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The impact of parents’ divorce on student learning: a case study of institutional support in a martial arts school

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The impact of parents’ divorce on student learning: a case study of institutional support in a martial arts school

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Content Running head: IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 1
Copyright 2020 Kim-Anh Nguyen Dang

The Impact of Parents’ Divorce on Student Learning: A Case Study of Institutional Support in a
Martial Arts School

Kim-Anh Nguyen Dang
University of Southern California

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2020
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 2
Dedication
To my father, who passed away far too young. I hope that I have made you proud.
To my godfather, Grand Master Dang Huy Duc, I am grateful for the invaluable life-lessons,
endless love, support, and encouragement in all things great and small.

IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 3
Acknowledgments
Primarily, I would like to acknowledge that I wholeheartedly appreciate the efforts of my
dissertation committee in pushing me towards becoming a highly qualified researcher and life-
long learner. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my dissertation chair, Dr. Ekaterina
Moore, for her patience, comprehensive guidance, and tireless help through each stage of the
dissertation process. I am also thankful to Dr. Monique Datta, who started my doctoral
education, opened my eyes, and helped me identify an explicit and narrow-specific research
focus. A very special thanks to Dr. Melanie Brady, my instant writing mentor, and adviser on
how to shape the ideas as perfectly as possible and infer the utmost value out of the written
content. Your steadfast support always kept me on the right track throughout the journey.
A thank you to my brother, Dr. Thieu Dang, and to my sisters, Dr. Sharlene Sato and
Judge Cindy Dang. Family is the root of learning. You are all my role models. Your love,
invaluable advice, and consistent encouragement provided me the strength to reach and complete
this journey.
A thank you to Dr. Stephanie McEwan for the continuous moral support and having
confidence in me. You are not only my source of inspiration and motivation but also the shining
mirror that helped me get out of the darkness.
A thank you to Dr. Tanya Merriman for your endless love, support, and teachings since
the Master's program.
A thank you to Dr. Nicolas Doan Van for the unwavering support, helping me choose my
educational path, and believing in me.
A thank you to Dr. Micah Stork for being such a patient and motivated mentor. You have
helped me from day one of my doctoral journey.
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 4
A thank you to all my professors. You all have helped me build a solid foundation
towards my educational career and inspired me to continue learning and sharing my knowledge
with others.
A thank you to my Hwa Rang Kwan Family that sparked my interest in and inspired me
to explore the problems faced by K-12 students who are children of divorce as a central focus of
my dissertation project. I am blessed with all the training in a loving family and supportive
environment.
A thank you to all the Organizational Change and Leadership cohorts for an opportunity
to learn together and pursue a doctoral degree while enriching my knowledge and skills toolkit
on a daily basis. Let’s all change the world together!
Finally, all the thanks in the world to my loving mother, my godfather, and my
godmother for their kindness and wisdom which motivated me for a focused, organized and
dedicated research process; as well as to all my family members, especially my nieces and
nephews for their unquenchable positivity and genuine joyfulness which energized me in the
moments of exhaustion or despair.

IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 5

Table of Contents
Dedication…. .................................................................................................................................. 2
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................... 3
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. 8
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. 9
Abstract…… ................................................................................................................................. 10
Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice .................................................................. 11
Organizational Context and Mission ........................................................................................ 12
Organizational Goal .................................................................................................................. 15
Related Literature ..................................................................................................................... 17
Importance of the Evaluation .................................................................................................... 18
Description of Stakeholder Groups and Their Goals ................................................................ 19
Stakeholder Group for the Study .............................................................................................. 21
Purpose of the Project and Questions ....................................................................................... 22
Methodological Approach ........................................................................................................ 23
Definitions ................................................................................................................................ 24
Organization of the Project ....................................................................................................... 26
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 27
Post-Divorce Impacts on Children ............................................................................................ 27
Institutional Support for Children of Divorce from the Schools’ Perspectives ........................ 39
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis Framework .................................................................. 61
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 6

Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ...................................... 62
Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................. 82
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 87
Chapter Three: Methods ............................................................................................................... 88
Participating Stakeholders ........................................................................................................ 88
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 95
Credibility and Trustworthiness .............................................................................................. 100
Validity and Reliability ........................................................................................................... 102
Ethics...………………………………………………………………………………………102
Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................................ 105
Chapter Four: Results and Discussion ........................................................................................ 108
Results…………………………………………………………………………………..……109
Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 145
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 155
Chapter Five: Recommendations ................................................................................................ 157
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences ................................................. 157
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ..................................................................... 176
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Research Approach ........................................................... 194
Future Research ...................................................................................................................... 196
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 197
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 7

References……………………………………………………………………………………… 200
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 223
Appendix B: Table of Interview Questions versus Constructs of the Research Questions and
Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................... 226
Appendix C: Results Summary with Relation to Prior Research and Categorized as Strengths or
Gaps ....................................................................................................................... 228
Appendix D: Immediate Evaluation - Level 1 Survey ................................................................ 232
Appendix E: Immediate Evaluation - Level 2 Survey ................................................................ 233
Appendix F: Delayed Blended Assessment: Level 1-4 Survey ................................................. 234
Appendix G: TKD Learning Support Program Assessment Review .......................................... 235

IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 8

List of Tables
Table 1. Demographics of the Student Population
a
.................................................................... 14
Table 2. Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals ............... 21
Table 3. Assessment and Evaluation in Rank Exams ................................................................. 52
Table 4. Knowledge Influences .................................................................................................. 68
Table 5. Assumed Motivational Influences ................................................................................ 75
Table 6. Organizational Influences for Motivation Gap Analysis .............................................. 81
Table 7. Demographics of the Research Sample ........................................................................ 92
Table 8. Color Codes Assigned for KMO Influences ................................................................. 97
Table 9. Summary of Knowledge Influence and Recommendations ........................................ 160
Table 10. Summary of Motivational Influences and Recommendations ……………..………..165
Table 11. Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations ................................ 171
Table 12. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes ..................... 178
Table 13. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation ........................... 180
Table 14. Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors ........................................................ 182
Table 15. Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program ..................................... 187
Table 16. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program ................................................... 189

IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 9

List of Figures
Figure 1. Interactive conceptual framework for ensuring that TKD instructors accomplish the
stakeholder goal. ............................................................................................................ 85

IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 10

Abstract
The impact of parents’ divorce on learning outcomes for K-12 students is a challenge for
U.S. communities (what is the challenge, why is this a challenge for the community). These
children often experience stress and are likely to exhibit externalizing and internalizing behavior
problems that can negatively affect their development and impact learning achievements and
participation in after-school programs. Prior research demonstrated that Tae Kwon Do training
enhanced student learning potential; there was no primary evidence to verify that Tae Kwon Do
could reduce negative outcomes for children of divorce. The purpose of this study was to
evaluate the knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences impacting instructors’
ability to prepare K-12 students, who are children of divorce, for successful belt promotion tests.
Interviews with martial arts instructors revealed the influential factors for instructors’ capacity to
pursue their stakeholder goal of ensuring students’ pass their three-month belt promotion and
received mindfulness-based training. These influences revolved around: (a) instructors’
procedural knowledge of martial arts training along with behavioral and attentional control; (b)
self-efficacy, utility value and attributions for student motivation; as well as (d) organizational
factors, including ample non-instruction time, culture of trust and collaboration, differentiated
instruction, and knowledge sharing and collaboration. Recommendations to mitigate the
challenges instructors face with children of divorce are provided. The New World Kirkpatrick
Model was used to evaluate the recommendations-based interventions and their potential
outcomes in terms of the program improvement model for the martial arts school.
Keywords: K-12 students, children of divorce, divorce-related impact, martial arts, KMO model,
mindfulness

IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 11

Chapter One: Introduction to the Problem of Practice
The problem of the impact of parents’ divorce on student learning as a process and its
outcomes for K-12 students is a challenge for U.S. communities (Amato & Anthony, 2014;
Tartari, 2015). Each year approximately 1.5 million children experience the negative
implications of the parents’ divorce (Tartari, 2015). This adverse life event exposes children to
high levels of stress that is especially acute if intra-marital conflict is concerned. As a
consequence, school-age children can experience irritability and lack of emotional regulation, as
well as problem behaviors, with detrimental effects for their development and learning
(Kleinsorge & Covitz, 2012). Some of the post-divorce impacts involve childhood traumas, loss
of family ties, externalizing and internalizing behavioral patterns, poor academic performance,
and high school drop-out rates, among other issues (Ahrons, 2007; Amato & Anthony, 2014).
While this is a large-scale problem, not only regular schools but also after-school programs, such
as martial arts schools, can encounter the problems of student post-divorce adjustment.
In this context, organizations providing martial arts training service may face difficulties
in realizing the full student potential that the strengths of the martial arts philosophy and
pedagogy are likely to facilitate. For instance, the research findings demonstrate that continuous
and consistent Tae Kwon Do training is likely to improve school-life adaptation and learning
effectiveness by positive effects on cognitive functions of students through enhanced mental
capacity and development of multiple intelligence while increasing their self-efficacy and self-
confidence as learners (Cho, Park & Lee, 2018; Cho, Kim, & Ron, 2017; Fernandes et al., 2016;
Leung, Ng, & Chan, 2011; Turkmen, 2013). Therefore, exploring the impact of divorce on
children in the scope of a martial arts academy can be a valuable inquiry because of reported
favorable implications of this activity for the target population. Indeed, regular exercising
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 12

enhances cognitive abilities and facilitates the development of metacognition (Tomporowski,
McCullick, Pendleton, & Pesce, 2015), self-regulation (Howard, Vella, & Cliff, 2018), overall
well-being (Tadesse, 2017) along with ensuring support for self-cultivation of qualities and
attitudes valuable for successful learning, such as honesty, integrity, self-control, courtesy,
indomitable spirit, and perseverance (Johnson, 2016; 2017). These factors are crucial for any
student’s effective learning and learning outcomes. Although studies provide evidence that Tae
Kwon Do does positively impact school-going children in terms of different aspects of their
physical and psycho-emotional development, academic research lacks comprehensive primary
data on institutional support for children of divorce in particular. Thus, the proposed evaluation
study aims to collect empirical data in a Tae Kwon Do school to clarify the significance of
martial arts teaching as an opportunity to enhance the process of learning and its outcomes for
the children of divorce.
Organizational Context and Mission
The Tae Kwon Do (TKD) (a pseudonym is used to protect the anonymity of the
organization) is a Tae Kwon Do school that provides martial arts training. Along with physical
fitness and sports excellence, the school focuses on emotional and psychological comfort for
students both within the school environment and in the community at large. Therefore, according
to the information from the school’s website, the central mission of the organization is to nurture
martial arts as a lifestyle that cultivates physical and emotional fitness through the lens of self-
discipline and noble spirit.
TKD is a year-round school that not only aims to train sports fitness through Tae Kwon
Do practice but also develops the foundational aspects of this martial arts philosophy in students’
worldview and mindset. In particular, the organization provides individualized training schedules
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 13

for students according to their specific age group, where both physical and emotional
components of the organization’s mission are incorporated into holistic training sessions, which
intertwine the practice of philosophy, meditation, and spirituality. In this way, TKD attempts to
perform its ‘why’ function, namely, nurturing in students the key features of the martial arts,
including self-confidence, honesty, patience, calmness, humility, independence, courtesy,
indomitable spirit, and gratitude. Although the organization’s performance is not directly
concerned with providing academic or other support services, the above qualities are crucial for
persistent and self-motivated learning of students and acquiring proficiency in martial arts. At the
same time, the organization applies a generalized approach to the entire student population,
without any diversification of the training service or learning environment to such students as
children of divorce.
The organization is a large martial arts school located in Southern California. The student
demographics population is summarized in Table 1.

IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 14

Table 1
Demographics of the Student Population
a

Demographic Feature Number of Students
Age
5-8
9-12
19-30 years
31-42 years
43-64 years
65-79 years
5-18 years (Children whose parents
are divorced or are involved in
divorce procedures
Gender
Female
Male
Ethnicity
Vietnamese
Hispanic
African American
European American

42
72
67
38
16
34
4

96
77

90%
7%
2%
1%
a
The information is presented from the school’s records.

Specifically, the total number of students is 273. They are of different ages, ranging from
5 through 79 years old. 245 of the students are of Vietnamese origin (90%), with only a few
students representing Hispanic, African American and European American ancestry. According
to the student information forms filled by their parents, around 30% of students aged 5 through
18 are the children of divorce who live in legally divorced families or those involved in divorce
proceedings. Gender representation of the student groups is also diverse, with the majority of
students being male. Since the language background of the students also varies, instructors use
English and/or Vietnamese languages for communication and instruction.
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 15

Organizational Goal
Based on the mission statement, the organizational goal is as follows: by May 2020, all
K-12 students who are children of divorce enrolled in TKD, will pass their three-month belt
promotion at TKD and receive mindfulness-based support for improved learning. To a great
extent, this goal is aimed at all students since passing the three-month belt promotion test is a
common practice of ranking the Tae Kwon Do mastery levels of the students. However, the
scholarly literature shows that K-12 students who are children of divorce are likely to face
learning challenges due to the disrupted family environment and the psychological pressure they
encounter. For instance, while attention and behavior control are among the key requirements for
successful student martial arts training, acquisition of techniques, and proficiency, post-divorce
impacts on student’s psycho-emotional and social environment can be presumed to hinder their
learning, as the research suggests (Fomby & Cherlin, 2007; Johnstone & Marí-Beffa, 2018;
Mahony, Walsh, Lunn, & Petriwskyj, 2015). Hence, it is reasonable to evaluate whether children
of divorce can achieve the set goal as positioned for the regular Tae Kwon Do students.
Coupled with the belt promotion test, the goal-based intervention will comprise of
additional practical training sessions, with an emphasis on mindfulness. As an integral part of
Tae Kwon Do philosophy, the concept refers to “self-regulation of attention to the conscious
awareness of one’s immediate experiences while adopting an attitude of curiosity, openness and
acceptance,” namely, a conscious and self-controlled approach towards learning experiences
(Maynard, Solis, Miller, & Brendel, 2017, p. 9). Regardless of the fact that providing specific
support for children of divorce is not in the scope of the duties of martial arts instructors, this
goal was set by the organization’s founder along with the instructors’ team in response to the
decreasing performance of this student group in TKD. The instructors’ observations of increased
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 16

student irritability and aggression, as well as shyness and lack of self-confidence, also
contributed to the need for the slight modification of the organizational goal and a focus on
mindfulness. Moreover, their parents reported that their children displayed declining Tae Kwon
Do training results in TKD as well as lack of motivation to attend training sessions at all
combined with tense relationships with parents and conflicts with peers when in class. In this
respect, the instructors’ attendance lists also revealed that some of these students miss the
training practice at least once or twice per week. Oftentimes, parents delay taking the belt
promotion test from three to six months, justifying the case by the lack of financial resources for
this purpose. Therefore, the problem of post-divorce impact on the learning process and
enhancing the Tae Kwon Do proficiency of children of divorce in TKD is manifested in different
ways.
According to stakeholders’ concerns, the founder of the organization asked two
instructors to collect evidence on the topic. The researchers, who are members of the instructor
team, examined the literature and revealed the strengths of martial arts in nurturing the positive
traits of students’ character as well as impacting cognitive capacities, such as executive functions
of paying attention, switching one’s focus, remembering the details, and planning and organizing
one’s activities, to name a few (Diamond, 2014). Hence, the instructors expanded the above goal
of three-month belt promotion by adding the training focused on mindfulness. With this
approach, they aspire to leverage the Tae Kwon Do philosophy for advanced student training and
learning support in order to eliminate the current emotional and psychological challenges in
children of divorce. The goal-specific targets include instructors’ observations, and evaluation of
availability of such students’ qualities as (a) improved self-discipline (e.g., ability to control
oneself to stay focused on and dedicated to performing the required task or reach the set goal);
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 17

(b) perseverance (e.g., recognizing the value of the task and not quitting performing it in spite of
difficulties and reaching the goals as a result), and (c) self-motivation (ability to be driven and
committed to achieving the goals and tasks completion). If this issue is ignored, the organization
can risk losing clients’ trust and be unable to retain loyal clients and recruit new students.
Related Literature
Being a serious challenge to child social and psychological well-being, divorce leads to
long-term adverse effects on perceptions of learning process and achievements among school-
age children (Arkes, 2015; Kreidl, Stipkova, & Hubatkova, 2017). The scope and extent of these
problems depend on family size and composition, intra-family relationships, and post-divorce
parental involvement among other factors (Lee, Kusher & Cho, 2007; McIntosh & Tan, 2017;
Sun & Li, 2009; Vélez, Wolchik, Tein, & Sandler, 2011). In this regard, studies have
demonstrated that programs aimed at quality parent-child relationships post-divorce lead to
improved children’s learning and achievements in secondary school and higher academic
contexts (Sigal, Wolchik, Tein, & Sandler, 2012; Vélez et al., 2011). However, even though
various educational projects are available across U.S. states and research has shown their
effectiveness for enhanced children outcomes after parents’ divorce, these programs are mostly
voluntary, thus, revealing the unlikelihood of parents’ involvement with these strategies (Pollet,
2009).
At the same time, institutional support from non-academic organizations can be a
valuable contributor to eliminate post-divorce problems for children of divorce while improving
their learning and achievements in the scope of after-school programs and life in general. Tae
Kwon Do philosophy and pedagogy is positioned as an effective framework for this purpose.
According to Diamond (2014) and Lakes et al. (2013), Tae Kwon Do based interventions are
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 18

favorable for the development of student mental capacities which improve their learning
processes and outcomes. In addition, this martial arts training is likely to enhance the psycho-
emotional state of students while nurturing their positive personal and social values and overall
attitudes to learning (Avelar-Rosa, Quaresma & Arede, 2016; Hernandez & Anderson, 2015).
Importance of the Evaluation
It is important to evaluate the organization’s performance in relation to the performance
goal of TKD for a variety of reasons. Unresolved, divorce-related problems can impact
children’s learning process and outcomes as these problems are able to have long-term effects on
their learning competence and cause issues in different spheres of their life in the long run.
Primarily, the necessity to address this complex phenomenon stems from the wide-scope
consequences of this childhood trauma for the psycho-emotional and social environment of
children as substantial drivers for productive engagement in the martial arts and ongoing mastery
of the field. According to Cote (1999), one’s acquisition of expert performance is determined by
motivational, effort, and resource constraints. The child, the coach, and the family are the key
factors that influence the athletes’ participation in and commitment to sports, including martial
arts. Because of parental divorce, children can be prone to self-blame in parents’ marriage
failure, fluctuations in mood, such as sadness or anger, externalizing and internalizing behavioral
patterns, involving depression and anxiety, or even withdrawal from family ties (Kleinsorge &
Covitz, 2012). In the same way, one should consider the likelihood of poor basic academic
achievements for children of divorce, as compared with students from intact families (Kreidl et
al., 2017), with an achievement gap both after divorce and in later life (Arkes, 2015). The studies
consistently found the overall negation of attitudes towards learning as such being the main
concern for these K-12 students as they progress through the grades (Amato & Anthony, 2014).
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 19

The complex character of divorce poses a sufficient challenge for the process of learning
and performance outcomes of children of divorce, having negative effects for their families and
the community in general. The poor learning efficacy is due to the impact on their psychosocial
well-being (Porter, 2010) and interparental conflict or noninvolvement (Lee, Kushner, & Cho,
2007) as determinants of student success in and outside of regular school, including social self-
realization or lack thereof (Kreidl et al., 2017). Thus, the complexity of the problem requires an
accurate and holistic approach, considering the numerous factors of the children’s post-divorce
environment (Sigal et al., 2012; Vélez et al., 2011). While scholars have reported the
multidimensional positive Tae Kwon Do impact (Diamond, 2014; Lakes et al., 2013), studies
that focus on children’s post-divorce perspectives are lacking. Therefore, the above issues will
continue if the key stakeholders do not address the problem thoroughly by means of institutional
support while promoting the social change and comprehensive empowering of the children of
divorce to ensure their successful learning and competence as martial artists and fully developed
personalities. At the same time, the empirical evidence collected in the scope of the dissertation
project with the application of the tested and verified Clark and Estes (2008) evaluation
framework will be useful for the martial arts school to understand the problem in-depth with a
focus on this particular organization.
Description of Stakeholder Groups and Their Goals
The joint efforts of such stakeholder groups as parents of the children of divorce,
instructors, and TKD founder should contribute to the achievement of the organization’s
performance goal. First, the founder is well-aware of the different philosophical aspects of Tae
Kwon Do. Correspondingly, he is able to develop and provide Tae Kwon Do based support for
students, including nurturing self-discipline, perseverance, and self-motivation; the qualities
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 20

valuable for their learning in regular schools and after-school programs. According to the
organizational goal and shortcomings observed in performance of K-12 students who are the
children of divorce, the founder’s goal is that by January 2019, the TKD founder will create the
Tae Kwon Do-based framework for learning support to train students who are children of
divorce to help them develop their self-motivation, perseverance, and self-discipline. This goal
will be helpful in ensuring an individualized approach to meeting the organizational goal as well
as mitigating the post-divorce emotional challenges faced by the students which undermine their
learning capabilities.
Second, the instructors are the key actors to implement this model through the Tae Kwon
Do mindfulness-focused training practice and service to enhance student learning in TKD and
regular school. By January 2020, TKD instructors will provide intensive 45-minute Tae Kwon
Do training once every two weeks so that students who are children of divorce will be able to
perform forms with power, speed, and accuracy as required for three-month belt promotion and
will provide at least five hours of additional mindfulness-based training for their improved
learning. The established goal will be suitable to differentiate instruction for children of divorce
to enhance their learning potential and reach the target goal of the organization.
Third, parents are the main individuals who can both facilitate achieving this goal and
observe whether the strategy works as planned through a supportive home environment and
engagement. The goal of this stakeholder group is that by January 2020, parents of children of
divorce will attend at least four meetings at TKD to discuss how TKD learning support training
impacts their children’s learning process and outcomes. In this way, it will be possible to both
engage parents into facilitation of the learning environment and capacities of K-12 students, who
are the children of divorce, and monitoring how TKD’s support works in the process. Overall,
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 21

Table 2 is a summary of the organizational mission and performance goal and provides details on
how such stakeholder groups, as instructors, parents, and the founder, are likely to contribute to
reaching this goal by pursuing their stakeholder goals.
Table 2
Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
TKD/ Martial arts school’s mission is to nurture martial arts as a lifestyle that cultivates physical
and emotional fitness through the lens of self-discipline and noble spirit.
Organizational Performance Goal
By May 2020, all K-12 students who are children of divorce enrolled in TKD, will pass their
three-month belt promotion at TKD and receive mindfulness-based support for improved
learning.
Instructors Parents Founder
By January 2020, TKD
instructors will provide
intensive 45-minute Tae Kwon
Do training once every two
weeks so that students who are
children of divorce will be
able to perform forms with
power, speed, and accuracy as
required for three-month belt
promotion and will provide at
least 5 hours of additional
mindfulness-based training for
their improved learning.
By January 2020, parents of
children of divorce will attend
at least 4 meetings at TKD to
discuss how TKD learning
support training impacts their
children’s learning and
performance.

By January 2019, the TKD
founder will create the Tae
Kwon Do-based framework
for learning support to train
students who are children of
divorce to help them develop
their self-motivation,
perseverance, and self-
discipline.

Stakeholder Group for the Study
While a complete analysis would involve all stakeholder groups, for practical purposes,
the researcher selected instructors as a stakeholder group to focus on for this study. Due to the
challenges identified in the performance of children of divorce, the founder asked the team of
instructors (including the researcher) to collect evidence in order to set an organizational goal to
mitigate the problem. As a result, the goal was derived from the instructors’ observations over
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 22

this student group and findings from the academic research, which demonstrated that Tae Kwon
Do training could be a valuable strategy for improving children learning process and outcomes
(Diamond, 2014; Lakes et al., 2013). Hence, instructors’ provision of training aimed at learning
support of these students and student responsiveness to these methods are the key areas for
evaluating whether the TKD is achieving the organizational performance goal. Therefore, the
contribution of instructors is of crucial significance in this context, thus positioning the TKD
instructions as the major stakeholder group in reaching the set goal of the organization with a
focus on children of divorce. By contrast, in case this stakeholder group is ignored, the
organization will be at risk of not only not meeting the goal but also losing the K-12 students,
who are children of divorce, as customers, with negative impacts on the TKD’s reputation.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to evaluate the degree to which TKD is meeting its goal of
by May 2020, all K-12 students who are children of divorce enrolled in TKD, will pass their
three-month belt promotion at TKD and receive mindfulness-based support for improved
learning. The analysis will focus on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related
to achieving the organizational goals. While a complete performance evaluation would focus on
all stakeholders, for practical purposes, the stakeholder to be focused on in this analysis are the
TKD instructors.
The research questions that guide this study are as follows:
1. What is the instructor's knowledge related to achieving the organizational goal of ensuring
that by May 2020, all K-12 students who are children of divorce enrolled in TKD, will pass
their three-month belt promotion at TKD and receive mindfulness-based support for
improved learning?
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 23

2. What is the instructor's motivation related to achieving the organizational goal of ensuring
that by May 2020, all K-12 students who are children of divorce enrolled in TKD, will pass
their three-month belt promotion at TKD and receive mindfulness-based support for
improved learning?
3. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context to instructor knowledge
and motivation?
Methodological Approach
The study will use the qualitative methodological approach. This type of research aims to
collect and analyze the data on the investigated phenomenon as it is perceived by stakeholders in
order to make inferences from the information with regard to the problem in question (Creswell,
2014; McEwan & McEwan, 2003). In this case, the researcher can gain a valuable insight into
the topic by utilizing such principles of the qualitative research as (a) naturalistic, namely, an
opportunity to conduct the research in a natural setting of the phenomenon of interest; (b)
descriptive, or concentrating on the most diverse research-related details and characteristics; and
(c) focused on meaning and explanation, namely, inferring the explanatory nature of the data
being collected to be able to interpret the research problem and the meanings relevant to answer
the set research questions (McEwan & McEwan, 2003). Moreover, the researcher is positioned
as the key instrument in data collection, analysis, and interpretation, which is capable of
developing a comprehensive picture of the studied phenomenon based on participants’ meanings
of it (Creswell, 2014).
The chosen methodology is the most suitable approach for exploring the problem of
practice. Specifically, the topic is studied through the lens of the evaluation research to allow the
researcher an opportunity to collect and weigh the evidence so as to judge the value of
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 24

instruction in TKD in terms of meeting the needs of such a group of students as children of
divorce. Since the qualitative research design is flexible, the researcher will be able to adjust the
research strategy to the context and specificities of researcher-participant interactions, if needed
(Locke, Silverman, & Spirduso, 2010). Thus, being guided by the principles of the qualitative
research, the researcher has a possibility to describe and evaluate the instructors’ meanings of
training and support for children of divorce in the Tae Kwon Do school as a natural setting of
their activities. At the same time, the application of Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis
Framework, which focuses on the identification of stakeholder-centered knowledge, motivation,
and organizational (KMO) factors, is favorable for developing the conceptual framework for the
proposed qualitative inquiry. This model enables to specifically focus on KMO influences as a
guide for their meaning-making, attitudes, and behaviors for addressing or failing to address the
needs of children of divorce while pursuing the goal of instructors as a stakeholder group in the
material arts organization. As a result, the chosen methodological approach and strategy allows
reaching the study aims and objectives.
Definitions
Children of Divorce: Children raised in families where parents have divorced (Wilcox, 2009)
Divorce: A legal ending of marriage that is likely to have negative psychosocial effects on
divorce-related stakeholders, such as spouse and their children (Wilcox, 2009)
Divorced Family: The one in which previously legally married parents experienced either
separation or divorce (Martin, Mills, & Le Bourdais, 2005, p. 31).
Institutional Support: Policies and programs organized by institutions as a way to assist in
providing support for specific population groups that faced a problem that requires
intervention (Del Boca, 2003). Support from institutions for children of divorce and their
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 25

family members can involve material incentives or psychological interventions aimed at
development adjustment and coping mechanisms post-divorce, to name a few (Del Boca,
2003).
Intact Family: “An ongoing union in which both parents had their first children,” and the
children did not experience the breakdown of their family (Martin et al., p. 31).
Mindfulness-based Training: Training aimed at developing a skill that enables a person being
less reactive to the stressors or situations, with an emphasis on (a) “attention processing
to internal (cognitive, emotional and somatic) and external perceptions (routine and daily
life experiences)” and (b) “attitude of open and non-critical monitoring to those
experiences” (Diamond, 2014; Naves-Bittencourt et al., 2015, p. 35).
Regular Schools: An umbrella term used to refer to private and public institutions that provide
full-time educational services for grades K-12. The concept is utilized in the study to
distinguish the educational institutions where the children spend the greater part of the
day and after-school programs, which K-12 students attend several times a week within
the limited period of time, such as the one offered by TKD in the form of martial arts
training.
Sibship Size: The number of siblings in a family.
Tae Kwon Do: A combat sports with high-level technical preparation and comprehensive
pedagogical philosophy that can develop strong physical traits of an individual as well as
their character qualities, such as self-discipline and perseverance, among others (Johnson,
2017).

IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 26

Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with key
concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about the impact of parents’ divorce
on student learning and outcomes. The chapter also introduced the mission, goals as well as
stakeholders of the organization in question along with the methodological approach framework
employed for the study. Chapter Two provides a review of the current literature surrounding the
scope of the study. The topics related to divorce as a phenomenon are analyzed in a
comprehensive way, including the multidimensional impact of the procedure on school-age
children and their learning, in line with the significance of institutional support and value of Tae
Kwon Do training to enhance the student potential. In addition, the chapter briefly reviews Clark
and Estes’ framework as an analytic model for the project and details the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences to be examined in the study process. Chapter Three focuses on the
methodology applied, including the selection of participants, data collection, and analysis. In
Chapter Four, the data and results are described. Chapter Five provides the rationale for
solutions, derived from the empirical data and findings of the literature review, along with
evidence-based recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan.

IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 27

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This literature review analyzes the previous academic research on the impact of parental
divorce on children’s learning process and outcomes among K-12 students in the United States
as a problem of wide scope with long-term effects for students and the community in general.
The review begins with the synthesis of the general findings on the divorce-related consequences
for children, with a particular emphasis on the specificities of their learning and achievements.
After providing an overview of the divorce impact, the chapter expands the discussion of the
environmental factors in the context of the problem to demonstrate the role of the family
characteristics and parental involvement in children learning after divorce. Next, the focus of the
analysis shifts to the significance of institutional support for children of divorce, especially
paying attention to the strengths of Tae Kwon Do philosophy and training as a form of non-
academic institutional support for the target population to mitigate this challenge. After the
evaluation of the sources on the topic under study, the review refers to the Clark and Estes Gap
Analytic Conceptual Framework, focusing on knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO)
influences on instructors’ ability to provide institutional support to children of divorce in a
martial arts school.
Post-Divorce Impacts on Children
As a family disruption event, divorce causes long-term detrimental problems that impact
perceptions of the process of learning and its outcomes among the school-age children. The
specificities of the changed family structure and background determine the extent and scope of
post-divorce implications for the learning and success of the students (Arkes, 2015; Kreidl et al.,
2017). The issues may relate to the availability of economic resources or lack of access to them
due to the dilution of resources between siblings, among others (Lee et al., 2007; Sun & Li,
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 28

2009). At the same time, strong institutional support for the families after divorce and programs
that aim at quality post-divorce parent-children relationships and involvement in their schooling
activities can be helpful in children’s post-divorce adaptation and resilience (McIntosh & Tan,
2017). In this context, the evidence from the up-to-date literature on the topic allows positioning
Tae Kwon Do interventions as the favorable institutional support for children of divorce from the
martial arts perspective, with the competence and commitment of instructors being of crucial
importance to achieve successful student outcomes (Chami-Sather, 2004; Jones, Mackay &
Peters, 2006; Johnson, 2016; 2017).
Consequences of Divorce as a Family Disruption
As a lawful family disruption, divorce has evolved in the US since the 1960s-1970s with
regard to frequency and variability. In particular, the introduction of no-fault divorce as a legal
norm in 1969 has been a significant contributor to the process (Wilcox, 2009). The updated
legislation made obtaining the divorce easier, with no requirement for proving any spouse’s
‘fault’ in divorce in the courtroom. As a consequence, the society faced doubled divorce rates:
while there were 9.2 divorces per 1,000 married females in 1960, the statistical data revealed
22.6 divorce cases in 1980 (Wilcox, 2009). In the same fashion, contemporary research on
divorce is rich and multidimensional, though unambiguous, to some extent. As noted by one of
the most influential scholars in exploring the post-divorce impact on children, Judith Wallerstein
(1991), the ambiguity stems from the fact that the concept is not concerned with mere breaking
apart of marital bonds. The term also refers to a change in intra-family relationships as well as
the development of new, uncertain relationships between all family members. For this reason,
Wallerstein, who conducted her qualitative studies on the long-term effects of divorce on
children in the 1970s, was certain that either scholar or policy-maker should focus on each
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 29

specific case of divorce separately to be able to address varying needs of stakeholders involved
based on each person’s rich experience, especially for children (Amato, 2003; Wallerstein,
1991).
In the first place, Wallerstein’s (1991) synthesis of the empirical research data from the
US studies concerned with the consequences of divorce for children revealed a variety of impacts
they are prone to encounter. To illustrate, children can experience high emotional distress and
behavioral problems right after the legal divorce, along with their erratic or lapsed discipline as
well as strained child-parent relationships. Among the long-term negative implications of
divorce, Wallerstein (1991) also listed children’s resentment at their parents, their restrained
sadness of this adverse life event, and “a wistful sense of having missed out on growing up in an
intact family” (p. 353). The scholar also emphasized the significance of nurturing family
environment and qualitative post-divorce relationships with respect to both parents as mitigating
factors for ensuring children's adjustment and quality of life in general. By contrast, in more
recent research, Bjarnason et al. (2010) evaluated the comparative data from 36 western,
industrialized countries, including the USA, in the scope of 2005/2006 Health Behavior in
School-aged Children Study. With a total sample size of 184,496 participants aged from 11 to 15
years, the scholars found that children from intact families have higher-level life satisfaction
rates as compared to those raised in families with a single parent, including divorced parents. In
the same way, communities with the fortunate economic circumstances revealed a higher level of
satisfaction with life among the children, even not from intact families.
To offer an example of a contemporary study from another nation’s context, Civitci,
Civitci, and Fiyakali (2009) aimed to show that divorce is a significant life event that is likely to
impact a development difficulty in children and impede their adjustment. For example, the
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 30

scholars asserted that this adverse life experience could negatively affect children’s life
satisfaction or a cognitive judgment of subjective well-being and feeling of happiness. In
particular, children of divorce can not only experience low-level life satisfaction overall but also
face loneliness as a deficiency in the system of interpersonal interactions and relationships. This
quantitative study sample involved 843 high school students recruited across 19 schools in
Denizli, Turkey. In the sample, 383 participants were from divorced families. The findings
demonstrated the negative impact of loneliness on life satisfaction rates among the children of
divorce as compared to adolescents from intact families.
However, modern research lacks a comprehensive approach to determine and guide
children’s adjustment in the post-divorce process. For instance, Amato (2014) emphasized that
divorce is a consequence of the Second Demographic Transition, namely, a socio-cultural shift in
the society due to the increase in individualism and seeking self-fulfillment among the spouses.
Equally important, some scholars regard divorce in relation to adverse childhood experiences
(ACEs). In addition to parental divorce, these phenomena can involve emotional or physical
neglect, physical, sexual or psychological abuse, domestic violence or incarceration, which may
have long-term negative impacts on a child’s health and well-being throughout their lifespan
(Wade, Shea, Rubin, & Wood, 2014). While parents obtain new roles because of divorce as a
family disruption event, the transformed divorce-related relationships lead to the occurrence of
complex issues and changed internal images and identifications for both parents and children,
with differential consequences across populations (Wallerstein, 1991).
Moreover, the divorce-related impact on multiple stakeholders differs in scope, extent,
and duration (Amato, 2003; Amato & Anthony, 2014). As an illustration, Weaver and Schofield
(2015) evaluated the data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 31

