’ efforts, a stronger sense of belongings among teachers, and a culture of
mutual trust between administrators and teachers that allowed more classroom autonomy.
Chapter Summary
This chapter presented data drawn from four in-person focus group interviews with 20
teachers representing four Cannan Kindergarten campuses to explore the knowledge, motivation,
and organization influences on novice teacher retention. The assumed knowledge, motivation,
and organization influences that were validated by the data suggest areas of performance gaps
across themes and factors contributing to the high teacher attrition rate at Cannan Kindergarten.
Of the four assumed knowledge influences, one was validated, and four out of the six assumed
organizational influences were validated by the data. Neither of the two motivational influences
on performance were validated, suggesting that novice teachers have the motivation to remain in
their posts, but there are knowledge and organizational influences that prevent them from doing
so.
The ensuing chapter identifies possible solutions to the validated knowledge and
organizational influences on teacher retention at Cannan Kindergarten as well as an
implementation and evaluation to help close current performance gaps.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 98

CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS, IMPLEMENTATION, AND EVALUATION
The purpose of this study was to utilize the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model to
analyze the causes of high novice teacher attrition at Cannan Kindergarten, and, based on the
findings, to devise a set of policy recommendations to rectify the school’s performance gap in
this area. After the identification of the validated knowledge, motivation, and organization
influences on novice teacher attrition in Chapter Four, the next step of the gap analysis is to
present evidence-based solutions to address the validated influences to help close the
organization’s performance gap. Four in-person focus group interviews with 20 novice teachers
across four different Cannan Kindergarten campuses were conducted to collect qualitative data to
examine the possible underlying causes that induce teachers to leave their jobs. Data were coded
and analyzed, and a set of assumed knowledge, motivation, and organization influences were
examined to understand which of those were contributing to teachers’ choices to leave and how.
The validated influences on performance stipulate the areas in which Cannan
Kindergarten needs to implement solutions to retain effective teachers and to prevent those
teachers from leaving the school. Failure to address these validated influences impedes Cannan
Kindergarten’s mission. Based on the data analysis in Chapter Four, five influences on
performance, one knowledge influence and four organizational influences, were validated.
Neither of the two motivation influences were validated, indicating that, currently, teachers have
the motivation to continue their employment. On the other hand, the organizational influences
play a significant role in teachers’ retention decisions, and, hence, solutions proposed to correct
the performance gap in this chapter will prioritize the organizational facet. Rectifying the
deficiencies in organizational factors is important, as they are the levers to improve teacher
retention. Failure to fix those will likely affect teachers’ motivation eventually, leading to a
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 99

larger problem that cannot be surmounted years down the road. As such, this chapter will focus
heavily on recommendations to the organizational influences, as that is where considerable work
needs to be done.
The validated knowledge and organizational influences affecting teachers’ choices to
leave their positions are presented in the following table. Proposed solutions will then be
presented for each of these validated influences.
Table 10
Summary of Validated Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
Category Validated Influence
Knowledge
(Conceptual)
Teachers need knowledge about job expectations
Organization
(Cultural Setting)
The school needs a mentoring procedure for teachers to ensure that
they succeed in the classroom
Organization
(Cultural Setting)
The school needs to provide an incentive package that appropriately
reflects teachers’ efforts
Organization
(Cultural Model)
The school needs to cultivate a sense of belongings among teachers
Organization
(Cultural Model)
The school needs to cultivate a culture of mutual trust between
administrators and teachers in order to allow classroom autonomy

Qualitative data gathered from the focus group interviews provided valuable insight into
why some novice teachers decide to leave their jobs. A number of common themes were inferred
from the findings, and, based on those, solutions to rectify the performance gap were devised.
This chapter addresses the final research question that guided this study, “What are the
recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions for Cannan Kindergarten?”
Discussion of the solutions is based on applied research theories to demonstrate the relevance,
applicability, and effectiveness of the solutions in helping to closing the performance gap related
to novice teacher retention.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 100

This chapter is divided into four sections. The first section presents context-specific
solutions, based on the validated knowledge, motivation, and organization influences in Chapter
Four, to improve novice teacher retention at Cannan Kindergarten. The second section introduces
an integrated implementation plan which includes required resources and predicted timeframes
for closing the performance gap. In the third section, an evaluation plan is presented which
provides guidance for implementing the proposed solutions and assessments to achieve the
expected outcomes. The final section of this chapter discusses future research direction and
closes with a conclusion.
Proposed Solutions to Address the Validated Influences on Novice Teacher Retention
As discussed in Chapter Four, this study identified five validated influences on novice
teachers’ decisions to stay or leave Canaan Kindergarten. Solutions are proposed for all five
validated influences and categorized in themes of knowledge and organizational influences on
performance. Clark and Estes (2008) point out that, when knowledge, motivation, and
organizational barriers are identified and validated, all systems must work closely together to
address the events that transpire in the organizational environment. Focusing solely on one of the
systems, knowledge for instance, will only “capture part of the cause and, eventually, provide
only part of the solution” (Clark and Estes, 2008, p. 44). The three systems are interdependent
and tightly interwoven with each other, so, if not considering all facets when devising an
intervention plan, then only partial or an imperfect solution can be found. In light of this, a
synthesized solution which integrates all recommendations for a significant effect on achieving
the organizational goal of novice teacher retention will be presented in the implementation plan
section of this chapter.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 101

