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Motherhood wage penalty, family leave policies, gender wage gap, and its influences on career advancement: an evaluation study

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Motherhood wage penalty, family leave policies, gender wage gap, and its influences on career advancement: an evaluation study

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MOTHERHOOD WAGE PENALTY, FAMILY LEAVE POLICIES, GENDER WAGE GAP,
AND ITS INFLUENCES ON CAREER ADVANCEMENT: AN EVALUATION STUDY

By
Perla A. Hernandez Trumkul

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2021

Copyright 2021 Perla A. Hernandez Trumkul

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This dissertation is dedicated to all the hardworking mothers who, day in and day out,
provide for their entire families. Your work and sacrifice have not been unnoticed. You have
borne the social and economic cost for our nation, and for this, you deserve legislation that is
equitable and cares for you and your child.
To my loving husband, thank you for standing by me and supporting my dreams. To my
little one, I love you Ava Sophia, you are my inspiration and the reason why this study is so
important. To my parents, your hard work and bravery set the tone and the foundation for me to
be the first in our family to receive a doctoral degree.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................... v
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ vi
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... vii

Chapter One: Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1
Introduction to the Problem of Practice .............................................................................. 1
Organizational Context and Mission ................................................................................... 2
Organizational Goal ............................................................................................................ 4
Literature Review ................................................................................................................ 5
Importance of the Evaluation .............................................................................................. 6
Description of Stakeholders ................................................................................................ 7
Stakeholder Group for the Study ......................................................................................... 7
Purpose of the Project and Questions .................................................................................. 7
Methodological Framework ................................................................................................ 8
Definitions ........................................................................................................................... 8
Organization of the Project.................................................................................................. 9

Chapter Two: Literature Review ................................................................................................... 10
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 10
Lack of Career Advancement ................................................................................ 10
Gender Inequality and Discrimination .................................................................. 11
Gender Wage Gap ................................................................................................. 14
Family Leave Policies ........................................................................................... 15
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Framework ............................... 19
Knowledge and Skills ............................................................................................ 19
Motivation ............................................................................................................. 23
Organization .......................................................................................................... 26
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and
Motivation and the Organizational Context ...................................................................... 29
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 32

Chapter Three: Methods ................................................................................................................ 33
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................. 34
Criterion 1.............................................................................................................. 34
Criterion 2.............................................................................................................. 34
Interview and Data Collection ........................................................................................... 34
Credibility and Trustworthiness ........................................................................................ 36
Ethics ................................................................................................................................. 37
Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................................... 38

Chapter Four: Findings .................................................................................................................. 39
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................. 39
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Findings ..................................................... 41

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Knowledge Findings.............................................................................................. 42
Motivation Findings .............................................................................................. 49
Organizational Influence Findings ........................................................................ 57
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 67

Chapter Five: Recommendations and Solutions ........................................................................... 68
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences ........................................... 68
Knowledge Recommendations .............................................................................. 68
Motivation Recommendation ................................................................................ 70
Organizational Influences...................................................................................... 72
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ............................................................... 74
Level 4: Findings and Leading Indicators ............................................................. 75
Level 3: Behavior .................................................................................................. 76
Level 2: Learning .................................................................................................. 79
Level 1: Reaction................................................................................................... 81
Evaluation Tools.................................................................................................... 82
Data Analysis and Reporting ................................................................................. 84
Summary ............................................................................................................... 84
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach...................................................................... 84
COVID-19 Pandemic ............................................................................................ 85
Future Research ................................................................................................................. 85
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 87

References ..................................................................................................................................... 89

Appendices .................................................................................................................................... 96
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ....................................................................................... 96
Appendix B: KMO Interview Questions and Responses .................................................. 98
Appendix C: Female Employee Family and Maternity Leave Training Survey ............. 109
Appendix D: After Female Employees Have Taken Family and Maternity Leave ........ 110

v

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Total Number of Females, Percentages, Job Description and Ethnicity ........................... 3
Table 2: Knowledge Influences and Types for the Gap Analysis ................................................. 23
Table 3: Motivation Influences and Assessments for Gap Analysis ............................................. 25
Table 4: Organizational Influences and Assessments for Gap Analysis ....................................... 29
Table 5: Demographic Information of Participants ....................................................................... 41
Table 6: Knowledge Types, Influences, and Findings .................................................................. 42
Table 7: Motivation Types, Influences, and Findings ................................................................... 50
Table 8: Organizational Types, Influences, and Findings ............................................................. 58
Table 9: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations .......................................... 69
Table 10: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendation .......................................... 70
Table 11: Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations ................................... 72
Table 12: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes ........................ 76
Table 13: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation ............................... 77
Table 14: Recommended Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors .................................................. 78
Table 15: Components of Learning for the Program .................................................................... 81
Table 16: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program ...................................................... 82
Table 17: Knowledge Influences, Interview Results..................................................................... 98
Table 18: Motivational Influences, Interview Results ................................................................ 101
Table 19: Organizational Influences, Interview Results ............................................................. 105

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Motherhood Wage Penalty, Family Leave Policies, and Its Influence on Career
Advancement ......................................................................................................... 31

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ABSTRACT
This study examined if women have limited career prospects due to pregnancy or motherhood
status. The purpose of the study was to identify the knowledge, motivation, and organization
influences by using Clark and Estes (2008) framework to comprehend if women were impacted
when they chose to start families. The research questions guided the study’s understanding and
assisted in addressing the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organization elements. The data
collected was reviewed and synthesized to clearly display the findings. The study determined
that there was a lack of knowledge about family and maternity leave policies. The study also
determined that some of the women felt that they could not advance due to their circumstances
apart from their abilities. Additionally, the majority of study participants felt that the
organization offered work schedule flexibility in case of personal crisis. Some of the women
attributed the lack of work-life balance and information availability to the lack of a human
resource unit and on or off-site childcare. The study used a Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016)
framework to recommend organizational opportunities to support female employees and
reinforce best practices and policies. Further study is recommended as there is an absence of
varied research on working women who happen to be pregnant or mothers. A more in-depth
study needs to take place to further conversations on gender inequality and discrimination, the
gender wage gap, and the mother wage penalty.

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction to the Problem of Practice
This study addresses the current obstacles women face in the workplace during times of
pregnancy, post-childbirth, and as mothers. Studies demonstrate that there are pay and career
advancement gaps and a lack of access to leave accommodations for women who choose to start
families and take maternity leave to care for their children (Anderson et al., 2002a; Bearak et al.,
2016). Eagly and Carli (2007) affirm that women who choose motherhood while working are
perceived by employers to be less reliable and show a lack of commitment to their work
positions, and that choosing motherhood hinders women’s career advancement. This is a
problem because women who take time for childcare are perceived as “trading off” between
motherhood and career success or having competing interests that are not compatible with their
work (Epstein, 2004). Empirical evidence on wage trajectories for women shows that maternity
leave creates a concept called the motherhood wage penalty (Epstein, 2004). Mothers encounter
systemic disadvantages when returning to their workplace after giving birth or taking a hiatus to
raise their children (Budig & England, 2001).
The motherhood wage penalty highlights differences in productivity and key indicators
such as interruptions from work, working part-time, and decreased seniority of work experience
(Anderson et al., 2002a). This problem is important to address because the lack of adequate
family leave policies is contributing to factors that limit working mothers’ career advancement,
keep their wages from increasing, and contribute to continued wage disparities between men and
women (Anderson et al., 2002b; Koland, 2015). Supporting women is important and everyone
benefits when the talents and contributions of women are leveraged to reap economic growth.

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Organizational Context and Mission
This case study will examine a global manufacturing company located in Los Angeles
County in Southern California. For this study, and to protect the anonymity of the organization,
the company will be referred to as Chemcorp. Chemcorp develops, distributes, and stores organic
and synthetic chemical materials used for agriculture, household, and industrial markets.
Chemcorp defines its mission as being committed to the highest standards with great products,
customer service, and a positive environment for all its personnel. Chemcorp’s CEO and
President is a Caucasian male. Additionally, the Chemcorp Board of Directors has four members,
all of which are Caucasian males. Chemcorp employs 70 people, 18 of whom are women (26%
of the population). Of the 18 women, nine are women of color (50% of all women). Table 1 (on
the following page) illustrates the total number, percentage, job descriptions, and ethnic makeup
of the female employees at Chemcorp.

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Table 1
Total Number of Females, Percentage, Job Description & Ethnicity
Total No. of
Females
Total Percentage of
Females
Job Descriptions Ethnicity
5 42% Sales Liaisons 1 Filipina
1 Persian
3 Caucasian
2 28.6% Management 2 Caucasian
4 80% Customer Liaisons 3 Latinas
1 Caucasian
3 75% Account Liaisons 1 Latina
2 Caucasian
1 100% Executive Assistant 1 Latina
5 100% Purchasing Liaisons 2 Latinas
3 Caucasian
1 100% Production Assistant 1 Caucasian
1 100% Chemist 1 Caucasian

According to Chemcorp, company costs include salary amounts, medical, dental, vision,
short-term and long-term disability, and life insurance. Chemcorp also pays 78% of the insurance
premium for employees, spouses, and dependents. There is a match of 50%, up to the first 4% by
Chemcorp on 401K contributions. Salary amounts are as follows:
● Management $50K to $350K
● Salespersons $60 to $150K (plus 10% bonus)
● Clerical $30K to $85K
● Production $30K to $75K
● Drivers $50K to $75K
● Technical Lab $30k to $65K

4

Chemcorp’s employee handbook postulates that the time-off policy is unpaid personal
leave; an employee must accrue vacation time before unpaid leave. Health insurance and other
benefits continue for no longer than twelve weeks from the start date if the employee continues
to pay any portion of the contribution. Benefits that accrue according to the length of service,
such as paid vacation, holiday, and personal leave, do not increase during periods of sick time.
Maternity leave is unpaid and sick leave is capped at three days after three months of continuous
employment. In other words, if a person leaves to give birth and care for their child, they must
take vacation time that has been earned while working at Chemcorp. The three sick leave days
do not accrue from year to year. Earned paid vacation may be taken in place of unpaid sick leave.
Sick leave requires a doctor’s note. If an employee is absent for more than three consecutive
workdays, in cases of a work-related injury where there was time loss, or when returning from a
personal or medical leave, Chemcorp reserves the right to ask for an examination from a
physician chosen by Chemcorp. Chemcorp abides by the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
and employees may require reasonable accommodation if they have a disability.
Organizational Goal
By Spring 2022, Chemcorp will revise its company procedures and policies to improve
its working conditions for all its employees. While the study focuses on women and their
experiences in the workplace, the goal of the company is to specifically view the experiences that
are shared by all who work side by side with the women at Chemcorp. Currently, Chemcorp does
not have a thorough and detailed policy in place for employees who need to take maternity leave
to care for a new child or take family leave to care for family members in general.

5

Literature Review

Four themes emerged from the literature review process: (a) lack of career advancement,
(b) gender inequality and discrimination, (c) gender wage gap, and (d) family leave policies. This
review is informative of the challenge women face when taking maternity or family leave. There
is a double standard for mothers who have higher professional aspirations, and this requires them
to do more for work and life balance (Epstein & Kalleberg, 2004). According to Anderson et al.
(2002b), the motherhood wage penalty is a statistical analysis of women in the workplace, and it
is a way to calculate and talk about wage penalties. The motherhood penalty is defined by
absence from work, and the results are based on human capital statistical controls such as full-
time versus part-time status and time away for childrearing. The results are defined and based on
the bottom-line financial incentives for employers and mothers who are being discriminated
against in the workplace for having and rearing their children, thus perpetuating gender
inequality at the workplace (Anderson et al., 2002a). Women experience discrimination at work
because employers assume that they are or will become mothers (Budig & England, 2001).
Mothers experience discrimination at work because there is an assumption that productivity is
lower and their commitment is at home (Anderson et al., 2002a).
The Report on the Status of Women and Girls (2018) affirms that women experience a
pay decrease and have fewer opportunities for work promotions as mothers. Mothers encounter
systemic disadvantages when returning to work after giving birth or taking a hiatus to raise
children. Adequate social changes to rectify this gap will require extended legal protection for
working mothers in the United States. The Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) was enacted
to extend sick days (Albiston, 2005). FMLA is also available for employees to extend the time
for family and maternity leave. FMLA does not prohibit employers from discriminating against

6

employees and there are no provisions associated with Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
The Civil Rights Act is the federal law that prohibits employers from discriminating based on
sex, race, color, national origin, and religion. According to Albiston (2005), the Civil Rights Act
has not been interpreted to extend to working mothers. Extending legal protections for working
mothers in the United States will require a social and policy change. Mandates such as the
FMLA have been extended in California with the passage of the California Family Act (CRFA)
and the California Paid Family Leave (PFL) to compensate mothers and fathers for maternity
leave (The Report on the Status of Women and Girls, 2018).
Importance of the Evaluation
Clark and Estes (2008) affirm that an evaluation is an essential process when one is
attempting to improve performance or close a performance gap. It is the primary way to
determine the connections between performance gaps, improvement programs, and cost-
effectiveness, and if applied properly, can guarantee success.
There is a clear problem with both equal and equitable corporate policies outlining
benefits for expecting and working mothers, and many past studies identify the obstacles these
women face in the American workplace (Cohen, 2013; Eagly & Carli, 2007; Gabriel & Schmitz,
2007). Several factors contribute to a lack of career and leadership opportunities for women,
including a lack of adequate family leave policies, the motherhood wage penalty, and gender
inequality. It is important that women are properly supported, not only because doing so is the
right thing to do, but also because doing so will have a significant positive impact on economic
growth, allowing greater leverage of the professional talents of women within the workplace.
Examining Chemcorp practices related to this issue can contribute to a richer understanding of
the entire problem.

7

Due to the obstacles that expecting and working mothers face as defined by past studies
in other companies, it is important to evaluate Chemcorp’s performance. Studies conducted by
the Pew Research Center (2015) state that family responsibilities may make it harder for women
to advance in their careers and compete. Understanding how Chemcorp’s relationship with
female employees will help provide an understanding of the problem.
Description of Stakeholders
There are two stakeholder groups in this problem of practice which include the CEO,
who is also the Chairman of the Board, and the female employees at Chemcorp. The CEO and
Chairman of the Board is the leader of the organization, and sets rules of conduct, provides
procedures and policies, and oversees payroll and benefits. The female employees have multiple
positions within the company, ranging from administrative to chemist and middle managers, and
they represent 26% of the overall employee population at Chemcorp.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
The analysis included both stakeholder groups, but this study concentrated on a sample
size of female employees. Though the problem of practice focused on the women at work, the
interviews focused on family policies and procedures related to perceptions of women as
workers, perspectives on gender inequality, and motherhood. The women are the key stakeholder
group in the study because they may seek time off for childbirth while working at Chemcorp.
Purpose of the Project and Questions

The purpose of this project was to study the organization’s performance related to a
larger problem of practice. The analysis focused on the assets in the areas of knowledge and
skill, motivation, and organizational resources (KMO). Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis
framework is a model to examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences to

8

identify root causes of performance gaps that could negatively impact goal achievement. The
KMO framework was applied in this study to allow scrutiny of the KMO influences related to
the stakeholder goal.
Methodological Framework
The goal of this study was to conduct a gap analysis by examining the perspectives of the
stakeholder group of focus. Understanding the experiences of a group is best achieved through a
qualitative methodology. The conceptual framework will detect the problem and recognize an
appropriate explanation to analyze knowledge and skills associated with an evaluation. The
research questions that guided the study are:
1. What are employees’, who are working mothers, knowledge and motivation regarding
gaps in pay and advancement and access to family leave and accommodations?
2. How do female employees’ knowledge and motivation interact with the organizational
culture and context?
Definitions

Some of these terms are frequently used and definitions are important to the study.
California Family Rights Act – California state law requires employers with 50 or more
employees to provide eligible employees with up to 12 weeks of leave in a 12-month
period.
Child Care Initiative Project – California grant program to fund childcare facilities.
Civil Rights Act – U.S. civil rights and labor law that outlaws discrimination based on race,
color, religion, sex, or national origin.
Equal Pay Act – U.S. labor law amending the Fair Labor Standards Act, aimed at
ending wage disparity based on sex.

9

Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) – Federal labor law that requires employers to provide
employees with job-protected and unpaid leave for qualified medical and family reasons.
Motherhood Wage Penalty – Describes how female employees who take time to give birth and
raise children suffer severe wage and hiring disadvantages on their return to the
workplace.
Paid Family Leave (PFL) – California state law provides six weeks of partially paid leave for
both mothers and fathers to bond with a new child within the child's first year.
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize the study. This chapter provided the reader with the
key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about family leave policies, and
the financial costs of working women as defined by the concept of the motherhood wage penalty.
Gender inequality and discrimination are furthered discussed as a consequence of a lack of fair
policies for working women, mothers, and families. Finally, Chemcorp’s mission and the review
of the evaluation framework was provided. Chapter Two provides a review of the current
literature surrounding the scope of the study. Topics relating to family leave policies, career
development, gender discrimination and inequality, and the gender wage gap are addressed.
Chapter Three details the assumed assets, choice of participants, methodological framework, and
data collection and analysis protocols used for this study. In Chapter Four, the data and results
are described and analyzed. Chapter Five provides practice recommendations based on collected
data and literature as well as recommendations for future studies in women’s career advancement
and family leave policies to solve the problem of practice.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
It is important to examine the company’s performance with the performance goal to
revise its company procedures and policies by 2022 to improve working conditions for all its
employees, particularly its female employees. Tarr-Whelan (2009) affirms that women’s roles,
education, and economic and political involvement have improved, but there is room for
advancement. Women are the biggest pool of underutilized talent in the United States and
changes in the workplace would be in the best interest of everyone, including families (Tarr-
Whelan, 2009). Collins (2019) affirmed that mothers are at their wit’s end, and there is a
mother’s work-family conflict in the United States that needs to be solved. The consequences of
not solving these problems will contribute to gender inequality, lack of personal and career
balance, wage advancement, and leadership (Pew Research Center, 2015).
The purpose of this chapter is to review the literature that identifies the obstacles women
face in the workplace during times of pregnancy and post-childbirth. This review covers the
literature on the motherhood wage penalty, family leave policies, gender inequality and
discrimination, and the gender gap to help inform the problem of practice. The chapter will also
provide an explanation of Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis framework and identify
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences assumed by the stakeholders at Chemcorp.
The chapter will conclude with a presentation of the conceptual framework that will guide the
study.
Lack of Career Advancement
Working mothers face obstacles in areas of career advancement, resulting from the lack
of family leave policies and the motherhood wage penalty. There is a double standard for women

11

who seek professional aspirations and motherhood: they are seen as having competing devotions
and unable to fulfill either one (Epstein, 2004). Some employers are not ready to do more for
these high achieving women (Koland, 2015). Women who choose to stay at home after birth to
care for children suffer a financial consequence. The Report on the Status of Women and Girls
(2018) states that women experience a pay decrease and have fewer opportunities for work
promotions as mothers. These women encounter systemic disadvantages when returning to work
after giving birth or taking a hiatus to raise children, which then creates the motherhood wage
penalty. The motherhood wage penalty is calculated by looking at the difference in productivity
such as interruptions from work, working part-time, and decreased seniority of work
experiences. These calculations are the key indicators for the wage disparities for these women.
According to the Report on the Status of Women and Girls (2018),
The motherhood penalty or the average decrease in women’s future wages is 4% per
child. For the highest-earing, most skilled white women, wages fall by 10% per child
after the first child. The loss of future wages is a financial setback for anyone, but low-
earning women could be impacted even more due to the fact that they earn less to being
with. (p. 17)
Gender Inequality and Discrimination
Gender inequality and discrimination create a double standard for women with higher
career aspirations while also continuing to reinforce negative attitudes and beliefs about working
mothers by both employers and coworkers. Gender inequality and discrimination persist in
private and public organizations where policy, social, cultural, and financial differences give
preferential treatment to one sex (Epstein, 2004). Gender inequality and discrimination has grave
consequences for women, with possible decreased pay and perceived lack of commitment to

12

work. The Pew Research Center (2015) discovered that there is a double standard for women,
especially those who have higher career aspirations. The findings are alarming, with 36% of
respondents stating that women were better off having children earlier in their careers, 40%
stating that they should wait until they are more established, and 22% asserting that women’s
best option was to not have children at all (Pew Research Center, 2015).
Epstein and Kalleberg (2001) analyzed gender conventions, cultural boundaries,
stereotypes, and male-dominated professions. The study examined work hour settings and found
that those with flex time, childcare assistance, and part-time workers were regarded as not being
connected to the workplace and had lower work output. For example, attorneys are expected to
work longer hours and monitor their records for billable hours; an impossible feat for working
mothers. Managers in corporations are expected to work overtime and into the weekend to fulfill
their work duties as top professionals because doing so is a sign of success and excellence
(Epstein, 2004). According to Barnett and Baruch (1985), the lack of family and work balance
creates conflict and significant stress for working women. Epstein (2004) further noted that
professional women are not just “superwomen,” but are also regarded as cold-hearted, deviant
bad wives and partners who are missing their children’s key development stages. Perceived
ideologies about gender roles in the United States have been in place since the beginning of this
country’s history, perpetuating gender stereotypes and modern-age workplace inequality.
Women in the 1970s who pursued careers in male-dominated professions were disturbing men’s
social status, accused of damaging men’s egos and displacing the breadwinners of families
(Epstein, 2004).
According to Budig and England (2001), gender discrimination is systemic and implicit
by employers who are giving preferential treatment to nonmothers. Other studies show that

13

employers have been placing returning mothers in less rewarding jobs, promoting them less, and
paying them less. When employers place mothers in less rewarding jobs, do not promote them,
and pay them less, it is discrimination. This type of discrimination is distinct from sex
discrimination because it is based on personal dislike of employees based on their motherhood
status and falls under what researchers call the statistical discrimination model. This model
observes differences and exaggerations that have real consequences for women, such as the
gender pay gap (Budig & England, 2001). Other studies show perceived high risk for employers
seeking stability in their new employees by discriminating against women in their 20s and 30s
based on the perception that they are in their childbearing years, and if given a choice between
career and children, they would prioritize family (Epstein & Kalleberg, 2001). This is implicit
discrimination against mothers by their employers by giving preferential treatment to
nonmothers and is explained by assumptions of productivity and the bottom line for
organizations (The Report on the Status of Women and Girls, 2018).
Motherhood differences have created gender discrimination that observes differences and
exaggerations that have real consequences such as a wage gap and obstruction of reaching top
positions (Budig & England, 2001). Research suggests that the motherhood wage penalty reflects
an employer’s perception of lower productivity by mothers (Budig & England, 2001). Solving
the problem of the motherhood wage gap, gender discrimination, and inequality at work will help
mothers balance their professional and personal lives (Barnett & Baruch, 1985). Further studies
demonstrate that legislation is the next logical step to creating long-term change for working
mothers.

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Gender Wage Gap
In 1963, The Equal Pay Act was written to address pay inequity and was the first federal
anti-discrimination law written for working women (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission, 2018). The act was intended to protect women from discrimination due to gender,
but it was loosely constructed to protect women from pay inequities (Gholson-Berger, 1971).
Data on pay equity illustrates that the median earnings for women compared to white men are
substantially lower. For every $1 earned by Caucasian men, Caucasian women earn 78 cents,
Asian American women earn 75 cents, African American women earn 59 cents, and
Latinas/Hispanic women earn 42 cents (The Report on the Status of Women and Girls, 2018).
The data amplify the wage gap between the genders. In 2018, President Barack Obama,
concerned with the gender wage gap, created an executive order that asked U.S. companies for
statistical pay data by gender and race to increase transparency and generate solutions.
Unfortunately, the study was terminated, which gave the companies less reason to further the
issue (The Report on the Status of Women and Girls, 2018).
According to Cohen (2013), the gender wage gap exists for a combination of reasons. It
is a culturally defined choice by workers, discrimination by employers, and the differences in
skill levels and qualities. Women earn less than men on average because employers hire women
at lower levels of skills and experience. Second, women choose specific jobs that have flexibility
in schedules to care for family, which creates fewer earnings and promotion power. Finally,
women get paid less because if there is a high disproportion of women filling those specific jobs,
then occupational gender devaluation results (Cohen, 2013).
The Report on the Status of Women and Girls (2018) found that women’s earnings
during their childbearing and childcare years (25 to 34 years of age) coincide with prime years

15

for professional development and growth. This is significant because the initial widening of pay
is established during those specific years. Some women pause their careers to give birth and are
assumed to have the primary role in childcare. When women reenter the workforce, studies
indicate that it is difficult for these women to make up the difference in pay (Koland, 2015).
Furthermore, empirical analysis by Anderson et al. (2002b) found that the human capital variable
accounts for up to 30% of the wage gap for college graduates, and with only employment
experiences, it accounts for 20% of the gap. The penalty for white mothers varies when just
using educational control. White women who are college graduates appear to have a positive
effect, earning up to 10% more for one child and 7% more for two or more children. However,
when adding the work experience and the educational controls together, white mothers of two or
more children face a substantial penalty of 15% (Anderson et al., 2002b). This is also true for
Black female college graduates (Anderson et al., 2002b). Regression analysis of the motherhood
penalty study by England et al. (2016) demonstrated that 5% of women, with higher skills in the
80
th
quantile, suffer a wage penalty higher than women with lower skills. This illustrates that
highly skilled women suffer more because they impact the organization’s bottom line more and
their absence is seen as a reduction in their work effort, giving employers incentive to make
wages responsive to a woman’s performance (Anderson et al., 2002b).
Family Leave Policies
Adequate family leave policies are not currently in place to address the obstacles faced by
mothers in the workplace. Federal mandates or regulations, such as the Family and Medical
Leave Act (FMLA), attempt to provide rescue to working families (Albiston, 2005). It requires
employers to provide unpaid job-protected leave to those who need more time to care for
themselves and their loved ones. Until recently, the United States, a major industrialized country,

16

did not have protections in place for employees to take family leave without suffering dire
consequences such as losing their jobs. The Family and Medical Leave Act legislation was
enacted to extend sick days. Employers cannot discriminate against employees based on sex,
race, color, national origin, and religion because doing so violates Title VII of the Civil Rights
Act of 1964. Unfortunately, the act does not extend to working mothers, and the act only has
provisions to protect women from sex discrimination (Albiston, 2005).
Albiston (2005) interviewed working women in blue-collar jobs who had been pregnant
while working and examined the social influences by employers towards them. The results shed
light on many injustices and unfair practices directed toward them. His findings confirmed that
these enclaves of women workers suffered physical and mental harm while pregnant and saw
fewer opportunities after maternity leave. Unfortunately, the Civil Rights Act does not extend to
discrimination towards mothers, as maternity is seen as a medical condition, and it is associated
with taking time off and work productivity (Albiston, 2005).
Albiston (2005) argued that social change will require an extension of legal protections
for working mothers. FMLA is not unique; some states, like California, are working to extend
time and compensation to mothers, fathers, and the working poor. In California, the Family Act
(CRFA) allows additional protection of twelve weeks of unpaid leave to new families, and the
California Paid Family Leave (PFL) mandates up to six weeks of paid compensation for new
parents. Between 2004 and 2014, there were 1.8 million PFL claims filed, and 90% were
approved (The Report on the Status of Women and Girls, 2018). The Report on the Status of
Women and Girls (2018) found a problem with family leave programs benefiting some, but not
those that need it the most, such as working poor single mothers, who represent 1.2 million
households in California, and many are living below the poverty wage line.

17

Budig and England (2001) affirm that a country such as the United States that is aiming
at more equitable childcare and medical care requires more progressive legislation and taxation.
The larger question to ask is, who should bear the cost of gender equity? Should it be for those
who receive the benefits or those sharing in the greatest costs? Budig and England (2001)
commented:
In our view, the equitable solution would be to collectivize the costs of child-rearing
broadly—to be paid not just by employers but by all citizens—because they benefit
diffuse broadly. While most U.S. mothers today are employed, mothers continue to also
bear the lion’s share of the costs of rearing children. (p. 221)
Anderson et al. (2002b) affirm that economic hardships that working mothers face
throughout their careers, especially during childbearing and childcare years, coincide with their
prime years of professional development and growth. Research states that the wage gap widens
for White and Black mothers after time-off with multiple children and work experience. The data
also indicates that it is very difficult for these women to make up the difference in pay after their
return (Anderson et al., 2002a). In many ways, it is hard for women in the workplace, regardless
of their motherhood status.
In the past few years, the California legislative body has promoted policies to create a
more equal playing field for working mothers. The California state legislature established
protections for working mothers by providing high-quality childcare and education programs to
infants and toddlers under the Child Care Initiative Project, which establishes grant programs to
fund childcare facilities. Additionally, CRFA requires employers with 50 or more employees to
provide eligible employees with up to 12 weeks of leave in a 12-month period. PFL provides six
weeks of partially paid leave for both mothers and fathers to bond with a new child within the

18

child's first year (Close the Gap, 2018). Despite these protections, there is a continued need for a
combination of permanent federal and state legislation to assist working families.
Other countries in the world have demonstrated legislation to promote life and work
balance for mothers in the workplace. Many countries such as Canada have extended from 12
months to 18 months of parental leave to improve work-life balance and encourage parent and
child contact during the crucial first months of a child’s life (Hideg et al., 2018). Many countries
have implemented longer maternity leaves and have provided solutions such as paid parental
leave, affordable universal childcare and healthcare, part-time and flexible work schedules,
vacation and sick days provisions, and cash allowances (Collins, 2019; Hideg et al., 2018). A
study by Collins (2019) affirmed that many working mothers worldwide have fared better
because of family-friendly policies that solve the family conflict and gender inequalities. Sweden
is considered the ideal model for parental leave policy, with mothers representing 83.1% of their
workforce (Collins, 2019). Swedish parents have the flexibility to arrange their schedules and are
eligible for 480 days, or 16 months, of paid leave (divided evenly for one year for each parent),
and single parents receive 480 days of leave (Collins, 2019). In Germany, mothers represent 69%
of the workforce, and parents can take up to 24 months of paid parental leave, or both parents are
entitled to share up to 28 months of paid parental leave (Wrohlich & Spieß, 2008).
Collins (2019) suggests that one size does not fit all in all countries as it pertains to
maternity and family leave policies. Furthermore, there needs to be more heterogeneous policy
offerings that are less rigid gender expectations for mothers and more expansive cultural support
for the diversity of women’s decisions who choose motherhood while working (Collins, 2019).

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Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Framework

Clark and Estes (2008) contend that performance improvement approaches to assist
organizations to advance their strategies to do more for its stakeholders. They also affirm the
need to improve on the missing components to conduct a gap analysis. The gap analysis is the
plan that has been examined, developed, and strategized (Clark & Estes, 2008). According to
Clark and Estes (2008), human experience is complex, and research can help focus efforts on the
factors that have been the biggest impact on organizations. The gap analysis will assist to survey
people, examine records, and observe work environments to determine gaps and performance
goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). According to Rueda (2011), the gap analysis has its roots in the
business world, where it can be used to solve diverse organizational problems. This problem-
solving approach improves performance and achieves organizational goals related to specific
levels of performance (Rueda, 2011).
The gap analysis also corresponds with the KMO factors and validates the research
(Clark & Estes, 2008). The three causes of performance gaps are: (a) people’s knowledge and
skills, (b) their motivation to achieve the goal, and (c) organizational barriers such as the lack of
resources and information (Clark & Estes, 2008). The purpose of the gap analysis is to identify if
employees have adequate knowledge, motivation, and organizational support to achieve work
goals.
Knowledge and Skills
People are unaware of their knowledge and skills, and it is important to understand that
during the initial gap analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008). The knowledge and skills component are
important because a researcher can easily identify solutions and achieve the performance goal.

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The four knowledge influences types are: (a) factual, (b) conceptual, (c) procedural, and (d)
metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002). These four knowledge types are necessary to understand the
organization and its performance. These knowledge types provide an understanding of the
organization’s abilities and provide an opportunity to address the knowledge and skills of its
participants (Clark & Estes, 2008). According to Krathwohl (2002), factual knowledge is
relevant to provide context as it includes very specific descriptions and procedures. Conceptual
knowledge is the need to identify classifications, generalizations, and structures (Rueda, 2011).
Procedural knowledge asks how one goes about accomplishing something, including methods of
inquiry, algorithms, and methodologies (Rueda, 2011). Metacognitive knowledge is one’s
cognition, which is the ability to be self-aware and analyze circumstances (Rueda, 2011). By
using Clark and Estes’s (2008) gap analysis, the KMO influences, and the literature, the study
identifies the stakeholder’s knowledge to seek equal and equitable opportunities for women
employees at Chemcorp.
Factual Knowledge of the Female Employees
Factual knowledge influences assist in isolating information specific to the context of
who needs to know what, when, and why (Krathwohl, 2002). According to Clark and Estes
(2008), factual knowledge is when people are given information about their jobs that they need
to know to succeed on their own. This information reduces uncertainty and achieves performance
goals. Female employees need to know the information to function effectively in the workplace
(Rueda, 2011). For instance, Chemcorp’s employee handbook states that maternity leave is
unpaid and suggests that any further time taken by the employee will be on their own accrued
time. The assumed knowledge influence is employees at Chemcorp know what their legal rights,
procedures, and policies are.

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According to Albiston (2005), federal mandates and policies, such as the Family and
Medical Leave Act, are typically not understood; employees do not know how they work and
neither do employers. There is a domino effect whereby information must be shared to
employers and then to employees about job protective leave. Albiston (2005) affirms that little is
known about leave rights in practice and how they interact with family leave policies in place.
Pregnant workers need to know about their rights (Albiston, 2005; Grossman & Thomas, 2009).
Factual knowledge information was not used in this study; however, it is still important to define
it in order to understand the organization and its performance.
Procedural Knowledge by Female Employees
Procedural knowledge is the information that one needs to know to complete a task
(Krathwohl, 2002). In this study, the procedural knowledge type assumes that female employees
need to know how to access information, resources, and training to understand their rights or be
able to plan ahead of their time to care for themselves or their family. According to Giele
(2013), employees know very little about governmental subsidies, childcare resources, or referral
networks to support themselves and their families. Federal policies, such as FMLA, offer
limitations for these types of families by providing no guarantees (Giele, 2013). A study by
Grossman and Thomas (2009) maintains that women in physically demanding fields, whose
work capacity is partially diminished by pregnancy, need to know how to ask for and access
light-duty work to accommodate the pregnant worker's limitations. Unfortunately, asking for
light work may sacrifice wages and other benefits. Ultimately, procedural knowledge is about
accessing the steps to be informed, empowered, and capable of caring for yourself and your
loved ones while at the workplace.

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Conceptual Knowledge of Female Employees
According to Clark and Estes (2008), asking an individual why things happen or what
causes things to happen is conceptual knowledge. Conceptual knowledge focuses on
relationships between information and content, and it is the understanding of the principles,
theories, and models associated with female employees at Chemcorp. Female employees at
Chemcorp need to be able to identify what their needs are before they can receive health
benefits, paid or unpaid time off, flex time, part-time status, and childcare (Epstein & Kalleberg,
2001). Traditionally, women in the workplace need a reduction of work hours to accommodate
family responsibilities (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Eagly and Carli (2007) argue that the future will
require working mothers to identify what their needs are, and for employers to provide flextime,
job sharing, telecommuting, elder care provisions, adoption benefits, dependent childcare
options, and employer-sponsored on-site childcare. These services will be key for working
mothers to stay in their jobs during the demanding years of child-rearing and keep them
competitive in their careers. Unfortunately for many of these working women, time off for
family means professional and financial gaps. Many employers look at the financial bottom line,
and these employees base their business on a supply of workers and availability (Cohen, 2013;
Eagly & Carli, 2007). Table 2 (on the following page) illustrates the knowledge influence and
type for the gap analysis.

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Table 2
Knowledge Influences and Types for the Gap Analysis
Assumed Knowledge
Influences
Knowledge Type Sample Interview Questions
Female employees need to
know how to access resources
and policies set by Chemcorp.
Procedural What is the process to take
maternity or family leave?
Female employees need to be
able to identify their needs to
request resources from
Chemcorp.
Conceptual How would you identify how
much time you need to care for
an ill family member, or after
the birth of a child?

Motivation
Clark and Estes (2008) assert that motivation is not just how someone does something,
but why they do it. Knowing does not mean someone will do something; there is also motivation
to consider. Motivational causes of gaps are more complex because people are not very familiar
with them and it is based on the internal, psychological process where one has a choice,
perseverance, and mental effort to address a situation (Clark & Estes, 2008). Understanding
accurate methods to assess and address motivation influences will build an understanding of the
stakeholders’ priorities. The literature review will assist in the motivation-related influences
about the key stakeholders. The study hopes that accessing the motivational influences of the
stakeholders will bring clarity about perceptions and beliefs that drive them while working at the
organization.
Attribution Theory
According to Anderman and Anderman (2008), attribution theory is about individuals’
understanding of their environment and striving to understand why events happened. Individuals
may attribute failure to specific causes such as lack of ability, lack of effort, or poor instruction.

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Attribution theory assists in understanding the causes of past events and one’s abilities for future
outcomes (Anderman & Anderman, 2008). The attribution model is the combination of the
environment, prior experiences, and knowledge that affect the types of attributions individuals
experience (Anderman & Anderman, 2008).
Historically, women have had disparities in the workplace and have not advanced or had
prominence (Zaccula et. al, 2017). Studies suggest that these disparities are due to perceptions of
women’s roles at work by society. How can there be equity, equality, or expectations of it if
women have been pigeonholed to cultural traditions that have not permitted them to succeed
(Epstein & Kalleberg, 2001)?
Expectancy-Value Theory
Eccles (2006) explained that expectancy-value theory asks the questions, “Can I do the
task?” and “Do I want to do this task?” While the value is a strong predictor of starting the task,
the expectancy for success is based on the individual’s motivation (Eccles, 2006). Epstein and
Kalleberg (2004) affirm that there is a double standard for women who have higher professional
aspirations, and this requires them to do more than their male counterparts for work and life
balance. Barnett and Baruch (1985) stated that the lack of family and work balance creates stress
for working women and solving this issue will ultimately solve the problem of the motherhood
wage penalty, gender discrimination, and inequality at work. In the study, it is also assumed
those female employees might not be motivated to advocate for themselves, especially if they are
not treated equally in the workplace.
Expectancy-value theory emphasizes perceptions of the environment and subsequent
interactions arising as a consequence of personal expectations (Isaac et al., 2001). Isaac et al.
(2001) affirmed that people consciously choose particular courses of action, based upon

25

perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs as a consequence of the desire to enhance pleasure and avoid
pain. Furthermore, an individual’s effort will be determined by expectations that an outcome
attained, and the degree of value placed on that outcome (Eccles, 2006). Croson and Gneezy
(2009) found that women are more risk-averse than men. The gender differences in management
and business performance reflect differences in attitudes toward risk and competition, as well as
toward personnel management and business organization where many of these skills are learned
(Croson & Gneezy, 2009). Table 3 illustrates the assumed motivational influences identified for
this study.
Table 3
Motivation Influences and Assessments for Gap Analysis
Assumed Motivational
Influence
Theory Sample Interview Questions
Female employees need to
attribute that a pay or
advancement gap is not due to
only an individual's
performance.
Attribution Can you describe your feelings
about your role and your
opportunities for advancement?
Female employees need to
expect that they have a right to
leave and have
accommodations that do not
resolve in a negative impact on
pay or advancement.
Expectancy Value Do you feel that you can take
time off to care for yourself or a
family member and that your
position and current
opportunities will remain the
same?
Female employees need to
advocate for themselves when
they are treated unequally and
will result in positive outcomes.
Expectancy Value Can you tell me about how you
talk with your supervisor about
training opportunities, growth
potential, new roles?

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Organization
Organizational culture needs to be considered because it filters and affects performance
in an organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). Schein (2017) stated that cultural models and cultural
settings create cultural values, and they have a significant effect on an organization’s identity.
Cultural settings are concrete and include the employees, their tasks, how and why tasks are
completed, and the social context in which their work is performed. Cultural models refer to
cultural practices and shared mental schemas within an organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001). In this study, cultural settings and cultural models are used as a conversation concerning
communication, resources, and the culture of the company.
Communication
Poor communication and withholding of information are common sources of knowledge
problems at work (Clark & Estes, 2008). According to Schein (2017), the system of
communication, if done inappropriately, can create a hostile setting, resulting in people making
assumptions. For communication, Chemcorp will need to disseminate clear information and
create opportunities for employees to communicate with managers and the CEO.
Her et al. (2017) affirm that an effective increase in the rate of return on any investment
will require management to fully engage with their employees. By managers focusing on concise
and clear communication, they will effectively define how engagement with each other will
determine success. Additionally, high-quality relationships facilitate a life-enhancing work
environment that is predicated on shared goals, shared knowledge, and mutual respect and
strengthen an atmosphere of psychological safety for communication and interaction.
Clear and widely available communication promotes an environment of openness (Her et al.,
2017). May et al. (2004) stated that supervisors who empowered their employees to

27

voice their opinions and concerns cultivated an open and thriving culture.
Resources on Policies and Procedures
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that if work processes, such as human resources
information on policies, procedures, and regulations, are misaligned with business goals, the risk
of failure is great (Clark & Estes, 2008). Albiston (2005) found that workers lack information
and the ability to advocate for themselves during worksite claims. According to Clark and Estes
(2008), material resources include information, and for Chemcorp’s female employees, this
includes the availability and accessibility to the company’s procedures and policies that guide
them.
Resources on Work Schedule and Childcare
Clark and Estes (2008) affirm that if a work process such as work schedules and
childcare resources are not compatible with the business plan, the risk is high. Giele (2013)
stated that women without resource opportunities, such as part-time, family leave, and available
childcare will lack work, and life balance. Without work-life balance, women suffer greatly and
earn less, face discrimination, and lack opportunities and work promotion (Bearak et al., 2016).
Epstein (2004) specified that work hour settings used by employees such as flextime, childcare
assistance, and part-time opportunities are widely regarded by employers as a lack of connection
by women to the workplace.
Culture
According to Clark and Estes (2008), culture is present in our conscious and unconscious
understanding of who we are, what we value, and how we work in an organization. Culture is a
way to describe the core values, goals, beliefs, emotions, and processes learned over time in
environments. Culture is a powerful force in performance with difficult characteristics to identify

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(Clark & Estes, 2008). Within each organization, there is an established and visible event
happening that leads to a set of norms that are experienced as culture (Schein, 2017). Culture is a
fundamental part of any organization as it reflects the established core values of the stakeholders
(Erez & Gati, 2004). For this study, looking at Chemcorp’s culture and its interactions with the
employees will provide answers to how they positively interact with each other to create a
supportive culture for female employees. According to Clark and Estes (2008), the core beliefs
of the organization’s culture can be the guide whereby decisions can be made about procedures
to achieve the goals. Table 4 (on the following page) illustrates the organizational influences and
settings or models identified for this stakeholder group.

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Table 4
Organizational Influences and Assessments for Gap Analysis
Assumed Organizational
Influence
Organizational Type Sample Interview Questions
The organization needs to have
clear communication on federal
and state procedures and
policies and how employees
can access resources.
Cultural Settings How does your company
communicate its vision mission
to their policies?
The organization needs to
support female employees with
flex time, onsite childcare
assistance, and part-time
scheduling.
Cultural Settings What offerings does your
company provide for workplace
flexibility?
The organization needs during
times of crisis provide clear
communication and
information about current
positions and leave time.
Cultural Settings Any changes to your position
since the stay-at-home mandate
occurred due to Covid-19?
The organization needs to close
the pay gap and create a
positive culture that supports
female employees with their
colleagues and leaders at
Chemcorp.
Cultural Model From your viewpoint, how can
the company create greater
opportunities for you at work?

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
A conceptual framework can assist in looking at the interaction of influences and how it
impacts the study in achieving the stakeholder goals. Maxwell (2013) stated that constructing
and building a framework can assist the research questions and organize the findings to
understand the problem of practice. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) affirmed that a visual

30

representation supports a qualitative study whereby one can see the connections and the
similarities in the findings.
The conceptual framework used for this study will examine the female employees at their
workplace, and the knowledge and motivation regarding opportunities afforded to them by the
company. Bowles (2012) suggests that there are historical race and gender biases that perpetuate
organizational structures for women at the workplace. The conceptual framework assists in
visualizing the interaction between the organization’s culture and context, and how it may create
a supportive environment with clear communication that promotes success for both employees
and supervisors (Her et al., 2017). The conceptual framework diagram also suggests that female
employees need to identify their motivation, asking what their motivation is to seek, advocate,
and voice their needs during pregnancy. Finally, the study displays current policies and laws that
govern organizations that create equal and equitable work conditions. By using the conceptual
framework below and the literature discussed, connections between the organization and the
stakeholder group will be demonstrated.
Figure 1, on the following page, illustrates the relationship between the stakeholder and
the organization.

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Figure 1

Motherhood Wage Penalty, Family Leave Policies, and Its Influence on Career Advancement

32

Conclusion

In this chapter, a systematic review of the literature was completed to fully understand
the problem of practice. The study addressed the obstacles women face in the workplace during
times of pregnancy and post-childbirth. Studies demonstrate that gender inequality and
discrimination undermine women who choose to start families and take maternity leave to care
for their children (Albiston, 2005). Choosing motherhood presents obstacles for women in terms
of career advancement (Eagly & Carli, 2007). The literature review was presented, and four
topics were addressed: (a) lack of career advancement, (b) gender inequality and discrimination,
(c) gender wage gap, and (d) family leave policies. Also, the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences was examined, and the conceptual
framework for the study was explained. In the next chapter, the study methodology will be
discussed.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
Maxwell (2013) mentioned that having an objective qualitative design that aligns with the
conceptual framework is vital. The design module was an explanatory research concept to bring
light to a problem and generate a better understanding that enables future research. The
conceptual framework, qualitative data collected, and the research questions guided the study’s
understanding and assisted in addressing the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organization
elements (Clark & Estes, 2008).
1. What are employees’, who are working mothers, knowledge and motivation regarding
gaps in pay and advancement and access to family leave and accommodations?
2. How do female employees’ knowledge and motivation interact with the organizational
culture and context?
Studies demonstrate that gender inequality and discrimination undermine women who
choose to start families and take maternity leave to care for their children (Budig & England,
2001). Bearak et al. (2016) affirm that women who choose motherhood while working are
perceived by employers to be less reliable and show a lack of commitment to their work
positions. Choosing motherhood presents obstacles for women in terms of career advancement.
This chapter will include a description of the participating stakeholders, data collection method,
the interview recruitment criteria, credibility and trustworthiness, ethics, and limitations and
delimitations. The study also provides the importance of conducting ethical research that will
protect the stakeholders during and after the information is collected.

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Participating Stakeholders
The study used reliable stakeholder accounts to understand their knowledge and
motivation influences. The key stakeholders were the women who worked at the company. The
study attempted to understand how previous research on women and mothers in the workplace is
comparable to the experiences of the women at Chemcorp.
Choosing employees who have been or may be pregnant or who are mothers was an
important criterion. Historically, these groups of women have been disenfranchised during and
after returning from a paid or unpaid leave. Research shows that the wage and professional gap
between men and women is significant and evidence shows gender inequality at the workplace.
Criterion 1
Female employees who are employed at Chemcorp.
Criterion 2
Female employees who are, have been, or may be pregnant or are mothers while working
at Chemcorp.
Interview and Data Collection
Corbin and Strauss (2008) stated that the goal of completing interviews is to gather
enough data to allow a new theory to develop in its full complexity. Vogt (2010) affirms that
data collection is the foundation of high-quality research, and it is important to collect the right
kinds of data. This study used a qualitative collection method by using interviews and document
research to inform the study. The interview process enabled understanding of the inner world of
another person by developing a more detailed, intimate, and intentional study, and to gain an
understanding of the other’s perspectives (Christensen & Johnson, 2014).
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) affirm that interviewing is especially important when it is

35

impossible to observe behavior or know how the stakeholders interpret the world around them,
and this is especially important when a researcher has an intensive case study with a few selected
individuals. For this study, approximately 10 women were identified for interviews, or until data
saturation occurred. The interviews were conducted using the Zoom application on the date and
time agreed upon by Chemcorp and approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB).
Sampling considerations included keeping the number of participants small, which can
help the researcher gain insight on the select few and analyze the data in-depth (Christensen &
Johnson, 2014). Also, smaller sample size is common and enough to represent the input required
to develop an understanding of the problem of practice (Fink, 2013). The interviews lasted no
more than one hour per individual, for a total of ten hours, spread throughout one month. All
interviews were formal and took place at a closed-door Zoom session. The interviews were also
conducted in English and were transcribed and recorded by the Zoom application and by the
researcher’s notetaking (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the best form of data includes artifacts and
documents because they are free, easily accessible, and contain information that would take an
investigation enormous time and effort to gather. Documents such as publications, articles, and
other written documents can announce positions, showcase arguments, or describe events or
scenes that are very different from what was seen and heard during the interview process
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Vogt (2010) argues that documents are not passive repositories of
data; rather, they are active documents that provide context to the research focus. This study
used Chemcorp’s internal documents such as employee handbook, online profile, and media
brochure. These documents, as well as the interview data, supplemented the research and
provided a better understanding of the problem of practice.

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Credibility and Trustworthiness
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) affirm that gathering data means understanding the role of
the researcher and not judging the process or the participants. Many scenarios can take place
during the interview and document gathering stages. For example, the participant may receive
too much feedback from the interviewer, or the participant may take risks by divulging
troublesome information. Document gathering can lead to further ethical questions or dilemmas
such as the discovery of criminal activity or other forms of bias towards individuals. Clearly
understanding the collection data process is paramount during every stage of research.
Data collection should be done ethically and with integrity. According to Vogt (2010),
data collection must always be conducted with an eye to the rights of the study participants.
During the data collection period, the researcher needs to keep in mind and explain the purpose
of the inquiry, confirm confidentiality, and gain informed consent and anonymity for all
participants, including the name of the company. Precautions also need to be in place to protect
the notes and audio collected during the interviews to assure trustworthiness (Maxwell, 2013).
The study adhered to these rules of conduct during interviews, and the researcher protected the
participants by creating a consent form and reminding participants that this project was a student-
based study, and all information would be anonymous. A researcher should also take into
consideration how the identity of the research may be perceived. This is important because it
plays a big part in what information is shared, especially when researching difficult subject
matters such as ethnicity, gender, and other forms of social strata within an organization (Vogt,
2010).

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Ethics
Qualitative interviewing allows a researcher to enter the inner world of another person by
developing a more detailed, intimate, and intentional study and gain an understanding of the
person’s perspectives (Christensen & Johnson, 2014). The focus of the study, which aligns with
the criteria of the study, was the female employees who work at Chemcorp. These stakeholders
were selected because there is evidence to suggest that taking maternity leave and/or being a
mother may result in being overlooked for advancement at the workplace (The Report on the
Status of Women and Girls, 2018).
According to Glesne (2011), it is the responsibility of the researcher to respect the
participants and guard interview transcripts and recordings carefully, using them strictly for
academic studies. Being ethical, transparent, and protecting identities is part of being a good
researcher (Glesne, 2011). Some of the tools that were utilized include the University of
Southern California’s Institutional Review Board (IRB), which provides rules of conduct and
guidelines during the inquiry process. This process allowed the researcher to understand the
importance of written consent, providing a secure space to conduct interviews (Glesne, 2011).
The researcher was honest about her identity as both a student and a researcher. She
clarified questions and proclaimed it is voluntary, confidential, and anonymous student research
(Glesne, 2011). Having anonymity was key for both the women and the CEO of Chemcorp. The
participants need to have a sense of protection that their identities will be secure to win trust.
Should some ethical considerations or questions arise during the interviews, the researcher was
prepared to address them immediately while seeking IRB counsel, although none arose (Rubin &
Rubin, 2012). The researcher was also a woman, who happened to be a mother and was aware of

38

how her positionality could create bias and potentially skew the interpretation of interviews.
Triangulation was used to check the data’s accuracy and authentication (Maxwell, 2016).
Limitations and Delimitations
This was a qualitative study that included interviews and document analysis. The
interview format was limited because the female employees could have been biased if they
feared judgment or loss of opportunities and wages. The CEO could also have feared judgment
on the practices towards the female employees. Other limitations are the recollections and the
inaccuracy of all stakeholders’ experiences while working or serving at Chemcorp. Some of the
stakeholders could have also changed their minds before or during the interviews, or elected not
to participate due to fear, illness, or forgetfulness. Also, recent changes due to the COVID-19
pandemic influenced business and other aspects of these employee’s lives and delayed the
collection of data. The virus spread globally in January, and during March and April, many
workers, including this researcher, stayed home to curb the infection rate. In California, workers
have taken sick and emergency family leaves. Finally, other stakeholder groups were not
interviewed, such as other female and male employees of Chemcorp. The study could be
expanded using different data collection methods, such as surveys, but the study was limited due
to the time constraints of the doctoral program’s dissertation guidelines. Also, the current
stakeholders are not necessarily representative of the target population.

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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Chapter Four presents the qualitative findings of this study based on key stakeholder
interviews. Knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences were used to identify if
women face a lack of career advancement and opportunities in the workplace due to pregnancy
and taking maternity or family leave. The qualitative study took place in the summer of 2020
during the global COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic impacted the study’s timeline and
influenced many aspects of participants’ lives, both at work and home. Most of the female
participants were under a stay-at-home order that was mandated by the California governor.
The following data answered the following research questions:
1. What are the employees’, who are working mothers, knowledge and motivation regarding
gaps in pay and advancement and access to family leave and accommodations?
2. How do female employees’ knowledge and motivation interact with the organizational
culture and context?
Participating Stakeholders
Nine female employees of Chemcorp participated in this study, which comprised 56% of
the overall female population at the organization. The ethnic makeup of participants were
Caucasian, Hispanic/Latinas, and Iranian women. The participants have worked at the company
between 2-15 years, with an average of 5.5 years. Their position descriptions varied: (a) two
Sales Liaisons, (b) one Executive Assistant, (c) one Accounts Receivable Liaison, and (d) two
Customer Service Liaisons. Of those who participated, three women were in middle
management, but one woman was second in command at the company as the Director of Sales.
Seven women were mothers, but only one participant had given birth while working at
Chemcorp. Ultimately, this was a limitation of the study’s findings since the researcher was

40

interested in all three characteristics, so the study only addresses concerns related to motherhood
with limited insight into maternity and post-childbirth considerations.
Of the female employees that were interviewed for the study there were three Sales
Liaisons that were paid hourly with an opportunity for a 10% bonus, with the exception of the
Director of Sales who was paid a salary. The rest of the female employees in the study who
worked in the office were salary-based earners. Three of the five female employees had raised
children or were still raising older children. At least one female employee was a single mother
and at the time of the interview she was receiving a subsidy from her hometown for childcare
resources. The new mother who gave birth in 2020 also had a school-age child that required
extended family to care for both children while she teleworked from home because of the
Covid19 pandemic.
Some of the female employees’ education levels and wage status had an impact on their
workplace interactions with each other and their immediate supervisors. Lastly, it was
discovered that the organization had positions that were historically more popular with one
gender over another, such as the male employees choosing warehouse positions and female
employees choosing customer service and sales positions.
Table 5 on the following page displays the demographic details and job positions of the
women who were interviewed for this study.

41

Table 5
Demographic Information of Participants
Participant No. Job Position Mother
P1 Sales Liaison No
P2 Accounts Manager Yes
P3 Director of Sales Yes
P4 Executive Assistant No
P5 Purchasing Manager Yes
P6 Accounts Receivable Liaison Yes
P7 Sales Liaison Yes
P8 Customer Service Liaison Yes
P9 Accounts Receivable Liaison Yes

Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Findings
The study sought findings pertaining to the research questions and used assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. The study attempted to determine if the
female employees at Chemcorp have limited career advancement opportunities due to their status
being pregnant or as mothers. The following are the stakeholder’s knowledge and skills, their
motivation to achieve the goal, and the organizational barriers that were discovered in the study.
If there was an answer by the participants at or above 40%, the study believed it was a significant
response to represent the majority of views.

42

Knowledge Findings
Knowledge influences were examined to understand the company’s ability and viewpoint
and to address the knowledge and skills of the participants (Clark & Estes, 2008). The following
interview questions were asked to address the three knowledge influences identified in Chapter
Two.
1. Have you ever been pregnant while working at the company? If so, did you take
maternity or family leave? How long did you take maternity or family leave? (Factual)
2. Have you ever needed to take time off from work but did not? Why? (Conceptual)
3. How would you identify how much time you need to care for an ill family member, or
after the birth of a child? (Conceptual)
4. What is the process to take maternity or family leave? (Procedural)
Table 6 outlines the knowledge types used in the study and whether the influence was
identified as a knowledge need, asset-based, or undetermined from the study findings.
Table 6
Knowledge Type, Influences, and Findings
Knowledge
Type
Assumed Knowledge Influences Need, Strength, or Undetermined
Finding
Conceptual Female employees need to be able to
identify their needs to request
resources from the company.
Strength: female employees were
able to identify a need for resources
but had not requested such resources.
Procedural Female employees need to know how
to access resources and policies set by
the company.
Need: a lack of understanding of
how to access family and maternity
leave policies.

Conceptual Knowledge Finding: Female Employees Can Identify Their Needs
The study sought to determine if the female employees at Chemcorp were able to identify
their needs. By asking two conceptual knowledge questions, the study wanted to identify the

43

mental structures of the female employees regarding taking time off from work. The first
question asked the participants if they took time off from work but did not ask why. The
majority, five out of nine, or 56% of the participants, did not express an issue with taking time
off, and two out of nine, or 22% of the participants, dismissed the question.
P3 shared her experience working for the Sales Department, and felt that her past position
was flexible:
You know, because I think have been in outside sales before I was doing this position,
being outside sales you kind of have more time for yourself, so you’re not pigeonholed
what have you. I had that career for twenty years before Chemcorp, so I didn’t need it; if
I need it I would take a vacation, but I didn’t need it per se because I have a free lifestyle.
Participants who were quick with their responses did not need time off. P4 stated that she has not
“taken time off work” and P6 and P9 simply stated, “No.” P6 and P9 answered their questions
abruptly and showed, through non-verbal communication, feeling uncomfortable with the
question.
Only two of the nine participants expressed an issue with taking time off due to the lack
of flexibility or concern for their position at the company. Participant P2 acknowledged that she
did not want to ask for more time, recalling, “I did but I didn’t because the vacation time was not
efficient. I needed a longer time but that is all I had. I could not afford unpaid time off or risk
my position to be vacant and filled.” P2’s concern about taking time to care for her child and
how it could translate to losing her position has been studied by researchers. Anderson et al.
(2002a) found that employers’ perceptions of working mothers equate to lower productivity and
commitments elsewhere, specifically at home. These perceptions translate to systemic

44

disadvantages lower pay and less promotion opportunities (The Report on the Status of Women
and Girls, 2018).
P5, who is a new mother, posited:
With children, you always need to take time from work, but I do not take it. I will say we
don’t have a lot of working parents with young children in our company. I am one of a
few, I am the only one that has taken maternity leave since I have been there, which is
odd for them to figure out how to navigate. I needed to take time off whether to take care
for the kids and had to find other ways to do it because my job doesn’t allow for a lot of
flexibility. However, even when I take vacation time, I am still involved. I tried not to
connect with work, but unfortunately, it was impossible to do, so I chug along.
P5 contended that the lack of flexibility is a given in her current position at the company. Her
statement that she needs to stay connected even if she takes time off to care for her child relates
to her fear of not doing enough to keep her position at the company. A study by Skinner (2007)
reported that policies and regulations create limitations for many working women. Some
positions require long work hours that create work-family conflicts. Furthermore, the lack of
family-friendly working hours stems from the societal conception that women are responsible for
family matters (Skinner, 2007). P5 was the only female that had given birth and had taken
maternity leave. P5 stated,
Yes, I did, I took four months and 16 weeks with my last child. Two weeks prior to
giving birth and then 16 weeks, roughly. They allow you to take maternity leave; it is not
paid by the company, I was able to get it through the state of CA through the Family
Leave Act and also through for part of it through disability I believe, and I can’t
remember the first part of it. It was my decision to ask for as much as I received but it

45

was only covered technically paid for twelve weeks. Actually, 14 weeks because I had a
c-section.
P5 did not received maternity leave information from the company and had to do her own
research about the options the state offers.
The next conceptual question asked the nine participants how they identified the amount
of time they needed to care for an ill family member or after the birth of a child. The question
attempted to determine how the female employees identified their needs for resources,
specifically their thoughts about taking time off to care for their family members in times of
need. Five out of nine, or 56% of the participants, were able to identify the amount of time they
would need to care for a family member but had not requested time off.
Participant P6 shared that she relied on family and compensation time, declaring,
“Schedule so it fits my work schedule come in early or stay late. I have another family to help
out.” P7 also affirmed that her position made it easier to determine her time needs. She said, “[it]
depends how much time, an hour or longer than that. In the sales department, there is lots of
flexibility compared to those working in an office.” Throughout the interview, the sales liaisons
appeared to have an easier time requesting or taking time off because they worked from home.
Confirmed by the Director of Sales, P3 stated, “Previous job I had this happen, my wife had
cancer and we did the journey that it takes. They provided comp time and vacation time were
taken but sales there is already flexibility.”
The participants who were mothers of school children identified the amount of time they
needed to care for their children, with the overall experience of balancing work and family.
P5 noted:

46

It is hard that first year to send kids off to daycare or preschool or whatever and being
available when they need you to come and pick them up because inevitably, they will get
sick. It is not the easiest thing to stop what you’re doing and just be at home. Not every
job allows for that.
Participant P2 also shared that, as a mother of small children, she has had no choice but to take
extra time to care for her children:
It would depend on the situation, during a normal time. If my child is ill, and there is no
other care, then I would need to take time from work. It’s a 24-hour job, childcare, you
just try to balance it.
Though only two participants 2 and 5 had identified a need, but had not asked for a
resource, it is still worthwhile to mention both cases, as the findings from this data are very
useful at understanding the challenges faced by these participants.
The study determined there was no gap for the rest of the female employees and they
could identify their needs. Five of the nine, or 56% of the women, recognized a need for flexible
scheduling but had not requested the resource. The reasons for not requesting resources ranged
between their positions or departments, which created a difference in how they approached
taking time off to care for a family member or child. Sales department liaisons acknowledged
that working from home gave them the flexibility that other colleagues did not have. Moreover,
some females were able to identify a need for resources but did not request them because they
relied on others, such as other family members. For the mothers of school children, participants 2
and 5 faced challenges by not requesting a flexible schedule, or time off to care for children.
Participants 2 and 5 both worked in the office before the pandemic and reported struggling to
find the balance in their schedules to accommodate their children. P2 and P5, like many mothers,

47

are attempting to balance the stability between their home lives and professional lives. Skinner
(2007) suggested that flextime has been a priority and most valued benefit by working mothers.
However, flexibility does not allow for more permanent and stable employment but having
flexibility in schedules perpetuates stereotypes that women are the main caregivers for families
and their commitment is not at the workplace (Anderson et al., 2002a; Skinner, 2007).
Procedural Knowledge Finding: Female Employees Have a Lack of Understanding of How to
Access Family and Maternity Leave Policies
In this study, the procedural knowledge type assumed that female employees lack an
understanding of how to access family and maternity leave policies. Nine participants were asked
what the process is to take maternity or family leave. Six of nine of the participants, or 67%,
could not define what the California Family Leave Act (FMLA) meant and did not know how to
access it. Participant P1 said, “Guessing talk to the boss. Never taken, probably available but not
informed about it.” P2 disclosed that she was “not really aware” of the process, but that “I know
the process is facilitated because colleagues took time off. I haven’t had the need to use it.” P6
concurred, “Vacation time if you had it. No other options, not that I am aware of.” P9 stated, “I
have no clue.” P4 remembered, “Someone took maternity leave, I think she took a week before
and a couple of months after as well. Not really sure, she was offered quite a bit of time.” P5, the
employee who applied for the California Family Leave Act (FMLA), noted:
I tell them I’m going to have a kid and I am planning to take time off to be home with the
baby, obviously. Because mine was a c-section I knew I can do to the 14 weeks after
delivery. I needed time to be ready for the baby, that was not paid, if I had vacation time
or sick leave, I could have used that, but I didn’t have any at the time.

48

Participant P8, who sought benefits in a past position, stated:
I want to say the same as with others. With my experience when I was pregnant with my
other child. The FMLA, right? You have up to a whole year prior, for 6 weeks so you
would just request and file for it.
Participants, who were mothers, understood the process, as one had a child at another company,
and another had just taken maternity leave and negotiated time allotted by the state.
Participant P3 was unable to understand how to apply for FMLA and had not provided it
to her employees. She said:
I am not familiar with it. I know it exists if we do it, I obviously have our legal rights to
have that, especially in the state of California, but I am not familiar with it. I assume you
go to HR and apply and take FMLA. Then you have obviously had to get a pay cut. To
be honest I have not dealt with any of my employees.
As a supervisor, participant P3 was unsure of the process to apply for family or maternity leave.
According to Albiston (2005) and Giele (2013), organizations are rarely forthcoming with
privileges that are offered by the government to their employees.
The study determined there was a need because eight of nine participants voiced that they
were not aware of the process to take family or maternity leave. This study determined that there
was a lack of understanding of family and maternity leave policies. Rights and privileges are not
always clear to employees and employers are not always forthcoming with the information about
policies like the Family Medical Leave Act (Albiston, 2005). Finally, the study had a limitation
because only one female employee gave birth and applied for maternity leave while at
Chemcorp. The results of the interview questions about knowledge influences can be found in
Table 17 in Appendix B.

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Motivation Findings
The female employees were asked motivation-based questions about their roles and
opportunities for advancement, work-life balance, and gender equality. The following motivation
questions provided the key findings:
1. Can you describe your feelings about your role and your opportunities for advancement?
(Attribution)
2. Can you share your view of how men are treated at your company with regard to their
career management? What about women? Example, Mr. X in your company has 2
children and has worked in the company for 5 years. Mrs. Y in your company has 2
children and has just returned from her maternity leave. She has also worked for the
company for 5 years. If both Mr. X and Mrs. Y are working in the same position, what do
you think the supervisor of Mr. X and Mrs. Y will expect? (Attribution)
3. Do you feel that you can take time off to care for yourself or a family member and that
your position and current opportunities will remain the same? (Expectancy)
4. Can you tell me about how you talk with your supervisor about training opportunities,
growth potential, new roles? (Expectancy)
Table 7 (on the following page) summarizes the motivation types that fall under attribution
and expectancy theories and assists in the motivation influence findings.

50

Table 7
Motivation Types, Influences, and Findings
Theory Assumed Motivational Influence Need, Strength, or Undetermined
Finding
Attribution Female employees need to attribute that a
pay or advancement gap is not only due
to an individual's performance.
Need: advancement is attributed to not
only an individual's performance.
Expectancy
Value
Female employees need to expect that
they have a right to leave and have
accommodations that do not resolve a
negative impact on pay or advancement.
Strength: there is no fear of losing a
position or opportunity due to long
periods of departure.
Expectancy
Value
Female employees need to advocate for
themselves when they are treated
unequally and will result in positive
outcomes.
Strength: individuals do not feel the
unequal treatment and do not feel the
need to speak up about their concerns
that would result in positive outcomes.

Attribution Finding: Pay or Advancement Gap Is Not Due to Only an Individual's
Performance
The study sought to determine if the female employees at Chemcorp felt that their roles
and opportunities for advancement were attributed to something other than performance by
asking the stakeholders to describe their feelings about their roles and their opportunities for
advancement at Chemcorp. Five out of nine, or 56% of the participants, felt that they had plenty
of opportunities for advancement at the company. Four of the nine, or 44% of the participants,
indicated that pay and advancement were attributed to other issues rather than performance
alone.
Three participants reported that they were happy in their current positions. P4 said, “CEO
is a mentor and the Sales Director, where can I advance professionally and personally.” P7
stated, “They are unending, it is not contained. At the company, [if] you do your job they
promote from within.” P8 said, “Pretty great, go get it, put herself out there.” P9 noted, “Been

51

here 2 years, been trained in different departments. There is a good chance to advance.” P3 was
happy with her current role:
I am stoked about this role; this role is my advancement from my sales career. I didn’t
get this role in the last company and I did apply and didn’t get six or eight years ago. I
always wanted to manage people and felt like I had the skill set to manage a team of
salespeople, mentor them, and lead them. Chemcorp CEO gave me the opportunity, it has
been tremendous. As far as advancement from what I am now in the company, I don’t
know if there is another job that I would be doing. Certainly, I think to take more
responsibility, can be a change of title; we are a small company, and we have lean
management; I don't think there is a necessary a set path for me to advance. I am already
there if you will.
P2 also felt that a smaller company is limited:
I feel challenged in the position I have, however, on the other hand, the internal challenge
there is room for improvement or advancement, it’s a challenge with a smaller private
company because its run as a family unit, run closely. The opportunity to tackle new
challenges and growth is slightly limited and it takes more effort.
P5 revealed that she was in a good position, but was now struggling:
I am in a decent position: [an] upper management role. I can take this role to another
company seamlessly and continue to grow. I do, however, think having kids and being a
mother holds me back in some way. I have been home since March because my kids are
not in school, and other people are in the office. I know it has been frowned upon.

52

Other participants shared their limitations for growth and opportunity. P1 posited:
I was offered a position during the recession, came the right time of my life, and a perfect
fit. CEO saw something in me. Happy overall with the job. Advancement is tough, there
is no opportunity for growth, maybe sales manager, probably so far down the future, not
on my mind.
Four women felt that their advancement was contingent on other forces outside of their
control. One stakeholder felt there was a need for more education. Participant P6 stated, “At the
max in this position, [I] would need to go to schooling to go higher.” There were various reasons
why women felt they lacked the opportunity to advance at the company; for a few, it was about
the environment. The mother who recently took maternity leave, P5, believed that being a
mother and currently staying at home due to the COVID-19 pandemic created perceptions about
her dedication to work. P5 said, “People at work think I'm at home watching my kids all day
long, not working. This unfortunately has changed the dynamics for me with work.” Studies by
Epstein and Kalleberg (2001) confirm that employers continue to perceive women as prioritizing
motherhood over their careers, and this perpetuates assumptions of working mother productivity.
Concerning the second attribution question, the study asked the participants to share their
views of how men and women are treated at the company in regard to career management. An
example was shared with the stakeholders:
Mr. X in your company has 2 children and has worked in the company for 5 years. Mrs.
Y in your company has 2 children and has just returned from her maternity leave. She
has also worked for the company for 5 years. If both Mr. X and Mrs. Y are working in the
same position, what do you think the supervisor of Mr. X and Mrs. Y will expect?

53

Four out of nine, or 44% of the participants, stated that the company was very fair and there were
no gender differences. One participant did not want to answer the question, another stated she
was an independent worker and was not in the office, and two participants acknowledged
specific gender differences.
Participants believed that the company was fair to men and women. P2 stated, “In the
company I have been fortunate, the management team has treated everyone equally. No one has
a cost or been a burden that I have seen, it has not been my experience at this company.” P7
stated, “With company culture, they would be treated equally and depends on the spouse
situation. They would be given fair treatment.” P9 determined, “This company is the fairest
company, if you need time off, you can get it, everyone is treated the same.” P4 acknowledged
that there were more male managers. “We have a lot of male managers; overall, they are treated
quite equally, from what I see. The women are treated the same and equally.”
Two participants shared gender differences. P3 shared that at Chemcorp, there was no
bias and everyone was treated fairly but there are gender roles in place:
It's hard to say, I think for me as a supervisor I wouldn't treat them differently. I respect
the role the women have to play in having a baby and staying home to care for the family
especially early on and do what is needed to do to get to the point to get the child can be
in daycare what have you. I haven't seen any biases in our company. I will say we do
have kind of gender roles, we have a warehouse where it’s typically men and customer
service that is typically women and we have sales it’s both, so luckily is fairly balanced.
P5 felt that, as a mother, she was held to a different standard:
My counterpart at work is also at home with his kids, and there was a comment made not
directly at me. It was not understood why he is at home if the wife was at home as well

54

and he has two children as well just like I do, and both my husband and I are here. It was
assumed that he would be at work and his wife would be at home, therefore I would
assume that they assumed I would stay home and that my husband would go to work.
Two participants quickly dismissed the question by noting that everyone is equal, but not
offering an explanation. “Pass on the question, that is a tricky one,” declared participant P6. P8
remarked, “Everything and everyone is equal.”
Advancement and opportunities were attributed to factors other than individual
performance for the female employees at Chemcorp. Some of the women did not feel that they
were treated differently because of their gender, but others confirmed that there are inherent
gender roles at the company. Some women chose not to speak about the issue and avoided the
question completely. The participants strived to understand why advancement and opportunities
happen or why they did not and may attribute to a lack of ability, lack of effort, or prior
experiences or the environment (Anderman & Anderman, 2008). Participants were asked
specifically if they felt that their roles and opportunities for advancement were attributed to
something other than performance, and four out of nine participants indicated that their
advancement was contingent on other forces outside of their control.
Expectancy Findings: Right to Leave and Positive Outcomes
The study wanted to determine if female employees have the right to leave and their
accommodations would not result in a negative impact on their pay or advancement. The
question posed to the stakeholders was if they felt they could take time off to care for themselves
or a family member and whether their positions and current opportunities would remain the
same.

55

Six of the nine, or 67% of the participants, felt assured that their positions would remain
the same if they took time off. P1 stated, “Yes, take time off to care for the family. Company is
very flexible, and I have moved a couple of times and they are very accepting of it.”
Additionally, participant P2 affirmed,” Previously I had thought maybe not, but I know the
company is structured well. Human treatment of the company is strong.” Participants 7, 8, and 9
answered enthusiastically. P7 said, “Definitely, yes.” P8 said, “Yes I do” and participant P9
stated, “Absolutely.” P4 reflected a bit longer on the question:
Yes, the boss tells me to take a vacation. Very lenient with me and I have taken time off
for doctors or vacation. The position remains the same on my return from vacation.
Currently, I have two weeks of vacation and but if I need more time, it is not paid, as long
you get permission from the manager to take more days. Not sure about comp days and I
have never asked.
P5 was the only female employee who had negative feelings about asking her supervisor
for more time off work to care for her children. The mother of a newborn, she stated:
At this point no, I don't, it’s maternity leave that is one thing. We had talked about taking
a leave of absence because with school and kids because it’s a lot. We talked about it and
I didn’t feel comfortable. I don't think the business would operate without certain
personnel in place. I don’t think the boss would be thrilled if I took time off to care for
children. Part of me believes my position would not be saved or held.
On one hand, the majority of female employees believe that they can expect to have
accommodations to leave and that it would not impact them negatively, creating strength for the
company. On the other hand, P5 feared losing her position if she took extra time to care for her
newborn and school-age child. According to Albiston (2005), these are perceptions that

56

employers hold about working mothers; that they are reliable and committed to their work. P5
feared encountering resistance to asking for more time to care for her children because she does
not want to perpetuate a lack of reliability and commitment to her current position.
Expectancy Findings: Female Employees Have Opportunities for Growth
The study asked the female employees how they approach their supervisors about
training opportunities, growth potential, and new roles. The study wanted to know if the
stakeholders can advocate for themselves. Eight of nine, or 89% of the participants, felt that they
could talk to their supervisor about training opportunities, growth potential, and new roles and it
had led to positive outcomes. Only one participant, P1, had heard from her supervisor that it
would depend on who retired for her to move up:
Feel like I haven't talked to them about it. Supervisor said that older sales reps retire that
I would get opportunities with new accounts if I perform well and do well and you get
what you deserve. We are a small company, If I had to bring it up, I can bring it up. Talk
to the boss directly.
The rest of the participants had positive experiences asking for opportunities and new
roles. P2 said, “Not so much new role but training is regular, lots of cross-training by suppliers.
There is a desire for outside-of-circle training such as literature and trade shows to better
understand the industry.” P3 asserted, “CEO is open to any suggestions I may have and a lot that
I'm doing at the company is willing to listen to all my suggestions and there is lots of support.”
P4 is being mentored said, “CEO and the Sales Director are mentors, and the company is where
can I advance professionally and personally.” P9 stated that she felt positive about advancing.
“Been here two years, been trained in different departments. There is a good chance for
advancement.” P7 who is a seasonal employee, mentors others to help them grow, “I am more

57

mature and seasoned. I read a lot on leadership, I’m a top producing sales rep. Mentor other
sales reps. I teach sales at Biola University. Boss encourages me to do so.”
P5 also agreed that she had a good relationship with her supervisor which gave her an
opportunity to have a leadership role with the American Organization of Chemical Industries
(AOCI):
I think we have a pretty open relationship as far as communication goes. Right before
everything happened, the shutdown talked about doing a leadership role with the AOCI
the organization we belong too, and he was fully supportive that as long as I can do it.
Obviously, everything happened, I was also talking about restructuring my position into
Director of Procurement and he was very supportive. It is a positive environment, it’s
more about me being chicken.
The female employees at Chemcorp felt they could speak to their supervisors about
opportunities and new roles and were able to advocate for themselves; this was an asset for the
company. P1 had not taken the initiative to ask because they had heard it would require someone
to retire but did not fear approaching and asking. P1 also felt challenged because the company
was small and there were limitations for advancement. Research on small versus larger
companies suggests that small companies are less likely to pay higher wages, offer better fringe
benefits, or attractive package of working conditions and compensation, and these differences
reflect real challenges for small companies (Brown et al., 1990). Table 18 in Appendix B
showcases the results of the interview questions about motivational influences.
Organizational Influence Findings
Schein (2017) stated that cultural models and settings create cultural values that have a
significant effect on an organization’s character. Cultural settings are concrete and include the

58

employees, their tasks, how and why they are completed, and the social context in which their
work is performed. Cultural models refer to cultural practices and shared mental schemas within
an organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). In this study, cultural settings and cultural
models assisted the researcher to understand the problems relating to resources such as
communication, messaging, and information (Schein, 2017). This occurred by examining the
organization’s forms of direct communication to its employees and how it creates a culture of
information and clarity for the employees at Chemcorp.
Table 8 includes the organizational influences that were used to assist in the findings.
Table 8
Organizational Types, Influences, and Findings
Organizational
Type
Assumed Organizational Influence Need, Strength, or
Undetermined Finding
Cultural
Settings
The organization needs to have clear
communication on federal and state
procedures and policies, and how
employees can access resources.
Need: there is a lack of
clarity about how the
organization communicates
federal and state procedures.
Cultural
Settings
The organization needs to support
female employees with flex time, onsite
childcare assistance, and part-time
scheduling.
Strength: there is a flextime
schedule.
Need: no on-site or off-site
childcare.
Cultural
Settings
The organization needs, during times of
crisis, to provide clear communication and
information about leave time.
Strength: stakeholder’s position is
stable during the time of crisis.
Cultural
Models
The organization needs to close the pay
gap and create a positive culture that
supports female employees with their
colleagues and supervisors.
Undetermined: closing of the pay
gap and a positive culture was
created to support female
employees with colleagues and
supervisors

The stakeholders were asked the following cultural setting influence questions that
provided the organizational findings:

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1. How does your company communicate its vision and mission to their policies? (Settings)
2. How does your company communicate and make accessible new federal and state
regulations tied to your rights and privileges? (Settings)
3. What offerings does your company provide for workplace flexibility? (Settings)
4. Does your company have onsite childcare? Do you use this service? If no – what is your
childcare process? (Settings)
5. Any changes to your position since stay at home mandate occurred to COVID19?
(Settings)
6. From your viewpoint, how can the company create greater opportunities for you at work?
(Model)
Organizational Finding: The Organization Has Clear Communication on Vision and Mission
The study addressed this organizational setting influence question by seeking to
understand if the company connected its mission and vision to its employees at Chemcorp. The
results provided evidence that the communication process was an asset at Chemcorp.
All nine, or 100% of the participants, agreed that the company communicated its vision
and mission well. P1 noted, “Sales Liaisons have a meeting once a year; the vision is mentioned
but policies or regulations we get by email. There are Monday sales meetings, but it’s only about
sales items.” P2 affirmed that updates on mission and vision are often, “Annual meetings,
weekly meetings and day to day, daily.”
Participant P3, a Director of Sales and second in command at the company, proclaimed
that the company was compliant in disseminating regulations and safety information:
We have a pretty defined handbook on policies and any expectation on safety, obviously
working on chemical company, safety is first. We have an outline mission statement

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which is very simple, and CEO rearranges often and its framed around the offices in
several places. I think people understand it and not complicated; basically just be best
you can be truthful and fair and obviously things should come to you. I feel the mission is
very well communicated and something we all agree on.
P4 affirmed, “Website and framed in the conference room. Meetings or presentation or
upper management convey the mission and vision statements.” P6 agreed that the company was
“great about sharing policies.” P9 said, “Post it all over the company and live it.” P5 also agreed
that the company does a good job posting its vision and mission:
We do have a mission statement; we do have policies and do have a handbook. We do
have all the verbiage available to us. Made available when we get started. Reiterated in
meetings and I hear it more often, I meet with suppliers.
Chemcorp providing clarity about the organization’s mission and vision is an asset. The
overall response from the female employees at Chemcorp provided evidence that the company
was clear in providing these specific resources. However, there is flexibility for the employees
but there was no set policy in the company handbook about flexible or compensation
opportunities. According to Ewing (2002), flexibility in work schedules can produce productivity
but employers need to base changes in scheduling on the needs of both employer and employees.
Organizational Finding: Organization Does Not Have Clear Communication about Federal
and State Procedures and Policies
The second cultural setting question asked the stakeholders if the company
communicated with them about the policies and procedures pertaining to their rights and
privileges. All nine participants agreed that the policies and procedures were shared; however,
four out of nine, or 44% of the participants, felt the messaging could be better. One participant

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revealed that she was not clear about policies and regulations. P6 stated, “Pass on it, not sure of
it.” P8 stated that she had no idea who sent emails regarding specific policies, noting, “Via
emails and newsletters, open-door policy. Who is sending those emails? Don’t know that
person’s title.” P3 explained that the company’s policies aligned with state and federal laws:
We obviously fall in the line and do and what we are supposed to do regards to the state
and federal. I feel like our ENGS Manager is far as those regulations is on top of it.
However, we do outsource our human resources department, but we are compliant.
Participant P5 affirmed how the company could communicate better:
Manager communicates an email, communicated well. No specific Manager.
Accounting manager acts as HR manager. HR is where we fail. I had to figure my own
maternity leave. Lost job did a great job, it was a bigger company but at the company,
you had to do it all alone and it was very messy.
This study supports the need for clarity from the company on federal and state procedures
for its employees. When asked, some participants reflected that communication deficits could be
attributed to the lack of a human resources component. P3 acknowledged that the company
lacked a human resource component. Participant P5 argued that the lack of human resources
component made her experience more difficult when applying for the Family Medical Leave
Act. The lack of human resources was a key finding and the underlying concept. Many
organizations outsource human resources functions to reduce costs and save money. There is a
high cost in hiring a full-time, in-house human resource department. Outsourcing human
resource departments are used to streamline people-intensive processes, such as recruitment,
hiring, firing, payroll, and providing benefits (Planning to Outsource, 2004).

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Organizational Influence Finding: The Organization Offers Workplace Flexibility but No
Childcare Resources
The third cultural setting question asked about the type of offerings that the company
provided for workplace flexibility. Eight out of nine, or 89% of the participants, agreed that the
organization offered workplace flexibility. Participant P1 stated, “I have a flexible job, always
there, not stuck to the office.” Participant P2’s comments reflected this same sentiment, “I have
all the flexibility I want, I guess. Sales team has its perks. I have the flexibility to work from
home or on the road. Very flexible, it’s about getting work done than being chained.” Participant
P7 also stated, “Salespeople are the most flexible. Treated with respect and trust and in turn with
once integrity.” Participant P8 said, “Flextime, very flexible with the schedules.” Participant P4
also affirmed that the company was good giving her time to care for her kids:
The company is very flexible if you need to care for family or have an emergency. I have
seen those with kids get calls from school, the managers let them care for the family.
They usually make it up the next day or come in early.
Participant P9 was enthused about how easy it was to take the time that she needed:
People working from home because of what is going on. If you need time off, they are
very good with it, go ahead. Never an issue. It’s up to you want to use your vacation
time, want to use your take time off whatever. Whatever you want to do. They do not pay
you unless you say so, I want to use this or that. I am hourly, not salary, and don't know
how it works for them?
The study found that the majority of the participants felt that the company was flexible
and gave them opportunities to make up time by using vacation time or by coming up with other
creative ways to make up their time. Participant P5 displayed little enthusiasm about the

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company’s flexibility. While the COVID-19 pandemic and the related shutdowns have created
flexibility, she was concerned about what the company’s flexibility would be once everyone goes
back to work. According to P5:
Right now, being very flexible very they don't have a choice. Trying to be supportive
with the different situations we are all in. For me, I had to basically stop everything work
and going in because of the school shut down. Boss has been flexible in staying home,
but I have not been into the office yet. There may be a second round of shutdowns and I
don't when that will be. Schools are not opening opened up and will take longer than
anticipated. I know no one is thrilled about it and hope they will be flexible?
The study found that the company was very flexible and offered employees the opportunity to
make up time by using their vacation or sick time to take time off to care for the family.
The study also learned that the company did not offer on-site childcare or off-site
childcare resources. There was a total of seven mothers, but only two had school children who
needed to be cared for before and after school. All nine participants stated that the company did
not offer childcare and five participant mothers did not offer a response to alternative childcare
resources. The lack of childcare support was made clear by the participants. According to
Participant P2, “No childcare at the company.” Participant P4 also observed, “No, some need
childcare, not sure. My child is in school, after school my husband picks her up, if she is ill, then
I will take time off, or work from home, it depends on the situation.” Participant P5 affirmed,
“No, what is the childcare process, preschool and daycare, part-time and grandma watches. The
daughter to school and after school program to pick her up from school as well.”
For the two mothers with school children, their need for childcare and flexibility was
very clear as they shared their current routines at home and work. This influence was identified

64

as a need as it was determined the company lacked childcare resources for mothers and families
alike. Mothers like P5 are balancing children, managing the household, and their employment.
When asked if she was overwhelmed with responsibilities, P5 posited:
24/7 thing, constantly juggling either work or children, and it’s ongoing, a job in the
office and have a job at home. Literally, the only time you don't have a responsibility or
an obligation is when you are sleeping and that is the minimal amount of time sometimes
because of all the stuff you have to do, you have to manage your schools right now, even
when you are not in Covid times, their schedules are constant. If the kid gets sick in
school they call me, not my husband first. They assume I will drop everything; I had the
school call your child is sick come get them I don’t' work right next to the school, I will
be 45 minutes to an hour, there is a pause, that seems like a long time. That is the reality
of a working parent.
P2, also a mother of a school child, concurred, “Yes, sometimes balancing work and
family life. Balance doesn’t always work out so well for a period of time, need to take a deep
breath and start to delegate.” Participants P2 and P5, mothers of school-age children, found that
life and work will need balance. Studies furthered that working mothers will need to ask their
employers to provide flex time and on-site childcare to help them stay on the job while raising
their children (Eagly & Carli, 2007).

Organizational Finding: Positions Remain the Same
The study asked if the participants’ positions changed during the COVID-19 pandemic
and according to six of the nine, or 68% of the participants, nothing has changed in their
positions. Participant P2 stated, “Nothing has changed for her position.” P3 occurred, “No,

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business as usual. Essential business. No layoffs or pay cuts.” Participants 4, 5, and 6 stated
simply, “No”.
For participant P1, there are key changes with clients. P1 said, “Since March, even before
California stated to stay home, the company said no face-to-face visits with customers. Emails
only to communicate. For shipping sales samples, no visits.” P8 stated, “Yes, at first I worked
three months from home and once my childcare opened up and I was able to go back into the
office. CEO stated he can reinstate me working from home if I need it, he is very flexible.”
P9 said that her work has changed, “Yes, some are from home and some at the office. I filled
another’s position who was working from home. More work, my position did change.”
The majority of the female employees believed their positions were the same, and only
three women felt that there were some changes based on childcare needs, making up work while
others are not available, and changes to routine meetings and communication with clients. The
company was able to keep the stakeholder’s position during times of crisis which has occurred
due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Organizational Finding: Undetermined if Organization Closes the Pay Gap
The study wanted to know if the organization’s cultural practice to support female
employees were in place and that it had led to closing the pay gap. The findings were
inconclusive, and the question posed did not further the discussion regarding closing the pay gap.
The question asked was, “How can the company create greater opportunities for them at work?”
Five out of nine participants (56%) stated that they were unsure how to answer the
question or felt that they were already on the top of their game and did not see a need for further
opportunities. Participant P1, unsure how to answer, stated, “I don't know, I am not sure, not sure
how to answer that. I would say give me more accounts, but I already have too many accounts.”

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P6 had no idea what the company can do further, noting, “Pretty comfortable, no idea they can
do aside from what they are doing.” P7 recalled that she was on top and did know how to answer
the question. “I’m at the top, don’t know how to answer this question. Don’t want to go
anywhere else.” Others did not answer. P8 said, “Pass I don't know how to answer the question”
and P9 mused, “They are doing a great job, there is nothing more they need to do.”
Four out of nine participants (44%) varied in their responses, and their answers were
found to be inconclusive. P3 wanted to work from home for her overall health. She said, “After
Covid, I am going to ask for more time to work at home, there is more flexibility, and my mental
health and health overall have improved.” P5’s statement provided a retrospect on what it means
for the company to be supportive:
I don't know that we are that good about as a whole supporting opportunity, with the
exception of salespeople and some management people. I feel it’s left to the individual to
pursue and then yes they will be supportive at that point. It is more if I decide to want
something, I go ask for it and yes they are supportive at that point.
Two participant responses suggested that an opportunity with more training and
education could create a good outcome. P2 would like to get more education paid by the
company: “I would like to advance by getting more education with the help of the company.” P4
stated that she receives training, noting, “More training would be nice in different positions, in
things that I’m interested in such as accounting and marketing. I have been getting more training
in marketing.” Both participants gave examples of how the company can give them more
opportunities; however, the researcher felt that responses did not further the discussion on
closing the pay gap. Table 19 in Appendix B lists the results of the interview questions pertinent
to the organizational influences.

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Summary
The findings addressed the key components of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences. The company was successful in communicating everyday regulations and policies to
its employees. However, there was a lack of understanding about family and maternity leave
policies. For several female participants, rights and privileges are not always forthcoming from
the company. Eighty-nine percent of participants voiced that they were not aware of the process
to take family or maternity leave. The study determined that there was a lack of understanding
about family and maternity leave policies by the organization and that the company would need
to close this performance gap. The company’s assets include a good atmosphere where the
employees felt they had the flexibility and could speak to their supervisors about opportunities
and advancement. However, it was determined that some of the women felt that they could not
advance due to circumstances apart from their abilities. Also, stakeholders stated that there was a
lack of childcare and a human resource component. The study was conducted during COVID-19
pandemic and the stakeholders’ answers were based on the current accommodations that the
company offered them due to the stay-at-home orders by the governor of California. Chapter
Four provided the findings from the qualitative data gathered during interviews. In the following
chapter, recommendations based on the findings will be discussed.

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CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS AND SOLUTIONS
By Spring 2022, Chemcorp will revise its company procedures and policies to improve
its working conditions for all its employees. While the study focused on women and their
experiences in the workplace, the goal of the company is to specifically view the experiences that
are shared by all who work side-by-side with the women at Chemcorp. Currently, Chemcorp
does not have a thorough and detailed policy in place for employees who need to take maternity
leave or family leave.
The research questions from this study aimed to uncover female employees’ thoughts and
ideas about the obstacles women face in the workplace during times of pregnancy, post-
childbirth, and as mothers at the company. The study analyzed and identified the performance
gaps that support the recommendations for organizational practice (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Chapter Four reported the findings from the qualitative data gathered during interviews to
identify needs pertaining to the KMO influences and discovered themes relating to performance.
In Chapter Five, recommendations to achieve this goal are organized according to the
KMO influences. The following is a discussion of the recommendations and a comprehensive
implementation and evaluation plan will be presented using the New World Kirkpatrick Model.
The chapter ends with concluding thoughts and a summarization of the study.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
Data examined the knowledge influences are demonstrated in Table 9. The
recommendations are supported by the literature review and the performance improvement
approaches to assist organizations to advance in their strategy to support its stakeholders (Clark

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& Estes, 2008). The knowledge and skills component are important for the organization so it can
easily identify the problem and see a potential solution to suggested performance gaps.
Table 9
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Female employees need to
know how to access resources
and policies set by the
organization. (P)
How individuals organize
knowledge influences and how
they learn and apply what they
know (Schraw & McCrudden,
2006).
It is critical to first learn the
information, process it, and
then use it to achieve
professional development or
close the information gap
(Schraw & McCrudden, 2006).
Provide female employees
information that is easily
accessible to receive resources
on procedures and policies on
time off or individual illness
considerations.

Providing Female Employees Knowledge of How to Access Resources and Policies
The findings indicate that female employees need procedural knowledge to access
resources and policies to take family and maternity leave. A recommendation rooted in
information processing theory has been selected to close this procedural knowledge gap. Schraw
and McCrudden (2006) found that individuals organize knowledge influences based on how they
learn and apply what they know. They also connect new knowledge to prior knowledge to
construct meaning (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). It is necessary to first learn the information
and how to process such information, and then use it to achieve professional development or
close the information gap. This will help individuals identify and understand the important points
of what they have learned. The recommendation is to provide female employees with access to
procedures and policies in various strategies and job aids.

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Access to job aids for female employees can be done in several ways. The company can
begin by providing a collection of policies and strategies on current federal and state health
regulations that are easily available through a website resource program (Bakken et al.,
2007). The company can also provide a speaker series in collaboration with public health
community officials and an open library of information for employees to access (Bakken et al.,
2007). Accessing information can close the procedural knowledge gap (Clark & Estes, 2008).
These proposed strategies all support the efficacy of job aids as a means of providing
information in an organized, logical manner to help female employees understand the resources
and policies that support their ability to take family and maternity leave.
Motivation Recommendation
Clark and Estes (2008) concluded that motivation is not just how someone does
something, but why they do it. Knowing does not mean someone will do something; there is also
motivation to consider. Understanding accurate methods to assess and address motivation
influences will build an understanding of the stakeholders’ priorities. Table 10 indicates the
motivational influence has a high priority for achieving a stakeholder’s goal.
Table 10
Summary of Motivation Influence and Recommendation
Assumed Motivation
Influence
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Female employees need to
attribute that pay or
advancement gap is not due to
only individual performance.
(Attribution)
Learning and motivation are
enhanced when individuals
attribute success or failures to
effort rather than ability.
(Anderman & Anderman,
2008).
Supervisors ensure that
employees are encouraged to
pursue information relating to
their rights and privileges.

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Attribution
The findings indicate that female employees need to attribute their pay and advancement
opportunities to factors other than individual performance. A theory rooted in attribution is
appropriate for resolving this gap. Anderman and Anderman (2008) suggested that findings
during research lead to the real motivation of why employees attribute success or failures to
effort rather than ability. Likewise, learning and motivation are enhanced when individuals
attribute success or failures to effort rather than ability (Anderman & Anderman, 2008). As a
result, the recommendation is that employers encourage female employees to pursue information
about their rights and privileges by being forthcoming and accessible with information related to
those rights and privileges (Albiston, 2005; Buchanan et al., 2005).
According to Rueda (2011), attribution beliefs are reinforced with choice and control.
Female employees at Chemcorp need to ask for leave time without feeling they may lose their
jobs, and the employers need to change how they offer information about leave procedures
without affecting current posts or future advancement such employees that are seeking maternity
or family leave. Guendelman et al. (2014) state that there is a lack of information and
opportunity that drives women who need to take time off from work. For example, Guendelman
et al. (2014) posit that small companies tend to lack adequate maternity leave policies, and these
women have to negotiate time off with little information from their employers. The employers
can encourage their female employees to advocate for themselves. Employers need to provide
ample opportunities for employees to find accessible information on their rights and privileges.
Furthermore, the employees should feel free to follow up and communicate interests and
concerns. May et al. (2004) stated that supervisors who empowered their employees to voice
their opinions and concerns cultivate an open and thriving culture.

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Organizational Influences
Organizational culture affects performance in an organization and is requested to close
the performance gap within an organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). Schein (2017) confirmed that
cultural models and cultural settings create cultural values and have a significant effect on an
organization’s identity. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) affirm that cultural settings are
concrete and include the employees, their tasks, how and why tasks are completed, and the social
context in which their work is performed. Cultural models refer to cultural practices and shared
mental schemas within an organization. Table 11 shows the recommendations to close the
performance gap that was identified in the study.
Table 11
Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
The organization needs to
have clear communication
on federal and state
procedures and policies and
how employees can access
resources. (CS)

Communication ineffectiveness
characterizes organizations as
evidence that they have low
employee trust, engagement,
retention, and performance
levels. These problems are due
to the unwillingness of the
leaders to communicate (Berger,
2014).
Employers need to communicate
expectations and, when there is a
need, provide the tools and
training to succeed in the
organization.

Communication and transparency
are key to have more engaged
employees during changes in
policy and procedures.
The organization needs to
support female employees
with childcare
assistance (CS)

Processual sustainability is on
stage in an extended process of
implementation, spread, and
development (Buchanan et al.,
2005).
Organizations should listen to the
stakeholders’ needs and manage
new resources.

Cultural Settings: Clear Communication
The findings indicated that the company needs to have clear communication techniques
to share current governmental procedures and policies with their employees. Employers have an

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influence on the people they manage, oversee, and lead. Poor communication and withholding of
information are common sources of knowledge problems at work (Clark & Estes, 2008).
According to Schein (2017), the system of communication, if done inappropriately, can create a
hostile setting, resulting in people making assumptions.
May et al. (2004) stated that supervisors who empowered their employees to voice their
opinions and concerns cultivated an open and thriving culture. Possible recommendations are
that the company disseminate clear information that creates opportunities for employees to
follow up and communicate interests and concerns with employers without any repercussions of
losing their position or opportunities for advancement. According to Her et al. (2017), clear and
widely available communication promotes an environment of openness.
Moreover, the company needs to provide clear and concise information about family
leave policies. According to Callahan (2015), it will be necessary for the company to assess
employees’ current understanding and engagement to create a baseline. Berbarry and Malinchak
(2011) contend that by using employee feedback with tools such as assessments, employers can
capture needs, identify barriers, and find support for new initiatives.
The recommendation is that the employer creates a survey and questionnaire to solicit
feedback on employee needs during a time of personal crisis that can occur with family needs,
such as maternity or family illness (Berbarry & Malinchak, 2011). The employer can assess
pockets of information about what is missing and provide the information to the employees.
There are government policies and practices enacted to extend sick days and family and
maternity leave for residents of California such as Family and Medical Leave (FMLA), the
California Family Rights Act, California Paid Family Leave, and Child Care Leave (Albiston,
2005; Mount Saint Mary’s University Center for the Advancement of Women, 2018).

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Cultural Settings: Resources
The findings also indicate that organizations need to support female employees with
childcare. Buchanan et al. (2005) asserted that there should be an extended process of
implementation, spread, and development. The recommendation to the company is to listen to
the employees’ needs to provide current resources, policies, and procedures. Buchanan et al.
(2005) concluded that employers need to put mechanisms into place for best practices to be
shared amongst employees, and employers may need to be trained on how to measure progress
after policies are implemented. Ultimately, the employer needs to identify, provide the resource,
assess what has been shared, and determine if the information was positive or negative for both
its employees and the company as a whole (Buchanan et al., 2005).
Furthermore, the findings also suggest that the company would benefit from having an in-
house human resource department to implement and oversee resources and policies between
employees and management. A human resource component can support employees’ success and
overall experience at their organization (Meagher, 1972).
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
This study applied the New World Kirkpatrick Model, which is used to design training
that can highlight the outcomes and findings demonstrated by the stakeholders (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). This framework employed a short-term observation and measurement that
suggested behaviors are on track to create the desired result (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
The Kirkpatrick Four Level Model of Evaluation starts with the organizational goal and works its
way backward to connect with the recommendations for immediate solutions and to find a
connection to the larger problem of practice (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This model also
allows specific actions to occur: (a) developing a solution while assessing work behaviors, (b)

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identifying indicators that are learned occurrences during implementation, and (c) the emergence
of indicators that satisfy implementation strategies.
The company should revise its procedures and policies to improve working conditions for
all employees by Spring 2022. The company does not have a detailed family and maternity leave
policy in place and lacks childcare. The goal of the company is to view the experiences that are
shared by the key stakeholder group, female employees. There is an expectation that the
company can demonstrate a larger problem of practice such as the gender wage gap.
Level 4: Findings and Leading Indicators
Table 12 (on the following page) shows the proposed Level 4 findings and leading
indicators in the form of outcomes, metrics, and methods for both external and internal outcomes
for the company. If the internal outcomes are met as expected as a result of organizational
support for the stakeholders’ knowledge and training, then the external outcomes should also be
realized.

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Table 12
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Easily and readily available
communication about
governmental resources and
policies are shared.
Women remain and thrive
on the job after returning
from family or maternity
leave.
A survey conducted by the
employer asking about the
transition from home to work,
and ways to improve such
transition for all employees.
Resources offered such as on or
off-site childcare and the
application and instructions on
federal and state family and
maternity leave.
Women speak freely to
their employer and create a
plan of action for departure
and return from family and
maternity leave.
A survey conducted by the
employer regarding resources
that were offered to the
employee before family or
maternity leave and after.
Internal Outcomes
Increase the number of female
employees feeling optimistic
about balancing family and
work-life.
The number of female
employees who report
optimism regarding the
ability to balance family
and work life.
A survey conducted by the
employer of female
employees’ experiences six
months after established
policies were changed.
Increased retention and upper
mobilization of female
employees after they had taken
family or maternity leave.
Attrition data for the last
five years of each
employee, especially of
those female employees
who took family or
maternity time.
The CEO reviews turnover
data for female employees.

Level 3: Behavior
The focus is the female employees who need to demonstrate critical behaviors as they
relate to the lack of resources, information, and communication, and concern for repercussions
such as losing a position or future opportunity for career advancement. The first critical behavior

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is those female employees will report an increase in their willingness to engage with immediate
supervisors about resources, family, or maternity needs. The second critical behavior is for any
female employee to request resources such as time off for family and maternity leave when it is
needed. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome behaviors appear in
Table 13.
Table 13
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Female employees report
increased willingness to engage
with supervisors when needs
arise related to family or
maternity leave.
The outcome of the
interviews performed.
Surveys by the
employer
Twice a
year
2. Female employees request
time off for family and
maternity leave.
Some women request
time off due to family
or maternity needs.
Surveys from
immediate
supervisors are
submitted to the
CEO.
Quarterly
check

Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Achieving the critical behaviors and stakeholder goal requires that female employees
need the knowledge to seek advice and opportunities from their supervisor to take leave. The
female employees require the support of their direct supervisors to reinforce information
provided to them on best practices and policies that pertain to their rights and privileges. Finally,
the female employees need to work out a scenario where their positions remain intact during
their time away. Rewards should include the company supporting and encouraging all employees
to understand and feel free to consider federal, state, and company policies that are there for

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them. Table 14 shows the recommended drivers to support the critical behaviors of female
employees.
Table 14
Recommended Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing Critical
Behaviors
Supported
Reinforcing
Employers support female employees by offering
critical policy information and resources.
Ongoing 2
Encouraging
Employers encourage training via conferences and
online videos, whereby the employees are informed of
their rights and privileges and can integrate them at
work.
Ongoing 1, 2
Rewarding
Managers/supervisors are rewarded for providing
information and opportunities to female employees.
Ongoing 1
Monitoring
CEO reviews written and verbal communication from
employees on changes in best practices
Ongoing 1, 2

Organizational Support Is Key
The company needs to support female employees by providing easy and readily available
information about policies and procedures. Currently, the company outsources its human
resources functions to communicate overall policies, which are not readily available. The
company needs to change the organizational plan about how it disseminates specific information
to its employees, which means adding resources, time, and commitment by the CEO and the

79

Board members. Additionally, middle managers who act as supervisors need to be trained to
monitor feedback from employees on the new best practices.
Level 2: Learning
The following learning goals are based on Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2000) taxonomy
and will assist with the female employees' understanding of regulations and policies, and how to
plan and implement them in time of need or crisis while working at the company. Level 2
measures knowledge, how this knowledge leads to the ability to identify one’s own needs to act
on new and critical information. Understanding knowledge types is important during an
evaluation because it impacts stakeholders.
Learning Goals
There are three learning goals for female employees at the company. The following
learning goals relate to regulations and procedures on family and maternity leave. These goals
are specific to the study because the stakeholders are females who may seek time off for
childbirth or caring for the family while working at the company.
1. Female employees recognize all available resources, regulations, and policies.
2. Female employees can complete and submit governmental applications about rights and
privileges.
3. Female employees need to be able to identify their needs to request resources such as
childcare from the organization.
Program
The learning goals will be achieved with ongoing communication via conferences and
prerecorded tutorials or synchronous Zoom sessions on policies and best practices. This type of
job training provides the who, when, why, and how to apply for governmental programs that are

80

available to employees in California. Some governmental policies include the California Family
Rights Act, the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA), and the Paid Family Leave (PFL).
Knowing these programs exist to benefit the female employees will create an outcome of good
communication, transparency, and accessibility to information that will empower the employees
and employers alike.
A key component that may be problematic for the company is a lack of consistent
and ongoing human resources information from a designated person or department within the
company. When female employees need extensive time to care for themselves or their loved
ones, they have to search for information and are often unaware that there are governmental
policies in place to protect them or to offer resources. Additionally, the company needs to create
an environment where any female employee does not fear reprisal when asking for more time to
balance her personal and professional work life.
Components of Learning
It is important to evaluate learning for declarative and procedural knowledge types to
apply the knowledge to solve the problem. The female employees need to feel empowered with
information and know their positions are secure after taking family or maternity leave, and that
once at work, there is a work-life balance. Table 15 (on the following page) lists the evaluation
methods and timing for these components.

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Table 15
Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge: “I know it.”
Female employees understand basic
information about the resources available to
them?
After training and for a lifetime at the
company.
Procedural Skills: “I can do it right now.”
Survey question: What is the process to take
family or maternity leave?
Immediately after training, a survey on
understanding best practices.
Question asked by the female employee:
What, when, and where is the training to
learn about current regulations and
resources that are available?
Conferences and prerecorded tutorials or
synchronous Zoom sessions are
provided by the employer and the state.
Attitude: “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Female employees do not hesitate to
communicate their needs to their
supervisors.
Anytime during work hours.
Confidence: “I think I can do it on the job.”
Discussions and feedback without fear.

Following training; anytime during work
hours.
Commitment: “I will do it on the job.”
Employees feel a work-life balance and can
create an action plan.
Following training; anytime during work
hours.

Level 1: Reaction
Table 19 lists the methods to determine how the participants react to the learning events
concerning concepts of family and maternity leave. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016)
recognized that the intent of Level 1 is to measure customer satisfaction of training. Table 16

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also demonstrates the engagement of the female employees, the relevance of the training, and the
satisfaction achieved by them.
Table 16
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
How many female employees participated in training
after it was announced and offered?
During and after each
training has taken place.
Gather feedback from female employees during
training.
Checking verbally during the
training.
Relevance
How many female employees have approached HR
personnel or immediate supervisors to ask for resources
and plan out maternity and family leave schedules?
After training has taken place
(1 week, 1 month, and after 1
year),
Customer Satisfaction
Check-in with female employees during and after
training to see overall experience.
During and after training.
Check-in with female employees after they have
returned from family or maternity leave.
Soon after the employee
returns from family and
maternity leave.

Evaluation Tools
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) outlined the four levels of evaluation as: (a) the
reaction about the training experience, (b) the findings and increase in knowledge from the
training experience, (c) the behavioral change and improvement after applying the skills on the
job, and (d) the findings. Delayed and immediate evaluation is important and enhances the study
for upcoming human resources information training. In this plan, female employees have the

83

opportunity to learn online or in-person about their rights and privileges as they pertain to
acquiring resources and understanding family and maternity leave procedures.
Immediately Following the Program Implementation
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) stated that receiving immediate feedback will help the
employer adjust to the needs of the employee. As seen in Appendix B, female employees will
receive a survey that asks key questions about their experience during and immediately
following the training. Some questions will focus on the speaker and if the materials were
accessible and understood. The survey will also have a section for staff comments. The staff
member will provide the employer with an opportunity to learn about what was observed during
the training. An immediate survey will assist the employer to affirm the content of the training,
such as the facilitators and type of training protocols that were used. The survey also attempts to
ask if the women learned enough to make them feel positive about their workplace.
Delayed for a Period After the Program Implementation
Female employees need to know they can request resources and family and maternity
leave information, and once they know, decide if the information is suitable for them and seek it.
These actions will be important once the opportunity or need takes place. A questionnaire from
the employer to the female employee will provide insight into how the training guided the
process of asking for resources and taking family and maternity leave. This questionnaire pre-
determines if the employer used the best type of learning format. The outcomes of the
questionnaire form will help the employer confirm that the female employees received value
from training. The evaluation will be delayed for six months after changes have been
implemented since female employees may also attend conferences and other events. Appendix C

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contains the questionnaire that asks women to reflect on their experiences before and after they
returned to work from family and maternity leave.
Data Analysis and Reporting
Outcomes of findings can provide insight, and employers need to feel that their
investment in training will create clear communication and empower the workforce, particularly
their female employees. The findings from customer satisfaction surveys after the female
employees take leave will provide insight into training that takes place at the beginning of the
women’s training at the company. No training is the final training opportunity and surveys can
enhance its effectiveness for the next time.
Summary
This study examined obstacles women may face by not knowing their rights and
privileges about family and maternity leave, and how a training program can address the gaps
found throughout the study. The study created an implementation plan based on knowledge,
motivation, and organization recommendations. The New World Kirkpatrick model served as the
introductory framework to showcase if training on regulations and procedures can support the
idea of knowledge and information as an empowerment tool for individuals who need to speak of
their needs (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The New World Kirkpatrick model is a
framework that can be a bridge for Chemcorp. There is an opportunity for the employer to
support their female employees and reinforce best practices and policies.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
The strength in using the Clark and Estes (2008) performance gap analysis is that it
provided the researcher a guideline for the study to find, examine, develop, and strategize the
missing components to close the performance gap at Chemcorp. It was appropriate to use the gap

85

analysis because it created a scaffold that integrated all the important components of the problem
of practice such as knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors (KMO). The KMO factors
correspond with the gap analysis and it validated the research (Clark & Estes, 2008). The
purpose of this gap analysis was to identify if female employees have adequate knowledge,
motivation, and organizational support to achieve their professional goals.
COVID-19 Pandemic
The COVID-19 pandemic impacted this study because it influenced the company and
many aspects of participants’ lives. Interviews took place in July 2020. Most of the country,
including California, was under a stay-at-home mandate during this time. All interviews took
place via the Zoom video conferencing application. The employer chose the participants and
provided them with the opportunity to partake in the study while they followed orders to stay at
home. The interview method had limitations and the researcher was aware that some of the
stakeholders had bias due to their answers or lack of and nonverbal communication. Also, some
of the stakeholders’ recollections and the inaccuracy of experiences might have changed while
teleworking from home due to the pandemic. The pandemic influenced business as usual and
other aspects of the stakeholders’ lives that delayed the collection of data.
Future Research
Future research will require more time and more participants to be interviewed on the
topic. The study will need dedicated time because of the insufficient data and limited discussions
on key subjects such as the motherhood penalty, gender inequality, and the gender wage gap.
Some of the female participants expressed that they feared repercussions and loss of
opportunities when asked about career advancement questions. The CEO chose ten women; only
nine participated and one stakeholder chose not to join in the interview process. Other

86

participants chose not to answer some of the questions and their nonverbal cues implied that
there was an assumption by the researcher that there was a fear of employer retaliation. There
was also some technological confusion with the Zoom application for some of the interviewees.
Other conditions should be considered to expand the data type, such as adding male
employees, particularly fathers who have children or had them while working at Chemcorp, and
the number of company sites. Adding more people and sites would increase the diversity of data
and opportunities to tie stakeholders’ experiences with previous research. The study could be
improved by expanding data collection methods to include surveys. Finally, the study should
consider companies with a human resource department and compare how the communication
process differ with or without this element.
Currently, there is considerable research on women that focuses on their absence from
top leadership positions in both corporations and American politics. However, there is an
absence of working professional mothers in other positions and organizations. Business, social,
and policy studies need to address the lack of diversity of mothers within various organizations.
Failing to do so means women will continue to face obstacles related to wages, gender
inequalities, and career advancement.
Lastly, in the United States some companies offer policies to support caregiving
responsibilities to their workers, but there is no federal mandate for them to do so. There is a
need for federal and statewide policies that focus on paid maternity leave with no minimal
standard for vacation and sick time and with more robust childcare infrastructure (Collins, 2019).
Other countries such as Belgium, Canada, and Denmark offer dynamic workplace opportunities
to employees (Work Life Balance, 2020). In Belgium, the government promotes home working
by having companies focus on increased employee work results while they are working from

87

home, caring for their families. According to the Belgian government, the results are cost
effective for companies by reducing costs from 30% to 60% on office supplies and space, and
employees are happier with the option of teleworking (Work Life Balance, 2020). In Canada
there is heavy investment in early childhood education by working with the school districts to
offer before and after school childcare, which is considered an established national policy to help
working parents. Lastly, flex jobs agreements were introduced in Denmark for a period of five
year to accommodate employees that need flexibility due to school age children. Many families
have signed up for these agreements and remain on them for most of their professional careers
(Work Life Balance, 2020).
Conclusion
This study addressed the lack of adequate family and maternity leave policies and the
contributing factors that limit working mothers’ career advancement, keep their wages from
increasing, and contribute to continued wage disparities. The rationale for choosing the female
employees from Chemcorp was their availability, the good range of positions, and women who
may seek time off for childbirth while working at the company. The women of Chemcorp are
hard-working women and mothers who are balancing working from home while caring for their
families during a global pandemic. What they shared with the researcher was valuable and
provided the current experience of working women and mothers during an unprecedented time in
history. Some participants may still encounter systemic disadvantages when returning to their
workplace after the pandemic is over.
Implications of this data and analysis suggest that the majority of the female participants
do not feel fear repercussions or loss of opportunities when asked about career advancement.
However, for the two mothers with school-aged children, it was less clear and their responses

88

about questions of work flexibility and asking for time off to care for themselves or a family in
need suggest concerns.
The study also suggests that information is not clear concerning maternity and family
leave policies. The female employees at Chemcorp do not have access to that information and
are limited in how or who to talk to about that information because they do not have a human
resource component. Finally, the study suggests that working mothers experience a lack of work
and life balance, as two of the nine women, who are mothers, found themselves attempting to
balance their work lives with their home lives.

89

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Appendix A
Interview Protocol
No. Questions KMO/Influence
Type
1 What is your work position at the company? Knowledge
Factual
2 What is your ethnicity? Knowledge
Factual
3 How long have you been at the company? Knowledge
Factual
4 Did you have children? How many? Knowledge
Factual
5 Have you ever been pregnant while working at the company? If so, did
you take maternity or family leave? How long did you take maternity or
family leave?
Knowledge
Factual
6 What is the process to take maternity or family leave? Knowledge
Procedural
7 Have you ever needed to take time off from work but did not? Why? Knowledge
Conceptual
8 How would you identify how much time you need to care for an ill
family member, or after the birth of a child?
Knowledge
Conceptual
9 Can you describe your feelings about your role and your opportunities
for advancement?
Motivation
Attribution
10 Can you share your view of how men are treated at your company with
regard to their career management? What about women?
Example, Mr. X in your company has 2 children and has worked in the
company for 5 years. Mrs. Y in your company has 2 children and has
just returned from her maternity leave. She has also worked for the
company for 5 years. If both Mr. X and Mrs. Y are working in the same
position, what do you think the supervisor of Mr. X and Mrs. Y will
expect?
Motivation
Attribution

11 Do you feel stressed, tired, overwhelmed, and/or exhausted in trying to
shoulder your responsibilities? If so, could you give some examples of
your typical day when you feel this way?
Motivation
Expectancy

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12 Do you feel that you can take time off to care for yourself or a family
member and that your position and current opportunities will remain the
same?
Motivation
Expectancy
13 Can you tell me about how you talk with your supervisor about training
opportunities, growth potential, new roles?
Motivation
Expectancy
14 Do you ever feel overworked or tired? If yes, why? Motivation
Expectancy
15 How does your company communicate its vision and mission to their
policies?
Cultural Settings
16 How does your company communicate and make accessible new federal
and state regulations tied to your rights and privileges?
Cultural Settings
17 What offerings does your company provide for workplace flexibility? Cultural Settings
18 Does your company have onsite childcare? Do you use this service? If
no – what is your childcare process?
Cultural Settings
19 Any changes to your position since the stay-at-home mandate occurred
due to Covid19?
Cultural Settings
20 From your viewpoint, how can the company create greater opportunities
for you at work?
Cultural Model

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Appendix B
KMO Interview Questions and Responses
Table 17
Knowledge Influences, Interview Results
Interview
Question
Influence Responses
How long did
you take
maternity leave
or family
leave?
Factual P1-P9: No

P5: Yes, I did, I took four months and 16 weeks with my last
child. Two weeks prior to giving birth and then 16 weeks,
roughly. They allow you to take maternity leave, it is not paid
by the company, I was able to get it through the state of CA
through the family leave act and also through for part of it
through disability I believe, and I can’t remember the first part
of it. It was my decision to ask for as much as I received but it
was only covered technically paid for twelve weeks. Actually,
14 weeks because I had a c-section.
Have you ever
needed to take
time off from
work but did
not? Why?

Conceptual P2: I did but I didn’t, because the vacation time was not really
efficient. I needed a longer time but that is all I had. I could
not afford unpaid time off or risk my position be vacant and
filled.

P3: You know because I think have been in outside sales
before I was doing this position, being outside sales you kind
of have more time for yourself, so you’re not pigeonholed what
have you. I had that career for twenty years before Chemcorp,
so I didn’t need, if I need it I would take vacation, but I didn’t
need it per se because I had free lifestyle.

P4: Have not taken time off work.

P5: With children you always need to take time to from work,
but I do not take it. I will say we don’t have a lot of working
parents with young children in our company. I am one of a
few, I am the only that has taken maternity leave since I have
been there, which is odd for them to figure out how to
navigate. I needed to take time off whether to take care for the
kids, and had to find other ways to do it, because my job
doesn’t allow for a lot of flexibility. However, even when I
take vacation time, I am still involved. I tried not to connect
with work, but unfortunately it was impossible to do, so I chug
along.

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P8: shared that the company has accommodated her needs and
she stated, “I have taken time to care for my son; they
accommodate from home.
How would
you identify
how much time
you need to
care for an ill
family
member, or
after the birth
of a child?
Conceptual P2: It would depend on the situation, during a normal time. If
my child is ill, and there is no other care, then I would need to
take time from work. It’s a 24-hour job, childcare, you just try
to balance it.

P3: Previous job I had this happen, my wife had cancer and we
did the journey that it takes. They provided comp time and
vacation time were taken but sales there is already flexibility.

P5: It is hard that first year to send kids off to daycare or
preschool or whatever and being available when they need you
to come and pick them up because inevitably, they will get
sick. It is not the easiest thing to stop what you’re doing and
just be at home. Not every job allows for that.

P6: Schedule so it fits my work schedule come in early or stay
late. I have another family to help out.

P7: Depends on how much time, an hour or longer than that.
In the sales department, there is lots of flexibility compared to
those working in an office.
What is the
process to take
maternity or
family leave?
Procedural P1: Guessing talk to the boss. Never taken, probably available
but no informed about it.

P2: Not really aware of the process, but that “I know the
process is facilitated because colleagues took time off. I
haven’t had the need to use it.

P3: I am not really familiar with it. I know it exists if we do it,
I obviously have our legal rights to have that, especially in the
state of California, but I am not familiar with it. I assume you
go to HR and apply and take FMLA. Then you have obviously
had to get a pay cut. To be honest I have not dealt with any of
my employees.

P4: Someone took maternity leave; I think she took a week
before and a couple of months after as well. Not really sure,
she was offered quite a bit of time.

P5: I tell them I’m going to have a kid and I am planning to
take time off to be home with the baby, obviously. Because
mine was a c-section I knew I can do to the 14 weeks after

100

delivery. I needed time to be ready for the baby, that was not
paid, if I had vacation time or sick leave I could have used
that, but I didn’t have any at the time.

P6: Vacation time if you had it. No other options, not that I am
aware of.

P7: I really don’t know; it hasn’t come for me. It’s just
requested and granted.

P8: I want to say the same as with others. With my experience
when I was pregnant with my other child. The FMLA, right?
You have up to a whole year prior, for 6 weeks so you would
just request and file for it.

P9: I have no clue.

101

Table 18
Motivational Influences, Interview Results
Interview
Question
Theory Responses
Can you
describe your
feelings about
your role and
your
opportunities
for
advancement?
Attribution P1: I was offered the position during a recession, came at the
right time of my life, and a perfect fit. CEO saw something in
me. Happy overall with the job. Advancement is tough, there
is no opportunity for growth, maybe sales manager, probably
so far down the future, not on my mind.

P2: I feel challenged in the position I have, however, on the
other hand, the internal challenge there is room for
improvement or advancement, it’s a challenge with a smaller
private company because its run as a family unit, run closely.
The opportunity to tackle new challenges and growth is
slightly limited. and it takes more effort.

P3: I am stoked about this role; this role is my advancement
from my sales career. I didn’t get this role in the last
company and I did apply and didn’t get six or eight years ago.
I always wanted to manage people and felt like I had the skill
set to manage a team of salespeople, mentor them, and lead
them. Chemcorp CEO gave me the opportunity, it has been
tremendous. As far as advancement from where I am now in
the company, I don’t know if there is another job that I would
be doing. Certainly, I think taking more responsibility, it can
be a change of title we are a small company, and we have
lean management I don't think there is a necessary a set path
for me to advance. I am already there if you will.

P4: CEO is a mentor and the Sales Director, where can I
advance professionally and personally.

P5: I am in a decent position upper management role. I can
take this role to another company seamlessly and continue to
grow. I do however think having kids and being a mother,
holds me back in some way. I have been home since March
because my kids are not in school, and other people are in the
office, I know it has been frowned upon.

People at work think I'm at home watching my kids all day
long, not working. This has changed the dynamics
unfortunately for me with work

102

P6: At the max in this position, would need to go to schooling
to go higher

P7: They are unending, it is not contained. At the company
you do your job they promote from within.

P8: Pretty great, go get it, put herself out there.

P9: Been here 2 years, been trained in different departments.
There is a good chance for advancement.

Can you share
your view of
how men are
treated at your
company with
regard to their
career
management?
What about
women?
Example, Mr. X
in
your company
has 2 children
and has worked
in the company
for 5 years.
Mrs. Y in your
company has 2
children and has
just returned
from
her maternity
leave. She has
also worked for
the company for
5 years. If both
Mr. X and Mrs.
Y are working
in the same
position, what
do you think the
supervisor of
Mr. X and Mrs.
Y will expect?
Attribution P2: In the company I have been fortunate, the management
team has treated everyone equally. No one has a cost or been
a burden that I have seen, it has not been my experience at
this company.

P3: It's hard to say, I think for me as a supervisor I wouldn't
treat them differently. I respect the role the women have to
play in having a baby and staying home to care for the family
especially early on and do what is needed to do to get to the
point to get the child can be in daycare what have you. I
haven't seen any biases in our company. I will say we do
have kind of gender roles, we have a warehouse where it’s
typically men and customer service that is typically women
and we have sales it’s both, so luckily I have a team is fairly
balanced.

P4: acknowledged that there were more male managers. “We
have a lot of male managers, overall, they are treated quite
equally, from what I see. The women are treated the same and
equally.

P5: My counterpart at work is also at home with his kids, and
there was a comment made not directly at me. It was not
understood why he is at home if the wife was at home as well
and he has two children as well just like I do, and both my
husband and I are here. It was assumed that he would be at
work and his wife would be at home, therefore I would
assume that they assumed I would stay home and that my
husband would go to work.

P6: Pass on the question, that is a tricky one.

P7: With company culture, they would be treated equally and
depends on the spouse’s situation. They would be given the
fair treatment

103

P8: Everything and everyone is equal.

P9: This company is the fairest company, if you need time
off, you can get it, everyone is treated the same.

Do you feel that
you can take
time off to care
for yourself or a
family member
and that your
position and
current
opportunities
will remain the
same?
Expectancy P1: Yes, take time off to care for the family.

P2: Previously I had thought maybe not, but I know the
company is structured well. Human treatment of the company
is strong.

P4: Yes, the boss tells me to take a vacation. Very lenient
with me and I have taken time off for doctors or vacation.
Position remains the same on my return from vacation.
Currently, I have two weeks of vacation and but if I need
more time, it is not paid, as long you get permission from the
manager to take more days. Not sure about comp days and I
have never asked.

P5: At this point, no, I don't, it’s maternity leave that is one
thing. We had talked about taking a leave of absence because
with school and kids because it’s a lot. We talked about it
and I didn’t' feel comfortable. I don't think the business
would operate without certain personnel in place. I don’t'
think the boss would be thrilled if I took time off to care for
children. Part of me believes my position would not be saved
or held.

P7: Definitely, yes.

P8: Yes, I do

P9: Absolutely

Can you tell me
about how you
talk with your
supervisor
about training
opportunities,
growth
potential, new
roles?

Expectancy P1: Feel like I haven't talked to them about it. Supervisor said
that older sales reps retire that I would get opportunities with
new accounts if I perform well and do well and you get what
you deserve. We are a small company, If I had to bring it up,
I can bring it up. Talk to the boss directly.

P2: Not so much new role but training is regular, lots of cross-
training by suppliers. There is a desire for outside of circle
training such as literature and trade shows to better
understand the industry

104

P3: The CEO is open to any suggestions I may have and a lot
that I'm doing at the company is willing to listen to all my
suggestions and there is lots of support.

P4: The CEO and the Sales Director are mentors, and the
company is where can I advance professionally and
personally.

P5: I think we have a pretty open relationship as far as
communication goes. Right before everything happened, the
shutdown talked about doing a leadership role with the AOCI
the organization we belong to, and he was fully supportive of
that as long as I can do it. Obviously, everything happened, I
was also talking about restructuring my position into Director
of Procurement and he was very supportive. It is a positive
environment, it’s more about me being chicken.
P7: More mature and seasoned. Read a lot on leadership,
I’m top producing sales rep. Mentor other sales reps. I teach
sales at Biola University. Boss encourages me to do so.

P9: Been here two years, been trained in different
departments. There is a good chance for advancement.

105

Table 19
Organizational Influences, Interview Results
Interview
Question
Cultural
Model or
Cultural
Setting
Responses
How does your
company
communicate
its vision and
mission to
their policies?
Setting P1: Sales Liaisons have a meeting once a year; the vision is
mentioned but policies or regulations we get by email.

P2: Annual meetings, weekly meetings, and day to day
(daily).

P3: We have a pretty defined handbook on policies and any
expectation on safety, obviously working in a chemical
company, safety is first. We have an outline mission
statement which is very simple, and CEO rearranges often
and is framed around the offices in several places. I think
people understand it and not complicated. I feel the mission
is very well communicated and something we all agree on.

P4: Website and framed in the conference room. Meetings or
presentations or upper management convey the mission and
vision statements are.

P5: We do have a mission statement; we do have policies
and do have a handbook. We do have all the verbiage
available to us. Made available when we get started.
Reiterated in meetings and I hear it more often, I meet with
suppliers.
P6: Great about sharing policies.

P7: Salespeople are the most flexible. Treated with respect
and trust and in turn with once integrity.

P8: Pass don’t know how to answer.

P9: Post it all over the company and live it.
How does your
company
communicate
and make
accessible new
federal and
state
Setting P2: Legal purposes it’s displayed in the common area, if any
changes it will be sent by email and reminded during the
weekly meetings.

P3: We obviously fall in the line and do and what we are
supposed to do regards to the state and federal. I feel like our
ENGS Manager is far as those regulations is on top of it.

106

regulations tied
to your rights
and privileges?
However, we do outsource our human resources department,
but we are compliant.

P4: Bulletin, Manager in Charge sends emails and post on
the bulletin in the lunchroom. They are laws and regulation
updates.

P5: Manager communicates an email, communicated well.
No specific Manager. Accounting manager acts as HR
manager. HR is where we fail. I had to figure my own
maternity leave. Lost job did a great job, it was a bigger
company but at the company, you had to do it all alone and it
was very messy

P6: Pass on it, not sure of it.

P7: Through email notifications.

P8: Via emails and newsletters, open-door policy. Who is
sending those emails? Don’t know that person’s title.

P9: Everything is posted, anything changes it’s in the break
room.
What offerings
does your
company
provide for
workplace
flexibility?
Setting P1: I have a flexible job, always there, not stuck to the
office.

P2: I have all the flexibility I want, I guess. Sales team has
its perks. I have the flexibility to work from home or on the
road. Very flexible, it’s about getting work done than being
chained.

P4: Company is very flexible if you need to care for family
or have an emergency. I have seen those with kids get calls
from school, the managers let them care for the family.
They usually make it up the next day or come in early.

P5: Right now, being very flexible very they don't have a
choice. Trying to be supportive with the different situations
we are all in. For me, I had to basically stop everything
work and going in because of the school shut down. Boss
has been flexible in staying home, but I have not been in the
office yet. There may be a second round of shutdowns and I
don't when that will be. Schools are not opening opened up
and will take longer than anticipated. I know no one is
thrilled about it and hope they will be flexible?

107

P7: Salespeople are the most flexible. Treated with respect
and trust and in turn with once integrity.

P8: Flex time, very flexible with the schedules.

P9: People working from home because of what is going on.
If you need time off, they are very good with it, go ahead.
Never an issue. It’s up to you want to use your vacation time,
want to use your take time off whatever. Whatever you want
to do. They do not pay you unless you say so, I want to use
this or that. I am hourly, not salary, and don't know how it
works for them.
Does your
company have
onsite
childcare? Do
you use this
service? If
no—what is
your childcare
process?
Setting P2: No childcare at the company. My child is in school, after
school my husband picks her up, if she is ill, then I will take
time off, or work from home, it depends on the situation.

P4: No, some need childcare, not sure.

P5: No, what is the childcare process, preschool and daycare,
part-time, and grandma watches. The daughter to school and
after school program to pick her up from school as well.
Any changes
to your
position since
stay at home
mandate
occurred to
Covid 19?
Setting P1: Since March, even before California stated to stay home,
the company said no face-to-face visits with customers.
Emails only to communicate. For shipping sales samples, no
visits

P2: Nothing has changed for her position.

P3: No, business as usual. Essential business. No layoffs or
pay cuts.

P4-P6: No

P5: People at work think I'm at home watching my kids all
day long, not working. This unfortunately has changed the
dynamics for me with work.

P8: Yes, at first I worked three months from home and once
my childcare opened up and I was able to go back into the
office. CEO stated he can reinstate me working from home
if I need it, he is very flexible.

P9: Yes, some are from home, and some at the office. I
filled another’s position who was working from home. More
work, my position did change.

108

From your
viewpoint,
how can the
company
create greater
opportunities
for you at
work?
Models P1: I don't know, I am not sure, not sure how to answer that.
I would say give me more accounts, but I already have too
many accounts.

P2: I would like to advance by getting more education with
the help of the company.

P3: After Covid, I am going to ask for more time at home to
work, there is more flexibility, and my mental health and
health overall have improved.

P4: More training would be nice, in different positions.
Things that I’m more enthusiastic and interested in such as
accounting and marketing. I have been getting more training
in marketing.

P5: I don't know that we are that good about as a whole
supporting opportunity, except for salespeople and some
management people. I feel it’s left to the individual to
pursue and then yes they will be supportive at that point. It is
more if I decide to want something, I go ask for it and yes
they are supportive at that point.

P6: Pretty comfortable, no idea they can do aside from what
they are doing.

P7: I’m at the top, don’t know how to answer this question.
Don’t want to go anywhere else.

P8: Pass I don't know how to answer the question.

P9: They are doing a great job, there is nothing more they
need to do.

109

Appendix C
Female Employee Family and Maternity Leave Training Survey
Rate questions from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 10 (Strongly Agree)
Check Mark Your Answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 The training was clear and easy to understand.
Staff Comments:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 The trainer assisted in understanding resources such as
childcare, family, and maternity leave benefits.
Staff Comments:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 I am aware of my rights and privileges on family and
maternity leave.
Staff Comments:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 I feel that my employer is invested in my overall
success at the company.
Staff Comments:

110

Appendix D
After Female Employees Have Taken Family and Maternity Leave
Instructions: Reflecting the time you took for family and maternity leave. Rate questions from 1
(Strongly Disagree) to 4 (Strongly Agree), or N/A, that best reflects your experience.
1. It was easy to speak to the HR Representative about family or maternity leave
procedures.
1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Agree 4 = Strongly Agree N/A
2. It was easy to speak to my supervisor about applying for family or maternity leave.
1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Agree 4 = Strongly Agree N/A
3. I understand my rights and privileges and as an employee of California.
1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Agree 4 = Strongly Agree N/A
4. The training (in person or online instruction) was concise and easy to understand.
1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Agree 4 = Strongly Agree N/A
5. Returning to work was an easy transition.
1 = Strongly Disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Agree 4 = Strongly Agree N/A

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Asset Metadata

Creator Hernandez Trumkul, Perla A. (author)

Core Title Motherhood wage penalty, family leave policies, gender wage gap, and its influences on career advancement: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 01/29/2021

Defense Date 01/11/2021

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag career advancement,Discrimination,gender equity,gender inequality,gender wage gap,motherhood wage penalty: family leave,OAI-PMH Harvest,working mothers,working women

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Min, Emmy (committee chair)

Creator Email perlahern@gmail.com,phpearlh@netzero.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-417682

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