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Fathers’ social-cognitive network connectivity: associations with prenatal father-infant attachment and postpartum parenting behavior

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Fathers’ social-cognitive network connectivity: associations with prenatal father-infant attachment and postpartum parenting behavior

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Content Running Head: FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING

Fathers’ Social-Cognitive Network Connectivity: Associations with Prenatal Father-Infant
Attachment and Postpartum Parenting Behavior

Narcis A. Marshall, B.A.

Advised by Darby Saxbe, PhD

University of Southern California

Degree being conferred - Master of Art (PSYCHOLOGY)
Degree conferral date - December 2019

FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 2
Table of Contents

Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………… 3
Fathers’ Social-Cognitive Network Connectivity…………………………………………. 4
Social Cognition, Empathy, and Successful Adjustment to Parenting …………… 5
Empathy, Perspective-Taking and the Default-Mode Network (DMN) …………. 7
Current Study ………………………………………………………….…………. 11
Specific Aims …………………………………………………………………………….. 12
Methods …………………………………………………………………………………… 12
Participants ……………………………………………………………………….. 12
Procedures ………………………………………………………………………… 13
Measures ………………………………………………………………………….. 14
Functional Connectivity ………………………………………………….. 13
Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) ……………………………………... 13
Paternal Antenatal Attachment Scale (PAAS) …………………………… 14
Parenting Young Children Questionnaire – Infant Version (PARYC-I) … 14
Analytical Approach ……………………………………………………………… 15
Results ……………………………………………………………………………………. 18
Sample Descriptives ……………………………………………………………… 18
Resting-state fMRI …..…………………………………………………………… 18
Discussion ………………………………………………………………………………… 19
Table 1 ……………………………………………………………………………………. 24
Figure 1 ………………………………………………………………………………..…. 25
References ………………………………………………………………………………… 26

FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 3
Abstract
Fathers play a critical role in parenting, and children with involved and supportive fathers
show long-term benefits in multiple domains. However, the neurobiological underpinnings of
successful adjustment to fatherhood have not been well-specified. Stronger empathic abilities
may characterize fathers who show greater bonding with their infants and more effective
parenting behaviors. Connectivity in brain networks associated with social cognition, in
particular, the default mode network (DMN), may support these abilities. This study examines
whether expectant fathers’ connectivity in the DMN is associated with their self-reported
empathy, bonding, and parenting. We used resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI) and independent components analysis (ICA) to assess resting-state functional
connectivity (rsFC) in functional hubs of the DMN of 25 expectant fathers. We used a dual-
regression approach to test associations between ICA-derived measures of DMN rsFC and self-
report measures of empathy, antenatal paternal attachment, and parenting behaviors. This study
found null results for relationships between prenatal connectivity of the DMN and paternal
empathy, prenatal attachment, and postpartum parenting behaviors. Specifically, no regions of
the DMN showed significantly increased rsFC in correlation to either higher or lower self-
reported paternal trait empathy (IRI), antenatal paternal attachment (PAAS), or positive
postpartum parenting behaviors (PARYC). Despite limitations, this project represents a valuable
first step in investigating the neural phenomena underlying fathering behaviors.
Keywords: social-cognition, DMN, resting-state, connectivity, fatherhood, parenting
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 4
Fathers’ Social-Cognitive Network Connectivity: Associations with Prenatal Father-
Infant Attachment and Postpartum Parenting Behavior
Fathers are critical to children’s health and development, but fatherhood remains
understudied within the research literature. The children of involved fathers show enhanced well-
being in multiple domains, including physical health, peer relationships, academic achievements,
psychological resilience, and long-term socioeconomic outcomes (Feldman, 2003; Howard et al.,
2006). Importantly, fathers make unique contributions to their children’s cognitive, social, and
emotional development, over and above the effects of mothers’ involvement and family financial
resources (Cabrera et al., 2007; Cabrera et al., 2006; Shannon et al., 2002). Fathers’ active and
regular engagement with their children has been shown to predict a wide range of positive
outcomes, such as reducing the frequency of behavioral and psychological problems and
enhancing cognitive and emotional development (Cabrera et al., 2007). Father involvement may
be especially important in families with low socioeconomic status, where it may buffer the
adverse outcomes associated with economic disadvantage (Cabrera et al., 2007).
Despite the enormous role fathers play in shaping child outcomes, research has shed little
light on what factors underlie successful fathering and, particularly on how fathers’ neurobiology
supports more (or less) effective parenting behaviors. For example, fathers’ empathy and
perspective-taking may support effective parenting (Davidov & Grusec, 2006; Maccoby &
Martin, 1983; Steinburg, 2001), but the neural underpinnings of empathy and perspective-taking
have received little study within a fathering context. However, transitions to fatherhood are
accompanied by specific neural and psychological changes (Abraham et al., 2014; Seifritz et al.,
2003). One brain network, in particular, may have important implications for empathy and
perspective-taking but has not been specifically studied in expectant fathers. This network,
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 5
known as the default mode network (DMN; Andrews-Hanna et al., 2010; Buckner et al., 2008;
Rilling et al., 2013; Shulman et al., 1997) is a key network associated with social cognition that
may shed light on how expectant fathers’ neurobiology maps onto their later parenting behavior.
The proposed study addresses critical gaps in prior research examining fathers’ transition to
parenthood and examines for the first time how fathers’ prenatal empathy and patterns of neural
connectivity are associated with parenting and father-child attachment.
Social Cognition, Empathy, and Successful Adjustment to Parenting
Fathers can shape their children’s welfare directly through their parenting behaviors.
Developmental research has found strong evidence linking more involved and supportive parents
with better child outcomes, including cognitive enhancement, better social adjustment, and
buffering against internalizing/externalizing symptoms (Barber et al., 2005; Cabrera et al., 2007;
Steinberg 2001; Gray & Steinberg, 1999). Parental support is associated with increased
responsiveness and positive parenting (Steinberg 2001), and relies on the empathic and
responsive recognition of the child’s perspective (Davidov & Grusec, 2006). Thus, these
empathetic and perspective-taking abilities are critical to the successful, supportive parenting that
promotes positive child outcomes.
Parenting that combines support with regulation (i.e., supervising children’s behavior and
creating a predictable environment through consistent discipline/expectations), known as
authoritative parenting, has been consistently linked with more positive child outcomes (see
Maccoby & Martin, 1983). This style of parenting relies on parental empathic and perspective-
taking abilities (Steinberg 2001; Davidoc & Grusec, 2006), and has been correlated with better
emotional regulation, increased empathic and prosocial behavior, greater peer acceptance, higher
school performance, and greater overall psychological wellbeing (Dornbush et al., 1987; Gray &
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 6
Steinberg, 1999; Lamborn et al., 1991; Steinberg et al., 1989; Steinberg et al., 1991; Steinberg et