Recommendations to Address Validated Knowledge Needs
Findings presented in Chapter Four stipulate that there are deficiencies in teachers’
knowledge about job expectations when entering the kindergarten profession. Many novice
teachers realize they have misconceptions about their job expectations soon after they start
working in the profession as a full-time teacher. As revealed from the data, novice teachers often
encounter various unforeseen challenges in the classroom as well as pressure to perform
effectively. In addition, the amount of work teachers are expected to complete takes novice
teachers by surprise. This includes needing to spend time after work brushing up on their
knowledge in areas that are not covered during their ECE training, such as how to interact with
parents and understanding the curriculum that is imposed by the Hong Kong Education Bureau
on kindergarten. As such, novice teachers have a difficult time settling in and adjusting to the
new working environment. The following table depicts the proposed context-specific solution to
address the continuing need in this particular area.
Table 11
Proposed Recommendation to Address Validated Knowledge Need
Validated Knowledge Need Context-Specific Recommendation
Teachers need knowledge about job
expectations
The school assigns each novice teacher a
mentor to help guide them through the
transition period

To narrow the knowledge gap in this area, Cannan Kindergarten should consider
providing each novice teacher with a mentor who will act as a guardian of the new teacher
during their first year on the job. Vast research has suggested that a good mentorship program for
novice teachers can enhance their first teaching experience, ensure that their transition into
teaching is positive and successful, and improve the new teacher retention rate (Aslan & Öcal
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 102

2012; Brill & McCartney, 2008; Calvert 2001; Grant, 2002; Villani & Villani, 2009; Waterman,
& He, 2011; White & Mason, 2006). In the context of this study, the mentors should be
experienced teachers who have worked at Cannan Kindergarten for five or more years. This
aspect is particularly important as they have all gone through their teacher training and nurtured
their teaching skills and experience at Cannan, the exact same academic environment and
teaching path as the novice teachers are facing. As such, the mentors can provide precise and
valuable guidance in and out of the classroom to the new teachers who are living through the
same situation and facing the same frustrations as they did in their early years at Cannan.
The school can pair each novice teacher with one experienced teacher for one-on-one
mentoring, and they can be assigned to teach the same class together. The experienced teacher
can work as the lead teacher while the novice teacher serves as the assistant teacher. The mentee
can take this opportunity to perfect their own teaching skills by observing how the lead teacher
conducts the class and reflecting on how to transfer what they learnt from ECE training into
actual classroom teaching. Often times, there are discrepancies between teaching and learning
theories gained through academic studies and actual teaching duties, and this mismatch of job
expectations contributes to new teachers’ anxieties and decisions to leave the profession. By
having an experienced teacher as their mentor, novice teachers can feel secure and confident in
the classroom, be able to handle teaching-related difficulties, and cope with unexpected
situations during their early teaching experiences. In all, this arrangement should help alleviate
the lack of knowledge experienced by novice teachers, which sometimes causes them to leave
their job.
The following section will provide recommendations to address the four validated
organization needs. Recall that data analysis in Chapter Four indicated there is motivation among
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 103

teachers to continue their employment at Cannan Kindergarten, so there is no immediate
intervention required for motivation needs, and the discussion here will move directly to the
validated organizational needs
Recommendations to Address Validated Organizational Needs
Qualitative data presented in Chapter Four revealed deficiencies in organizational
supports and resources within Cannan Kindergarten, which contributed to the high novice
teacher attrition rate. Teachers who participated in the in-person focus group interviews indicated
there is a continuing need for a comprehensive mentoring procedure, a need to provide an
incentive package to teachers which appropriately reflects their efforts, a need to cultivate a
sense of belonging among teachers, and a need to cultivate a culture of mutual trust between
school administrators and teachers which empowers teachers with classroom autonomy. This
section discusses each one of these needs and suggests corresponding context-specific
interventions to address them. The following table depicts the proposed context-specific
solutions to address the continuing needs in this particular area.
Table 12
Proposed Recommendation to Address Validated Organization Need
Validated Organization Need Context-Specific Recommendation
The school needs a mentoring procedure for
teachers to ensure that they succeed in the
classroom
The school increases resources to
implement a one-on-one mentoring
program for all novice teachers
The school needs to provide an incentive
package that appropriately reflects teachers’
efforts
The school sets up a compensation
review committee to study and analyze
teachers’ renumeration package
The school needs to cultivate a sense of
belongings among teachers
The school organizes retreats and other
employee-bonding activities to enhance a
sense of community among teachers
The school needs to cultivate a culture of
mutual trust between administrators and
teachers in order to allow classroom autonomy
The school conducts a feasibility study of
classroom autonomy and implements it in
stages
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 104

Provide Resources for Mentoring Program
Brill and McCartney (2008) found that mentoring is an effective practice that enhances
teacher efficacy and reduces attrition. To dissuade novice teachers from leaving and prolong
their employment at Cannan Kindergarten, the school should ensure that they receive proper and
adequate mentoring so that they feel comfortable and confident in performing their duties
effectively. During the in-person focus group interviews, teachers indicated that Cannan has not
done enough in this regard, and there is room for improvement.
Currently, only novice teachers who have just entered the profession at Cannan are
assigned to work with a senior teacher, whereas new teachers who transferred from another
kindergarten do not receive the same treatment. This discrepancy may be caused by two factors.
For one, it may simply stem from the lack of resources on the part of the school. Cannan may not
have a sufficient number of experienced teachers who are free beyond their regular teaching and
administrative duties to offer one-on-one mentoring for every new teacher, so only those who
have just graduated from college will receive the mentoring. The other reason may be that the
school assumes all teachers transferring from another kindergarten have already worked in the
industry for some years, and, as a result, they should have learnt enough and have the required
experienced to do their job properly and handle all types of pressure they might face in the
workplace.
As indicated in the interviews, Cannan Kindergarten needs to increase its effort and
allocate more resources into the mentoring program. The school should streamline the
administrative duties assigned to senior teachers to free up time for novice teachers. This is a
particularly important dimension to the recommendation related to providing resources for the
mentoring program for novice teachers. Further, Cannan should rearrange the teaching duties of
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 105

all teachers, assigning both experienced and novice teachers, at a ratio of at least one-to-one, in
each class to ensure that novice teachers can be nurtured effectively and successfully by
experienced teachers (Li, 2016; Wexler, 2019). This can ensure that all classes are led by
experienced teachers while novice teachers can act as assistant teachers during their first year.
Under this arrangement, novice teachers can observe how a class is properly conducted, how
homework assignments are prepared, and how teachers should deal with parents after class. In
addition, mentors can take a more proactive role by conducting discussion sessions with novice
teachers, both in one-on-one and group sessions, on a regular basis to go over problems that
novice teachers may encounter, and implement interventions or pre-emptive measures if
problems are identified. This can ascertain that all potential issues experienced by the novice
teachers are being dealt with at an early stage and all problems are being brought up, discussed,
and solved before they become unmanageable.
More importantly, this arrangement of pairing each novice teacher with a mentor adds a
dimension of harmony within the school. It creates a culture of friendship, family, and support.
Novice teachers are more likely to stay in their job when they develop a close personal
connection to peers whom they can trust and respect, and it makes them more engaged and
indulged in their work. Using Buckingham and Coffman’s (1999) research on what great
managers do to select talented workers as an analogy, through the direct and close working
relationship with their mentees, experienced teachers can set the expectations, define the right
outcomes, and build on each novice teacher’s unique strengths to enhance their effectiveness and
ensure a harmonious working environment.
This proactive mentoring program should not be limited to teachers who have just
completed their ECE training. Instead, it should be made mandatory for all teachers who have
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 106

joined Cannan Kindergarten, including those who have previously worked at other schools. This
is particularly important because, regardless of the teacher’s previous teaching experience, when
one arrives Cannan, the school should assume that the teacher knows little about Cannan.
Properly adjusting one’s mindset and work behavior to a new working environment is important
to ensure expectations are met and job performance is effective (Beus et al., 2014; Gingery,
2005; Tolan, 2017).
For teachers who have just joined Cannan Kindergarten from another school, it is still a
new job, a new school, a new working and teaching environment, and a new workplace culture
that they need to become acclimated to quickly. New teachers often do not feel connected and
integrated with the school or with its incumbent teachers and administrators, and they may lack a
sense of community or prevailing norms and values of Cannan. As such, they should be treated
like novice teachers and offered the same types and levels of help to ensure they settle in
smoothly and comfortably. By adapting into the new job more smoothly, teachers will be more
effective in the classroom and feel more integrated into the school, its culture and values, and
their colleagues. These are the essential ingredients to fortify their sense of belonging and an
important element to improve teacher retention (Goodenow, 1993; Shaalvik & Skaalvik, 2011a).
Invest in Incentive Package That Appropriately Reflects Efforts
Research has shown that education has lower starting salaries and lower lifetime earnings
than most other occupations (Darling-Hammond, 2010; Gilpin & Kaganovich, 2012; Walker et
al., 2010). To retain effective teachers, school administrators should reward teachers with a
salary that appropriately reflects the effort they put into their work or benefits, such as a better
health insurance policy, such that they feel the school cares for their health and well-being.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 107

During the in-person focus group interviews, teachers revealed that their pay-scale and
salary-related subsidies do not appropriately reflect the efforts they put in their job, and they lag
behind those offered at other schools. To alleviate teachers’ concern and ensure that they
continue to work diligently, Cannan can consider a more attractive incentive package for all its
staff, particularly in non-pecuniary benefits. On the salary side, the Education Bureau of Hong
Kong (2020) announced in July 2017 that the salary-related subsidies and salary range for
kindergarten teaching staff under the Kindergarten Education Scheme in Hong Kong will be
adjusted based on the annual civil service pay adjustment on a school year basis starting from the
2018–2019 school year. The adjustment means that overall salaries for Cannan Kindergarten will
be adjusted upward and on par with that of general civil servants. This reform in kindergarten
teachers’ pay scale signifies a significant improvement in teachers’ salaries, and it should erase
concerns regarding kindergarten teachers being underpaid as compared with most other
professions in the city.
This upward adjustment of kindergarten teachers’ salaries notwithstanding, school
administrators at Cannan should also look into improving other areas of benefits which make up
the general incentive package for teaching staff, so long as the finances allow. For instance, the
school can re-visit its health insurance policy to determine if there is any room for improvement.
To the teachers, a better health insurance policy means the school cares for their health and well-
being, and it also enhances teachers’ sense of belonging and sense of community at the school. In
addition, Cannan can make use of a good deferred compensation scheme to reward teachers for
not leaving their job. Examples of terms in such a scheme may include higher pecuniary
compensation after working at the school for over 10 years, guaranteed promotion to senior
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 108

teaching positions, possibilities to move into administrative posts, and an improved health
insurance package.
Cultivate a Sense of Community
Teachers’ sense of community in the school is a promising construct in terms of its
ability to promote students’ well-being and reduce teacher attrition (Prati et al., 2018). Connors-
Krikorian and Twomey (2005) argued that a teacher’s sense of community with the school and
social well-being are important characteristics of an effective school. Skaalvik and Skaalvik
(2011b) also pointed out that a lack of a sense of community or prevailing norms and values
within a school will likely lead to high teacher attrition. Given the findings presented in the
previous chapter, Cannan Kindergarten should focus on cultivating and enhancing its teachers’
sense of community to ensure all teachers feel they are an important part of the school
community.
Catalano and colleagues (2004) suggest that school bonding consists of two primary
dimensions: attachment and commitment. Attachment refers to the close affective relationships
with those at school, while commitment denotes investment in school and doing well in school.
Sense of community in the school refers to a feeling of belonging to the school as a community,
a perception of emotional connection and bonds with other colleagues, and the feeling that
personal needs are satisfied through such membership. To this end, Cannan should cultivate a
sense of community based on these two dimensions. The school can provide teachers with
frequent opportunities to participate in school activities shared with the entire school and that
offer a wide variety of meaningful learning and teaching activities stimulating collaboration
between teachers. In addition, Cannan can increase opportunities for teachers to participate in
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 109

academic and non-academic activities in city- or community-wide events to foster teachers
bonding with each other and the entire Cannan community.
Increase Classroom Autonomy
Based on the results and analysis presented in Chapter Four, one area to improve teacher
retention at Cannan Kindergarten is to allow for a larger degree of classroom autonomy. Boyd et
al. (2011) and Evans (2017) noted the connection between classroom autonomy and working
conditions in relation to teachers’ retention decisions. Evans (2017) suggested there is a strong
correlation between autonomy and decisions to stay or leave a job. The author noted that teachers
want to have some degree of control and freedom from interruption by school administrators,
and having such autonomy could be an indicator of how the school values their work.
Classroom autonomy requires trust between school administrators and teaching staff. In
particular, with trust present, the school can allow teachers a certain degree of freedom in doing
what they think will enhance students’ learning experience. There are some restrictions in place
by the Education Bureau of Hong Kong that may limit classroom autonomy more than in other
parts of the world. Nonetheless, there are opportunities to increase teacher autonomy at Cannan.
Under this policy recommendation, Cannan teachers would be given more freedom in their
classrooms to design a curriculum that will benefit their students. Cannan’s administrators
should understand that teachers carry out their duties daily, and they know how their students
learn effectively. Thus, instead of relying on school leadership to make decisions or being micro-
managed by administrators, teachers need to be encouraged to work with their colleagues on
their own and be allowed a certain level of independence. Classroom autonomy enables teachers
to feel valued and trusted by the school, which reduces their incentive to leave their job (Evans,
2017). Wronowski (2018) also points out that increasing teachers’ autonomy can improve
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 110

teacher retention. With this policy intervention, teachers will feel they are trusted and respected
by the school administrators as professionals, and it also signifies a vote of confidence in them.
As this research showed, teachers are eager and motivated to put in extra effort to ensure that
children are happy and become better learners.
The planning and implementation of classroom autonomy can be done in steps. To begin,
school administrators and teachers, the two main stakeholder groups, should be involved in
designing the scale and the scope of the program to increase teacher autonomy. The two sides
can examine the feasibility of this initiative by using decision criteria such as cost-benefit
analysis, sustainability, and organizational capacity. When they come to the consensus that this
policy recommendation is worth moving forward, the school will officially implement it and
begin with a 6-month trial period. After the trial period, both school administrators and teachers
will evaluate its results and determine if it should continue, and, if so, whether any fine-tuning or
adjustments are necessary. It is important that teachers, as they are being given the autonomy, are
involved in the entire planning and implementation of this policy intervention. Their
involvement will signify the school’s respect for them, and, as Boyd et al. (2011) noted, this will
have a positive effect on their retention decisions.
Implementation Plan
To be realized, the above context-specific recommendations to address the various
validated require related actions steps and resources. This section provides initial direction on the
action steps that Cannan Kindergarten would need to undertake to effectively implement the
proposed recommendations. Each of the policy recommendation has a series of action steps and
a general timeline for implementation. The following table presents a summary of the policy
recommendations, key action steps required for implementation, and the relevant timeline.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 111

Table 13
Summary of Policy Recommendations, Related Action Steps, and Timeline
Policy
Recommendation
Related Action Steps Timeline
The school assigns each
novice teacher a mentor
to help guide them
through the transition
period
• Rearrange teaching and
administrative duties of mentors
to ensure that they have time to
mentor novice teachers
• Ensure that each novice teacher
is paired with one experienced
teacher
2020/21 school
year
The school increases
resources for novice
teachers’ mentoring
program
• Approve budget for mentoring
program
• Hire administrative assistant
Immediately
The school sets up a
compensation review
committee to study and
analyze teachers’
renumeration package
• Appoint administrator, financial
comptroller, senior and junior
teachers to create a review
committee
• Convene committee on a bi-
monthly basis to discuss and
review findings
• Make suggestions to school
End of 2020 (6
months)
The school organizes
retreats and other
employees-bonding
activities to enhance a
sense of community
among teachers
• Appoint teachers and
administrators as organizers for
community-building activities
• Organize retreats for all teachers
at least once per academic year
• Ensure all administrators and
teachers participate
2020/21 school
year
The school conducts
feasibility study of
classroom autonomy and
implements it in stages
• School administrators and
teachers set up a working group
for the policy development
• Conduct a six-month trial period
• Review progress and make
adjustment
6 months

6 months
2021/22 school
year

Each of the above policy recommendations should be carried out based on the suggested
timeline. Upon the completion of each intervention, the school needs to evaluate progress to
determine if any adjustment or fine-tuning is necessary to ensure that the organization’s
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 112

performance gap is reduced. The ensuing section outlines the evaluation plan for these
recommended policy interventions.
Evaluation Plan
To determine if the organizational goal is reached and if the policy recommendations are
effective in closing the performance gaps, it is imperative to evaluate the results of the solutions
(Rueda, 2011). The effectiveness of the proposed intervention plans introduced in this chapter
relies heavily on the outcomes of evaluations. To meet the organizational goal of improving the
teacher retention rate, the aforementioned intervention plans will be evaluated using the
Kirkpatrick model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006) to ensure that implementation actions are
effective. The Kirkpatrick model presents a four-level sequential framework for program
evaluation: reaction, learning, transfer, and impact. The first level, reaction, measures reactions
to training to consider the extent to which the participants were engaged by the activity or
program. The second level, learning, assesses participants’ learning to evaluate the extent to
which the participants have acquired new knowledge and skills through the programs. The third
level, transfer, considers the extent to which the participants have changed their behavior as a
result of the programs. Finally, the fourth level, impact, means assessing results and impact along
with examining the impact of the programs or interventions on the organization. Assessment can
both be formal and informal, depending on the existing culture of the organization. Moving from
one level to the next, the levels represent a sequence of complexity, with the evaluation process
becoming more complex and time-consuming with each step, but each level also provides
increasingly more valuable information (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006).
Based on the four-level evaluation model proposed by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2006), the following section discusses and provides an evaluation plan for the proposed
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 113

interventions for improving teacher retention at Cannan Kindergarten. Note that five proposed
policy recommendations were introduced above, and they will be evaluated across three larger
themes of mentoring novice teachers and classroom autonomy to be discussed in this section.
Mentoring Novice Teachers
Using the Kirkpatrick model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006) as a guideline, this
mentorship program can be assessed at four different levels. At the first level, the experienced
teachers, the mentors, will observe their mentees’ engagement, and senior school administrators
can conduct informal check-ins with the novice teachers to monitor their progress. At level two,
mentors can assess their mentees’ confidence and their understanding of job expectations to
determine and adjust the guidance needed by individual teachers based on their responses.
During level three, mentors and senior school administrators should organize meetings with
mentees to discuss and evaluate their progress and confidence. Also, teachers’ performance will
be compared to that when they started their mentorship program. Finally, at level four, the school
will assess the novice teacher’s performance upon the completion of the mentorship program
after one academic year as well as discuss with them if the program improved their confidence
and whether it improved their likelihood to remain in their job. In addition, the school will
prepare a questionnaire for all mentees to solicit their views regarding the mentoring program,
and, based on their feedback, adjust and fine-tune the program to ensure that it helps achieve the
organization’s performance goal. Table 14 below summarizes the four levels of evaluation of
mentoring novice teachers.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 114

Table 14
Four Levels of Evaluation of Mentoring Novice Teachers
Reaction Learning Transfer Impact
• Mentors observe
the level of
engagement of
their mentees
• School
administrators can
conduct informal
“check-ins” with
the novice teachers
to monitor their
progress
• Mentors assess their
mentees’ confidence
level and their
understanding of job
expectations
• Mentors determine
and adjust the
guidance level needed
by individual teachers
based on collected
responses
• Mentors and
school
administrators hold
meeting with
mentees, discuss
and evaluate their
progress and
confidence level,
and compare their
performance
against that when
they started their
mentorship
program
• School accesses the
performance of the
novice teachers upon
completion of the
mentorship program
after one academic
year
• Discuss with the
teachers if the
program has
improved their
confidence level and
whether it helps
improve their
likelihood to remain
in their job
• School analyzes
employment data to
determine whether
novice teachers
remain in post
longer after the
initiation of the
mentorship program.
• School prepares a
questionnaire for
mentees to solicit
their feedback about
the program, and
make adjustment to
the program if
necessary

Classroom Autonomy
Using the Kirkpatrick model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006) as a guideline again,
introduction of classroom autonomy can be assessed at four different levels. At the first level,
school administrators can observe and evaluate teachers’ reaction to having a degree of
autonomy in their classroom, determine if they are comfortable with the new arrangement, and
discuss whether they feel more trusted and respected. At level two, the school administrators can
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 115

conduct classroom observations to gather evidence of improvement in children’s learning and of
whether the new classroom ambience facilitates learning. For level three, school administrators
should meet with teachers to evaluate if there is a change in teachers’ behavior or improvement
in their teaching enthusiasm and efforts. Finally, at level four, school administrators can enter
into discussions with teachers and utilize information gathered from classroom observations to
determine the effectiveness of allowing a degree of classroom autonomy. Further, the school can
determine if the new classroom arrangement improved teachers’ contentment and whether it
helped improve their likelihood to remain in their job. If both are improved, administrators can
then determine whether more autonomy should be granted. The following table summarizes the
four levels of evaluation for classroom autonomy.
Table 15
Four Levels of Evaluation of Introducing Classroom Autonomy
Reaction Learning Transfer Impact
• School
administrators
observe and
evaluate teachers’
reaction to having
some degrees of
autonomy in
classroom, and if
their level of
contentment
improves
• School
examines if
there is
improvement in
children’s
learning by
classroom
observation
• Evaluate if the
new classroom
ambience
facilitates
learning
• School holds
meetings with
teachers to
evaluate if there
is a change in
teachers’
behavior, and
to determine
whether there is
room for
improvement in
their teaching
enthusiasm and
efforts

• School
administrators
determine the
outcome of
allowing more
autonomy in the
classroom, and
examine if fuller
autonomy can be
granted
• School evaluates,
given that
teachers have
more control in
the classroom, if
they have more
job satisfaction
and are more
likely to stay in
their job
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 116

The Kirkpatrick model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006) provides a framework for
evaluation to ensure that targeted outcomes align with the organization’s goals. Enhancing the
novice teachers’ mentoring program and allowing classroom autonomy address pressing issues
raised by the teachers during the in-person focus group interviews. By eliminating teachers’
anxiety and difficulties in their workplace, novice teachers’ confidence and fulfillment at their
job may increase and improve their retention rate.
Improving Compensation Package
Another intervention plan for improving teacher retention is to revise and improve
teacher’s compensation package. Applying the Kirkpatrick model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2006), the effectiveness of this plan can be assessed at four different levels. At the first level,
senior school administrators appoint a principal and a financial comptroller as well as senior and
junior teachers to create a compensation package review committee. At the second level, all
members of the committee review and conduct research on how to improve teachers’
compensation package, and convene on a bi-monthly basis to discuss and review findings. For
level three, committee members draft a general proposal that is both financially feasible and
agreed upon by all parties involved, to be submitted to school’s senior administrators for final
review and approval. Such a package does not necessarily confine to pecuniary remuneration,
but can include other benefits such as better health insurance coverage, more paid holidays, etc.
Finally, at level four, school administrators determine, after the first year of implementation, if
the revised compensation scheme induces a higher teacher retention rate. Cannan Kindergarten
can also review if further revisions and amendments on the compensation package is necessary
for improving teachers’ job satisfaction and ensure that teachers are more likely to stay in their
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 117

job. The following table summarizes the four levels of evaluation for improving teachers’
compensation package.
Table 16
Four Levels of Evaluation of Improving Compensation Package
Reaction Learning Transfer Impact
• School
administrators set
up a compensation
scheme review
committee
• Senior and junior
teachers are
invited to
participate and
voice their
opinions
• Committee
members
review and
conduct
research on
how to improve
current package
to encourage
teacher
retention.
• Committee
members
convene on a
bi-monthly
basis to review
and discuss
findings
• Committee
proposes a
revised
compensation
scheme to
senior
management
for review and
endorsement.

• School
administrators
observe and
evaluate the new
compensation
package after
one school year
to determine if
there is an
improvement in
teacher retention,
and if further
amendments to
the package is
necessary

Future Research
Early childhood education in Hong Kong has undergone significant changes and reforms
over the past few decades, yet a very limited amount of research has been conducted to examine
different facets of this industry. This study investigated the background and causes of high
kindergarten teacher attrition to provide solutions for the problem at one privately-run
kindergarten. Qualitative data shed light on different perspectives in this industry, which may
lead to numerous interesting and meaningful research topics in ECE in Hong Kong. For future
research, it will be interesting to expand the scope of this study to look into the industry-wide
teacher retention problem. As the findings and conclusions from this study are unique to Cannan
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 118

Kindergarten, researchers can also examine teacher attrition problem across all other schools in
the city, and compare that to the results from this study to see if there are any similarities and if
any lessons can be learnt. In addition, it is worthwhile to revisit the Hong Kong ECE curriculum
to examine if there is room for improvement to bring the subjects being taught up to date. This is
an important step to ensure that future teachers are more prepared to face the rapidly-changing
requirements and expectations in the field, both from the schools and the parents.
Furthermore, the impact and effectiveness of management styles in ECE settings deserves
more in-depth investigation as they have immediate and direct impact on teacher retention.
Another area that deserves further investigation is whether the new compensation system for
kindergarten teachers will affect their retention rates. These are all important areas that directly
and indirectly contribute to the overall quality of preschool education in Hong Kong, and, if
properly studied and improved, will also have a positive impact in the Asian region.
Conclusion
High teacher attrition is a persistent problem across preschools in Hong Kong. The fact
that a high number of kindergarten teachers leave their jobs each year negatively affects
children’s learning and imposes burdens on the schools and on the teachers who stay. The
motivation for this study was to explore the factors behind this high attrition rate in one
privately-owned school to propose policy recommendations, with an implementation and
evaluation plan for them, to rectify the problem. The results of this study were important because
they provided solutions to teacher retention at Cannan Kindergarten and shed light on the larger
context to rectify the problem of teacher attrition across all school levels.
Qualitative data provided by the participants validated five assumed influences on novice
teacher retention, among them one knowledge influence on performance and four organizational
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 119

influences on performance. Key findings indicated that, to enhance teachers’ retention decisions,
the school needed to strengthen its mentoring program, especially for all novice teachers. In
addition, allowing a degree of classroom autonomy will make teachers feel their professionalism
is respected and influence their decisions to stay. These are important factors to consider in
developing solutions to prolong teachers’ employment at the school.
Knowledge gained from this study also raised awareness and recognition of the preschool
teaching profession. As revealed by the participants, a central motivation for them is their love of
children and their desire to provide a good education for them. Successful implementation of the
proposed study recommendations and improvement in the teacher retention rate can serve as an
example for other schools to follow. By incorporating and adjusting for different cultural
contexts, it is hoped that schools in other Asian regions can also benefit from the experience
gained from this case study of teacher retention at Cannan Kindergarten.
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 120

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KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 140

APPENDIX
Focus Group Interview Protocol
Interview Opening Remarks
Thank you very much for agreeing to participate in this research study. I am conducting
research as part of my Global Executive EdD program in the Rossier School of Education at the
University of Southern California. This interview should take approximately 60 minutes. There
are no right or wrong answers, and you can skip any questions that you do not want to, or feel
comfortable to, answer, and you can stop the interview at any time. There will be absolutely no
consequences whatsoever if you choose to quit or refuse to continue during the interview.
Your responses will be kept confidential, and will be summarized with other interview
responses to ensure that no individual participant can be identified. With your permission, I will
record the interview to ensure that I correctly remember each response. Soon after the conclusion
of the interviews, the recording will be transcribed without any identifying information and the
recording will be permanently deleted. The transcription will be recorded under a pseudonym so
anything you said today cannot be connected back to you.
- May I have your permission to record the interview?
- Do you mind if I jot down a few notes to help me with my memory during the
interview?
- Do you have any questions about this interview before we get started?
- May I remind you once again that you are free to skip any question or not participate
in the discussion at any time during the interview.
Now, let’s get started.

KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 141

Interview Questions:
Research Question KMO Influence Interview Question
What are the teachers’
knowledge, motivation
constructs needed in order
to stay on their job?

Knowledge about job
expectations

1. When you first
started as a teacher
at Cannan, what
were your
expectation of your
responsibilities?
2. Were your
expectations right?
Why or why not?
What are the teachers’
knowledge, motivation
constructs needed in order
to stay on their job?

Knowledge about job
expectations

What were you hoping to
achieve when you entered
the teaching profession?
What are the interactions
between the organizational
influences and teachers’
knowledge and
motivation?
The school establish an
open communication
channel between
administrators and
teachers

How does the school
communicate with you
regarding their expectations
of teachers?
What are the teachers’
knowledge, motivation
constructs needed in order
to stay on their job?

Knowledge on the
potential future
benefits (promotions,
pay raise, etc.) if
staying on the job

What are the potential
benefits that you will
receive if you stay at the
job? (probe: any financial
benefits, possibilities of
promotion, formal
recognition, etc.)
What are the teachers’
knowledge, motivation
constructs needed in order
to stay on their job?

Knowledge on how to
communicate with
senior school
administrators if they
encounter difficulties
on the job
1. If you encounter
difficulties on the
job, how do you go
about
communicating with
school
administrators?
2. How comfortable
would you feel
communicating this
information to
administrators?
What are the teachers’
knowledge, motivation
Knowledge to reflect
on their performance
and make
Could you provide an
example of a time when you
reflected on your
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 142

constructs needed in order
to stay on their job?

improvements if
necessary
performance, conducted any
self-appraisal?
What are the teachers’
knowledge, motivation
constructs needed in order
to stay on their job?
Knowledge to reflect
on their performance
and make
improvements is
necessary
How and what improvement
did you make based on that
reflection?
What are the teachers’
knowledge, motivation
constructs needed in order
to stay on their job?

Teachers believe they
can be effective
teachers at Cannan

In your view, what
constitutes effective
teaching?
What are the teachers’
knowledge, motivation
constructs needed in order
to stay on their job?

Teachers believe they
can be effective
teachers at Cannan

To what extent do you feel
you are an effective
teacher? What prompts you
to believe that you are an
effective teacher?
What are the teachers’
knowledge, motivation
constructs needed in order
to stay on their job?

Teachers perceive
working at Cannan as a
supportive
environment
To what extent is Cannan a
supportive environment for
you to work at? What makes
it more or less supportive?
What are the interactions
between the organizational
influences and teachers’
knowledge and
motivation?
Teachers perceive
working at Cannan as a
supportive
environment
If you think Cannan is not a
supportive environment for
you, what else can the
administrators do to make
you feel supported?

What are the interactions
between the organizational
influences and teachers’
knowledge and
motivation?
The school needs to
provide adequate
teaching resources and
training for teachers

Tell me about the teaching
resources and training
available to teachers
What are the interactions
between the organizational
influences and teachers’
knowledge and
motivation?
The school needs to
provide adequate
teaching resources and
training for teachers

If the school decided to
provide more resources to
the teaching staff, what
teaching resources and
training would you need, if
any
What are the interactions
between the organizational
influences and teachers’
knowledge and
motivation?
The school establish an
open communication
channel between
administrators and
teachers
If you have a concern, how
would you go about
communicating with senior
administrator? Will they
listen?
KINDERGARTEN TEACHER RETENTION 143

What are the interactions
between the organizational
influences and teachers’
knowledge and
motivation?
School cultivate a
sense of belongings
among teachers

Tell me an experience that
makes you feel a part of this
school, or not part of this
school

What are the interactions
between the organizational
influences and teachers’
knowledge and
motivation?
The school cultivates a
culture of mutual trust
between administrators
and teachers in order to
allow teachers more
autonomy in the
classroom

How much autonomy do
you have in carrying out the
curriculum and making
decisions in your
classroom?
To what extent do you think
the school trusts teachers so
that teachers can have
autonomy in the classroom?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This research investigates the factors that contribute to high novice teacher attrition in a privately-owned kindergarten in Hong Kong. Utilizing Clark & Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework as a guideline, the study evaluates the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences behind teachers’ decision to leave their job. Qualitative data collected through four in-person focus group interviews validated five assumed influences, among them one knowledge influence and four organizational influences on performance. Based on the findings and analysis, a set of intervention plans are proposed, including a mentoring program for novice teachers, allowing some degrees of classroom autonomy, and improving teachers’ compensation package. These interventions plans, together with a comprehensive implementation plan and an evaluation procedure, are outlined in detail to ensure that the organization goal of reducing teacher attrition can be reached.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Luk, Stephen Kai Ming (author)

Core Title A gap analysis on improving teacher retention in kindergarten: a case of a private kindergarten in Hong Kong

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Global Executive

Publication Date 07/06/2020

Defense Date 06/16/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag gap analysis,Hong Kong,Kindergarten,OAI-PMH Harvest,teacher retention

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Krop, Cathy (committee chair), Chung, Ruth (committee member), Picus, Larry (committee member)

Creator Email luk26@hotmail.com,luks@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-324024

Unique identifier UC11673180

Identifier etd-LukStephen-8634.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-324024 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-LukStephen-8634.pdf

Dmrecord 324024

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Luk, Stephen Kai Ming

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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