(NICD) Study of Child Care and Youth Development, focusing on the experiences of the
children from 5 to 15 years. The findings showed that even though post-divorce consequences
varied per case, children from divorced families had more internalizing or externalizing behavior
problems, both in the short and long run, as compared to those from the intact families. However,
a number of factors could mediate the scope and extent of these problems, such as a positive
impact of high family income, along with maternal sensitivity and support. Equally, Ahrons
(2007) conducted the Binuclear Family Study of 98 Wisconsin families with a sample of 173
individuals who were interviewed 20 years after their parents’ divorce. The findings showed that
cases where parents cooperated after divorce and both were involved in raising the children
resulted in good relationships with family members, friends, and extended family. By contrast,
deteriorated relationships with fathers were indicative of negative or nonexistent relationships in
this regard. Overall, due to the fact that no complete U.S. statistics/ estimates on the number of
divorce cases and children affected exist, the causes and predictors of divorce are likely to vary
(Amato, 2010).
Likewise, studies have confirmed that divorce has numerous detrimental effects on
children’s mental health. Specifically, Brown (2018) reported that high-conflict divorce is
especially harmful in this regard as a source for increased stress, self-blame, separation, and
cognitive difficulties in children. In addition, Anderson (2014) evidenced such negative
consequences of divorce for children as decreased social and psychological maturation, lost
cognitive and academic stimulation, changed outlook and sexual behavior, poor physical health,
the likelihood of learning disability or hyperactivity disorder, as well as the risk of abuse and
neglect. By the same token, individuals who experience stressful events and traumas in
childhood, such as parental divorce, are more prone to stress in adulthood in line with increased
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 32

risks of not tolerating stress, depression, and engagement in heavy drinking as adults (Colman et
al., 2013). In the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children involving 8-9-year-old children,
Lucas, Nicholson, and Erbas (2013) assessed the mental health specificities of children from
divorced and intact families. The study demonstrated poorer mental health among the children of
divorce, with a particular emphasis on exposure to the parental conflict and their socioeconomic
status as contributors to the issue.
Comparatively, Afifi, Boman, Fisher, and Sareen (2009) reviewed the National
Comorbidity Survey with data collected in 1990-1992 and follow-up data in 2001-2002 that
involved 5,877 participants from 15 to 54 years, who experienced parental divorce as children.
The phenomenon, especially if combined with child abuse, was associated with poor mental
health outcomes, such as psychiatric disorders and suicidal ideation or attempts, as well as
conduct disorders and lifetime posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Wiersmaet et al. (2009)
reported similar findings. The scholars analyzed the data from the Netherlands Study of
Depression and Anxiety (NSDA) among 1,230 diagnosed with major depressive disorder (MDD)
consisting of 67% female and 32% male participants with a mean age of 40 years. The focus of
data collection in 2004-2007 was on 16 first years of their life as potential childhood trauma or
adverse childhood life events, including parents’ divorce and separation. The findings showed
that childhood traumas appeared the causal factors for adults’ chronic depression, namely,
experiencing depressive symptoms for more than 24 months. Hence, the post-divorce
consequences for children’s mental health should not be underestimated.
Furthermore, parental divorce is likely to have a sufficient impact on children’s
personality development. In the quantitative study, Prevoo and ter Weel (2014) used the data
from the 1970 British Cohort Study. The researchers identified the divorce-related impact on
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 33

children’s locus of control, level of self-esteem, and occurrence of behavioral problems. While
the scholars reported smaller effects on older children, the divorce had more sufficient
implications for girls (Prevoo & ter Weel, 2014). Similarly, Gustavsen, Nayga, and Wu (2015)
provided evidence that among the participants of the Add Health program from divorced
families, who were first surveyed at the age of 12-18 years and then 18-24 years, 35% of male
respondents engaged in binge drinking in the age of 12-18 as compared to 25% of boys from
intact families. To compare, for females, the data showed that 31% of girls from divorced
families versus 20% of girls from intact families engaged in this risky behavioral pattern. The
survey results six years later demonstrated an increasing trend: 46% of girls from divorced
families versus 42% of girls from intact families were likely to involve in binge drinking
(Gustavsen et al., 2015). Alternatively, girls were more likely to engage in marijuana and
tobacco abuse. In like manner, scholars tend to consider parental divorce as a push factor for
children in terms of their early marriage, early premarital sex and giving birth to a child outside
of marriage, having cohabiting unions, or experience divorce, similarly to their parents (Martin et
al., 2005).
As a matter of fact, specific drivers or characteristics of divorce can also define the scope
and extent of the impact on children. In particular, Baker and Ben-Ami (2011) conducted an
online survey engaging 118 adults aged 18 to 66 years who experienced their parents’ divorce at
their age of 15 years or less with a focus on psychological maltreatment. The concept refers to “a
repeated pattern or extreme incidents that convey the message that the child is worthless, flawed,
unloved, endangered, or valuable only in meeting someone’s needs” (Baker & Ben-Ami, 2011,
p. 204). The researchers emphasized divorce as a stressor for children because parents face
tensions due to managing their own fear, anxiety, and confusion as well as trying to cope with
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 34

social, legal, and financial post-divorce challenges. The authors distinguished the forms of
maltreatment, such as (a) self-sufficiency of children forced to perform daily tasks on their own
(e.g., paying bills and doing laundry); (b) psychiatric functioning (e.g., major depressive disorder
and alcohol abuse); and (c) self-esteem and attachment. The study found a positive correlation
between the aforementioned forms of psychological maltreatment and parental divorce.
Together with fear and uncertainty, Schaan and Vogele (2016) positioned divorce as a
risk for developing insecure attachment styles and lead to rejection sensitivity in children of
divorce, namely, one’s tendency to “anxiously expect, readily perceive and intensely react to
rejection” (p. 1267). In this respect, personal resilience is a protective mental health factor that
assists such children in coping with the consequences of divorce. The researchers distributed an
online questionnaire among 199 participants, with 33% of them having experienced parents’
divorce. The study demonstrated that children of divorce revealed lower rates of resilience, along
with higher rates of rejection sensitivity and psychological trauma as compared to children from
intact families. In the same way, Sarkar and Fletcher (2013) defined psychological resilience as a
positive outcome after experiencing an adverse life event or major life adversity. This concept is
of equal critical importance in both sports and life in general. To illustrate, involvement in sport
requires athletes being capable of managing their emotions and withstanding the pressure from
various stressors, for example, dealing with preparation for sports competitions, sports
organization (e.g., finances), as well as non-sport life events, to name a few. It follows that in
case children lack resilience due to their parents’ divorce, they may have difficulties in handling
the post-divorce impacts, and their learning and acquisition of martial arts techniques can be
nonproductive.
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 35

Therefore, the findings suggest the likelihood of detrimental health, development, and
behavior impacts on children of divorce, with girls being at a higher risk.
Impact of Divorce on Children Learning Process and Outcomes
Divorce also has negative implications for learning and outcomes of K-12 students. For
instance, children encounter the detrimental effects of parental divorce and separation prior to
and after these processes, thus showing the long-term character of divorce-mediated
consequences for children (Arkes, 2015). Based on the data from the National Longitudinal
Survey of Youth, Children and Young Adults (NLSY-79) and Child and Young Adult
Supplement (CYAS) surveys, 2-4 years before and 2 years after the parents’ separation, children
are likely to experience decreased reading scores (Arkes, 2015). Similarly, the changed family
structure has harmful effects on child learning processes and outcomes (Amato & Anthony,
2014). The researchers studied the effects of parents’ divorce for kindergarten through fifth-
grade students and eighth through twelve-grade students engaged in the Early Childhood
Longitudinal Study (ECLS) and the National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS),
respectively. According to their findings, the post-divorce math scores decreased by 22% for
students in the sample, while reading scores lowered by 24%. Moreover, the researchers reported
that the overall decline in a positive approach to learning has been consistent and continuous for
all the groups.
Apart from the harmful consequences for children’s school performance, divorce may
negatively affect their academic attainment in later life. Kreidl et al. (2017) asserted that parental
divorce and separation during children’s school years is likely to cause disruption in student
higher educational aspirations. The cross-country findings from the 2001-2010 Generations and
Gender Program survey showed that children whose parents divorced before they were 15 years
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 36

old experienced a social burden that resulted in the lowered likelihood of them acquiring a
university degree (Kreidl et al., 2017). Comparatively, Bernardi and Radl (2014) evaluated the
data from the Generations and Gender Study covering the divorce-related information for 14
countries, including the US. The findings revealed a 7% lower probability of achieving
university degrees among children of divorce as compared to children raised in intact families,
especially if mothers in divorced families have a low-level educational background. Therefore,
parents’ divorce leads to long-term negative impacts on their children’s learning and indicators
of academic performance outcomes. These impacts can be even more substantial due to the
changed family structure and environment.
Student post-divorce outcomes in light of the changed family socioeconomic status.
Different family demographics and socioeconomic characteristics determine student learning
behavior and success as learners, such as family composition. In particular, numerous divorce-
related factors impact children’s learning and performance outcomes. According to the Early
Childhood Longitudinal Survey – Kindergarten (ECLS-K) survey results, children of divorce had
lower math and reading scores, as compared to students from traditional families, because of the
negative post-divorce consequences for student psychosocial well-being (Potter, 2010).
Moreover, Lee et al. (2007) stated that children living in single-parent families have lower grades
in math and reading than those of their peers in two-parent households. To illustrate, tenth
graders from the Educational Longitudinal Study (ELS) (1988-2000) raised in single-parent
families revealed the consistency of the above trend for different gender groups, with higher
grades only for daughters raised by fathers actively involved in their studying. Hence, specific
post-divorce implications may be different for genders. On a similar note, Sun and Li (2009)
provide evidence that the larger the sibship size (the number of children in a family), the greater
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 37

the impact of divorce on children as this factor influences the family’s socioeconomic status. To
be more precise, eighth-graders from the NELS experienced less access to available parental
human, social, and economic resources for gaining equal education opportunities for all siblings
as long as the sibship size of their disrupted families increased (Sun & Li, 2009). Moreover, as
Kay (2004) aptly noted, a family is “an agent of sports socialization,” the “provider of practical
support for sports,” as well as “a source of differentiation in sport” (p. 40). While parents are
likely to define the level of child’s involvement and participation in sports, they determine the
financial investment in sports engagement, including not only competitions for elite performers
but also day-to-day investments in training and ranking among other issues. Thus, the
achievements of children after parents’ divorce sufficiently depend on the specificities of the
post-separation family environment. In this respect, emphasis on socioeconomic family
characteristics can be useful for improving the achievement gaps among children of divorce.
Parental post-divorce engagement and children's learning and achievements in
regular schools. While programs aimed at quality post-divorce child-parent and school-parent
relationships are valuable for enhancing children’s social adjustment as well as learning process
and outcomes in regular schools, they are scarce. For instance, McIntosh and Tan (2017)
conducted a cluster-randomized trial as piloting of the Young Children in Divorce and
Separation (YCIDS) program and engaged 33 families with children aged five. The findings
revealed that parents’ education about their collaborative post-divorce co-parenting was an
effective strategy to mitigate possible challenges for children, ranging from access to economic
resources to prevention of the interparental conflict and parental cooperation to support the
child’s adjustment, thus, their social and psycho-emotional comfort. In this respect, Vélez et al.
(2011) claimed that, when a family functions based on nurturing positive parental practices,
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 38

psychoeducational programs can eliminate the barriers to a child’s well-being as direct academic
performance determinants. Among the 240 participants of a quantitative study exploring the
effects of the New Beginning Program (NBP), the at-risk adolescents revealed long-term positive
coping outcomes and improved post-divorce adjustment (Vélez et al., 2011). To compare, Sigal
et al. (2012) specify that quality parenting and effective discipline are likely to result in resilient
well-being in children of divorce. Based on the study that evaluated the NBP outcomes for 9-12-
year-olds, improved child-parent relationships led to enhanced academic competence and
engagement in higher education among the children of divorce. Thus, the positive outcomes of
parents’ post-divorce education are consistent among the children of divorce of different age
groups. At the same time, only 10 states have court-mandated or legislation-based requirements
to engage both children and parents in post-divorce educational programs (Pollet, 2009). In the
qualitative survey, Pollet (2009) found that 23 U.S. states, including California, offer multiple
free of charge or for-fee programs to assist children of divorce with adjustment, while 32 states
have programs that simultaneously involve parents and children. For instance, according to the
data from 2009, in Orange County, San Francisco and San Diego in California, the judge has
discretion whether to mandate or order a nonprofit or private program, such as Kids First ($300
per parent and $120 per child to be paid) or Kids’ Turn (from $200 for parent and free for
children in San Diego and $190-$950 per parent and around $15 per child to be paid for
materials) (Pollet, 2009). The services offered in the scope of these programs include counseling
for children, family workshops, and a two-hour special class for divorced parents. Nevertheless,
the projects throughout the other states are mostly of voluntary nature, showing a low-level
likelihood of stakeholders’ engagement in well-planned and multi-level children adjustment
through the enhanced parental relationships. At the same time, K-12 students who are the
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 39

children of divorce enrolled in TKD school do not attend any counseling or other programs that
would facilitate their post-divorce adjustment. Moreover, there are no specific Tae Kwon Do-
based interventions in place to provide the learning support to the children of divorce. For this
reason, the post-divorce consequences for these students are still a significant challenge to
resolve in order to empower the children of divorce for academic success and positive learning
outcomes and achievements beyond the regular school settings.
Institutional Support for Children of Divorce from the Schools’ Perspectives
Institutional support is important for ensuring both parents’ and children’s post-divorce
adjustment and well-being. Nevertheless, each case of divorce is complex and requires specific
institutional approaches or programs to reach mutually beneficial outcomes for all stakeholders
(Amato, 2003; Wallerstein, 1991). Hence, the form, scope, and extent of institutional support are
likely to vary per divorced families. As an illustration, income support systems are valuable for
ensuring post-divorce family access to financial resources, while courts determine contact and
residency issues (Del Boca, 2003), and pediatric support programs assist in counseling children
and parents to eliminate intra-family stressors (Cohen & Weitzman, 2016). As mentioned earlier,
conflicts are frequent factors in a post-divorce family environment which are likely to have
different long-term negative impacts on children. The issue can have a specifically devastating
effect for boys as they have poorer level adjustment if parents are involved in legal disputes over
contact with children post-divorce (Trinder, Kellet, & Swift, 2008). In this way, psychological
interventions targeting both parents’ focus on children's needs have proved to be effective in the
improvement of their psychoemotional post-divorce adjustment (Trinder et al., 2008). Indeed,
Zhou, Sandler, Millsap, Wolchik, and Dawson-McClure (2008) conducted a quantitative study
based on the New Beginnings Program, with 6-year, follow up, that offered psychological
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 40

institutional support for divorced families aimed at prevention of mental health issues and
improvement of social adjustment mechanisms in mothers and children after divorce.
Specifically, the sample comprised of 27 nonresidential parents (i.e., parents who do not live
with their children after divorce), 209 adolescents, and 191 residential parents (i.e., parents living
with their children (Zhou et al., 2008). The results showed improved maternal effective
discipline and mother-child relationships and program-mediated influence on student learning
and GPA results in regular schools. Therefore, the significance of multidimensional roles played
by different institutions in both child and parent post-divorce adaptation should not be
underestimated.
The Role of Regular Schools in Addressing the Learning Issues in the Children of Divorce
Schools provide differential support towards addressing the specific needs of children of
divorce, though no standardized institutional support strategy is implemented in this situation. In
particular, Bailey and Zvonkovic (2003) conducted a study through telephone interviews with 36
nonresidential parents of children of divorce. The findings showed that schools involve the
participants in children’s life through volunteering, regardless of far-away distances, and
providing information about children, unless residential parents prevent it, or school staff is not
encouraging support. By contrast, synthesizing the evidence from the previous studies, DeLucia-
Waack (2011) stressed on the need to make sure that post-divorce adjustment programs for
children are creative so that they will be able to identify and express their concerns and feelings,
along with an opportunity to brainstorm and practice new ideas, coping skills, and behaviors.
Engaging them in creative arts, as opposed to the talk therapy as an ineffective measure for this
group, can be useful to ensure they may: “(a) experience the connectedness between mind and
body; (b) increase energy flow; (c) focus on goals; (d) increase creativity; (e) establish a new
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 41

sense of self; (f) provide concrete interventions that are beneficial; (g) provide insight; (h)
promote socialization and cooperation” (DeLucia-Waack, 2011, p. 95).
Additionally, Baskin, Slaten, Crosby, and Ladell (2010) overviewed the efficacy of
counseling and psychotherapy services in regular schools. The researchers found that such
interventions mostly target adolescents rather than children, with better effects reached for
gender dominant rather than mixed groups and having more effective service if led by clinician
than staff members. Moreover, such programs often focused more on treatment than prevention
of psychosocial issues, with emphasis on specific risk factors, such as anxiety or depression
(Baskin et al., 2010). For example, in a qualitative study, Mahmud, Yunn, Aziz, Salleh, and
Amat (2011) focused on creative arts and play therapy interventions for three children of divorce
aged 9-12 years, including individual and group counseling sessions. The scholars found that
with this program, the participants were able to externalize their emotional discomfort, express
their mistaken goals, as well as rebuild their social interaction skills with peers (Mahmud et al.,
2011). At the same time, Lansford et al. (2006) emphasized that due to the fact parents’ divorce
distinctly impacts on children and adolescents, schools need to approach the problem of student
adjustment differently for these groups. To illustrate, the scholars are certain that while young
children are likely to benefit from interventions focused on internalizing or externalizing
behavior problems, teenagers may benefit from the school-based post-divorce programs that
target their academic achievements overall (Lansford et al., 2006). Hence, while regular schools
have the potential of eliminating the post-divorce impacts on K-12 students, the interventions are
rather fragmented in nature, with a narrow-specific but not holistic and comprehensive scope of
institutional support targeting a limited number of participants, such as children only or children
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 42

and parents. As a consequence, regular schools lack the capacity or do not use the potential of
the institutional support for children of divorce to the full.
Mindfulness-based interventions. Mindfulness is a valuable concept in the scope of
institutional support for children of divorce, including psychological treatment or school-based
interventions (Esmaeilian, Dehghani, Dehghsni, & Lee, 2018; Shadbad, 2018). The term refers to
a skill that enables a person being not reactive to the stressors or situations (Naves-Bittencourt et
al., 2015) in light of “open or receptive awareness and attention, which may be reflected in a
more regular or sustained consciousness of ongoing events and experiences,” as promoted by the
self-determination theory (Jankowski & Holas, 2014, p. 3). The concept incorporates such
components as “intention, attention, and attitude” and implies the process of directing and “self-
regulating attention and adopting an open and accepting orientation toward one’s experiences”
(Rempel, 2012, p. 202). The literature on the topic suggests that, when properly implemented,
mindfulness-based trainings are likely to reduce the levels of stress in individuals, enhance their
self-confidence, interpersonal relationships, improve their attention, optimism, and self-esteem,
among other advantages (Leland, 2015; Rempel, 2012).
In this respect, studies involving children and teenagers experiencing psychological and
other challenges have shown the effectiveness of such interventions for student wellbeing and
success. For instance, Karunananda, Goldin, and Talanga (2016) stated that nurturing
mindfulness traits in students enables their development of such cognitive skills like attention,
information retention, emotional balance, and problem-solving. In addition, Leland (2015) has
further explained the role of well-trained mindfulness for student success in the high school
context and later life whereas, this skill can contribute towards making them more successful
learners and more connected members of the educational community. In particular, the synthesis
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of the up-to-date literature showed that training this skill allows maintaining a student balanced
view on the educational process, staying focused, enhancing learning habits, critical thinking,
behavioral and self-control, and reducing peer-to-peer conflict among other findings (Leland,
2015). As a result, children with well-developed mindfulness skills can have better in-class
behavior, better taking turns, playing fair, and sharing with others as compared to children
lacking such skills (Leland, 2015).
Furthermore, mindfulness-based institutional support has been effective in the
management of student behaviors and nurturing positive attitudes in the context of a regular
school environment. For example, Shadbad (2018) has conducted a semi-experimental study
engaging 24 female fourth-sixth-grade students purposefully selected from primary schools, with
the intervention group being provided the mindfulness-based therapy intervention. In the context
of eight training sessions, children from the experimental group received not only understanding
of the mindfulness as a skill but also learned how to practice it, such as relaxation techniques,
handling negative emotions and attitudes, as well as being peaceful and paying attention to
details of activities among other issues (Shadbad, 2018). With this approach, the researcher
provided empirical evidence that mindfulness-based intervention is likely to reduce the
symptoms of aggression among children of divorce and improve child-parent relationships.
Similarly, Esmaeilian et al. (2018) conducted an experimental trial that involved 83 children of
divorce aged 9-13 years having anxiety problems who were recruited across six public schools,
with 42 students (16 boys and 26 girls) being a treatment group that received a 12-week
mindfulness-based cognitive therapy course. In this way, the intervention group was equipped
with the skills necessary to manage and regulate emotions and increase social-emotional
resilience. The findings demonstrated that mindfulness is valuable for greater “self-awareness,
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 44

improved impulse control, and decreased emotional reactivity in challenging events” among
children from divorced families (Esmaeilian et al., 2018, p. 1053). Therefore, the literature on the
topic demonstrates the significance of mindfulness-based interventions for children of divorce.
However, the focus of the interventions is mostly related to the mitigation of negative emotions
or attitudes among the students, while their improved learning skills and capacities mostly appear
as a by-product of the programs.
Specific Needs and Challenges of Student-Athletes
Due to the fact that martial arts training requires instant attentional and behavioral control
for student’s successful learning and mastery of techniques, there is a need to ensure their
concentration during the learning process. In this regard, Johnstone and Marí-Beffa (2018)
assessed the correlation between martial arts training and one of the most significant and
vulnerable cognitive functions of a person’s ability to intentionally focus on an activity or task,
which is crucial for reaching the set organizational and stakeholder goals. In the sample of 48
participants, 21 individuals comprised a martial arts group with a mean age of 19.68 years. The
research paid specific emphasis to attention in light of three domains, such as that of alert
(optimal vigilance), orienting (special location of targets), and executive (conflict resolution)
functions. The analyses of the results showed higher levels of alert attentional networks among
martial artists as compared to those who were not engaged in the field.
Parental support and its manifestations. Although the engagement of parents is critical
for all children, student-athletes especially need this factor. In this way, Park and Kim (2014)
stated that parental support is significant for athletes in terms of their sports engagement and
devotion, thus leading to sports talent development. In case support providers, such as parents
and their children as receivers of support, do not have effective information exchange or the
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 45

former lack awareness of receivers’ characteristics and needs, such support will be ineffective.
The researchers conducted focus group interviews with two groups of tennis players aged 11-14
years and two groups of their parents. Among the emergent nine themes, parents’ caring and
cheering for their children as sportsmen were found important for athletes, for instance, tangible
parental support in the form of attendance of their training and competitions. To compare,
parents’ fears and worries with regard to their children’s successful career was a notable theme.
Equally important, Davison, Downs, and Birch (2006) explored the notable role of self-efficacy
development on the grounds of parental support. The concept refers to nurturing a belief in one’s
ability to perform a specific behavior or engage in a particular activity as a mediating power
between social support and the anticipated behavioral outcome. In the scope of the longitudinal
study, the researchers collected the data with two-year intervals at 5, 7, 9, and 11 years of 174
non-Hispanic white girls, their mothers, and fathers. The findings showed that the parental
support of their daughters’ physical activity across the ages of 9 through 11 years was predictive
of their athletic competence at the age of 11 years.
Moreover, the issue of perfectionism is a specificity of the process of successful learning
and performance in sports, including martial arts proficiency. In this regard, Appleton, Hall, and
Hill (2010) defined perfectionism as “a personality characteristic that includes the compulsive
pursuit of exceedingly high standards combined with overly critical appraisals and pervasive
evaluative concerns” (p. 363). When self-oriented perfectionism is concerned, the athlete is
driven by exceedingly high personal standards. On the contrary, socially prescribed
perfectionism (e.g., from parents or coaches) requires approval from significant others with
regard to meeting demands and requirements that are often of unrealistic nature. In their study,
Appleton et al. (2010) explored the opinions on the topic from 302 junior athletes and 259 their
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parents. As a result, parents’ self-oriented perfectionism was predictive for that of athletes, while
socially prescribed perfectionism from parents was also influential in nurturing the positive
perfectionist aspirations in children. To illustrate, Sellars, Evans, and Thomas (2016) evaluated
the empirical evidence collected via the in-depth semi-structured interviews on perfectionist
experiences of elite athletes, with equal gender distribution across the sample. The scholars
identified that negative implications of perfectionism relate to the likelihood of occurrence of
such psychological disorders like anorexia nervosa, depression, or obsessive-compulsive
disorders among others or even suicide attempts. In terms of positive implications, perfectionism
can translate into striving to succeed, task goal orientations, heightened self-confidence, and
enhanced task performance among athletes. Hence, if properly positioned, perfectionism can
become a valuable force for self-driven improvement in learning capacities among athletes.
Because training and competitions can not only be physically and emotionally demanding
but also stressful, athletes need to be able to cope with challenges in an effective manner. Indeed,
emotions can either facilitate or negatively impact the sports performance of the athletes. For
example, Omli and LaVoi (2009) identified such a notable stressor for athletes as background
anger (BA) or “the presence of an angry verbal, nonverbal or physical interaction between two or
more people that does not directly involve the observer” (p. 242). This factor can lead to the
observer’s distress of long-term health consequences. The researchers engaged 192 soccer
athletes of 8-18 years in completing the online questionnaires and brief face-to-face interviews.
The study found the similar exposure of boys and girls to sideline anger, with parent’s yelling at
a child as the most frequent manifestation of BA, while physical altercation was perceived as the
most impactful BA for children. With attention to the assumption concerned with the
significance of mastering the stress-coping mechanisms, Bahramizade and Besharat (2010)
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recruited 48 student-athletes, including 26 males and 22 females, to complete the Sports Stress
Coping Style Scale. In the context of this study, coping was referred to as “constantly changing
cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/ or internal demands that are
appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of a person” (Bahramizade & Besharat, 2010, p.
764). Moreover, approach coping included “orientation towards a stressful event, with the
person’s active attempts at resolving and managing the stressor,” and avoidance coping related to
“orientation that results in the physical or psychological withdrawal from the source of the
threat” (Bahramizade & Besharat, 2010, p. 765). Based on the empirical findings of the research,
avoidant coping was positively correlated with sports achievements for male athletes, whereas
approach coping was negatively associated with sports achievements.
In addition to the stressful nature of the training process, one should consider the issue of
potential injury and subsequent trauma-related rehabilitation as specific challenges the athletes
are likely to face. To emphasize, Merglova (2018) asserted high-level susceptibility of children
to sports-related injuries. In her study engaging 204 children-athletes, above 42% reported
sports-related injuries, while no statistically significant difference was identified between those
athletes who either compete or not. On a similar note, this is not only injury itself but the
recovery and rehabilitation process that can be stress-intensive for athletes. For instance, Podlog,
Heil, and Schulte (2014) stated that athletes’ injury and rehabilitation could be additional
stressful life events. In this respect, it is necessary to take into account such influential factors as
(a) cognitions: “attributions for injury occurrence, self-perceptions following injury, cognitively
based coping strategies, and perceived injury benefits,” along with self-perceptions of worth and
self-esteem (pp. 915-916); (b) emotional responses, including anger, feeling of loss, frustration,
denial, and depression, though the feelings depend on athletes’ personality traits; (c) behaviors
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related to the extent to which athletes are likely to follow the rehabilitation plan, with numerous
factors which are likely to contribute or impede the process (e.g., locus of self-control, pain
tolerance, or self-motivation among others). To summarize, student-athletes are likely to face a
number of significant factors that can make their learning extremely challenging, along with
plenty of issues encountered by children of divorce.
Improving the Learning Process and Outcomes of the Children of Divorce
Tae Kwon Do as a complex pedagogic system. Tae Kwon Do is more than just a sport
as it implies a capability to develop a unique symbiotic relationship between an instructor and a
trainee due to a broad knowledge system and a specialized theory and practice database
comprising of activities, values, beliefs, and principles applicable in real-life situations
(Paunescu, Paunescu, & Haddad, 2015b). Practitioners in the field prove that utilization of the
traditional Tae Kwon Do principles (namely, emphasis on philosophy-centered rather than just
physical development) in instruction helps in nurturing a strong value-based system among the
students, with particular attention to cultivating self-confidence, self-esteem, and resilience
(Harrell, 2013). The issue is due to the fact that in the scope of this martial arts, coaches act as
tutors and moral counselors, while a proper instructive-educational process enables physical
(“tae” and “kwon”) as well as mental (“do”) development of a “harmonious, balanced
individual,” “a whole athlete” (Paunescu et al., 2015b, p. 47).
To establish well-planned and comprehensive instruction and make it a successful
learning experience for their students in order to leverage the benefits offered by the Tae Kwon
Do pedagogy, trainers need to consider many components of the Tae Kwon Do training process.
In particular, Paunescu et al. (2015b) emphasized a number of rules to develop a holistic
instruction framework, such as the principles of:
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• adaptation to progressive effort, namely, “the gradual increase of efforts and compliance
with the didactics principles: from easy to difficult, from simple to complex, from the
known to the unknown, giving the body an opportunity to adapt easily” (p. 48);
• restitution, or compensation and over-compensation: acknowledgment of the need for
student’s restoration/ recovery to master various techniques qualitatively;
• training cycle: awareness of the phased nature of the sport and its periodization, including
preparatory, competition, transition phases as well as off-season periods;
• individualization, namely, taking into consideration specific characteristics of a student
when planning the instruction in order to obtain the maximum output from the trainee;
• motivation, or instructor’s ability to engage students’ intrinsic or extrinsic willingness to
be dedicated trainees and have high-level performance involvement and outcomes (p.
48).
Apart from utilizing the above key rules, thorough Tae Kwon Do instruction implies instructors’
explanation of martial arts techniques along with the identification of their components to
practice them in sequence and then as holistic activities. Effective Tae Kwon Do instruction
integrates a combination of instructor’s technical skills and pedagogy.
In regard to the organization of the successful Tae Kwon Do teaching strategy, Koh, Ho,
Lee, and Tse (2018) focused on the importance of referring to coach-to-learner collaboration
through the lens of problem-based learning (PBL) to enhance student learning in the most
supportive manner and reach the most efficient student performance outcomes. From the coach’s
perspective, this approach requires (a) development of a conducive learning environment; (b)
creation of facilitating and scaffolding procedural instruction with clear explanation of the key
elements of the techniques and why each of them is needed; and (c) proper assessment of
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student’s efforts to provide the positive feedback to learners and motivate them for improved
performance (Koh et al., 2018). From the trainee’s perspective, in case PBL is characterized by
the well-planned and implemented teaching practice on the grounds of advanced procedural
knowledge of instructor and their awareness of the Tae Kwon Do philosophy strengths, learners
are likely to develop reflective skills, capability for self-directed learning on the grounds of prior
knowledge and experiences in the field, and involve in collaborative learning with peers (Koh et
al., 2018). Hence, such a multidimensional approach to organizing instruction is likely to
enhance coaches’ professionalism and add value to their students’ learning capacities.
As for the evaluation of student’s performance, Tae Kwon Do pedagogy is very
demanding, with numerous areas for assessment being concerned. For instance, instructors need
to possess wide-scope procedural knowledge to be able to assess student readiness to pass a belt
or rank related examination. In case a poomsae (patterns, practicing without an opponent)
domain is concerned, the instructor should be able to evaluate a variety of student’s
characteristics and abilities, such as breathing, visual control, focusing power, as well as
capability to blend techniques, to list a few (Paunescu, Paunescu, Haddad, & Gagea, 2015a).
This assessment domain requires the broadest knowledge from the trainers. By contrast,
evaluation of student’s kyorugi (mastery in sparring and fighting skills and techniques) and
kyukpa (breaking techniques mastery) has less assessment criteria, as compared to the poomsae
domain, but also requires instructor’s procedural knowledge on what key aspects should be
weighted when students perform the techniques in the context of these assessment domains (Oh,
2013; Paunescu et al., 2015a; Paunescu et al., 2015b). Likewise, special techniques are evaluated
in light of the power and accuracy of the strike, with specific standards for arm and feet
techniques (Paunescu et al., 2015a; 2015b). As for the theoretical foundations of Tae Kwon Do,
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instructors focus on the evaluation of student’s understanding of mental and practical aspects of
the martial arts (Paunescu et al., 2015a; Oh, 2013). Table 3 by Paunescu et al. (2015a)
summarizes the wide-scope assessment focus with regard to trainees’ rank exams when their
theoretical and practical knowledge, as well as technique-related characteristics, are observed
and evaluated in order to consider whether they pass the rank tests. These domains are critical
success factors for gaining the specific Tae Kwon Do ranks (Oh, 2013). Hence, an instructor’s
capability to evaluate the student’s skills and knowledge and timely positive feedback for self-
correction is vital for their effective learning and outcomes in attaining the anticipated practice
level.

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Table 3
Assessment and Evaluation in Rank Exams
Poomsae Kyorugi Kyokpa
Special
Techniques
Theoretical
Study
Visual control Visual control Visual control The power of the
strike
Mental aspect
Constant focusing
power

Focusing
power
Equilibrium Special arm
techniques
Practical Aspect
Proper breathing Power control Focusing power Special feet
technique

Controlled speed,
timing

Flexibility Speed Accuracy
The control of the
execution force
Equilibrium The parts
engaged in the
execution of the
technique

Equilibrium, flexibility Timing The material or
the number of
the slabs

The understanding of
the techniques

Precision of
strikes
Technique
difficulty

Techniques blending a
realistic demonstration
of the techniques, not
a theatrical one
Accuracy and
force

Table data sourced from “Didactics in taekwondo” by C. Paunescu, M. Pauncescu, M. Haddad, & G.
Gagea, 2015, in M. Haddad (Ed.), Performance optimization in taekwondo: From laboratory to field. (pp.
46-60).