al., 1992; Steinberg et al., 1994; Luyckx et al., 2011). Furthermore, studies have found consistent
links between uninvolved parenting styles, such as permissive or disengaged parenting (e.g., low
monitoring and supervision), and negative child outcomes, such as increased antisocial or
maladaptive behavior, and both internalizing and externalizing symptoms (Schaffer et al., 2009;
Ehrensaft et al., 2003; Reti et al., 2002; Barber et al., 2005; Gray & Steinberg, 1999). The
disadvantages associated with such parenting styles have been shown to accumulate and
compound over time (Collins et al., 2000; Steinberg, 2001; Luyckx et al., 2011). Importantly,
one study by Simons & Conger (2007) found that having even just one parent who exhibits a
more supportive parenting style may provide a buffer to these disadvantages and partially
mitigate the negative outcomes associated with less involved parenting. Together, these findings
provide strong evidence in favor of more supportive parenting styles, and emphasize the
importance of the empathic and perspective-taking abilities underlying them.
Supportive parenting relies directly on a parent’s ability to empathize and adopt another’s
perspective. Empathy is defined as an individual’s ability to understand and share the feelings,
thoughts, or experiences of another. Historically, there have been two schools of thought
regarding empathy, either as primarily an affective or as both an affective and a cognitive
construct. The earlier conceptualization focused solely on affective components of empathy, and
imagined empathy as the vicarious experience of emotions consistent with those of others (Miller
& Eisenberg, 1988). A more recent definition has expanded the construct to include a cognitive
component, which involves understanding the feelings of another, either by means of simple
association or through a more complex perspective-taking process (Davis, 1983; de Kemp et al.,
2007). Perspective-taking refers to the cognitive effort of adopting another person’s point of
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 7
view, or seeing things from their perspective (Davis, 1994). These abilities are fundamental to
good social functioning and essential in the establishment of close social relationships.
In addition to affecting child outcomes directly, empathy and perspective-taking may also
contribute to child wellbeing by influencing the relationship between fathers and their caregiving
partners. Research has shown that harmonious relationships between parents are linked to better
child outcomes, particularly higher academic achievement, greater social competence and peer
acceptance, decreased rates of both externalizing and internalizing symptoms, as well as better
physical health outcomes and decreased risk of mortality (Steinberg et al., 2001; Barber et al.,
2005; Gray & Steinberg, 1999; Luyckx et al., 2011; Repetti et al., 2002). Numerous studies have
also found links between parental relationships characterized by conflict or poor communication
and adverse health outcomes among children, suggesting a strong link between parenting and
child health (Luecken & Fabricius, 2003; Margolin et al., 2001; Murphy et al., 2017; Troxel &
Matthews, 2004).
These findings have important implications for understanding the mechanisms through
which fathers may shape child outcomes and underscore the importance of elucidating the
different neurobiological features underlying fathers’ ability to engage in supportive parenting
behaviors.
Empathy, Perspective-Taking and the Default-Mode Network (DMN)
Research has shown that empathy and perspective-taking, which both contribute to social
cognition, may be linked to patterns of co-activation within certain regions of the brain, and that
neural connectivity between these regions may underlie our socio-emotional functioning. The
activation patterns in brain regions associated with social cognition show strong and highly
consistent overlap with a certain network known as the default mode network (DMN). Some
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 8
researchers have even proposed that the default mode is tantamount to social cognition, which
contains aspects of empathy and perspective-taking (Schilbach et al., 2008). Given its important
role in social cognition, the DMN is of particular interest for studying the neural underpinnings
of parenting. Indeed, prior neuroimaging work has shown that parenting behaviors appear to be
supported by an array of social-cognitive brain structures that are considered part of the DMN,
including emotion processing regions, as well as frontal executive control regions (Rilling et al.,
2013; Shulman et al., 1997; Buckner et al., 2008; Andrews-Hanna et al., 2010).
Neural connectivity within the DMN has been linked to humans’ ability to empathize and
understand others—traits essential to supportive and successful parenting (Davidov & Grusec,
2006; Steinburg, 2001; Maccoby & Martin, 1983). The close relationship between the DMN and
social cognition can be seen at both the network level and at the level of individual brain regions
within this network. Evidence from neuroimaging research suggests that certain regions and
subsystems within the DMN provide specific functional support for a number of abilities
necessary to empathy and perspective taking, for example, making self-other distinctions,
understanding others’ emotional states, and vicariously experiencing the pain of others (Kelley et
al., 2002; D’Argembeau et al., 2005; Heatherton et al., 2006; Mitchell et al., 2006; Andrews-
Hanna et al., 2010; Cheng et al., 2007; Meyer et al., 2013).
The DMN typically emerges during rest, when individuals are not focused on the external
environment (Buckner et al., 2008). It has traditionally been considered purely a ‘task-negative’
network, engaged only when individuals are involved in unrestrained cognition, and suspended
during directed attention-demanding tasks (Buckner et al., 2008). However, more recent studies
have found that this network is also engaged during tasks that require individuals to understand
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 9
and interact with others, lending support to the robust association between the DMN and social
cognition (Schilbach et al., 2008; Laird et al., 2011).
The DMN is most commonly studied using functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI), an imaging method that leverages blood flow in the brain to approximate neural
activation. As the DMN is typically engaged during rest, study of this network lends itself neatly
to use of resting-state fMRI, in which participants lie awake in the scanner without engaging in a
task. A recent study by Takeuchi et al. (2014) examining resting-state functional connectivity
(rsFC) of the DMN found that higher connectivity is linked with greater empathic ability.
Moreover, studies that have examined rsFC of individuals with disorders characterized by social
and emotional deficits (e.g., autism spectrum conditions) have consistently found abnormal
connectivity within regions associated with the DMN (see Baron-Cohen, 2004). Importantly, one
recent study by Assaf et al. (2010), which examined rsFC of the DMN in autism spectrum
disorder patients, found that connectivity in core areas of the DMN was diminished among these
individuals. Furthermore, the severity of their social deficits was inversely correlated with DMN
rsFC strength, such that weaker DMN connectivity was associated with poorer social functioning
(Assaf et al., 2010). These findings strengthen prior work linking connectivity within the DMN
to aspects of social functioning and specifically, to empathy and perspective-taking abilities.
Functional hubs of the DMN include medial posterior cortex and medial prefrontal cortex
(mPFC), specifically the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) and precuneus, as well as bilateral
inferior parietal lobule (IPL) extending out to posterior temporal regions around the temporo-
parietal junction (see review by Li et al., 2014). In addition to these key hubs, the DMN may also
include the hippocampus along with adjacent regions in the medial temporal lobe and lateral
temporal cortex extending toward the temporal pole (Shulman et al., 1997; Buckner et al., 2008;
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 10
Andrews-Hanna et al., 2010). These areas represent areas of high interest in examining
dimensions of social behavior, including parenting. Connectivity between key regions of the
DMN has been linked to differences in social-emotional functioning, and may be essential to the
kinds of empathic, perspective-taking, and sensitivity abilities necessary for positive parenting
(Takeuchi et al., 2014; Uddin et al., 2007). Interestingly, recent findings indicate that these
regions may differentially contribute to specialized functions and facets of social cognition
through subsystem organization (Buckner et al., 2008; Andrews-Hanna et al., 2010; see review
by Li et al., 2014).
The DMN is characterized by certain subsystems, which have been implicated in various
processes that critically underlie empathy and perspective-taking, including specifically,
emotion-engagement, making self-other distinctions, and consideration of others’ mental states
(Takeuchi et al., 2014; Li et al., 2014). One subsystem of particular importance to social
cognition is the MPFC subsystem, which has implicated in self-referential processing (Northoff
et al., 2011; Wagner et al., 2012; Moran et al., 2013), as well as emotion engagement,
perception, and processing (see Li et al., 2014). Research has indicated that different areas of the
MPFC have distinct functional responsibilities. One area within the MPFC subsystem, the
ventral MPFC (vMPFC), is believed to play a crucial role in processing emotional features
during social cognition, particularly through involvement in key reinforcement and emotion
learning systems (Blair, 2007). Neuroimaging studies suggest that the dense connections
between the vMPFC and emotion processing regions (e.g., amygdala, insula) may allow this
region to represent and regulate socioemotional states, as well as synthesize a wide range of
information in order to represent affective mental states (Abu-Akel and Shamay-Tsoory, 2011).
Along with the vMPFC, another area in the MPFC subsystem, the anterior MPFC (aMPFC), is
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 11
also vital to empathic functions. The aMPFC has been proposed to underlie humans’ ability to
make self-other distinctions (Kelley et al., 2002; D’Argembeau et al., 2005; Heatherton et al.,
2006; Mitchell et al., 2006), and rsFC in this region has been linked with the vicarious
experience of physical and social pain (Cheng et al., 2007; Meyer et al., 2013). rsFC of yet
another region within the MPFC, the dorsal MPFC (dMPFC), has been shown to make important
contributions to humans’ ability to understand others’ mental states (Andrews-Hanna et al.,
2010). These findings suggest that the MPFC and related subsystems play a crucial role in the
successful regulation of emotional perception and responses, as well as the social-cognitive
processes underpinning empathy and perspective-taking (see Li et al., 2014).
Current Study
Despite the important role of the MPFC and related subsystems, the rsFC of these
subsystems has never been studied in a parenting context. This study addresses these critical
gaps in existing knowledge by examining for the first time whether differences in fathers’ social-
cognitive brain circuitry (i.e., DMN) are predictive of parenting behavior and later father-child
attachment. The findings of this work provide a stronger empirical understanding of neural
factors underlying transitions to fatherhood, as well as provide possible predictive insight into
how neural phenomena map onto dimensions of paternal caregiving and child outcomes. No
studies have yet examined resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) together with parenting or
scanned soon-to-be fathers prenatally. This project represents a first step in investigating how
neurobiological factors contribute to fathering behavior and how these dimensions of caregiving,
in turn, shape child development and psychosocial outcomes.

FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 12
Specific Aims for Proposed Study

Aim 1: Examine whether prenatal connectivity of the DMN is associated with fathers’
self-reported trait empathy. We expect that fathers with increased rsFC of the DMN will report
higher scores on the IRI.
Aim 2: Examine whether prenatal connectivity of the DMN is associated with self-
reported father-child attachment. We expect that fathers with stronger rsFC of the DMN will
report stronger prenatal parent-child attachment on the Paternal Antenatal Attachment Scale.
Aim 3: Examine whether prenatal connectivity of the DMN predicts fathers’ self-
reported parenting behaviors. We expect that fathers with higher rsFC of the DMN will endorse
more supportive and positive parenting styles, as measured by the Parenting Young Children
Questionnaire – Infant Version; PARYC-I.

Methods
Participants
This study reported on first-time fathers (ages 25-41, M = 31.60) who were cohabitating
with their partners during the study and expecting single babies. Participant demographics are
reported in Table 1. Prenatal scan and self-report data were available from 25 fathers, and
postpartum self-report data were available for 15 of these fathers. Participants were recruited
from the ongoing HATCH (Hormones Across the Transition to Childrearing) study, which is
currently funded by an NSF CAREER award to the lab PI, Dr. Saxbe. Exclusion criteria included
certain medications or conditions that interfere with the hormones investigated under other parts
of the HATCH study (e.g., steroid medicines, Cushing’s disease), psychiatric illness requiring
medication, as well as use of illegal drugs. Users of tobacco, marijuana, and some psychiatric
medications were allowed to participate if able to abstain for 24 hrs prior to their study visit.
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 13
Individuals who exhibited any of the following were excluded: contraindication for magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), left-handedness, neurological or movement disorders, claustrophobia,
history of brain injury, psychotropic medication, or severe learning disability. Eligibility criteria
also necessitated that participants had sufficient English language fluency to complete study
measures and scanning procedures in English. Otherwise, we sought to recruit a
socioeconomically and ethnically diverse sample.
Procedures
Fathers participated in three separate visits: a prenatal laboratory visit, a prenatal MRI
visit, and a postpartum laboratory visit. The prenatal laboratory visit took place in the NEST Lab
at the University of California (USC) during mid-to-late pregnancy (20-35 weeks). Fathers
completed questionnaire measures to assess psychosocial functioning (i.e., Interpersonal
Reactivity Index (IRI)), and prenatal infant attachment (i.e., Parental Antenatal Attachment Scale
(PAAS)).
The prenatal MRI visit took place at the Dana and David Dornsife Cognitive
Neuroimaging Center (DNI) at USC. MRI visits were scheduled to take place shortly after the
prenatal visit (occurring within 2 weeks of the prenatal visit). These visits included a 7-minute
resting-state scan to assess rsFC in social-cognition networks (i.e., DMN).
The postpartum laboratory visit took place in the NEST Lab six months after birth with
the infant present. Fathers completed a questionnaire measure to assess parenting behaviors (i.e.,
the Parenting Young Children – Infant Version (PARYC-I) measure; Gill, Shaw, & Dishion,
unpublished).

FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 14
Measures
Functional Connectivity
Functional connectivity was assessed during a 7-minute resting-state fMRI sequence
during the prenatal MRI visit. Fathers underwent the following fMRI sequence: 210 volumes, 64
x 64 matrix; repetition time [TR] = 2000 ms; echo time [TE] = 25 ms; flip angle = 90°; voxel
dimensions = 3 x 3 x 2.5 mm; slice thickness = 2.5 mm. Additionally, a high-resolution
MPRAGE Coronal IO image was obtained for anatomical reference within the same imaging
session. Scans were conducted using a 3.0 T Siemens MAGNETOM Prisma
fit
scanner.
Participants were instructed to remain awake and were presented with a standard fixation cross.
Experimenters checked-in with participants immediately following the resting-state scan to
verify that they remained awake.
Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI)
The Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) is a widely-used self-report measure designed to
provide a multi-dimensional assessment of empathy (Davis, 1980). It consists of four subscales
that map directly on to distinct components of empathy to account for both affective and
cognitive components of empathy. The four subscales are as follows: (1) Empathic Concern
(EC), feeling emotional concern for others; (2) Perspective Taking (PT), cognitively taking the
perspective of others; (3) Fantasy (F), emotional identification with characters in fictional
situations; and (4) Personal Distress (PD), negative feelings in response to others. Items are rated
on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 0 (does not describe me well), to 4 (describes me very
well). The IRI has been shown to have strong internal validity (Davis, 1994), as well as good
reliability among the general adult population (Davis, 1980; Beven, 2004).

FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 15
Paternal Antenatal Attachment Scale (PAAS)
The Paternal Antenatal Attachment Scale (PAAS) is a 16-item self-report scale designed
to assess dimensions of prenatal father-infant attachment, including fathers’ feelings, attitudes,
and behaviors towards the fetus. It is based on a phenomenological view of paternal-fetal
attachment, which sees this bond as being based on a subjective state of love for the unborn
child, rather than an attitude or belief about the child (Condon, 1993). There is a paternal version
and maternal version, which are mostly identical except for some slight wording changes. The
paternal version was used in this study. The PAAS consists of a Global Attachment Score, which
is comprised of all items in the measure, and two subscales: (1) Quality of Attachment, which
describes fathers’ emotional experience (e.g., tenderness/irritation) when thinking of the fetus,
and (2) Preoccupation with the Fetus, which refers to the strength and amount of time spent
thinking about the baby. Higher scores indicate a stronger and more adaptive attachment style.
The PAAS has been shown to have good internal consistency and construct validity (Condon,
1993). The current study focused on the global score for greater reliability.
Parenting Young Children Questionnaire – Infant Version (PARYC-I)
The Parenting Young Children Questionnaire – Infant Version (PARYC-I) is a 17-item
self-report measure that is designed to assess the frequency of different parenting behaviors (Gill
et al., unpublished). Higher scores on the PARYC-I indicate greater endorsement of more
effective and positive parenting behaviors. Items can be divided into two subscales of parenting
behavior: (1) Support (e.g., “Were you able to play with your baby in a way that was fun for
him/her?”) and (2) Planning Ahead (e.g., “Were you able to distract your baby when s/he was
about to get upset?”). Items are assessed on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Not at all) to 7
(Most of the time). After each of the parenting behavior subscales, parents were asked to rate
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 16
whether or not they would like to do things differently in that area of parenting. These items
were assessed on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Really want to change) to 7 (Fine as is)
and were reverse-scored in analyses.
The PARYC-I was adapted from the original Parenting Young Children Questionnaire
(PARYC). Developmentally inappropriate items (e.g., discipline practices) in the adapted
PARYC-I were reworded and/or removed to make this measure suitable for parents of infants.
The original PARYC is a 21-item self-report measure that is designed to assess the frequency of
different parenting behaviors. The PARYC has been demonstrated to have strong internal
consistency, convergent and predictive validity, as well as modest to moderate correlations with
other standardized measures of parenting perceptions and child behaviors (McEachern et al.,
2012).
Analytical Approach
Measures of rsFC between functional hubs of the DMN were acquired during prenatal
fMRI. Independent component analysis (ICA) was used to assess functional connectivity (FC) of
the DMN for resting state analyses. ICA is a multivariate data-driven approach that extracts
spatially independent “components” with closely co-varying hemodynamic time-courses in order
to identify temporally coherent networks. This approach has been successfully used to identify
the DMN, as well as sub-networks of the DMN, and to assess FC within these networks during
resting-state sequences (Calhoun et al., 2001; McKeown & Sejnowski, 1998).
We used FSL MELODIC software to perform independent component analysis (ICA).
Pre-processed fMRI images for each subject were concatenated across time to yield a single 4D
image. The 4D dataset was analyzed using the MELODIC algorithm of FSL, which uses
probabilistic ICA and allows automatic estimation of relevant noise and signal sources in the
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 17
data (https://fsl.fmrib.ox.ac.uk/fsl/fslwiki/MELODIC). With this model, it is possible to assign a
significance value (p-value) to the output spatial maps (Beckmann and Smith, 2004).
Using this approach, a set of spatial maps was first be generated from group-average
analysis, which were then be back projected to yield subject-specific versions of the spatial maps
and associated time-series, via dual-regression (Beckman et al., 2009; Filippini et al., 2009). For
each subject, the group-average set of spatial maps was first be regressed as spatial regressors in
a multiple regression into that subject's 4D fMRI dataset, resulting in a set of subject-specific
time-series, one per group-level spatial map. Subject-specific time-series’ were regressed as
temporal regressors in a multiple regression into the same 4D fMRI dataset, yielding a set of
subject-specific spatial maps, one per group-level spatial map. Thus, this approach allowed both
segregation of functional networks, as well as a voxel-wise map of quantitative measures of FC.
In addition to the isolation of meaningful neural networks, including low-frequency
neural networks that emerge during resting-state (Greicius et al., 2004; Beckmann et al., 2005;
Seeley et al., 2007), ICA allows for the removal of artefacts and physiological noise
(McKeown et al., 1998; Quigley et al., 2002).The MELODIC algorithm is able to detect different
activation and artefactual components without an explicit time-series model being specified
(Beckmann & Smith, 2005). With this approach, it is possible to separate physiological noise
from other meaningful effects, even in situations where physiological noise fluctuations and
meaningful effects become temporally coupled (Beckmann et al., 2005). In our analyses,
artefactual components were removed.
Twenty independent components were estimated; this number was chosen to avoid
underfitting or overfitting the data, which is a potential concern with probabilistic ICA. From
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 18
these components, one component was qualitatively selected by visual inspection as
representative of the DMN (Griffanti et al., 2017; Kelly et al., 2010; see Figure 1).
The relationship between prenatal connectivity of the DMN and fathers’ empathic
abilities was tested using four dual-regression models. These regression models assessed the
relationship between each of the 4 scales of the IRI (i.e., PT, PD, FS, and EC) and prenatal ICA-
derived DMN rsFC using the regression methods detailed above.
The relationship between prenatal connectivity of the DMN and prenatal father-child
attachment was tested using one dual-regression model. This model examines the relationship
between prenatal PAAS scores and prenatal ICA-derived DMN rsFC using the regression
methods detailed above.
The relationship between prenatal connectivity of the DMN and fathers’ postpartum
parenting behaviors was similarly tested using one dual-regression model. This model assessed
the relationship between postpartum PARYC-I scores and prenatal ICA-derived DMN rsFC
using the regression methods detailed above.

Results
Sample Descriptives
Sample demographics and descriptives are shown in Table 1.
Resting-state fMRI
There were no regions in which rsFC with the DMN significantly correlated with higher
empathic concern, fantasy-seeking, personal distress, or perspective-taking, using a viewing
threshold of p = 0.05. Similarly, there were no regions in which rsFC with the DMN significantly
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 19
correlated lower empathic concern, fantasy-seeking, personal distress, perspective-taking using a
viewing threshold of p = 0.05.
We found no regions in which rsFC with the DMN was associated with higher prenatal
father-child attachment using a viewing threshold of p = 0.05. Likewise, no regions showed
significantly decreased rsFC with the DMN in relation to higher prenatal father-child attachment
at a viewing threshold of p = 0.05.
There were no regions in which rsFC with the DMN significantly correlated with more
positive postpartum parenting using a viewing threshold of p = 0.05. There were no regions in
which rsFC with the DMN significantly correlated with less positive postpartum parenting at a
viewing threshold of p = 0.05.
Discussion
This study found no relationships between the resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC)
of the DMN as measured in expectant fathers and their self-reported empathy, attachment, and
postpartum parenting behavior. Specifically, no association was detected between rsFC and self-
reported paternal trait empathy as measured by the four subscales of the Interpersonal Reactivity
Index. Similarly, no associations were found for rsFC of the DMN and either fathers’ prenatal
attachment to their children or their postpartum parenting behaviors. These findings suggest that
prenatal rsFC of the DMN, as measured in expectant fathers, may not be a meaningful predictor
of parenting-relevant constructs.
It is important to consider several limitations in the interpretation of these results. Firstly,
these data were drawn from an ongoing study, and our current sample size (n = 25) is small. The
pace of data collection for the ongoing study has been constrained by the longitudinal study
design and focus on the specific population of expectant fathers. While many published fMRI
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 20
studies in both the parenting and the resting state literatures have sample sizes <20—smaller than
the sample size for this study—lower sample sizes typically decrease power and render it more
difficult to make strong, statistically sound inferences about discovered effects. Sample selection
effects may also have influenced the findings of this study. The sample reflects partnered fathers
who are willing to participate in an intensive study. It is possible that such individuals may have
characteristics that differ from partnered fathers who did not choose to participate.
A second experimental limitation involves the quantity of resting state data available
from each participant. Each subject contributed a modest amount of functional data
(approximately 7 minutes), which prohibits robust estimation of connectivity dynamics and state
transitions at the individual level. Longer scan times would allow patterns of connectivity to
reoccur more times, improving estimates of FC variability. Future research would benefit from
incorporating longer scanning (ideally tens of minutes), which would allow for more robust
examination of relationships between FC dynamics and behavioral variability, both within- and
between-subjects.
Thirdly, the unconstrained nature of resting-state limits our ability to draw conclusions
about FC dynamics and cognitive states. The functional roles of activation dynamics and their
associations with mental states remain unclear, as there are few tools available for interrogating
mental states without disrupting ongoing spontaneous processes. One potential solution may be
the inclusion of a retrospective post-scan questionnaire, which would help examine thought
content during the scan. Several innovative approaches have also emerged more recently that
may offer greater precision in mapping neural FC dynamics to specific cognitive states (Christoff
et al., 2009; O’Callaghan et al., 2015).
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 21
Additionally, the study relied on self-report questionnaires for measures of paternal trait
empathy (IRI), prenatal father-child attachment (PAAS), and postpartum parenting behaviors
(PARYC). While the self-report measures included in this study (i.e., IRI, PAAS, and PARYC)
are commonly used and well-validated (Davis, 1994; Davis, 1980; Beven, 2004; Condon, 1993;
McEachern et al., 2012), all self-report measures are subject to several important limitations
including: subject honesty, introspective ability, response bias, and imperfect questionnaire
validity. These limitations warrant that causal conclusions drawn from self-report measures
should be interpreted carefully and emphasize the value of using more intensive observational
measures.
Despite these limitations, this study had several strengths. Importantly, ours is the first
study to use rsFC to examine how fathers’ prenatal empathy and patterns of neural connectivity
are associated with parenting and father-child attachment. No prior research has yet examined
rsFC together with parenting or scanned soon-to-be fathers prenatally. This study addresses
critical gaps in prior research examining fathers’ transition to parenthood and probes whether
differences in fathers’ social-cognitive brain circuitry (i.e., DMN) may be predictive of parenting
behavior and later father-child attachment. This project represents a first step in investigating
how prenatal neurobiological factors contribute to later fathering behavior and how these
dimensions of caregiving, in turn, shape child development and psychosocial outcomes.
A future direction for the current project will be to repeat these analyses with a larger
sample size. Additionally, future studies should continue to examine neural phenomena
underlying transitions to fatherhood, but expand the scope of focus to include other important
large-scale functional networks (e.g., executive network, salience network, and thalamo-
cingulate network), as well as strengthening our behavioral assessment by including more
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 22
intense observational measures. The central executive network recruits fronto-parietal regions,
including dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex (Habas et al., 2009; Seeley
et al., 2007). This network is thought to play a critical role in functions such as higher-level
decision-making, cognitive control, problem-solving, and tasks involving working-memory
(Menon, 2011; Petrides, 2005). Deficits in the executive network have been observed in many
serious psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia and major depression (Woodward et al.,
2011; Menon, 2001). The salience network primarily involves the anterior insula and dorsal
anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), as well as subcortical regions including the ventral striatum
and amygdala (Uddin, 2015; Seeley et al., 2007). Neuroimaging research has implicated the
salience network in complex functions including social behaviors, self-awareness, and the
integration of emotional stimuli (Menon, 2015; Seeley et al., 2007). The salience network may
also play a key role in switching between internally- and externally-focused cognition (Seeley et
al., 2007). A third network, the thalamo-cingulate network, may also be particularly relevant for
parenting. The thalamo-cingulate network recruits areas of the cingulate, medial thalamus,
medial prefrontal cortex, and right orbitofrontal cortex (Lorberbaum et al., 2002). Previous
neuroimaging work has found activations within this network among parents may correspond to
positive instrumental caregiving and level of paternal empathy (MacLean, 1990; Rilling, 2013;
Mascaro & Rilling, 2013). The thalamocingulate network has been heavily implicated in
mammalian caregiving and may play a critical role in human parenting behaviors (Rilling &
Mascaro, 2017; Lorberbaum et al., 2002; Swain et al., 2007).
Additionally, future work should include more intensive observational measures to
overcome limitations of self-report measures and provide stronger support for behavioral
correlates. Videotaped parent-child interactions offer particularly valuable data and several well-
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 23
validated coding paradigms for both free-play and structured play tasks exist within the
literature. Coded parent-child interactions may provide meaningful insights into concrete, real-
world parent-child bonding patterns, parenting styles, and interactional strategies.
In conclusion, this study found no relationships between prenatal connectivity of the
DMN and paternal empathy, prenatal attachment, and postpartum parenting behaviors,
respectively. These findings may have been influenced by several important limitations,
including the relatively low sample size, the modest quantity of resting-state fMRI data available
from each participant, unconstrained nature of resting-state fMRI scans, and reliance on self-
report measures. Despite these limitations, this study innovates by examining rsFC in expectant
fathers in conjunction with measures that are relevant to parenting. By utilizing rsFC to examine
how fathers’ prenatal empathy and patterns of neural connectivity are associated with parenting
and father-child attachment, this project represents a valuable first step in investigating the neural
phenomena underlying fathers’ parenting.

FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 24

FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 25

Figure 1. A) Component corresponding to the default mode network (DMN) for full sample (n = 25).
B) Component corresponding to DMN for subject subset analyzed for postpartum measure (n = 15).
FATHERS’ DMN CONNECTIVITY, ATTACHMENT AND PARENTING 26
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Creator Marshall, Narcis Alexyss (author)

Core Title Fathers’ social-cognitive network connectivity: associations with prenatal father-infant attachment and postpartum parenting behavior

School College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Psychology

Publication Date 10/11/2019

Defense Date 04/24/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag attachment,connectivity,DMN,fatherhood,fMRI,OAI-PMH Harvest,Parenting,resting-state,social-cognition

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Saxbe, Darby (committee chair), Kaplan, Jonas (committee member), Monterosso, John (committee member), Nation, Daniel (committee member)

Creator Email Namarsha@usc.edu,nanika@ucla.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-224826

Unique identifier UC11673878

Identifier etd-MarshallNa-7860.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-224826 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MarshallNa-7860-1.pdf

Dmrecord 224826

Document Type Thesis

Rights Marshall, Narcis Alexyss

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA