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Improving the representation of women in the independent school headship
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Improving the representation of women in the independent school headship
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Content
IMPROVING THE REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN IN THE INDEPENDENT
SCHOOL HEADSHIP
by
Michelle Odell
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2020
Copyright 2020 Michelle Odell
ii
DEDICATION
To my family for their encouragement of me and their constant and unwavering belief in
my determination to reach my goals: thank you for loving me and believing I can make a
difference in the world.
To women everywhere who aspire to make a difference in the world through their
leadership: your passion and compassion inspire me. Don’t give up. Have each other’s backs.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Over the course of my life, I have learned a bit about myself. One of my most profound
truths is that I enjoy doing difficult things. In the learning and trying of something new,
something not yet attainable, I feel the most alive. Falling down and getting up time and again,
wondering if I have what it takes, breathing through a pounding heart, and pushing past self-
doubt are the moments when I know I am embracing my hopes and dreams.
I am profoundly grateful for the remarkable and difficult journey of the past few years. It
has truly been a joy, and I will miss the stretching and striving that has led to so much personal
growth. During the course of this nearly three-year adventure of beginning and completing my
doctoral studies, I have also changed jobs, taken on a new and challenging leadership role, had
major surgery, learned to walk again, owned and closed a business, and moved to a new state.
Each part of the journey has been difficult…and so very exciting. The poet, Mary Oliver, wrote
in her poem, The Summer Day, “Tell me, what is it you plan to do with your one wild and
precious life?” I hope that I will always answer with the pursuit of worthy tasks, no matter their
difficulty. And I hope I will always lead with gratitude. To that end, I would like to acknowledge
the many people who have motivated and inspired me to keep striving along this journey.
To my husband, Marcus, thank you for fervently believing in me and my dreams and for
letting my pursuit of them dictate our journey together for a time. Thank you for graciously
cheering me through the twists and turns of this adventure. You are my best friend and greatest
blessing.
To Mikaela and Jake, thank you for being the best kids I could ever hope for. Your zeal
for life and adventure inspires me, as does your kindness and joy. Thank you for your
encouragement and never-wavering belief.
iv
To my mother, Mary, thank you for always letting me choose my own adventure and
thank you for believing in me. You made hundreds of sacrifices over the years so that I could
choose my own adventure. No words will ever be thanks enough. Your example instilled in me
grit and determination, a combination that has served me well. And, thank you for passing on a
bit of Texas-sass that I hope I never lose.
To my brother, Britt, thank you for a lifetime of intellectual conversation and never-
ending friendship. The luckiest siblings are more than brother and sister; they are friends.
To the two schools who have supported me as I began and have, now, finished this
journey. York Country Day School and Flint Hill School are beautiful reflections of those who
serve and lead them. Thank you for the encouragement and support to grow and learn.
To my chair and committee: Dr. Tracy Tambascia, Dr. Darlene Robles, and Dr. Courtney
Malloy. Thank you for being the remarkable and accomplished women you are. I am grateful for
your advice, encouragement, and wisdom.
To my friends in OCL Cohort Nine, thank you for your humor, honesty, encouragement,
critique, and companionship during this journey. So many of you have become friends I will
cherish for life. I hope our paths continue to cross and influence one another.
To all of the trailblazing women who participated in the interview process for this study,
thank you for the time you took from busy schedules to share your stories and offer words of
encouragement. You inspire me.
To all of the women who have mentored and believed in me throughout my career. Your
words of affirmation were lights on my path. Once again, I feel I must borrow Mary Oliver’s
words to thank you for inspiring me to be “improbable beautiful and afraid of nothing,
as though I had wings.”
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ ix
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1
Organizational Context and Mission ................................................................................... 2
Organizational Performance Status ..................................................................................... 3
Related Literature ................................................................................................................ 4
Importance of Addressing the Problem ............................................................................... 4
Organizational Goal ............................................................................................................. 5
Description of Stakeholder Groups ..................................................................................... 6
Stakeholders Groups’ Performance Goals ........................................................................... 6
Stakeholder Group for the Study ......................................................................................... 7
Purpose of the Project and Questions .................................................................................. 8
Methodological Framework ................................................................................................ 9
Definitions ........................................................................................................................... 9
Organization of the Project ................................................................................................ 10
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................................................. 12
Problem of Practice ........................................................................................................... 12
School Leadership ............................................................................................................. 13
Gendered View of School Leadership ................................................................... 13
Role of the Headmaster ......................................................................................... 17
Discrimination as a Barrier to Headship ........................................................................... 20
The Glass Ceiling .................................................................................................. 20
Gender Pay Differential ......................................................................................... 22
Sexism ................................................................................................................... 22
Experience Versus Potential for Leadership ......................................................... 24
Self-imposed Barriers to the Headship .............................................................................. 25
Balancing Demands of Work and Home ............................................................... 25
Need of Women to be Over-Prepared for Leadership ........................................... 27
The Path to Leadership ...................................................................................................... 27
Mentors and Role Models to Show the Way ......................................................... 27
Career Path Differences Between Men and Women ............................................. 29
Clark and Estes (2008) Framework ................................................................................... 30
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences ................................ 31
Knowledge and Skills ............................................................................................ 31
Motivation ............................................................................................................. 39
Organization .......................................................................................................... 46
vi
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 50
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 53
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS .................................................................................................. 55
Participating Stakeholders ................................................................................................. 55
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale ............................................................... 56
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale ....................................... 57
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Criteria and Rationale .................................... 58
Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale .......................................................... 58
Documents and Artifacts ....................................................................................... 59
Quantitative Data Collection and Instrumentation ............................................................ 60
Survey Instrument ................................................................................................. 61
Survey Procedures ................................................................................................. 62
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation .............................................................. 63
Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 63
Interview Procedures ............................................................................................. 64
Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 65
Credibility and Trustworthiness ........................................................................................ 65
Reflexivity ............................................................................................................. 65
Rich Data ............................................................................................................... 66
Triangulation ......................................................................................................... 67
Validity and Reliability ..................................................................................................... 67
Ethics ................................................................................................................................. 68
Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................................... 70
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS .................................................................................................... 71
Methods ............................................................................................................................. 71
Participants ............................................................................................................ 72
Findings ............................................................................................................................. 77
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 77
Knowledge Findings .............................................................................................. 81
Motivation Findings .............................................................................................. 95
Organizational Findings ...................................................................................... 104
Themes ............................................................................................................................ 112
Theme 1: Importance of Networks ...................................................................... 112
Theme 2: Female and Underrepresented ............................................................. 115
Theme 3: Lonely, Difficult Job ........................................................................... 117
Summary .......................................................................................................................... 119
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION ............................................................................................... 121
Organizational Context .................................................................................................... 121
Organizational Performance Goal ....................................................................... 121
Stakeholder Group ............................................................................................... 122
Recommendations for Practice ........................................................................................ 123
Implementation and Evaluation Plan ............................................................................... 132
Implementation and Evaluation Framework ....................................................... 132
vii
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations ................................................. 133
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators ............................................................. 133
Level 3: Behavior ................................................................................................ 134
Level 2: Learning ................................................................................................ 137
Evaluation of the Components of Learning ......................................................... 138
Level 1: Reaction ................................................................................................. 140
Evaluation Tools .................................................................................................. 140
Data Analysis and Reporting ............................................................................... 142
Summary .......................................................................................................................... 142
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach .................................................................... 142
Limitations and Delimitations ......................................................................................... 143
Future Research ............................................................................................................... 144
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 144
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 146
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................. 161
APPENDIX A: Email Explanation of Study ................................................................... 161
APPENDIX B: Informed Consent Handout .................................................................... 162
APPENDIX C: Survey Items and Analysis ..................................................................... 164
APPENDIX D: Interview Protocol ................................................................................. 173
APPENDIX E: Information Sheet/Facts for Exempt Non-Medical Research ................ 179
APPENDIX F: Evaluation Tool for Level 1 and Level 2 ............................................... 181
APPENDIX G: Blended Evaluation ................................................................................ 183
APPENDIX H: Sample Dashboard to Report Progress Towards Goals ......................... 185
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals ..................... 6
Table 2: Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments for Knowledge Gap Analysis ............ 36
Table 3: Motivational Influences and Assessments for Motivation Gap Analysis ....................... 43
Table 4: Organizational Influences, Types, and Assessments for Knowledge Gap Analysis ....... 49
Table 5: Interview Participant Data ............................................................................................... 73
Table 6: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes ........................ 134
Table 7: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation ............................... 135
Table 8: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors ........................................................... 136
Table 9: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program ........................................ 139
Table 10: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program .................................................... 140
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Conceptual framework. .................................................................................................. 51
Figure 2. Gender of responding fellowship for aspiring heads participants. ................................. 72
Figure 3. Confidence in essential aspects of headship pursuit. ..................................................... 82
Figure 4. Self-efficacy. .................................................................................................................. 96
Figure 5. How the fellowship affected self-efficacy ..................................................................... 97
Figure 6. Relationship with fellowship mentor. ............................................................................ 98
Figure 7. Usefulness of fellowship to becoming a head of school. ............................................. 106
x
ABSTRACT
This study applied the Clark and Estes gap analysis framework to examine knowledge,
motivation, and organizational theory within a program to prepare independent school leaders for
independent school headship. The purpose of this project was to evaluate whether the National
Association of Independent Schools’ (NAIS) Fellowship for Aspiring Heads was equipping
women to successfully pursue and attain independent school headships. This study was a
qualitative case study and focused on women who had completed the NAIS Fellowship for
Aspiring Heads within the last five years and who had attained their first headship or had become
finalists in a head search. Data came from surveys from 41 participants and one-on-one
interviews with 14 participants as well as document analysis of two presentations of internal
studies related to the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads. This project found areas that can be
addressed that are relevant for all women’s leadership development programs. Based on the
findings, this study recommends intentional education to help women navigate the challenges of
the headship, development of supportive networks, and education of governing boards.
Keywords: Headship, independent school, networks, equity, women
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The number of women in the headship or headmaster position in independent schools in
the United States is disproportionately low compared to the number of men in the same position.
In a study of independent school leadership, the National Association of Independent Schools
(NAIS, 2010) reported only 30% of independent school heads were female, despite women
filling many other administrative positions. In addition, the White House Project (2009) noted
that across many leadership sectors, female leadership is stalled, including academia at 23%,
which is further evidence that this is a problem. Federal government legislation prescribes equity
as a goal in the United States (Stromquist, 1993); however, independent schools have clearly not
achieved it.
Independent schools are a type of private school governed by a board of trustees and
accountable to their regional accrediting agencies, trustees, and families. They are financially
supported through endowments, charitable donations, and student tuition (NAIS, 2009).
Independent schools can vary greatly in their structure and educational approach. The schools
may be coeducational or single-sex, boarding or day, or religiously affiliated. Some schools
serve only elementary aged children while others are only secondary. Some independent schools
may serve students in grades junior kindergarten to 12, and some offer 13th year programs.
Data from the NAIS (2010) indicated that a majority of heads of school were teachers at
one time prior to their work in this role. In addition, in independent schools of all sizes, a
majority (65% to 75%) of teaching positions are filled by women (NAIS, 2018b). Division head
positions, which are similar to the position of public school principal, are filled by substantial
numbers of women: 84% in lower school, 49% in middle school, 37% in upper school (NAIS,
2010). The NAIS (2010) also reported that over 60% of sitting heads plan to change jobs or retire
2
within the next 10 years. Of those in other leadership positions in independent schools, only 22%
were interested in becoming a head of school, and the majority (67%) were men (NAIS, 2010).
Therefore, this problem of the lack of women in the independent school headship is important to
address to create parity in independent schools as well as to solve the problem of replacing
retiring school leaders.
Organizational Context and Mission
The NAIS served as the organization for studying the issues surrounding women and the
headship in independent schools. The NAIS is a national non-profit membership organization
comprised of the voluntary membership of independent schools in the United States.
The
mission of NAIS is to empower independent schools and the students they serve. NAIS is a voice
for independent education designed to raise the visibility of an independent school education and
ensure the excellence of member schools. The vision of NAIS is centered around the ideas of
excellence, equity, efficiency, and emotion. To reach its objectives of excellence and equity,
NAIS is dedicated to helping prepare a new generation of school leaders as current school heads
start to retire in greater numbers. A commitment to diverse leadership in schools as well as the
professional development of school constituencies is evident in the purpose of NAIS.
Over 1,500 schools are members of NAIS, representing more than 700,000 students.
Member schools include both day and boarding schools as well as coeducational and single-sex
schools. The average school enrollment of member schools is approximately 450 students, with a
range of schools which are both much smaller and much larger. Membership provides schools
with access to data, the use of surveys and data collection tools, research directly related to
independent school education, publications and conferences geared toward independent schools,
3
legal and governance advice, career resources and professional development for faculty and
leadership, and tools designed to educate about and advocate for member schools.
Organizational Performance Status
The organizational performance problem at the root of this study is a parity issue.
According to NAIS’s 50-Year History (NAIS, n.d.-c), in 2002, NAIS established the Aspiring
Heads Fellowship with support from the E.E. Ford Foundation to address preparation for
independent school leaders aspiring to the headship. The creation of the fellowship was a
response to discouraging data collected in the 2002 NAIS leadership research study about the
pipeline of candidates for headships. This study found that only 20% of those in other
independent school administration or leadership positions indicated interest or intent to pursue a
headship (NAIS, 2002). Furthermore, the study also cited that 50% of those in school
administrative positions did not believe they had the skills or experience to become a head of
school. In addition, most administrators and heads of school who participated in the study did not
believe there was an adequate supply of candidates who were qualified to becomes heads of
schools (NAIS, 2002).
According to a recent internal study by NAIS, since 2000, the percentage of female
heads of school remains at approximately 30%. NAIS has shown no improvement in leadership
parity by increasing in the number of female headmasters in the past two decades. In recognition
of the lagging numbers of female heads and heads of color, in 2015, NAIS shifted the direction
of the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads to focus on selecting women and people of color for
inclusion in the fellowship in an effort to increase parity (NAIS Director of Professional
Development, personal communication, February 13, 2019).
4
To fulfill its mission of excellence and equity by increasing the diversity of independent
school leadership, it is imperative that NAIS and its member schools identify and overcome the
barriers preventing women from pursuing and attaining headships. Failure to improve parity in
independent school leadership can result in less inclusive communities which lack the benefits
diversity can provide.
Related Literature
Numerous studies have suggested that women face more barriers, including self-imposed
and institutional barriers, than men in achieving leadership positions in schools (Coronel,
Moreno, & Carrasco, 2010; Derrington & Sharratt, 2009; Wyland, 2016). The path to leadership
and timeline for pursuing school leadership are often different for men and women (Dahlvig &
Longman, 2010; Hoff & Mitchell, 2008; McGee, 2010; Sperandio, 2015). Women must also
prepare to meet different challenges in their paths to leadership including preparation for bias
and stereotyping (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010). The voices of all participants in education
are important. When women are not part of school leadership, their voice is diminished. Since
the majority of teachers are women, this diminished voice is a problem as they are not part of
policy creation and decisions despite their intimate experience with what does and does not work
in schools (Wyland, 2016).
Importance of Addressing the Problem
This problem of inequitably low numbers of women leading independent schools is
important to address for several reasons. As current school leaders retire, not tapping women for
leadership roles creates a struggle for attracting and retaining talented leaders (Hoff & Mitchell,
2008). Diversity strengthens organizations and leadership, making the equitable access to all
forms of leadership important to address (Barsh & Yee, 2011). In addition, future generations
5
will benefit from educational institutions that value and demonstrate inclusion and a diversity of
leadership styles (Barsh & Yee, 2011; Muñoz, Pankake, Ramalho, Mills, & Simonsson, 2014;
Wallace, 2014). Understanding the issues leading to inequities that result in the
underemployment of women in the highest school leadership positions is essential if we are to
advance our schools, provide role models for girls and women aspiring to leadership, and change
the culture of viewing leadership as a male pursuit.
Organizational Goal
The leadership of NAIS has indicated their intention to achieve excellence and equity in
the independent school headship and has cited the lack of female leadership as an equity problem
in need of solving. The goal of the NAIS Fellowship for Aspiring Heads is to equip
underrepresented groups, including women, to successfully pursue and attain headships and lead
independent schools. The achievement of this goal will be measured via surveys and assessments
completed by fellowship participants as well as annual NAIS data collected from member
schools about female leadership. It is important to evaluate the organization’s performance in
preparing women for the headship role for a variety of reasons. If the organization fails to realize
equity in the headship, it risks a crisis in leadership of not having enough leaders for all of its
member independent schools. In addition, failure to reach the organization’s goal means it is not
harnessing the power of women in the leadership pipeline, thereby diminishing diverse, qualified
voices which could result in failure to obtain the best leaders possible. Evaluating the
organization’s performance will enable stakeholders to gather formative data that can be used to
assess the organization’s decisions as it continues to make improvements and advancements to
its Fellowship for Aspiring Heads program in order to reach its goal of equity.
6
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The stakeholders who contribute to and benefit from attaining gender parity in the
independent school headship are women leaders in independent school, potential leaders of
independent schools, the boards in independent schools, the students and faculty of independent
schools, and NAIS leadership. Women who lead or aspire to lead must be empowered with the
confidence and skills to seek and obtain the highest leadership positions. They benefit from
NAIS’s commitment to equity to achieve their goals. The boards of schools are important
stakeholders as well. Board members must encourage women to seek leadership by being open-
minded to non-traditional leaders, insisting on a diverse pool of candidates from search firms,
and encouraging rising female leaders to pursue the headship. NAIS is a stakeholder in that the
stronger and more diverse the leadership in NAIS schools, the more candidates there are to fill
this important school leadership role, enriching the entire network of independent schools.
Finally, the students and faculty of independent schools benefit from diverse leaders and role
models.
Stakeholders Groups’ Performance Goals
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Stakeholder 1 Goal
NAIS leaders
By May 2020, NAIS will
assess the success of its
current version of the
Fellowship for Aspiring
Heads program to establish
its success rate.
Stakeholder 2 Goal
NAIS Professional
Development Team
By January 2021, the professional
development team will have
proposed and implemented
improvements to the Fellowship
for Aspiring Heads based on the
2020 assessment.
Stakeholder 3 Goal
NAIS Female Fellowship
Participants
By 2025, the percentage of
the women completing the
Fellowship for Aspiring
Heads who have gone on to
attain an independent school
headship will have increased
compared to the percentage of
those who had attained a
headship in 2020.
7
Stakeholder Group for the Study
Although a complete analysis would involve all stakeholder groups, for practical
purposes, this study focused on female heads of school and female aspiring heads of school who
have become finalists in a head search. These female heads and aspiring heads completed the
NAIS Fellowship for Aspiring Heads within the last five years. The Fellowship for Aspiring
Heads is a year-long professional development program for current independent school leaders
and administrators who aspire to the headship. The program was reimagined in 2015 to target
women and people of color, as these groups are underrepresented in the headship (NAIS Director
of Professional Development, personal communication, February 13, 2019.)
Admission to the fellowship is selective. To apply, the applicant’s currently employing
school must agree to sponsor the applicant to the year-long fellowship by covering the fellowship
cost. The cost for the current fellowship is $5300. Also, the applicant must currently be
employed at a NAIS member school, have worked in an independent school in an administrator
role for three or more full years, have a master’s or other advanced degree or currently be
pursuing one, and have the support of their current head of school. The application requires a
current resume or vitae, an extensive questionnaire with multiple short essays, and two letters of
recommendation, one of which must be from the applicant’s current head of school and another
from a peer or supervisor. If an applicant passes the initial screening, she will be interviewed by
a current NAIS head of school as part of a second round of screening. Finally, applicants must
commit to completing all parts of the fellowship (NAIS, n.d.-a).
The program includes regular contact with a designated mentor who is a current head of
school as well as collaborative experiences with cohort members designed to develop knowledge
needed to effectively navigate the headship search process and the skills needed to lead a school.
8
In addition, the fellowship includes resume and interview coaching as well as one-on-one career
counseling, special programming during a weeklong summer institute taught by current heads of
school that provides a comprehensive overview of the headship, an action research opportunity
with cohort members, presentation of research at an NAIS Annual Conference, and conference
attendance at two NAIS Annual Conferences with special programming for fellowship members
(NAIS, n.d.-a).
To increase numbers of women in the headship, it is important to understand how
intentional programs like the fellowship address knowledge and motivation needs for women and
to understand how it prepared them for this new career role.
Studying this stakeholder group will shed light on how the Fellowship for Aspiring
Heads benefited or failed to benefit women seeking head of school jobs. These data can be used
to implement improvements and create related programs in other organizations to achieve the
goal of equipping women to successfully pursue and attain headships in independent schools. In
addition, this group was selected to provide understanding of the factors for aspiring women that
either facilitate or inhibit the achievement of the goal to be a head of school.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to evaluate the degree to which the Fellowship for
Aspiring Heads is meeting its goal of equipping women to successfully pursue and attain
headships and lead independent schools. The analysis will focus on knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences related to achieving the organizational goal. While an evaluation
project would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholder of focus in this
analysis is women who have completed the fellowship in the last five years and have either
attained a headship or been a candidate for a headship position.
9
As such, four questions guided the evaluation study:
1. To what extent is NAIS meeting its goal of increasing the number of women in the
independent school headship?
2. What are the aspiring women heads of school knowledge and motivation related to
attaining an independent school headship?
3. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and aspiring women
heads of school knowledge and motivation?
4. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Methodological Framework
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis method examines knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences as a lens for viewing organizational goals and was adapted as a
framework for this evaluation study. This was a qualitative case study with descriptive statistics
from a brief survey. Assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impact
women’s ability to attain independent school headships were generated based on related
literature and personal knowledge. These influences were assessed using surveys, document
analysis, interviews, and literature reviews. Research-based solutions are recommended and
evaluated in a comprehensive manner.
Definitions
Expectancy-value: the degree to which a person expects and values success in a way that
she believes will enhance her life.
10
Equity: The fairness of treatment for men and women; may refer to equal treatment or
treatment that is different, but which is considered equivalent in terms of rights, benefits,
obligations, and opportunities.
Headship: The professional, institutional, and educational leader of an independent
school who oversees all administration of the school and is the sole employee of the board of
trustees; often referred to as a headmaster or headmistress; serves in the same capacity a CEO.
Independent school: Private, non-profit schools, each of which is driven by an
independent philosophy and unique mission, managed and governed by an independent board of
trustees, financed and supported primarily through charitable contributions and tuition payments,
and held accountable by their constituents and regional accrediting agencies.
National Association of Independent Schools: A national, nonprofit, membership
association of independent schools which serves more than 1800-member K-12 schools and
associations in the United States and abroad.
Gender parity: The relative equality in terms of proportions of women and men.
Glass ceiling: Intangible barrier within a hierarchy that prevents women or people of
color from obtaining upper-level or leadership positions.
Self-efficacy: a person’s belief that she has the ability to successfully accomplish a task or
goal.
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with
terminology and key concepts commonly found in a discussion about independent school
leadership and aspiring female leaders. The mission of the organization, as well as the goals,
stakeholders, and framework for the study were introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of
11
current literature surrounding the scope of study. Topics of independent school structure and
leadership, barriers to the headship, and supports for women leaders will be addressed. Chapter
Three details the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences to be examined as well as
methodology concerning choice of participants, data collection, and data analysis. In Chapter
Four, the data and results are assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five provides solutions, based on
data and literature, for closing perceived gaps, as well as recommendations for an
implementation and evaluation plan for solutions.
12
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This literature review will examine possible root causes of the inequitable numbers of
women in the highest independent school leadership positions. The review begins with general
research of the history of women aspiring beyond the classroom to school leadership positions.
This is followed by a brief exploration of the nature and purpose of independent schools and the
role of the headship. The review will present an in-depth discussion of barriers to the headship,
including discrimination and self-imposed barriers. This section includes current research on
both factors that inhibit and encourage women’s aspirations to the headship as well as examines
paths taken by men and women to ascend to the top leadership positions in schools. Following
the general literature review, this chapter will discuss the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
framework, specifically the presumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on
women’s ability to attain headships.
Problem of Practice
Teaching is a profession that is dominated by women in both public and private school
classrooms in the United States, with women holding 70% or more of teaching positions (Drudy,
2008; NAIS, 2018b; National Center for Education Statistics, 2017). Although women greatly
outnumber men in the classroom, a common starting place on the school leadership journey,
women lag far behind men in both public and private schools in terms of the highest school
leadership positions (NAIS, 2010; The White House Project, 2009). Both self-imposed barriers
and discrimination present roadblocks to the headship (Barsh & Yee, 2011; Coronel et al., 2010;
Derrington & Sharratt, 2009; Wyland, 2016). Strategies that encourage the pursuit of school
leadership include mentorship, encouragement, and careful planning for the potentially
13
conflicting roles of work and family (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010; McGee, 2010; Sampson
& Davenport, 2010).
School Leadership
Gendered View of School Leadership
Because school leadership has been viewed as primarily a male role, it is more difficult
for women to visualize themselves in and attain the role of superintendent or headmaster. History
illustrates that school leadership developed over time into a gendered role. During the nineteenth
and twentieth century, this became more evident as the roles of principal and superintendent
intentionally acquired a masculine connotation (Blount, 1999; Rousmaniere, 2013; Tallerico &
Blount, 2004; Tyack, 1976).
History of woman in school leadership. Between 1900 and 1950, 60% or more of
elementary school principals were women (Kafka, 2009; Rousmaniere, 2013). During this time,
although women held more elementary principalships than men, women also had much shorter
tenure in the role than men. Women had an average tenure of five years, while more than half of
male principals had tenures of 25 years or more in the role. According to Rousmaniere (2013),
differences in the roles of elementary and secondary principals were significant. The two roles
were paid on vastly different salary scales, with elementary principals only earning about two-
thirds of the secondary principal salary, a trend that has continued (Bitterman, Goldring, & Gray,
2013; Herman, 1977; Pounder, 1988). A National Association of Secondary School Principal’s
bulletin from 1977 suggested that secondary principals be paid more than elementary principals
(Herman, 1977). Furthermore, in a study from the late 1980s about the salary differential
between male and female school principals, Pounder (1988) found that men made on average
$138 more per month than women. All principals studied by Pounder (1988) were in the role of
14
elementary principal, and salary differences were found by gender even when experience and
education were taken into account.
Rousmaniere (2013) noted additional differences in the roles of elementary and
secondary principals. Secondary principals were more likely to have an assistant principal as
well as clerical help and were less likely to teach a class or help with duties involving children.
In addition, women were precluded in the early part of the 1900s from the secondary
principalship because the secondary role required a bachelor’s degree, and few women had
access to universities (Blount, 1999; Rousmaniere, 2013). Some universities set very low quotas
for women seeking entry or certificates, often with less than two percent of slots available to
women (Blount, 1998). Elementary experience was considered less favorable than secondary
experience, and elementary principals were denied the opportunity to apply for secondary school
principalships (Rousmaniere, 2013). Finally, women often had less access to the secondary
principalship due to gatekeeping that favored men (Blount, 1998).
The second half of the twentieth century saw a push to bring more men into the school
leadership role in both elementary and secondary schools (Barter, 1959; Blount, 1999;
Rousmaniere, 2013). This resulted in the image of school leaders being a married, White, family
man (Blount, 1999; Rousmaniere, 2013; Tallerico, 2000). Emphasis was placed on removing the
feminine influence in schools, with new policies and developments including the GI Bill,
increased graduate and licensure requirements to enter school administration, and the
development of alternative pathways for men to enter the field of education and accelerate to
administration (Blount, 1998; Rousmaniere, 2013). Many more men than women earned
advanced degrees and principal qualifications due, in part, to the federal funding through the GI
Bill (Blount, 1998). The GI Bill negatively influenced women’s pursuit and attainment of
15
college educations (Nagowski, 2005). In addition, the dominance of male sports and male
coaches who exemplified authority, discipline, and communication appealed to the public and
schools, making the transition from coaching to leading a school appear to be a natural
leadership move (Estler, 1975; Glass, 2000; Rousmaniere, 2013). Coaching became a gateway to
the high school principal role, which was a gateway to the superintendency. These factors led to
the role of school leader becoming masculinized, excluding women as viable candidates (Estler,
1975; Rousmaniere, 2013). Unfortunately, even today, men are still four times more likely than
women to serve in the highest educational leadership roles (Robinson, Shakeshaft, Grogan, &
Newcomb, 2017).
Leadership in independent schools. The role of an independent school head or
headmaster is similar to that of a public school superintendent. Independent schools are a type of
private school, governed by a board of trustees and held accountable by their regional accrediting
agencies, trustees, and families. They are funded through endowments, charitable donations, and
student tuition (NAIS, 2009). Despite the difference in the funding, accountability, and
governance between public and independent schools, the leadership and structure within an
individual independent school is similar to that of a public school. While public school systems
are led by a superintendent, independent schools are led by a head of school, headmaster or
headmistress. Directly running school programs in independent schools are upper, middle, or
lower school division heads. These positions are administrative and the equivalent of a
principalship, as noted by the similarity of responsibilities delineated in the NAIS job description
for a division head. These responsibilities include overseeing all curricular and non-curricular
programming, hiring and supervising teachers and staff, directing student programs and athletics,
16
establishing routines and guidelines for students and the school community, and representing the
school in all aspects (NAIS, n.d.-b).
Because there is less research conducted in regard to the independent school headship, it
is important to examine the public school superintendency to understand the role of women in
the highest school leadership positions. Tyack (1976) noted that, in the early twentieth century,
superintendents were almost all male, White, and married whereas teachers were almost all
female and single. This disparity was no accident, as school boards tended to hire
superintendents that reflected their own characteristics. Between 1910 and 1930, the percentage
of women in the role of school superintendent rose to about 11% before declining back to 3%. In
the late 1990s, it rose again to about 10% (Blount, 1998; Tallerico & Blount, 2004). The rise on
each occasion corresponded to increased awareness of equality issues for women with the
women’s suffrage movement and the modern movement for women’s rights (Tallerico & Blount,
2004). For both superintendents in public school and heads in independent schools, the number
of women holding those positions has historically and currently been far fewer than men. Recent
statistics indicate the number of women in the highest leadership positions is still less than one-
third that of men (NAIS, 2010; Robinson et al., 2017).
Modern day school leadership and women. Visitors to schools in the United States
may notice that the teaching profession, especially the teaching of the youngest children, is
dominated by women. In Western countries, teaching has become feminized and seems unlikely
to change in that regard (Drudy, 2008). The National Center for Education Statistics consistently
found that teaching is a female dominated profession. In every reported year from 1987 to 2017,
the center noted that women made up 70% or more of the teaching profession for public and
private (independent) schools (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017; Snyder, 2018).
17
The NAIS (2018b) confirmed statistics similar to those reported by NCES. In independent
schools of all sizes, the percentage of teachers who are female ranges from 65% to 73% (NAIS,
2018b).
Whether public or independent schools, women dominate the teaching profession.
However, women lag behind men in the highest school leadership positions in both public and
independent schools. NAIS reported that, although women more equally fill other leadership
positions, they lag far behind men in headships, with only 30% of sitting heads being female
(NAIS, 2010).
One of the most common pathways to leadership in schools begins in the classroom
(Estler, 1975). The NAIS (2010) cited that a majority of heads of school spent time as classroom
teachers in their careers. In addition, they indicated that women hold a majority of teaching
positions, approximately 70% (NAIS, 2018c). Despite the low number of female heads, women
filled a greater number of intermediate level leadership positions, such as principal or division
head: 84% in lower school, 49% in middle school, 37% in upper school (NAIS, 2010). However,
in a survey by NAIS (2010), only 22% of people filling these intermediate leadership positions
indicated they were interested in a headship, with a vast majority of those interested being men.
Role of the Headmaster
The role of independent school head or headmaster is increasing in in complexity. In his
book about the tradition of American independent schools, Powell (1996) identified the position
as historically the most important position in an independent school. Often, the identity of a
school was directly related to the identity of a long-time headmaster. The main job of the
school’s board of trustees was to appoint a strong head of school and then give him the power to
effectively run the school. Headmasters were and still are expected to be both visible and
18
powerful while working in close contact with teachers and students (Jorgenson, 2006; Powell,
1996). The independent school head is expected to attend most school events, such as sports and
concerts. This intense involvement expected from the headmaster, from being at events to
writing personal notes to fundraising for the school, makes the role of headmaster very intense in
a way that the school district superintendency is not (Jorgenson, 2006). Another difference noted
by Powell (1996) when comparing the headship and the superintendency, was that independent
school headmasters were often better compensated than public school superintendents.
The role of headmaster continues to expand. Wickenden (2011), who leads a well-
respected search firm dedicated to placing independent school leaders, reported that independent
schools have changed significantly over the years. One of these important changes regards the
role of headmaster, which has become more time intensive and complicated. Headmasters
increasingly face a dilemma related to having sufficient time. Between the time commitment of
school events and the day-to-day functioning of the school, finding time for oneself was cited as
challenging (Juhel, 2016; NAIS, 2007). Heads of school must also pay more attention to risk
management, the threat of litigation, and human resources, including attracting and hiring top
faculty and managing staff departures (Juhel, 2016; NAIS, 2007; Wickenden, 2011). The
communication needs and modes have multiplied and intensified, as have the demands for
cutting-edge programming and technology (Juhel, 2016; Kane, 1992; NAIS, 2007; Wickenden,
2011). The head of school must be a forward-thinking strategic planner, a master of enrollment
management, and a savvy fund raiser and money manager (Juhel, 2016; Kane, 1992; NAIS,
2007; Wickenden, 2011). In addition, the head of school is expected to manage both the school
and the trustees (NAIS, 2007; Wickenden, 2011). In a newsletter targeted at independent school
trustees, Daggett, Director, and Day (2018) reminded readers that the job of the head of school
19
was “to sustain a healthy school that fills its mission, balancing competing interests and needs
within that context” (Daggett et al., 2018, p. 4). Clearly, this complicated job is a big one, and
the selection of a head of school is crucial to the success of the school.
The NAIS has explored the nature of the headship as greater numbers of heads reach
retirement age and new heads must be recruited. In their recent study, People of Color and White
Women in Independent School Headship, NAIS (2018c) identified several characteristics
considered requirements for heads of schools, including academic and management experience,
experience dealing with parents, experience at similar schools, experience with strategic
planning, fundraising experience, financial management, and enrollment management
experience. In the same study, they also identified personal characteristics considered essential
for a headmaster to possess, including empathy, strong communication skills, humility,
commitment to teamwork, and ability to relate to the school community. Finally, the same study
cited that many of the experiences and qualities sought may exclude non-traditional candidates,
such as women and people of color (NAIS, 2018c).
To further illustrate the complexity of the role of headmaster, board members from
different schools discussed the characteristics sought in school heads today in a different report
(Educational Directions Incorporated, 2011, p. 1). Board members at independent schools cited
that a headmaster should be a lifelong learner and come from an educational background. In
addition, he or she should have a track record as a proven educational leader, embody the
school’s mission, possess the ability to orchestrate the varied school constituencies for the
benefit of the school, display courage and innovation, communicate in a compelling way, exhibit
financial savvy and fiscal acumen, provide strategic planning, and be versed in legal issues that
might affect a school (Educational Directions Incorporated, 2011, p. 1)
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Changes to the role of headmaster have increased the complexity and prerequisites for the
job; current and future changes will require more skills and commitment. Unfortunately, this
increased complexity of the role, along with its gendered history, do not reduce the barriers to
women obtaining the highest leadership roles in independent schools.
Discrimination as a Barrier to Headship
The Glass Ceiling
The masculine nature of leadership is well known to women. Popularized in the late
1980s, the glass ceiling came to refer to the barriers preventing the climb of women to corporate
leadership roles (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995). The Federal Glass Ceiling
Commission was commissioned in 1991 to identify both the barriers to women’s advancement as
well as the practices that successfully helped women advance. The commission classified the
barriers into three groups: societal barriers, organizational barriers, and government barriers
(Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995).
To consider progress, one can examine studies published after the commission’s report
(Carter & Silva, 2010; Catalyst, 2005; Fain, 2011). In the 2005 Catalyst Census of Women
Corporate Officers and Top Earners of the Fortune 500 (Catalyst, 2005), using growth trends for
the 10 previous years, researchers estimated that it would take 40 years to reach equity among
the ranks of corporate officers. Almost 20 years after the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission,
Carter and Silva (2010) reported that men still started their first positions with both higher ranks
and salaries than women, even when factors such as parenthood, education, and aspirations were
considered. In addition, they found that men were twice as likely to be in senior management. An
even more dismal view was found in a 2011 study, where Fain (2011) derived equations
designed to illustrate how fast equity might occur. The study considered an ideal situation in
21
which a company with only male leaders immediately began fully equitable practices,
considering both men and women in exactly the same manner in hiring. Even in this best-case
scenario, Fain’s (2011) derivations illustrated that, although lower level management would be
able to achieve equity relatively quickly, the top levels of leadership could take 60 years or more
to achieve equity. Unfortunately, these data illustrate that the glass ceiling is still a reality.
Leadership can be viewed as masculine. Women leaders were aware of the presumption
that leadership was a male role that resulted in female leaders being mistaken as occupying lesser
roles (Coleman, 2004; McKinsey and Company, 2018). This resulted in women feeling as
though they must justify holding their leadership position due to their gender. Nevertheless,
women want to lead just as men do. Almost as many women (71% to 74%) as men (75% to
80%) wanted a promotion to the next level (Devillard, Hunt, & Yee, 2018; McKinsey &
Company, 2018). However, women were not as likely as men to get promotions despite asking
for them at similar rates, making getting to the first rung and beyond on the management track a
difficult hurdle (Devillard et al., 2018). NAIS reported in the State of Independent School
Leadership 2009, that the profile a of school headmaster was no different in 2009 than in 2002,
with most independent school heads being in their 50s, male, and Caucasian (NAIS, 2010).
Unfortunately, according to Baker (2010), women were also less likely to assume they
will attain the highest leadership levels in their fields, as illustrated in a study of men and women
academics. Although the men and women in the study had similar credentials, their expectations
for promotion were vastly different. The women assumed they would not achieve the highest
level possible while men assumed that they would and planned for this event (Baker, 2010).
Statistics in independent schools do not refute the prediction of women that they will not ascend
to the highest positions. The State of Independent School Leadership 2009 (NAIS, 2010) reveals
22
that women fail to attain the top leadership positions in equal numbers despite filling a majority
of other administrative roles in independent schools: 50% of associate or assistant head of school
positions, 37% of upper school principalships, 49% middle school principalships, 84% of lower
school principalships, and 50% of business managers.
Gender Pay Differential
Once women attain leadership roles in schools, the glass ceiling still exists, particularly in
compensation (Dowell & Larwin, 2013; Lennon, 2013; Orem, 2018). In a 2013 study of
superintendents, Dowell and Larwin (2013) found that female superintendents in all types of
districts, including rural, urban, and suburban, made less money than male superintendents. They
cited the difference in pay for women and men superintendents to be $10,000 on average.
Lennon (2013) similarly reported that, in public schools, female superintendents earn only 81%
of what male superintendents earn. Data from NAIS for 2017–2018 indicates similar findings
(Orem, 2018). For more than 20 leadership positions in independent schools, in only one,
Director of Diversity, did women earn the same as or more than men. In all others, women
earned less than men in the same roles. In the headship, the earning capacity of men and women
is the most markedly different, with male heads of school earning on average $65,000 more per
year than female heads of school (Orem, 2018).
Sexism
Women face questions regarding their ability to lead due to gender-based stereotyping
(McKinsey & Company, 2018; Tallerico, 2000). A recent McKinsey and Company (2018) study
based on 279 companies noted that 64% of women felt they were on the receiving end of
microaggressions in the workplace. Thirty-six percent of women experienced being questioned
in an area of expertise, compared to only 27% of men. The study reported that twice as many
23
women as men report being mistaken for someone at a lower level in the organization. Women
were also twice as likely as men to report needing to provide more evidence than others to prove
themselves. Tallerico’s (2000) study of the roles of headhunters and board members in
superintendent searches revealed that board members assumed male candidates had disciplinary
skills along with other non-instructional skills, whereas women’s competencies were scrutinized.
Women were questioned in the areas of discipline, budget, and toughness, but men were not
(Tallerico, 2000).
One challenge for female leaders is being seen and defined as a female leader rather than
simply a leader. In a 2-year case study of a single female superintendent that involved numerous
shadowing events and interviews, Grogan (2008) indicated that her subject was continually
identified as a female superintendent rather than a superintendent. She received more notice and
attention than men did in the position, as noted by a comparison of the number of times she
appeared in community news versus neighboring male superintendents. She was negatively
referenced in ways clearly pointing out her gender, such as with the term “ice queen.” In the
superintendent’s role, she had to contend with expectations that she would both act feminine
with warmth and community-building and masculine with directness and authority (Grogan,
2008). This challenge existed, according to Grogan (2008), because the position of
superintendent is synonymous with being male and connotates power and prestige, meaning
women are seen as being something other when taking the role and may, therefore, have to work
harder in the position. Grogan’s (2008) conclusions are in agreement with larger studies of
women in power (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; Skrla, Reyes, & Scheurich, 2000).
Skrla et al. (2000) recognized that women were expected to act in a traditionally feminine
way in a traditionally masculine role. In their study of female superintendents, participants
24
identified incidences of stereotyping, intimidation, and the questioning of their competence
related to their gender. The women in Skrla and colleagues’ study also expressed that they felt
the need to second guess themselves and were questioned based on assumptions that they lacked
some area of knowledge. Competence was especially questioned in non-instructional areas.
Furthermore, they noted that women often deal with such sexist treatment by remaining silent, as
evidenced by many of their subjects.
Sexism exists at many different levels. In their examination of barriers to leadership,
Diehl and Dzubinski (2016) delineated barriers as societal, group, or individual. At the societal
level, they noted that women were judged based on gendered role expectations and how they
conducted themselves. In groups, women’s voices were heard less because men tended to speak
first. Individually, other women often ignored or denied the gender barrier. Discrimination,
discouragement, exclusion, male gatekeeping, a gendered organizational culture, tokenism,
salary inequality, and unequal recognition were also a means of sexism in the workplace (Diehl
& Dzubinski, 2016).
Experience Versus Potential for Leadership
Women are judged based on experience whereas men are judged based on potential. A
2015 Pew Research poll indicated that Americans tended to believe that men had a better chance
at a leadership position, even though most said that both men and women made good leaders.
The survey found that about 40% of Americans indicated a double standard for women
attempting to attain the highest leadership positions in organizations because women must do
more to prove themselves than men seeking the same positions (Pew Research Center, 2015).
Search firms place a high value on the previous experience of a head candidate in a
similar position and in a similar school community (NAIS, 2017; Tallerico, 2000). This may
25
limit the pool of candidates by working against underrepresented groups. Schools and search
firms need to be cognizant of personality preferences and the potential for bias in searches.
Tallerico (2000) found that schools tended to value candidates with previous or similar
experience, such as having been a former superintendent, assistant superintendent, or high school
principal, over experiences such as the elementary principalship or central office experience.
This valuing of previous job titles can be limiting to female candidates who hold fewer positions
of superintendent or high school principal.
Men and women are often evaluated differently. Muñoz et al. (2014) studied women in
central office positions and their aspirations to the superintendency, and found that women were
evaluated negatively compared to men. Board of trustees members emphasized women’s gaps
rather than their strengths (Muñoz et al., 2014; Tallerico, 2000). These gender-based assumptions
about the inherent characteristics of men and women lead to different treatment of male and
female school leaders.
Self-imposed Barriers to the Headship
Balancing Demands of Work and Home
Women still shoulder the majority of home and childrearing responsibilities, which
creates stress and self-doubt about advancing to a leadership position that would impact time
with one’s family. Baumgartner and Schneider (2010) studied women in management and
revealed that those in the study felt that career and family were two opposing roles and that
doing both well was not possible. The support of family and friends at home or the ability to
purchase services that supported one’s home life were cited as essential to managing both career
and family.
26
According to a study by Derrington and Sharratt (2009), women imposed barriers on
themselves that prevented them from seeking and attaining school leadership positions. To study
barriers to leadership in schools, the investigators compared identical surveys, one given in 1993
to female superintendents and aspiring superintendents and a second given to a new group of
current and aspiring female superintendents in 2007. Although the top barriers in 1993 were
based on discrimination practices, the top barriers in 2007 were defined as self-imposed,
including an inability to relocate for leadership positions, parenting issues which included being
away from children in the evenings, and continuing to carry a greater share of home
responsibility than one’s spouse despite the increased demands of the job. Coronel et al. (2010)
supported these finding in their study, in which women cited parenting as the biggest barrier to
leadership advancement due to the time and dedication required by motherhood.
Women’s perceptions that pursuing a school leadership position conflicted with their
ability to support their family was a significant barrier. While males were often seen as
supporting and championing their families by aspiring to leadership roles, women were often
viewed very differently, being seen as abandoning their families (Muñoz et al., 2014). The long
hours associated with the superintendency can interfere with family time. Traditional gender
expectations signal that it is more desirable for men to be away at meetings while women are
home with children. The aspiration and sacrifice of family for leadership was seen as a positive
status symbol for men but not for women (Glass, 2000).
Both society-imposed and self-imposed barriers discourage women from leadership. To
overcome these barriers, women are likely to pursue leadership later in life after addressing these
barriers and ensuring they are well prepared for the role.
27
Need of Women to be Over-Prepared for Leadership
Women are more likely to wait until later in their careers to apply for school leadership
because they feel the need to be well prepared and meet all qualifications before accepting the
leadership challenge. Hoff and Mitchell (2008) found that lack of full preparation for school
leadership does not impede men but may impede women. In their study, 61% of women waited
to apply for a school leadership position until they met all of the listed criteria. However, 16% of
the men had met none of the requirements when they applied. No woman applied without
meeting at least some of the requirements.
Women work hard to be qualified, if not over-qualified for school leadership positions.
Cryss Brunner and Kim (2010) found that, although there were lower numbers of women
superintendents, more women than men holding the superintendent office had doctoral degrees.
Their examination of national data revealed that 14% more acting women superintendents than
men superintendents had completed their doctoral degree.
Women self-impose barriers that prevent them from pursuing headships until they feel
they meet every qualification and that the time is right in their lives, often resulting in late entry
into the headship search. Mentors and role models may help women overcome self-imposed
barriers through encouragement and mentoring.
The Path to Leadership
Mentors and Role Models to Show the Way
Women are mentored less when compared to men but benefit greatly from mentoring in
the pursuit of leadership positions. Brunner (1997) indicated that women seeking the
superintendency benefit from the insights and wisdom of women who have already been there.
For women, an encouraging mentor was often the trigger for pursuing the highest school
28
leadership positions (Clark & Johnson, 2017; Estler, 1975; Muñoz et al., 2014; Young &
McLeod, 2001). In their study of retired and aspiring female superintendents in Texas, Muñoz et
al. (2014) found that women who had achieved the superintendency cited the influence of
connected mentors who encouraged them to take the leadership role and recognized their value
as leaders. However, the aspiring superintendents in the study indicated they felt as if they lacked
crucial players to help them establish networks needed to attain to the position. Access to
networks, encouragement, and pronounced belief in the leadership ability of aspiring female
leaders are important aspects in the eventual attainment of leadership goals.
To inspire women to leadership, Clark and Johnson (2017) recognized the importance of
female role models as catalysts to spur women to move beyond the contentment in a current role
and onto a course of leadership pursuit. Exposure to a variety of leadership styles through
mentoring relationships encouraged women to view themselves as leaders according to Young
and McLeod (2001). They linked women’s entry into leadership to three factors: role models
already leading schools, experience with transformative styles of leadership, and the
encouragement and support of significant others. Hill and Wheat (2017) identified that primary
or early career mentoring in both formal and informal ways motivated women to seek leadership
positions (Hill & Wheat, 2017).
Elprana, Felfe, Stiehl, and Gatzka (2015) identified that many female students had less
motivation to lead, particularly if they identified as traditional women who perceived leadership
to a be a gendered role. However, men’s feelings toward leadership were more positive because
they did not feel their gender was incongruous with leading.
29
Career Path Differences Between Men and Women
The career paths of men and women are divergent, with men aspiring, pursuing, and
attaining school leadership positions at younger ages than women. Studies suggest that women
did not begin their careers with aspiration to lead schools; rather their trajectory evolved over
time (Muñoz et al., 2014; Smith, 2015; Young & McLeod, 2001). Gendered trends were evident
in the career aspirations of student teachers with men aspiring to upper leadership positions at a
rate of 2:1 compared to women (Smith, 2015). In addition, Muñoz et al. (2014) noted that
women wait for the leadership position to happen to them rather than aggressively pursuing the
opportunity.
The tendency of men to assume qualification for leadership contributed to this difference
(Glass, 2000). Women, in contrast, waited until they felt they met all of the qualifications of
leadership. In an effort to explore the decision-making of women who decided to enter the field
of educational administration, Young and McLeod (2001) examined the educational records of
women in a graduate program in educational leadership and conducted in-depth interviews. Their
research revealed that women did not typically go into education with the aspiration to become
administrators; rather, they went into the field to positively impact the lives of students. Young
and McLeod noted that the women they interviewed began by viewing teaching and
administration as two very different fields. Over time, this view changed, but the reason for
pursuing leadership was not different than the reason for becoming a teacher. The women still
wanted to make a difference and believed they could have a greater effect on more students from
an administrative position.
The feminized and masculinized pathways influenced when and how one pursued and
arrived at leadership opportunities. Women’s paths to leadership were complicated, diverse, and
30
divergent, whereas men’s paths to leadership appeared more straightforward (Cryss Brunner &
Kim, 2010). Several studies illustrated that women often took less direct paths to school
leadership roles (Cryss Brunner & Kim, 2010; Glass, 2000; Hickey-Gramke, 2007; Tallerico,
2000).
Gendered expectations create different pathways to leadership positions with women
often finding themselves on the less traveled and less traditional pathways; however, this more
diverse path may better prepare women to lead in the rapidly changing independent school
landscape. In order better understand the gendered barriers to the headship, the presumed
knowledge, motivational, and organizational influence on attaining the headship will be
examined.
Clark and Estes (2008) Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) suggest a framework for analyzing and diagnosing gaps between
actual and desired performance towards a goal. The framework examines knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that contribute to the performance gaps (Clark & Estes,
2008). Knowledge and skills can be classified into four types (Krathwohl, 2002). These types
are factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. They are used to determine if a
stakeholder knows how to achieve a desired goal. Motivation affects the choice, persistence, and
mental effort needed to attain desired goals (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Motivational
theories of importance to understanding performance gaps include self-efficacy theory,
expectancy-value theory, and perceived cost in a desired goal (Bandura, 1991; Eccles, 2006).
Finally, stakeholder performance is influenced by organizational influences and barriers which
can include culture and climate, resources, and work processes (Clark & Estes, 2008).
31
These three elements of Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis were examined in terms of
aspiring women independent school leaders’ needs to meet their performance goal. The first
section below addresses the assumed knowledge and skill influences. Assumed motivational
influences on the stakeholder goal will be then be considered. Finally, the stakeholder goal will
be examined in terms of organizational influences. Each of these assumed influences on goal-
related performance will be examined through the methodology discussion in Chapter Three.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
Women significantly outnumber men in the classroom in independent schools, with
women teaching in 70% or more classrooms (NAIS, 2018b). However, the number of women
leading independent schools is substantially lower than the number of men, with women holding
just over 30% of the headship jobs (NAIS, 2017). This number has not changed in the past
decade. To achieve equity, the number of women leading independent schools must increase.
This literature review focuses on knowledge influences needed for more women to aspire to and
attain a headship. Attaining a headship is an unreachable goal without possessing the knowledge
necessary to go through the complex process and years of work required to attain the position
and lead successfully. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the types of knowledge needed and
the gaps in knowledge to overcome the issues of inequity in independent school leadership
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
Knowledge can be classified into four types (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). They are
factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge.
Factual knowledge consists of terminology and other basic elements related to a given area
(Rueda, 2011). An example of factual knowledge related to the headship would be knowing the
32
course offerings and graduation requirements of a school. Conceptual knowledge goes deeper to
include the categories, theories, structures, and other principles of a given content area. For
example, knowing the consequences of going over the budget would be a form of conceptual
knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Procedural knowledge is how-to knowledge. This
how-to knowledge might include knowing how to create a balanced budget or how to ask for
money during capital campaign (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Finally, metacognitive
knowledge refers to being aware of one’s own thinking. This might look like reflection after a
board meeting where one analyzes the effectiveness of an argument (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda,
2011).
While a variety of types of knowledge from each of the four categories influence women
in attaining the headship, this study focused on four areas of knowledge needed to become a
school leader. Three of these knowledge influences are procedural, and one is metacognitive.
First, women must know how to balance the needs of a demanding career and a family, including
partners, children, and aging parents. They must also know how to navigate the search process.
In addition, they must be prepared and know how to navigate gender bias and the male-
dominated network of heads. Finally, they must know how to assess their own leadership style.
These areas of knowledge will be further explored below.
Balancing work and family. Women must be able to balance work and family as well as
garner support for the challenging aspects of the job (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010). Based on
their interviews with seven women who became top leaders in their professional areas,
Baumgartner and Schneider (2010) report the challenge felt by these women to both lead their
industry and their families well. They indicated the necessity of a good support system with
friends and family or the ability to pay for those services. Similarly, based on surveys of current
33
and aspiring female superintendents in Washington state, Derrington and Sharratt (2009) report
that self-imposed barriers related to caring for one’s family pose a significant barrier to women
pursuing and attaining the highest school leadership positions. They indicated that women are
expected to adopt male work patterns but still shoulder most home chores. For women to
successfully navigate the role of head, it is necessary to know how to get spousal support, hire
out or negotiate family demands, and alter gender roles in their homes. Likewise, a study of 63
female superintendents in six states reveals that women must know how to prepare for the certain
job-related stress of leading schools, including mitigating the effects of long work hours and
balancing work and family life (Wallace, 2014). Furthermore, in a study of male and female
heads of school, the researchers found that female heads suffered more from stress related to
interpersonal problems within their leadership teams, the allocation of resources, work overload,
issues of control, and feelings of inadequate management training (Phillips, Sen, & McNamee,
2007). Consequently, knowledge of how to navigate and alleviate these inevitable sources of
stress are necessary for women to pursue, attain, and maintain headships.
Navigating the search process. Understanding how to get to the highest leadership
positions can be challenging. In his blog, McClatchey (2013) tells readers that search process for
an independent school head is arduous. Typically, a search firm or headhunter is contracted by
the school’s board of directors to carry out the process of finding a new head of school. Because
of this unique process, candidates seldom apply directly to a school.
Due to the relationship between executive search firms and their clients, the search firms
often define who is and is not a good fit for an executive role (Faulconbridge, Beaverstock, Hall,
& Hewitson, 2009; Tienari, Meriläinen, Holgersson & Bendl, 2013). Unfortunately, this process
34
often eliminates non-traditional candidates such as women. The knowledge of how successful
others have navigated this process is critical to opening the doors to more women.
Navigating gender bias. Aspiring female heads of school must know to navigate a male-
dominated network and gender bias (Wallace, 2014). In a study including 63 female
superintendents from six states, the surveyed school leaders indicated that one of the most
important things an aspiring female leader can do is be ready for gender bias and know how to
navigate it (Wallace, 2014). The study suggested a primary means of navigating gender bias is a
determination to work harder than men to get and keep the job. Likewise, in the study by
Baumgartner and Schneider (2010), current female superintendents indicated that women must
know how to not be offended by the male-dominated network, but, rather, intentionally insert
themselves into the male-dominated group.
Men also acknowledged the prevalence of gender bias and male-dominated networks
according to Hoff and Mitchell (2008). Their study compared the responses of female and male
school leaders to questions regarding the career paths of female and male school leaders as well
as their perceptions of factors related to gender influences in getting and advancing in leadership.
They found that both men and women recognized gender barriers as harming women more than
men. In addition, both noted that leadership is viewed as a male role and recognized the
existence of male-dominated structures (Hoff & Mitchell, 2008). Knowledge of how to
maneuver through this reality is crucial to obtaining and keeping the headship. This kind of
knowledge includes understanding the role of the head and how to learn and apply behaviors and
mindsets that will allow a woman to successfully maneuver in this male-dominated environment.
Self-assessment of leadership style. Aspiring female heads of school constantly self-
assess to understand their own leadership style and the influence of their power. Self-assessment
35
is a form of metacognition (Rueda, 2011). In in-depth interviews with nine female
superintendents, Katz (2008) found that women moving into the highest school leadership
positions consistently seek to improve by looking both internally and externally. They
recognized the need for relationships and reflected on how to make people feel safe and willing
to take risks with them. In attaining and keeping school leadership positions, the previously cited
study by Wallace (2014) indicates that finding a good-fit school is essential. Finding this good fit
requires honest assessment of the fit of both the school and the community. In addition, Wallace
(2014) noted that, if an aspiring woman found that a district would not be supportive of the needs
of a female leader, the aspiring leaders should keep looking. In a qualitative study consisting of
in-depth interviews with two women superintendents in Texas, Dobie and Hummel (2001)
discuss the use of metacognition by both subjects on a regular basis to assess and understand
their own leadership styles and power. Both subjects became very aware of their own leadership
styles and how they were alike and different from the styles of others. This metacognitive
knowledge was important in helping both women know when and how to be collaborative and
when to set this form of leadership aside and be more aggressive.
People often do not know what they do not know. This gap in knowledge and skills can
prevent or inhibit the attainment of goals. A lack of knowledge can even inhibit the realization of
opportunities (Clark & Estes, 2008). A review of the literature reveals four main knowledge
areas that could be contributing to the disparity in the number of women attaining the headship.
The table below illustrates the global goal and knowledge influences related to the attainment of
the headship.
36
Table 2
Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments for Knowledge Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
The mission of NAIS is to empower independent schools and the students they serve. NAIS is
a voice for independent education designed to raise the visibility of an independent school
education and ensure the excellence of member schools. The vision of NAIS is centered
around the ideas of excellence, equity, efficiency, and emotion.
Global Goal
Independent schools will increase the number of female heads to achieve equity.
Stakeholder Goal
By 2025, the percentage of the women completing the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads who
have gone on to attain an independent school headship will have increased compared to the
percentage of those who had attained a headship in 2020.
Assumed Knowledge
Influences
Knowledge Type (i.e.,
declarative (factual or
conceptual), procedural,
or metacognitive)
Knowledge Influence Assessment
Aspiring female heads of
school know how to use
resources available to them
to sustain work and family.
Procedural Interview:
Some would say that the
responsibility of a family and
domestic life conflicts with the
responsibilities of being a head of
school and that there isn’t a way
to do both well. What steps would
you share that have helped you to
do both well?
When you think of your life, what
are the major roles you currently
occupy?
How do you manage the
responsibilities of all of these
roles?
What are the biggest time or
commitment related challenges
with leadership/headship? How
do these impact other areas of
your life? How do you deal with
that?
37
Table 2, continued
Assumed Knowledge
Influences
Knowledge Type (i.e.,
declarative (factual or
conceptual), procedural,
or metacognitive)
Knowledge Influence Assessment
Aspiring female heads of
school know how to navigate
gender bias.
Procedural Interview
Does your school have a history
of hiring women in the headship
or are you the first? How do you
think being/not being the first at
your school shapes your role?
Can you tell me more about that?
I wonder if there are differences
for men and women in the
journey to a headship. What do
you think based on your
experiences?
In what ways, if at all, were any
of these differences addressed by
you?
Do you feel you have experienced
any biases related to being female
in your leadership journey? Can
you tell me about them? How
about as a head of school or
candidate for head of school?
Are there any important things
you’ve learned or realized about
being a woman in the top
leadership position? Can you tell
me about those? Were you
prepared to deal with that? Can
you tell me more about that
preparation or lack thereof?
38
Table 2, continued
Assumed Knowledge
Influences
Knowledge Type (i.e.,
declarative (factual or
conceptual), procedural,
or metacognitive)
Knowledge Influence Assessment
Aspiring female heads of
school need to know how to
navigate the search process.
Procedural
Interview
Can you tell me about your head
of school search process: how
you initiated and conducted it and
how it changed over time, if it
did?
How long did you actively look
for a headship and how did you
conduct the process?
When you entered the fellowship,
where were you in your
processes?
If your search process changed
over time, what influenced those
changes?
In what ways did the fellowship
alter or influence your manner of
conducting your search process?
Aspiring female heads of
school self-assess their own
leadership style.
Metacognitive Interview
Can you describe your leadership
strengths for me? What
opportunities or people were most
impactful to you in developing
your leadership strengths?
How do you think the fellowship
impacted your leadership
strengths/style? Can you tell me
about a specific change in your
leadership that resulted from
participation in the fellowship?
What parts of your educational
and/or professional journey most
influenced the way you lead? Tell
me more.
39
Motivation
According to Mayer (2011), motivation prompts us to start and maintain behavior that
helps us meet a goal. Motivation to lead is an important aspect in the ascension of women to the
independent school headship. In addition to knowledge and skills, and along with organizational
structure, motivation is part of the approach known as KMO used to identify gaps in
performance and suggest solutions (Clark & Estes, 2008). This section of the literature review
focuses on those motivation influences that are both important to women’s attainment of a
headship position and significant in inspiring them to or keeping them from pursuing it.
Motivation is important because it influences three areas of work and life (Clark & Estes,
2008). It influences our decision to work towards a goal, our keeping at it or persisting towards
the goal, and our mental effort devoted to the goal or task (Clark & Estes, 2008). These three
factors of motivation can be referred to as choice, persistence, and mental effort. Identifying and
closing gaps pertaining to these three areas of motivation are essential to the realization of
complex challenges and goals.
Motivational theories of importance in this study are self-efficacy theory, expectancy-
value theory, and perceived cost (Bandura, 1991; Eccles, 2006). Self-efficacy is a person’s
belief that she has the ability to successfully accomplish a task or goal (Bandura, 1991). Self-
efficacy is important in women’s choice, persistence, and mental effort needed to acquire the
skills, mindsets, and abilities to be successful headmasters. Expectancy-value theory is related to
self-efficacy but goes beyond it. It is the degree to which a person expects and values success in
a way that she believes will enhance her life (Eccles, 2006). This might look like a woman
choosing to pursue leadership opportunities and persisting despite obstacles because she believes
the difference she could make as a leader is important. Finally, according to Eccles (2006), the
40
value placed on a task is related to the perceived cost of engaging in the task or situation. This
cost may be influenced by many things. These include anxiety, fear of failure or success, and
loss of time. Perceived cost requires reflection on what one must give up compared to what one
gains from engaging in a pursuit (Eccles, 2006). Each of these important constructs plays a role
in motivating women to the highest positions of leadership.
Self-efficacy. For women to aspire to the headship and believe it is attainable,
encouragement to both start and continue the journey is required (Allred, Maxwell, & Skrla
2017; Glowacki-Dudka, Murray, Gray, & Johnson, 2016; Wyland, 2016). Women are often
encouraged by significant others in their lives. This encouragement from others to lead is
important, according to Allred et al. (2017). In their qualitative, naturalistic study of seven
female superintendents in South Texas, interviews revealed only one of the female
superintendents had considered the superintendency as a goal at the beginning of her career. The
rest of them had not considered school leadership until a respected supervisor suggested the
possibility, setting them on a leadership path. This illustrates the importance of encouragement in
the development of self-efficacy and women choosing to pursue leadership.
Likewise, in a study of Minnesota female superintendents, Wyland (2016) used multiple-
choice surveys and interviews to discover a benefit from having as many positive and
encouraging influences as possible. Modeling and encouragement from family, mentors, and
professional networks were cited as important influencers of women pursuing and attaining
school leadership positions.
Finally, encouraging messages motivated women to exert the mental effort to further
learn and develop talents, growing into leadership positions (Dunbar & Kinnersley, 2011;
Gander, 2013; Glowacki-Dudka et al., 2016; Hill & Wheat, 2017). According to Glowacki-
41
Dudka et al. (2016), six women leaders from a variety of fields who were identified as Indiana
Women of Achievement reported the importance of affirmative messages in their lives from a
young age. All indicated they received affirming messages about their hard work and aspirations.
Furthermore, they indicated that those messages motivated them to strive to learn and develop
their talents. They stressed the importance of encouraging networks throughout their careers that
helped them become aware of options and opportunities. This research illustrates that
encouragement of important others is a critical component in the development of self-efficacy in
female leaders.
Expectancy/Value. In addition to developing self-efficacy, women need to believe they
are capable of effectively leading in schools and be able answer affirmatively that they want to
lead. Hoff and Mitchell (2008) noted that women often wait to apply for leadership until they are
certain they meet all of the requirements for the position. In their study of both male and female,
rural, urban, and suburban school leaders from Maine, they noted that 16% of the men pursued
and attained leadership positions without meeting any of the listed requirements, while no
woman pursued a position when meeting none of the requirements (Hoff & Mitchell, 2008).
However, over 60% of the women waited until they completed every requirement to apply for
leadership positions. To help achieve equity, women must develop a belief that they can lead
without first being able to check all of the required boxes.
Unfortunately, women sometimes experience a devaluation of their desire to lead from
other women. Coleman (2004) analyzed the experience of men and women once they obtain a
headship. She reports that women leaders often experience negative attitudes from other women
who believe the female leaders are neglecting families and children in their pursuit of leadership.
The aspiring leader’s ability to overcome this bias and believe that both roles, parenting and
42
leading a school, are equally valuable will help women develop the expectancy-value that
encourages the pursuit of leadership.
Cost. Potential leaders need to believe the trade off in personal time is worth the cost to
lead. Leading a school requires commitment and long hours. Coronel et al. (2010) surveyed 206
female heads of school in Spain. Their survey included opinions about the headship related to
family and work, perceived abilities, problems related to leading, and personal recognition for
work. They discovered women perceived more role conflict tied to work-life balance than men
experienced. Respondents expressed that the headship was a difficult role to consider when one
has children due to the difficulty of achieving a work-life balance. Because of this perceived
barrier, women often wait until their children are older to pursue a headship. Before choosing to
pursue the headship, women weigh the advantages and disadvantages of leadership, including
accomplishment and self-worth, compensation, job satisfaction, leisure and family time, stress,
responsibility, and personal satisfaction related to making a difference (Coronel et al., 2010;
Roebuck, Smith & Haddaoui, 2013).
Equity in the headship can only be achieved when women embrace the cost to lead. In a
study of practicing females in educational administrative positions in Florida, McGee (2010)
identified some common themes related to embracing the cost of leading. She noted that women
often choose to pursue leadership at later in life while planning ahead to seek the skills and build
the confidence needed to lead. Being prepared to lead with the perceived necessary skills as well
as finding ways to mitigate role conflict are necessary for women to make the leap to leadership.
Undoubtedly, motivation influences the attainment of goals through choice, persistence
and mental effort. Clark and Estes (2008) emphasize motivation in addition to knowledge as
important in reaching goals in their KMO gap analysis. Gaps in self-efficacy, expectancy-value,
43
and perceived cost may impede women from aspiring to and achieving the headship. The table
below illustrates the global goal and motivational influences related to the attainment of the
headship.
Table 3
Motivational Influences and Assessments for Motivation Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
The mission of NAIS is to empower independent schools and the students they serve. NAIS is a voice for
independent education designed to raise the visibility of an independent school education and ensure the
excellence of member schools. The vision of NAIS is centered around the ideas of excellence, equity,
efficiency, and emotion.
Global Goal
Independent schools will increase the number of female heads to achieve equity.
Stakeholder Goal:
By 2025, the percentage of the women completing the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads who have gone on
to attain an independent school headship will have increased compared to the percentage of those who had
attained a headship in 2020.
Assumed Motivation Influences
Motivational Influence Assessment
Self-Efficacy: Aspiring female heads gain
confidence through targeted feedback from
mentors in their lives.
Survey
Please rate your self-efficacy (belief in yourself to be
successful) for each of the following. Please also indicate
how the fellowship added to your rating.
m Navigate the head of school search process. (Likert:
strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
m To what extent did the fellowship add to your rating
on this question. ( Likert: A great deal, somewhat, a
little, not at all).
m Interview for head of school job. (Likert: strongly
agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
m To what extent did the fellowship add to your rating
on this question. ( Likert: A great deal, somewhat, a
little, not at all).
m Navigate the aspects of the headship with which I
have/had little previous experience (Likert: strongly
agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
m To what extent did the fellowship add to your rating
on this question. ( Likert: A great deal, somewhat, a
little, not at all).
44
Table 3, continued
Assumed Motivation Influences
Motivational Influence Assessment
m Develop relationships with influential others in the
independent school community (Likert: strongly
agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
m To what extent did the fellowship add to your rating
on this question. ( Likert: A great deal, somewhat, a
little, not at all).
m Employ strategies for successfully balancing home
roles with head of school responsibilities (Likert:
strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
m To what extent did the fellowship add to your rating
on this question. ( Likert: A great deal, somewhat, a
little, not at all).
m Successfully pursue my first headship (Likert:
strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
m To what extent did the fellowship add to your rating
on this question. ( Likert: A great deal, somewhat, a
little, not at all).
m Apply constructive criticism to help me to improve as
a leader (Likert: strongly agree, agree, disagree,
strongly disagree)
m To what extent did the fellowship add to your rating
on this question. ( Likert: A great deal, somewhat, a
little, not at all).
m Pursue leadership roles. (Likert: strongly agree,
agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
m To what extent did the fellowship add to your rating
on this question. ( Likert: A great deal, somewhat, a
little, not at all).
The feedback I received from my mentor in the
Fellowship for Aspiring Heads increased my confidence
in my ability to lead a school. (Likert: strongly agree,
agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
I still connect with my fellowship mentor. (Likert:
strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
45
Table 3, continued
Assumed Motivation Influences
Motivational Influence Assessment
Interview
Were there any specific relationships or feedback that
resulted from the fellowship that feel pivotal in your
journey to the Headship? Can you tell me about that?
If you’ve had other sponsors or mentors who you feel
have been pivotal in your leadership journey, can you tell
me about those?
What life influences cultivated your confidence to lead?
Tell me about that.
Expectancy/Value: Aspiring female heads
need to believe they can effectively lead in
schools.
Interview
Can you tell me about your journey to leadership and
how you decided you wanted to lead a school?
If you can think of a thing or event that led you to believe
or started your belief that you could and should lead,
could you tell me that story?
Can you tell me about a few significant experiences that
helped you believe you would be a good head of school?
Cost: Potential leaders need to believe the
trade off in personal time is worth the cost to
lead.
Interview
Some would say that the responsibility of a family and
domestic life conflicts with the responsibilities of being a
head of school such that it is not worth it to do both.
What would you say to that?
Is there a cost to leadership? If so, what is it? In your
opinion is it worth it?
What, if anything, helped you prepare for any role or
responsibility conflicts you experience?
Did the fellowship or other professional development
help prepare you to navigate all of your roles? If so, how?
Can you tell me about what you do in your personal time?
How much time do you have for yourself? Is that amount
okay with you? Tell me about that?
Do you have time to do everything at work and home that
want to do? Is there one area that gets less attention than
another? Tell me about that? Is what you are doing worth
it? Why do you answer that way?
46
Organization
Culture is a powerful force in organizations (Clark & Estes, 2008). Change efforts will be
unsuccessful unless organizational culture is considered. In addition to knowledge, skills, and
motivation, the culture of independent schools both as a collective and as individual schools
must be understood and addressed to increase the number of women attaining the school
headship. This study evaluated the effectiveness of the NAIS Fellowship for Aspiring Heads in
relationship to helping women attain independent school headships. The fellowship is an
intensive, year-long professional development opportunity. Although all women completing this
fellowship are members of NAIS, they seek leadership positions in individual independent
schools. Therefore, it is important to focus on the culture of both NAIS and that of its individual
member schools as it relates to welcoming women into the headship. This section focuses on a
review of the literature related to cultural models and settings that impact women in pursuing and
attaining the independent school headship.
General organizational theory. The concept of culture is complex. It is the result of
learning that is shared with new members as the correct way to act, perceive, and feel in relation
to internal and external challenges faced by the organization (Schein, 2017). Often times referred
to as a way of doing things, Schein (2017) tells us culture can be analyzed at three levels. These
levels are artifacts, espoused beliefs and values, and underlying assumptions. Cultural artifacts
include the types of things that one can see, hear, and feel in an organization or culture.
Examples may include the way people dress or the way colleagues address each other. Espoused
beliefs and values are ideologies, goals, and aspirations. An example might be a stated
philosophy of transparency in decision-making. Basic underlying beliefs are unconscious values
and taken-for-granted understandings. These assumptions are shared and reinforced by members
47
of the culture. This aspect of culture is difficult to examine. An example of a basic underlying
assumption might be a gendered view of leadership roles within an organization (Schein, 2017).
According to Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001), culture is also complex in that it can be
examined via both cultural settings and cultural models. Cultural settings are concrete and easily
visible in an organization’s activity. Examples might include ineffective or effective incentives
or rewards, effective or ineffective policies or rules, or the means of communication in the
organization. In contrast, cultural models are less directly visible because they are beliefs, values,
and attitudes. Examples might include attitudes of pessimism or optimism, social loafing or
passive behavior, or resistance to change. This list of examples illustrates only a few of the many
potential cultural settings and cultural models that may be present in an organization or group
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
For the purposes of this study, one cultural setting and one cultural model serve to
influence the aspirations toward and attainment of an independent school headship for women.
The cultural settings of influence include relates to intentional mentoring relationships. The
cultural model identifies that the organization needs to embrace and promote women as strong
headship candidates. The following paragraphs further discuss these influencers.
Intentional Supporting Relationships. Independent schools and their associated
professional organizations need to be intentional about the mentorship of women in educational
leadership, particularly in preparing them for the complex role of leading independent schools.
As noted by the NAIS in Trendbook 2017-2018, outdated leadership skills are resulting in
needless leadership turnover in independent schools and other nonprofits (McGovern & Taylor,
2017). To prepare women to lead into the future, mentorship should focus on preparing women
for this complex job, particularly related to those skills identified by the NAIS Trendbook 2017-
48
2018 as essential for leading schools in the future (McGovern & Taylor, 2017). These include
the ability to inspire commitment, initiative taking, strategic planning and perspective, change
management, employee development, and participative and collaborative management.
Schipani, Dworkin, Kwolek-Folland, and Maurer (2009) concluded that the
disadvantages faced by women are not in the actual leading once they have obtained a leadership
role, but, rather, in navigating the path to leadership. Intentional mentorship to navigate the
process of a head of school search, from initiating one’s candidacy through the interview and
negotiation process are also important to women attaining headship roles. Mentoring women
leaders is key for organizations.
Embrace female candidates in the headship search. In Trendbook 2017-2018, the
NAIS has identified ways in which female candidates may be at an initial disadvantage in the
search process (McGovern & Taylor, 2017). These include lack of experience in the positions
typically seen as a precursor to the headship such as assistant head of school or the head of upper
school and a tendency for schools to look for a new and beloved family member, often a father
figure, as they search for a new head of school. In addition, their study found that many of the
early processes conducted by search firms and boards tend to eliminate women from the
candidacy.
Muñoz et al. (2014) also indicate women’s candidacies for leadership positions are often
evaluated differently than that of men, potentially putting them at a disadvantage with search
firms and boards. While male candidates’ strengths are emphasized, female candidates’ gaps are
viewed more prominently than their strengths. In addition, role congruity theory reveals some
prejudice toward women in leadership roles with attitudes towards female leaders and potential
leaders being less positive than attitudes toward male leaders (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Changing
49
long embedded patriarchal views of leadership and embracing women as leaders is necessary for
organizations to make way for more female heads of school (Eagly & Karau, 2002).
The following table, Table 4, illustrates the organizational culture and setting influences
that influence that attainment of the headship for women.
Table 4
Organizational Influences, Types, and Assessments for Knowledge Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
The mission of NAIS is to empower independent schools and the students they serve. NAIS is a
voice for independent education designed to raise the visibility of an independent school education
and ensure the excellence of member schools. The vision of NAIS is centered around the ideas of
excellence, equity, efficiency, and emotion.
Global Goal
Independent schools will increase the number of female heads to achieve equity.
Stakeholder Goal
By 2025, the percentage of the women completing the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads who have gone
on to attain an independent school headship will have increased compared to the percentage of those
who had attained a headship in 2020.
Assumed Organizational
Influences
Organization Influence Assessment
Cultural Setting Influence 1:
Aspiring female heads of school
need to be supported
intentionally by the organization.
Interview:
The fellowship pairs participants with sitting heads of school as
mentors. You don’t have to share names, but can you tell me a bit
about your mentor? How would you describe the relationship
with your mentor?
How did it affect your pursuit of the headship?
I’d like to discuss the professional support you have experienced
in your leadership journey. What role did they play? Who has
mentored you or helped you learn and acquire the tools you felt
you needed? Can you tell me more about those experiences?
Can you tell me about the search firm(s) you worked with and
how they influenced your search? What kind of coaching or help
did you experience on their part?
During your search, did you receive help or support from your
former/current school? Can you tell me about that?
Boards are very influential in the search for new heads. What was
your experience with boards during the search?
50
Table 4, continued
Assumed Organizational
Influences
Organization Influence Assessment
How do you perceive boards support women as prospective heads
of school? (Probe with “Can you tell more about those
perceptions?”)
How do you perceive search firms support women as prospective
heads of school? (Probe with “Can you tell more about those
perceptions?”)
Cultural Model Influence 1:
Aspiring female heads of school
need to be promoted by the
organization as highly qualified
headship candidates.
Survey:
How useful was the NAIS Fellowship for Aspiring Heads in
helping you become a head of school (Likert: very helpful,
somewhat helpful, somewhat unhelpful, not helpful at all)
Interview:
The fellowship is a significant commitment for you and the
school supporting you. How did you learn about the fellowship
and come to apply for it?
Can you tell me about the school that sponsored you to the
fellowship, and how you and they determined that you would
pursue the fellowship? What kind, if any, support and
encouragement was provided by this school?
Can you tell me about that? Who, specifically, was supportive
and how?
How well do you perceive that the independent school
community, including individual independent schools and
professional organizations like NAIS, supports and promotes
women as heads of school? What portions, if any, of the
fellowship do think specifically address the unique concerns of
women aspiring to leadership?
What other professional development opportunities in which you
have participated, if any, do you feel have addressed the unique
concerns of women aspiring to leadership? Can you tell me more
about that?
Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework helps to explain and guide an investigation. The framework
illustrates the key ideas and influencers being studied in a way that explores their relationship
with one another. Existing theory and research, experiential knowledge, thought experiments,
and exploratory research each contribute to building a conceptual framework (Maxwell, 2013).
51
The scaffolding of the study, methodological approach, and sense-making of the data are
influenced by the conceptual framework, too (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Each of the potential
influencers surrounding the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences affecting
equity in the independent school headship related to women was explained independently of
each other in the previous section. However, these influencers are not independent of each other
and do not act in isolation. This section contains the conceptual framework that will demonstrate
the theory about how these influencers interact with one another.
It is important to note the that underlying conceptual framework is anchored in the work
of Clark and Estes (2008), relating knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences to
performance gaps. The following framework in Figure 1 illustrates the two, interrelated
organizations of influence and their impact on the knowledge and motivation of the stakeholder
group of focus.
Figure 1. Conceptual framework.
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The conceptual framework in Figure 1 illustrates how knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors interact with one other. The left side of the figure illustrates the
relationship between the organizations and the cultural model and setting that are key to
influencing equity in the headship for women. The left side of the figure also illustrates the
influence of these organizational relationships on knowledge and motivation factors for the
stakeholder, women aspiring to the headship. Finally, the stakeholder goal of realizing equity in
the headship is represented on the far right of the diagram.
The NAIS is a voluntary national organization serving more than 1,500 independent
schools in the United States. Independent schools are not governed by NAIS. Rather, they are
governed a board of trustees and held accountable by their regional accrediting agencies,
trustees, and families. However, NAIS serves to empower independent schools. They provide
research, data, and trend analysis, guidance on governing and leading schools, and professional
development. Because NAIS serves independent schools by responding to their needs, the
organization is influenced and affected by its members schools as much as it influences them.
The relationship and commitment between NAIS and its member schools is strong as they work
together to improve and sustain schools and cultivate leadership (NAIS, 2017). Due to this
mutualism, the cultural model and setting in both NAIS and individual independent schools
influence the rise of women to the headship. NAIS must work in conjunction with individual
schools to support and encourage a culture where women are embraced as school leaders. In
addition, NAIS and the extensive cohort of school heads of member schools must embrace the
work of mentoring women in a way that prepares them to lead schools.
Despite the fact that women dominate the teaching profession, they lag behind men in the
highest school leadership positions in both public and independent schools (NAIS, 2010; The
53
White House Project, 2009). Women are also evaluated and promoted based on performance
with a focus on gaps, whereas men are considered based on potential and strengths. Since
women develop the motivation to lead from targeted feedback of significant others, it is
important for both individual schools and NAIS to embrace women in the headship (Barsh &
Yee, 2012; Muñoz et al., 2014). Mentorship on both the part of the NAIS and individual schools
in which women work may positively influence the motivation of women to lead and to believe
they can lead successfully. In addition, mentorship helps women develop the various types of
procedural and metacognitive knowledge needed to navigate the pursuit of leadership (Clark &
Johnson, 2017; Elprana, Felfe, Stiehl, & Gatzka, 2015; Young & McLeod, 2001). Finally,
leadership is construed in a patriarchal sense. Because women still shoulder the greater portion
of child and home care, a commitment of organizations to a sustainable work-life experience is
critical to encourage women to lead (Coronel et al., 2010; Perrakis, Martinez, & Madsen, 2012).
These influences can be seen in Figure 1 in their relationship to the two key organizations and to
the aspiring women.
Conclusion
The realization of equity for women in the independent school headship will only result
due to organizational mindsets that embrace women leaders and create opportunities to mentor
emerging and aspiring leaders. The influence of the cultural model and setting on the knowledge
and motivation of aspiring women leaders is necessary to inspire women to aspire to and attain
the headship, and once there, sustain the course of leadership.
This evaluation study sought to determine the effectiveness of the NAIS Fellowship for
Aspiring Heads of School in meeting the goal of NAIS to increase the numbers of women who
attain headships and lead independent schools. To inform this study, this chapter has reviewed
54
the literature related to the challenges that women face in attaining independent school
headships. This review explored the gendered nature of leadership, the structure of independent
schools and the role of the head of school as well as the barriers experienced by women who
seek to lead in independent schools. This literature review process led to the identification of the
assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences specifically related to the
achievement of the stakeholder goal and women’s pursuit of the headship in independent
schools. The knowledge influences include procedural knowledge related to navigating the job
search process, gender bias, work-life sustainability, and metacognitive knowledge related to
personal leadership style and influence of personal power. The motivation influences include
self-efficacy through targeted feedback of significant others, expectancy-value related to
leadership capabilities, and interest in leading through believing that leading is worth the cost.
Finally, the organizational influences include independent school culture around intentional
mentoring relationships and a cultural model that embraces and promotes women as strong
headship candidates. Chapter Three describes the validation process for these influences.
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
This evaluation study sought to identify the extent to which the year-long NAIS
Fellowship for Aspiring Heads was improving the numbers of women prepared for and attaining
the independent school headship. This study utilized the gap analysis framework with a
qualitative case study utilizing surveys, document analysis, and interviews (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Creswell, 2014). This chapter further outlines the methodology and research design, including
data collection and instrumentation. It also outlines the data analysis. The questions which
guided this study were:
1. To what extent is NAIS meeting its goal of increasing the number of women in the
independent school headship?
2. What are the aspiring women heads of school knowledge and motivation related to
attaining an independent school headship?
3. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and aspiring women
heads of school knowledge and motivation?
4. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Chapter Three begins with a description of the participating stakeholders followed by
an explanation of the methods and sampling criteria for all phases of the study.
Participating Stakeholders
This study focused on women who have completed the NAIS Fellowship for Aspiring
Heads (referred to hereafter as the fellowship) since 2015, particularly those women who have
secured their first headship after completing the fellowship.
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Application to the fellowship requires that a candidate already be in a leadership role in
an NAIS member school and have the financial support of their current school to apply.
Although the fellowship is not gender-specific, the stakeholder of focus was women who have
completed the fellowship and who had successfully navigated the search process to secure their
first independent school headship or who had been a finalist in a headship search. The
quantitative portion of the study involved a survey of all participants who had completed the
fellowship since 2015. The survey focused on collecting data from those participants who
identified as women. To gather as much data as possible, the survey was sent by NAIS to all
fellowship participants since 2015, with directions that requested only women participate. Any
participants who identified as male were not be able to complete the survey. One of the reasons
for quantitative sampling in this study was to provide descriptive statistics regarding the women
who have completed the fellowship (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The aim of the survey
questions was to describe the attributes and thoughts of the participants as they related to the
research questions and conceptual framework (Robinson & Firth Leonard, 2019). A secondary
purpose of the survey was to purposefully sample fellowship participants who had attained a
headship since completing the fellowship for participation in interviews. Fourteen women were
identified for 60- to 90-minute interviews (Johnson & Christensen, 2015).
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Graduates of the NAIS Fellowship for Aspiring Heads. The study was
interested in those who had completed all components of the fellowship.
Criterion 2. Fellows who completed the program since 2015. The emphasis of the
fellowship changed five years ago to focus on the preparation of women and diverse populations
57
for the headship. To include participants with the same experience, only those graduating since
2015 were included.
Criterion 3. Women. The emphasis of this study was on equity for women in the
independent school headship.
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
All participants of the NAIS Fellowship for Aspiring Heads since 2015 were emailed the
survey from NAIS. The survey was distributed at the beginning of the study, prior to interviews.
Fellowship participants had the opportunity to opt out of survey participation. The email
included an explanation of the study purpose and process. The same message with explanation
and link to the survey were posted on NAIS message boards for independent school leaders. The
survey was intentionally short and no incentives for survey participation were provided.
Participants who completed the survey were asked if they were willing to participate on the
interview portion of data collection.
Participants who identified as female were asked if they would be interested in
participating in an interview to further explore their experience in the fellowship and their
journey to become a head of school. Participants were informed that they might be selected to
participate in the interview if they met study criteria. Participants who selected to be considered
for participation in the interview were required to provide contact information. Only those
selecting to participate in the interview were asked for contact information. All other participants
were anonymous to the researcher because survey data were collected without identifiers. While
there was no incentive to participate in the interview, those who participated in interviews were
thanked with a follow-up note and a Starbucks gift card within two weeks of interview
completion.
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Surveys are useful in quantitative research when the data to be collected must come from
people and provide descriptions of their perceptions, feelings, values, and personal background
(Fink, 2013). Such data were important in understanding the fellowship participants’ knowledge
and motivation, as well as organizational influences, relevant to achieving the goal of increasing
the number of women pursuing and attaining the independent school headship. The survey
allowed the researcher to make assumptions about the fellowship’s impact on women pursuing
the headship and was used to make suggested improvements, which are discussed in Chapter
Five.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Women who had completed the fellowship since 2015. These women were
recent graduates of the program and were in a position to recall the program aspects that directly
related to preparation for the headship.
Criterion 2. Women who had secured and begun their first headship or women who had
been finalists in a head of school search interview process during or since completing the
Aspiring Heads Fellowship. A finalist is a candidate who has been invited to the school to
participate in the last round of interviews, usually a one or two-day process. These women have
been successful in navigating the search, interview, and hiring process as well as having begun
their headship and were therefore uniquely qualified to speak to the efficacy of the program.
Criterion 3. Women heads of school in the Mid-Atlantic region were given preference as
interview candidates if the interviews could be completed in person.
Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale
This study sought to explore and understand the experience of women leaders at the
highest level in independent school education; therefore, a qualitative study was necessary
59
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The site and samples selected for a qualitative study must be
purposeful to inform the researcher’s understanding of the problem and research questions
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). For this reason, purposive sampling was used because it was
necessary to locate individuals who met specific criteria for this study (Johnson & Christensen,
2015). All of the participants in this study had completed the fellowship during the past five
years and had become a head of school or had been a finalist for a head of school search after or
while completing the fellowship.
Fourteen participants were selected based on purposeful criteria related to the specific
experience of seeking to become a head of school and participation in a fellowship designed to
prepare candidates for this new role. Those who had already obtained a headship were given
preference over those who had not. This number supported the conceptual framework in that it
was small enough to allow for in-depth interviews but large enough to examine multiple
perspectives and experiences. The nature of the research questions required the exploration of the
thoughts, beliefs, motivations, and knowledge around the acquisition of an independent school
headship. Depth interviews, specifically using an interview guide approach, allowed for the
benefits of collegial conversation while ensuring that each participant was asked about specific
topics (Johnson & Christensen, 2015). Interviews were completed both in person and via
teleconferencing. Transcription and coding were completed as soon as possible after each
interview to facilitate simultaneous data analysis and data collection (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Documents and Artifacts
Documents related to the fellowship were analyzed. The researcher asked the director of
professional development for NAIS to provide internal documents such as internal surveys about
the fellowship. In addition, documents pertaining to the fellowship that could be found online or
60
that were provided by interview participants were also examined. Examination of these
documents directly related to the research questions. Documents provided a further opportunity
to examine aspects of fellowship related to the stakeholder knowledge and motivation important
to attaining an independent school headship. In addition, examination of these documents
provided insight into the interaction between organizational culture and context.
Document analysis is important for triangulation and is a powerful tool in qualitative
studies that seek to provide rich description (Bowen, 2009). The analysis of documents enhances
research by providing context, historical insight, background information, and verification of
findings as they relate to the research questions (Bowen, 2009).
Analysis of the content of provided documents involved organizing information in
categories related to the research questions and knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences (Bowen, 2009). First pass reviews identified important passages of information for
deeper study. The selected passages were examined more closely and coded.
Quantitative Data Collection and Instrumentation
Using a survey for data collection and as a screening instrument enabled purposeful
sampling for interviews before implementing any qualitative data collection. The survey was
designed to collect data regarding demographics and to gain insight into the procedural
knowledge, motivation and cultural models related to organizational influences affecting
women’s attainment of the headship. In addition, the survey informed the qualitative data
collection by identifying the subjects who were best positioned to provide the type of in-depth
interview information needed to address the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences affecting the attainment of an independent school headship by women. The survey
questions were designed to both directly answer the research questions and to support purposeful
61
sampling to identify the subject population best suited to providing the type of deep information
that allowed the researcher to fully address the research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Survey Instrument
The survey instrument contained 17 items and was administered via an online link
through a web-based survey service. The quantitative survey consisted of demographic questions
as well as items that assessed motivation and examined knowledge. Two points of the survey
provided for specific screening. The second survey question screened for identified gender so
that only those identifying as female/woman continued the survey. A specific screening question
also identified study participants who had attained a headship since fellowship completion or
while participating in it as well as those who had been finalists (candidates invited to campus for
full-day interviews with a variety of constituents) in a headship search. This question was
designed to guide the researcher in her purposeful sampling for the qualitative data collection
with the goal to identify respondents who were able to provide deep and rich insight into the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors contributing to the conceptual framework
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The 11 demographic questions included items designed to obtain
information about participants’ previous and current professional experience and experiences in
the head search process. These questions were designed to provide insight into the professional
journey of women who have completed the fellowship because the journey to becoming a head
of school differs from person to person. The survey collected nominal and ordinal data (Salkind,
2017). Items contained preselected, multiple-choice responses. The survey also contained one
open-ended question.
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Survey Procedures
The survey occurred prior to the identification of subjects for the qualitative interview.
The survey was emailed to graduates of the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads by the director of
professional development at NAIS. Since 2015, there have been approximately 200 participants
who have completed the fellowship (NAIS Director of Professional Development, personal
communication, May 20, 2019). A link to the survey was included in an official NAIS email. It
was also posted on NAIS message boards for independent school leaders. The results of the
survey were accessible only by the researcher. Identifiable data were not collected from any
participants unless they self-selected to participate in the interview. Based on answers to the two
screening questions, prospective participants were asked if they were willing to participate in an
interview lasting up to 90 minutes about their experiences in the journey to becoming a head of
school. Those who indicated their willingness to participate were asked to provide their names
and contact information.
The demographic data collected by the instrument included several factors to help
describe the fellowship participants in a broad way through the use of nominal and ordinal data.
Questions asked about gender, current career role, and status related to the participants’ pursuit
of a headship. Additional questions explored the number of head searches in which the study
participants were candidates and the number of searches that resulted in finalist status and
headship offers.
Having NAIS distribute the survey link via email was important to protect the identity of
fellowship participants. The fellowship participants were selected from independent schools
across the country; therefore, a survey sent to all participants via email was chosen as a likely
way to collect the most responses. Because several emails bounced back to NAIS, the survey
63
was also distributed via NAIS message boards for independent school leaders. Telephone or in-
person surveys would have taken too long and were not needed for the types of questions asked
via this survey. In addition, the researcher believed the return rates would be higher via email
than phone or paper (Robinson & Firth Leonard, 2019). The survey was planned for the late
summer, when school administrators would have slightly more time because students and
teachers were on vacation.
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation
Interviews are important in qualitative studies, particularly when a researcher cannot
observe the actions and feelings of people or their interpretation of the world (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). In this study, the researcher used in-depth interviews to examine procedural and
metacognitive knowledge; motivation influences including self-efficacy, expectancy-value, and
perceived cost; and organizational influences related to the problem of practice. In-depth
interviews were the primary data collection method. This section discusses the in-depth
interviews.
Interview Protocol
In a semi-structured interview approach, the researcher explored 18 questions with each
interview participant within a 60- to 90-minute period (Krueger & Casey, 2009). The questions
explored with each interview participant related directly to the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational needs identified in the literature review and conceptual framework. The
interviews were one-time, in-depth interviews facilitated with an interview guide approach to
allow for flexible and open-ended, collegial conversation related to specific questions regarding
the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences described in the conceptual framework
(Johnson & Christensen, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The choice of semi-structured, in-
64
depth interviews as the primary data collection method for this study was made to facilitate
probing and exploring during the interview to illuminate the lived experiences of the subjects
(Patton, 2002). The interview guide approach also allowed for the interview time to be used
flexibly to pursue topics deeply in a collegial, conversational, and curious way (Patton, 2002).
Finally, in-depth interviews were chosen to elicit detailed descriptions from multiple
perspectives (Weiss, 1994).
Interview Procedures
The in-depth, semi-structured interviews were scheduled and conducted after the survey
was closed. Interviews occurred between mid-September and mid-November 2019. Each of the
14 interview participants was interviewed one time during a single interview session lasting
between 60 and 90 minutes, for a total of approximately 15 hours of interview recordings.
Transcription for each interview was completed immediately after each interview to allow for
simultaneous data collection and analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Weiss, 1994). When
possible, interviews were conducted in person in a quiet distraction-free location of the
interviewee’s choosing. Only two interviews were conducted in person, and each was conducted
in the interview participant’s office. Twelve interviews were conducted via tele-conference due
to geographical or time constraints. Interviews were scheduled at a time convenient to the
participant. The primary data capture was audio recording of the interview while the researcher
focused on the conversation (Weiss, 1994). Two recording devices were used for back-up
measure.
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Data Analysis
In analyzing survey results, frequencies were calculated. The percentage of stakeholders
who strongly agreed or agreed was presented in relation to those who strongly disagreed or
disagreed. Descriptive statistical analysis was conducted once all survey results were submitted.
For interviews, data analysis began during data collection. The researcher wrote analytic
memos where she documented her thoughts, concerns, and initial conclusions about the data in
relation to her conceptual framework and research questions. Immediately after the interviews,
the recordings were transcribed and coded. In the first phase of analysis, open coding was used.
The researcher looked for empirical codes and applied a priori codes from the conceptual
framework. A second phase of analysis was conducted where empirical and a priori codes were
aggregated into analytic/axial codes. In the third phase of data analysis the researcher identified
pattern codes and themes that emerged in relation to the conceptual framework and study
questions.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The researcher was the instrument for qualitative data collection and analysis. Qualitative
research using the researcher as the instrument for data collection and analysis brings inherent
bias (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Therefore, this section describes the steps taken by the
researcher to increase credibility and trustworthiness and minimize inherent bias. These steps
included reflexivity, collection of rich data, and triangulation.
Reflexivity
Reflexivity “requires the researcher to be critically conscious through personal
accounting of how the researcher’s self-location (across for example, gender, race, class,
sexuality, ethnicity, nationality), position, and interests influence all stages of the research
66
process” (Pillow, 2003, p. 178). Recognition of and regular reflection on the researcher role and
relationship to the research was a crucial factor in increasing and maintaining the credibility and
trustworthiness of this research (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Although the researcher was never a cohort member of the fellowship or an employee of
NAIS, the researcher was a female administrator in an independent school with a strong interest
in attaining an independent school headship. Examining the researcher’s positionality was
important in the reflexive process (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The recognition that the researcher aspired to a headship provided an increased
understanding of the context of the study. However, it was important as data were collected and
analyzed that the researcher approach the data as a listener and avoid interjecting her own
feelings, experiences, and perspectives. Regular journaling was an important tool for the
researcher in recognizing and separating the thoughts and feelings from the narrative and story of
the interviewees. Throughout data collection, analysis, and reporting, the researcher remained
mindful of her potential biases, assumptions, and perspectives and was engaged in regular self-
reflection.
Rich Data
Intensive interviews with verbatim transcripts can provide a revealing view (Maxwell,
2013). Engagement with the data until saturation occurred and no new information was being
revealed through detailed data collection, including verbatim transcripts of interviews, was
employed as a method to increase credibility and trustworthiness (Creswell & Creswell, 2018;
Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The plan to conduct 14 in-depth interviews was
driven, in part, by the need to engage fully with the data and dive deeply into conversation with
the interview participants.
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Triangulation
The researcher triangulated the interview data with survey and document analysis.
Triangulation increases credibility and minimizes researcher bias through the convergence of
multiple sources of data (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Triangulation through multiple sources of data included interviews, follow-up email questions,
document analysis, and survey results.
Validity and Reliability
The survey was designed to collect demographic data, aid the purposeful sampling for the
qualitative data collection, and collect data useful in answering the research questions as they
related to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impacted women’s
attainment of independent school headships. The survey was reviewed and edited by the
researcher’s dissertation committee and peers in the doctoral program. In addition, the researcher
field-tested the survey with two heads of school who were not part of the group to be surveyed.
Feedback was solicited from these two individuals. This sort of review and field-testing ensured
the clarity of the questions, confirmed appropriate and sufficient response options, helped assess
the reliability of questions, and tested the mechanics of the survey (Robinson & Firth Leonard,
2019). The researcher worked in conjunction with the director of professional development at
NAIS, too, to engage in cognitive interviewing with the director to further review the questions
and improve (Robinson & Firth Leonard, 2019). Response rates were monitored. In addition to
the initial email with the survey, an additional reminder was sent two weeks into the survey to
elicit as many responses as possible (Robinson & Firth Leonard, 2019).
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The researcher aimed to have for 75 of the surveyed population to complete the survey. A
high completion rate for a survey contributes to greater validity in the study and provides
sufficient data to answer the research questions. (Johnson & Christensen, 2015).
Ethics
Of utmost importance in this study was the dedication to act ethically before, during, and
following the study. A researcher had several ethical responsibilities. The greatest of these was to
do no harm to any human subjects (Glesne, 2011; Rubin & Rubin, 2012). To ensure no harm, the
researcher carefully considered informed consent, confidentiality of data, protection of the
identity of participants, gaining specific permission to record interviews, the secure storage of
data, and data collection methods that put the safety and well-being of participants at the
forefront. Each of these responsibilities worked together to make sure that interview participants
were not harmed (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
To protect study participants, informed consent is a necessary component of quantitative
research (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Prior to the beginning of each interview, an information sheet
that outlined the nature of the research, explained the voluntary nature of participation, and
described the steps taken to ensure confidentiality were shared with participants (Appendix B)
(Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Interview participants were informed that pseudonyms would be used
protect the identity of all of subjects. In addition, interviewees were informed that they could
choose to not answer any question at any time. They were also informed that they could stop,
quit, or withdraw from the study at any time. The information sheet provided the institutional
review board’s (IRB) contact information, and participants were informed that they may reach
out to the IRB if they had questions or concerns.
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Separately from the information sheet, but at the beginning of each interview, the
researcher requested permission to record the interview. Participants were informed that they
could ask for the recording to be turned off at any time. For live interviews, audio was recorded
with two instruments, a mobile phone app and a recording device, whereas, for online interviews,
the interview was recorded with the video-conferencing recording feature and an external
recording device. Following each interview, the researcher had a transcription service transcribe
the interviews verbatim. Confidentiality on all transcriptions was ensured by the use of
pseudonyms. The transcription and audio recording were saved in a password-protected
computer file until the dissertation was complete. At that point, the researcher destroyed all
recorded files.
Because the results of this study may be useful to the NAIS, results of the study will be
shared with the organization. No identifying information or raw data will be shared. An
executive summary of the findings will be prepared and presented upon study completion.
The researcher is not a supervisor or co-worker with any of the subjects. In addition, the
researcher is not an employ of NAIS or involved with the fellowship in any way. The distance
between the research and interviewees ensures that no supervisor-supervisee biases occurred;
however, distance between the research and subjects does not make a study more ethical (Glesne,
2011). The researcher stood to learn a considerable amount about the knowledge and
motivational factors associated with aspiring to and attaining an independent school headship.
Glesne (2011) reminds us that, while researchers may personally gain from their studies, they
must be aware of the potential to exploit and be careful not to do so. Fortunately, because the
researcher and potential participants do not know each other, there will be no positional pressure
to participate. In addition, no participation incentives were provided. Finally, the researcher
70
made every effort to be mindful of these potential dilemmas and address them immediately if
they should arise.
Limitations and Delimitations
There are limitations and delimitations of which the researcher was aware in this study.
Limitations include factors that are not within the control of the researcher.
Limitations for this study are discussed in this section. The study depended on survey
participation and response rate as well as the choice of participants to be interviewed. Another
limitation was that the survey and interview questions had not been previously validated and,
despite efforts to ensure their quality, may not have been interpreted as the researcher intended.
Of critical importance, the researcher is not an employee of the organization of interest in the
study, and, so, was dependent on a positive partnership with the organization.
Delimitations are related to the choices made by the researcher that have implications for
data collection. A delimitation to consider was that data were collected only from women who
completed the fellowship. Others with influence on who is hired for head of school positions,
including search firms and board members, were not interviewed or surveyed.
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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
This study sought to understand the degree to which the NAIS Fellowship for Aspiring
Heads is meeting its goal of equipping women to successfully attain independent school
headships, and how NAIS and individual independent schools can best support and develop
aspiring female leaders for the headship role. This qualitative case study utilized a gap analysis
framework (Clark & Estes, 2008). This chapter reviews the stakeholder participants in the study
and outlines the findings and results from the survey and individual interviews, guided by these
research questions:
1. To what extent is NAIS meeting its goal of increasing the number of women in the
independent school headship?
2. What are the aspiring women heads of school knowledge and motivation related to
attaining an independent school headship?
3. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and aspiring women
heads of school knowledge and motivation?
Methods
The researcher conducted a 17-item online survey and interviewed 14 women who had
completed the fellowship in 2015 or later. The data collection for this study took place over a
three-month period. The final survey data consisted of 86 responses, representing a 33%
response rate. NAIS emailed the survey to 261 participants of the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads.
The database used by NAIS only housed the email addresses that were current at the time of
fellowship completion. As a result, several of the emails containing the survey bounced back to
NAIS because many of the surveyed participants now worked at different schools than when
they completed the fellowship. For that reason, the survey and a short explanation of the study
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were also posted on appropriate NAIS message boards which resulted in further survey
participation. In addition, women who had provided contact information agreeing to participate
in an interview were emailed and asked to forward the survey information to others in their
cohort with whom they were in contact. This, too, resulted in additional survey results and
interview volunteers.
Participants
The survey screened by gender, so only those identifying as female/woman completed
the full survey. Forty-one women completed the survey, which took approximately five minutes
to complete. Survey results by gender are illustrated in Figure 2 below. Of the 86 survey
participants, 44 (51%) were male and 41 (48%) were female. One person (~1%) identified as
transgender.
Figure 2. Gender of responding Fellowship for Aspiring Heads participants.
51%
48%
1%
Gender of Responding Fellowship for
Aspiring Heads Participants
Male Female Transgender
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The survey also screened for interview participants, and 14 women were selected for
interviews. Separate interviews with each woman were conducted, each lasting approximately
one to one and a half hours in length. Table 5 provides the demographic information of the
women interviewed. The descriptions of each interview participant that follow the table include
some information that was volunteered by the interview participants. Although the interviewer
did not ask for or about that information, it has been included if relevant. All names are
pseudonyms.
Table 5
Interview Participant Data
Pseudonym Location Grades School type Current Position
Audra Mid-Atlantic PreK - 8 Day, Coed Head of School
Clara West Coast PreK - 8 Day, Coed Head of School
Dawn Northwest PreK - 5 Day, Coed Head of School
Jeanine Southeast PreK - 12 Day, Girls Head of School
Kaye West Coast K - 6 Day, Coed Head of School
Leslie Northeast PreK - 6 Day, Coed Head of School
Marci Northeast PreK - 6 Day, Coed Head of School
Rae Northeast PreK - 8 Day, Coed Head of School
Stacey Southeast PreK - 12 Day, Coed Head of School
Fran Northeast 9-12 + PG Boarding/Day, Coed Head of School
Brittany West Coast PK - 8 Day, Coed Head-elect
Ericka Midwest 9 - 12 Day, Coed Head-elect
Gena Mid-Atlantic K - 12 Day, Coed Exec Director, curriculum
Tammi Southeast PreK - 12 Day, Coed Division Director
Audra. Audra was in her first year as a head of school. She has worked in independent
schools for 26 years, though she worked briefly in a public school. Audra has held a variety of
positions in independent schools, including lower school division director, lower school assistant
division director, and classroom teacher. She holds a bachelor’s and master’s degree. Audra
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identifies as African American and is married with college-aged children. Currently, she and her
spouse live and work in separate, but nearby cities.
Clara. Clara was in her first year as a head of school. She has worked in independent
schools for 18 years, holding a variety of positions, including middle school division head,
curriculum coordinator, department chair, and classroom teacher. She holds a bachelor’s degree
in a science-related field. In addition, she holds both a master’s degree and a doctorate in
education. Clara was born and grew up in South America and began her teaching career there.
She is married without children.
Dawn. Dawn was in her third year as a head of school. Prior to working in independent
schools, Dawn spent 15 years working as a consultant in a business field. Although Dawn came
into the education field later in her working career, she has over 20 years of experience in
independent schools. She has been a lower school division director and classroom teacher and
has worked at two independent schools, including the one she now leads. Dawn holds a both a
bachelor’s and master’s degree and is married with grown children.
Jeanine. Jeanine was in her third year as a head of school. She has worked in
independent schools for 15 years, holding the positions of director of academics, upper school
division head, coordinator for students with learning differences, and classroom teacher. Prior to
working in independent schools, Jeanine spent over 10 years working as a public school teacher.
She holds a bachelor’s and master’s degree as well as a doctorate in educational leadership. She
is married and has school-aged children.
Kaye. Kaye was in her third year as a head of school. She has worked in independent
schools for a total of 15 years. Not all of those years were consecutive, as she took a break a
from education to work in a business-related field for several years. Kaye has held multiple
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positions in independent schools, including middle school division head, summer program
director, and classroom teacher. Kaye holds both a bachelor’s and a master’s degree. She is
married with a school-aged child, and her husband is currently a stay-at-home dad.
Leslie. Leslie was in her third year as a head of school. She has worked in independent
schools for 19 years, holding a variety of positions in multiple schools, including division
director in both middle and upper school as well as classroom teacher. In addition, she worked in
college admissions and counseling for over five years. She holds a bachelor’s and master’s
degree. Leslie is married without children, and her wife currently lives and works at a school in
another state.
Marci. Marci was in her first year as a head of school. She has worked in a variety of
independent schools for 30 years, holding positions such as lower school division director,
diversity coordinator, department chair, and classroom teacher. She holds both a bachelor’s and
master’s degree. Marci identifies as African American and is married. She and her wife have two
children.
Rae. Rae was in her second year as a head of school. She has worked in independent
schools for 12 years, holding the positions of diversity coordinator and assistant head of school.
Rae also worked in both clinical and school-based psychology settings for several years before
beginning work in independent schools. She holds three degrees, bachelor’s, master’s, and
doctorate, all in psychology. She has a grown daughter.
Stacey. Stacey was in her fourth year as head of school. She has worked for most of her
career the same school, having been there for 17 years. While at her current school, she has held
a variety of positions including coordinating several programs, teaching, and working in
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admissions. She is married with school-aged children. Stacey holds a bachelor’s and master’s
degree as well as a doctorate in curriculum.
Fran. Fran was in her first year as a head of school. With over 25 years of independent
school experience in both the United States and abroad, she has been a teacher, assistant division
director, dean, and director of studies. She holds a bachelor’s and master’s degree. She is married
with college-aged children. Currently, Fran and her husband live in separate cities for their jobs.
Brittany. Newly hired as a head of school, Brittany was expecting to begin her first
headship in July prior to the next school year. She has over 20 years of experience in both public
and private schools. She holds three degrees, a bachelor’s, a master’s, and a doctorate, all in
education. She has held a variety of positions in both public and private schools, including
classroom teacher, assistant principal, principal, and division head. She is married with one child.
When asked about her search process for her headship, she indicated she had to be selective
regarding the location, saying, “Because of my husband’s job, we were not in a position where I
could apply to everything that’s open. We had to be very, very intentional. There were three
locations that we could potentially look at.”
Ericka. Ericka was also a head-elect, planning to begin her headship in July. Ericka had
been at the same school for her entire independent school career, which spanned 16 years. The
headship she accepted was at this same school. During Ericka’s tenure, she held several positions
including administrative assistant, classroom teacher, diversity coordinator, and assistant head.
In addition to her many roles, Ericka was also on the board of trustees for another independent
school. She holds bachelor’s and master’s degrees in English. At the time of the interview, she
was separated from her partner, with whom she had one child.
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Gena. Gena had over 20 years of experience in independent schools, and held a variety
of leadership positions, primarily dealing with curriculum at all levels. Gena currently served as
executive director at her school and reported directly to the head of school. Holding three
degrees, a bachelor’s and two master’s degrees, Gena was also a doctoral candidate in
educational leadership. As a widowed mother with children in college and high school, she had
been at her current school for over a decade to provide stability for her children. Although, she
had been in some head of school searches, including being a finalist in a search, she was
currently more interested in becoming a division head.
Tammi. For over 30 years, Tammi worked in a variety of independent school settings,
holding varied positions including classroom teacher, admissions director, and, currently, lower
school division director. She has both a bachelor’s and a master’s in education-related fields.
Tammi had applied for head of school positions and was a finalist in at least one search. She is
married with children. Currently, Tammi is considering the best career path for her as she
contemplates the head of school position and how it could take her away from time spent with
students.
Findings
The findings from the survey and interviews are reported in this section. The knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences identified in the conceptual framework and the
literature review are used as the lens through which the findings will be viewed. The research
questions will also be addressed.
Introduction
The first research question sought to understand the extent to which NAIS was meeting
its goal of increasing the number of women in the independent school headship. For the women
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who participated in the fellowship, the experience and mentoring provided by the fellowship
were identified as valuable to the realization of their end goal of attaining a headship. The
guidance of mentors during the fellowship and beyond was critical to achieving the highest
levels of leadership for this study’s interview participants. According to Elias (2018), women
often enter a workplace created by and structured for men. Although classrooms are dominated
by women, the highest leadership positions in education are not. Women benefit from being
mentored in both the written and unwritten rules (Elias, 2018). Head-elect Brittany summed up
the sentiment with her comments:
I think that, for better or worse, women and candidates of color get scrappy and figure out
who they can be mentored by and then they leverage that to the best of their ability,
where I think that just oftentimes happens naturally for White men.
Evidence of the critical role of mentors in learning to navigate the headship search and
first headship was evidenced in several of the interview participants’ comments. All 10 interview
participants who were already heads of schools at the time of the interviews indicated that they
benefited from mentors who offered a range of support during their search, including reading
their philosophy statements and resumes, inviting them to shadow, pushing mentees beyond their
comfort zones, negotiating a contract, reflecting, coaching, and following up on how interviews
had gone. For 11 of the 14 interview participants, at least one of these mentoring relationships
developed through the fellowship. Clara, a head on the West Coast said of her mentors as she
interviewed at different schools,
It is an exhausting process. You have these two days that you spend with all these people
throwing questions at you from everywhere. Before and throughout, I would talk to my
mentors, and they are rooting for you. They also want to know how it went.
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Another interview participant, Marci, said of the mentoring received during the fellowship,
In terms of the Aspiring Heads Fellowship, I was really fortunate to be in a small group
with a faculty member who was and is amazing. She gave some very concrete
information, tasks, had really high expectations and was extremely supportive.
Marci went on to say,
And I am still in touch with her. I’ll be having lunch with her. I’m actually driving two
hours to have dinner with her in a couple weeks. I feel like I talk to her every couple of
months -- we’re in a different time zone -- but we still text, email, I can still run ideas by
her and she has been that way with our entire little mini cohort.”
Marci’s relationship with mentor continued to be significant to her success even after she was a
head of school. She said,
And now, as a head, to be able to check in, because a head has no peer in a school, so to
be able to check in with that faculty member who is a head is fantastic. I know now I’ve
got not just a mentor. I’ve got not just an ally. I’ve got like an accomplice, so to speak.
An ally is right behind you, accomplice is right next to you. So, that’s fantastic, that’s
been really awesome.
For the fellowship participants who had become heads of school, the mentoring aspect of the
fellowship helped with the achievement of their goal to become a head of school.
As noted throughout the knowledge and motivation findings in the next two sections, the
fellowship played a critical role in preparing women to recognize their readiness to lead, pursue
head of school positions, and lead effectively. For the 12 interview participants who had
successfully attained a headship, the fellowship played an important role in their preparation to
navigate gender bias, manage the search process, plan for work and home life conflicts, and
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reflect on their own leadership style and needs. It also helped women develop the confidence to
lead and grow in their view of themselves as leaders as they chose to accept the cost of
leadership. Therefore, for the women who apply to and are accepted to the fellowship, the
program is helping to increase the number of women heads of school. However, as noted in
Figure 2, which illustrates the gender of the survey respondents, slightly more men responded to
the survey than women. If the respondents are representative of the overall numbers of
fellowship participants, then nearly equal numbers of men and women are being invited to
participate in the fellowship. While the fellowship appears to make a difference in the journey to
the headship for women who complete it, it is not clear whether NAIS is meeting its goal based
on the numbers of men and women participating in the fellowship. Furthermore, NAIS reports in
an internal study that the overall numbers of women in the headship have not changed in two
decades, which underscores the question of whether the fellowship increases the overall number
of women leading schools.
Research Question Two sought to identify the knowledge and motivation of aspiring
women heads of school related to attaining an independent school headship. This research
question is addressed in the next section as part of the discussion of validated influences related
to the knowledge and motivation needed to strive for and achieve an independent school
headship. Each of the assumed knowledge and motivation influences were validated with study
data. Therefore, important knowledge for attaining a headship includes procedural knowledge of
how to balance work and family, how to navigate the search process, and how to navigate gender
bias as well as metacognitive knowledge related to assessing one’s own leadership style and
needs. Important motivation influences to attaining a headship relate to self-efficacy,
expectancy-value and the cost of leading.
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Likewise, the third research question is also answered in the following sections. The third
research question asks about the interaction between organizational culture and context and
aspiring women heads of school knowledge and motivation. Organizational cultures that provide
intentional support for women pursuing the headship as well as cultural models where women
are promoted as highly qualified candidates were validated influences that must be present for
women to attain headships.
Knowledge Findings
The achievement of long term, complex goals, such as becoming a head of school,
requires specific knowledge to attain the position and lead successfully (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Women who aspire to the headship need procedural knowledge to navigate the complexities of
finding a school to lead and leading it successfully. Attaining a headship is impossible without
understanding how to navigate the search process and manage gender bias during the search and
while leading. Managing the demands and complexities of both work and home life also requires
specific procedural knowledge. Aspiring female heads of school also need metacognitive
knowledge such as the ability to assess and reflect on their own leadership styles, a necessary
element in finding a leadership position that can be sustained for the long term.
Procedural knowledge of how to balance work and family. Aspiring female heads of
school must possess how-to knowledge (Rueda, 2011) about how to manage all of the complex
aspects of their lives vying for their attention. Numerous studies discuss the challenges women
face in sustaining both home and work life (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010; Derrington &
Sharratt, 2009; Wallace, 2014). Survey participants were asked to rate their confidence in several
areas important to successfully attaining a headship and succeeding in the role. Even after
fellowship completion, the confidence of survey participants to employ strategies to achieve
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home and work-life balance was low compared to the other surveyed areas. Over 25% of the
survey participants did not feel confident in their ability to achieve a balance between work and
home life. These findings suggest the need for increased knowledge related to managing both
work and home. Figure 3 illustrates these results.
Figure 3. Confidence in essential aspects of headship pursuit.
All of the interview participants discussed the challenges of sustaining work and home
life. Quotes from all of the interview participants illustrate how each faced a variety of
challenges with the demands of work and home life. Even though the interview participants
varied greatly in age, family structure, and personal situation, all of them indicated that they
faced work and home-life conflicts.
Five of the 14 interview participants directly stated that there is no such thing as balance
between work and personal life in the headship. Stacey, the head of a preK-12 school, said of the
92%
97%
95%
95%
76%
92%
95%
97%
24%
Navigate the head of school search process
Interview for head of school job
Navigate the aspects of the headship with which I
have/had little previous experience
Develop relationships with influential others in the
independent school community
Employ strategies for successfully balancing
home roles with head of school responsibilities
Successfully pursue my first headship
Apply constructive criticism to help me to
improve as a leader
Pursue leadership roles
Confidence in essential aspects of headship pursuit
Agree Disagree
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concept of work and life balance, “I’m a firm believer that there’s not balance.” Fran, a head in a
Northeastern boarding and day school said, “So, I don’t think you can do both well at all phases
of your life.” Perhaps the comments of Marci, the head of school at a coed lower school, best
illustrate the work-life balance dilemma. She said, “Work-life balance is that unicorn that we
hear about. Like we’ve never had a sighting. We hear about it. It’s just like a myth though.”
Mentors played a critical role for each interview participant as they navigated a work-life
balance. Audra, in her first year as the head of a K-8, was coached by her mentor to identify her
own personal non-negotiables and then ardently advocate for those during contract negotiations.
She said,
I think that’s something that people don’t appreciate when they’re thinking about
whether or not they can do this. That when you become a head of school, you
negotiate your contract. You get to say, ‘This is what I want, and I’m not willing
to budge on it. If you can’t meet me, okay.’ You have to be prepared to walk
away if they can’t meet it. That’s why it’s a non-negotiable. Because it means so
much to you that you’re willing to walk away if it doesn’t happen.
Likewise, Brittany, who will begin her headship in the coming fall, sought the advice of several
mentors at the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads, asking if she could take on this role while she still
had a young child. She reported their advice during her interview, “And every single one of them
was like, ‘Absolutely, yes. You need to set the boundaries and expectations. They don’t know
that it’s possible because they’ve never had anyone show them that it’s possible.’” She said they
told her,
There are no rules about this because what mothering means to every woman is different,
so you need to decide what that means to you and protect that at all costs, and you need to
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negotiate a salary that allows you to hire out help for all the rest of the stuff that you
typically would be doing if you weren’t at this event or that event raising money, or
promoting the school, or whatever those kinds of things are.
The comments of Audra and Brittany illustrate how identifying and advocating for non-
negotiables is a critical skill essential to sustaining both home and work life as aspiring women
seek and accept their first headships. This mirrors the research by Baumgartner and Schneider
(2010) who reported the necessity for women in leadership to have strong family or friend
support systems or the ability to pay for support services. While none of the interviewed women
indicated that securing these non-negotiables solved the work-life balance dilemma, they did
recognize that this was a critical step to managing both aspects of their lives.
As a further example of the challenge of sustaining both work and home life, 10 of the 14
interview participants indicated that they negotiated with their partners regarding family life to
provide more time for work. Three of the women intentionally lived apart from their partners
during the first year of headship. Fran said,
For my first year in this job, I knew what it was, and I told my family that they couldn’t
come with me for the first year. That they could come periodically, but that I couldn’t
take care of them. I’d always taken care of them, and I said, “When I get this headship,
you need to understand that I cannot take care of you the first year.”
Likewise, Leslie, who leads a coed preK-6 school said, “We currently live Monday through
Friday in two separate states. Then, on the weekend, one of us goes to somewhere.” This allowed
her to devote more time to her school because she did not have the responsibility of going home
nightly to a partner, further saying, “For a whole bunch of reasons, it is better” because, as her
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partner acknowledged, “I would not have liked waiting around for you to get home. That’s just
not a good thing.”
Both Fran and Leslie discussed strategies that allowed them to focus the majority of their
time on work rather than family. However, all of the interview participants discussed strategies
they learned and employed to manage the multi-faceted aspects of their lives.
While no one strategy worked for everyone, one big challenge that surfaced was knowing
how to value one’s home life and what kind of price, both monetary and timewise, to put on
those essential aspects of home life. Until searching for a headship position and being offered
one, the women had little experience with negotiating the value of one’s personal life. Of the 12
interview participants who were heads of school or had accepted a headship for the coming year,
eight discussed aspects of their personal and work life that were new negotiation items for them.
These included executive coaching, the number of evening commitments per week, childcare
services, and weekend communication protocols. For example, Brittany, who just accepted a
headship on the West Coast, discussed her negotiations in which she would do evening events
“after 7:00 PM because, between 4:30 and 6:30, I am always home every night to have dinner
and night-time routine with my son.”
Women negotiated with both their employers and their families. Women indicated that, if
one had a partner, that partner had to be very supportive and that support was often negotiated, as
well. Ten of the 12 interview participants who had attained a headship indicated that they had
negotiated aspects of the managing their career and life with their partner, including job location,
childcare duties, living arrangements, and event attendance.
The data from the interviews in this study validated the research revealed in the literature
review (Derrington & Sharratt, 2009; Phillips et al., 2007; Wallace, 2014) in that women must
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have strategies for mitigating the stressors of demanding personal and work lives. Without
knowledge of how to implement strategies to sustain both home and work roles, the job of head
of school would be an overwhelming challenge.
Procedural knowledge of how to navigate the search process. The realization of
opportunities can be inhibited by a lack of knowledge (Clark & Estes, 2008). The knowledge
needed to successfully navigate the search process and attain a school headship is complex and
requires credible others willing to pass on the knowledge (Rueda, 2011).
The interview participants identified challenges associated with the headship search that
are different from those in any other school leadership position, and therefore, require new
knowledge to execute successfully. Among the unique attributes of the headship search are the
expectation that a candidate’s spouse or partner will participate in the search process, working
with search firms who clearly represent the client school, the expectation of experience in
working with a governing board, and the range of contract negotiables.
According to a majority of the interview participants, part of the challenge of preparing
for the final rounds of headship interviews involved preparing their partner to participate as well.
Clara, the head of a West Coast school said, “The search process for this job is very interesting,
as you know. It’s one of the only industries that invites your partner to be a part of that.”
Brittany, a newly hired head of school, further described the challenge by saying, “there were
weekends leading up to semi-finalist and finalist stuff that we spent more time preparing my
husband for his interviews than we spent preparing me because he’s not in education.”
Working with the firms contracted to do a head of school search also provided challenges
as those firms often define who is and is not a desirable candidate (Faulconbridge et al., 2009;
Tienari et al., 2013). Interview participants noted repeatedly that the firms worked for the
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schools, not the candidates. Candidates must know how to navigate the unique sense of being
alone that accompanies this paradigm. Rae said,
So, the search firms, they’re going to win no matter what as long as they find someone.
So, what that can create is a sense of loneliness. You’re just kind of out there on your
own, and it’s you dealing with all these constituents including the search firm. So, I think
the process is grueling and really, really hard.
Fran, a new head at a boarding school, further illustrated the challenges of working with a search
firm when she said,
So the system is fundamentally flawed. What I compare it to, it’s like buying a house.
When you buy a house, you have an agent that represents you, the buyer, and one that
represents the seller. It’s not the case in these... Nobody represents you, the person who’s
aspiring to the position.
To navigate the challenge of working with the search firms, Marci said she built very
deliberate relationships with the search consultants so that “they come to know you not only as a
candidate, but they also become resources to you.” Tammi, who is still aspiring to the headship,
reiterated that it “takes a relationship with consultancies to make sure that you’re a viable
candidate.” She further indicated that “it’s a lot of the good old boy networking, and to me, that’s
why it feels like you have to be better than the best to get your name, or get yourself, noticed and
get in there.” The challenge of working with search firms is one where aspiring women clearly
need procedural knowledge. As McClatchey (2013) indicated in his blog, the search process for
an independent school head is difficult and challenging. A majority of interview participants in
this study confirmed this and referenced a learning curve to the process, exemplified by Marci
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when she said, “You have to get in the groove of the [search] cycle, and you have to do it more
than once.”
Previous experience as a head of school and governing board experience were other parts
of the search process that candidates addressed as a knowledge challenge. According to the 2017
NAIS Survey for New Heads of School (2018a), the biggest challenge reported by new school
heads was understanding the relationship between the governing board and school head.
Navigating this relationship begins with the search process, where the most common reason cited
in the 2017 survey for a candidate not being selected as a head of school was lack of experience
leading a school (NAIS, 2018a). Likewise, nearly 20% of this study’s survey participants who
responded to the question about where they were in their search for a headship commented
specifically about this struggle. One woman who was serving as interim head of school indicated
that she was not being considered for the permanent role because “the executive committee of
the board determined that my school needs someone who has experience working as a head of
school previously.” Although she was currently serving as head of school, the board of that
school wanted a sitting head for the job. Similarly, another participant discussed her current
status and wrote, “selection for a headship is often based on experience as a HOS [head of
school],” while another wrote “although NAIS talks a lot about different kinds of leadership
experience, boards of trustees tend to have very narrow parameters.”
Interview participants also discussed the expectation of experience working with
governing boards. Audra, a new school head in the mid-Atlantic, identified the challenge of
needing experience with the governing board. She said,
My second biggest frustration was the fact that everybody said, ‘You need to have board
experience on your resume.’ So, I’m just talking about participation on a board, right?
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But what I learned was, really, you only get on a board if someone invites you to be on a
board or nominates you to be on a board.
The experiences of the interview participants in relation to governing boards varied from
none at all when they began their search process to having sat on more than one non-profit board.
However, all agreed on the significance of the school’s governing board in the search process.
Every interview participant discussed the role of the board in selecting a head of school, either in
the search process in general or specifically in their process. The comments of Gena, a still-
aspiring leader, summarized the thoughts and feelings of a majority of interview participants and
illustrated why knowledge about how boards function is crucial to successfully navigating the
search process. She said, “It’s really the board of trustees that pick heads of school.”
Related to understanding the workings of a board is procedural knowledge of how to
negotiate the contract for a first-time head of school. Negotiating a head of school contract
consists of aspects with which new heads may have little experience. Jeanine, the head of an all-
girls school, said
You get that offer, and that number is so much bigger than what you’re making, double
what you’re making as an administrator. So, you’re trying to act cool, but in reality, you
should be saying, oh, well, you know, let’s talk through some of these other pieces.
Brittany summed up the challenge for aspiring heads when she said,
I don’t think women get enough coaching on how to value themselves. I don’t mean that
in a cheesy way. I mean in a hardcore monetary way. And that’s important because, not
only are there not enough women heads in independent schools, but my anecdotal
evidence, based on looking very seriously at GuideStar, is there’s a discrepancy in pay.
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And so, no one’s out there advocating for us, and so having to do that on your own feels
really weird.
From initiating a search to negotiating a salary and other benefits, a great deal of
procedural knowledge is needed to navigate the search process for a head of school. During the
interviews, the participants spoke about the procedural knowledge of navigating the search
related to four distinct areas. This included the interview process of including a candidate’s
spouse or partner in the interviews, working with search firms, the expectation of board
experience, and the negotiating a head of school contract.
Procedural knowledge of how to navigate gender bias. All but one of the women
interviewed in this study identified gender bias as a challenge in their journey, often offering the
interviewer a personal account of her own experience. This reflects what was reported in
previous research (Diehl & Dzubinski, 2016; McKinsey & Company, 2018; Tallerico, 2000), in
which gender affected the boards’ and other officials’ perceptions of a woman’s ability to lead.
From the search process to actually running their schools, the interview participants spoke about
perceived challenges related to biases.
Some of the interviewed women shared summary statements regarding their perceptions
of bias. For example, Marci said, “I think the criteria for men are different. I think men can go
into a job and there is an assumption that they can lead a school regardless.” Similarly, Stacey
said, “I think the expectations for a female leader are absolutely different, and gender-informed,
than for a male leader.”
Other interview participants shared stories of a more personal nature. Brittany shared a
comment she received from a search consultant during the interview process, along with her
thoughts about it. She said,
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So, I got feedback around… I’m just going to be super straightforward: “You need to be
aware of what your resting bitch face looks like. You need to make sure that, at all times,
as a woman, you are looking engaged and have some kind of smile on your face.” That’s
not a criterion they would hold for a man, but for a woman, you could potentially be
judged and critiqued for that.
Likewise, Gena, who is still aspiring to a headship, shared this story about the response she
received when asking her current school to sponsor her to the fellowship:
[I said,] “Can I have a conversation with you [assistant head of school] and our head of
school about whether or not he would consider sponsoring me [for the Fellowship for
Aspiring Heads] for next year.” And, his comment to me just stuck with me. He’s like,
“My, you’re ambitious.” Okay, and that just stuck with me, and I looked at him and I
said, “I guess I am.” If I was a guy sitting across, and I know that there’s been men in my
school who’ve asked to be sponsored to that program. I would put a big bet that they
would not have gotten the same comment.
Not only were the personal stories of interview participants powerful examples of bias,
the stories of the differences in gender gleaned from the fellowship were important lessons for
some of the interview participants as well. Audra shared what she learned during the fellowship
related to a personal story from one of the mentors in the program. She said,
In Aspiring Heads, we were told the story of just the differences in terms of gender. The
gendered experience of a woman who, when she received feedback about why she wasn’t
moving on in the search, she was told that there were members of the search committee
who were really distracted by her bracelets. So, I never wore my bracelets. I have these
bracelets, and they are really a part of my identity, and I wear them all the time. But I
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didn’t wear them for any of my searches. Except for this one. I think I wore a couple.
Whatever that means, right? But I didn’t wear them, because I thought, “I don’t want to
be jangling, and have that be the reason that I don’t get a job.”
The additional cognitive load of not only interviewing for a new and high-pressure job,
but also remembering all of the ways in which one can be judged differently as a woman is
challenging during the search process. As Marci noted, “Unfortunately for women, it is how you
look, what you choose to wear.” Stacey also noted this dynamic when she said, “I think styles of
communication, right? I think men can be much more abrupt and abrasive. I have to be delicate
and careful and thoughtful with my words.” Similarly, Tammi, who is also still aspiring, said,
“You can’t be assertive or aggressive in the way that they’re looking for it in a man. You have to
be beguiling, or charismatic.”
Each of the interview participants’ comments reflect the knowledge and planning that go
into the search process for women. Clearly, as noted in the literature review, women must be
prepared to navigate potential bias and insert themselves into the male-dominated world of the
independent school headship (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010; Wallace, 2014).
Metacognitive knowledge to self-assess leadership style. Metacognitive knowledge
refers to realization of one’s own cognitive processes and allows one to recognize why to
undertake a goal or task and when to do it (Rueda, 2011). The recognition of the fit of a school
and leadership position was important to the interview participants as they sought and accepted
head of school positions. According to Martin (2014), fit refers to how well a hire or leader will
match and relate in a job in terms of skills and culture, including knowledge, values, behaviors
and experience. The importance of a good fit for their leadership style and personal life was
directly referenced by 12 of the 14 interview participants. The only two participants who did not
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discuss the idea of fit were two participants who had been hired as internal candidates for their
head of school positions, one of which had only ever worked at her current school.
Rae, the head of a lower school, summed up the importance of fit during her interview
when she said,
I think most of the time, if you get to this level and you’re a semi-finalist in a search, that
means you have the skills, but can you connect with the culture? And, I think that’s what
kills most people in this job. If you can’t navigate that culture, then that’s when it
becomes hard and, if the culture doesn’t connect with your own belief system in some
ways, that’s the challenge. Rae’s comments illustrate the importance of metacognitive
knowledge to analyze one’s own fit with potential leadership positions.
Leslie also spoke to the importance of fit related to culture and values. As a female leader
with a female partner, she said, in searches, she always asked if a particular school she was
considering would welcome a female head of school with a wife. She felt that “lots of schools
are not going to want that, and it’s just not worth my time. That was an initial assessment I had to
make.” According to Wallace (2014), this was a good assessment because her research found
that, if a candidate’s research into a school district revealed that a particular lifestyle need would
not be supported, the candidate should keep looking.
Finding a good-fit school is essential and requires honest assessment of the fit (Wallace,
2014). This means that understanding the type of school one wants to lead and what types of
challenges one wants to face are important. Audra who now leads a school in the mid-Atlantic,
ultimately determined to focus on attaining a headship in a K-8 school, recalling, “I had to go
through a real soul-searching process, and eventually, believe it or not, came to a point of
realizing I didn’t want big kid problems.”
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Rae, Leslie, and Audra illustrated the importance of metacognitive knowledge in
determining a good school leadership fit. Both the type of school as well as the culture of the
school must be a good fit for long-term success.
The types of challenges faced by a school must also align with the leader’s skill set.
Understanding both the challenges to be faced and the leadership tools one possesses are crucial.
This was illustrated by Leslie’s metacognitive processes when she said,
I thought a lot about what was I hearing the school saying they needed. Did I think I have
the skill set to do some of that and the desire to do some of that work? Because I felt like,
at least, that those are the things that they were saying they needed. I was likely going to
have to address those things in some way.
Leslie noted that she needed to feel comfortable addressing the challenges identified by the
school. This same idea was reflected by Dawn, a K-6 head of school,
I was a finalist in several spots. And the first couple I was, like, “Yeah, no, they shouldn’t
choose me, and I shouldn’t choose them.” But, also, when I got to the school I got to, I
thought, “Interesting challenges, not over my head. Kind of in my wheelhouse.” There
were characteristics where you could sort of say, all right.”
Dawn clearly used metacognitive knowledge to evaluate her skill set with that needed by the
school.
The thought process of both Dawn and Leslie illustrated the type of metacognitive
knowledge necessary to find a good-fit school and leadership role. Perhaps Jeanine, the head of
an all-girls school, summed up the critical importance of metacognitive knowledge best when
she said, “We’re all smart enough to contort to what we think the school’s really looking for, but
you’ll be miserable if that’s not really who you are because it is not an easy job.” Clearly, the
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development of metacognitive knowledge around one’s self and one’s leadership style are
critical for women desiring to lead in independent schools.
The findings of this study validated all of the assumed knowledge influences. As noted
by Clark and Estes (2008), to achieve a goal, one must have the necessary knowledge. The
procedural and metacognitive knowledge needed to become the head of an independent school is
multifaceted and complex. However, knowledge is not enough. One must also possess the
motivation to chart and pursue a course towards such a complex goal (Mayer, 2011). The next
section will continue to answer the second research question and discuss the validation of the
motivation findings from the current study.
Motivation Findings
Motivation influences three areas of work and life: the decision to work towards a goal,
the persistence towards the goal, and the mental effort devoted to the goal (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Self-efficacy theory, expectancy-value theory, and perceived cost (Bandura, 1991; Eccles, 2006)
are important motivational theories related to the attainment of the headship by women. Self-
efficacy is important because women must believe they have the ability to lead. Often, this belief
is fueled and supported by the encouragement of mentors and important others. Expectancy-
value takes this belief one step further in that women want to lead schools and believe they can
be effective leaders of independent schools. Finally, women must believe that the cost of leading
is worth it.
Self-efficacy and confidence through targeted feedback. Self-efficacy was a strong
trait of women who completed the fellowship. As seen in Figure 4, over 90% of survey
respondents indicated they felt efficacious in each of these surveyed areas: pursuit of leadership
roles, application and learning from constructive criticism, belief they could successfully pursue
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a headship, development of relationships, navigation of areas with which they had little previous
experience, interview for the head of school, and navigation of the head of school search process.
While over 75% of this study’s survey respondents identified self-efficacy in the ability to
navigate both home and head of school responsibilities, this was an area where women had less
belief in their ability to be successful, as shown by the 25% who indicated that they disagreed
with the statement regarding belief in being able to balance home and work.
Figure 4. Self-efficacy.
Survey participants were also asked to rate how the fellowship contributed to their self-
efficacy in each of the previously referenced areas. The results are illustrated below in Figure 5.
Over 75% of survey participants felt the fellowship contributed to their feelings of self-efficacy
“a great deal” or “to some extent” in every area except in the area of balancing home and head of
school responsibilities. For this area, only five percent of survey participants indicated that the
fellowship contributed to their self-efficacy in this area “a great deal” and just over 35%
indicated “to some extent.” Over 55% selected “a little” or “not at all,” indicating that this may
92.10%
97.36%
94.73%
94.73%
76.31%
92.11%
94.73%
97.37%
23.68%
Navigate the search process
Interview for head of school
Navigate areas of little experience
Develop relationships with influential…
Balancing home and head of school
Successfully pursue my first headship
Apply constructive criticism
Pursue leadership roles
Self-Efficacy
Agree Disagree
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be an area where more work and guidance from the mentors and faculty leading the fellowship
needs to be done to improve women’s self-efficacy.
Figure 5. How the fellowship affected self-efficacy.
Women’s pursuit of leadership and their confidence to pursue leadership are often
positively influenced by the feedback of mentors (Allred et al., 2017; Glowacki-Dudka et al.,
2016; Wyland, 2016). The Fellowship for Aspiring Heads connects each participant within a
cohort that shares a mentor. The mentor relationship is therefore important to NAIS in that they
are deliberate about its structure. Data from the survey support that the mentor relationship
developed during the fellowship was valuable as illustrated in Figure 6. The figure shows that
over 75% of women completing the survey indicated that they continue to have contact with
their fellowship mentor. Even more telling, over 85% of the survey participants indicated that
feedback from and communication with their mentor improved their self-efficacy and gave them
confidence in their ability to lead.
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Navigate the search process
Interview for head of school job
Navigate areas of little experience
Develop relationships with influential…
Balance home and head of school
Successfully pursue my first headship
Apply constructive criticism
Pursue leadership roles
Q22 - How the Fellowship added to the self-efficacy rating of survey
participants in each area
A great deal To some extent A little Not at all
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Figure 6. Relationship with fellowship mentor.
Interview data further expanded on the survey data. All of the interview participants cited
the direct influence of mentors at different points in their lives who influenced their self-efficacy
to lead. Some mentors were supervisors or coworkers, while other mentor relationships
developed as part of programs like the fellowship, which were intentionally designed to create
mentoring relationships. Only one of the 14 interview participants indicated that leading a school
was something she had always considered. This interview participant grew up in a family of
educators and knew from an early age she wanted to lead in education. The other women
indicated that either they had no idea they would end up leading a school or no idea that they
would end up in the field of education. A majority of these women told stories of how mentors
influenced their confidence to pursue school leadership.
When asked about influences in her leadership journey, Marci related her story of being
mentored by a supervisor who saw her leadership potential early in her career. She said,
86.9%
76.3%
13.2%
23.7%
The feedback I received from my mentor in
the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads increased
my confidence in my ability to lead a school.
I still connect with my fellowship mentor.
Relationship with Fellowship Mentor
Agree/Strongly Agree Disagree/Strongly Disagree
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I was convinced by the head of school that I wanted to apply to be a division head. Did
you hear the wording that I used? And I was like, “So I really enjoy teaching music. I
enjoy being department head. I’m not interested in being a division head.”
She further stated,
I was fortunate to work for a head of school who was a woman who really believed in
pushing women into leadership positions, and she really believed in internal promotion. It
took a couple of more times for me to be convinced by her. A few more conversations.
And then I put my hat in the ring.
Similarly, Audra told a story that occurred early in her career when she pointed out a
problem at the school to her principal. Audra said,
The head of the lower school said to me, “but that doesn’t mean that we can’t be better,
so what do you think we should do about it?” So, from that moment, he really served as a
mentor. He just, he saw something in me that at that time I didn’t see in myself.
Recognizing the potential in women early in their careers is very important to help
women develop self-efficacy and see the possibility of leadership (Allred et al., 2017; Clark &
Johnson, 2017; Estler, 1975; Muñoz et al., 2014; Young & McLeod, 2001). As noted by Marci
and Audra, the encouragement of a mentor was crucial in their ability to see themselves as
leaders.
Whether early in one’s career or during the search process, and even into the headship,
the role of mentors who can help increase the self-efficacy of women aspiring to leadership is
essential (Allred et al. 2017; Glowacki-Dudka et al., 2016; Wyland, 2016). Not only does the
literature illustrate this idea, but the voices of each interview participant reiterated the value of
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mentorship on their self-efficacy as they pursued the highest independent school leadership
positions.
Expectancy-value and belief in leadership ability. Women must believe they are
capable of being effective leaders. Belief in their capabilities and their readiness to lead is
essential to successfully attaining the highest leadership positions and to leading with confidence
(Cryss Brunner & Kim, 2010; Hoff & Mitchell, 2008). The findings for this section were drawn
entirely from interview data. The interview subjects spoke of their journeys of growing their
belief in themselves as leaders. For example, Clara said, “My journey has been one of making
sure I am ready for it. And really acquiring the skills and the knowledge and really the
experience that I would need to take on such an endeavor.” When asked about the leadership
intentions of other women in her fellowship cohort, she said,
When we finished at the NAIS conference in February, I think it was only four of us that
had gotten a headship. And some of them had not applied yet. They didn’t feel they were
ready yet for that. They wanted to [apply] and they were getting ready for it, but they
were not in a place where they wanted to apply yet.
This concept of needing to feel ready to lead on multiple levels is not uncommon for
women aspiring to leadership (Hoff & Mitchell, 2008). Jeanine, the head of an all-girls school,
recalled a conversation she had with a search consultant:
I had a consultant tell me this and it made so much sense. We were talking about one job
and I didn’t end up applying for it, I can’t remember why, but I was reading the position
statement and I said, “I feel really good about all of these, but I don’t have the financial
experience,” and I pointed out something else, and he laughed. He said, “If a man looked
at this, they might be good at one or two, and they would say, yep, I got it. A woman
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looks at it, and she’s good at eight out of 10, and says I can’t do this job, I’m not going to
apply.” He said, “I don’t know how to change that, but there’s a confidence in men if
they can do one of them, they can snow the rest of it.” I took that to heart so when this
search [for her current head of school job] came up, I was upfront about I’ve run a budget
at the division level. You just don’t overspend what you have, but it isn’t really managing
a 21 million-dollar corporation.
As Jeanine’s comment illustrates, feeling competent at a variety of leadership skillsets is
crucial for women to feel they are capable of leading. Gaining that confidence can take a variety
of forms. For example, Dawn identified multiple ways she grew in her belief that she could lead
through participation in the fellowship:
I will say that the Aspiring Heads program as a baseline gave me confidence that I could
do this job. I didn’t know where it would be or how it would be. I mean, there were all
sorts of uncertainties around the getting the job. But through the course of the
conversations, the presentations, and the personal connection, whether it was with my
mentor or with the others whom I spoke about in the program, the leaders of the program,
every single person sent me the message, “You can do this job.”
Marci commented on the growth of her belief in herself as a leader through completion of
the fellowship, reiterating what Dawn shared, “I began to kind of change my view of what I was
ready to do and I certainly changed my perception of what/who a head of school is in
relationship to the school.” The Fellowship for Aspiring Heads resulted in confidence gains in
the ability to lead a school for many of the women who participated in it, as illustrated by Ericka
comments:
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And hearing the other heads of schools, the mentors, and the faculty on it [the fellowship]
talk about how they pursued headship and the things that they do and are working on and
[I thought], “Oh. Well, gosh, I already do that part of headship. Okay. Well, that’s a thing
I don’t know, but here’s what I know I can do.” I got a lot of confirmation that I was
ready to do this.
Programs like the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads help women understand the job of the
headship and recognize, like Jeanine, Marci, and Ericka, that they have transferable skills that
will enable them to lead successfully. Continuing to create opportunities for women to recognize
their readiness for leadership is important to helping them take the step of seeking headships.
Cost of leadership. Leading an independent school is a time-consuming endeavor.
Before choosing to lead, the cost of leadership must be weighed, and one must consider the
trade-offs worth the pursuit of leadership. Among the myriad values to be considered are self-
worth and personal satisfaction, job enjoyment, leisure and family time, compensation, stress,
and responsibility (Coronel et al., 2010; Roebuck et al., 2013). As illustrated by the comment
from one survey participant, this cost must be weighed and considered to pursue a headship. The
survey participant weighed this cost when she said, “For family reasons [spouse’s job and age of
child], I am probably 2 to 3 years away from being ready to seriously pursue a headship.” In
addition, all 14 interview participants discussed some aspect of the cost of leadership. Because
every person is different, costs are very individual. Nevertheless, all interview participants
identified costs.
One universally identified cost was time. The time-consuming nature of the headship was
noted by Leslie when she said,
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We are supposed to be on all the time now. We have to just be doing more and more and
more. We have to be on our email all the time. We have to be showing parents we will
respond right away.
Rae put it this way,
One thing I can say, and I say this and I mean it, I am so glad I’m not raising children
right now. I mean, oh my god, that would’ve just been -- I don’t know how people do it
when they have a family. It’s all consuming.
The burden of stress and responsibility related to the headship can be overwhelming.
Stacey discussed the cost of this burden:
I think if I had known, like really known, from personal experience -- which you can’t
unless you’ve done it, right? -- how heavy that burden can feel. I’m not sure I would have
done it to be honest, because it is heavy sometimes.
Relationships also bear a cost in the time-consuming role of leading a school. One
interview participant, who was currently a candidate for a headship, is dealing with a challenge
to her marriage and attributes some of that challenge to the pursuit of leadership. She said,
I think there are a lot of factors that were weighing on my marriage that has led my wife
to be where she is. As we’ve talked, she’s said, “This is not about you being a head of
school, and you can still be a head of school. And I want to support you in being a head
of school.” But I do think the way that I felt a need to prove myself as a woman, as a
relatively young candidate, as a gay candidate, probably weighed in and contributed to
the cost, the cost against my marriage.
Yet, another interview participant noted,
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It is an exhausting job. Sometimes when you get home, all you want is to be home in
quiet and keep working. I think that has been the hardest for me to balance. My husband
is very professionally driven as well. He works a lot, too. I think we both have to do
better in that. But at least there’s that parallel in workload. And, because we do not have
kids, I think that kind of helps with that.
Finally, yet a different candidate noted,
Our hours are long, our days are long. I mean, my day, probably three or four days a
week, is at school from 6:30 in the morning until about 8:00 at night. I still have to come
home, and I’ve still got 40 emails to answer. I have not figured that out, if you know
someone who has, let me know.
She went on to further say, “My wife and I talk all the time about what it would it be like if we
had kids and could we do this.”
Leadership does have a cost, and whether or not that cost is worth it is a very individual
choice as noted by each example above. However, as noted in the literature (Coronel et al., 2010;
McGee, 2010), in order for women to pursue the highest levels of leadership, they must believe
leading is worth the cost. In addition to knowledge and motivation, organizations influence the
ability to reach a goal. The next section looks at the organizational influences and their
validation.
Organizational Findings
Culture plays a significant role in organizations (Clark & Estes, 2008). Culture is a way
of doing things and can be examined through artifacts, espoused beliefs and values, and
underlying assumptions (Schein, 2017). As in all organizations, the culture of independent
schools must be considered if women are to lead in independent schools.
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Cultural setting of intentional support. As noted by Schipani et al. (2009), it is getting
to the highest levels of leadership that is the challenge for women, not the leading once they get
there. Therefore, to move the needle on women in independent school headships, women must
receive the intentional support of both individual independent schools as well as supporting
regional and national associations. In question 17, survey participants were asked to elaborate on
where they were in their head of school search process. One survey participant discussed her
perception of a lack of intentional support when she wrote,
I am always on the lookout in the search process but find it difficult to get selected to go
to next stage in this highly competitive environment, where although NAIS talks a lot
about different kinds of leadership experience, boards of trustees tend to have very
narrow parameters.
Previous research discussed the often divergent and less traditional paths women take to
leadership (Cryss Brunner & Kim, 2010; Glass, 2000; Hickey-Gramke, 2007; Tallerico, 2000).
This survey participant’s comment illustrated her experience of governing boards not being open
to her path. Twenty-nine percent of the survey participants who answered this question expressed
similar frustration with feeling a lack of intentional support.
While these survey comments indicated feelings of a lack of support for these women’s
less traditional paths to the headship, the survey result indicated that the participants felt
supported by NAIS. Fourteen of the survey participants had become the head of a school. The
survey participants indicated that NAIS supported them in becoming a head of school through
the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads, as shown in Figure 7. All but one participant indicated some
level of support or help they received as a result of the fellowship, with 71% indicating the
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fellowship was very helpful. Only one survey participant indicated that the fellowship was
somewhat unhelpful.
Figure 7. Usefulness of fellowship to becoming a head of school.
The interview participants discussed numerous ways they were supported by their
schools. First and foremost, every interview participant was supported by the school in which
they were employed at the time of the fellowship. The fellowship comes with a significant cost
and time commitment, and support for both was provided by the nominating school. Only one
interview participant indicated that she had to pay for a portion of the fellowship with her own
funds. While the majority of the women indicated strong support from the schools that sponsored
them to fellowship, Jeanine had to convince her school to pay for half and she funded the other
half. She said, “Even that was pushing it. They said, ‘Why would we pay for you to do this and
then leave?’” She said she countered them with, “Because that’s what great leadership is. You
grow people around you.” In this example, although Jeanine received support from her previous
school, it was not the kind of enthusiastic support that is needed to increase the numbers of
women leading as heads of school.
10
3
1
Survey Q18 - How useful was the NAIS Fellowship for Aspiring
Heads in helping you become a head of school?
Very Helpful Somewhat Helpful Somewhat Unhelpful
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Leslie spoke of a retired head of school who intentionally supported her endeavors to
become a head of school. She said,
And he was my mentor in this. I have used his outline for several others, provided it to
several other colleagues who have since thought this is what they wanted to do. And it’s
not rocket science. It’s just what you imagine it to be, but for somebody who had never
been in this position, I didn’t know. He named all the resources I would need, the names
of the people I should email, the conferences I should go to, who I should see when I go
there.
Marci shared another example of intentional support:
I asked the head of school, who was extremely supportive of me, if I could attend several
[board meetings]. I also asked him if I could attend finance committee meetings because,
if there is a board meeting you need to really get yourself involved in, if you’re not privy
to a board meeting, it’s really the finance committee. And, so, I attended the finance
committee every month for almost two years and that was very, very helpful for me.
A very supportive head of school also mentored Ericka in a very intentional way. She said,
I had been talking more with Bryan [pseudonym], who is the head who’s leaving. He has
been a huge mentor to me, and he has encouraged me at various points in time from
promoting me to assistant head to just saying, “You could really do this, and here’s what
you could think about.”
In each of these instances, the intentional support of a school leader or institution was
profound in the school cultures in which each of these women worked. This type of intentional
support is critical in getting women to the highest leadership positions as discussed by Schipani
et al. (2009). In addition to the intentional support of important others, women also need to be
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promoted by regional and national organizations, individual schools, search forms, and
governing boards as highly qualified candidates. This influence will be discussed in the next
section.
Cultural model: Promotion as highly qualified headship candidates. The NAIS’
Trendbook 2017-2018 identified that female candidates may be at an initial disadvantage in the
search process (McGovern & Taylor, 2017). This struggle was also revealed in five of the 16
comments from the open-ended response question of the survey. This question asked about the
journey of the survey participants who had not yet obtained a headship. One survey participant
said, “I have found selection for a headship is often based on experiences as a HOS! It is very
difficult to break into the good ole boys’ network as well.” Another survey participant said,
My background is in finance and operations. However, after 13 years at an independent
school, I have taught class (math, business), been an advisor, class leader, and on and on.
Despite this, I am consistently told that Heads of School need to come from the
classroom. It has been quite deflating.
These comments are consistent with the findings of Muñoz et al. (2014), who found that female
candidates’ professional gaps are viewed more prominently than their strengths. To promote
women as highly qualified candidates for the headship, their strengths must be emphasized.
In addition, document analysis of two internal studies from NAIS revealed similar
findings, identifying examples in which women were not promoted as highly qualified
candidates. The studies were the results of surveys given in 2017 and 2018 to the cohorts of the
Fellowship for Aspiring Heads who completed the program in 2012 and 2013, respectively. The
results were presented as PowerPoint presentations. In both the 2017 and 2018 presentations, it
was noted that search firms have an outdated view of gender and the headship. The following
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was written as a finding in the 2017 presentation, “An interesting observation is that the study
has shown that search firms still have an outdated view of race and gender when it comes to
heads of school, where white males predominate.” The following comment, a quote from a
participant in the 2012 cohort, was also revealing in relation to promoting non-traditional
headship candidates: “NAIS has a great opportunity to penetrate the trustees and hiring firms and
help STOP or at least help recognize their own bias against woman, gender, and people of color
in these searches.” The 2018 study included comments from their study participants that also
illustrated frustration with not being seen as a highly qualified candidate. For example, one quote
said, “I am a 50-something year-old female ... I have lost out to 40-something year old men with
two kids and a golden retriever. Boards and Search committees have a hard time seeing someone
different in the Head of School's office.” Another comment read, “I have been told by search
firms – ‘the school wasn’t ready for a female head,’ ‘you are a great candidate, this time you
were just the woman in the pool.’”
Similar comments to these were also heard from interview participants in the current
study. Four interview participants discussed the idea of being a token woman in a search process.
Unfortunately, although these women were put before boards and search committees as possible
candidates, they felt as though they were the token women in the process. According to Grant
(2017), tokenism is appeasing a demand for including a member of an underrepresented group so
that it appears that this group has a social mobility they do not really have. As Gena said, “And
then, I sort of figured out, I think I was the token woman as a finalist, and, ultimately, I didn’t get
the position, and some really young guy got the position.” Fran further explained the frustration
by explaining the search process and how candidates are asked to be in searches where the initial
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slate of candidates is 70 to 80 people. This slate gets winnowed down to 15 or 16 who the
consultant presents to the school. She said,
They [consultants] have made some promises like, “We’ll have an equal amount of
women,” or, “We’ll have three or four people of color.” So, I just thought, “Wow, this is
really a potential.” And you have to study really hard and spend a lot of time in each of
these searches. And I realized later that I was actually a token in some searches where
they never felt, probably, that I would make it.
To promote women as highly qualified candidates, women need to be as seriously
considered as men for headships. Fran went on to explain how she dealt with the consultants as
she became savvier regarding the search process. She said,
And so my last year, there were a couple of people that asked me to be in searches, and I
was able to say I’m really suspicious, I think that you’re using me for this or this, and if
you are, let’s just stop now and otherwise I expect to make it to such and such a round if
you’re going to put me in.
In addition to noting tokenism, over 50% of interview participants in the current study
also noted two areas where promotion of women as strong head of school candidates is essential.
These areas include school governance (board, trustees) and search firms. For example, Gena
noted a long-standing bias which does not assist in the promotion of women as viable head of
school candidates when she said,
They [NAIS] definitely were trying to move the needle in terms of headships, but there
are limitations to that because it’s really board of trustees that pick heads of school, and,
clearly, what I’ve seen in these searches is they are not, and I’ve looked at the list and
who gets what, and they’re looking at lots of sitting heads of school, and sitting heads of
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schools are White men. So, how can you move the needle if you just keep recycling that
through?
Clara also discussed the biases inherent in the search process that inhibit the promotion
women. She said,
But I think I am a believer that everything has to come from, and I don’t believe in top to
bottom, but, since there is a top, has to come from the top. I think an understanding at the
governance level, especially because they are the ones that are in charge of searches. I
think that’s where you start because we have to take a look at the search process itself
since when we write the position statement, bias can be right in there without, again,
intent versus impact, without intending it. Even the questions that the search consultants
are asking are gender biased.
Fran noted that, when schools are intentional about the promoting women as viable
candidates, it can work out very well, as it did in her search. She said, “The school that I got
head, they intentionally, in their description, said they wanted somebody who historically was
underrepresented, would be seriously considered. They also said that they would consider a first-
time head. So, they were very, very intentional about it.”
The entire independent school community from the governance of individual schools to
regional and national organizations should recognize women as highly desirable head of school
candidates while also probing into institutional biases that might prohibit them from recognizing
the potential of aspiring women leaders. The interview subjects noted both circumstances where
women were and were not promoted effectively. To achieve parity in the headship for women,
continuing improvement in this area is needed.
The next section will explore additional themes found in the data.
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Themes
The research examined several presumed influences related to knowledge, motivation
and organizational influences that affect women’s initiation of the journey to the headship and
the long-term goal of attaining it. Knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences do not
act in isolation to help or inhibit women’s attainment of the independent school headship. Rather
they are part of a whole that acts to influence the journey. Beyond the assumed influences, other
factors which influenced the journeys of the study participants were found. These themes offer
additional insight.
Among the important themes that emerged from this study is the importance of networks.
Networks are different from mentors; they are broader and consist of numerous people with
whom meaningful relationships develop over time. Often these relationships were with peers
who were seeking the same goal of becoming a head of school.
Theme 1: Importance of Networks
Networks were part of the success and support story of each interview participant who
had attained a headship. It was also important to note the one interview participant who felt she
did not have an established network with which to journey to the headship was also still aspiring
and even considering if she would continue to pursue the headship. The interview participants
noted the importance of being able to connect with others who could not only help with the
journey through shared information, but also who could be both cheerleaders and a person with
whom to commiserate. As Kristen indicated in her interview, the biggest take away for many
was “probably the networking.” Stacey discussed the benefit of her network on her journey when
she said,
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Since then [the fellowship], I have kept up with the people in my cohort, in my group.
That’s been really nice to be able to, I mean we don’t talk every day, but I’ve absolutely
been able to reach out to some of them and say, hey, this is what I’ve got. I know you
have this insight or this area of expertise. What do you think about it?
The relationships formed through rich networks provide invaluable support according to Kaye,
who said,
I’ve lucked into coming into a group of women heads who are all sort of moms, a young
sort of similar demographic, and the support that is offered through that network, we
bring challenges and problems to each other. Sometimes we just vent. But it’s so
invaluable. And then specifically the individual relationships then that have come out of
that.
The specific ways that networks helped the interview participants learn as well as the support
offered by those networks is further discussed below.
Shared learning. Teachers know that learning does not have to come from the teacher,
but, rather, students can learn from each other, too. Fran shared that this is how it was for her in
the fellowship when she said, “So, I leaned in more, not on my mentors from that program [the
fellowship], but from the group of women that I was with in my cohort. So, we would call each
other, talk to each other.” Rae summarized the value of such networks for learning when she
said, “I just have this belief about leaving no stone unturned. So, as many people that I could
learn things from, I would reach out and talk about the process.”
Marci’s comments about the value of learning from networks was also insightful. She
said,
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Staying connected to the people, and especially people in the fellowship, I think that is
critical. But staying connected to people that you feel can help you fill those experiential
voids and those growing edges -- I think that’s what it’s all about.
Dawn shared the value of networks of women when she said, “what I’ve seen in my time is that
we tend to be willing to help each other in a different kind of way and, therefore, working
together in a different kind of way.” Each of these interview participants discussed the role their
networks played in helping them fill in areas where more knowledge was needed or bounce ideas
about challenging situations.
Cheerleading and commiserating. Clara noted that, “I have made very good friends
with people from my cohort,” and, “we still talk a lot.” Audra also spoke of the closeness of her
relationship with the women in her cohort who were also in various stages of readiness to pursue
a headship. She noted the ability to text with them during challenging times and denote it to each
other with a hashtag: “#headintraining.” She said she and her network used the hashtag “when
maybe it had been a really crazy week, and I’m exhausted -- we might be complaining back and
forth to each other.” Leslie said, “I loved my cohort. Still, today, I’m in text message contact
with all of them, and, if I were to have a bad day, I feel like I can call any of them.” Dawn also
felt that the most valuable thing she got from the fellowship was a group of friends on which to
rely. She said, “Four of them, I’m still very keen and close with, and we will meet up at
conferences, and we will talk shop.”
In some ways, the networks met both the needs of learning and providing encouragement
at the same time. For example, Brittany discussed the value of hearing others and being heard as
a support for one another as they reflected on the searches in which they were not selected as
head. She said,
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And, so, I just listened and learned from everyone, and people were super gracious once
they got over the bummer aspect of, “I didn’t advance further,” or, “I was a finalist, and I
wasn’t the one they picked.” That sucks. And then you get to a reflective part, and you
hear different things, and you hope that you have a solid enough relationship with people
that they are open to sharing some of those reflective moments with you.
This sort of relationship is important to both learning from each other and commiserating and
encouraging one another.
The knowledge and motivation related to women attaining independent school headships
is deeply influenced by networks, as noted by the interview participant comments. Networks of
significant others provide shared learning opportunities that enhance the knowledge shared by
the fellowship and/or mentors. In addition, the support and encouragement received from
networks helps women navigate the challenges of pursuing leadership. Networks motivate
women and help women learn, as Marci noted about networks, “I believe that’s something that’s
also very unique to women -- that we do better when we use our network and use our alliances.”
When women create networks, which are like personal learning organizations, they support each
other and themselves with shared knowledge and reflective partnering. Creating opportunities for
developing lasting networks would benefit women at all points on their leadership journeys.
Theme 2: Female and Underrepresented
Fifty percent of the interview participants were members of other underrepresented
populations. Each of these interview participants discussed factors that increased the challenge of
their journey to the headship beyond just being a woman. Their “otherness” beyond being female
was a prominent part of their concern in finding the best-fit headship, and it was sometimes a
concern for those hiring them. For example, Clara, whose first language was Spanish, said, “I
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have been asked about my accent a million times.” Even a search consultant had a question about
her accent.
The intersection of being not only women, but also both African American and lesbian,
was a theme Marci discussed. She said,
I know, on paper, my credentials are fantastic, so I’m not worried about me on paper. I’m
worried about me when I walk in a room, that, for some people, I check a lot of boxes,
and they want me because I check the boxes. For some people, I check a lot of boxes, and
their doubts are raised because I check a lot of boxes.
How Marci identified affected her journey and the perception of those interviewing her, as
illustrated in this story she told. She said,
I’m giving a really good interview, and we get to a question about board experience. And
this person looks at my resume and says, “Oh, so you’ve been on a board. I see you were
on a board at an adoption agency. Did you adopt your children?”
Marci went on to say, “That is not a legit question for an interview.” In describing the impact of
instances like this, she spoke about the importance of training search committees and boards
regarding what and who they are looking for to lead their school. She said they need to be fully
aware about what questions they have about what makes someone more or less qualified to lead
because of the related bias.
Another interview participant, Ericka, discussed how being openly gay affected her
journey.
I’m also openly gay, and that is a rarity in [my state]. I’ll be the first gay head of school
in [my state]. I was actually shocked that they picked me for that one reason. We’re in the
wealthiest county but also the most conservative socially. Now, we’re this tiny, liberal,
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hippie school in the middle of that. But, fundraising: Who am I meeting? Who do I have
to meet? What are the types of people? Will that play out well? Those are unknowns to
me. No one has ever said to me, “You won’t be able to do this because of who you are,”
so it’s maybe my own stereotype threat that is playing out when I worry about those
things.
The intersection of race and sexual orientation add layers to the search process and
leadership journey for these women. The impact of being part of multiple underrepresented
groups impacted the journey for those women. As independent schools strive to become more
equitable and to embrace all forms of diversity, they need to consciously work on implicit bias so
that everyone is seen for what they can do rather than the differences they bring to the table.
Theme 3: Lonely, Difficult Job
During document analysis of the NAIS 2018 longitudinal, internal study of the 2013
fellowship cohort, indicators of the loneliness and difficulty of the job as head of school
surfaced. In this study, one-third of the 2013 cohort was not interested in ever becoming a head
of school. Half of those uninterested cohort members indicated they did not want to be a head of
school partly due to the isolated nature of the position and the need to balance work and personal
life. This sentiment was not unlike that expressed by the interview participants of the current
study.
Leslie, who was in her third year as a head of school, explained the loneliness and
difficulty of being a head of school this way:
You can’t, as a head of school, look like your life is falling apart. I think that being a head
can be a really lonely experience. I think some of the stuff we’re dealing with is just
brutally hard. Again, you can’t really share your own dirty laundry. You can’t say like,
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“Oh my gosh, here’s the current situation we’re at.” Whether it’s financial, or you’re
about to be sued, you can’t share some of the hardest experiences.
She also said,
This year is probably the first time that I have felt like I’ve had some joy. Last year was
pretty awful, but I think that that had to do with a combination of things. While I think
that a head job is really hard, I think that the things that lined up at [my] school were
particularly brutal, left me, particularly, especially exposed.
Stacey, in her fourth year as a head of school, also discussed the loneliness and difficulty of the
job when she talked about the emotional burden and being unable to discuss it. She said:
It is consuming, and I don’t think there’s a way to structure the role so it won’t be. The
hardest piece for me is the emotional load and being able to have a perspective and a
mindset to be able to compartmentalize that. Because there are times where whatever
you’re dealing with leaves you completely and totally and emotionally numb. To go
home and you’re still your kids’ mom, right? You can’t put that on them. You’re still a
spouse -- although adults are more understanding, and my husband is certainly
understanding when I’m like, I can’t even have a conversation.
Beyond the loneliness of the job, interview participants discussed the overwhelming
difficulty of the job. Two interview participants discussed their inability to take vacations. Both
spoke of recognizing the importance and hoped to find time for one in the future. One cited her
current schedule as “ridiculous” and the other told me that a weekend mid-October “was the first
weekend that I had two days, since school started, that I didn’t have something for school.” Yet
another interview participant said, “I probably worked 20 out of 24 hours a day for the first year.
I mean, I literally got about five hours of sleep a night. And it was all I did.” Rae mentioned
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trying to find balance by having a personal trainer come to her house at 5:45 am once a week for
an hour. She said,
He wants me to get a Peloton or one of those bikes because he wants me to come home
and, instead of drinking a glass of wine, go downstairs in my basement and go ride the
bike. And, I agree with him I need to do that, but it’s really, really hard because, not only
do you work these long hours, on the weekends, often I have to work. I try to take
Saturday off sometimes and then I try to work like three or four hours on Sunday -- like
Sunday morning. I try to have Sunday evening off. It just feels all consuming.
The isolation and stress of the head of school position are challenges. Understanding
these challenges before beginning a headship and creating networks for support and plans for
self-care appear to be important knowledge components for women choosing to lead independent
schools.
Summary
Chapter Four presented the results of the quantitative survey, qualitative interview, and
document analysis as they related to the research questions. In doing so, this chapter discussed
the assumed influenced presented in Chapter Three along with the conceptual framework and
related literature. The findings offer a unique look at the journey of women as they seek to lead
independent schools as well as the influence of both individual independent schools and NAIS
on the journey of aspiring women heads of school.
The data revealed that knowing how to navigate multiple challenges in the journey to the
headship is important. Not surprisingly, women noted the challenges in balancing home and
work life, noting the importance of others in this journey if they are to be successful.
Furthermore, mentors are invaluable to the process of developing into an independent school
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leader and greatly influence both the learning and motivation of aspiring heads of school. In
addition, the role of both schools and regional and national organizations to support and promote
women was identified as an important factor in the journey of women.
One unexpected finding was the importance of networks of women on the same journey,
pursuing the same goal of headship. Networks provide important support and encouragement
during the long, challenging, and sometimes disappointing journey to lead an independent
school. The deliberate development of networks for women pursuing different levels of
leadership appears to be a crucial and important factor in successfully attaining a headship.
Other unexpected findings related to the intersectionality of being both female and a
member of another underrepresented group as well as the lonely, difficult nature of the head of
school job. Intentionally acknowledging both of these aspects and preparing women to deal with
them may be important to encouraging other women to pursue the headship.
Next, Chapter Five offers an outline of a framework to develop networks. The chapter
makes recommendations for the results and findings and provides an answer to the final research
question. The recommendations offer a systems approach to how NAIS and other organizations
can encourage and support women to choose to lead schools and, in turn, create the conditions
that promote and enhance the opportunities of women to influence the independent school world.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
This chapter discusses the assumed influences and how they were validated through this
study. Findings from the study identified important knowledge gaps for women that must be
addressed for them to successfully attain a headship. In addition, motivational and organizational
issues impact women seeking the headship. This chapter will discuss findings related to the
experiences and challenges of women aspiring to serve as heads of school. The recommendations
will be organized by the categories of validated influences: knowledge, motivation, and
organization. The new Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) approach will be used to identify
results, behavior, learning and reaction to implement recommendations and evaluate results.
Organizational Context
The NAIS served as the organization for studying the issues surrounding women and the
headship in independent schools. In addition, individual, schools with NAIS membership serve
as a lens for the issues, as well. As a national non-profit membership organization comprised of
the voluntary membership of independent schools in the United States, the mission of NAIS is to
empower independent schools and the students they serve around a vision based on excellence,
equity, efficiency, and emotion. To reach its objectives of excellence and equity, NAIS is
dedicated to helping prepare a new generation of school leaders as current school heads start to
retire in greater numbers. A commitment to diverse leadership in schools as well as the
professional development of school constituencies is evident in the purpose of NAIS.
Organizational Performance Goal
The leadership of NAIS indicated their intention to achieve excellence and equity in the
independent school headship and has cited the lack of female leadership as an equity problem in
need of solving. The goal of the NAIS Fellowship for Aspiring Heads is to equip
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underrepresented groups, including women, to successfully pursue and attain headships and lead
independent schools. To assess achievement of this goal NAIS uses surveys and assessments
completed by fellowship participants as well as annual data collected from member schools
about female leadership. It is important to evaluate the preparation of women for the headship for
a variety of reasons. At the forefront, schools risk a leadership crisis related to not having enough
leaders for all of its member independent schools. In addition, not harnessing the power of
women in the leadership pipeline diminishes diverse, qualified voices for leadership. Evaluating
the organization’s performance will enable the collection of formative data that can be used to
assess decisions related to improvements and advancements in the Fellowship for Aspiring
Heads program to reach its goals.
Stakeholder Group
The stakeholders who contribute to and benefit from attaining gender parity in the
independent school headship are women leaders in independent school, potential leaders of
independent schools, the boards in independent schools, the students and faculty of independent
schools, and the leadership and members of NAIS. Women who lead or aspire to lead must be
empowered with the confidence and skills to seek and obtain the highest leadership positions.
They benefit from NAIS’s commitment to equity to achieve their goals. The boards of school, as
well as the greater school communities, are important stakeholders as well. NAIS and related
regional organizations are also stakeholders that benefit from strong, diverse candidates to lead
schools. Finally, the students and faculty of independent schools benefit from diverse leaders
and role models.
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The stakeholder of focus in this analysis was women who have completed the fellowship
in the last five years and have either attained a headship or been a candidate for a headship
position. The questions that guided the evaluation study were the following:
1. To what extent is NAIS meeting its goal of increasing the number of women in the
independent school headship?
2. What are the aspiring women heads of school knowledge and motivation related to
attaining an independent school headship?
3. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and aspiring women
heads of school knowledge and motivation?
4. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Recommendations for Practice
The recommendations, implementation and evaluation plan are discussed in this section.
The recommendations represent ways the organization can address gaps in knowledge and
motivation as well as influence the culture to support and equip women to lead independent
schools. The recommendations address the validated influences from this study.
Recommendation 1: Provide Intentional Education Regarding the Headship and the
Search Process for Identified Aspiring Leaders Earlier in Their Careers
The search for a headship and the role of being a head of school are very different than
those of other independent school leadership roles. As women transition into earlier leadership
roles in their careers, the opportunity to review lists of skills needed to be a head as well as gain
knowledge about how headship searches progress is very valuable as women dream about and
plan for their futures. The recommendation to close this gap is rooted in social cognitive theory
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(Bandura, 2005). To achieve challenging goals, training must teach how to make good choices
and execute effectively to achieve goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Scott and Palincsar (2006)
indicated that social interaction and cooperative learning facilitate construction of new
knowledge. This would suggest that providing early opportunities to learn cooperatively with
others would facilitate in the construction of knowledge relevant to the future goal of leading a
school. Therefore, the recommendation is to provide sessions at national conventions hosted by
NAIS or regional organizations that lift the curtain on the mystery of the headship. These might
best be facilitated by women who have made the journey to the headship successfully, as this
will make the information more credible (Denler, Wolters, & Benzon, 2009).
Because women tend to wait until they feel they met all of the qualifications of leadership
before applying for a position (Glass, 2000), providing early training that informs women of the
skills needed for the headship may help move women towards the goal of leadership (Hill &
Wheat, 2017). In addition, Muñoz et al. (2014) found the influence of connected persons who
recognize the value of women as leaders to be important in influencing women to lead. This
evidence affirms the benefit of establishing early education for women about the path to
leadership.
Recommendation #2: Encourage Focused Mentoring Designed to Increase Aspiring Heads’
Knowledge About Steps to Successfully Navigate Gender Bias
Although many areas of procedural knowledge impact aspiring women heads of school,
the results and findings of this study indicated that many aspiring female heads faced perceived
gender bias in the search process and needed in-depth procedural knowledge about how to
navigate this bias successfully. A recommendation rooted in social cognitive theory has been
selected to close this procedural knowledge gap (Bandura, 2005). Clark and Estes (2008) found
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that training can demonstrate how to make choices and execute to achieve performance goals. In
addition, Denler et al. (2009) indicated that training that incorporates demonstration and
modeling is helpful in learning new behaviors. This would suggest that providing learners with
direct instruction that includes modeling and feedback would support their learning. The
recommendation is to provide aspiring female heads with specific training from women who
have navigated gender bias and who will share strategies and the use of resources. The
opportunities to practice and role play would allow for learning the actions steps necessary to
successfully engage in the process.
Brunner (1997) suggested that women seeking school leadership roles benefit from the
insights and wisdom of women who have already been there. The benefits of modeled behavior
are more credible when enacted by someone of the same gender or culture (Denler et al., 2009).
When women with experience share strategies and past experiences, other women can learn how
to better navigate potential biases (Ely, Ibarra, & Kolb, 2011). This evidence affirms the benefit
of providing training that includes modeling, roleplay, and feedback from women who are sitting
heads.
Recommendation 3: Intentionally Teach Strategies and Options for Managing the
Demands of Home and Work Life
The results of this study indicated that navigation of the demands of home and work life
is an area of great need for aspiring and new heads. Women feel challenged to lead well at both
home and at work (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010). Acknowledging this challenge and sharing
stories of success and failure related to home-work sustainability are important for women
aspiring to leadership. Social cognitive theory has again been selected to close this gap (Bandura,
2005). Women need to learn strategies for navigating the job-related stress of leading schools,
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including mitigating the effects of long work hours and balancing work and family life (Wallace,
2014). Training and modeling by women who have navigated the ups and downs of this difficult
balance will help women learn strategies for home-life sustainability (Denler et al., 2009). The
recommendation is to intentionally discuss and address these concerns with aspiring female
heads with specific training, formalized mentoring on this topic, and networks of support.
Wallace (2014) identified the importance of preparing for job-related stresses, including
mitigating the effects of long work hours and balancing work and family life (Wallace, 2014). In
addition, Clark and Estes (2008) discussed the importance of providing training for unanticipated
problems and novel challenges. This evidence affirms the importance of education and open
communication regarding the sustainability of both work and home life with the new
expectations to be faced by a head of school.
Recommendation 4: Create Intentional Opportunities for Aspiring Heads to Reflect With
Mentors or Networks About Their Own Leadership Style and Its Impact on Others
The results of this study indicated that women who attained headships had to become
aware of the impact of their leadership style and give considerable weight to school fit to
successfully navigate the journey to becoming a head of school. A recommendation rooted in
information processing system theory has been selected to close this metacognitive knowledge
gap. Baker (2006) found that the use of metacognitive strategies assists in becoming self-
regulated. This would suggest that providing aspiring heads with tools for reflection and self-
learning would support their growth and the self-assessment. The recommendation is to provide
aspiring female heads with reflective tools and practice as part of leadership training programs
such as the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads or similar programs. The opportunities to self-reflect
and to reflect with a mentor would allow for learning the metacognitive processes necessary to
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successfully understand the not only the impact of one’s leadership style but also the settings in
which one’s leadership style will be the best fit.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), a lack of knowledge can inhibit the realization of
opportunities. Teaching aspiring women leaders to go beyond learning situational leadership
actions to understanding and reflection on who they are as leaders is important (Ely et al., 2011).
Metacognition helps women understand and know when to employ various leadership styles
(Dobie & Hummel, 2001). This evidence affirms that learning how to self-reflect on is crucial
for women to successfully find the right school and lead it well.
Recommendation 5: Use Targeted Feedback From Same-Gender Mentors to Increase Self-
Efficacy
Every woman in the study who had attained her first headship indicated the critical role
that specific and targeted feedback from mentors played in their self-confidence as they pursued
their leadership goals. A recommendation rooted in self-efficacy theory has been selected to
close the self-efficacy gap of aspiring women. Pajares (2006) found that effective, honest
feedback and modeling helps develop self-efficacy. This would suggest that aspiring female
heads need mentors to give honest feedback and support their journey. The recommendation is to
provide early and meaningful mentorship for aspiring women that includes feedback.
According to Pajares (2006), high self-efficacy can positively influence motivation, and
the use of effective mentors for modeling and feedback builds self-efficacy and enhances
motivation. Women leaders in a study conducted by Glowacki-Dudka et al. (2016) identified the
importance of affirming messages related to their hard work and goals and stressed the
importance of encouraging networks for feedback throughout their careers. In addition, a study
by Wyland (2016) investigating influences for women pursuing school leadership roles noted
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that encouragement from family, mentors, and professional networks were significant
influencers. From a theoretical perspective, then, it would appear that increasing self-efficacy
through feedback and affirming messages from mentors would inspire women to pursue the
highest leadership positions.
Recommendation 6: Provide Early Leadership Opportunities Along With Feedback and
Modeling
All women in the study indicated that early success in small leadership roles combined
with encouraging models of the next level of leadership were critical in developing the belief that
they had the tools necessary to lead successfully. A recommendation rooted in expectancy-value
theory has been selected to close this expectancy-value gap. Borgogni, Dello Russo, and Latham
(2011) found that success on challenging tasks along with feedback positively influenced
peoples’ perceptions of competence. In addition, Pajares (2006) discovered that models who are
both credible and similar in gender or culture help to develop confidence in one’s own ability.
This would suggest that pairing early opportunities for women to successfully lead along with
feedback from other female, culturally similar leaders would serve to promote women on their
journey to lead schools. The recommendation is to provide early leadership opportunities and
feedback from gender-similar models.
Clark and Estes (2008) indicate human behavior is influenced by the aspiration to be
effective in what we do. Kelsey, Allen, Coke, and Ballard (2014) found that women’s leadership
skills blossomed when those skills were recognized, encouraged and praised. They found that
women’s belief they could lead grew through giving women opportunities to lead, encouraging
them, and building encouraging relationships. In addition, Ely et al. (2011) found that programs
that help women discover and develop a sense of agency help women develop the confidence
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and skills to advance to leadership. From a theoretical perspective, then, it would appear that
providing models and sponsors to help women early in their careers to develop the skills and
beliefs that they can lead would be valuable.
Recommendation 7: Learn From the How-To Stories of Other Women Leaders for
Inspiration to Lead
The women in the study who became heads of school identified the importance of loving
and valuing the setting where one leads so that the cost of leading feels worth the trade-offs. To
close the motivation gap, a recommendation rooted in the cost value related to a task is
suggested. Eccles (2006) recognized that learning and motivation are enhanced if the learner
values the task. This would suggest that encouraging women to explore the headship and
understand and desire the role would encourage more women to pursue headships. Therefore, the
recommendation is to provide mentors and sponsors to encourage interest in leading school by
having mentors share their how-to insights.
According to Rueda (2011), value relates to the importance a person attaches to a task,
and cost value relates to the perceived cost of an activity. Multiple studies identified that the
choice to pursue the headship results from women weighing the advantages and disadvantages of
leadership, including accomplishment, compensation, job satisfaction, personal time, stress,
responsibility, and personal satisfaction (Coronel et al., 2010; Roebuck et al., 2013). In addition,
McGee (2010) identified that being prepared to lead with the perceived necessary skills as well
as finding ways to mitigate role conflict are necessary for women to make the leap to leadership.
From a theoretical perspective, then, it would appear that providing mentors and sponsors to help
women learn the value of leadership and how to successfully navigate other life-value areas
would inspire women to pursue the highest leadership positions in good fit locales.
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Recommendation 8: Identify and Mentor Female Aspiring Heads of School at the School
Level and Support search Processes That Promote Women to Leadership at the National
Organization Level
Interview data from 100% of the women who had attained headships since completing
the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads demonstrated the positive impact of intentional support to
start them on a leadership journey and encourage them to aspire to the highest level of
leadership. A recommendation rooted in diversity theory has been selected to close the
organizational gap in female leadership. DiTomaso, Post, and Parks-Yancy (2007) noted the
importance of promoting diversity at the highest levels of the organization. Access to resources,
opportunities to make decisions and perform, and access to power in the workplace are important
in closing leadership gaps for women and other underrepresented groups (DiTomaso et al.,
2007). The recommendation is that leaders in individual schools and at the national organization
level need to identify and intentionally sponsor women to gain the skills necessary to both begin
their leadership journey and to attain high-level positions. In addition, both schools and search
firms need to identify the candidate screening processes that limit or eliminate women from
leadership opportunities. Finally, search firms should implement policies that increase the
diversity of highly qualified candidate pools.
This research study found that 100% of the interviewed women sponsored by their
schools for participation in the fellowship indicated that one or more leaders in her career acted
intentionally to support her towards greater levels of leadership. Each woman identified a school
leader whose encouragement launched her leadership journey. For each woman interviewed, one
or more other leaders told her she could be a head of school. According to Schipani et al. (2009),
the disadvantages faced by women are not in the actual leading once they have obtained a
131
leadership role, but, rather, in navigating the path to leadership. The newest study by McKinsey
and Company (2019) on women in the workplace also indicated that the first rung into
management is where women meet the most resistance. From an empirical perspective, then, it
would appear that supporting and cultivating leadership opportunities for women throughout
their careers, identifying barriers in the screening process, and implementing policies that
promote highly qualified and diverse candidate pools for school leadership positions would help
support aspiring female leaders.
Recommendation 9: Train Governing Boards and School Leadership to Identify and
Reflect on Bias Prior to and During Headship Searches
Approximately 75% of the interviewed women noted at least one instance in which they
perceived being the token women in a candidate pool rather than being viewed as a highly
qualified, viable candidate. A recommendation rooted in diversity theory has been selected to
close this organizational gap. Chávez, Duran, Baker, Avila and Wallerstein (2008) noted that
effective leaders are aware of biases that occur at the organizational and structural levels and
acknowledge their own biases so as to protect from their negative impact. The continued
education of school leaders and boards, national organizations, and search firms to understand
how biases affect head of school searches and hiring decisions are necessary to continue the
journey towards parity. The recommendation is that decision makers in leadership searches
develop and use reflective practices to understand and check their own biases as well as create
policies to eliminate the negative impact of biases.
According to Senge (1990), it is important that organizational leaders hold a vision of
what might be. This includes visions of organizations with diverse representation at all levels,
including the highest leadership positions. Clark and Estes (2008) iterate that aligning policies
132
and procedures and effectively communicating those from the top with all stakeholders increases
organizational performance. Institutionalized privilege promotes the dominant culture and, to
some degree, is continually operating and creating imbalances of power according to Chávez et
al. (2008). In Trendbook 2017-2018, the NAIS reported that many of the early processes
conducted by search firms and boards tend to eliminate women from the candidacy, thus
promoting institutionalized power imbalances (McGovern & Taylor, 2017). In addition, Muñoz
et al. (2014) noted that, although the strengths of male leadership candidates are often noted in
leadership searches, it is the gaps of female candidates that are emphasized, potentially putting
them at a disadvantage with search firms and boards. Therefore, from a theoretical perspective, it
would appear that reflection on and the creation of policies and procedures around bias
awareness in leadership searches would aid in closing the headship gap for women in
independent schools.
Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The implementation and evaluation plan was informed by the New World Kirkpatrick
Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The New World Kirkpatrick Model proposes that
evaluation plans start with an organization’s goals and then design backwards so that the focus is
on what is most important, the outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). By beginning with
the goals in mind, the behaviors needed to accomplish the goal, as well as the knowledge and
skills needed, can be intentionally created to reach the desired outcome. Only after determining
the goals, behaviors, and skills and knowledge, can training be successfully created. Designing
with the end goal in mind produces connections between immediate solutions and the desired
outcomes while eliciting buy-in that leads to success (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
133
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
NAIS is dedicated to helping prepare a new generation of school leaders as current school
heads start to retire in greater numbers. The NAIS Fellowship for Aspiring Heads aims to
prepare and promote women and people of color to the independent school headship. This
project examined the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational barriers that either
help or inhibit women from successfully accessing the independent school headship. The
proposed solution, intentional mentorship and networks, sponsorship to leadership opportunities,
and training for boards and search firms to reduce implicit bias should produce the desired
outcome, which is greater numbers of women pursuing and attaining independent school
headships.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 6 shows the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of
outcomes, metrics and methods for both external and internal outcomes for the NAIS Fellowship
for Aspiring Heads. If the internal outcomes are met as expected as a result of the mentoring and
organizational support for female aspiring heads, then the external outcomes should also be
realized.
134
Table 6
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Increased percentage of
women who complete the
fellowship and actively
pursue headships within
one year.
The number of female Fellows
applying for headships.
Solicit data from search firms
Increased numbers of
women progressing to the
semi-finalist and finalist
round of interviews.
The number of women
progressing to each round of
interviews
Solicit data from search firms
Reduced incidence of
biased screening
processes in the search for
heads of school
More highly qualified female
candidates in all types of
independent schools
Solicit data on candidate
demographics from schools and
search firms.
Interviews with female aspiring
heads
Internal Outcomes
Improved long-term
mentor relationships for
aspiring heads
Positive/negative feedback from
aspiring heads
Survey feedback on mentor
relationship.
Increased board and
search committee anti-
bias reflection and process
Participation in and requests for
anti-bias training
Survey feedback from schools
doing head searches
Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are new female aspiring heads of school.
The first critical behavior is fellowship participants must actively pursue headships. The second
critical behavior is that they must be able to access the tools and habits of mind necessary to
successfully navigate the search process. The third critical behavior is that they must successfully
135
access mentors and sponsors during the process, ask key questions, and adjust their search
process as necessary. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome
behaviors appears in Table 7.
Table 7
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
Actively pursue
headships
The number of
women who initiate a
headship candidacy.
Frequently survey
female Fellows
Surveys every 6
months
Assign fellowship
mentors to conduct
regular phone call
check-ups with their
mentees to encourage
headship and continue to
help Fellows navigate
the challenges.
Check-ins every 3
months
Access the tools
and habits of mind
necessary to
successfully
navigate the search
process
The numbers of
women who become
1) semi-finalists, 2)
finalists, 3) receive
offers, 4) accept
headships.
Track progress with
mentor check-ins
Every 3 months
Self-reporting of
progress
Prompts with
progress check
questions every 6
months
Successfully access
mentors and
sponsors during the
process, ask key
questions, and
adjust their search
process as
necessary
The number of
outreaches to
fellowship mentors
for assistance
Reports and
questionnaires for
mentors.
Surveys every 6
months
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Required drivers. Aspiring heads require the support of their mentors, sponsors, and
networks and the organization, both at the school and national level, to reinforce their learning
and to encourage them to actively seek headships and recover and learn from rejection. Methods
of encouragement should be established for achievement of performance goals to strengthen the
organizational support of aspiring heads. Table 8 shows the recommended drivers to support
critical behaviors.
Table 8
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Modeling the navigation of
challenging situations in the
search process.
Quarterly 1-2-3
Collaboration and feedback
on strategies to navigate
bias.
Monthly 1-2-3
Use of private online
networks to provide support
for work-life balance
Ongoing 1-2-3
Journaling to reflect on
strengths, challenges and fit
Ongoing 1-2-3
Encouraging
Modeling and feedback on
resume and interview skills
Quarterly 1-2-3
Coaching sessions that call
for Q and A
Monthly 1-2-3
137
Table 8, continued
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Rewarding
Introductions to search
consultants
Annually 1-2-3
Recognition of fellowship
completion
Annually 1-2-3
Monitoring
Surveys of Fellows Bi-annually 1-2-3
Regular touch base phone
calls with mentors
Quarterly 1-2-3
Organizational support. NAIS should examine and identify the screening processes that
limit women from leadership opportunities and provide education to search firms, boards, and
schools to eliminate implicit bias as well as writing a position statement about the benefits of
diversity in leadership. In addition, reflective practices will be created and shared with search
firms and school search committees to engage them in understanding and checking their own
biases.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following completion of the recommended solutions, the stakeholders
will be able to
1. Identify personal non-negotiables (P),
2. Plan for sustaining work and home life with a focus on personal non-negotiables (P),
3. Negotiate a contract that addresses one’s own non-negotiables (P, Cost),
3. Implement strategies to deal with gender bias (P),
4. Create a search process plan of action (P),
5. Establish a routine of self-reflection (M),
138
6. Seek mentors or networks to develop specific, needed skills (SE/EV), and
7. Exhibit confidence that they can successfully lead through challenging situations
(EV).
Program. The learning goals listed in the previous section will be achieved by
continuing to implement the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads with a few improvements. During
the year-long fellowship, a series of synchronous online sessions will be added to the current
program. Women in small all-female cohorts will participate in the synchronous online sessions
with female mentors who are currently school heads. A mentoring team consisting of a more
experienced head of school partnering with one who is navigating the early years of a headship
will provide richer feedback and perspectives.
The women will participate in an interactive online delivery system to identify personal
non-negotiables, create a plan for sustaining both work and home, role play contract
negotiations, and to create a personal tool kit for recognizing and dealing with gender bias.
By the end of the fellowship, participants will be asked to create and share a plan of
action for the next steps in their own personal search process. In addition, participants will be
asked to experiment with different processes for self-reflection and identify one to implement.
As part of both the action and reflection plan, participants will identify an area of growth and
with the help of their network, seek a mentor to develop personal gap skills.
Evaluation of the Components of Learning
Components of learning. The evaluation of the procedural knowledge being taught is
important as a precursor to using that knowledge to solve problems. The learners must be
confident that they can succeed in the application of their knowledge and skills related to the
139
important task ahead of them. As such, Table 9 lists the evaluation methods and timing for those
components.
Table 9
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Methods or Activities Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks through discussions, “pair, think,
share” and other individual/group activities.
Periodically during the synchronous online
sessions.
Written reflection After the synchronous online sessions.
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Demonstrations in groups and individually using the
strategies to successfully perform the skills.
During the synchronous online sessions.
Quality of the feedback from peers during group
sharing and demonstrations
During the synchronous online sessions.
Role play of negotiations During the synchronous online sessions.
Survey questions Following online synchronous sessions and at
the end of the fellowship.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment survey
asking participants about their level of proficiency
before and after the training
At the end of the fellowship program
Survey about non-negotiables, negotiations, and
strategies for dealing with gender bias.
At the end of the fellowship program
Confidence “I think I can do this during my
search process.”
Survey items using scaled responses Following online synchronous sessions and at
the end of the fellowship.
Discussions following practice and feedback. During the online synchronous sessions.
Commitment “I will do it during my search
process.”
Discussions following practice and feedback. During the last online synchronous session.
Create an individual action plan. During the fellowship.
Survey items using scaled responses Following online synchronous sessions and at
the end of the fellowship.
140
Level 1: Reaction
Reactions to program. It is important to gage perception by participants of their
engagement with the training, its relevance for them, and how satisfied they are with the training.
As such the table below, Table 10, lists the methods and tools used to gage participants reactions
to the program.
Table 10
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Methods or Tools Timing
Engagement
Observation by instructor/facilitator During the online sessions.
Attendance During the online sessions
Online session evaluation Two days after each of the four online sessions
Fellowship evaluation Two weeks after the fellowship concludes
Relevance
Pulse-check with participants via online
survey and discussion (ongoing)
Discussion ongoing. Survey two days after
each of the four online sessions.
Fellowship evaluation Two weeks after the end of the fellowship
Participant Satisfaction
Pulse-check with participants via online
survey and discussion (ongoing)
Discussion ongoing. Survey two days after
each of the four online sessions.
Fellowship evaluation Two weeks after the end of the fellowship
Evaluation Tools
The use of participant feedback to evaluate the program will help maximize learning,
increase application of what is learned, and demonstrate the value of the program to the
organization (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Several methods of evaluation will be used to
141
provide comprehensive feedback that illustrates the experience and learning of participating
individuals. The sections that follow describe the evaluation tools used during the program and
immediately after its completion as well as delayed evaluation tools as suggested by Kirkpatrick
and Kirkpatrick (2016).
Immediately following the program implementation. A brief survey should be
administered after each online networking session. The survey will ask each participant to
indicate the usefulness of the session and their overall satisfaction with the content and delivery
of the networking session.
For Level One, during the online sessions, the mentors will conduct brief pulse checks by
asking the participating women about the perceived relevance to their personal growth as
aspiring heads of school as well as questions about the organization, delivery, and online
learning environment. Level Two will include checks for understanding through discussions, role
play, and written reflections. See Appendix F for evaluation instrument.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. A final evaluation should
occur at the end of the fellowship. The evaluation tool should be a blended model that
incorporates all four levels, from reaction to results. This form of evaluation makes it more likely
to maximize perspective on the experience (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The evaluation
tool should include survey items assessing engagement, relevance, and satisfaction (Level One),
confidence in and value of knowledge acquired (Level Two), the degree to which the participant
applied the learning (Level Three), and the degree to which the training has impacted the
environment (Level Four). See Appendix B for a sample evaluation survey.
142
Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level Three and Four goals for the implementation of the women’s-only online
networks as a part of the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads consist of increased numbers of women
applying for and achieving the independent school headship. To do this, they must feel confident
in their ability to navigate challenges such as gender bias and know how to get the support they
need for this challenging journey. For the greatest impact, it is important that progress be visible
and clearly communicated. Following the program evaluation, a visual report of the progress and
findings should be regularly updated on their website. Appendix H demonstrates a sample
dashboard with example data regarding the journey of women to headship. Similar dashboards to
monitor other markers of each of the four levels should be utilized, as well.
Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model was used to design this implementation and
evaluation plan. By using this backward design model, the ultimate organizational goals were
used as the starting point. The necessary learning and assessment components were then selected
to systematically realize the organizational goals. Learning is at the center of this proactive
framework. Success was defined at the beginning of this process so that the organization knows
what to expect as results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Through this model NAIS can
address the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences defined and validated in this
research study to help women successfully attain independent school headships. This, in turn,
can only help to achieve parity for women pursuing leadership roles.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
All methodological approaches have strengths and weaknesses, including the Clark and
Estes (2008) framework used in this study. Utilizing the Clark and Estes (2008) framework to
143
examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors influencing women’s attainment
of the independent school headship was effective in understanding the perspective of women
who have aspired to and reach the goal of leading a school. However, because the desire and
goal-setting of aspiring women is only one facet of the problem of parity in the independent
school headship, it is important to consider other ways to approach this problem. The influence
of search firms and governing boards on the head of school position is significant. Examining
and understanding the perspectives of these entities would be another important perspective from
which to consider the problem of practice. Using a multi-pronged approach that sought to
understand the knowledge, motivation, and organization influences, not only from the
perspective of aspiring women but also from the vantage of those choosing the next heads of
school would give more clarity to both the problem and then potential solutions. In addition, a
study that interviewed more women, including those who had attained a headship, those still
pursuing a headship, and those who chose to abandon the goal of being a head of school, would
provide a broader view of the knowledge and motivation influences at work. However, a study of
such magnitude would require considerably more time and money. Perhaps the most
comprehensive approach would be to combine the findings from studying both a wider range of
women at different points in their journeys along with the viewpoints of governing boards and
search firms.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study was limited in that the NAIS database did not have current email addresses for
all of the participants of the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads. If a fellow had taken a new position
at a new school, the email address on file was out of date. To negate this challenge, NAIS
message boards for school leaders were used. However, a direct email from NAIS regarding the
144
survey may have received a better response than a message board. The women who had taken a
new position may have provided additional insights into the journey of women to the headship.
Another limitation of the study was that only women heads of school and aspiring women were
interviewed and surveyed. Surveying and interviewing search consultants and members of
governing boards would have provided additional insight. Finally, fewer documents were
provided for document analysis than originally expected. Additional documents could have
provided new information.
The recommendations could be utilized by other groups who seek to improve the
representation of women in the headship. The development of intentional learning and
supportive networks for aspiring women could happen at the level of state and local independent
school organizations. Perhaps, these might even be stronger networks due to proximity. To build
effective networks at any level, dedicated and experiences mentors are necessary to create the
desired experience.
Future Research
Future research could involve exploration of the attitudes and beliefs held and promoted
by search consultants. In addition, longitudinal studies could be utilized to track the learning and
progress of women leaders at the earliest rungs of independent school leadership to better
understand that influences that inhibit or contribute to the long journey to the headship.
Conclusion
To understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that help or
hinder women’s pursuit and attainment of independent school headships, it made sense to
conduct research with women who had been intentional participants in professional development
designed to help then reach the goal of headmaster. Through surveys, document analysis and
145
interviews and the utilization of the Clark and Estes (2008) framework, this study examined the
lived experience of women who had attained or were in pursuit of their first headship. The study
results indicated that eliminated knowledge gaps related to dealing with gender bias, balancing
work and home life, navigating the job search journey, and understanding one’s own leadership
were important. In addition, motivational influences related to self-efficacy, expectancy-value,
and cost were validated. Finally, supporting and promoting women as qualified candidates for
head of school positions was found to be important. The New World Kirkpatrick Model was
used to create an implementation and evaluation plan of recommendations to address the
validated influences (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The New World Kirkpatrick Model
begins with end goal in mind and then works to find learning and assessment components to
reach the goal. The use of data analysis and response will increase the effectiveness of the
fellowship as well as allow regional and local organizations to create leadership development
networks for women who aspire to the headship or other school leadership roles.
146
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161
APPENDIX A
Email Explanation of Study
Statement of Explanation about the Study to Accompany Email with Survey
Dear NAIS Fellowship for Aspiring Heads Past Participant,
As a past participant in the NAIS Fellowship for Aspiring Heads, you are being invited to
participate in a 5-minute survey. This survey is part of a dissertation research project
investigating the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affect women’s
attainment of independent school headships.
Your participation in the survey is completely voluntary and all of your responses will be
kept confidential. You may choose to skip any question. You may also choose to end your
participation at any time. No personally identifiable information will be associated with your
responses to any reports of these data.
If you meet specific study-related criteria, you may be asked to participate in a 60 to 90-
minute interview. Interview participation is completely voluntary. If you choose to volunteer,
you will be asked to provide contact information. Your contact information will be used to
contact you to schedule a video or audio conference or in-person interview. You may decline to
participate at any time. The identity of all interview participants will be kept confidential.
Thank you for your time and willingness to participate in this dissertation research
project.
162
APPENDIX B
Informed Consent Handout
IMPROVING THE REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN
IN THE INDEPENDENT SCHOOL HEADSHIP
This study is being conducted by an Ed.D. Candidate, from the University of Southern
California. Your participation is voluntary. Please take as much time as you need to read this
information sheet. You will be given a copy of this form. Response to interview questions will
constitute consent to participate in this research project.
Purpose of the Study: This research study aims to understand the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that affect the attainment of an independent school headship by
women.
Potential Risks and Discomforts: There are no anticipated risks to your participation. If you
feel some discomfort at responding to some questions, feel free to skip those questions.
Interview Process: The interview should take 60 to 90 minutes. Your interview will be recorded
on two devices, one on my phone and a back-up recorder, so that I can accurately capture the
information you share. At any time, if you would like to stop the recording, please let me know. I
am happy to do that. Immediately after the interview, the data will be transcribed as described
below.
Confidentiality: Audio recordings will be kept in a password protected computer file until
completion of the dissertation project, which is anticipated to be May 2020. At that time
recordings will be destroyed. The online transcription service Rev.com will be used to transcribe
audio recordings. Rev.com protects the privacy of all recordings, which are encrypted using
bank-level security. All Rev.com transcribers sign non-disclosure confidentiality agreements and
work on secure platforms. Only the principal investigator and Rev.com will have access to
recordings. Only the principal researcher and the project advisor will have access to the
transcripts. Transcripts will also be stored in a password protected computer file. You will not
have access to recordings or transcripts. All participants will be assigned a pseudonym. The
school or schools which employ or have employed the participants will also be assigned a
pseudonym. Because the results of this study may be useful to the National Association of
Independent Schools, results of the study will be shared with the organization. No identifying
information or raw data will be shared. An executive summary of the findings will be prepared
and presented upon study completion.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
163
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator Michelle Odell via email at michelro@usc.edu or phone at (407) 468-5958
or Faculty Advisor Dr. Tracy Poon Tambascia at tpoon@rossier.usc.edu or 213-740-9747
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board, 1640 Marengo Street, Suite 700,
Los Angeles, CA 90033-9269. Phone (323) 442-0114 or email irb@usc.edu.
USC IRB # UP-19-00430
164
APPENDIX C
Survey Items and Analysis
Key: Procedural Knowledge (P), Self-Efficacy (SE), Expectancy/Value (EV), Cost (C), Cultural
Setting Influence (CS), Cultural Model Influence (CM)
Research
Question/
Data
Type
KMO
Construct
Survey Item (question and
response)
Scale of
Measure-
ment
Potential
Analyses
Visual
Represent-
ation
Demo-
graphic:
sample
description
N/A
(Used for
summary
statistics)
1. Please identify the year of your
participation in the Fellowship for
Aspiring Heads. *Mark only one.
a. 2018-2019
b. 2017-2018
c. 2016-2017
d. 2015-2016
Nominal Percentag
e,
Frequency
Table
Demo-
graphic:
sample
description
N/A
(Used for
summary
statistics)
2.What is your gender identity?
a. Female/woman
b. Male/man
c. Transgender
d. Non-binary/Third Gender
e. Other
Nominal Percentag
e,
Frequency
Table
Demo-
graphic:
sample
description
N/A
(Used for
summary
statistics)
3. How many total years of
experience do you have in
independent schools?
a. Less than 5
b. Between 5 and 10
c. Between 11 and 14
d. 15 or more
Nominal Percentag
e,
Frequency
Table
Demo-
graphic:
sample
description
N/A
(Used for
summary
statistics)
4.Which title best describes the
position you held when you first
took part in the NAIS Fellowship
for Aspiring Heads?
a. Assistant or Associate
Head of School
b. Division Head (Upper,
Middle, Lower)
c. Assistant or Associate
Division Head
d. Athletic Director
e. Department Head/Chair
f. Dean of Faculty
g. Director of Studies
h. Director of
Admissions/Enrollment
Management/Financial Aid
i. Director of
Advancement/Director of
Development
j. Business Officer
k. Advancement Officer
Nominal Percentag
e,
Frequency
Table
165
l. Teacher
m. Other -- If other, please
identify the title of your current
position.
Demo-
graphic:
sample
description
N/A
(Used for
summary
statistics)
5. What title best describes your
current position?
a. Head of
School/Headmaster
b. Assistant or Associate
Head of School
c. Division Head (Upper,
Middle, Lower)
d. Assistant or Associate
Division Head
e. Athletic Director
f. Department Head/Chair
g. Dean of Faculty
h. Director of Studies
i. Director of
Admissions/Enrollment
Management/Financial Aid
j. Director of
Advancement/Director of
Development
k. Business Officer
l. Advancement Officer
m. Teacher
n. Other -- If other, please
identify the title of your current
position.
Nominal Percentag
e,
Frequency
Table
Demo-
graphic:
sample
description
N/A
(Used for
summary
statistics)
6.When did you begin working in
your current position?
a. 2019
b. 2018
c. 2017
d. 2016
e. 2015
f. 2014
g. 2013 or earlier
Nominal Percentag
e,
Frequency
Table
Demo-
graphic:
sample
description
N/A
(Used for
summary
statistics)
7.Have you applied for any
positions as head of school?
a. Yes
b. No
Nominal Percentag
e,
Frequency
Table
Demo-
graphic:
sample
description
N/A
(Used for
summary
statistics)
8.Have you interviewed for any
head of school positions?
a. Yes
b. No
Nominal Percentag
e,
Frequency
Table
Demo-
graphic:
sample
description
N/A
(Used for
summary
statistics)
9.Have you been a finalist for any
head of school positions?
a. Yes
b. No
Nominal Percentag
e,
Frequency
Table
166
Demo-
graphic:
sample
description
N/A
(Used for
summary
statistics)
10.Have you been offered any head
of school positions?
a. Yes
b. No
Nominal Percentag
e,
Frequency
Table
Demo-
graphic:
sample
description
N/A
(Used for
summary
statistics)
11. Have you attained a headship
at an independent school?
a. Yes
b. No
Nominal Percentag
e,
Frequency
Table
What is the
stakeholder
knowledge
and
motivation
related to
attaining an
independent
school
headship?
Motivation:
SE
(Women gain
confidence
through
targeted
feedback
from
significant
others in their
lives.)
12. Please rate your self-efficacy
(belief in yourself to be successful)
for each of the following. Please
also indicate how the Fellowship
added to your rating.
m Navigate the head of school
search process. (Likert:
strongly agree, agree,
disagree, strongly disagree)
m To what extent did the
Fellowship add to your rating
on this question. (Likert: A
great deal, somewhat, a little,
not at all).
m Interview for head of school
job. (Likert: strongly agree,
agree, disagree, strongly
disagree)
m To what extent did the
Fellowship add to your rating
on this question. (Likert: A
great deal, somewhat, a little,
not at all).
m Navigate the aspects of the
headship with which I
have/had little previous
experience (Likert: strongly
agree, agree, disagree,
strongly disagree)
m To what extent did the
Fellowship add to your rating
on this question. (Likert: A
great deal, somewhat, a little,
not at all).
m Develop relationships with
influential others in the
independent school
community (Likert: strongly
Ordinal Expected
to use:
Percentag
e,
Frequency
,
Might use:
Mode,
Range
Table, bar
graph
167
agree, agree, disagree,
strongly disagree)
m To what extent did the
Fellowship add to your rating
on this question. (Likert: A
great deal, somewhat, a little,
not at all).
m Employ strategies for
successfully balancing home
roles with head of school
responsibilities (Likert:
strongly agree, agree,
disagree, strongly disagree)
m To what extent did the
Fellowship add to your rating
on this question. (Likert: A
great deal, somewhat, a little,
not at all).
m Successfully pursue my first
headship (Likert: strongly
agree, agree, disagree,
strongly disagree)
m To what extent did the
Fellowship add to your rating
on this question. (Likert: A
great deal, somewhat, a little,
not at all).
m Apply constructive criticism to
help me to improve as a leader
(Likert: strongly agree, agree,
disagree, strongly disagree)
m To what extent did the
Fellowship add to your rating
on this question. (Likert: A
great deal, somewhat, a little,
not at all).
m Pursue leadership roles.
(Likert: strongly agree, agree,
disagree, strongly disagree)
m To what extent did the
Fellowship add to your rating
on this question. (Likert: A
great deal, somewhat, a little,
not at all).
What is the
stakeholder
knowledge
and
motivation
related to
Motivation:
SE
(Women gain
confidence
through
targeted
13.The feedback I received from
my mentor in the Fellowship for
Aspiring Heads increased my
confidence in my ability to lead a
school. (Likert: strongly agree,
agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
Ordinal Expected
to use:
Percentag
e,
Frequency
,
Table,
bar graph
168
attaining an
independent
school
headship?
feedback
from
significant
others in their
lives.)
Might use:
Mode,
Range
What is the
stakeholder
knowledge
and
motivation
related to
attaining an
independent
school
headship?
Motivation:
SE
(Women gain
confidence
through
targeted
feedback
from
significant
others in their
lives.)
14. I still connect with my
fellowship mentor. (Likert:
strongly agree, agree, disagree,
strongly disagree)
Ordinal Percentag
e,
Frequency
, Mode,
Median,
Range
Table
To what
extent is
NAIS
meeting its
goal of
increasing
the number
of women in
the
independent
school
headship.
Organizationa
l Influences:
CM
(The
organization
needs to
embrace and
promote
women as
strong
headship
candidates.)
15. How useful was the NAIS
Fellowship for Aspiring Heads in
helping you become a head of
school (Likert: very helpful,
somewhat helpful, somewhat
unhelpful, not helpful at all)
Ordinal Expected
to use:
Percentag
e,
Frequency
Might use:
Mode,
Range
Table,
bar graph
Survey Questions in Order for Survey
1. Please identify the year of your participation in the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads. *Mark
only one.
a. 2018-2019
b. 2017-2018
c. 2016-2017
d. 2015-2016
2. What is your gender identity?
a. Female/woman
b. Male/man
c. Transgender
d. Non-binary/Third Gender
e. Other
For those NOT selecting “Female/woman”, they will be thanked and the survey will end. Those
identifying as “Female/woman” will continue.
3. How many total years of experience do you have in independent schools?
169
a. Less than 5
b. Between 5 and 10
c. Between 11 and 14
d. 15 or more
4.Which title best describes the position you held when you first took part in the NAIS
Fellowship for Aspiring Heads?
a. Assistant or Associate Head of School
b. Division Head (Upper, Middle, Lower)
c. Assistant or Associate Division Head
d. Athletic Director
e. Department Head/Chair
f. Dean of Faculty
g. Director of Studies
h. Director of Admissions/Enrollment Management/Financial Aid
i. Director of Advancement/Director of Development
j. Business Officer
k. Advancement Officer
l. Teacher
m. Other -- If other, please identify the title the current position you held when you first
took part in the NAIS Fellowship for Aspiring Heads. _______________________
5. What title best describes your current position?
a. Head of School/Headmaster
b. Assistant or Associate Head of School
c. Division Head (Upper, Middle, Lower)
d. Assistant or Associate Division Head
e. Athletic Director
f. Department Head/Chair
g. Dean of Faculty
h. Director of Studies
i. Director of Admissions/Enrollment Management/Financial Aid
j. Director of Advancement/Director of Development
k. Business Officer
l. Advancement Officer
m. Teacher
n. Other -- If other, please identify the title of your current position.
_______________________
6.When did you begin working in your current position?
a. 2019
b. 2018
c. 2017
d. 2016
e. 2015
f. 2014
170
g. 2013 or earlier
7. Please rate your self-efficacy (belief in yourself to be successful) for each of the following.
Please also indicate how the Fellowship added to your rating.
Navigate the head of school search process. (Likert: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly
disagree)
To what extent did the Fellowship add to your rating on this question. (Likert: A great deal,
somewhat, a little, not at all).
Interview for head of school job. (Likert: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
To what extent did the Fellowship add to your rating on this question. (Likert: A great deal,
somewhat, a little, not at all).
Navigate the aspects of the headship with which I have/had little previous experience (Likert:
strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
To what extent did the Fellowship add to your rating on this question. (Likert: A great deal,
somewhat, a little, not at all).
Develop relationships with influential others in the independent school community (Likert:
strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
To what extent did the Fellowship add to your rating on this question. (Likert: A great deal,
somewhat, a little, not at all).
Employ strategies for successfully balancing home roles with head of school responsibilities
(Likert: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
To what extent did the Fellowship add to your rating on this question. (Likert: A great deal,
somewhat, a little, not at all).
Successfully pursue my first headship (Likert: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
To what extent did the Fellowship add to your rating on this question. (Likert: A great deal,
somewhat, a little, not at all).
Apply constructive criticism to help me to improve as a leader (Likert: strongly agree, agree,
disagree, strongly disagree)
To what extent did the Fellowship add to your rating on this question. (Likert: A great deal,
somewhat, a little, not at all).
Pursue leadership roles. (Likert: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
To what extent did the Fellowship add to your rating on this question. (Likert: A great deal,
somewhat, a little, not at all).
171
8. The feedback I received from my mentor in the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads increased my
confidence in my ability to lead a school. (Likert: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly
disagree)
9. I still connect with my fellowship mentor. (Likert: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly
disagree)
10.Have you applied for any head of school positions?
a. Yes
b. No
11.Have you interviewed for any head of school positions?
a. Yes
b. No
12. Have you been a finalist for any head of school positions?
a. Yes
b. No
13. Have you been offered any head of school positions?
a. Yes
b. No
14. Have you attained a headship at an independent school?
a. Yes
b. No
IF YES IF NO
15. How useful was the NAIS Fellowship for
Aspiring Heads in helping you become a
head of school (Likert: very helpful,
somewhat helpful, somewhat unhelpful, not
helpful at all)
15. Please take a moment to describe where
you are in your independent school
leadership journey. (Open-ended response)
16. Would you be willing to participate in a
60 to 90-minute interview about your
experience with the Fellowship for Aspiring
Heads and other professional development
opportunities that impact the knowledge,
motivation and organizational constructs
affecting women pursuing headships?
Yes or No
16. Would you be willing to participate in a
60 to 90-minute interview about your
experience with the Fellowship for Aspiring
Heads and Heads and other professional
development opportunities that impact the
knowledge, motivation and organizational
constructs affecting women pursuing
headships?
Yes or No
172
17. If yes….
Please provide contact name and email
address.
17. If yes….
Please provide contact name and email
address.
173
APPENDIX D
Interview Protocol
Introductory comments
Thank you for agreeing to speak with me today. I appreciate the time you have set aside
to answer my questions. Before we get started, I want to give you an overview of what we will
be discussing and answer any questions you have about participating. I’m a doctoral candidate in
the Organizational Leadership and Change program at the University of Southern California’s
Rossier School of Education. I’m attempting to understand the journeys women take in school
leadership and how the Fellowship for Aspiring Heads has influenced your journey.
I want to make sure you understand that the data I am collecting will be confidential and
stored in a secure way. If I reference any quoted material, I will use pseudonyms to protect the
identity of all of my subjects. If there are any questions you do not want to answer, that is fine.
Please just say so. In addition, if you want to stop, quit, or withdraw from the study at any time,
that is also fine.
I will be preparing an executive summary of my findings to present to NAIS. To protect
the identity of all participants, I will not share the names, year of Fellowship attendance, current
or former schools, or any other identifying information. Pseudonyms will be used.
If you have any questions or concerns about this study, and you would like to speak to
someone other than me about it, please call the USC IRB. You can reach them using the listed
phone number and by referencing the IRB number indicated at the bottom of this sheet. (Provide
informed consent handout with referenced information at the bottom.)
Are you okay with all of this?
174
Finally, before we start, I would like to cover my interview process. I have two recorders
with me today, one on my phone and a back-up, so that I can accurately capture the information
you share. At any time, if you would like to stop the recording, please let me know. I am happy
to do that. Immediately after the interview, the data will be transcribed and the recordings
removed from both devices. May I have your permission to record and get started?
Interview Protocol with Transitions
1. (Motivation: Expectancy-Value). Can you tell me about your journey to leadership and how
you decided you wanted to lead a school?
a. If you can think of a thing or event that lead you to believe or started your belief that
you could and should lead, could you tell me that story?
b. Can you tell me about a few significant experiences that helped you believe you
would be a good head of school?
(Transition): I would like to talk a bit now about your experience in search for or becoming a
head of school (and your experience as a head of school, if you are one).
2. (Knowledge: K.3). Can you tell me about your search process: how you initiated and
conducted it and how it changed over time, if it did?
a. If your search process changed over time, what influenced those changes?
b. In what ways did the Fellowship alter or influence your manner of conducting your
search process, if it did?
c. When you entered the Fellowship, where were you in your processes?
d. How long did you actively look for a headship and how did you conduct the process?
175
e. (Cultural Setting Influence 1): Can you tell me about the search firm(s) you worked
with and how they influenced your search? What kind of coaching or help did you
experience on their part?
f. Boards are very influential and the search for new heads. What was your experience
with boards during the search?
(Transition): Now that you are a school head, I’m sure you’ve become quite acquainted with
the history of your school.
3. (Knowledge: K.2). Does your school have a history of hiring women in the headship or are
you the first? How do you think being/not being the first at your school shapes your role?
Can you tell me more about that?
4. (Knowledge: K.2). I wonder if there are differences for men and women in the journey to a
headship. What do you think based on your experiences?
a. In what ways, if at all, were any of these differences addressed by you?
b. Do you feel you have experienced any biases related to being female in your
leadership journey? Can you tell me about them? How about as a head of school or
candidate for head of school?
c. Are there any important things you’ve learned or realized about being a woman in the
top leadership position? Can you tell me about those? Were you prepared to deal with
that? Can you tell me more about that preparation or lack thereof?
(Transition). I have a few questions about your leadership now.
5. (Knowledge: K.4). Can you describe your leadership strengths for me? What opportunities or
people were most impactful to you in developing your leadership strengths?
176
6. (Knowledge: K.4). How do you think the Fellowship impacted your leadership strengths?
Can you tell me about a specific change in your leadership that resulted from participation in
the Fellowship? What parts of your educational and/or professional journey most influenced
the way you lead? Tell me more.
(Transition). If you don’t mind, I would like to get your perspective on how being a head of
school affects other areas of your life. Is that okay?
7. (Knowledge: K.1 and Motivation: Cost). Some would say that the responsibility of a family
and domestic life conflicts with the responsibilities of being a head of school and that there
isn’t a way to do both well. What would you say to that? What steps would you share that
have helped you to do both well?
a. When you think of your life, what are the major roles you currently occupy and how
do you manage the responsibility of all these roles?
b. What are the biggest time or commitment related challenges with
leadership/headship? How do these impact other areas of your life? How do you deal
with that?
c. Is there a cost to leadership? If so, what is it? In your opinion is it worth it?
d. What, if anything, helped you prepare for any role or responsibility conflicts you
experience?
e. Did the Fellowship or other professional development help prepare you to navigate all
of your roles? If so, how?
(Transition.) I would like to talk specifically about your journey to apply to and become part
of the Fellowship for a few minutes
177
8. (Cultural Model Influence 1). The Fellowship is a significant commitment for you and the
school supporting you. How did you learn about the Fellowship and come to apply for it?
a. Can you tell me about the school that supported you to apply to the fellowship,
and how you and that school determined that you would pursue the Fellowship?
What kind, if any, support and encouragement was provided by this school?
b. During your search for a headship, did you receive help or support from your
former/current school? Can you tell me about that? Who, specifically, was
supportive and how?
9. (Cultural Model Influence 1). . How well do you perceive that the independent school
community, including individual independent schools and professional organizations like
NAIS, supports and promotes women as heads of school?
a. How do you perceive boards support women as prospective heads of school? (Probe
with “Can you tell more about those perceptions?”)
b. How do you perceive search firms support women as prospective heads of school?
(Probe with “Can you tell more about those perceptions?”)
c. What portions, if any, of the Fellowship specifically addressed the unique concerns of
women aspiring to leadership?
d. What other professional development opportunities in which you have participated, if
any, do you feel have addressed the unique concerns of women aspiring to
leadership? Can you tell me more about that?
10. (Cultural Setting Influence 1). The Fellowship pairs participants with sitting heads of school
as mentors. You don’t have to share names, but can you tell me a bit about your mentor?
a. How would you describe the relationship with your mentor?
178
b. How did it affect your pursuit of the headship?
11. (Motivation: SE) What life influences cultivated your confidence to lead? Tell me about
that.
12. (Motivation: SE) Were there any specific relationships or feedback that resulted from the
Fellowship that feel pivotal in your journey to the Headship? Can you tell me about that?
13. (Motivation: SE) If you’ve had other sponsors or mentors who you feel have been pivotal in
your leadership journey, can you tell me about those?
14. (Cultural Setting Influence 1) I’d like to discuss the professional support you have
experienced in your leadership journey. What role did they play? Who has mentored you or
helped you learn and acquire the tools you felt you needed? Can you tell me more about
those experiences?
15. (Motivation: Cost) Can you tell me about what you do in your personal time? How much
time do you have for yourself? Is that amount okay with you? Tell me about that.
16. (Motivation: Cost) Do you have time to do everything at work and home that want to do? Is
there one area that gets less attention than another? Tell me about that? Is what you are doing
worth it? Why do you answer that way?
17. K/M/O: If you had a magic wand and could create a professional development experience to
better prepare women like yourself for the highest independent school leadership roles, what
would you do?
18. Is there anything else that you would like to share with me about the Fellowship or your
journey and story?
179
APPENDIX E
Information Sheet/Facts for Exempt Non-Medical Research
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
WAITE PHILLIPS HALL
3470 TROUSDALE PARKWAY
LOS ANGELES, CA 90089
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
IMPROVING THE REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN
IN THE INDEPENDENT SCHOOL HEADSHIP
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This research study aims to understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
that affect the attainment of an independent school headship by women. The study is being
conducted to provide an understanding of the factors for aspiring women that either facilitate or
inhibit the achievement of the goal to be a head of school. Furthermore, this study aims to shed
light on how the National Association of Independent Schools’ Fellowship for Aspiring Heads
has benefitted or failed to benefit women seeking head of school jobs. The knowledge gained
from this study can be used to implement improvements and create other programs that equip
women to successfully pursue and attain headships in independent schools.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 5-minute survey. If
you meet specific study-related criteria, you may also be asked to participate in a 60 to 90-
minute audio-taped interview, conducted either in-person or via video-conferencing software.
You do not have to answer any survey questions you don’t want to. You do now have to
participate in the interview if you don’t want to. If you don’t want to be taped, you cannot
participate in the interview portion of this study.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not be compensated for participation in the survey. If you participate in the interview,
you will receive $10 Starbucks gift card as a thank you for your time. You do not have to answer
all of the questions in order to receive the card. The card will be mailed to you after completion
of the interview.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Audio recordings will be kept in a password protected computer file until completion of the
dissertation project, which is anticipated to be May 2020. At that time recordings will be
180
destroyed. The online transcription service Rev.com will be used to transcribe audio recordings.
Rev.com protects the privacy of all recordings, which are encrypted using bank-level security.
All Rev.com transcribers sign non-disclosure confidentiality agreements and work on secure
platforms. Only the principal investigator and Rev.com will have access to recordings. Only the
principal researcher and the project advisor will have access to the transcripts. Transcripts will
also be stored in a password protected computer file. You will not have access to recordings or
transcripts. All participants will be assigned a pseudonym. The school or schools which employ
or have employed the participants will also be assigned a pseudonym. Because the results of this
study may be useful to the National Association of Independent Schools, results of the study will
be shared with the organization. No identifying information or raw data will be shared. An
executive summary of the findings will be prepared and presented upon study completion.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator Michelle Odell via email at michelro@usc.edu or phone at (407) 468-5958
or Faculty Advisor Dr. Tracy Poon Tambascia at tpoon@rossier.usc.edu or 213-740-9747
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board, 1640 Marengo Street, Suite 700,
Los Angeles, CA 90033-9269. Phone (323) 442-0114 or email irb@usc.edu.
181
APPENDIX F
Evaluation Tool for Level 1 and Level 2
Thank you for your recent participation in the online women’s session for the Aspiring
Heads Fellowship. Please provide your responses to this short survey about the session help us
understand your experience and provide information about what supported or hindered your
learning. Your response provides important information as we work to improve our overall
support for and education of aspiring female heads of school. Thank you for lending your voice
to the process!
The survey is to be given after each of the four online networking session. Survey Items
for both Level 1 and Level 2 will use a four-point Likert scale: strongly agree, agree, disagree,
strongly disagree.
Level One: Reactions
Engagement 1. The online sessions improved my understanding of
initiating and undergoing the headship search process.
2. I felt engaged in the online session.
Relevance 3. I feel the information gained in the most recent online
session has been relevant to my headship search plans and
process.
Satisfaction 4. The online session was a valuable use of my time.
Level Two: Learning
Declarative Knowledge
(survey; Likert scale)
5. The online networking session increased my knowledge of
important aspects of the head of school search process or
negotiation process.
6. The online networking session increased my knowledge of
means of sustaining both home and work life.
182
Declarative Knowledge
(written reflection prompt)
In one page or less, reflect on what your questions were prior
to the session and what you learned during the session. Close
your reflection with one or two new questions if you have
them.
Procedural Skills 7. I can employ strategies to successfully deal with gender
bias.
8. I can discuss contract non-negotiables with a search
committee.
Attitude 9. The online networking session was important to my
leadership journey.
Confidence 10. After the online networking session, I feel more confident
in my ability to advocate for personal non-negotiables.
Commitment 11. I have used what I learned in the online session to create an
action plan for my headship search process.
183
APPENDIX G
Blended Evaluation
Thank you for your recent participation in the women’s networking groups during the
Fellowship for Aspiring Heads. Please provide your responses to this short survey about the
session to help us understand your overall experience. Your response provides important
information as we work to continuously improve our support for and education of aspiring
female heads of school. Thank you for lending your voice to the process!
The survey is to be given at the last in-person meeting for the Fellowship for Aspiring
Heads. All survey Items will use a four-point Likert scale: strongly agree, agree, disagree,
strongly disagree.
Level One: Reactions
L1: Reaction Engagement The core topics covered in the networking sessions were
valuable to my leadership growth.
Relevance The women’s networking sessions were applicable to my
leadership journey.
Satisfaction I found the women’s networking sessions to be a
valuable use of my time.
L2: Learning I have Identified my own personal non-negotiables for
my leadership search.
I have skills to help me sustain both work and home life.
I understand how to engage in contract negotiation that
protects my non-negotiables.
I am able to implement strategies to deal with gender
bias.
I have a routine of self-reflection.
I have found mentors or networks to help me develop
specific, needed skills.
184
L3: Behavior I have applied for a head of school position.
I maintain a relationship with a mentor who consults
with me about my search process.
I maintain a network of peers who support my search
process.
I actively pursue relationships with search consultants.
I seek feedback from wise others in my search process.
L4: Results I am actively pursuing independent school headships.
I have been interviewed by members of a school’s search
committee for a headship.
I feel that I am a viable candidate in school headship
searches.
I do not feel that I am a token woman in school headship
searches.
185
APPENDIX H
Sample Dashboard to Report Progress Towards Goals
Abstract (if available)
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Odell, Michelle Rene
(author)
Core Title
Improving the representation of women in the independent school headship
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Publication Date
04/22/2020
Defense Date
03/03/2020
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
equity,headship,independent school,NAIS,networks,OAI-PMH Harvest,parity,Women
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Tambascia, Tracy (
committee chair
), Malloy, Courtney Lynn (
committee member
), Robles, Darline (
committee member
)
Creator Email
Michelleodell04@gmail.com,michelro@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-284025
Unique identifier
UC11673906
Identifier
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Dmrecord
284025
Document Type
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Odell, Michelle Rene
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(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
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Repository Name
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Repository Location
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Tags
equity
headship
independent school
NAIS
networks
parity