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At the same time, the martial arts practice requires procedural knowledge on how to
conduct student assessment of distinct aspects of the training process to allow instructors an
opportunity to adapt their teaching to the needs of individual students and martial arts training
requirements. To illustrate, instructors need to be able to evaluate the athletes’ temperament
characteristics, and levels of expertise to be able to maintain their proper emotional control
(Harrell, 2013; Grigore, Mitrache, Paunescu, & Paunescu, 2015) or prevent mental exhaustion
and anxiety (Bargherpour, Hashim, Saha, & Ghosh, 2012). In addition, since martial arts training
requires intensive physical practicing, especially when students increase efforts during
preparation for competitions or rank exams, assessment and monitoring of student workload, and
exertion put into training and performance response should not be underestimated (Carazo-
Vargas, Gonzalez-Rave, Moncada-Jimenez, Gonzalez-Mohino, & Barragan, 2017). For example,
the session rating of perceived exertion has been verified as a valid instrument to assess the
athlete’s internal training load in the Tae Kwon Do training (Haddad et al., 2011). Therefore, the
instructors’ capability to evaluate student individual emotional, psychological, and physical
specificities as focus areas for organization of the successful Tae Kwon Do teaching once more
reveal the complex character of the field and demands for instructor’s knowledge respectively.
Moreover, instructors need to be able to ensure proper physical conditioning for students
to meet the Tae Kwon Do requirements for these situations while simultaneously optimize their
performance without compromising their health condition. As a result, there is a crucial necessity
for coaches’ capability to provide additional procedural guidelines for students when a need for
restoration of athlete’s physical condition occurs (Gui, 2015), for refocus of their attention from
bodily movements or their form to the movement outcomes (Halperin, Chapman, Martin, &
Abbis, 2016; Woo, Chow, & Koh, 2014), or development of their stress-coping skills (Khanjari,
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 54

Ameri, & Garooeri, 2015) among others. Thus, even though the Tae Kwon Do philosophy is a
complex teaching system that requires an extensive scope of skills and knowledge from
instructors, it is likely to substantially facilitate student learning through the provision of the well
thought out and comprehensive instruction.
Tae Kwon Do as a way to empower student potential as learners. Due to the strengths
derived from its pedagogy, Tae Kwon Do can be a valuable empowering framework for student
support and nurturing the traits contributing to improved student learning and outcomes.
Primarily, the long-term pedagogical traditions of Tae Kwon Do are a notable driver to improve
student executive functions, “mental functions that enable individuals to problem solve, . . .
exercise choice, self-control, and discipline, be creative, and flexibly adjust to change or new
information” (Diamond, 2014, p. 205). According to the findings of the nine-month Healthy for
Life Taekwondo Pilot Study engaging 600 seventh- and eighth-graders from a school in
California, Lakes et al. (2013) have found that martial arts environment emphasizing self-control
and respect was predictive of development of their inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility,
attention, and working memory capacities. Similarly, internal martial arts techniques, such as
breathing and self-control, can be effective for nurturing self-control and self-discipline
characteristics among students. In an experimental study that involved 50 participants, this
approach was proved effective for the mitigation of hostility and aggression among children of
divorce and maintenance of their resilient relationships with peers (Hernandez & Anderson,
2015).
In addition, Avelar-Rosa, Quaresma, and Arede (2016) ascertain that martial arts training
facilitates the student quality of life, a psychological construct of multidimensional well-being
that nurtures positive social and personal values as well as attitudes in its practitioners. Based on
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the results of the quantitative web-based questionnaire among 334 athletes, martial arts were
strongly negatively correlated with such issues as gamesmanship and cheating (Avelar-Rosa et
al., 2016). Although these studies have neither targeted children of divorce as a specific research
sample nor all of them deployed Tae Kwon Do techniques; their findings enable suggesting the
substantial capacities of this martial arts in strengthening the qualities and behavior mechanisms
that are crucial in cultivating successful learning attitudes and outcomes in students.
For instance, apart from the physical training of students, emphasis on mindfulness as an
integral part of the traditional Tae Kwon Do philosophy can sufficiently facilitate the
development and improve student process of learning and its outcomes. Being trained and
practiced to become a routine construct of metacognition, mindfulness as a skill enables
individuals with an opportunity to learn top-down regulation of information and its processing
(Jankowski & Holas, 2014), thus, helping a learner to control their attitudes to learning and work
on productivity of the process. As a result, martial arts instructors concentrate the training efforts
on (a) “attention processing to internal (cognitive, emotional and somatic) and external
perceptions (routine and daily life experiences)”; and (b) “attitude of open and non-critical
monitoring to those experiences” (Naves-Bittencourt et al., 2015, p. 35). With persistent and
well-guided mindfulness-based training, students can learn to practice mindfulness intentionally
and ensure the development of multilevel, metacognitive information processing (Jankowski &
Holas, 2014).
Individuals who master mindfulness as a skill have better autonomous self-control and
eliminate symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression as sufficient disruptors of productive
learning (Naves-Bittencourt et al., 2015; Ottoboni, Giusti, Gatta, Symes, & Tessari, 2014). For
example, Ottoboni et al. (2014) conducted an experimental study that engaged 16 volunteers
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aged 13 through 45 years and varying degrees of Tae Kwon Do expertise. While seven
participants were randomly selected and subjected to the weekly 30-minute mindfulness-based
sessions for three months, the other nine participants comprised a control group. The findings
demonstrated that the intervention group had better taekwondo exam results as compared to the
control group; thus, mindfulness was associated with improved student cognition and learning
outcomes. Although mindfulness-based Tae Kwon Do interventions for children of divorce have
not yet become a subject for specific research on the topic, the above findings allow assuming
substantial potential to mitigate the post-divorce challenges impeding students learning process
and outcomes for the target population group.
The role of Tae Kwon Do instructors in creating a supportive environment for
students. Significance of Tae Kwon Do instructors’ contribution to the elimination of problems
faced by K-12 students, who are children of divorce, should not be underestimated since
instructors determine the key features of the student learning environment to ensure successful
student learning.
Instructors as positive role models. Primarily, “the coach is always one of the most
significant factors of the training structure” with one’s key role in managing student volitional
physical, tactical and technical preparation (Bujak, Miler, & Litwiniuk, 2012, p. 306). In this
case, the instructor should possess extensive knowledge of the martial arts philosophy and
techniques to be able to identify the learning needs and capabilities of individual students to
make sure the training practice is aligned with both student and organizational goals (Cook,
2009; Lee & Ricke, 2005; Son et al., 2015). Moreover, instructors’ self-efficacy is a critical
success factor for ensuring that the student learning environment is positive and facilitative. For
instance, among the sample of 92 coaches and 256 athletes recruited in a quantitative survey,
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Soheili, Tojari, and Amirtash (2013) found that the higher the level of instructor’s self-efficacy,
the higher their capability to develop positive coach-athlete relationships as well as supporting
and nurturing learning environment for students.
In addition, methods of teaching and communication styles chosen by the instructor
define the content of instruction and its impact on student progress. Specifically, Jones et al.
(2006) quantitative survey conducted among 75 martial arts athletes in West Midlands in
England revealed that the teaching and communication style of the instructor is the key driver to
motivate students to participate in regular and committed martial arts practice. Instructors’ Tae
Kwon Do based belief and value system, as part of their lifestyle, is also likely to influence on
their student behavior and engagement. For instance, in a quantitative study with a sample of 286
Tae Kwon Do instructors, Lee and Kim (2012) found that trainers who hold strong beliefs on
strengths developed on the grounds of the Tae Kwon Do philosophy are likely not only practice
such attitudes and behaviors in their life but also nurture these traits in their students. Similarly,
Monacis, Miceli, de Palo, Chianura, and Sinatra (2017) conducted a quantitative study engaging
266 martial arts athletes and confirmed the hypothesis that in case students are oriented on
martial arts tasks, they are likely to demonstrate high-level sportsmanship, joy and willing
engagement in sports participation. By contrast, their orientation on ego (i.e., competition and
winning in championships) was associated with anxious behavior as well as performance
impairment. Hence, committed Tae Kwon Do instructors can sufficiently guide and shape their
student attitudes and behaviors being positive role models for their trainees.
Traditional instruction for personality development. The synthesis of the contemporary
literature on martial arts training by Vertonghen and Theeboom (2010) showed that instructors
who utilize the traditional Tae Kwon Do teaching styles in their practice (i.e., focus and
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emphasize on the importance of philosophy, mindfulness, and meditation, conflict avoidance,
self-control, and respect to others) are likely to have a positive influence on student personality
traits. For instance, these features involve classroom conduct, optimism, personal growth, self-
acceptance, self-confidence, self-control, humility, and hope as “the motivation to accomplish
the harsh task” (Vertonghen & Theeboom, 2010, p. 530). On the contrary, a modern approach to
the martial arts practice (i.e., focus on the physical aspect of training and sports competitiveness)
has been associated with the potential for athletes’ aggression, especially in case student’s
achievements are not as expected (Vertonghen & Theeboom, 2010). Hence, integration of Tae
Kwon Do philosophy into the instruction can enable the cultivation of positive student qualities
and attitudes to learning and enhancing their learning capacity.
To a great extent, well-established Tae Kwon Do instruction can become the foundation
for cultivating student positive personality traits that are helpful in their successful learning
process and outcomes. For example, Chami-Sather (2004) conducted a qualitative observational
study involving five Tae Kwon Do students aged 7 through 14 years during a four-week period
and combined the observation findings with brief student and parent survey results. With
reference to the previous research mainly focused on Tae Kwon Do as a strategy to enhance
trainee’s physical fitness, the instructor collected small-sample-based but significant empirical
evidence that confirms a substantial effect of regular martial arts training on student learning
capacities. Specifically, well-organized and respectful Tae Kwon Do instruction of the trainer
resulted into (a) improved student focus, namely, their ability to stay mentally and physically
focused on the task; (b) development of disciplined and self-checking behavior while in class; (c)
being more responsible for accomplishing duties and tasks at home (Chami-Sather, 2004).
Regardless of that, the sample size was small; these findings are consistent with the previous
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research that confirms the significance of Tae Kwon Do pedagogy in improving student learning
capacities (Diamond, 2014; Johnson, 2016; 2017).
Technology utilization for increased student motivation and engagement. At the same
time, incorporation of the technologies into instruction can be another facilitator of a motivated
student learning process and outcomes among Tae Kwon Do students. For instance, Guo, Wang,
and Cheng (2014) carried out an experimental study involving 95 students in traditional and 95
students in experimental classes to test the value of integration of informational technologies in
their martial arts experiences. Sakai was software that displayed the materials on basics of the
martial arts culture, poomsae (performing by form as self-practice, without an opponent),
teaching videos of leg skills, and combat videos. The findings showed that the use of the Tae
Kwon Do application has increased student interest and engagement and was useful for teaching
efficiency and promotion of Tae Kwon Do values (Guo et al., 2014). Furthermore, Ha, Lee, Cha,
and Lee (2011) attempted to promote Tae Kwon Do engagement through an easy-to-use iPhone
application that offered a Poomsae training practice for 196 training samples. The findings
showed high-level involvement in the training practice and positive training outcomes, as well as
their intention to recommend both the application and Tae Kwon Do as a practice for their
acquaintances, families, or friends. Therefore, instructors’ ability to unite both Tae Kwon Do
traditions and modern technologies also can be a facilitator for student motivated and engaged
learning.
To summarize, even though the literature that discussed the interactions and institutional
support of Tae Kwon Do instructors for K-12 students, who are children of divorce, is lacking,
the findings of the review allow making some relevant assumptions. In particular, to be able to
create the supportive and facilitating learning environment for students to develop and advance
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their learning potential and ensure they reach positive learning outcomes, the martial arts
instructors should have substantial skills and knowledge toolkit (Cook, 2009; Jones et al., 2006;
Lee & Ricke, 2005; Monacis et al., 2017; Son et al., 2015), along with well-acknowledged
strengths of Tae Kwon Do pedagogy (Chami-Sather, 2004; Vertonghen & Theeboom, 2010).
Overall, the main themes derived from the reviewed literature allow identifying the main
competencies, knowledge and motivation factors which can enable the Tae Kwon Do instructors
to pursue and achieve the TKD organizational goal, such as:
1. having wide-scope Tae Kwon Do knowledge as a key requirement for effective
instruction (Harrell, 2013; Koh et al., 2018; Oh, 2013);\
2. being aware of various potential risks and challenges of student-athletes, as well as
assessment domains and criteria to guide the Tae Kwon Do pedagogy and individualize
their teaching according to student needs and characteristics (Koh et al., 2018; Merglova,
2018; Paunescu et al., 2015a; Paunescu et al., 2015b);
3. being able to develop mindfulness in students, namely, their capability to practice
intentionally, paying attention to the training without judgment or criticism (Leland,
2015; Rempel, 2012)
4. following the traditional Tae Kwon Do philosophy to enhance student learning potential
and develop their personality traits (Avelar-Rosa et al., 2016; Chami-Sather, 2004;
Diamond, 2014; Lakes et al., 2013; Vertonghen & Theeboom, 2010);
5. being positive role models for students by integrating the Tae Kwon Do principles into
their own routine and lifestyle (Bujak et al., 2012; Cook, 2009; Jones et al., 2006);
6. nurturing student self-efficacy based on Tae Kwon Do teachings, own example and
flexible leadership style (Bujak et al., 2012; Chami-Sather, 2004);
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7. utilizing technology in Tae Kwon Do instruction as a driver for student motivation (Guo
et al., 2014; Ha et al., 2011).
While the scholarly literature discussed the strengths of Tae Kwon Do as a pedagogical
discipline able to enhance and develop the process of effective student learning and its
productive outcomes, there is a lack of studies focused on K-12 students who are the children of
divorce in this context. Regardless of the lack of direct research on children of divorces, the
research enabled the confirmation of learning challenges faced by these students. Therefore,
collecting the empirical data in support of these suggestions seems a valuable solution for
addressing the current literature gap in terms of the provision of institutional support for K-12
students who are children of divorce from the martial arts perspective.
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) have developed a systematic conceptual framework that allows
analyzing performance goals from the perspectives of the organization and stakeholder groups to
identify possible gaps in any of these domains with respect to actual performance and goal to be
achieved. According to Krathwohl (2002), knowledge and skills necessary for stakeholders to
accomplish the performance goal are of four types, including factual, conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive knowledge. Motivational influences, which entice stakeholders to put efforts into
achieving the goals, are based on active choice, mental effort, or persistence (Clark & Estes,
2008). In this context, values, attributions, and self-efficacy are among the motivational drivers
to be evaluated through the lens of the performance gap (Bandura, 2000; Pekrun, 2011). Lastly,
the organizational contribution towards building the stakeholder capacity to accomplish the
performance goal involves the organizational culture, work processes and resources available
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
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Therefore, the conceptual model by Clark and Estes (2008) is regarded as a
comprehensive analytical tool to evaluate the factors of knowledge, motivation, and organization
of training service in TKD with regard to providing the learning support for children of divorce
to meet the performance goal. Primarily, the chapter will focus on reviewing the literature to
identify a list of competencies, knowledge, and motivation factors of the Tae Kwon Do
instructors as the target stakeholders in the study they need to achieve the organizational goal. In
addition, the attention will be paid to weighing the organizational factors with respect to the
organizational capability to meet the needs of the children of divorce to the fullest. Finally, every
component of the suggested knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences on
performance will be evaluated for choosing the methodology for the data collection presented in
Chapter 3.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
TKD aims at comprehensive physical and personality development among all students by
nurturing the positive qualities of the Tae Kwon Do philosophy as a basis for their personal
development and skillfulness as martial artists. Since instructors’ observations revealed that
students who are children of divorce face sufficient barriers in fulfilling this organizational
mission, this performance gap in the scope of fulfilling the organizational mission should be
addressed. In this regard, one of the stakeholder goals targets instructors specifically. In
particular, By January 2020, TKD instructors will provide intensive 45-minute Tae Kwon Do
training once every two weeks so that students who are children of divorce will be able to
perform forms with power, speed, and accuracy as required for three-month belt promotion and
will provide at least 5 hours of additional mindfulness-based training for their improved learning.
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To understand whether this stakeholder group is likely to meet the set expectations, there is a
need to evaluate instructors’ skills and knowledge that can influence the process of the goal’s
achievement.
Therefore, this literature review focuses on specific knowledge types, which instructors
need to accomplish the aforementioned goal successfully. According to Krathwohl (2002),
knowledge can be categorized into four key types, including factual, conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive. This section particularly pays attention to procedural knowledge. Due to the fact
that effective instruction requires in-depth awareness of a wide range of procedures to master
different techniques and be capable of explaining the necessity and essence of all their
components, the procedural knowledge is critical for instructors. This knowledge type involves
‘how-to’ knowledge implications with regard to mechanisms of performing tasks and activities
in line with the clearly defined criteria (Krathwohl, 2002). In this way, it will be possible to
clarify if knowledge gaps exist among instructors in terms of their capability to perform goal-
related tasks, and the management needs to identify and implement the strategies to enhance
their skills and knowledge toolkit (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Knowledge influence one: strategies and techniques for attentional and behavioral
control. Instructors need procedural knowledge on how to apply teaching strategies and
techniques to be able to develop student attentional and behavioral control. The identified goal of
instructors is linked to ensuring that students will perform the required martial arts exercises with
high-level accuracy. Student attention to details of performing techniques accordingly,
disciplined behavior, as well as an understanding of the cognitive complexity of Tae Kwon Do
exercises is crucial in the process of acquisition of martial arts strategies and ideas (Lakes et al.,
2013). However, due to the fact that divorce is a stressful life experience for K-12 students, their
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attention and behavior can be disorganized during the training, thus, causing their poor-level
technique acquisition (Mahony et al., 2015). At the same time, scholars assert that Tae Kwon Do
trainers mostly lack relevant pedagogical preparation about psychosocial components of this
form of physical education (Na, 2009). As a consequence, instructors may face the challenge of
student distraction and lack of their focus on instructor’s guidelines on performing the martial
arts techniques being unable to adequately organize their instruction to the K-12 students who
are children of divorce (Lakes et al., 2013).
Nonetheless, good procedural knowledge skills can be helpful in eliminating challenges.
To prepare students for the belt promotion exam according to the ITF standards, instructors
should be well-aware of algorithms on how to conduct the exercises and use the pedagogical
benefits of the Tae Kwon Do philosophy to ensure the students are self-motivated and committed
in the training process (Bogdanov, 2016). Likewise, this form of knowledge enables instructors
with an opportunity to determine when the relevant procedures or methods should be used
(Krathwohl, 2002). Being an integral part of the Tae Kwon Do content dimensions, procedural
knowledge of martial arts instructors should demonstrate the high-level technical and tactical
knowledge when the trainers intentionally stimulate and manifest a form of ‘tactical thought’
when providing instruction to students, namely, learning the elements which may be helpful
learning other techniques in future (Lopes, Palomares, Palomares, Aranha, & Silva, 2018). For
instance, the instructor can explain to the student how to perform the main starting positions or
how to move to or away from the opponent when mastering the martial arts techniques
(Bogdanov, 2016). At the same time, the instructor needs to utilize the Tae Kwon Do procedures
to make sure the student is focused on following the instructional guidelines attentively and able
to control own emotions in order to develop successful perceptual-motor skill transfer and
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martial arts expertise accordingly (Bogdanov, 2016; Rosalie & Muller, 2012). To illustrate, some
of these procedures may involve respectful communication with the trainer and peers (e.g.,
salutations), precise manner and sequence of following each step of the technique, emphasizing
to be focused and control own attention, to list a few (Lakes et al., 2013). Hence, well-designed
and implemented instruction based on the instructors’ procedural knowledge will be useful for
empowering the students for better behavior, self-control, and performance in class (Johnson,
2016; Rosalie & Muller, 2012). As a result, instructors’ awareness of procedures in the Tae
Kwon Do practice is a critical success factor in reaching the set goal.
In this regard, Lakes et al. (2013) have investigated the significance of instructors’
knowledge of pedagogy and training specificities for the development of positive behavioral and
attentional student outcomes in the scope of Tae Kwon Do training. Similarly, to the current
TKD instructors’ goal, the research intervention was of long-term duration and lasted for nine
months. The procedure comprised of traditional martial arts training and environment
implemented by different but experienced Tae Kwon Do instructors holding at least a fifth-
degree black belt and having previous experience of training students of seventh and eighth
grades. The group of 46 students stated their “perceived self-improvement and self-discipline,”
as well as improved behavior and attention (Lakes et al., 2013, p. 10). The achievement can be
largely attributed to their instructors’ capability to apply the variety of Tae Kwon Do techniques
in an accurate and precise manner to organize their training as suited to meet individual learning
needs of students while mitigating their possible misbehavior or lack of control and reaching the
positive training outcomes, as a result. In this context, the social-cognitive perspective can be
concerned as well since trainers’ self-regulation of instruction was also guided by the motivation
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to improve student learning and social-emotional processes (Veenman, Van Hout-Wolters, &
Affterbach, 2006).
These findings may be generalizable to the significance of social reinforcement, in line
with Bandura’s (2005) social cognitive theory, and referring to the value of instructors’ in-depth
procedural knowledge of Tae Kwon Do strategies and techniques to be able to make students
focused, attentive and capable to maintain the behavioral control for their successful learning in
its context. With this comprehensive approach towards the maintenance of the interactions
within the learning environment and cognitive abilities of students, they managed to facilitate
student positive attitudes to Tae Kwon Do and their successful mastery of techniques (Lakes et
al., 2013). Therefore, this procedural knowledge is critical in ensuring that instructors are
capable of meeting the set goal’s expectations.
Knowledge influence two: stage-appropriate pedagogy. Instructors need procedural
knowledge to know how to incorporate and model different techniques at distinct stages of the
training sessions (Na, 2009). The stakeholder goal clearly focuses on power, speed, and accuracy
of belt-specific Tae Kwon Do techniques. To illustrate, Na (2009) has noted that the martial art
consists of five basic activities, such as “practice of fundamentals, forms, self-defense, sparring
and breaking” (p. 33). At the same time, instructors observed that students who are children of
divorce have different behavioral patterns, while their accuracy of different techniques varies,
thus, requiring procedural correction. Moreover, each practical session should comprise of
particular stages of training or correspond to “pre-impact, during impact and post-impact”
educational purposes (Na, 2009, p. 34). If instructors fail to be well-aware of the procedural
aspects of the training process, they will lack knowledge on how to accomplish the set
performance goal because mastering the martial technique and reaching high-level martial
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artistry (i.e., knowing all the Tae Kwon Do procedures) are the foundation of following the
martial way (i.e., incorporating the Tae Kwon Do philosophy into the daily routine and lifestyle)
to gain the best learning outcomes possible (Johnson, 2015). In contrast, if they have this
procedural knowledge, they will be well-positioned to meet the expectations.
Indeed, Roh, Cho, and So (2018) have implemented a Tae Kwon Do intervention for 15
students of fourth-sixth grades from multicultural family contexts. This quantitative inquiry
aimed to identify if a set of repeated Tae Kwon Do training procedures at distinct stages of
instruction can contribute to improved student psychosocial skills, behavior, cognition abilities,
and academic performance. The instructors had time-bound procedures for each part of the
training, namely, warm-up, main exercise, and cool-down, and knew methods to demonstrate all
techniques accurately (Roh et al., 2018). Using specific techniques per training phase is in line
with information processing theory that engages sensory, working, and long-term memory
incorporated through procedural knowledge to consciously proceed with the information about
the exercises relevant for distinct parts of training to store it and retrieve later (Deans for Impact,
2015). As a result, students experienced a sufficient decrease in anxiety and depression, along
with a sufficient increase in sociability levels, though no improvements were observed for
student cognition due to the short duration of the intervention (Roh et al., 2018). According to
the findings, the wide-scope procedural knowledge of instructors is significant to ensure the
trainees are capable , the performance goals. Overall, Table 4 summarizes TKD’s mission and
global goal as well as stakeholder goals, along with knowledge influence and knowledge type.
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Table 4
Knowledge Influences

Motivation
This section of the literature review focuses on motivation as a crucial driver in
considering goal accomplishment by TKD instructors. Instructors not only need to be well aware
of Tae Kwon Do procedures, principles, and concepts but also be able to reflect on their own
cognition. They also should be willing to inspire students with evident lack of intrinsic
motivation as they are experiencing the psychological trauma based on parents’ divorce and
motivate themselves to be positively oriented towards the successful accomplishment of the
organizational goal. As a psychological system, motivation is a significant inhibitor and
Organizational Mission
To nurture martial arts as a lifestyle that cultivates the physical and emotional fitness through the
lens of self-discipline and noble spirit.
Organizational Global Goal
By May 2020, all K-12 students who are children of divorce enrolled in TKD, will pass their
three-month belt promotion at TKD and receive mindfulness-based support for improved
learning
Stakeholder Goal
By January 2020, TKD instructors will provide intensive 45-minute Tae Kwon Do training once
every two weeks so that K-12 students, who are children of divorce, will be able to perform
forms with power, speed, and accuracy as required for three-month belt promotion and will
provide at least 5 hours of mindfulness-based training for improved learning.
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type
Instructors need to be aware of how to apply the teaching
techniques and strategies for developing student attentional and
behavioral control.
Procedural
Instructors need to know how to incorporate and model different
techniques at distinct stages of the training sessions.
Procedural
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facilitator of one’s performance that moves individuals forward and encourages putting effort
into achieving goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Active choice (active pursuit of objectives),
persistence (focus on a goal regardless of distractions), and mental effort (investing time and
energy into work on task achievement) are positioned as the pillars of motivation (Clark & Estes,
2008). The theories of motivation try to understand what factors drive individuals and towards
which tasks or goals (Pintrich, 2003). Thus, the main theories considered in the section are
expectancy-value motivational theory, general attribution theory, and self-efficacy.
Utility value. According to expectancy-value motivational theory, either values or
expectancies can be motivators to a person’s willing and goal-oriented actions. On the one hand,
an individual can be driven by expectancies of whether one can complete the task while being
persistent and making sufficient mental effort for this purpose (Clark & Estes, 2008). On the
other hand, a person can be motivated through value constructs that predict the active choice in
committed performing the task (Clark & Estes, 2008). The values are classified per attainment,
intrinsic, and utility values as well as cost beliefs. Utility value is of particular interest in TKD
since it emphasizes motivation through recognition of the usefulness of taking action in light of
future-oriented perspectives as a form of reward and as a result of achievement of organizational
outcomes (Purvis, Zagenczyk, & McCray, 2015). For instance, instructors refer to individual
examples of high-level Tae Kwon Do achievements, including their own and those of other
students (e.g., won championships, being part of the demonstration team, or successful careers in
a variety of fields) to encourage students to train hard, regardless of their learning style
preferences, in order to perform all techniques accurately for their successful belt promotion in
future.
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In this regard, instructors need to recognize the utility value of differentiating instruction
for K-12 students who are children of divorce. Referring to the stakeholder goal, instructors’ task
entails both Tae Kwon Do preparation and mindfulness-based support to struggling students who
are children of divorce. As a result, they are likely to question whether they want to do this task
because their direct work duties do not position them to provide additional mindfulness-based
training but teach martial arts techniques. Thus, the usefulness of meeting the goal, or its utility
value, can be undermined by demotivating instructors. At the same time, this utility value is
important in light of Tae Kwon Do philosophy principles, which TKD targets to cultivate among
students, including “self-esteem, self-confidence, self-control,” improved concentration (Van
Rheenen, p. 16), nobility, and perseverance among others (Na, 2009). In this context, it is
possible to position the TKD goal as a way to achieve utility value, namely, an opportunity to
develop core Tae Kwon Do qualities the school aspires to nurture in students. In this way,
enticing instructors to make an active choice and be committed when pursuing the goal can be
regarded as a favorable motivational influence on stakeholders (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Such an assumption has been tested by Zetou et al. (2014), when exploring how Tae
Kwon Do instructors were motivated to provide differentiated feedback to students. The concept
implies “information communicated to a learner to modify his or her thinking or behavior for the
purpose of improving learning” (Shute, 2008, p. 154). Identifying shortcomings in performing
the belt-specific techniques by students and enticing them to self-correct the procedure will be
critical in ensuring this part of the stakeholder goal is accomplished in full. However, feedback
in Tae Kwon Do can be of different nature. For instance, it can be extrinsic feedback, such as by
reviewing the video record or coach’s verbal performance evaluation (Vit, Reguli &
Cihounkova, 2015), or change-oriented feedback that aims at developing the learner’s autonomy
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(Carpentier & Mageau, 2013). Therefore, taking into account a variety of factors, ranging from
student characteristics, situation and context, the instructor should be well aware of how to apply
a specific feedback strategy. This factor is useful to recognize the utility value of feedback to
actually motivate students for their future-oriented prioritizing in committed training of different
Tae Kwon Do techniques and passing belt requirements in the process.
Zetou et al. (2014) have positioned self-talk feedback as a valuable motivational
framework for both trainer and trainee. With this intrinsic feedback, students have internal
dialogues interpreting their feelings and perceptions, regulating and changing their evaluations
while reinforcing themselves for improvements (Zetou et al., 2014). The quantitative evidence
collected through Function of Self Talk Questionnaire during the 8-week self-talk Tae Kwon Do
intervention for 36, 8-12-year-old students demonstrated this tool’s capability to develop the
basis for utility value for their regular and committed training, loyalty and satisfaction. In this
respect, instructors’ motivation to actively choose the feedback form will influence student
motivation to listen to it and work on self-correction of various Tae Kwon Do exercises for
effective training.
General attribution theory. Attribution theory hypothesizes that individuals “make
sense of their own or others’ behavior,” whereas these “attributions impact their future behavior”
even though perceived causal inferences drive behaviors being distinct to different individuals in
similar situations (Gaier, 2015, p. 6). The key concepts in the scope of the theory are internal and
external locus (i.e., attribution to focus on the source of success or failure), controllability (i.e.,
the extent to which a person can influence the attribution), and stability (i.e., relative permanence
of attribution). Thus, instructors need to realize that their efforts in understanding what motivates
students are necessary to better engage and motivate K-12 students who are children of divorce.
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Indeed, trainers’ role is not merely about teaching sports but also finding the means that will
entice students to improve-maximize their performance and persistence as part of their coaching
knowledge toolkit (Choi, Cho & Kim, 2016; Zetou et al., 2014). In this context, the general
attribution model positions instructors as conscious decision-makers motivated by goal-mediated
comprehension and mastering of the environment. Focusing on causal dimensions, namely
whether student motivational drivers are internal/ external, stable, or controllable, coaches will
be able to set the motivation-centered antecedent conditions for students, such as situational
features or social norms. With this motivational strategy, instructors can engage students through
the activation of their energy, evoking the emotions involved in the process of knowing and
those of achievement (Pekrun, 2011).
To explore what motivates Tae Kwon Do students, Zeng, Cynarski, Baaz, and Park
(2015) have conducted a quantitative study with the sample size of 85 athletes aged 10 through
22 from seven Tae Kwon Do schools in New York City. The questionnaire of Tae Kwon Do
student motivation identified that major student motivational drivers for intrinsic motivation
appeared to be self-esteem, value, and enjoyment. By contrast, student extrinsic motivation was
linked to being contest winners, having high-level Tae Kwon Do skills, the prestige of this
martial art, and friendship-building opportunities (Zeng et al., 2015). Hence, trainers obtained
verified knowledge on how to make their students more engaged and committed. With a similar
attribution in mind, TKD instructors can refer to their awareness of student-centered motivation
to use positive emotions as mediators between “organizational input [instructors’ awareness of
motivation] and behavioral output [students’ goal accomplishment]” (Lord & Kanfer, 2002, p.
7). Therefore, identifying the motivational attributes for K-12 students, who are children of
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divorce, will be valuable for enhancing the TKD instructors’ capability to meet the requirements
set by the organizational goal.
Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy entails a person’s beliefs into their capability to produce the
designated outcomes or have the power to influence the situations or events in their life (Pintrich,
2003). Such expectations are derived from own experiences with a particular behavior,
physiological information, observations over others’ behaviors, or persuasion from other
individuals (Bandura, 2000; 2005). In other words, if people believe in their individual self-
efficacy, they are likely to exert more effort and persistent behavior for goal accomplishment and
make these efforts a manifestation of collective self-efficacy (Pintrich, 2003). Moreover, the
perceived level of self-efficacy not only directly impacts human behavior but also can be the
guide to the person’s goals and aspirations, anticipated outcomes, and perceptions of
opportunities incorporated in the societal environment (Bandura, 2000). Hence, instructors need
to believe they are able to effectively differentiate leadership styles to improve self-efficacy and
achievement motivation among K-12 students who are children of divorce. Trainers have to
perform different roles, including assisting trainees, distributing, monitoring and supervising
goal-related tasks; teaching a variety of skills; and mentoring students (Bujak et al., 2012; Lim,
Moon, Kang & Yang, 2016). Indeed, with relation to the organizational goal, instructors should
advance student Tae Kwon Do skills to pass the belt promotion examination and be able to
provide mindfulness-based support as mentors, even though it is beyond their actual competence
as martial arts coaches. At the same time, student motivation to complete all these tasks and
satisfaction will definitely depend on instructors’ leadership to engage them in following the
instructor’s guideline (Bujak, Gierczuk, Orbach & Blumenstein, 2015; Bujak et al., 2012; Choi et
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al., 2016). Therefore, the instructors’ motivational influence is significant to accomplish the set
goal.
In this regard, the concept of self-efficacy is relevant as “an individual’s beliefs about
their ability to be successful in a task acquired from past performance accomplishments,
vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological states” (Estevan, Alvarez, Falco &
Castillo, 2014, p. 98). If instructors are confident in their capability to teach the competencies,
there is a high likelihood of their persistence in performing difficult tasks being driven by
aspirations, perceived opportunities, and outcome expectations (Bandura, 2000; Grossman &
Salas, 2011). Thus, instructors’ individual self-efficacy is likely to transfer into collective
efficacy or trainees’ beliefs in goal accomplishment and active efforts in the process.
In 2013, Torabi, Khodayari, and Kohandel conducted a descriptive correlational study
engaging 115 Tae Kwon Do instructors and athletes. With a focus on self-efficacy of instructors
in choosing a proper leadership approach for achievement motivation and self-efficiency among
students, the scholars provided insight in self-efficacy as a concept strengthening individual
behavior as well as giving directions to it. The findings showed that, if instructors appeared self-
efficient and flexible in using different styles at distinct teaching contexts, such cases have been
the most appreciated by students resulting in their improved self-efficacy (Torabi et al., 2013),
immersion in exercise (Lim et al., 2016), and satisfaction with training (Choi et al., 2016).
Therefore, referring to instructors’ self-efficacy is significant to evoke the similar beliefs and
attitudes in students with regard to mutual goal accomplishment. In this regard, Table 5
summarizes TKD’s mission and global goal, the goal of instructors in the scope of
accomplishing the organizational goal, as well as assumed motivational influences.

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Table 5
Assumed Motivational Influences

Organizational Influences
This section of the literature review aims to demonstrate the organizational influences,
which affect the TKD instructors’ ability to achieve the specific stakeholder goal and make sure
it is well-aligned with the TKD organizational goal. Such organizational influences as
Organizational Mission
To nurture martial arts as a lifestyle that cultivates the physical and emotional fitness through the
lens of self-discipline and noble spirit.
Organizational Global Goal
By May 2020, all K-12 students who are children of divorce enrolled in TKD, will pass their
three-month belt promotion at TKD and receive mindfulness-based support for improved
learning.
Stakeholder Goal
By January 2020, TKD instructors will provide intensive 45-minute Tae Kwon Do training once
every two weeks so that K-12 students, who are children of divorce, will be able to perform
forms with power, speed, and accuracy as required for three-month belt promotion and will
provide at least 5 hours of mindfulness-based training for improved learning.
Assumed Motivation Influences Assessment
Utility Value Instructors need to recognize the value of differentiating
instruction for students who are children of divorce

Attributions Instructors need to understand that their own efforts in
understanding what motivates students are necessary so
that they may better engage and motivate students who are
children of divorce.

Self-efficacy Instructors need to believe that they are able to effectively
differentiate leadership styles for self-efficacy and
achievement motivation among students who are children
of divorce.
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procedures, protocols, and policies implemented within the organization are likely to impact
stakeholder commitment to the organizational requirements and their performance outcomes
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Schneider, Brief, & Guzzo, 1996). At the
same time, none of these factors work in isolation from the others because they are part of an
integrated knowledge, motivation and organization framework (Clark & Estes, 2008). The three
components of the KMO model are interrelated, and this factor defines the performance
outcomes. Moreover, organizational influences are the primary drivers for the development of
knowledge and motivation mechanisms in the organization.
Organizational management theorists argue that organizational influences relate to the
initial conception of the organization as it relates to the founding leader. In particular, McGee
and Johnson (2015) have emphasized that the guidelines created by leaders in an organization
become the key driving forces for employee engagement and motivation facilitated through
learning while manifested in human performance technologies. In addition, as long as an
organization’s success in fulfilling its mission depends on being able to develop into a learning
organization, it will aim to ensure employee professional and personal development to achieve
this goal (Senge, 1990). In this regard, perception of staff members of their organization as
value-driven, visionary and people-oriented will define the level of employee commitment and
organization-wide capability to evolve as a learning and highly competitive organization in
achieving its goals and aspirations in line with stakeholders’ expectations (Garvin, Edmondson,
& Gino, 2008). Therefore, organizational influences are determining factors in the maintenance
of employee motivation and goal-oriented behavior.
To be well-positioned in ensuring that these strategies are feasible, leaders need to
recognize the crucial role of cultural settings and cultural models as the main attributes of
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planning and implementing the organizational influences. In particular, it is important to
understand whether the organization has already developed the relevant mechanisms to support
K-12 students who are children of divorce or gaps in the functioning of TKD exist in this respect
and should be eliminated to meet the organizational goal as expected. According to Gallimore
and Goldenberg (2001), cultural models entail “shared mental schema or normative
understandings of how the world works, or ought to work” (p. 47). At the same time, cultural
settings should be concerned when “two or more people come together, over time, to accomplish
something” (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001, p. 47). In other words, while cultural models
comprise of the shared beliefs and principles which guide stakeholders’ interaction, cultural
settings can be regarded as a result of stakeholders’ comprehension of the models and mutual
commitment on the performance of organizational tasks (Schein, 2004). For instance, the cultural
model lies in the fact that TKD stakeholders understand that Tae Kwon Do philosophy is at the
core of governing their organization-wide behavior, whereas the setting implies collaboration of
instructors and students in the process of training to master the martial arts techniques in line
with the TKD philosophy.
TKD Organizational Factors that Can Impact Instruction
The culture of trust and collaboration between the key stakeholders. Having a
culture of trust and collaboration in an organization is crucial to ensure meeting the needs and
demands of the relevant stakeholders and reaching the organizational goals and objectives at the
same time. Primarily, the importance of this organizational influence stems from the fact that
well-being and performance of students who are the children of divorce depend on a variety of
factors, including parental post-divorce involvement as well as peer support, to name a few
(Arkes, 2015; Cho et al., 2018). Therefore, trust and collaboration can be regarded as the central
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pillars of student willingness to engage in responsible and committed learning, especially based
on the emotional and social trauma related to the complicated nature of parents’ divorce, as well
as parents’ engagement in the development of supportive learning environment (Arkes, 2015). In
addition, studies evidence that having the collaborative culture in place is likely to affect the way
in which team members interact and work together and become a critical driver for team
creativity, problem-solving, and leveraging the opportunities for growth and innovation
(Barczak, Lassk, & Mulki, 2010). In this way, in case TKD instructors will be guided by the
culture of trust and collaboration, this cultural model influence can be valuable for governing the
behavior of TKD stakeholders in building trustworthy and productive relationships to meet the
needs of K-12 students, who are the children of divorce.
Acceptance and willingness to differentiate instruction. The significance of
differentiation should not be underestimated in both educational and non-educational settings.
Based on the wide-scope student diversity characteristics, Tomlinson et al. (2003) emphasized
the necessity to ensure that educators are proactive in planning and developing differentiated
instruction strategies to ensure that a variety of student needs are comprehensively addressed.
This factor relates not only to diverse student demographics, as manifested among the TKD
student population but also in varying degrees of severity and scale of divorce-related impacts on
children (Arkes, 2015). Moreover, differentiation is necessary with regard to different stages of
the training process in Tae Kwon Do instruction. In this respect, feedback, reinstruction, and
high levels of correction among other techniques of instructors’ differentiating methods can be
used in different learning situations (Carpentier & Mageau, 2013; Pilianidis, Mantzouranis,
Gamvroudiou, Berberidou, & Proios, 2014). Furthermore, the research found the fluctuations in
martial arts loyalty and satisfaction among students who learned under the guidelines of
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 79

instructors with different leadership styles (Bujak et al., 2012). It follows that the organizational
influence concerned with the cultural model promoting differentiated instruction is also notable
in ensuring a well thought out approach of instructors towards accomplishing their stakeholder
goal.
Ample non-instruction time for effective communication and collaboration.
Academic research confirms that “time is the most critical working condition for improving
student learning” (Reeves, Emerick, & Hirsch, 2006, p. 1). The assumption is relevant not only
with respect to the time needed for student mastery of skills, gaining knowledge, or becoming
skillful in performing techniques professionally, though these factors are critical. The suggestion
is relevant for providing instructors enough time to plan, collaborate with one another, evaluate
and discuss student performance, as well as effective instruction strategies (Reeves et al., 2006).
Similar assumptions apply to Tae Kwon Do instruction process as well. For instance, Johnson
(2016; 2017) asserted that Tae Kwon Do requires that instructors should spend ample time not
only on training students but also reflecting on their work and planning strategies in which it will
be possible to effectively nurture Tae Kwon Do philosophy and values while developing student
multiple intelligences. In this case, the organization should consider providing instructors with
non-instruction time in a well-planned way, including mutual development of schedules,
assessing organization-wide and individual needs as compared to resources available, along with
enabling staff members to discuss whether non-instruction time is used effectively (Reeves et al.,
2006). As a result, TKD instructors will be able to openly communicate and collaborate with one
another and the other stakeholders, being well-aware of stakeholders’ views on the problem of
practice and the solutions they find relevant. In addition, the setting can be useful for
understanding the factors and drivers that entice or motivate stakeholders to follow the leader
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(Rath & Conchie, 2009). Such a situation will be favorable for ensuring that the relevant
stakeholders know the complex circumstances faced by children of divorce and collaborate
through participatory decision-making in order to mutually contribute to addressing their needs
in pursuit of the TKD goal.
Developing an action plan for a supportive work environment that promotes
knowledge sharing and collaboration. Research emphasized that collaboration between
stakeholders for inter-organizational knowledge-sharing is one of the key critical success factors
for organizational success in light of developing the organizational trust and building long-term
partnerships (Chen, Wu, Chien, & Shiah, 2014). Moreover, scholars recognize the organization’s
learning as the crucial determinant of its competitiveness and capability to pursue its goals
effectively. Thus, the supportive work environment, which primarily focuses on collaboration
and knowledge-sharing, will be valuable for the transfer of training and knowledge across the
organization to identify and eliminate the knowledge and skills gaps of different staff members
(Grossman & Salas, 2011). At the same time, parents’ input into the knowledge exchange
process is vital for considering the impact of divorce on children (Arkes, 2015; Diamond, 2014;
Hernandez & Anderson, 2015). Therefore, implementing an action plan that is likely to facilitate
stakeholder-based collaboration and knowledge-sharing in TKD will be useful for addressing the
problem of practice while accomplishing the stakeholder goal by instructors. Table 6 summarizes
the organizational mission, its global and stakeholder goal, as well as specifies the cultural
models and settings, which are critical to be taken into account when considering the
organizational influences relevant for addressing the needs of TKD K-12 students who are the
children of divorce.

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Table 6
Organizational Influences for Motivation Gap Analysis

Organizational Mission
To nurture martial arts as a lifestyle that cultivates the physical and emotional fitness through the
lens of self-discipline and noble spirit.
Organizational Global Goal
By May 2020, all K-12 students who are children of divorce enrolled in TKD, will pass their
three-month belt promotion at TKD and receive mindfulness-based support for improved
learning.
Stakeholder Goal
By January 2020, TKD instructors will provide intensive 45-minute Tae Kwon Do training once
every two weeks so that K-12 students, who are children of divorce, will be able to perform
forms with power, speed, and accuracy as required for three-month belt promotion and will
provide at least 5 hours of mindfulness-based training for improved learning.
Organizational Influences Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1:

The organization needs to develop a culture of trust and
collaboration between parents, students, who are children of
divorce, and TKD instructors to achieve the organizational goal
of passing their three-month belt promotion and receiving the
mindfulness-based support.

Cultural Model Influence 2:

The organization needs to create conditions for acceptance and
willingness among instructors to differentiate instruction for
children of divorce.

Cultural Setting Influence 1:

The organization needs to plan instructors’ ample non-
instruction time to make sure they are able to effectively
communicate and collaborate with students, who are children of
divorce, and their parents in academic support training.

Cultural Setting Influence 2:

The organization needs an action plan to develop a supportive
work environment so that it will promote knowledge sharing and
collaboration between instructors in assisting children of
divorce.
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Conceptual Framework
Researchers emphasize that a conceptual framework is fundamental for understanding the
place of as well as informing the direction of the study. In particular, Maxwell (2013) defines
this notion as the key part of research design that comprises the system of assumptions, beliefs,
concepts, and expectations, which are likely to impact the process of organizing and conducting
the inquiry. Apart from presenting the researcher’s ideas with regard to the knowledge on the
topic and its construction as well as the logical links to how one plans to conduct the study, the
conceptual framework demonstrates the concepts, their measurements and operationalization
strategy (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). For the current study, the researcher applied the Knowledge,
Motivation and Organizational (KMO) Analytic Conceptual Framework to develop the study
design. Clark and Estes (2008) have introduced the KMO model as a framework for evaluating
the performance goals through the lens of stakeholder groups’ perceptions in order to identify if
any shortcomings exist in any of the spheres of organizational functioning and its capability to
accomplish the set goals. While for the research aims of this study, the stakeholder KMO
influences are presented as separate components of the conceptual framework, the research will
illustrate their interconnected nature in terms of mutual impacting on one another to ensure the
provision of comprehensive and effective instruction for K-12 students who are children of
divorce. Particularly, the constructed framework along with the convergence of the two
worldviews further informs the study.
The combination of constructivist and pragmatic sets of beliefs comprise the theoretical
framework for the study. According to Creswell (2014), constructivism, or social constructivism,
is a perspective that emphasizes the historical and social complexity of views on a studied
phenomenon based on individuals’ subjective meanings of phenomenon-related experiences. In
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addition, these meanings explicitly derive from and depend on the interaction of individuals with
specific contexts and settings (Creswell, 2014). In this way, it is valuable to construct the views/
meanings of instructors, as the key stakeholder group for the study as they directly interact with
K-12 students, who are children of divorce, within the organizational setting. Hence, the
constructivist paradigm will be useful for exploring the problem of practice from the position of
direct participants. By contrast, pragmatism is a worldview that emphasizes “the problem and
uses all the approaches available to understand the problem” (Creswell, 2014, p. 10). Being
focused on pluralistic “consequences of actions” and problem-centered real-world practices
(Creswell, 2014, p. 6), the pragmatist believes it will be of great significance for framing the
applicability of the constructed meanings in the scope TKD practice. Thus, the convergence of
the two worldviews will allow multidimensional and holistic investigation of TKD instructors’
experiences in training the K-12 students who are the children of divorce.
As mentioned earlier, instructors have been identified as the primary stakeholder group
for the current research because they are at the core of parent-instructor and student-instructor
communication and collaboration for meeting the specific needs of K-12 children who are
students of divorce in Tae Kwon Do training sessions. The KMO factors that influence the
process and achieving the stakeholder goal involve the issues concerned with the work
environment, knowledge-sharing and collaboration between stakeholders, as well as instructors’
flexibility and differentiating in training to work with children with diverse backgrounds. Indeed,
Tae Kwon Do interventions are well-recognized by scholars as interventions that are likely to
have a multidimensional positive impact on K-12 students. Nevertheless, meeting the specific
needs and assisting in the adjustment of children who are from divorced families is a challenge to
both instructors and students (Diamond, 2014; Lakes et al., 2013). With the proposed study, it
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will be possible to identify knowledge influencers, which affect the TKD instructors. If the
findings will show that they lack reflection on their areas of strength and shortcomings, the
collected data will provide evidence-based rationale that these gaps should be addressed for
developing student capabilities of behavioral and attentional control along with instructors’
ability to differentiate instruction according to the distinct phases of the training sessions,
learning needs or other characteristics of students. As for the organizational influences, which
impact TKD instructors’ ability to accomplish performance goals, the cultural models concerned
with organization-to-individual trust and collaboration, as well as differentiated instruction
practice, should be supplemented with trainers’ non-instruction time and development of a
supportive environment for students. In addition, the motivational influencers refer to
instructors’ ability to derive the value from the differentiated instruction, engage and motivate K-
12 students, who are children of divorce, and develop self-efficacy through different styles of
leadership. Indeed, research findings have emphasized that KMO combination of all these factors
in the supportive martial arts environment and positive instructor-student relationships are likely
to facilitate student self-motivation, committed and successful learning in both regular and Tae
Kwon Do schools (Lakes et al., 2013; Zeng, Cynarski, Baaz, & Park, 2015; Zetou, Vernadakis,
Bebetsos, & Liadakis, 2014). The links and relationship between the specified KMO components
and the relevant stakeholders in the scope of TKD performance are illustrated in Figure 1.

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Figure 1. Interactive conceptual framework for ensuring that TKD instructors accomplish the
stakeholder goal.

Figure 1 is a representation of the conceptual framework of interconnected KMO
influences that have been detailed in this chapter. In the KMO model, the researcher specified
the important factors that are likely to affect TKD instructors’ performance in line with achieving
the TKD organizational goal. In particular, orange circles representing knowledge and
motivational influences in Figure 1, with a bidirectional arrow between the two showing their
interrelation and mutual influence on smooth and effective implementation of the instruction for
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K-12 students, with specification of differences, if any, for student-athletes who are the children
of divorce, showed by the circle of cherry color. In addition, KM factors are unified in the scope
of the TKD cultural settings and models enlisted in the blue circle that has the circle uniting
instructor’s knowledge, motivation, and instruction as its inner components. Furthermore, the
interaction of the above KMO elements is shown as influential towards their mutual contribution
to the accomplishment of the instructor’s goal as stakeholders outlined in the purple rectangular
beneath these circles. This connection is demonstrated through a blue arrow directed from the
unified KMO influences towards the stakeholder goal, thus, revealing that the organizational
context and instructor’s efforts as drivers for pursuing the TKD organizational goal are likely to
mutually benefit in achieving the set goal.
Therefore, the conceptual framework figure revealed the key areas of attention for TKD
instructors to consider in order to ensure that their instruction facilitates the learning of K-12
students who are children of divorce, targeting the TKD performance and success reaching its
organizational goal. The figure also showed the interrelated character of TKD organizational and
instructors’ individual knowledge and motivation factors to contribute to the mutually beneficial
outcomes of the process through instructors’ input and supportive environment (Diamond, 2014;
Lakes et al., 2013; Zeng et al., 2015; Zetou et al., 2014). As indicated in the framework,
instructors need to leverage their procedural knowledge for improving student outcomes. From
the motivational perspective, they also should enhance their own values, attributions, and self-
efficacy to effectively instruct K-12 students who are children of divorce. Finally, the figure
showed the specific organizational aspects of KMO in this respect, such as having ample non-
instruction time for enhancing relationships with students and their parents, sharing knowledge,
and differentiating the instruction, among others. Considering all the specified KMO drivers as a
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holistic and comprehensive model will be valuable for ensuring that by May 2020, all students
who are children of divorce enrolled in TKD, will pass their three-month belt promotion at TKD
and receive at least 5 hours of mindfulness-focused training for improved learning.
Conclusion
Tae Kwon Do institution can contribute to improving the learning process and outcomes
among K-12 students who are the children of divorce (Diamond, 2014; Johnson, 2017; Lakes et
al., 2013). In particular, research has demonstrated the strengths of Tae Kwon Do institutional
support in building and enhancing student executive functions (Diamond, 2014; Lakes et al.,
2013), self-control (Naves-Bittencourt et al., 2015), skills to manage stress, anxiety, depression,
hostility and aggression (Avelar-Rosa et al., 2016), along with improving quality of life and
sports participation and achievements, especially when Tae Kwon Do based mindfulness is
concerned (Naves-Bittencourt et al., 2015; Ottoboni et al., 2014). While the role of Tae Kwon
Do instructors in the process is crucial (Bujak, Miler & Litwiniuk, 2012; Lakes et al., 2013), the
contemporary research on the topic still lacks empirical studies that would have specifically
targeted Tae Kwon Do institutional support for improved learning in children of divorce.
Chapter Two also analyzed the key KMO influences affecting instructors in TKD. Along
with presenting these KMO’s as the focus of the literature review, these factors were also
described as an integral part of the conceptual framework employed in the research. Chapter
Three will further provide the rationale for utilizing the qualitative approach to explore the TKD
instructor stakeholder goal in reaching the organizational goal as a whole. Apart from that,
Chapter Three will overview the significance of these stakeholders in attaining the TKD goal and
possible performance gaps that exist in this regard, if any.

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Chapter Three: Methods
The purpose of this project is to evaluate the degree to which TKD is meeting its goal of
by May 2020, all students who are children of divorce enrolled in TKD, will pass their three-
month belt promotion at TKD and receive Tae Kwon Do based support for improved learning.
The analysis focused on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to
achieving the organizational goals. While a complete performance evaluation would involve all
stakeholders, for practical purposes, the stakeholder focused on in this study are the TKD
instructors as one of the key stakeholder groups.
Chapter Three presents the research design and the methodology for the study. In
particular, the current chapter comprises of restatement of the formulated research questions and
a description of the participating stakeholders recruited in the research procedure. In addition, the
researcher provides the rationale for the data collection methods used, a brief overview of the
data analysis method, credibility, and trustworthiness, validity, and reliability, as well as the
ethical issues concerned. Finally, Chapter Three concludes with a section specifying the
limitations and delimitations linked to this research project.
Participating Stakeholders
For this study, all Tae Kwon Do TKD instructors are the key stakeholder group of focus.
In the scope of this population, there are nine instructors total, with seven of them being males
and two females of Asian American origin who are fluent in both English and Vietnamese
languages. Further, the criteria for the selection of the sample are explained.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion one. The first sampling criterion is the fact that the participants are current
TKD instructors. Primarily, these instructors were the internal stakeholders who have played a
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direct role in TKD, reaching its organizational goal by means accountable and committed
performing their duties. In addition, the instructors have high-level knowledge and experience in
communicating and training the K-12 students who are children of divorce. Based on this fact,
they are likely to have comprehensive in-practice knowledge concerned with supporting the
active engagement and learning of this student group.
Criterion two. The second criterion implies the need for instructors to hold the ITF
fourth-degree black belt or higher. Drawing upon the international requirements, it takes 12 years
of continuous Tae Kwon Do training and at least three years of practice as an assistant or junior
instructor, including extensive skills and knowledge toolkit, to test for this degree, while the
higher ITF rank requires even more years of practice and training in pedagogy. The researcher
selected this criterion because it ensured that the TKD instructors have long-term experience in
wide-scope interaction with the target student population in the martial arts school.
Criterion three. The third criterion for selecting the sample relates to TKD instructors’
having a WTA certificate. To earn this certificate, an instructor must spend at least two-three
years as an instructor trainee and teach at least 300 hours as well as pass a teaching test. During
this period, instructors are not only required to improve their technical competence in Tae Kwon
Do but also advance their leadership, critical thinking, and valuable life skills, enhance their
level of learning instruction techniques, as well as attend the special events for instructors.
Similarly to the second criterion, the requirement allowed ensuring that the chosen participants
are well prepared in the delivery of holistic and comprehensive instruction for K-12 students.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
As a sampling strategy, the researcher referred to non-random participant selection. This
technique implies the situation where the participants are recruited in a process that does not
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require all individuals in a research population to have equal chances of being selected to take
part in a study. According to the set criteria, the researcher has specifically defined TKD
instructors as the key target sample. In this way, the researcher aimed to recruit all eight TKD
instructors to participate in the interviewing to contribute to answering the set research questions.
The researcher provided a well-rationalized and persuasive explanation of the key points and
arguments of the proposed study to the target sample to be able to recruit the anticipated number
of the research participants and elicit rich responses to the set research questions. To make sure
the research process was organized in an ethical manner, the researcher also provided the
comprehensive information sheet to the participants, with a particular specification of their
confidentiality as interviewees and their opportunity to withdraw from the research at any stage
of the research procedure.
To conduct non-random participant selection, the researcher utilized the combination of
purposive and convenience sampling as a common strategy in qualitative research (Fink, 2013;
Johnson & Christensen, 2015). On the one hand, purposeful sampling allows the study reaching
the aims to “discover, understand and gain insight” from the participants who are able to provide
the relevant information on the research questions (Merriam, 2009, p. 96). On the other hand,
convenience sampling is useful as it assists in accessing and recruiting the participants who are
easy to reach for the researcher as target participants, thus, enabling an opportunity for assuming
a high response rate (Fink, 2013; Johnson & Christensen, 2015). Since the investigator focused
on TKD instructors as the target sample population, it was convenient to recruit these individuals
within the organization (convenient sample) while being guided by the specific criteria
(purposeful sampling) for ensuring that research participants would contribute to providing rich
information to answer the research questions. In other words, by applying this sampling strategy,
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the researcher obtained convenient but valuable sources of information concerned with the
investigated problem (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009).
Sample
The study involved TKD instructors with a sample size of eight participants. All the
participants who took part in the interviewing met the set research criteria. The chosen criteria
served as the basis for TKD instructors’ solid experience in martial arts and the problem of
practice, such as at least 12 years of continuous Tae Kwon Do practice, required for the fourth-
degree black belt, and communication/ collaboration with students who are children of divorce.
The criteria-based process of participant selection ensured that every recruited interviewee was
characterized by the relevant expertise to be able to provide open, credible and honest responses
to the interview questions. Table 7 displays the demographics of the research sample.

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Table 7
Demographics of the Research Sample
Participant
a
Gender Age Belt Ranking
Years of
Experience Certificate
Instructor 1 M 21 4
th
degree
black belt
12 ITF
b

Instructor 2 M 23 4
th
degree
black belt
14 ITF
Instructor 3 M 24 4
th
degree
black belt
16 ITF
Instructor 4 M 28 5
th
degree
black belt
18 ITF
Instructor 5 M 64 5
th
degree
black belt
40 ITF
Instructor 6 M 61 5
th
degree
black belt
34 ITF
Instructor 7 F 34 6
th
degree
black belt
28 ITF and
WTA
c

Instructor 8 M 55 6
th
degree
black belt
31 ITF and
WTA
a
The research used coded names to identify the research participants and safeguard their privacy and
confidentiality.
b
Abbreviation for International Tae Kwon Do Federation.
c
Abbreviation for World Tae
Kwon Do Association

Explanation for the Choice of a Data Collection Method
Self-reported interviewing was regarded as the most appropriate method for the data
collection, given the current scope and context of the study. Primarily, self-reported measures for
data gathering enable the sampled respondents to report directly on their own beliefs, attitudes,
experiences, or behaviors (Lavkaras, 2008). As a result, self-reported data collected through
interviews can serve as a practical, economical, and valid source for the target type of
information (Gonyea, 2005). The current research aimed to explore how TKD instructors can
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assist in addressing the learning challenges faced by K-12 students, who are the children of
divorce, in order to meet the TKD organizational goal. With this objective, clarifying instructors’
beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors seems a reasonable source for obtaining the relevant information
on the problem of practice.
However, since the researcher is the colleague of the target sample of participants, self-
reported information can be biased, especially with respect to social desirability bias when
respondents tend to provide desirable rather than actual answers to the set questions. For
instance, the issue can be concerned with their knowledge influencers when instructors may
over-report their normative or expected behavior or attitudes in order not to question their
professional competence in differentiating instruction for meeting the learning needs of children
of divorce or not to spoil impression in front of the colleague. At the same time, studies suggest
that social desirability bias can be prevented in case the text of interview questions will be of
nondirective and flexible nature (Brenner & DeLamater, 2016). Hence, reviewing the interview
questions by the expert panel to guarantee the nondirective character of the interview protocol
was implemented as a sufficient factor to prevent the bias and collect the data with the proposed
self-reported measurement.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
The researcher applied the semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions as the
primary source of data collection for this qualitative study. The target sample comprised of eight
TKD instructors, while TKD served as the setting for conducting the interviews as agreed with
the TKD administration. The details of the data collection process are provided below.

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Interviews
Due to the busy schedules of TKD instructors, the researcher scheduled one-time face-to-
face interviews with the eight recruited participants at the time that was most convenient for
them. Regardless of the existing professional relationships, the researcher has with the
participants as colleagues; the interviews were framed as rather formal being guided by the
research ethics and values as well as the instant focus on the research purpose and study
questions. Based on the high-level training workload for the TKD instructors as research
participants, the researcher gained permission from the TKD administration to conduct the
interviews in a quiet separate room within their workplace, with minimized possibilities for
undermined privacy, interruptions or other work-related risks. While the target research
participants are bilingual (English and Vietnamese), the interviews were conducted in English.
The interview duration ranged from 18 to 30 minutes and was based on the semi-structured
interview protocol of 13 open-ended questions, while the researcher also utilized prompts on an
individual basis to enable the expanded participants’ responses when necessary. With this
research strategy, the researcher aimed to collect their opinions on Tae Kwon Do based
institutional support TKD can offer to K-12 students, who are children of divorce, as experienced
by instructors with regard to their KMO factors.
The study employed a semi-structured interview protocol with open-ended questions (see
Appendix A). In this way, the researcher was able to make sure the data collection was
convenient, ethical and provided reliable findings to answer the research questions. While
questions were formulated in simple words to be easy to comprehend and not leading in nature,
they were also developed in a way that encouraged descriptive and ample answers from the
respondents, with precise attention paid to questions’ order. As Patton (2002) noted, this protocol
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allows an opportunity for making data collection time-efficient for the interviewee, whereas
being explicitly research-focused for the researcher to allow further facilitation of the data
analysis in light of the well-standardized interviewing tool used and easy comparison of the
obtained responses. For collecting the rich empirical data concerned with the research questions
as well as notions specified in the conceptual framework, the protocol incorporated different
types of questions as specified in Appendix A. To obtain informative data, the protocol
integrated 13 open-ended questions, with eight of them being of Patton’s types while the rest
comprising those identified by Strauss, Schatzman, Bucher, and Sabshin (Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam, 2009). The interviewer aimed to gather the data that depict the wide-scope instructors’
views on the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that are likely to contribute to or
impede the impacts on learning of children of divorce, with relation to KMO factors in TKD, as
identified in the research questions.
Data Analysis
The procedure of data analysis started during the data collection. The interviewee
responses were recorded by the online application otter.ai, which allowed transcribing the
recorded data at the same time. Following the completion of the review process, recordings were
transcribed verbatim for consistency and alignment purposes. Next, the researcher printed out the
data transcripts and asked the interviewees to look through their answers to prevent possible
omissions or biases. Transcribed data were organized and analyzed through the lens of the
analytic questioning technique and synthesized for the coding phase of the data analysis. After
each interview, the researcher also composed analytic memos documenting own thoughts,
concerns, and initial conclusions with regard to the obtained interview results and their relevance
to both conceptual framework and research questions.
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The researcher sought to organize a data analysis plan. During the first phase of data,
analysis coding was applied as a process that allowed codes and further themes to emerge.
Specifically, the researcher utilized open coding, namely, conducting line-by-line coding,
identified the empirical codes, and applied a priori codes through the lens of the conceptual
framework. In the second phase of analysis, empirical and a priori codes were aggregated into
the analytic/axial codes. As for the third phase of data analysis, the researcher detected the
emerging pattern codes and themes as these related to the conceptual framework and research
questions. As a result, the researcher read through the interview results on the MS Word files on
the computer and highlighted the empirical codes in the responses during the coding process by
underlining them and manually color-coded the identified codes per the content of the conceptual
framework as illustrated in Table 8.

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Table 8
Color Codes Assigned for KMO Influences
KMO Influence Color Code Description
Knowledge Influences Red

Procedural Knowledge: distinct stages of
training
Orange Attentional/ Behavioral Control
Motivational Influences Blue

Utility Value
Light Blue

Light blue – Attributions
Purple Purple – Self-efficacy
Organizational Influencers

Cultural Settings Emerald Green Differentiated Instruction
Pine Green Knowledge Sharing
Jade Green Supportive Work Environment

Cultural Models Seaweed Green Enough Non-instruction Time
Olive Green Trust and Collaboration Between
Stakeholders

Next, the researcher created codebooks for each of the eight interviews with axial codes
that emerged and synthesized the data into a single codebook. The data synthesis also included
outlining, categorizing, and defining the typicality of the pattern codes, namely, frequent similar
or repeated concepts (axial codes) in the raw data, which offered insight into or led to a theme.
Accordingly, the researcher determined the themes stemming from the coded data based on the
conceptual framework and literature review findings while determining possible answers for the
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research questions.
The analysis of the coded data allowed inferring 11 major themes and 36 subthemes
based on the patterns deduced from the typical (namely, most frequently identified in the
interview results) axial codes, with the majority of the recurring themes representing the teaching
process, instructor perception, teaching context and style, as well as institutional teaching
philosophy. The themes identified in the inquiry are as follows:
1. the theme of teaching process (distinct stages of training in the conceptual framework)
along with a number of subthemes:
• belt promotion specifics, differentiated belt promotion training, as well as routine
training; one-on-one training; individualized instruction; and flexible scheduling;
2. instructor perception as a broad theme comprising of two groups of supplemental
themes:
• multi-modal maintenance of discipline, student role models, positive support, and
mindfulness (attentional control in the conceptual framework);
• disciplinary actions for misbehavior; one-on-one conversations; reference to the
Tae Kwon Do philosophy; and family-like school environment (behavioral
control in the conceptual framework);
3. teaching style (utility value in the conceptual framework) as a key theme and the
following subthemes:
• peer support, Tae Kwon Do based value system, and needs of children of
divorce;
4. teaching style (self-efficacy in the conceptual framework) and complementary themes:
• the instructor as a role model as well as situational leadership styles;
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5. attributions as the major theme and a number of subthemes:
• instructor-induced positive attitude/ environment, Tae Kwon Do school as a
family, and parental attitude;
6. institutional teaching philosophy (culture of trust and collaboration between stakeholders
in the conceptual framework):
• the role of the founder, instructor-parent collaboration, and Tae Kwon Do
philosophy for student success;
7. teaching context (ample non-instruction time in the conceptual framework) as a major
theme as well as such subthemes as well-organized schedule and openness to
collaboration;
8. knowledge sharing being the main theme along with subthemes of regular meetings for
knowledge sharing and exchange of ideas for improved instruction;
9. supportive work environment as a broad theme in line with complementary themes:
• Tae Kwon Do school as a family, both parents’ engagement, addressing
transportation issues, psychological support, and student training schedule
modifications;
10. acceptance and willingness to differentiate instruction as a broad theme comprising of
two subthemes:
11. communication-induced acceptance of differentiation and student’s strengths-based
encouragement.
In the context of the data analysis, the theme resulting from the interviews was
considered as strength or gap with relation to the frequency, or typicality, of its coverage in the
respondents’ answers to the questions. In other words, if a theme was present in five or more
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interviews, it was regarded as a strength. When the reviewed literature on topic regarded the
similar information that was deduced from the interviews, the results of the interviews were
considered as a strength as well. On the contrary, inferring the theme in less than four interviews
was categorized as a gap. If a theme was mentioned in less than four interviewees but was
evident across different KMO influences, it was not considered as a gap. Finally, the theme that
was not identified in the literature review but was presented in the interview results was
considered as distinct.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
To ensure the research findings are credible, the researcher utilized a non-random
participant selection strategy, combining the purposive and convenience sampling. With this
approach, the researcher aimed to recruit the participants who are both easy to reach and capable
of providing valuable information to answer the set research questions (Merriam, 2009).
Specifically, the target sample involved eight TKD instructors, that is, almost all instructor staff
of TKD, except for the researcher herself. Whereas the research population only comprised of
TKD instructors, this factor ensured that the research participants possess the relevant knowledge
on the research problem to be able to provide adequate answers to the research questions. In this
way, the purpose-convenience sampling for interviewing not only assisted the researcher in
gathering reasonable data from the sample but also granting the qualitative nature of the
collected information.
Following the rationale by Merriam (2009), a number of interview questions, which are
relevant to answer the research questions and composed into an interview protocol, allows the
researcher an opportunity of eliciting problem-relevant responses from the sample as well as
constructing reliable data on the research problem. Prior to conducting interviews, the researcher
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developed and reviewed the interview protocol. When developing the interview questions, the
researcher aimed at preventing bias, ensuring that they are not leading and sound in a natural
way to evoke the respondent’s natural feedback, or that there are no question order biases
(Robinson & Firth Leonard, 2019). In addition, the researcher asked the representative of the
expert panel to review the content per clarity, focus, and relevance as well as alignment with the
components of the conceptual framework (see Appendix B). Such a strategy was also useful for
ensuring that the interview protocol is in line with the identified KMO influences specified in the
study.
At the initial stages of this inquiry, the researcher held some bias concerned with
tentative situations with the TKD instructors. To mitigate the bias, the researcher will refer to
reflexivity, namely, “the process of reflecting critically on the self as a researcher, the ‘human as
an instrument’” (Merriam, 2009, p. 219). To be more precise, the researcher tried to identify the
nature of this bias and assumptions and weight their roots with relation to individual experiences,
worldview and theoretical foundation of the inquiry to be able to better understand how it would
be ethical and objective to derive and interpret the data in an unbiased way (Merriam, 2009). In
addition, the researcher ensured her integrity as an ethical researcher and that there was no
selection of data according to the researcher’s prior knowledge or existing theories on the topic
(Maxwell, 2013). With the proposed strategy, the researcher hoped to develop and implement a
trustworthy and unbiased approach to the interview process while also promoted the credibility
of the research findings among the research participants, professors, as well as academic
community in general.

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Validity and Reliability
The target research sample comprised of almost entire instructor staff at TKD.
Specifically, the sample included eight out of nine instructors and allowed 100% participation of
the target research group (as the researcher as an instructor could not be the part of the sample) to
obtain the objective and trustworthy research data. While the interviews were scheduled in
accordance with the training schedules of the participants, with their individual preferences of
the interview site and time being considered, this approach was in line with Merriam’s
recommendations for obtaining the highest response rate from the sample. Furthermore, the
researcher guaranteed no reactivity during the research procedure: there was no researcher’s
influence on the setting where the interviews were conducted or individuals under study
(Maxwell, 2013). Likewise, the researcher informed the participants about the voluntary nature
of their participation in the study and the possibility to withdraw at any time. Along with
ensuring the trusting participant-researcher relationships and their willing participation in this
way, it was also possible to encourage their trustworthy responses (Creswell, 2003). Based on
the assumed high-level participant response rates, the researcher aimed to collect a wide scope
set of ideas or even recommendations to assist TKD in meeting its organizational goal. Finally,
the findings can become the basis and valuable contribution to future research on the topic of
interest (Maxwell, 2013).
Ethics
To leverage the benefits of qualitative research and collect the data to answer the set
research questions, the researcher anticipated developing the appropriate ethical conditions for
the human participants of the study according to the key principles of the research ethics (Glense,
2011; Weiss, 1994). According to these principles, the task of the researcher is to ensure that
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participant’s engagement into the research procedure is (a) informed on the basis of the full
range of details about the study; (b) voluntary and devoid of any penalties, detrimental effects for
research subjects or undermining the confidentiality of their personal information while aimed at
benefiting the greatest number of stakeholders; and (c) conducted by the professional
investigators (Glense, 2011). As a way to establish the safety of research subjects, the researcher
obtained the ethics approval of the study from the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board (IRB) and followed the institutional guidelines with regard to the protection of the
rights and freedoms of the research respondents. Since the current project is an exempt study of
less than minimal risk for the participants who are instructors in the Tae Kwon Do school, the
investigator provided the information sheet to the recruited research sample with apt but
comprehensive details on the research specificities and showed the process of granting the
aforementioned ethical principles. For instance, the informed sheet ensured the participants’
awareness of the problems encountered by K-12 students who are the children of divorce
enrolled in the martial arts school under investigation as well as their potential contribution to
addressing these challenges as student mentors.
After the acknowledgment with the research inquiry and making an informed decision
about participation, the research subjects were informed about their opportunity to withdraw
from the study at any point. This factor appeared especially important for ensuring instructors’
willing participation in the research procedure since the researcher is their colleague. Prior to
conducting the data collection procedure, the interviewer also obtained the participants’
permission to record their responses and provided them with the transcribed verbatim content. In
this way, the researcher demonstrated their ownership over the interview results and ensured
their true identity would not be revealed through the application of de-identification measures,
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such as coding the participant’s name and keeping the data on a password-protected computer
(Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
A number of measures were undertaken to make sure any issues were minimized that
could potentially harm the credibility and trustworthiness of the study process. Primarily, due to
the fact the researcher is a member of the research organization and the target stakeholder group
involves one’s colleagues, the investigator maintained the credible researcher-researched
relationships while following the research ethics code and the IRB ethical guidelines (Glense,
2011). In addition, the researcher demonstrated respect to the research subjects and maintained
the research procedure as open democratic research that would not only allow them full
ownership over the research data but also the process of inclusion of the data in the research
report through the researcher-participant negotiation (Glense, 2011). Additionally, the
investigator emphasized that there would be no pressure on them to participate in the study or
provide particular opinions as a way not to coerce them but encourage them to develop holistic
descriptions of the research problem according to the set research questions (Weiss, 1994). At
the same time, by the end of the research procedure, the researcher sent them a thank you card to
show the appreciation of their contribution to the study through their time and efforts.
On a similar note, the researcher implemented measures to prevent biases and maintain
the validity of the study. Specifically, the researcher demonstrated respect and appreciation to the
research subjects through maintaining their own ethical values as a researcher while also
acknowledging their multidimensional contribution to the research project (Glense, 2011;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher remained neutral by not making any judgments during
all stages of data collection, analysis, and reporting. In this regard, one also aimed at minimizing
the potential biases in undermining the data quality based on own professional or other
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background characteristics while being aware of how to own expectations can affect what one
hears from participants (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
Limitations and Delimitations
The researcher suggested that the study may have several anticipated limitations and
delimitations, which were likely to impact the inquiry process and outcomes.
The limitations relate to the possibility that respondents may avoid being totally open and
free when answering the questions from the interview protocol as the researcher is the
participants’ colleague. As a result, their previous relationship can affect the participants’
responses or researcher’s interpretation of the findings in light of social desirability bias, or the
possibility that respondents will reply the way they find socially acceptable for the organization
(Chenail, 2011). The respondents can frame the content of the answers in a manner that is within
the researcher’s/ or organization’s expectations to prevent any negative judgments. Ensuring
non-directive and not-leading text of the questions was the measure to prevent these biases from
occurring (Brenner & DeLamater, 2016). Furthermore, the information sheet and researcher in-
person informed the participants that the interview results would be anonymous without an
opportunity to discover the identity of the interviewees. At the same time, the respondents might
have been reluctant to answer all the questions honestly being afraid that their responses could be
credited by the administration of the martial arts school understudy. While TKD is a single
institution understudy, this factor can be a threat to external validity, namely, the applicability of
research findings to the stakeholders in the scope of other martial arts schools. Hence,
generalizability bias should be considered because the small research sample and its specific
characteristics, as well as setting characteristics, may differ in other institutions (Lavrakas,
2008). Nonetheless, the validity of the study results can be applied only to the target research
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population, with almost the entire instructor team being involved in the study process (Lavrakas,
2008).
As for delimitations, it is relevant to consider the methods of data collection, especially
the fact that the researcher did not apply triangulation by combining interviews, surveys, and
observations for more credible and trustworthy research findings. On the one hand, the survey as
an instrument for data collection is irrelevant for the current study since the research sample is
small, and the possible findings would be inadequate for making any generalizations on
considering the obtained findings as to the solution for the research problem. However, the
interviews could provide valuable insights into Tae Kwon Do instructors’ capability to enhance
the learning potential of K-12 students who are the children of divorce, though with regard to a
single martial arts school. On the other hand, observations could have been a challenging data
collection method whereas this strategy would have required parents’ consent to observe the
minors’ behavior along with that of instructors. In addition, the observation data collection and
further interpretation can be time-consuming and costly to be implemented, with a low likelihood
of generalizability of the results due to a single institution to be involved in the study (Gonyea,
2005). Observer bias may arise based on the researcher’s lack of training and expertise to
observe the target population in a qualitative manner. Hence, interviews can be the most suitable
and information-rich data collection instruments in the scope of this inquiry.
Another important delimitation revolves around that only one stakeholder group is under
study, namely, TKD instructors. The researcher acknowledges the fact that the other stakeholder
groups could provide significant perspectives to the research. Nevertheless, the current
investigation focused on instructors’ attitudes and ideas regarding their contribution to the
learning progress of K-12 students who are the children of divorce based on the Tae Kwon Do
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philosophy. In particular, instructors’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences are
aligned with the interview protocol as well as the conceptual framework. Exploring the topic
from this lens is a good opportunity to encourage other researchers to study the institutional
support of Tae Kwon Do school for K-12 students who are children of divorce from the
perspectives of other stakeholders.
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Chapter Four: Results and Discussion
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the degree to which TKD is meeting its goal of
ensuring that by May 2020, all K-12 students who are children of divorce enrolled in TKD,
would pass their three-month belt promotion at TKD and receive mindfulness-based support for
improved learning. The current study focused on TKD instructors’ role as the most impactful
driver in accomplishing the organizational goal. In this context, the stakeholder goal for the TKD
instructors comprised the major factor for reaching the organizational goal. Specifically, by
January 2020, TKD instructors aimed to provide intensive 45-minute Tae Kwon Do training
once every two weeks so that students who are children of divorce would be able to perform
forms with power, speed, and accuracy as required for three-month belt promotion and provided
at least five hours of additional mindfulness-based training for their improved learning. This
stakeholder goal was formulated as the cornerstone for the martial arts school to address the
learning challenges encountered by K-12 students, enrolled in TKD, who are children of divorce.
The study results enabled stating that TKD instructors met their stakeholder goal by providing
biweekly 45-minute mindfulness-based training for these students starting November 2019 and
preparing students for successful passing their belt promotion tests.
The results are summarized below and presented according to the themes in the
conceptual framework as a guideline for the analysis. The researcher identified the main themes
derived from the data analysis with reference to both the KMO conceptual framework and
reviewed literature on the topic. Furthermore, the primary data analysis helped in inferring the
themes, which were not found in the earlier studies but emerged within the context of the current
inquiry or provided specific details for the previous research findings. The section ends with the
conclusions drawn from the comparison of the results of the current study and prior research on
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the problem of the impact of parents’ divorce on children’s learning within the martial school
context.
Results
Clark and Estes’ (2008) knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences have been
the fundamental basis for the findings of the study integrated into the developed conceptual
framework. The qualitative analysis of the raw data allowed understanding the KMO influences,
which affect TKD instructors’ communication and collaboration with K-12 students who are the
children of divorce and their parents.
The results enabled revealing a number of substantial strengths of the TKD instructors
with regard to the KMO influences. The major strengths involved: (a) high-level procedural
knowledge of different stages of training; (b) well-developed attentional and behavioral control,
especially wide-scope application of one-on-one strategies; (c) multidimensional value of Tae
Kwon Do philosophy, with its particular emphasis on positive attitudes and learning
environment; and (d) well-recognized instructor’s role. Additionally, the analyzed data assisted
in identifying the KMO gaps, including (a) overlooked significance of Tae Kwon Do based
mindfulness; (b) lack of application of differentiated leadership styles; (c) lack of positive
feedback skills as a form of differentiated instruction, and (d) need for wider-scope parental
engagement. These gaps should be addressed to be able to ensure that both instructors and the
organization as a whole are capable of attaining the set goals and objectives.
Research Question One (Stakeholder Knowledge)
What is the instructor’s knowledge related to achieving the organizational goal of
ensuring that by May 2020, all K-12 students who are children of divorce enrolled in TKD will
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pass their three-month belt promotion at TKD and receive mindfulness-based support for
improved learning?
Knowledge results and findings. Rueda (2011) defined knowledge as one’s awareness
of something based on their intentional or unintentional learning experiences. Thus, with the
current qualitative study, the researcher clarified the knowledge factors, which have influenced
the interviewees in their training K-12 students who are the children of divorce to accomplish
their stakeholder goal. Understanding stakeholder knowledge is useful as this factor assists in
clarifying whether stakeholders have ample knowledge in the field as well as the expert
knowledge the organization expects from them (Clark & Estes, 2008). From the instructional
perspective, the importance of knowing how people learn is as significant as assisting them in
learning (Rueda, 2011).
Several key themes have been derived from the axial codes typical for the majority of
participants. The interviews majorly showed typical procedural knowledge of TKD instructors
on how to prepare students for belt promotion tests and how to maintain attentional and
behavioral control in the class. Apart from the major theme of different phases of training as an
evident strength due to being regarded by all interviewees, a number of complementary themes
were determined. For example, based on the responses from seven out of eight interviewees, the
inquiry revealed such theme as belt promotion specifics, including its additional component of
differentiation of belt promotion training per months (e.g., the first-month training for techniques
while the second-month practice for sparring), as well as routine training procedures. Moreover,
the other important complementary themes involved: (a) one-on-one training, either with an
instructor or with higher-level students; (b) flexible scheduling of classes; and (c) individualized
instruction for children of divorce.
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The second thematic set of patterns was linked to the broad theme of behavioral and
attentional control. With regard to the themes in the scope of attentional control, the
supplemental themes included: (a) multi-modal resources for maintenance of discipline; (b)
student role models; and (c) positive support. In terms of behavioral control as a broad theme, the
narrow themes comprised of: (a) disciplinary actions for misbehavior; (b) one-on-one
conversations; (c) reference to the Tae Kwon Do philosophy; and (d) development of the family-
like school environment. All the themes on procedural knowledge of the interviewed TKD
instructors are further detailed in the section, sequenced in the order of their frequency in the
participants’ interviews (from more frequent themes to those with the least frequency). Table 10
summarizes the themes, subthemes, axial codes, and their typicality in the interview results in
relation to research question one.
The interview results related to question one demonstrated the following strengths in
terms of the instructors’ procedural knowledge on distinct stages of training: (a) typical belt
promotion strategies, including differentiation per months and routine procedures; (b) one-on-
one training, including either instructor or higher-level student; (c) individualized instruction for
children of divorce. The strengths for attentional and behavioral control included: (a) multi-
modal maintenance of discipline; (b) positive support; (c) disciplinary actions for misbehavior;
(d) reference to the Tae Kwon Do philosophy; and (e) maintenance of family-like school
environment. At the same time, using student role models and one-on-one conversations
appeared distinct themes, not mentioned in the literature review. However, the fact that only two
instructors mentioned mindfulness-based training as a procedure helpful for improved student
attention and behavior reveals it as a knowledge gap. The identified themes are further
interpreted.
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Procedural knowledge: Distinct techniques at stages of training. Primarily, knowledge
influences among the TKD instructors related to their procedural knowledge at distinct stages of
training, revealed their understanding of the student preparation to belt promotion, with less
degree of attention paid to the regular routine of daily training. This information demonstrated
TKD instructors’ procedural knowledge of how to prepare K-12 students for their belt promotion
tests.
Specifics of preparation for belt promotion. The interview results informed about the
instructors’ awareness of how students, including those from divorced families, need to be
prepared for their belt promotion exams. Overall, all research participants claimed the relevance
of proposing belt-specific training for particular student groups. For instance, the data from the
respondents explained the need for “following the required procedures and setting the
discipline,” “specific preparation according to their belt, like training for the orange or green belt
has its own requirements” (Instructor 5) and “train and have skills and knowledge according to
the belt requirements” (Instructor 7). Accordingly, these interview results demonstrated
instructors’ awareness of how formal training procedures should be applied when preparing
students for belt promotion tests in line with belt-specific requirements. Moreover, Instructor 7
explained that “longer training and belts of higher ranks require knowing theory, and we teach
students that part too”; “Tae Kwon Do philosophy is always a part of the training because it’s the
foundation of the martial arts discipline and worldview because it’s crucial to train both body
and mind at the same time.” The comments from Instructor 7 showed how the procedure of
training lower belts is distinguished from that of the higher belts with a need for instructor’s
awareness on how to convey the critical theoretical and philosophic concepts to the students.
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Hence, the interview results reported the availability of specific instructors’ knowledge
concerned with the belt preparation training.
All eight research participants showed the specific sequence of belt promotion training,
including an emphasis on teaching and practicing patterns during the first month of the
preparation. In particular, this preparation period was attributed to a necessity to “teach students
to perform forms and patterns during the first month” (Instructor 8). Specifically, Instructor 4
explained that instructors implement the belt preparation procedure with a focus on “making sure
that they [students] memorize their forms” while “after the passing stage and memorizing the
forms, they’re able to perform the pattern with power, speed, and accuracy, which is the
requirement for them to pass the three-month belt promotion.” In this way, the obtained findings
revealed the instructors’ procedural knowledge on the first stage of student preparation for the
promotion tests.
The research participants specified the implementation of the sparring-based practice
procedure as the other knowledge influence on the way to achieving the stakeholder goal by the
TKD instructors. Indeed, all the interviewees specifically stated that this factor should be
regarded as crucial during the smooth belt promotion preparation: Instructor 5 said, “The second
month of training is about sparring. Not in a different way.” Likewise, Instructor 8 said, “During
the second month, I tend to focus their efforts on sparring with peers.” Accordingly, Instructor 2
confirmed that the “second month would be dedicated toward teaching them their sparring
techniques or one-step sparring.” Therefore, the instructors recognized the need for scheduling
the sparring training after they have taught forms and patterns to the students during the first
month of the promotion test preparation.
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The respondents also reported that the systematization of the taught material and
techniques comprises the final stage of the preparation process. To clarify, Instructor 3 stated that
the “third month, that’s when we prepare students to get ready for the belt promotion.” On a
similar note, Instructor 1 asserted, “The final week, the final month [not audible] is [devoted to]
sparring techniques for white belts up to orange belt; green belts and above would be sparring,
more sparring” to “help them . . . build their confidence, so they are not afraid of it.” As a result,
the interviews from the TKD instructors demonstrated their knowledge of the procedures of belt
promotion as a holistic and three-component process comprising of specific preparation
characteristics and techniques.
Routine training. The results revealed that implementing routine aspects of the regular
training classes should be the foundation of each training session; this assumption derived from
the responses of five interviewees. In this context, the complimentary themes involved specific
elements of each training session, as well as the significance of techniques’ repetition. For
example, Instructor 5 noted that “Every training session has warming-up, the main part of the
training focused on some Tae Kwon Do technique and cooling-down exercises.” Similar
thoughts were expressed by Instructor 6, who stated, “Each training class starts with a salutation
between the instructor and the students. Warming up goes next, and often well-performing
students held this part of the training. The same about cool-down exercises after the main
training.” These responses showed the instructors’ view of specific procedures to be integral
parts of every training session.
On a similar note, Instructor 7 acknowledged building the instruction on the grounds of
these activities as a consistent practice capable to “develop student discipline, respect, self-
confidence and committed attitude to training.” Instructor 7 also noted that “More sensitivity is
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needed [for children of divorce],” for instance, one may “ask them to perform warming-up or
cool-down exercises in front of the class to make them more engaged and confident.”
Additionally, Instructor 8 emphasized that regular and “continuous repetition of forms and
patterns” help “to make sure the students master them with the necessary speed, accuracy, and
strength to pass the belt test.” The routine techniques and procedures, in combination with
following procedures in a specific order for belt preparation, allow the development of students’
mastery of techniques as expected by the belt-related requirements. Thus, procedural knowledge
on the establishment of routine training experiences for TKD students appeared a recurring
theme for understanding how TKD instructors plan and design the instruction for meeting their
stakeholder goal.
One-on-one strategies. The interviews showed that the majority of the research
participants applied one-on-one strategies for specific training purposes in the scope of belt
promotion training and preparation. To illustrate, Instructor 1 noted that, “Generally for the belt,
there’s one instructor to go teach each belt.” Apart from one-on-one instruction by the trainer,
this broad theme comprised of several thematic patterns, including teaching performed by a
higher-level student or those representing diverse student groups as a form of individualized
instruction. In particular, Instructor 2 described this technique of how individual teaching is
organized by specifying,
[I] have a couple of black belts or someone of higher ranking, go up and do it beforehand,
so that the new belts that are learning the new form are able to first visualize it, and kind
of slightly remember what they’re supposed to be learning. A black belt for a higher-
ranking belt have one on one helping so that they have hope, because this will help to
compensate their lack of ability to have a consistent schedule.
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In the same way, the interviewees reported the usefulness of these procedures for
ensuring student progression in both mastering the techniques and becoming successful learners
in general. Specifically, Instructor 8 showed that such an approach is useful to encourage
students and motivate them:
I arrange small group trainings with some of the students leading the training process
[such as] high-performers, low-performers, shy students, or children of divorce. The
assigned responsibility enables them to be self-motivated and perform very well in these
roles. During warming up or ask students with higher belt rank to train less successful
students one-on-one.
Instructor 8 explained that “face-to-face private conversations with children of divorce are
helpful to better understand the needs of children of divorce and apply them at distinct stages of
the training,” In this regard, some instructors also stressed out an opportunity. Instructor 1 said
they needed “a more specific teaching way to accommodate their needs,” a way to “differentiate
their teaching styles so it better suits the students,” and provide “more help, more
encouragement, more, just more of … specific help towards their individual flaws.” Instructor 2
added that differentiation could be achieved by developing “individualized training, specifically
for the K through 12.” To summarize, the interview results revealed that one-on-one strategies
was a recurring theme in demonstrating instructors’ views on the teaching process of the
preparation of the students for belt promotion.
Individualized instruction. In the same way, several subthemes emerged in the scope of
knowledge influences explicating the need for individualized or differentiated training for
children of divorce specifically suited to the needs of children of divorce. For example, Instructor
2 specified that their improper attendance could be the reason to “have a separate class,
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additional class actually, for the student group in order for them to get ready for the belt
promotion.” The statement was also supported by Instructor 7, who emphasized that they “need
more training sessions to get ready because they miss classes often than other student groups.”
Instructor 8 similarly highlighted the importance of individualizing such classes because of the
students’ “lack of emotional control” as a factor “to adjust the training process, such as making
sure they are calm, focused, attentive.” Thus, the interviews revealed the likelihood of the
specific aspects enticing the TKD instructors to differentiate the instruction for children of
divorce, such as referring for help in training by higher-level students.
Flexible scheduling. The participants’ responses also showed the instructors’ emphasis on
flexible training for K-12 students who are the children of divorce, especially in light of their
attendance issues, as another implication of differentiated or individualized instruction. In
particular, Instructor 1 explained that for “…students with divorced parents, the regiment is …
similar but different in a way that they have more time and more flexibility with their schedule in
order to it’s not limited to the month to two months or three months by giving them more help
when needed, more time when needed, and more instructions if needed.” Sometimes the students
are offered an opportunity to train with another class of their instructor with no additional cost
incurred. The instructor can assign one-on-one training with high-performing students in such
cases (Instructor 1; Instructor 2; Instructor 3). By the same token, Instructor 3 remarked that
instructors’ task is to “make sure they attend their regular class schedule.” The problem is that in
case their class attendance is inconsistent, they face the lack of practice and lack of readiness to
apply for the belt promotion (Instructor 3; Instructor 7). Hence, flexible training schedules were
determined as a procedural solution for enhancing the preparation of children of divorce for the
belt promotion tests.
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Procedural knowledge: Strategies for student attentional and behavioral control. The
research participants’ answers to some interview questions demonstrated that to maintain student
behavioral and attentional control, the TKD instructors used both typical and distinct procedures.
Multi-modal maintenance of discipline. To a great extent, referring to one’s voice
commands, while ensuring a positive tone and intonation, was specified as the key strategy
utilized by all eight respondents to make sure the students are well-behaved. All the interviewees
prioritized the fluctuation of voice tone and volume as the main aspect of attentional control for
the students and a typical theme in this context. Instructor 1 stated that, “… a loud and clear
voice allows students to hear clearly the instructions perfectly, if possible, in a way that they
won't be confused and forced.” Instructor 2 also specified that even though he used the similar
approach, his control changes for children of divorce: “I would not always have the higher voice
in them, because I feel as if it seems like I’m yelling at them, then they’ll be less receptive
toward the teaching.” In this respect, Instructor 8 noted several procedural hints:
[The] instructor’s voice should be both calm and assertive so that students would be able
to hear what is required from them or what the issue is. My voice does not sound too loud
or irritated as I don’t want to see they shudder with fear. By contrast, our school is like
home, so I wish to sound supporting and encouraging while gaining their attention.
As a result, the interviews demonstrated that the instructors apply their voice and intonation not
only to manage student behavior but also maintain a positive learning environment. These results
showed the strategy of developing a positive atmosphere for student management appeared as a
recurring theme within different KMO contexts, which is exemplified further in the chapter.
In this regard, four instructors also specified their perception that the Tae Kwon Do
school aims to build a positive and facilitating atmosphere to enable the students to feel like
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home and behave well. To provide an example, Instructor 7 described this attitude by pinpointing
that the instructor is “ready to talk to them and listen to their concerns in order to make sure we
cooperate and have mutually beneficial results along with their conduct during the classes.” In
this context, Instructor 6 also noted that even “visual contact is enough to entice the student to
understand that they should behave better.” Thus, the interviews revealed the instructors’ efforts
to ensure student classroom conduct through a combination of the Tae Kwon Do principles and
respective family attitudes to the students.
Students as role models. To make sure that students properly behave in class, the
instructors informed about using such a technique as assigning specific class duties and
responsibilities, similar to those of an instructor, to K-12 students who are children of divorce
when they lose focus or are inattentive. For instance, Instructor 3 noted that he “asked the student
group to come and demonstrate in the class to make sure they’re understanding, regarding their
knowledge” and “… they really have to focus in order to teach the younger students to have
better responsibilities” when performing instructor’s role. A second instance is when Instructor 4
reported that he had applied this technique to children of divorce group when these students
“come up and teach the lesson, depending on the belt level, and that will increase their control
because they’re actually standing in front of the large class and handling the class.” Although
only two instructors emphasized the above strategy, they referred to the approach focused on in-
class behavior as a recurring theme during the interviews. Moreover, this subtheme in the scope
of attentional control strategies once again showed the instructor’s reliance on the empowerment
of high-performing students as an option related not only to individualized or flexible training
but also for keeping student attention. However, this theme was distinct as it appeared in the
responses of two interviewees only.
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Misbehavior strategies. In case students misbehave in the class, the six out of eight
interviewees reported the likelihood of imposing disciplinary actions on them, which are mostly
manifested in an additional amount of exercising. For instance, Instructor 1 stated, “Punishing
their misbehavior may not be the right course of action, but there are times when disciplinary
action must be needed.” Despite that Instructor 3 also confirmed that he applies this approach, he
similarly acknowledged the risks related to it:
Students who are not completing their technique or are disengaging or not following the
rules do get punishment; for instance, they have to do push-ups or frog jumps, or if they
attend class late. The role applies the same for everybody [while] making fun of the
student group, or talking about it, which hurt them from inside; if the situation doesn’t
change, then we really call them in the office and speak to them privately.
To sum up, misbehavior may entail the punishment procedures and techniques for students as a
typical theme in the scope of six out of eight interviews.
Positive support. In addition, while the pattern of positive support was not representative
of the entire sample as a wide-scope theme, six interviewees showed it positioning the subtheme
as typical. As an example, the instructors specified a need to (a) have “more encouraging… more
a tone that is, that is more tailored to their needs” (Instructor 1); (b) “try to be calm and
supportive at the same time” (Instructor 7); (c) “work with them side by side; have an older
student or black-belt leader helping them in a positive and happy way [so that] they can feel that
they’re involved, which that can trigger their attention” (Instructor 4); and (d) “be even more
positive and encouraging, enabling them to think that they are supported and feel like family”
(Instructor 5). Therefore, maintaining a positive attitude and learning atmosphere seems
recognized in this context. This fact enables suggesting instructors’ knowledge on how to
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mitigate negative emotions of children of divorce due to their challenging family background
and minimize potential disruptors or deficiencies in their capability to learn and train similarly to
peers from intact families. Moreover, the involvement of older or higher-level students is a
repeated theme.
At the same time, the interviewed research participants showed the role of the Tae Kwon
Do philosophy as a factor for classroom management and self-management as a typical theme
based on six out of eight interviews. For example, the instructors acknowledged that the martial
arts school is “the house of discipline” (Instructor 2) or that “training environment is based on
discipline, so student behavior is controlled by students themselves as they train” (Instructor 5).
Hence, the interviews revealed that the TKD instructors tend to sufficiently rely on the Tae
Kwon Do as the disciplined environment capable of ensuring proper student conduct while also
ensuring positive support in the learning.
One-on-one conversations. The respondents referred to one-on-one conversations as a
way to establish proper behavior among students and extension of positive support theme. Four
instructors specified the significance of having one-on-one communication with children of
divorce who tend to misbehave in the class. According to Instructor 1, the trainer can “speak to
them privately, help them through their needs, ask them what’s going on, and then see if there’s
any way we can help them rather than straight punishment.” In this context, some interviewed
participants highlighted the need to demonstrate the instructor’s positive attitude. For example,
Instructor 6 described the importance of having “a positive and calm tone, without any negative
notes, even more, positive and encouraging to behave well in order to gain independence and
confidence in training and make sure they become proficient athletes and good personalities.”
Likewise, Instructor 8 emphasized the need for being both calm and positive, especially for
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children of divorce, as they “may look exhausted, frustrated, demotivated or even aggressive”
while “private face-to-face talks often help as we generally promote openness in
communication.”
An additional subtheme of parental engagement was identified as related to the larger
theme of positive support. Specifically, the interviewee asserted that it is necessary to engage
parents, if the problem of misbehavior combined with inattention is too detrimental, while all the
steps should be performed “in a positive manner as a mutual strategy to assist one another in a
collaborative manner” (Instructor 8). Therefore, the instructors’ responses also showed the need
for staying positive when managing the class behavior that seemed another emphasis on
maintaining a positive learning environment in this way.
Summary. The findings with relation to research question one focused on TKD
instructors’ knowledge regarding achieving the organizational goal demonstrated rather typical
procedural knowledge among participants in terms of both distinct stages of training and student
behavioral and attentional control. These two major themes, based on the KMO conceptual
framework, were clearly identified in the interviews. However, the obtained empirical findings
enabled identifying a number of complementary themes, with varying degrees of importance
between the representatives of the studied stakeholder groups. With regard to the instructors’
procedural knowledge concerned with distinct stages of training, the majority of interviewees
emphasized the influential role of instructors’ awareness of how to prepare students per belt
preparation training and on a regular basis, including procedures of higher-level student
engagement as one of the most frequent instruction strategies. As for behavioral and attentional
control, instructors showed the significance of the themes of one-on-one methods, engaging
high-performing, problem students or instructors themselves, as well as multi-modal resources
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for student discipline and attention maintenance in line with establishing positive learning
environment as the key strengths identified in the study. Overall, the insight offered by TKD
instructors allowed expanding the scope of themes within the two major themes identified for the
knowledge influences in the KMO conceptual framework based on the previous literature.
Research Question Two (Stakeholder Motivation)
What is the instructor’s motivation related to achieving the organizational goal of
ensuring that by May 2020, all K-12 students who are children of divorce enrolled in TKD will
pass their three-month belt promotion at TKD and receive mindfulness-based support for
improved learning?
Motivation results and findings. Rueda (2011) specified that people are likely to
formulate meanings and beliefs from their perception of self and environment while these
attitudes drive their goal-oriented behaviors, namely, motivate them to attain the goals and
objectives. Accordingly, the motivational aspirations are intrinsically or extrinsically instigated
and sustained while stakeholders keep these influences in mind when making instructional
decisions (Rueda, 2011). To illustrate, the data analyzed in the context of this research project
showed the motivational influences, which act upon the TKD instructors in performing their
practical duties and responsibilities when pursuing their stakeholder goals. The three-primary
data-driven themes involved utility value, attributions, and self-efficacy. These code patterns
enabled understanding the specific motivational drivers capable of enhancing TKD instructors’
committed support for children of divorce in terms of their preparation for the belt promotion
test, as stated in the stakeholder goal.
Apart from the major themes with reference to the KMO framework, the inquiry allowed
detection of the themes of complementary character enabling a more in-depth understanding of
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motivational factors among the TKD instructors in pursuit of their stakeholder goal. In the scope
of the broad theme of utility value, the researcher identified the following subthemes: (a) peer
support; (b) Tae Kwon Do based value system, and (c) needs of children of divorce. In terms of
the instructors’ self-efficacy as a notable theme derived from the scholarly literature on the topic,
such subthemes emerged as (a) considering the instructor as a role model; and (b) applying
situational leadership styles and concepts. Furthermore, the findings revealed the significance of
attributions as motivational influences in the KMO conceptual framework, with a number of
important subthemes related to the motivational attributions, including (a) instructor-induced
positive attitude/ environment; (b) Tae Kwon Do school as a family, and (c) parental attitude as a
motivational factor.
The results of the data analysis linked to motivation influences demonstrated the
following themes as strengths of TKD instructors in accomplishing their stakeholder goal: (a)
positioning Tae Kwon Do values as both utility value and attribution for student motivation; (b)
recognizing the role of instructor as a role model through the lens of self-efficacy as well as
developing positive learning environment with relation to attributions; and (c) referring to peer
support as a valuable motivation factor. However, two clear gaps were determined, including: (a)
lack of applying situational leadership – a subtheme derived from the responses of two out of
eight interviewees (self-efficacy as a theme); and (b) parental attitude as a motivational factor as
a subtheme in the context of both utility value (in relation to needs of children of divorce) as well
as attributions. The findings with regard to question two are further discussed in more detail.
Utility value. The empirical data on utility values demonstrated how an understanding of
the usefulness of taking action encourages and motivates TKD instructors to train K-12 students
who are children of divorce with utmost eagerness and attention.
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Peer support. Four interviewed instructors out of eight participants asserted the value of
peer support in enhancing the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation of the students as an input into
committed training among students who are the children of divorce. This theme was typical for
the sample. Instructor 1 noted that he chooses to “put them into one-on-one teaching with each
instructor helping one student or one black belt helping a group of lower belt colors” and
positioned this strategy as a way to evoke students’ engaged and dedicated training practice.
Instructor 5 similarly stated that “peer support from students with higher belts is a good option
… to meet their individual needs,” including lack of confident practice or willingness to train
hard, among others. Finally, Instructor 7 acknowledged the peer support value for developing
positive learning values and willingness for collaborative training in both the short and long run.
The participant stated that she would “assign peer students with higher belt ranks to train them
more and also encourage them with positive feedback and being open for communication”
(Instructor 7). As a result, the qualitative data explains that TKD instructors refer to peer support
strategies as a way to develop value-adding experiences for the learners to motivate them for
engaged training and outcomes.
Tae Kwon Do-based value system. The participants also explained utilizing the values of
the Tae Kwon Do philosophy for encouraging willing and dedicated training among students as
well as obtaining positive belt promotion outcomes in the scope of the stakeholder goal. Because
the theme was evident in five out of eight responses, it was defined as a typical one, with the
most convincing explanation from Instructor 7 used for illustration in the section. For instance,
the utility values assigned to this value system involved the claim it “aims at the development of
a person’s strengths and potential, it’s basically developed on every person’s individuality”
(Instructor 7). The interviewee asserted that the instructor has to adapt teaching because “not
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every student is able to understand the Tae Kwon Do philosophy or own strengths at hand … and
make the Tae Kwon Do principles the part of their lifestyle” (Instructor 7). Instructor 7 also
enlisted a number of challenges encountered by children of divorce and the necessity for
recognizing even more value from good training practices in future, such as availability of
“mindfulness-based training” to enhance student potential, including “develop their attention, the
capability to stay focused on the task in a calm way.” In this respect, the Tae Kwon Do values
were recognized as sufficient motivational influences among the research sample. Additionally,
this theme seems to be correlated with the procedural knowledge subtheme concerning
perceiving the Tae Kwon Do philosophy as the factor for making students disciplined as well as
facilitating the development of a positive and supportive learning environment, as specified in
discussion and summary of the findings for research question one.
Needs of children of divorce. Two interviewees specifically emphasized the needs of the
target student group as the utility value to be regarded for motivational purposes positioning the
theme as a distinct pattern. To illustrate, the instructors stated that children of divorce “need
mostly psychological and emotional support, positive encouragement to enable them to believe
in their strength and success” (Instructor 6) while it is also “hard for them not only attend classes
but also stay focused on instructor’s tasks, requests or just practice the techniques properly”
(Instructor 8). On these grounds, the respondents proposed to “give them positive feedback
encouraging for self-improvement,” “ask to perform techniques independently while being
instructors for themselves, like say aloud every phrase of the technique and performing that
phase afterward so that they could master them autonomously” (Instructor 8). Therefore, the
findings seem to align with the addressed needs as the utility values for stakeholders striving to
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accomplish the set goal. However, the fact that only two instructors specified the theme still
positions it as a gap.
Self-efficacy. The results revealed the TKD instructors’ capability to reach the set
outcomes on the grounds of their beliefs as well as exert their power and positive influence on
others.
Instructor as a role model. All instructors interviewed during the inquiry highlighted
their emphasis on being positive role models for their students as an explicit manifestation of
their self-efficacy for preparing students for belt promotion tests and a typical theme in the
responses. In particular, Instructor 1 stated that “I set myself as a role model: I don't do things
that I [think] that they shouldn’t do, I do things that they should do setting an idea that they
should follow such things as honesty, self-control, gratitude, courtesy, humility. … instill in my
students;” “try to be a brother to students and help them out.” Additionally, some instructors
pointed out the impact of the role-modeling on student learning outcomes, such as an opportunity
to (a) “build the respect regarding the interpersonal relationships with our students” (Instructor
2), (b) “not only show them that these principles work but also support them to develop their
own potential while pursuing the martial arts goals, strength to believe in themselves which they
lack due to the family separation” (Instructor 6), and (c) “show that the principles we instill in
students really work” (Instructor 7). In this respect, Instructor 2 referred to the Founder’s model
of the proper behavior as an equation: “literally use a math equation like two plus two equals
four” as one “always tries to do what is right and do the right things.”
Similarly, to utility value as motivation, some instructors acknowledged their awareness
of student needs and addressing them as a way to maintain their self-efficacy as trainers. To
provide an example, Instructor 4 specified considering student’s perspective, listening to them,
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trying to find ways to make them feel better working together collaboratively, including
interactions in the class, with the parents and the other instructors to make sure “we’re there for
them.” Hence, role-modeling reveals the likely drivers of self-efficacy among the TKD
instructors as motivation influences in their accomplishment of the stakeholder goal.
Situational leadership styles. Apart from role models, the interview results showed the
significance of the situational leadership for being flexible in approaching the students
individually and motivating them for the successful attainment of the stakeholder goal.
Nevertheless, only two out of eight interviewees clearly showed this distinct theme as a notable
driving force for their approaching student motivation in children of divorce. For instance,
Instructor 8 noted that “there can’t be a one-size-fits-all approach for any situation” and the
instructor should be “a facilitator and [implement] respective leadership style because students
need individualized support to progress as Tae Kwon Do athletes and personalities in spite of the
life circumstances they face.” On a similar note, Instructor 7 was specific in defining the
particular circumstances for differentiated leadership:
When they look upset or discouraged, I can facilitate them through leadership, for
instance, assign peers to help them if some techniques appear challenging to manage for
them or assign them as role models for other student groups encouraging them to be more
enthusiastic in training being in charge of peer training …if misbehave, I may apply
authoritative leadership by directing their proper conduct in the class, but always in a
positive manner, in a calm voice and tone, with encouragement for a positive change
rather than punishment.
Accordingly, it looks like the interviews showed the instructor’s capability to be a flexible leader
with differentiated leadership styles and successful instructor in light of reaching the set
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stakeholder goal. At the same time, given that the theme was not typical for the sample as a
whole, it seems reasonable to assert that this pattern demonstrates a gap in the instructors’
perception of the significance of differentiated leadership styles for motivating their students for
successful learning and belt promotion.
Attributions. While the analyzed primary data enabled to consider that the TKD
instructors are likely to develop specific perceptions of their own or other’s behaviors, the
findings also showed that such attributions guide their behavior when engaging K-12 students for
committed preparation for the belt promotion tests, especially children of divorce.
Instructor-induced positive attitude/ environment. The results clearly described the
typical theme of positive attitudes to learning enhanced by instructors as a notable way to
motivate the students. As Instructor 1 noted, they can apply such phrases as “don’t give up” or
“don’t be late,” and Instructor 8 exemplified the claim with such a phrase as ‘Great work, but
please try to do it in a more flexible way/ or be more focused on power / accuracy.’ At the same
time, Instructor 2 and Instructor 6 asserted the importance of “giving them consistent positive
reinforcement … helping them to understand that being positive or helping others is a very
important factor here.” In addition, Instructor 8 outlined the areas of influence of these
attributions as the key motivating factors, such as “encourage students never give up, try more,
work more, and reach success as a result,” emphasize that the indomitable spirit is the core of
Tae Kwon Do, so, striving for success is equally important in martial arts and daily life.”
Instructor 7 also explained the role of the Tae Kwon Do family:
Try to facilitate student learning through showing real-life examples of success in the
martial arts and my own experiences as well as giving positive feedback to students and
communicating in a positive way in general. Don’t say something like ‘Your skills are
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awful’ or ‘You don’t get it right’ but say ‘I see you’re trying so hard and that’s great.’
‘Let me show you some helpful techniques to do even better’ or something like that.
Therefore, such findings enable suggesting that the TKD instructors aim to develop a positive
learning environment for students in light of their positive attitudes.
Tae Kwon Do school as a family. The results of all the interviews enabled deriving an
attribution-related theme of positioning the martial school in question as a family-like
environment as a factor to enable developing positive attributions for students when related to
the school and training here. According to Instructor 1, “This place is a family we get, we work
together as a group … we all win together; we’re going to get better together; as there is three
months the promotional belt test, we’re all going to pass together.” Again, positioning the Tae
Kwon Do school as a family is another distinct feature of instructional motivation, including
“come there to have a place where they feel like we’re family besides their household”
(Instructor 4), or “they feel as if they’re not only being supported by one parent, but they’re also
being supported by their second family, which is the TKD School” (Instructor 2). Thus, the TKD
instructors once again showed the need for considering the Tae Kwon Do based value system
through the lens of motivational values. In this regard, the findings showed the significance of
the family metaphor with relation to the Tae Kwon Do philosophy not only in terms of
instructors’ procedural knowledge but also motivational influences.
Parental attitude. Two instructors from the research sample asserted that they aspire to
engage parents in the student learning environment and experience. Due to the fact that only two
instructors mentioned this distinct subtheme, it can be regarded as an evident motivation-related
gap in TKD instructors’ practice. To illustrate, Instructor 2 said that he “wants them to feel as if
they are being supported by both their parents. On the day of their belt promotion, we do want
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them both of their parents to be present so that they can see them, and they can also have a better
promotion.” Additionally, instructor 4 provided several hints for proper student-instructor
communication: for instance, “‘your parents will be very happy when they see you at your test
when you pass a test” or “not only that you will be happy that your parents will see that you pass
the belt well promotion and see the happiness in your face will make them feel very happy”
(Instructor 4). At the same time, some responses showed the notable place of the procedural/
training consistency (Instructor 1), class attendance (Instructor 4), and Tae Kwon Do values as
motivators for consistent and committed learning (Instructor 7) as themes derived from the
interviews. Hence, attributes framed by TKD instructors are positioned to address the student
learning needs while motivating them for self-growth and development.
Summary
The findings with regard to the TKD instructors’ motivation aimed at accomplishing their
stakeholder goal showed three explicit major themes, such as utility value through differentiated
instruction, referring to attributions for student engagement and motivation, as well as utilizing
instructors’ self-efficacy. Moreover, complementary themes were inferred from the interview
results for each major theme. For the motivational influences through the lens of utility value, the
inquiry allowed identifying such subthemes as peer support, Tae Kwon Do based value system,
and needs of children of divorce. The major theme of instructors’ self-efficacy was supplemented
with subthemes of positioning instructor as a role model and referring to situational leadership,
though with the latter being recognized by only two instructors in the sample. The major theme
of attributions was supplemented with the set of additional themes: (a) instructor-induced
positive attitude/ environment; (b) Tae Kwon Do school as a family as explicit strengths of the
findings; and (c) parental attitude as a motivational factor that appeared overlooked by the
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greater part of TKD instructors, thus, being a gap in the findings. At the same time, it is critical
to note that the themes of Tae Kwon Do based values, including mindfulness as the cornerstone,
along with a positive environment as well as perceiving the Tae Kwon Do school as a family
appeared recurring within the context of both instructors’ procedural knowledge and
motivational influences.
Research Question Three (Interaction between Organizational Culture and Context)
What is the interaction between organizational culture and context to instructor
knowledge and motivation?
Organizational results and findings. The organizational influences, which can impact
stakeholders’ behavior when accomplishing the stakeholder and organizational goals, can
involve protocols, procedures, and policies put in place to encourage the stakeholder's urge to
pursue these goals effectively (Clark & Estes, 2008; Schneider et al., 1996). In the current
research context, the researcher integrated several questions to the interviewees in order to
identify and understand the organizational influences, which entice the TKD instructors to
facilitate the attainment of the stakeholder goal, or lack thereof. The entire research sample
clearly replied to these questions, with particular attention paid to the room for improvement to
ensure that the martial arts school is even better positioned in making the learning environment
for children of divorce even more supportive, trustworthy, and collaborative.
The interview results helped in determining the main organizational influences which
appeared impactful in framing the instructors’ behaviors in their interactions with the other
stakeholders, such as children of divorce and their parents. Specifically, the emerging themes
revolved around two groups of main themes
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• cultural settings: (a) knowledge sharing (subthemes of regular meetings for
knowledge sharing and exchange of ideas for improved instruction); (b) supportive
work environment (subthemes of Tae Kwon Do school as a family, both parents’
engagement, addressing transportation issues, psychological support, and student
training schedule modifications); and (c) acceptance of and willingness to
differentiate instruction (subthemes of communication-induced acceptance of
differentiation and student’s strengths-based encouragement);
• cultural models: (a) ample non-instruction time (subthemes of well-organized
schedule and openness to collaboration), along with (b) trust and collaboration
between stakeholders (subthemes of the role of the founder, instructor-parent
collaboration, and Tae Kwon Do philosophy as a facilitator for student success).
Although the interview results reported the positive attitudes of the TKD instructions to the
majority of the organizational influences, the research participants also informed about a number
of improvements to be made to ensure that TKD is better positioned in reaching the set goals for
children of divorce. These suggestions from the interviewees involved the specific gaps in this
dimension, for instance, the need for finding partners for student transportation and collaborating
with parents through the mediation of psychologists.
The results of the study in relation to question three showed that the majority of the
themes revealed the organizational culture in TKD as strength, to a great extent. On the one
hand, both themes and subthemes with regard to the culture of trust and collaboration and ample
non-instruction time appeared well-supported by all TKD instructors’ responses, along with the
value of Tae Kwon Do philosophy for developing the supportive environment. On the other
hand, the gaps were identified in terms of wide-scope parent engagement and support as well as
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a rather vague nature of acceptance and willingness to differentiate instruction for children of
divorce, including lack of positive feedback application as one of the methods of differentiation.
This is regardless of the fact that emphasis on awareness of and need for differentiated and
individualized instruction for children of divorce was thoroughly traceable in the interview
results with relation to instructors’ KMO influences as a whole. The findings are further
discussed in detail.
Cultural models: Culture of trust and collaboration. The results of the interviews
clearly showed the theme of culture of trust and collaboration within TKD. At the same time, the
complementary themes included acknowledgment of the role of the founder, value of instructor-
parent collaboration, facilitating the role of the Tae Kwon Do philosophy, as well as students’
strength-based encouragement, as specified further.
The role of the founder. All the interviewees reported that the Founder of the martial arts
school, the Grandmaster, has played a notable role in establishing the culture of trust and
collaboration in the organization as a typical theme in the responses. For example, he “makes it a
duty and foster a sense of a second family here, makes the parents and instructors very open to
talking to each other, foster a strong mindset or a positive mindset” (Instructor 2), “is the main
association with our school … always available for reach for both students and parents”
(Instructor 5), and “has united us all in developing both transparent and accountable
relationships” (Instructor 8). Hence, the figure of the founder is not only associated with the
school but also with the culture of trust and collaboration in it.
Instructor-parent collaboration. Based on the responses from the research participants,
the interviewees showed their collaboration with parents as input in enhancement of the student
when pursuing the stakeholder goal. Specifically, Instructor 6 noted their willingness to
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“promote resilience in their hearts and minds through cultivating the tenets of the taekwondo
philosophy, open for private communication with both parents and children… to maintain even
more respect and trust with them and individualize our instruction” and “maintain trust and
collaboration with them because they are mostly open for discussions and actions.” Instructor 8
confirmed these statements as well. While Instructor 7 also asserted the significance of
communication, she also claimed that “they come and ask how they are doing, what parents can
do to help them” and instructors are “positively oriented and never criticize the students in front
of their parents but always remain positive in discussing their achievements or failures.” Thus,
the interviewees showed that they paid attention to facilitating instructor-parent collaboration by
means of communication and openness.
Tae Kwon Do philosophy as a facilitator for student success. The entire research sample
specified the significance of the Tae Kwon Do philosophy as a driver for developing the culture
of trust and collaboration. To illustrate, Instructor 5 stated the need to “be supportive and
encouraging, offer positive guidelines and support to be able to strengthen their mindset and
spiritual beliefs, focus on both body and mind development of the students,” and nurturing a
belief that “the principles of the martial arts are applicable to all the spheres of life.” In addition,
Instructor 1 noted that the organization helps “the students and parents work together with one
another.” Likewise, Instructor 2 asserted the role of the martial arts philosophy as the
organization “tries to accommodate the instructors’ needs also not only all the students here and
not only this group of children of divorce.” Therefore, the instructors identified the Tae Kwon
Do philosophy as a way to strengthen stakeholder collaboration for reaching the stakeholder
goal.
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Cultural model: Ample non-instruction time. The results of the interviews showed that
the instructors considered their non-instruction time as enough for having an opportunity for
collaborating with other stakeholders in terms of meeting their stakeholder goal of preparing
students who are children of divorce to passing their belt promotion tests.
Well-organized schedule. All respondents stated the ample time provided by the
organization beyond the periods of instruction, with seven of the interviewees pointing to the
significance of their well-organized schedules and having sufficient breaks between the classes.
For instance, Instructor 1 stated,
At the beginning and end of every class, there is a time when instructors and parents meet
and talk. They can discuss the schedules of the day, what had happened during the day,
how the kids are doing … we can talk, provide support, ask the parents what else we can
do to help the kids, especially those of the divorce, we especially want to speak with their
parents to help: How can we better help their kids.
In this context, Instructor 8 also explained that non-instruction time was enough for
strengthening collaboration as the stakeholders “communicate, share some concerns or ideas”
and “discuss the issues they find important in a more wide-scope manner” and “discover
important information to update my instruction and engage parents more or assist children in
handling the challenges they face.” As a result, the interviewees showed that instructors could
use their non-instruction time with the benefit of improving communication and collaboration
when pursuing their stakeholder goal.
Openness to collaboration. Two interviewed TKD instructors specifically highlighted
their openness to collaboration. For example, Instructor 3 showed their willingness for “making
them feel that how being at TKD can make them feel better not only in their mind, but physically
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better” while defining the school as “a place where they feel home, they shouldn't be afraid of
coming here, even though it's a disciplined environment, but they feel like when they come here
like they relieve stress.” As a consequence, these efforts “helped their attention span, their focus,
and help them relieve their stress,” as noted by Instructor 4. Therefore, the interview results
revealed the instructors’ openness to collaborate and further benefit children of divorce in
enhancing their learning capacities.
Cultural setting: Knowledge sharing. The interviewed research participants stated that
the organization offers them different opportunities for exchange of ideas and experiences with
peer colleagues as well as other stakeholders, such as parents.
Regular meetings for knowledge sharing. Six out of eight respondents explained the
regular meetings with colleagues at school as favorable for the exchange of experiences, ideas
and strategies to handle the challenges related to the performance of K-12 students who are the
children of divorce. In this context, Instructor 1 acknowledged an opportunity to “speak about
how we can improve, how we can make the environment better, how we can help the
environment for students have children or divorce, asked them how to help their students better
and apply that into their lessons and teachings to help the kid.” Likewise, the interviewees
specified the value to be possibly derived from diverse instructors’ backgrounds, finding out
more about each child’s needs, having a chance to fill in the gaps of lack of understanding
(Instructor 2) or “learning new things, not only from the instructor teams but from the students”
(Instructor 3). To sum up, the interviewees showed the value-adding opportunity gained from the
regular sharing knowledge with stakeholders.
Exchange of ideas for improved instruction. Moreover, the interview results showed that
the practice of knowledge sharing appeared useful due to the opportunity for improved
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instruction. Specifically, Instructor 7 explained this perspective with reference to the colleagues’
efforts to provide the evidence-based literature rationale to the problems and solutions for
learning challenges of children of divorce along with making the work environment more
holistic and supportive. The interviewee also emphasized the role of knowledge sharing for
managing such students in class to be “helpful for them rather than make the divorce impact even
tougher,” learning “to be softer in communication and feedback, as well as find more and more
encouraging strategies to motivate them and make them feel like with family in here” (Instructor
7). Additionally, some interview responses showed the value of being “able to update instruction
and its effectiveness, understand the complexity of their problems due to parents’ divorce,” such
as “emotional burden, anxiety, and lack of will to study,” while being encouraged to review own
teaching and reflect on these children’s needs, such as “staying always positive and being open
for communication with them” (Instructor 7). Finally, instructors specified that they “can
monitor for problems in class when reflecting on colleague’s experiences” and “monitor the
classes and identified the similar issues” (Instructor 5). Thus, the interview results demonstrated
that the organizational environment seems encouraging the instructors as a stakeholder group
offering them opportunities to upgrade their instruction in light of knowledge sharing.
Cultural setting: Supportive work environment. Although the majority of participants of
the inquiry defined their work environment as supportive, the interviewees also outlined and
justified a number of potential improvements to enable its more comprehensive approach to
eliminate the learning challenges for K-12 students, who are children of divorce and assisting the
trainers in reaching the stakeholder goal.
Tae Kwon Do school as a family. Family metaphor is a recurring theme in the scope of
the interview results that were identified with regard to KMO influences, with a clear emphasis
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on positive and facilitating support for student learning. In particular, all the respondents
specified the role of Tae Kwon Do school as an extended family that is likely to both unite and
engage key stakeholders’ for enhancing the learning capacity of children of divorce so that they
would obtain the support they may be lacking at home. To provide an example, Instructor 6
asserted the value of such endeavor in light of instructors’ achieving the stakeholder goal,
including the “need to encourage their parents to become the more integral part of our school
family so that the children wouldn’t feel so much ‘divorced’ from their own families.”
Specifically, the instructor explained the parents’ duty to visit children’s training, something like
family training, emphasized “being positive and don’t criticizing their children in the process to
show how well they practice and how dedicated they are” (Instructor 6). Instructor 4
acknowledged the family-like duty to “provide the support of learning environment” and “as
much help as we can.” In this way, the instructors also specified the likelihood to “build their
character, build their confidence, make them happy, give them joy . . . to pass their promotional
test every three months” (Instructor 1) and “have a higher chance of passing the belt promotion”
overall (Instructor 2). Accordingly, with this typical theme, the instructors seem to assert the
value of Tae Kwon Do's environment for mitigating deficiencies and negative factors that
impede the learning process and outcomes for children of divorce in relation to their family
situation. To summarize, the interviews positioned the TKD learning environment as a family
atmosphere for students’ successful learning and development.
Wider-scope parental support. The instructors also paid sufficient attention to specific
factors with regard to family background as possible negative influences on successful belt
promotion for children of divorce to be mitigated through the organizational and particularly
instructors’ input. In this context, the distinct theme of both parents’ engagement was inferred
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from the responses of three research participants. For example, Instructor 2 stated the need to
“encourage both parents to be present not only during their belt promotion day but also during
just regular practice” as a way to make them “feel more motivated to try harder” as well as “a
more positive environment for them to study or just to try better or try harder in class.” By the
same token, Instructor 5 found this strategy favorable for “showing their support,” enhancing and
adding value to the “relationships between our school, students, and parents.” These motivation-
related themes seem to resonate with the knowledge-based themes of building positive support as
well as developing a family-like school environment for K-12 students who are children of
divorce, showing the interrelated role of KMO influences. Thus, the TKD instructors stated the
importance of parental engagement as an opportunity to make the environment at TKD more
supportive of children of divorce.
Likewise, an additional implication of wider-scope parental engagement related to
addressing transportation issues; instructors’ awareness of the potential financial burden for
parents of divorced children could influence their progress in preparing for belt promotion. The
responses from three instructors enabled to identify the financial challenges for children of
divorce as both problem and venue for improvement to make the learning environment even
more supportive at school. Specifically, Instructor 1 suggested the need to “create a
transportation so that students, parents who are unable to come, were able to come” by means of
finding the financial sponsors and those who are willing to help the parents accommodate their
needs and improve students’ training attendance. Therefore, the instructors identified the way to
expand the scope of support in learning for children of divorce through organizing their
transportation to the place of training.
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Moreover, while the interviewed respondents showed the problem of student attendance
throughout the interviewing process, two interviewees specified the issue as a factor to be
regarded for improvement of the student learning environment at TKD by student training
schedule modifications. For instance, suggestions were made to “create more classes because of
their not being able to come here consistently” (Instructor 3). Having a more consistent training
schedule with a low level of missed classes was associated with student’s awareness of
taekwondo values to help them in their daily life and overcome the obstacles faced at home, such
as problematic relationships between the parents or the siblings (Instructor 3). Likewise,
Instructor 4 stressed that their training modifications would be favorable for enabling these
students being “ready for the promotion,” capable to “perform their forms with power, speed,
and accuracy and then making sure that they attend their intensive bi-weekly lessons for the
student group and also providing them mindfulness-based training.” Hence, training schedule
modifications were listed as useful for strengthening the student potential for children of divorce,
given the interview results.
At the same time, the research participants highlighted another opportunity for a more
holistic approach to the supportive learning environment in the form of offering psychological
training in the school. Specifically, Instructor 5 asserted the possibility to “arrange some school
meetings for these student groups to share their experiences and how they handle the challenges
they face, just like we share our experiences with colleagues.” By contrast, Instructor 7 requested
for “training for instructors” as “helpful to be able to better understand these children’s needs
and how to behave with them well to enhance their potential and minimize the emotional burden
for them.” The similar suggestions stemmed from the interview by Instructor 8, who stated the
potential value of providing training for instructors held by psychologists with regard to
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understanding the learning challenges and helping children of divorce. To conclude, the TKD
instructors’ insight into the organizational domain revealed an appreciation of the current
environment while also indicating the areas for improvement based on their individual
experience enabling them to suggest their comprehensive awareness of deficiencies for
successful learning and belt promotion preparation faced by children of divorce.
Cultural model: Acceptance and willingness to differentiate instruction. The need for
differentiation of instruction for K-12 students who are children of divorce was a recurring theme
in terms of KMO influences and explicitly traceable through the lens of interview responses in
general. Nevertheless, the instructors did not specifically assert their acceptance and willingness
to differentiate instruction, though this influence could be derived from the context. The two
major themes in this regard included: (a) communication-induced acceptance of differentiation;
and (b) strength-based encouragement of students as an implication of positive feedback.
Communication-induced acceptance of differentiation. One of the distinct themes related
to the specified cultural setting was linked to communication as a source for acceptance and
willingness to differentiate instruction for children of divorce. The theme was identified in the
interview results from three out of eight instructors only and can be regarded as a gap. For
example, Instructor 4 noted that “we’ve listened to one another [instructors to parents and
students], we're open, and we really tailor our lessons and our collaboration.” Similarly, this
interviewee emphasized that instructors “pay extra attention for children of divorce and their
parents,” seeing that “they have difficulties regarding their scheduling, attendance, and team
meetings or parent meetings” (Instructor 4). In addition, Instructor 3 stated that TKD instructors
“check the students” and “find out strategies to better accommodate the students’ [needs] to help
them pass their belt promotion,” such as “think of ways where they can attend class according to
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their fixed schedule, which will help them stay motivated, which will help them pass the belt
promotion tests.” Finally, the respondent specified that based on communication with students
and their parents, the instructor “can accommodate the needs better and continue to build that
trust and collaboration that we've already set” (Instructor 2). Therefore, the theme showed that
these instructors accepted and willingly modified their instructional strategies for children of
divorce on the grounds of communication they had with children or their parents. In this way, the
responses from the two interviewees only demonstrated positioning differentiation as part of the
TKD cultural setting.
Student’s strengths-based encouragement. Recognition of the value of encouraging and
leveraging student strengths appeared to be another important theme in the scope of acceptance
and willingness for instructional differentiation. However, the fact that it was detected in fewer
responses also entices to consider the theme as a need. Two instructors in the scope of the
interviewees emphasized the development of students’ strengths as one of the strategies
explicating acceptance and willingness to differentiate instruction. Specifically, Instructor 8
acknowledged this fact as a chance to “talk to such students one-on-one, recall the moments
when they were active and hardworking, and encourage to perform even better. For example, I
may say, ‘Great! This kick was just like you did…’” Additionally, he found the approach as
crucial due to “helping them to pass their three-month belt exam because it not only allows them
to build a strong confidence, but also allows them to see progress and improvement [being]
motivated to continue to go to TKD, have a higher sense of positivity in their life, and better
communicate and collaborate with others” (Instructor 2). To summarize, the interviews showed
the recognition of the focus on students’ strengths as an option for enhancing stakeholder
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collaboration. However, the fact that the theme was identified in two responses only still showed
that this distinct theme is a gap in the research sample as a whole.
Summary. The findings with regard to research question three provided some insight
into the organizational influences aimed at facilitating TKD instructors’ capability to reach their
stakeholder goal of preparing K-12 students who are children of divorce to belt promotion tests.
The major themes revolved around those identified in the conceptual framework, including (a)
cultural settings represented through differentiated instruction, knowledge sharing, and
supportive work environment, and (b) cultural models, such as enough non-instruction time, trust
and collaboration between stakeholders. The above broad themes embedded a number of
thematic patterns, which ranged by the extent of their significance as specified by the
interviewees.
In particular, the participants emphasized the value of the founder’s input for the culture
of trust and collaboration, instructor-parent collaboration, importance of Tae Kwon Do
philosophy, and strength-based student encouragement. Regarding ample non-instruction time,
the participants showed the usefulness of well-organized schedules and openness to collaboration
between stakeholders. The two factors appeared related to building trust and collaboration
culture with respect to the previous theme. Moreover, the results demonstrated that knowledge
sharing as a broad theme comprised of having regular meetings for instructors and the capability
to improve instruction in this respect.
As for a supportive work environment, this theme contained several subthemes that
seemed informative for explicating TKD instructors’ views on existing challenges undermining
the quality of learning for children of divorce and possible TKD input in eliminating these
problems. Specifically, along with positioning Tae Kwon Do school as a family as one of the
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primary strengths with respect to organizational influences, several patterns were defined as
needs, including (a) addressing transportation issues; (b) both parents’ engagement; (c) student
training schedule modifications, and (d) psychological support. In this context, the themes
regarding the significance of Tae Kwon Do values clearly exemplified the usefulness of
mindfulness-based training for children of divorce as a recent part of the organizational policies.
Nevertheless, the fact that this theme was mentioned by the least number of interviewed
instructors (only two interviewees) still enabled considering it as a gap.
Finally, even though the theme of differentiation has been widely referred to by
instructors within the context of interview results as a whole, acceptance of and willingness to
differentiate instruction as an explicit theme appeared rather vaguely discussed. To be more
precise, this theme comprised of two subthemes, namely, (a) communication-induced acceptance
of differentiation as well as (b) student’s strength-based support, which are the gaps due to the
fact that less than half of the participants identified these subthemes. At the same time, the
general interview results linked to question three demonstrated wide-scope thematic implications
of organizational influences in TKD for assisting instructors in meeting their stakeholder goal
along with identification of areas for broadening the extent of TKD’s involvement in eliminating
the learning challenges for children of divorce.
Discussion
This section focuses on the discussion of the major findings of the study and explores
their relationship with the earlier studies in the field, as considered in Chapter Two. Apart from
correlating the empirical findings of the current inquiry with those by previous researchers, the
section pays attention to the results which appeared surprising and enabled expanding the
available knowledge on the topic beyond the extent of the conceptual framework utilized in the
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project. The interview findings, which are representative of all interviewees or at least five out of
eight instructors, are defined as typical. At the same time, the gaps in the findings are outlined
with regard to the KMO influences on instructors’ capability to achieve their stakeholder goal.
The gaps are themes inferred from the interviews of less than four instructors or refer to the
themes which were presented in the reviewed literature on the topic but omitted from
consideration by TKD instructors. The section ends with a brief conclusion on the key points
made in the Chapter.
The Major Findings of the Study and Prior Research
The empirical findings of the current inquiry were both typical (i.e., discussed in earlier
studies or inferred in the responses of five or more participants) and distinct (i.e., no secondary
evidence found in previous research) from the prior research on the topic of impact of parental
divorce on children’s learning process and outcomes. Appendix C summarizes the key themes
and subthemes identified in the current study with regard to the conceptual framework used as a
guide for the inquiry process as well as a reference for other researchers. In addition, the table in
Appendix C specifies whether the identified empirical theme was labeled as strength (discussed
in five or more responses) or gap (detected in less than three responses). At the same time, when
a distinct theme was present in the responses related to different influences simultaneously, it
was not validated as a gap. This part of Chapter Five provides a brief discussion of the obtained
study results in light of research questions guiding the inquiry.
Research question one: Instructors’ knowledge. The research question one aimed to
clarify TKD instructors’ knowledge with regard to their stakeholder goal of ensuring that by May
2020, all K-12 students who are children of divorce enrolled in TKD, will pass their three-month
belt promotion at TKD and receive mindfulness-based support for improved learning. The study
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results demonstrated that TKD instructors had procedural knowledge on belt promotion training,
maintenance of discipline, and attention control that was both evidence in the prior research on
the topic and distinct, namely, not identified in earlier studies but mentioned in responses.
Training process – Distinct stages of training. The findings of the study demonstrated
that TKD instructors possessed wide-scope procedural knowledge with relation to the application
of both distinct techniques at stages of training as well as behavioral and attentional control when
preparing K-12 students for belt promotion. The need for taking into account the procedural
knowledge of distinct stages of training was specified by Koh et al. (2008) and Paunescu et al.
(2015a; 2015b) while also specified in responses from all instructors.
Belt promotion specifics and routine training. Based on the shared views from the
participants of the study, this inquiry identified the major primary theme focused on the
procedural specifics of student preparation for belt promotion tests, including training patterns
and techniques first while focusing on sparring and theoretical aspects of tests, if needed, later,
along with a necessity for individualized/ differentiated training. This finding was in line with
Paunescu et al. (2015b) and Na (2009), who also acknowledged the crucial role of a well-
planned and individualized training cycle when preparing students for promotion tests and during
regular training.
Attentional and behavioral control. Furthermore, the findings from the majority of
participants (seven out of eight instructors) showed a typical theme of managing student
behavior and attention by means of multi-modal resources, such as: (a) fluctuations in voice tone
(the most common approach, though not mentioned in earlier studies); (b) respectful attitude to
the instructor; (c) positive support; and (d) generally obedient, disciplined and family-like
learning environment based on the Tae Kwon Do philosophy and pedagogy. These results build
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on the existing evidence confirming the value of skillset and characteristics of Tae Kwon Do
teaching strategies (Diamond, 2014; Johnson, 2016; 2017; Lakes et al., 2013; Na, 2009).
Apart from the findings consistent with the previous researchers, the current inquiry
revealed interesting patterns that appeared distinct through the lens of the available evidence in
the field. For instance, the majority of the sample emphasized the procedural significance of one-
on-one strategies as a valuable method for training K-12 students who are children of divorce.
According to the participants, the strategy can be implemented either by the instructor or a
higher-level/ older student to facilitate mastering the technique by the student. Additionally, the
participants reported the usefulness of one-on-one strategies for both flexible, individualized
training for children of divorce as well as managing their attention and behavior. The importance
of the instructor’s input and positive support in student preparation is well-acknowledged in the
literature (Bujak et al., 2012; Koh et al., 2018; Oh, 2013; Paunescu et al., 2015a). Nevertheless,
the current inquiry identified no earlier studies that would have explored the role of peer support
for children of divorce when the martial arts context is concerned. At the same time, it seems
relevant to assume that the significance of peer support in mitigating the post-divorce challenges
in children should not be underestimated. Likewise, no prior evidence was found with respect to
flexible schedules for children of divorce to improve their preparation levels due to frequently
missed classes as a common problem.
Research question two: Instructors’ motivation. The research question two aimed to
clarify TKD instructors’ motivation in terms of meeting their stakeholder goal. The findings
related to this question revealed a number of specific thematic patterns demonstrating
consistency between the empirical evidence obtained in the current study and prior research in
the field. The results showed that TKD instructors were aware of motivational factors for K-12
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students who are children of divorce, such as referring to peer support, Tae Kwon Do based
values and family-like environment, instructor’s role modeling, and positive attitudes.
Utility value. TKD instructors recognized the value of the differentiation of training for
children of divorce, with an emphasis on (a) peer support (an approach similar to one-on-one
peer training as explained in the knowledge section but a distinct theme in this context); (b) Tae
Kwon Do based value system (a recurrent theme with regard to all KMO influences); and (c)
needs of children of divorce to be met through dedicated training (Johnstone & Mari-Befa,
2018). On the one hand, earlier findings also showed the notable aspect of Tae Kwon Do
philosophy and personality traits it can nurture in students as a motivational driver for students’
committed training (Alvelar-Rosa et al., 2016; Na, 2009; Van Rheenen, 2011). On the other
hand, the literature clearly focused on the significance of positive feedback, including its
different forms (Carpentier & Mageau, 2013; Vit et al., 2015; Zetou et al., 2014). However, the
theme of positive feedback was only briefly mentioned by the interviewees, with little attention
paid to be identified as an important and recurring theme in the context, even though positive
support and attitudes were explicit thematic aspects of the interview results.
Self-efficacy. All instructors favored positioning themselves as positive role models for
the students as the most important motivating force for students. In this way, TKD instructors
showed the need for integrating the Tae Kwon Do principles and teachings in both their
instruction and daily life to demonstrate the students the feasibility of the philosophy in practice
to be able to engage students in dedicated training. This finding is consistent with the rationale
by other researchers, such as that by Bujak et al. (2015), Choi et al. (2016), Estevan et al. (2014),
Lim et al. (2016), and Soheili et al. (2013), to name a few. Similarly, to the identified theme of
situational leadership as a means of TKD instructor’s self-efficacy, Torabi et al. (2013) provided
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evidence on the need for utilization of flexible/ situational leadership styles for ensuring
students’ motivated commitment during the training. Regardless of that, the samples of the
previous studies did not focus on children of divorce; the findings appeared common between
diverse student groups. At the same time, only two out of eight TKD instructors emphasized this
theme as important, hence, positioning this thematic pattern as a gap in relation to motivational
tools they apply to enhance learning and belt promotion preparation among K-12 students who
are children of divorce.
Attributions. The roles of instructors and Tae Kwon Do focused values appeared a useful
motivator for the interviewees, especially instructors’ positive attitudes and positioning the
martial arts school as a family. Likewise, the same assumptions were inferred in the primary
evidence synthesized by Choi et al. (2016), Cook (2009), Lee and Kim (2012), Zeng et al.
(2015), and Zetou et al. (2014) who particularly emphasized the trainer’s input as a positive
reinforcement for students’ motivation to be dedicated learners and engaged athletes.
Furthermore, Chami-Sather (2004), Johnson (2016; 2017), as well as Vertonghen and Theeboom
(2010) asserted the value-adding strength of Tae Kwon Do traditions in cultivating self-
motivated learners. Hence, these findings appeared well-aligned with the earlier research, even
though the prior research focus was not engaging children of divorce.
Finally, in spite of that parental attitude has not been identified as a sufficient attributive
motivator in the conceptual framework, this theme was evident from the interview results of four
out of eight TKD instructors. The interviewees exemplified the motivation in light of
encouraging students to train harder to be able to demonstrate student skills for both parents. At
the same time, the issue of parental engagement has been acknowledged with respect to the topic
of institutional support in general. In this respect, scholars stressed the significance and positive
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outcomes of combined parent-child adjustment programs (Amato, 2003; Wallerstein, 1991; Zhou
et al., 2008) or parents’ involvement in their school life (Bailey & Zvonkovic, 2003) for
improved children’s learning. Although only two out of eight interviewees focused on parental
engagement as a motivator, positioning the theme as a gap, these findings still enable assuming
their awareness of family-related deficiencies faced by children of divorce, which are likely to
impede the quality of student preparation to belt promotion. The suggestion is in line with Amato
and Anthony (2014) and Arkes (2015), who emphasized the possible detrimental impacts of
parental divorce on children’s learning outcomes and achievements, if not addressed through
institutional support. Thus, the parental engagement can be regarded as a valuable means for
children’s motivation, while the previous research did not specifically explore the perspective of
children of divorce from the position of the martial arts environment.
Research question three: Organizational influences. The research question three
aimed to investigate the interaction between organizational culture and context to instructor
knowledge and motivation with regard to fulfilling their stakeholder goal. The study showed
interesting findings. The results demonstrated TKD instructors’ awareness of the interaction
between the organizational culture and context in terms of a culture of trust and collaboration
between stakeholders, ample non-instruction time, and knowledge sharing. However, the
findings showed gaps in responses with regard to supportive environment (with a focus on
parental support) as well as acceptance and willingness to differentiate instruction.
The culture of trust and collaboration. This cultural model manifested through three
themes intertwined around the Tae Kwon Do centered philosophy, including (a) the role of the
founder ; (b) the traditional Tae Kwon Do ideology as a facilitator for student success, and (c)
students’ strength-based encouragement. These themes altogether represented the empowering
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force of the Tae Kwon Do traditions, as stated by Diamond (2014), Jankowski and Holas (2014),
Koh et al. (2018), Ottoboni et al. (2014), Oh (2013), and Paunescu et al. (2015a; 2015b). Once
again, the factor of parental support inferred in the research context as a thematic pattern with
regard to a culture of trust and collaboration. The finding is in line with Arkes (2015), Davison et
al. (2006), and Park and Kim (2014), who found that parental input substantially matters in terms
of athletes’ devotion and willingness for perfection and enhanced performance in sports.
Ample non-instruction time. The findings concerned with this theme revealed enough
time for TKD instructors, who emphasized spending it on communication with students and their
parents or communication with colleagues. Well-organized schedules and openness to
collaboration were identified as the main thematic implications in this context. On the same note,
Johnson (2016; 2017) and Reeves et al. (2006) emphasized the above factor as important in
ensuring instructors possess ample time for planning, collaborating with each other, evaluating
and discussing student performance, and reviewing instruction strategies, if necessary. In this
way, instructors are able to be open for collaboration, as was indicated by another theme in this
context.
Knowledge sharing. TKD instructors exemplified this broad theme by an opportunity for
regular meetings and the exchange of ideas for improved instruction. Regardless of that the
interviewees particularly identified this cultural setting through the lens of exchange of ideas
with colleagues, the literature stated the usefulness of the same approach for parental
engagement and collaboration (Arkes, 2015; Diamond, 2014; Hernandez & Anderson, 2015). By
the same token, the need for differentiated instruction was showed by TKD instructors as a
procedural aspect of the KMO model rather than organizational influence. The responses from
only two instructors inferred communication-induced acceptance of differentiation and three
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instructors mentioned strength-based student support (a form of positive feedback) in the scope
of this theme. As a result, the theme of differentiation with relation to organizational context
appeared a gap rather than strength due to being specified by a little number of interviewees.
Scholars have also specified the significance of differentiation with regard to distinct stages of
training, situational leadership, and ensuring positive support to learners, such as providing
positive feedback (Carpentier & Mageau, 2013; Pilianidis et al., 2014).
Supportive work environment. The issue was covered in the interviews in a rather broad
manner. Specifically, TKD instructors mostly focused not on their individual work support but
that for students. Again, the distinct theme of positioning Tae Kwon Do as a family occurred
along with larger-scale parental engagement. Moreover, the interviewees suggested several
options for expanded scope of school-parent collaboration for assisting children, such as (a)
addressing the transportation issues; (b) offering training schedule modifications; and (c)
psychological training and support, including both parents and instructors. These outlined
improvements appeared in line with Chen et al. (2014), who explained the need for building
long-term trusting relationships between the stakeholders. In addition, studies that focused on
children of divorce, in general, have emphasized the need for mitigating the financial challenges
in their families (Lee et al., 2017; Sun & Li, 2009) as well as providing counseling or other form
of psychological support (Cohen & Weitzman, 2016; Trinder et al., 2008).
Unexpected/ Inconclusive Results
Mindfulness. Along with typical themes identified in the responses, the study defined
distinct themes, namely, the thematic patterns with little coverage in the interview results, if at
all. Some themes and concepts from the prior research in the field were either poorly presented
in the findings or not considered in the TKD instructors’ responses. In particular, the literature
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review findings explained mindfulness as a concept and skill of notable value in the Tae Kwon
Do philosophy from the perspective of both procedural knowledge and motivation based on its
role for building students’ strengths as productive learners (Diamond, 2014; Johnson, 2016;
2017; Leland, 2015; Rempel, 2012; Vertonghen & Theeboom, 2010). However, the interviewees
mentioned mindfulness only several times. Once the concept was referred to when two
respondents explained his experiences with regard to behavioral control strategies. Four
respondents also specified the importance of mindfulness-based training as a facilitator for the
learning of children of divorce that has been a recent organizational policy update that has been
integrated into the TKD schedule by the administration since November 2019. Hence, it seems
reasonable to suggest that the concept appeared somehow overlooked in the instruction process,
regardless of its well-established potential in the student learning process and outcomes.
Lack of positive feedback. Although the TKD instructors clearly emphasized the
significance of positive support to K-12 students who are children of divorce, the theme of
positive feedback appeared poorly covered, if at all, in the interviews. This was regardless of
rather comprehensive and in-depth coverage interpretation of positive support by the
interviewees, including one-on-one conversation, or positive encouragement for training harder,
to list a few. By contrast, this theme was among the main literature-based implications in terms
of both procedural knowledge and motivational factors in the conceptual framework, such as
listing diverse forms of feedback as valuable for productive instruction (Carpentier & Mageau,
2013; Pilianidis et al., 2014). Despite that voice volume was mentioned among the key
approaches to behavioral and attentional control in class, the literature has not specified this
strategy in the research context making these interview-based themes as distinct rather than
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typical themes of explaining class management in the martial arts context with relation to
children of divorce.
Acceptance and willingness to differentiate instruction. Although instructors
mentioned the theme in the scope of different KMO influences, it was covered as a theme in
three responses, only positioning the instructors’ acceptance and willingness for differentiated
instruction for children of divorce as a distinct theme based on communication with these
students and their parents.
Overlooked utilization of technology. TKD instructors reported no utilization of
technologies in the training process. However, Guo et al. (2014) and Ha et al. (2011) provided
empirical evidence on the usefulness of technology applications for student interest, engagement,
and committed training, such as using smartphone applications and videos for enhanced training
or improving communication through technologies. Since the target audience for the instructor’s
stakeholder goal involves K-12 students, who are extremely reliant on technologies, this factor
could be a sufficient motivator for instructor-student, instructor-parent communication, and
student training to be taken into account by TKD instructors.
Conclusion
With regard to knowledge influences, TKD instructors demonstrated sufficient depth of
procedural knowledge on distinct stages of training, attentional and behavioral control, with a
focus on positive support, Tae Kwon Do traditions and one-on-one training as a form of
individualized instruction for children of divorce. Although previous studies discussed the
significance of one-on-one student-instructor interactions in the training process, peer-based
strategies were omitted from scholars’ analysis, while the current study offered an empirical
insight into the issue. According to the findings concerned with instructors’ motivation
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 156

influences, sufficient attention was paid to the Tae Kwon Do philosophy, peer support,
instructors’ being role models, and students’ strength-based empowerment, among other themes.
In terms of organizational influences, the findings showed that TKD instructors specifically
appreciated a culture of trust and collaboration on the grounds of the Tae Kwon Do philosophy,
communication with parents and their engagement, as well as knowledge sharing with
colleagues. At the same time, it is necessary to note that several themes appeared recurring
within all three KMO domains, such as (a) Tae Kwon Do values, especially family/ home-like
environment; (b) positive support; (c) one-on-one instructor and peer support; and (d) parental
engagement.
To a great extent, the majority of findings were consistent with prior research on the
topic. Although some previous research findings were not always representative of the issues
concerned with children of divorce, the current study provided specific evidence relevant for this
student group. By contrast, some distinct themes identified in the responses were poorly covered
in the interviews. For instance, the concepts of mindfulness (procedural knowledge), positive
feedback (motivation), and technology utilization (motivation) could hardly be inferred in the
interview context, if at all. Moreover, while the respondents emphasized the significance of
parental engagement and collaboration with them for better student performance, the findings did
not reveal the application of these factors in the organizational context, namely, how these
discussions are implemented in practice, even though suggestions were made. To conclude,
despite that the current findings appeared substantially in line with the earlier studies, the room
for improvement in the TKD context still exists by mitigating the identified gaps in the KMO
influences useful for TKD instructors in meeting their stakeholder goal.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations
Chapter Four focused on the analysis of the suggested KMO influences capable of
impacting the problem of practice to verify their importance for driving TKD instructors’
behaviors in relation to their stakeholder goal. The interview results were categorized with
reference to the conceptual framework and unexpected/ inconclusive findings. In this way, the
researcher was able to determine whether the obtained findings appeared consistent with the
prior research on the topic or KMO gaps could be determined accordingly.
Chapter Five comprises additional evaluation of the results and findings of the previous
chapter with the provision of a set of recommendations for future practice in terms of mitigating
the learning challenges of K-12 students who are children of divorce in the martial arts school.
The researcher organized recommendations in line with the validated KMO influences with
regard to the research questions. The chapter utilized the New World Kirkpatrick Model
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) for developing research-based recommendations. Referring to
this model, the research explains the ways in which results, behavior, learning, and reactions
need to be applied to make sure the outlined recommendations would be useful for devising
effective support for TKD instructors in attaining their stakeholder and organizational goals. The
New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) is also regarded as valuable for
ensuring that the findings of the current research are both valid and reliable to be used for future
research on the topic in question.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
The researcher utilized the Clark and Estes (2008) knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences to identify performance gaps, if any, among TKD instructors. The
theorists emphasized that these influences demonstrate stakeholders’ understanding as well as
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 158

the intrinsic capability to operationalize such an insight while reacting to feedback to accomplish
both their stakeholder and organizational goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). In addition, closing the
performance gaps requires proactively referring to the necessary knowledge to ensure the
stakeholders are well-aware of the essence of the organizational problems. In this way, inquiry
allows identifying and comprehending the stakeholder knowledge patterns to determine the
existing baseline of stakeholders’ knowledge levels (Clark & Estes, 2008). With this
information, the baseline can be compared with the stakeholder goals to detect the practice gap
with regard to the established organizational goals. The researcher conducted a gap analysis to
enhance specific stakeholder acknowledgment of the knowledge influences capable of impacting
their actions and behavior.
Knowledge Recommendations
The current study identified specific knowledge influences. The inquiry has explored the
TKD instructors’ insight into the learning process and outcomes for K-12 students who are the
children of divorce along with instructors’ role in their three-month belt promotion. The
researcher inferred the specific data and concepts in the literature review, exploring the learning
challenges of children of divorce and identified the relevant data that showed the necessity for
further investigation of the knowledge influences in this inquiry. A number of knowledge themes
were determined and utilized as a guide for structured qualitative interview questions.
Regardless of that, two assumed knowledge influences were formulated at the initial
stages of the inquiry, and only one procedural knowledge influence was regarded as a knowledge
gap according to the empirical evidence. The researcher defined a primary knowledge influence
that impacted the communication and collaboration between the target student group, their
parents, and TKD instructors in the process of student preparation for three-month belt
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 159

promotion. Specifically, instructors need to be aware of how to apply the teaching techniques
and strategies for developing student attentional and behavioral control (Lakes et al., 2013). In
particular, the pattern of mindfulness with relation to procedural knowledge of instructors
appeared in the context of the interview results only once, with relation to considering the
concept as an integral part of the Tae Kwon Do philosophy, development of positive and
disciplined learning environment. This factor enabled considering mindfulness as a gap in the
scope of the current inquiry. At the same time, mindfulness-based intervention for athletes can
ensure clear goal-setting and concentration, merging of awareness and action, balancing skills
regardless of challenges, reducing their stress, and increasing their self-confidence in the face of
competitions (Kee & Wang, 2008; Mehrsafar et al., 2019). Accordingly, Table 9 shows this
assumed knowledge influence, identifies its validation status, references to the literature
concerned with its significance, and context-specific recommendations for it.

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Table 9
Summary of Knowledge Influence and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Gap
Validated
Priority to
Address Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Instructors need to be
aware of how to
apply the teaching
techniques and
strategies for
developing student
attentional and
behavioral control
Yes Yes Procedural knowledge
enables an opportunity
for carrying out or using a
procedure in a specific
situation (Krathwohl,
2002). Executing the
procedural knowledge on
the organization of Tae
Kwon Do training allows
developing positive
student attentional and
behavioral patterns
(Lakes et al., 2013).

Mindfulness-based
intervention for martial
arts athletes can ensure
clear goal-setting and
concentration, merging of
awareness and action
(Kee & Wang, 2008),
reduce their stress and
increase their self-
confidence in the face of
competitions (Mehrsafar
et al., 2019)

Provide job aids with
a clear explanation of
mindfulness-based
training steps as a
way to ensure
instructors know what
strategies to apply and
how to manage
student behavior, and
attention during Tae
Kwon Do sessions

Increasing instructors’ procedural knowledge about strategies for student
attentional and behavioral control. The researcher focused on the mindfulness-related
knowledge influence as an important solution due to its potential multidimensional impact on
instructors’ effectiveness in developing successful training for children of divorce by enhancing
their classroom conduct. The results and findings of this study suggested that instructors need to
be better aware of how to apply the teaching techniques and strategies for developing student
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 161

attentional and behavioral control. The literature review findings allowed specifying the
usefulness of mindfulness for the development of student self-regulated and focused behavior
and attention (Esmaeilian et al., 2018; Lakes et al., 2013). However, only two interviewees
acknowledged the relevance of mindfulness skills in their teaching process. Thus, the research
suggested this gap as a good opportunity to consider as a solution for the general increasing
instructors’ procedural knowledge about strategies for student attentional and behavioral control.
To address this procedural knowledge gap, the researcher developed a recommendation
with reference to the information processing theory. This theory allows integration of sensory
memory, working memory, and long-term memory components in the process by presenting the
limited amounts of the information on the issue along with algorithms on how to implement the
knowledge and skills when needed (Schraw & McCrudden, 2013). Procedural knowledge can
provide instructors with an opportunity for carrying out or using a procedure in a specific
situation (Krathwohl, 2002). Hence, an intervention developed as an information processing
strategy can be valuable for improved instructors’ attentional and behavioral control in the class.
Accordingly, the recommendation is to provide job aids with a clear explanation of mindfulness-
based training steps to ensure instructors know what strategies to apply and how to manage
student behavior and attention during Tae Kwon Do sessions. For instance, the strategy can be
operationalized through a brief but succinct and to the point information booklet that will contain
the rationale on the role of mindfulness in martial arts training as well as a detailed how-to guide
for implementing such training in own practice.
Executing the procedural knowledge on the organization of Tae Kwon Do training allows
developing positive student attentional and behavioral patterns (Lakes et al., 2013). In this
regard, Naves-Bittencourt et al. (2015) noted that it is necessary to first focus on attention
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 162

processing to internal (e.g., internal physical sensations) and external perceptions (e.g., daily
routine and experiences) and develop one’s attitudes on both open and non-critical monitoring of
one’s learning experiences. In addition, Clark and Estes (2008) specified that job aids comprise a
cost-effective informational tool, as its implementation does not require comprehensive
guidelines or training. Thus, using a mindfulness-based job aid can become a valuable
instrument to assist Tae Kwon Do instructors in enhancing their understanding of all key
procedural components for ensuring student attentional and behavioral control during training.
Motivation Recommendations
According to Clark and Estes (2008), motivational influences are the drivers that entice
stakeholders to reach the goals they set. Such influences stem from previous life experiences,
including both successes and failures, which have framed their beliefs and actions concerned
with future endeavors (Clark & Estes, 2008). If successful, this factor transforms into a new skill
in performing the job or task as well as growing self-confidence in utilizing the same skill in
similar situations. In this way, individuals tend to formulate attributions of their positive
behaviors and become more self-efficacious, persistent, and committed to accomplishing the
intended goals, including developing collective self-efficacy (Gaier, 2015; Pintrich, 2003). While
motivational influences are critical for one’s self-efficacy, they need to be considered in unity
with knowledge and organizational influences as interrelated influences for shaping the
performance baselines in stakeholders. Furthermore, if the comparison of performance baselines
with the stakeholder goals shows the performance gap, the analysis of these data enables an
understanding of potential actions to assist them in accomplishing their goals as expected.
On the basis of the inquiry, the researcher outlined three key motivational influences that
are likely to affect the TKD instructors’ performance with reference to utility value, attribution,
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and self-efficacy theories. The first motivational influence assumed that instructors need to
recognize the value of differentiating instruction for students who are children of divorce. The
second motivational influence suggested that instructors need to understand that their own efforts
in understanding what motivates students are necessary so that they may better engage and
motivate students who are children of divorce. The third motivational influence assumed that
instructors need to believe that they are able to effectively differentiate leadership styles for self-
efficacy and achievement motivation among students who are children of divorce. Reviewing
these literature-based motivational influences in light of the qualitative data collected from the
stakeholders, the researcher aimed to empirically validate them and rationalize the evidence-
based recommendations for improved instruction for children of divorce in TKD. Table 10
summarizes the motivational influences, their valid or invalid status, scholarly findings in
support of each influence, and context-specific recommendations for them.

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Table 10
Summary of Motivational Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence
Gap
Validated
Priority
Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Instructors need to
recognize the value of
differentiating instruction
for students who are
children of divorce.
Yes Yes Expectancies linked to
the completion of the
task and one’s
persistence in such a
pursuit can be
sufficient drivers for
individual’s putting
much mental effort in
this regard (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Being motivated
through recognition of
the usefulness of
taking action (Purvis
et al., 2015).

Positive differentiating
feedback motivates the
learners to self-correct
(Shute, 2008; Zetou et
al., 2014).

Provide training on
values, procedures,
and benefits of
different forms of
feedback with
opportunities to
demonstrate the
application in
different solutions
Instructors need to
understand that their own
efforts in understanding
what motivates students
are necessary so that they
may better engage and
motivate students who
are children of divorce.
Yes Yes Awareness of student-
centered motivation
tools enables
balancing
organizational input
and behavioral output
to reach the
organizational goals
effectively (Lord &
Kanfer, 2002).

Provide training on
understanding
needs and
motivational factors
for children of
divorce
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 165

Assumed Motivation
Influence
Gap
Validated
Priority
Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Instructors need to
believe that they are able
to effectively
differentiate leadership
styles for self-efficacy
and achievement
motivation among
students who are children
of divorce.
Y Y Instructors’
confidence in their
ability to teach
students to perform
techniques properly
translates in their
increased efforts
during training and
strengthening
individual behavior
(Grossman & Salas,
2011).

As soon as individuals
succeed when
completing the task,
their self-efficacy
increases (Bandura,
2000).
Provide
opportunities for
team meetings or
attending peer
colleagues’ classes
to learn from them
and reflect on their
own practice.

Recognize the value of differentiating instruction. The results and findings of this
study showed that instructors mostly recognize the value of differentiating instruction for
students who are children of divorce in light of the Tae Kwon Do philosophy as the key
motivational factor and utility value for learners. However, only two out of eight instructors
acknowledged addressing the needs of children of divorce as a utility value for differentiating
their instruction, especially with regard to providing positive feedback for their effective and
successful learning. A principle rooted in expectancy-value theory has been selected to close the
identified gap as learning and motivation are enhanced if the learner values a task (Eccles, 2006).
Expectancies linked to the completion of the task, recognition of the usefulness of taking action,
and one’s persistence in such a pursuit can be sufficient drivers for an individual’s increased
mental effort in this regard (Clark & Estes, 2008; Purvis et al., 2015). Additionally, positive
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 166

differentiating feedback motivates the learners to self-correct while private, specific, and timely
feedback that links learning strategies with improved learning outcomes is likely to enhance
student performance (Shute, 2008; Zetou et al., 2014).
As a result, if instructors recognize the value of individualized instruction for children of
divorce with reference to differentiating positive feedback, the application of this value in
practice will lead to improved motivation of the students. In this regard, the recommendation is
to provide training on values, procedures, and benefits of different forms of feedback and their
application in different situations. For example, the training may involve the presentation of the
findings from the best evidence-based practices on the topic and practice of these techniques in
small groups to be able to reflect on the value of the strategies through hands-on practical
experience.
Clark and Estes (2008) assert that value constructs can motivate a learner to accomplish
the goal by making an active choice of committed engagement in this process. Purvis et al.
(2015) also emphasize that the motivation of a learner can be achieved through their recognition
of value or usefulness of acting based on future expectations, such as potential accomplishments
of organizational goals and gaining rewards. Van Rheenen (2011) specifies that the Tae Kwon
Do philosophy enables positioning utility value for student motivation to committed training
through the opportunity for nurturing such positive traits as self-control, self-esteem, and self-
confidence, among others. From a theoretical perspective, if instructors recognize the utility
value of differentiated feedback for K-12 students who are children of divorce, this factor will
enhance their motivated learning.
Improve differentiated leadership for students’ self-efficacy and achievement
motivation. The results and findings of this study indicated that instructors need to believe that
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 167

they are able to effectively differentiate leadership styles for self-efficacy and achievement
motivation among students who are children of divorce. The gap was identified due to the fact
that only two out of eight instructors mentioned the theme in the interviews, even though the
entire sample acknowledged the motivational efficacy of the instructor as a role model for
students. To address this motivational gap, instructors’ perception of self-efficacy must highly
demonstrate readiness to work hard, persistence, and greater interest in teaching and learning, as
these factors can positively impact student motivation (Pajares, 2006). Instructors’ confidence in
their ability to teach students how to perform techniques properly translates in their increased
efforts during training and strengthening individual behavior (Grossman & Salas, 2011). As soon
as individuals succeed at completing a task, their self-efficacy increases (Bandura, 2000).
Accordingly, if instructors hold strong beliefs that they are able to differentiate their leadership
styles for children of divorce effectively, these students will have high self-efficacy and
achievement motivation. Thus, the recommendation is to provide opportunities for team
meetings or attending peer colleagues’ classes to have on-practice learning of application of
differentiated leadership styles per learning situations and reflect on their own practice. As an
example, a week of attending peers’ classes can be announced at school to allow instructors
observing colleagues’ differentiated leadership styles and discussing their experiences on a
mutual meeting at the end of the week.
Bujak et al. (2012) specify that a properly chosen leadership style of an instructor
determines the likelihood of students to follow their guidelines and accomplish the set tasks.
Rowold (2006) notes that the application of transactional leadership is useful for ensuring
trainee’s effective learning, while transformational leadership can be valuable for motivating
their self-improved behavior and putting more effort into reaching the goals and objectives. At
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 168

the same time, Bormann, Schulte-Coerne, Diebig, and Rowold (2016) specify that choice of
leadership style should be determined by an athlete’s individual characteristics (e.g., one’s
willingness to win) and team’s competitive performance. Finally, Turman (2001) asserts that
coach’s leadership styles need to be aligned with athlete’s levels of experience and professional
preparation with regard to readiness to compete to motivate them for high performance,
including the situational use of democratic or autocratic styles, positive feedback and social
support among others. Hence, from a theoretical perspective, it appears that instructors’
differentiated leadership styles would enhance the engagement and motivation of students who
are children of divorce.
Improve understanding of student motivation for their engagement and motivation.
The results and findings of this study demonstrated that instructors mostly understand that their
own efforts in understanding what motivates students are necessary to better engage and
motivate students who are children of divorce based on their positive attitudes as instructors and
positioning Tae Kwon Do school as a family. Still, an attribution of parental attitude as an
influential motivational force was only identified as a theme in two out of eight interviewees.
Thus, this theme can be recognized as a favorable attribution for even more effective motivation
of K-12 students who are children of divorce by instructors.
In this regard, the attribution theory suggests that learning and motivation are enhanced
when individuals attribute success or failures to efforts rather than abilities (Anderman &
Anderman, 2006). Moreover, awareness of student-centered motivation tools enables balancing
organizational input and behavioral output to reach the organizational goals effectively (Lord &
Kanfer, 2002). This would suggest that instructors’ understanding that their awareness of
motivational factors for children of divorce is attributed to the effectiveness of their efforts in
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 169

engaging and motivating students. Hence, the recommendation is to provide training on
understanding needs and motivational factors for children of divorce. For example, the
recommendation can be put into action by arranging a lecture with a psychologist or counselor
who would explain both parents’ role in successful adjustment, learning process, and learning
outcomes for children of divorce to develop instructors’ attribution of parental input for student’s
successful belt promotion.
Pintrich (2003) notes that adaptive attributions and control beliefs are likely to motivate
individuals. Likewise, Gaier (2015) claims that individuals interpret either own or others’
behavior, and such attributions further affect the way in which they act in relevant situations,
though these perceptions may vary per individual even in similar circumstances. At the same
time, Pekrun (2011) states that attributions can be useful for an instructor to be able to engage
students by activating and directing their energy, emotions, and efforts into accomplishing the
tasks with motivation and commitment. Therefore, this theoretical perspective justifies that
instructors’ understanding of what motivates students will be valuable for ample engagement and
motivation of K-12 students who are children of divorce.
Organization Recommendations
Drawing upon the rationale by Clark and Estes (2008), organizational influences can
make a direct impact on the cultural settings and cultural models of the organization along with
the influence on stakeholders’ role perceptions within the organizational context. In the scope of
this research, the researcher analyzed earlier studies and identified four assumed organizational
influences preventing TKD instructors from accomplishing their stakeholder goal, though only
two were validated with primary evidence. The first assumed organizational influence asserted
that the organization needs to develop a culture of trust and collaboration between parents,
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 170

students who are children of divorce, and TKD instructors to achieve the organizational goal of
passing their three-month belt promotion and receiving the mindfulness-based support. The
second assumed organizational influence is the need for the organization to create conditions for
acceptance and willingness among instructors to differentiate instruction for children of divorce.
Table 11 summarizes the three assumed organizational influences, if the specified influences
were validated, the literature findings on the significance of each influence, and context-specific
recommendations.

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Table 11
Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organizational
Influences
Gap
Validated
Priority to
Address Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
The organization
needs an action plan
to develop a
supportive work
environment so that it
will promote
knowledge sharing
and collaboration
between instructors in
assisting children of
divorce (Cultural
Setting)
Yes Yes Knowledge-sharing in
the organization is
crucial for
organizational success
in building the intra-
organizational trust and
long-term partnerships
(Chen et al., 2014)
Training and
knowledge experience
sharing within the
organization is
necessary to detect and
mitigate the knowledge
and skills gaps of
different stakeholders
(Grossman & Salas,
2011)
Parents’ contribution in
knowledge sharing
helps in mitigating the
divorce impact on
children (Arkes, 2015)

Conduct regular
instructors and
parents’ meetings for
participatory
decision-making on
organizational and
student issues

The organization
needs to create
conditions for
acceptance and
willingness among
instructors to
differentiate
instruction for
children of divorce
(Cultural Model)
Yes Yes Preliminary and
proactive planning and
individualized
instruction for
addressing diverse
student needs
(Tomlinson et al.,
2003)

Differentiated
instruction leads to
high-level martial arts
loyalty and student
satisfaction (Bujack et
al., 2012).
Conduct team
meetings for
gathering insight on
differentiation in the
Tae Kwon Do
classrooms and
exchanging ideas
among colleagues.
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 172

Create conditions for acceptance and willingness among instructors to differentiate
instruction for children of divorce. The current improvement initiative focuses on the
organizational construct of creating the conditions for acceptance and willingness among TKD
instructors to differentiate instruction for children of divorce as this influence is of utmost
significance in the TKD context. The results and findings of this study showed that even though
the concept of differentiated instruction has been well-acknowledged by interviewees, the
organization needs to make sure that instructors are both accepting and willing to individualize
training practices for specific needs of students who are children of divorce to achieve the
organizational goal of passing their three-month belt promotion.
This organizational influence gap can be closed by means of the premises of the
organizational communication theory that claims that strong communication skills of the
stakeholders allow for building organizational capacity (Fix & Sias, 2006). Preliminary and
proactive planning and individualized instruction are crucial for addressing diverse student needs
(Tomlinson et al., 2003). In addition, differentiated instruction leads to high-level martial arts
loyalty and student satisfaction (Bujack et al., 2012). This statement suggests that such a cultural
model as improved instructors’ acceptance of and willingness to differentiate instruction can be
favorable for mitigating their knowledge and skills’ gaps, hence, resulting into their improved
learning for successful accomplishment of the organizational goal of belt promotion. The
recommendation implies conducting team meetings for gathering insight on differentiation in the
Tae Kwon Do classrooms and exchanging ideas among colleagues. For example, biweekly
discussion clubs can be held, including the founder, to communicate about the usefulness of
differentiation for children of divorce, sharing stories on the topic from their professional
practice on the successful application of the technique or challenges encountered.
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 173

Schein (2004) explains that a cultural model relates to shared beliefs and values which
guide stakeholders’ interaction. With regard to children of divorce, TKD instructors have beliefs
and principles which govern their organization-wide behavior, thus, the ways in which they
design and implement instruction for this student group to ensure their productive learning and
belt promotion. Instructors’ beliefs on the positive effects of differentiation are not only likely to
enable trainers to take into account students’ needs when developing instruction (Tomlinson et
al., 2003) but also for mitigating the devastating divorce-related impacts on children (Arkes,
2015). Thus, this theoretical rationale demonstrates support for the need to close the gap in the
organizational culture for the improved capability of TKD instructors to willingly and effectively
differentiate their training for children of divorce.
Develop a supportive work environment that promotes knowledge sharing and
collaboration. Among the two cultural setting influences identified in the research context, an
influence concerned with a supportive work environment was chosen for improvement initiatives
since this factor is notable for the comprehensive enhancement of the organizational context. All
instructors explicitly stated the availability of knowledge sharing practices among colleagues,
and the recommendation on differentiative / situational leadership already focuses on the
facilitation of exchange of ideas and practices between colleagues. However, the results of the
interviews showed that three out of eight participants explicitly interpreted the concept of a
supportive environment in relation to eliminating deficiencies faced by the children of divorce,
which undermine their effective learning and preparation to belt promotion. Hence, the current
influence considered as a gap relates to knowledge sharing and collaboration between parents
and instructors for organization of wider-scope support for divorced parents for improved
learning of their children, such as considering: (a) both parents’ engagement; (b) transportation
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 174

issues; (c) psychological support, and (d) training schedules modifications. The results and
findings of the study demonstrated that the organization needs an action plan to develop a
comprehensive supportive environment that promotes knowledge sharing and collaboration
between instructors and parents in developing support for effective learning of children of
divorce.
The principle is rooted in the organizational change theory that asserts that positive
organizational climate and culture can be a facilitator for the organizational change (Fix & Sias,
2006). Knowledge sharing in the organization is crucial for organizational success in building the
intra-organizational trust and long-term partnerships (Chen et al., 2014). In this regard, training
and knowledge experience sharing within the organization is necessary to detect and mitigate the
knowledge and skills gaps of different staff members and stakeholders (Grossman & Salas,
2011). Parents’ contribution in knowledge sharing helps in mitigating the divorce impact on
children (Arkes, 2015). The above statements would suggest that ensuring knowledge sharing
among colleagues and parents will be favorable for closing the organizational performance gap
through improved knowledge, skills, and motivation among instructors and parents by
developing a more comprehensive and supportive work environment for both instructors and
students. Thus, the recommendation is to conduct regular meetings of instructors and parents for
participatory decision-making on organizational and student issues. For instance, the monthly
meetings may be organized to discuss the key divorce-related deficiencies faced by children and
mutually outline solutions which TKD can implement to provide extended support for these
students (with limited duration due to sufficient cost incurred), such as offering psychological
training, review student schedules, or assist with transportation issues as temporary measures.
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 175

Clark and Estes (2008) stated that it is possible to achieve organizational goals only
through a well-developed social interaction system with “specialized knowledge, skills, and
motivation to operate successfully” (p. 104). With a focus on children of divorce, organizational
performance relates to intertwined efforts of multiple stakeholders, such as children of divorce,
their parents, and instructors, among others. In this way, knowledge sharing among instructors
will be crucial for making sure the interactions within this system are smooth while instructors
have ample knowledge, skills, and motivation to enhance stakeholder collaboration and improve
the supportive learning environment for students who are children of divorce. On the one hand,
Grossman and Salas (2011) emphasize the value of this process for the mitigation of skills and
knowledge gaps among the personnel of the organization. On the other hand, Chen et al. (2014)
recognize knowledge sharing as a form of organizational learning as a way to improve its level
of competition as well as capacity in pursuing goals. Likewise, shared knowledge on diverse
divorce-related challenges encountered by children of divorce can assist in developing the
relevant institutional support for them to enhance their social adjustment and learning capacities
(Amato, 2003; Del Boca, 2003; Zhou et al., 2008). Therefore, these theoretical assumptions
provide support for a need to facilitate a supportive environment through stakeholder knowledge
sharing and collaboration in TKD.
In this way, developing a trustworthy and collaborative culture between parties is crucial
for the quality well-being and performance of children of divorce (Cho et al., 2018). As soon as
organizational culture is well-developed and ensures collaboration between stakeholders, they
are able to solve problems in a mutually beneficial manner, offer creative and innovative ideas,
and enhance organizational performance as a whole (Barczak et al., 2010). According to this
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 176

theoretical rationale, the literature demonstrates support for the need to mitigate the gap in the
organizational culture for the mutual benefits of the stakeholders.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
To conduct the integrated implementation and evaluation plan, the researcher utilized the
New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), which is based on the original
Kirkpatrick Four-Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006) and shows how
to create an effective training in an organization while reaching the most beneficial outcomes for
all the stakeholders. This framework assumes that an initial stage of an evaluation plan should be
a reflection of the organizational goals as the primary indicators for aligning the proposed
solutions with the organizational goals. The sequence of the components of the New World
Kirkpatrick Model involves four levels, such as results (4), behaviors (3), learning (2), and
reactions (1) (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Results refer to the outcomes derived from the
inquiry process. Behaviors are concerned with stakeholder activities in the scope of organization-
specific course of action. Learning relates to stakeholders’ understanding of the problem and
improvement efforts, along with their intrinsic motivational drivers. Finally, reactions are the
concepts that demonstrate how stakeholder performance feedback is likely to impact how they
will respond to the learning models to be employed. They are numbered from four to one to
show the complexity of evaluation as a process because the assessment results of every prior
(lower) level are the basis for the next level of analysis, with more time and resources to be
allocated for evaluation in the process (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006; 2016). Based on the
data collected for levels 4 and 3, the researcher is able to evaluate how the project ensures that
the stakeholders and organization derive for training effectiveness (e.g., performance outcomes
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and organization’s results) (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The data gathered for levels 1 and
2 offer clarification for effective training, such as internal measures of skills and program quality
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). In this way, the implementation and evaluation plan is
favorable for rationalizing and justifying the recommended solutions and the organizational and
stakeholder goals to entice stakeholders’ engagement for successful implementation of the plan
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
The purpose of TKD is to pursue its mission of nurturing the Tae Kwon Do based
lifestyle and both physical and emotional fitness on the basis of self-discipline and noble spirit.
In this context, the organizational goal is ensuring that by May 2020, all K-12 students who are
children of divorce enrolled in TKD, will pass their three-month belt promotion at TKD and
receive mindfulness-based support for improved learning. This project examined the knowledge,
motivational, and organizational influences that are important for TKD instructions to meet the
set goal. The proposed solution, job aids with a clear explanation of mindfulness-based training,
team meetings or attending peer colleagues’ classes, feedback training, and a lecture with a
psychologist, should produce the target outcome – making sure that all K-12 students who are
children of divorce in TKD will pass their belt promotion tests.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 12 shows the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of
outcomes, metrics, and methods for both external and internal outcomes for TKD. If the plan
allows meeting the internal outcomes as expected as a result of the training and organizational
support for instructors’ input in meeting the organizational goal, the external outcomes should be
realized accordingly.
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Table 12
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Reduce levels of
failed/ not passed belt
promotions

Number of not passed/failed
tests
Belt promotion test results for
children of divorce from ITF
and WTA
Decrease the
community’s
perception that TKD
cannot improve the
learning of children of
divorce
Number of complaints from
parents/ intact families
Feedback from parents
Number of students with passed
tests from professional
associations
Pre-implementation and post-
implementation belt promotion
tests for children of divorce
from ITF and WTA
Internal Outcomes
Ensure that children
of divorce at TKD are
capable of meeting
belt promotion
requirements

Number of tests passed The report of three-month belt
promotion test results
Improved instruction
for K-12 students
who are children of
divorce

Number of positive peer and
founder reviews
Biweekly informal
unannounced walkthroughs
Improved
relationships among
TKD instructors, the
founder, children of
divorce and their
parents
Number of complaints with
negative feedback from
instructors and parents
Monthly reports from the
school’s administrator
Feedback during staff meetings

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Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are the TKD instructors. The first critical
behavior is that instructors need to be able to apply job aids on mindfulness-based training to
children of divorce. The second critical behavior is that they must learn from peers to accept and
willingly individualize instruction for children of divorce. The third critical behavior is that they
must improve their knowledge of diverse strategies to provide effective feedback. The fourth
critical behavior is that they must attend a lecture with a psychologist to be able to be well-aware
of problems of children of divorce, build supportive and trusting relationships, and engage
parents for developing a positive attitude to learning while enhancing their supportive learning
environment. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome behaviors are
summarized in Table 13.

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Table 13
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metrics Methods Timing
1. Instructors apply
mindfulness-
based job aids
for training
children of
divorce

Percentage of positive
responses in self-
reported instructor’s
checklist
Instructor’s checklist on
student attention and
behavior control
Every month
2. Instructors visit
each other’s
classes to from
peers to accept
and willingly
individualize
instruction for
children of
divorce

Number of instruction
strategies applied to
meet the diverse needs
of K-12 students who
are children of divorce
Instructors’ reflective
diaries
Every two weeks
3. Instructors
improve their
knowledge of
diverse strategies
to provide
positive feedback

Number of feedback
techniques used in
class
Student anonymous
survey
Every month
4. Instructors attend
a lecture with a
psychologist
Percentage of student
satisfaction with
increased parental
engagement
Survey among parents,
students, and instructors
Every month

Required drivers. Instructors require the support of their founder and the organization to
reinforce what they learn from the improvement interventions and to encourage them to apply
what they have learned to individualize instructions for K-12 students who are children of
divorce. Rewards should be established for the achievement of performance goals to enhance the
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organizational support of instructors. Table 14 shows the recommended drivers to support the
critical behaviors of TKD instructors.

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Table 14
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors
Supported
Reinforcing
The administrator supplies a job aid on how
to conduct a mindfulness-based training

Ongoing 1
The administrator supplies a checklist on
benefits of a mindfulness-based training and
student learning improvements to be
observed

Ongoing 1
Instructors meetings to discuss strategies to
manage children of divorce and provide
positive feedback

Instructors attend a lecture with a
psychologist to increase their awareness of
needs of children of divorce and the role of
parental engagement for their motivated
learning

Biweekly

One-time event
1, 2, 3

2, 3, 4
Encouraging
Instructors meet with the founder to discuss
success in improving the learning
environment for children of divorce

Monthly 1, 2, 3
Instructors meet with parents to discuss
success in improving the learning
environment for children of divorce

Monthly 1, 2, 3, 4
Instructors’ newsletters

Monthly 1, 2, 3
Rewarding
The founder acknowledges instructors’
success in progressing towards 100%
achieving TKD goal: e.g., “We are now at
50%.”

Monthly staff meetings 1, 2, 3
Monitoring
All-hands meetings to share success stories
on how instructors managed to improve
student learning and performance
Biweekly 1, 2, 3
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Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors
Supported

The founder can ask instructors to self-report
their level of self-efficacy and self-
confidence in preparing students who are
children of divorce for belt promotion tests

1.5 month after the start
of preparation for belt
promotion
1, 2, 3
The team leader can assess the learners’
preparation levels by attending classes

Monthly 1, 2, 3
Surveying key stakeholders on the
preparation process, e.g., students, parents
and instructors, to make adjustments in
process, if needed

Monthly 1, 2, 3

Organizational support. The organization will arrange meetings for instructors to share
knowledge and experiences for ensuring collaboration to develop supportive learning
environments for children of divorce. In addition, TKD will engage parents to discuss how
instructor-parent collaboration can be effective for their children’s improved learning and
successful completion of belt promotion tests. At the meetings, the stakeholders will be able to
develop collaborative relationships to strive for learning improvements in K-12 students who are
children of divorce.
Level 2: Learning
According to Baker (2006), learning refers to the integration of new knowledge and skill
into the current range of an individual’s competencies. In addition, Pajares (2006) emphasized
that effective operationalization of the acquired knowledge concepts in the scope of
organizational performance can help individuals in developing self-efficacy as well as increasing
their intrinsic motivation. In level 2, the researcher will evaluate the learning process that TKD
stakeholders plan to undergo to be able to implement the recommended interventions. These
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strategies should be put into practice by TKD to assist instructors in accomplishing their
stakeholder goal in collaboration with K-12 students who are children of divorce and their
parents in the process of preparation for and passing of belt promotion tests.
Learning goals. TKD stakeholder learning goals have been evaluated and explained in
this section to depict what stakeholders need to understand in order to develop the critical
behaviors and the driving forces, as specified in Table 13 and Table 14. The researcher utilized
Clark and Estes’ (2008) KMO influences to formulate the learning objectives, which will
facilitate the achievement of stakeholder goal by instructors.
1. Instructors summarize the steps of mindfulness-based training.
2. Instructors transfer knowledge on the application of differentiated/ situational leadership
in children of divorce gained from attending each other’s classes in their own instruction.
3. Instructors connect the importance of parental engagement with the motivation of the
children of divorce.
4. Instructors identify positive attitudes with regard to collaborating with parents and
students.
5. Instructors individualize instruction for children of divorce in TKD to manage their
attention and behavior.
6. Instructors use improved self-efficacy on the basis of positive feedback.
7. Instructors prioritize differentiation to motivate children of divorce to accomplish their
goals of successful belt promotion.
8. Instructors recognize the positive association between parent-instructor communication
and proper student learning process and outcomes.
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Program. As specified in the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016), organizations should adopt a methodological approach to enhance reaching stakeholder
learning objectives. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) state that organizations may gain
advantages from these programs since they are likely to improve stakeholder knowledge and
enable cultural accountability for stakeholder performance. TKD will develop a specific
professional accountability program on the grounds of a formative evaluation of stakeholder
performance implications as they correlate with TKD’s organizational goal. The factor of
professional accountability will be integrated with an internal TKD stakeholder support program
that should be instituted by the TKD administrator to enhance TKD instructors’ competencies in
accomplishing their stakeholder learning goals.
The TKD administrator, the founder, and TKD instructors should hold a collaborative
team meeting to discuss and develop a TKD stakeholder learning support plan that would be
supported by the ten aforementioned stakeholder learning objectives. In alignment with the
critical stakeholder behaviors and the relevant performance-based drivers, stakeholder learning
objectives would aid the internal TKD stakeholder support program in its teacher support role.
The program will be based on the objectives concerned with the stakeholder learning gaps that
would enhance TKD instructors’ understanding of their supported learning objectives. The
introduced learning support program will be implemented to ensure that instructors have an
understanding of the knowledge building blocks that impact their capability to accomplish their
guiding TKD program improvement stakeholder goal.
The TKD instructor learning support program will comprise of an initial meeting
involving all TKD internal stakeholders in devising a collaborative sharing environment as well
as present and discussing the previously specified eight adopted instructor-learning goals. In this
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context, instructors will be provided an opportunity to ask questions, offer individual input, and
express and discuss their concerns based on the formulated learning goals. As a result, these
learning objectives could be reviewed in process to ensure they are well-aligned with the
expectations set for the intervention. Next, weekly meetings of short duration should be
organized to offer continuous support to TKD instructors in light of peer mentoring/tutoring/ and
reflection on individual practices. In this way, the instructors would be well-aware of the
necessary knowledge, and motivational factors focused on their goal compliance. Moreover, the
meetings would be a useful reminder to the target stakeholder group that TKD instantly monitors
their performance as stakeholders and compliance with professional accountability standards.
Evaluation of the components of learning. In the New World Kirkpatrick Model,
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) asserted that knowledge, attitude, skills, confidence, along
with commitment, are intertwined basic elements of successful learning. Additionally, Clark and
Estes (2008) claimed that the utilization of assessment tools of stakeholder learning enables an
organization to develop the fundamental measurement towards the successful achievement of
stakeholder learning goals in order to identify possible performance and learning gaps in the
process. By means of formative and summative assessment, the organization would be able to
utilize the tools for holding stakeholders accountable for reaching the set learning goals. Finally,
the assessments would be helpful in identifying stakeholders capable of meeting the goals and
those who require additional support for productive learning.
Table 15 displays the evaluation components that impact the TKD stakeholder learning
goals. Additionally, the table indicates the learning methods and the specific timing in light of
the organizational assessment of stakeholder learning. The four methodological domains of
organizational accountability consist of procedural skills, attitudes, confidence, as well as
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commitment. Based on the proposed evaluative learning framework, TKD could aim to ensure
that stakeholders receive ample knowledge to be integrated into their performance competencies.
Table 15
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Methods or Activities Timing
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”

Mindfulness-based trainings Every month

Individualized attentional and behavioral
control strategies

Every two weeks
Application of different positive feedback
strategies

Regularly
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”

Instructors’ reflective diaries

Every week
Discussions on parental engagement as a
motivational factor for students

Every two weeks
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”

Discussions with colleagues and parents

Every month
Surveys using scales about instructor’s
differentiated leadership abilities

Every month
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”

Instructors’ reflective diaries

Every week
Surveys using scales about instructor’s
abilities for instructors and parents
Every month

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Level 1: Reaction
Based on the New World Kirkpatrick Model, level one aims to influence participant
perceptions and feedback according to the organizational learning frameworks aimed at
increasing individual stakeholder performance and achieving organizational goals (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Furthermore, Clark and Estes (2008) ascertained that if an organization
manages to incorporate proactive stakeholder ideas into its cultural settings and models, a high
likelihood of stakeholder performance outcomes is possible. At the Level 1 reaction phase of the
evaluative framework utilization, formative and summative assessments allow an organization
evaluating stakeholder perceptions concerned with both the relevance and effectiveness of
organizational learning programs (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The researchers emphasized
that the reaction phase equips the organizations with the instruments needed to critically assess
their learning models to make improvements, if necessary, and to enhance the productivity of
both stakeholders and the organization.
Table 16 displays the methods and the timing needed to measure TKD instructors’
reactions to the organizational learning support program. The three aspects to be measured are
engagement, relevance, and student satisfaction. With this trifold approach, stakeholder reactions
to the TKD learning support program would be measured through observation and stakeholder
feedback. Observations conducted by the TKD administrator and peer instructors, as well as
instructors’ self-reflections, would serve as both formative and summative assessment methods.
TKD instructor feedback will demonstrate the first-person perceptions of stakeholder learning as
a form of summative performance assessment.

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Table 16
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Methods or Tools Timing
Engagement

TKD administrator’s observation

Monthly
Peer instructor observation

Weekly
Feedback from students and parents

Weekly
Relevance

TKD administrator’s observation Monthly
Peer instructor observation

Weekly
Feedback from students and parents

Weekly
Instructors’ self-reflections

Weekly
Customer Satisfaction

TKD administrator’s observation

Weekly
Peer instructor observation

Weekly
Feedback from students and parents Weekly

Evaluation Tools
To monitor whether stakeholders’ performance and implementation of the interventions
are effective, organizations need to apply evaluation tools (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
The current study incorporates two training evaluation tools to be used to assess stakeholders’
performance from both formative and summative perspectives. On the one hand, the proposed
formative training evaluation results would represent stakeholder performance specificities with
regard to Level 1 and Level 2 learning. On the other hand, the researcher would use the
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rationalized summative training evaluation tool to assess stakeholder performance on Levels 1
through 4 of the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Immediately following the implementation of the program. Based on the New World
Kirkpatrick Model, Level 1, and Level 2 training comprise a notable aspect for conducting an
organizational evaluation to understand stakeholders’ learning-related views and attitudes
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). In the TKD learning support program, eight out of nine TKD
instructors would participate in a monthly one-hour discussion dedicated to their reactions as
stakeholders to the implemented intervention-based program. While the researcher is one of the
instructors, they did not take part in this evaluation. The TKD administrator and peer team could
conduct the assessment to evaluate Level 1 (Appendix D) by means of a brief biweekly survey
among instructors, and the results could be weighted by the TKD founder and (or) the TKD head
administrator to have a comprehensive insight into stakeholder perceptions of the intervention
strategy.
According to the New World Kirkpatrick Model, Level 2 of the evaluation framework is
concerned with the knowledge that stakeholders acquire from organizational training programs
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). To evaluate the introduced training program, the TKD
management would also conduct a brief survey (Appendix D) with regard to stakeholder
perceptions of their learning goals. The Level 2 assessment instrument would allow the TKD
program administrator to swiftly assess and synthesize stakeholder responses to make sure that
TKD instructors adequately understood the learning goals of the intervention-based training
program.
Delayed evaluation after program implementation. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2016) asserted that organizational learning programs should be evaluated through the lens of a
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four-level process comprising of results, behaviors, learning, and reactions. The researchers
stated that this approach would be an effective evaluation model for evaluating the effectiveness
of stakeholder intervention training in an organization (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). In line
with the recommendations derived from the inquiry, TKD would have biweekly meetings
focused on each of the four levels of learning evaluation. At the last meeting, the TKD instructor
training team would carry out the last in a series of three evaluations concerned with stakeholder
performance in the learning support program.
A summative survey would be the final assessment tool created to obtain a holistic
insight into stakeholder proficiency based on the TKD learning support program. The summative
assessment would include questions with the rating scales focused on each of the four levels of
evaluation and relate to the effectiveness of both the design of the learning framework and
stakeholder learning (see Appendix E). On the grounds of instructors’ responses, the TKD could
make adjustments in the learning program to ensure that the strategy is likely to maximize
effectiveness for future training (if necessary).
Data Analysis and Reporting
Carpenter (2012) emphasized that it is necessary to report findings of the evaluation in
the most explicit, brief, but comprehensive way to make sure that organizational stakeholders are
able to understand both results and implications of the evaluation. Additionally, the researcher
claimed that these findings could be valuable for enhancing stakeholder productivity by
integrating the knowledge they acquired into their updated skills toolkit. Furthermore, Clark and
Estes (2008) asserted that increasing stakeholder knowledge can be helpful in closing
performance gaps and facilitating their capability to achieve stakeholder and organizational goals
as a result. For the current inquiry, stakeholder learning evaluations in the scope of the TKD
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learning support program will be demonstrated by the process of data collection and synthesis,
along with face-to-face reporting of the results and findings.
During the TKD learning support process, TKD instructors, as the stakeholder group for
the program, will be provided with three assessment tools. The stakeholder group will have
formative survey assessments after the Level 1 and Level 2 interventions. To obtain a holistic
understanding of stakeholder perceptions, the stakeholders’ views of the program would be
evaluated in light of a summative survey assessment when they had accomplished their Level 1-4
weekly meetings. With the quantitative data collected, the TKD administrator would analyze and
synthesize the results attained from the brief Likert survey. The tool incorporated themes from
every level of the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) and would
enable the TKD to understand stakeholder perceptions of their learning and the design of the
learning support framework.
Post data analysis, the results would be inputted into a Microsoft Excel document
(Appendix F) to be able to calculate response frequency, mean, median, and mode. Next,
stakeholders would participate in a final learning support meeting to discuss and reflect on their
anonymous responses and the findings of the assessments. The final summative stakeholder
reflection would be valuable to infer how effective the learning support program had been at
offering learning support for TKD instructors with regard to integrating the recommended
intervention strategies on the basis of the TKD improvement program.
Summary
The researcher utilized Clark and Estes’ (2008) KMO framework for determining
performance gaps, conducting the study, synthesizing the data, and outlining recommendations
on the grounds of the obtained findings. Furthermore, the New World Kirkpatrick model
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(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) was applied as an evaluation framework to be able to define
stakeholder perceptions of the recommended interventions with reference to the TKD program
improvement. The utilized evaluation model could also be regarded as a relevant evaluation
instrument to assist TKD administration in identifying areas for improvement in the scope of the
learning model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
With the help of the Kirkpatrick New World Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016),
the researcher identified the four levels of evaluation and their potential effect on the evaluation
of learning in the TKD stakeholder group. The specific evaluation levels were considered from
Level 4 to Level 1. In this way, the evaluation framework would reveal the stakeholder learning
results through the lens of the TKD learning support model.
Level 4 of the New World Kirkpatrick Model was concerned with the results of
stakeholder learning (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Based on the analysis of the TKD
learning support program, the researcher drew a conclusion that TKD instructors would gain
substantial advantages from enhanced mindfulness-based training awareness, knowledge-
sharing, and collaboration with colleagues, students, and parents, as well as flexible instruction
strategies. Level 3 of the evaluation model targeted stakeholder behaviors, with a particular
focus on TKD instructors’ proactive communication and collaboration with divorced families for
developing trusting and supportive learning environment in the process for the preparation of K-
12 students who are children of divorce for their belt promotion tests. Reviewing the above
drivers, the researcher obtained comprehensive insight into the motivational factors as driving
forces for stakeholder behaviors. In addition, the evaluation was concerned with the
organizational support to demonstrate how the TKD cultural models and settings could impact
stakeholders’ reactions to learning. Level 2 of the evaluation model focused on the stakeholder
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 194

learning goals and factors capable of building support for stakeholder perceptions of the
recommended interventions. Based on the review of the instructional strategies and techniques
for behavioral and attentional control, the researcher revealed the antecedents, which would
enhance stakeholder knowledge necessary to attain the stakeholder goal as anticipated. Finally,
Level 1 concentrated on the evaluation of the stakeholder reactions to the TKD learning support
program. Utilizing TKD administrators and peers, as well as students and their parents’
feedback, TKD administration will be able to evaluate instructors’ competencies and stakeholder
perceptions of the learning program.
The researcher understands that comprehensive evaluation is a critical success factor for
the learning process that would encourage TKD to adopt the recommended interventions. By
means of the proactive learning support program, TKD could facilitate the collaborative and
supportive learning environment that should help in mitigating the learning gaps and enhance the
achievement of stakeholder goals. Although TKD has not integrated the researcher’s
recommended interventions as part of the organizational policies, the researcher anticipates that
the entire set of the recommendations, or at least their sufficient part, would be incorporated in
the TKD performance in the near future. The researcher is confident that the fact that the inquiry-
based recommendations combined with the four-level evaluation learning support plan could
entice both the stakeholders and the TKD organization achieve the goal of passing the belt
promotion tests among K-12 students who are children of divorce.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Research Approach
Utilizing KMO analysis of the data, the researcher determined baselines for KMO
influences capable of impacting instructors’ ability to achieve the stakeholder goal as anticipated.
Due to the fact the study employed the analytical model to three influences separately, the
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 195

researcher could identify the key KMO-related concepts inferred from the literature on the
impact of parental divorce on children’s learning and learning outcomes. The developed
conceptual framework was the cornerstone for the study focused on gaining primary evidence on
the topic with regard to the target martial arts school. Furthermore, the approach allowed
evaluating the empirical data concerned with the KMO influences in a focused and
individualized manner per research participant. As a result, the researcher was able to obtain an
in-depth understanding of the influences while exploring their importance as being driving forces
for stakeholder attitudes and behaviors in fulfilling their goal. Accordingly, the KMO model has
become the source for the integration of the collected data around the focused framework to
further identify the research findings and verify their relevance and validity.
The application of in-depth face-to-face interviews as a qualitative research method had
both advantages and weaknesses. On the one hand, the researcher developed a semi-structured
interview protocol with open-ended questions in relation to research questions. In this way,
referring to this methodology allowed gathering wide-scope primary data from direct participants
involved in the topic of interest, namely, leaning of K-12 students who are children of divorce
based on their interactions with the target audience. As a result, this method allowed obtaining
the data offering specific insight into perspectives of instructors on training children of divorce
for ensuring their successful belt promotion test. On the other hand, this research method allowed
no opportunity for generalizing the primary findings to similar settings and context, given the
fact that a single institution was under study. Still, the empirical findings can be regarded as
useful for gaining some qualitative insight into the topic that is fragmentarily covered in the
available literature.
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The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) was used as a
four-level, focused framework for rationalizing and evaluating stakeholder learning in relation to
the implementation of the proposed set of recommendations. Similarly to the KMO model, the
New World Kirkpatrick Model allowed an opportunity for analyzing the four aspects of the
suggested learning process (i.e., reactions, learning, evaluation, and results) to be able to evaluate
the success of the intervention for instructors on the individual basis. This approach seemed
relevant for understanding the complexity and interconnected nature of critical components of
the learning program and supported the evaluation of the effectiveness of potential stakeholder
learning.
The positive implications of both the Clark and Estes (2008) model and the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) far outweigh the possible weaknesses. In
particular, the models used provided frameworks for separate analysis of individual elements of
instructors’ beliefs, attitudes and behaviors guiding their achievement of the stakeholder goal
(i.e., evaluating knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences as separate constructs
based on the KMO model) and distinct levels related to planning and implementing the learning
program (i.e., specific levels evaluated with regard to the New World Kirkpatrick Model). It
seems reasonable to consider the need for evaluating these components as a whole due to their
interconnected nature and mutual impact on one another. The recurring themes identified
through the lens of KMO-based data analysis and interrelated critical behaviors in terms of
recommendations, among others, support the relevance of these frameworks.
Future Research
The findings of the current inquiry can be useful for conducting further research in
relation to the impact of parents’ divorce on children’s learning within the martial arts context.
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 197

From a theoretical view, well-synthetized prior research on the topic can become a fundamental
basis for exploring the topic from the other stakeholders’ perspective, such as that of children of
divorce or their parents. The described research procedure and methodology could be applied to
explore the influences relevant for other stakeholder groups, such as students, children, or
founder, and replicate the research design and process implemented in this study. In this way, it
will be possible to collect empirical evidence on the post-divorce impact on children’s success
from a position of diverse stakeholder groups and propose more wide-scope recommendations to
eliminate the identified learning gaps, if any.
From a practical perspective, the obtained research results could be further tested to be
able to attain empirical evidence on the proposed solutions from a large research sample.
Specifically, it would be an interesting idea to develop hypotheses on the relevance of the
proposed solutions as well as test and verify the recommendations in the scope of a practical
project and conduct the follow-up study to determine if solutions would lead to the
improvements as anticipated. To make sure the findings are generalizable and credible, a
quantitative inquiry could be focused on multiple martial arts settings with similar characteristics
of the target audience (i.e., K-12 students who are children of divorce) and numerous variables
being evaluated at the same time (e.g., demographics, athletes’ levels of expertise, instructors’
teaching styles). Moreover, a cross-sectional intervention can be conducted when the data
synthesis on the assumed value of Tae Kwon Do philosophy for enhancing student learning
process and outcomes could be tested and verified, if at all, within the regular school settings.
Conclusion
The researcher has over 27 years of experience in Tae Kwon Do training, including 19
years of teaching practice with different roles being assigned to her at various stages of training,
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ranging from peer support at initial stages of teaching practice to becoming a role model for
students at the current stage. Although traditional Tae Kwon Do philosophy provides a
standardized set of requirements for student training and preparation to belt promotion tests, the
researcher has often observed learning challenges encountered by K-12 students who are
children of divorce, thus, their poorer level achievements as compared to children from intact
families. These practice-driven observations enticed the researcher to conduct an empirical
inquiry evaluating instructors’ performance and capability to meet the organizational goal of
ensuring all K-12 students who are children of divorce pass their belt promotion tests.
The researcher understands the role of an instructor’s input in productive and effective
learning of martial arts students who are overburdened by post-divorce-related issues. The major
objective of this inquiry was an in-depth exploration of the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that are likely to impact TKD instructors’ capacity to effectively train
children of divorce for ensuring they pass their belt promotion along with identifying possible
gaps in regard to these KMO influences. Utilizing a qualitative research design, the researcher
not only aimed at obtaining primary evidence on the possible problem of practice within the
martial arts setting. The researcher also targeted rationalizing evidence-based solutions to
mitigate the identified gaps, if any, and facilitate the instructors’ positions in fulfilling their
teaching roles and meeting the set organizational goals while mitigating possible learning
deficiencies for children of divorce.
The study results were relevant to expanding the current knowledge in regards to the
assumption that traditional Tae Kwon Do philosophy has a strong stance in terms of assisting the
individuals facing adverse life events, such as parental divorce, in handling the psycho-emotional
difficulties and ensuring successful learning process and outcomes. Based on the focused
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 199

inquiry, the research found that the instructors need to proactively plan their instruction, with an
emphasis on differentiation in various components of the teaching process and attitudes. In this
way, the instructors informed decisions on supportive and facilitating learning for children of
divorce can be ensured through a synthesis of the available secondary and collected primary
findings.

IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 200

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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Thank you for taking part in this research study and for your contribution to exploring the
impact of parents’ divorce on children as relevant for your position as a stakeholder in the
context of the problem in question. The purpose of this study is collecting the empirical evidence
in the Tae Kwon Do school from the instructor’s perspective in order to clarify the relevance of
the use of martial arts principles in the scope of a regular school curriculum as an opportunity to
enhance learning process and outcomes for the K-12 students who are the children of divorce.
The researcher will thoroughly apply the ethical principles to ensure the trustworthiness and
validity of the research procedure. In particular, pseudonyms will be utilized to secure the
confidentiality of the research participant’s personal information and prevent any possibility of
personal data disclosure. Moreover, the interview results and personal data obtained will be
stored on a password-protected computer to further prevent the possibility of personal
information disclosure. At the same time, it is necessary to acknowledge that you are free not to
answer the questions you do not wish to answer, while you also can withdraw from the study at
any point.
1. Tell me about your experience in preparing students for their three-month belt promotion
test. How, if at all, does this approach differ for K-12 students who are children of
divorce? Do you see any resistance, disciplinary, attendance, or other differences in K-12
students who are children of divorce? (K)
2. Tell me whether you adapt your teaching strategies to the needs of individual students.
What is the value, if any, of such differentiated instruction for students who are children
of divorce? (M)
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 224

3. What specific techniques should be used at distinct stages of the training session? How, if
at all, do those techniques differ for K-12 students who are children of divorce? (K)
4. How do you gain the attention of students? How, if at all, do your attention control
strategies differ for children of divorce? (K)
5. How do you control student behavior during the training sessions? How, if at all, does
your approach differ for children of divorce? (K)
6. How would you describe yourself as a leader when providing instruction for K-12
students? How, if at all, does your leadership style differ for children of divorce? (M)
7. Tell me how you motivate K-12 students. How about children of divorce? (M)
8. Could you tell me about your role in enhancing student attitudes towards learning? What
are your training/ communication hints to encourage them being effective learners? How
is your approach different for children of divorce? (M)
9. Tell me about relationships your organization has built with students, who are children of
divorce, their parents, and TKD instructors. Is there enough trust and collaboration
between these individuals? (O)
10. How do your organizational values and beliefs help to encourage effective
communication and collaboration with students, who are children of divorce, and their
parents? (O)
11. How much non-instruction time does your organization provide to you? Is this time
enough to effectively communicate and collaborate with students, who are children of
divorce, and their parents and provide the learning support to the students? (O)
12. How does sharing knowledge and experiences with your colleagues help in preparing
training and support for K-12 students? How about children of divorce? (O)
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13. What if you had an opportunity to change the learning environment for children of
divorce in TKD, what would you do to make it more supportive? (O)

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Appendix B: Table of Interview Questions versus Constructs of the Research Questions and
Conceptual Framework
Constructs Interview Question
Knowledge: Procedural knowledge Tell me about your experience in preparing
students for their three-month belt promotion
test? How, if at all, does this differ for K-12
students who are children of divorce? Do you
see any resistance, disciplinary, attendance, or
other differences in K-12 students who are
children of divorce? (K)

Utility value: Differentiation Tell me whether you adapt your teaching
strategies to the needs of individual students.
What is the value of such differentiated
instruction for students who are children of
divorce? (M)

Procedural knowledge: Distinct techniques at
specific stages of training
What specific techniques should be used at
distinct stages of the training session? How, if
at all, do those techniques differ for K-12
students who are children of divorce? (K)

Procedural knowledge: Differentiated
instruction to develop attentional control
How do you gain the attention of students?
How, if at all, do your attention control
strategies differ for children of divorce? (K)

Procedural knowledge: Differentiated
instruction to develop behavioral control
How do you control student behavior during
the training sessions? How, if at all, does your
approach differ for children of divorce? (K)

Self-efficacy: Differentiative leadership How would you describe yourself as a leader
when providing instruction for K-12 students?
How, if at all, does your leadership style
differ for children of divorce? (M)

Attributions: Student engagement and
motivation
Tell me how you motivate K-12 students.
How about children of divorce? (M)

Attributions: Student engagement and
motivation
Could you tell me about your role in
enhancing student attitudes toward learning?
What are your training/ communication hints
to encourage them being effective learners?
How is your approach different for children of
divorce? (M)
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 227

Constructs Interview Question

Cultural models: Culture of trust and
collaboration between stakeholders
Tell me about relationships your organization
has built with students, who are children of
divorce, their parents, and TKD instructors. Is
there enough trust and collaboration between
these individuals? (O)

Cultural models: Culture of trust and
collaboration between stakeholders

How do your organizational values and
beliefs help to encourage effective
communication and collaboration with
students, who are children of divorce, and
their parents? (O)

Cultural model: Ample non-instruction time

How much non-instruction time does your
organization provide to you? Is this time
enough to effectively communicate and
collaborate with students, who are children of
divorce, and their parents and provide the
learning support to the students? (O)

Cultural setting: Knowledge sharing How does sharing knowledge and experiences
with your colleagues help in preparing
training and support for K-12 students? How
about children of divorce? (O)

Cultural setting: Supportive work
environment
What if you had an opportunity to change the
learning environment for children of divorce
in TKD, what would you do to make it
more supportive? (O)

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Appendix C: Results Summary with Relation to Prior Research and Categorized as Strengths or
Gaps
Theme Subtheme
Prior Research vs
Distinct Theme
Strength
Y/N
Gap
Y/N
Research Question One: Stakeholder’s Knowledge
Teaching process

Distinct stages of
training
(Conceptual
framework)
Belt promotion
specifics
Koh et al. (2018)

Paunescu et al.
(2015a; 2015b)
Y

N
Differentiated belt
promotion training
- the first-
month training
- the second-
month training
- third-month
training
Y N
Routine training Na (2009);
Paunescu et al.
(2015a)
Y N
One-on-one
training:
- with
instructor

- with higher-
level students
Distinct
Individualized
instruction
Koh et al.
(2018); Paunescu
et al. (2015a)
Y N
Flexible scheduling Distinct N N (acknowledged
in other
influences)
Instructor
perception
(Attentional
control in the
conceptual
framework)
Multi-modal
maintenance of
discipline
Distinct Y N
Student role models Distinct N N (acknowledged
in other
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 229

Theme Subtheme
Prior Research vs
Distinct Theme
Strength
Y/N
Gap
Y/N
influences)
Positive support Bujak et al.
(2012)
Y N
Mindfulness Lakes et al.
(2013); Naves-
Bittencourt et al.
(2015)
N Y
Behavioral
control
Disciplinary action
for misbehavior
Distinct Y N
One-on-one
conversations
Distinct Y N
Reference to the
Tae Kwon Do
philosophy
Diamond (2014);
Lakes et al.
(2013)
Y N
Family-like school
environment
Distinct Y N

Research Question Two: Stakeholder’s Motivation
Theme Subtheme Prior Research vs
Distinct
Strength
Y/N
Gap
Y/N
Teaching style
(Utility value in
the conceptual
framework)
Peer support Distinct Y N
Tae Kwon Do
based value system
Avelar-Rosa et
al. (2016); Harrel
(2013); Koh et
al. (2018); Oh
(2013); Paunescu
et al. (2015a)
Y N
Needs of children
of divorce
Johnstone and
Mari-Befa
(2018)
N N (acknowledged
in other
influences)
(Self-efficacy in
the conceptual
framework)
Instructor as a role
model
Jones et al.
(2006); Lee and
Kim (2012)
Y N
Applying
situational
leadership styles
and concepts
Choi et al.
(2016); Lim et al.
(2016); Torabi et
al. (2013)
N Y
(Attributions in
the conceptual
framework)
Instructor-induced
positive attitude/
environment
Cook (2009);
Lee and Kim
(2012)
Y N
Tae Kwon Do Distinct Y N
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 230

Theme Subtheme
Prior Research vs
Distinct Theme
Strength
Y/N
Gap
Y/N
school as a family
Parental attitude Appleton et al.
(2010);
Krahnstoever et
al. (2006); Park
and Kim (2014)
N Y
Research Question Three: Interaction of Instructors’ Knowledge and Motivation and
Organizational Context
Theme Subtheme Prior Research vs
Distinct
Strength
Y/N
Gap
Y/N
Institutional
teaching
philosophy
(Culture of trust
and collaboration
between
stakeholders in
the conceptual
framework)
The role of the
founder
Distinct Y N
Instructor-parent
collaboration
Krahnstoever et
al. (2006)
Y N
Tae Kwon Do
philosophy as a
facilitator for
student success
Diamond (2014);
Jankowski and
Holas (2014);
Ottoboni et al.
(2014)
Y N
Teaching context
(Ample non-
instruction time
in the conceptual
framework)

Well-organized
schedule
Distinct Y N
Openness to
collaboration
Distinct N N (acknowledged
in other
influences)
(Knowledge
sharing in the
conceptual
framework)

Regular meetings
for knowledge
sharing
Johnson (2016;
2017) and
Reeves et al.
(2006)
Y N
Exchange of ideas
for improved
instruction
Arkes (2015);
Diamond (2014);
Hernandez and
Anderson (2015)
Y N
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 231

Theme Subtheme
Prior Research vs
Distinct Theme
Strength
Y/N
Gap
Y/N
(Supportive
work
environment in
the conceptual
framework)

Tae Kwon Do
school as a family
Distinct Y N
Wider-scope
parental support

- Both parents’
engagement
Chen et al.
(2014)

N Y
- Addressing
transportation
issues
Lee et al. (2017);
Sun AND Li,
2009)
N Y
- Psychological
support
Cohen and
Weitzman
(2016); Trinder
et al. (2008);
Baskin et al.
(2010); Mahmud
et al. (2011) –
regular schools’
context
N Y
Student training
schedule
modifications
Distinct N N (acknowledged
in other
influences)
Institutional
teaching
philosophy
(Acceptance and
willingness to
differentiate
instruction in the
conceptual
framework)

Communication-
induced acceptance
of differentiation
Distinct N Y
Student’s strengths-
based
encouragement
(e.g. positive
feedback)
Carpentier and
Mageau (2013);
Pilianidis et al.
(2014)
N Y

IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 232

Appendix D: Immediate Evaluation - Level 1 Survey
1. I found that I was able to understand how the job handout helped me to develop student
mindfulness skills
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
2. Knowledge sharing will assist me in developing a more supportive environment for
children of divorce
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
3. I am satisfied with the lecture where I obtained knowledge on engaging parents to
motivate children of divorce
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
4. I am confident that I can utilize diverse leadership styles according to learning situations
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
5. I found the communication with divorced parents valuable for improving my role as an
instructor
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
6. What improvements could be made to ensure the learning environment for children of
divorce is more supportive?

IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 233

Appendix E: Immediate Evaluation - Level 2 Survey
1. I understand the importance of communication and collaboration with students and parents
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
2. I understand that parental engagement facilitates the supportive learning environment
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
3. I understand that displaying a collaborative attitude breaks down the student learning
challenges
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
4. I understand that flexible leadership strategies are useful for student motivation
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
5. I understand the importance of individualized instruction for children of divorce
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
6. I am able to motivate students to successfully pass their belt promotion tests
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
7. I am knowledgeable about diverse approaches to providing positive feedback
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
8. I am able to utilize parental engagement efficiently in the TKD instruction planning process
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
9. I can develop increased student self-efficacy based on their improved mindfulness skills
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
10. I understand that an instructor’s self-efficacy affects student’s learning motivation
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 234

Appendix F: Delayed Blended Assessment: Level 1-4 Survey
1. The delivery of information on mindfulness-based training was clear and understandable:
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
2. The knowledge sharing I took part in was useful:
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
3. I can apply parental engagement effectively in instruction planning:
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
4. I know how to apply diverse leadership styles according to learning situations:
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
5. I ask questions during the learning process:
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
6. I reflect on my learning as an instructor on a regular basis:
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
7. I willingly differentiate my instruction to reach my stakeholder goal:
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
8. My learning has directly influenced my capability to properly prepare students to belt
promotion tests:
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 235

Appendix G: TKD Learning Support Program Assessment Review
Assessment Code Question
Q1 The delivery of information on mindfulness-based training was clear
and understandable
Q2 The knowledge sharing I took part in was useful
Q3 I can apply parental engagement effectively in instruction planning
Q4 I know how to apply different leadership styles according to learning
situations
Q5 I ask questions during the learning process
Q6 I reflect on my learning as an instructor on a regular basis
Q7 I willingly apply differentiated instruction to reach my stakeholder goal
Q8 My learning has directly influenced my capability to properly prepare
students to belt promotion tests

Likert Scale for Responses
Strongly agree (1) A positive response to the question
Agree (2) A positive response to the question
Sometimes (0) A neutral response to the question
Disagree (3) A negative response to the question
Strongly disagree (4) A negative response to the question

IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 236

Question Response Grid
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8
I 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
I 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2
I 3 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2
I 4 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2
I 5 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2
I 6 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
I 7 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
I 8 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2

Measures of central tendency
Mean 1 1.375 1.625 1.625 1.25 1.25 1.375 1.875
Median 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2
Mode 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2

IMPACT OF PARENTS’ DIVORCE 237

Frequency of Likert Scale data
Strongly
agree 1 8 5 3 3 6 6 5 1
Agree 2 0 3 5 5 2 2 3 7
Sometime
s 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Disagree 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Strongly
disagree 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The impact of parents’ divorce on learning outcomes for K-12 students is a challenge for U.S. communities (what is the challenge, why is this a challenge for the community). These children often experience stress and are likely to exhibit externalizing and internalizing behavior problems that can negatively affect their development and impact learning achievements and participation in after-school programs. Prior research demonstrated that Tae Kwon Do training enhanced student learning potential

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Nguyen Dang, Kim-Anh (author)

Core Title The impact of parents’ divorce on student learning: a case study of institutional support in a martial arts school

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 04/06/2020

Defense Date 02/10/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag children of divorce,divorce-related impact,K-12 students,KMO model,Martial arts,mindfulness,OAI-PMH Harvest,Tae Kwon Do

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Moore, Ekaterina (committee chair), Brady, Melanie (committee member), Datta, Monique (committee member)

Creator Email kimtentkd22@aol.com,knguyend@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-278889

Unique identifier UC11673454

Identifier etd-NguyenDang-8246.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-278889 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-NguyenDang-8246.pdf

Dmrecord 278889

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Nguyen Dang, Kim-Anh

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA