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Societal violence against women and national insecurity: an evaluation study of teaching a gendered security perspective

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Societal violence against women and national insecurity: an evaluation study of teaching a gendered security perspective

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Content Running head: VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 1

Societal Violence against Women and National Insecurity:
An Evaluation Study of Teaching a Gendered Security Perspective

by

James M. Minnich

________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2019

Copyright 2019 James M. Minnich
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 2
DEDICATION
Dedicated to realizing gender equality and a better security.

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Foremost acknowledgement goes to a Heavenly Father to whom I owe all. To my best
friend, affectionate wife, and eternal companion, Susan. I am grateful for her tireless sacrifice,
support, and consideration as I labored in a challenging career and pursued this doctorate degree
at the expense of time we might have enjoyed together. Her companionship, assistance,
kindness, and love for me during these many years was truly cherished. I now relish the
opportunity to remunerate in kind while she completes her doctoral studies over these next few
years.
Being a Trojan and doctoral student of the University of Southern California was a
singular joy, enhanced by the professional tutelage of Rossier’s throng of erudite professors.
Humble appreciation for sage counsel and direction is extended to my dissertation committee:
Dr. Kathy Stowe (chair), Dr. Darline Robles, and Dr. Monique Datta. Equal gratitude is
tendered to my course professors who taught with great skill and dedication: Dr. Kathy Stowe,
Dr. Darline Robles, Dr. Monique Datta, Dr. Eric Canny, Dr. Adrian Donato, Dr. Brandon
Martinez, Dr. Raquel Sanchez, Dr. Richard Seder, Dr. Themistocles Sparangis, Dr. Ravneet
Tiwana, and Dr. Alexandra Wilcox.
My Trojan colleagues became fast friends who made this experience memorable.
Heartfelt appreciation is extended to the research participants for the generosity of their time and
insights. Indelibly etched by life’s variegate experiences and concourses of associates, I began
this doctoral program hopeful to inspire future goodness in the world; while perhaps unproven
the aspiration, resolute remains the commitment.

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 10
Introduction to the Problem of Practice 10
Organizational Context and Mission 12
Purpose of the Project and Questions 13
Related Literature 14
Importance of Addressing the Problem 16
Organizational Performance Goal 17
Description of Stakeholder Groups 18
Stakeholder Performance Goals 18
Stakeholder Group for the Study 19
Conceptual and Methodological Framework 20
Definitions 21
Organization of the Study 23
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 24
Triple Wellsprings of Societal Violence 24
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 35
Conceptual Framework: Interaction of Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation 54
and the Organizational Context
Summary 59
Chapter 3: Methodology 61
Purpose of the Project and Questions 61
Participating Stakeholders 62
Quantitative Data Collection and Instrumentation 67
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation 68
Data Analysis 72
Credibility and Trustworthiness 72
Validity and Reliability 74
Ethics 75
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 5
Summary 76
Chapter 4: Results and Findings 77
Participating Stakeholders 77
Results and Findings 80
Research Question One 80
Summary 109
Chapter 5: Discussions and Recommendations 111
Recommendations of Practice to Address KMO Influences 112
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 127
Limitations and Delimitations 143
Future Research 144
Conclusion 144
References 146
Appendices 172
Appendix A: Survey Protocol 174
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 177
Appendix C: Informed Consent Form 180
Appendix D: Post-Training Survey 182
Appendix E: Blended Evaluation® Survey 183

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 6
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals 19
Table 2. Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences: Assumed Causes 36
Addressed in the Study
Table 3. Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments for Knowledge Gap Analysis 42
Table 4. Motivational Influences and Assessments for Motivation Gap Analysis 47
Table 5. Organizational Influences and Assessments for Organizational Gap Analysis 52
Table 6. Descriptive Statistics of Study Participants (n=16) 62
Table 7. Descriptive Statistics of Study Participants (n=16) 78
Table 8. Focus Group Participants 79
Table 9. Research Question One Findings and Themes 81
Table 10. Survey Responses for Knowledge Types 89
Table 11. Survey Responses for Collective Self-efficacy 92
Table 12. Reporting Senior Emphasized Gendered Perspective Teaching in Last 12 Months 99
(n=16)
Table 13. Research Question One Findings and Themes 109
Table 14. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 112
Table 15. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 117
Table 16. Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations 121
Table 17. Summary of KMO Influences and Recommendations 126
Table 18. Internal and External Outcomes (Leading Indicators), Metrics, and Methods 129
Table 19. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 131
Table 20. Required Drivers for Support and Accountability of Critical Behaviors 132
Table 21. Evaluation of Learning Components for the Program 136
Table 22. Evaluation of Learning Components for the Program 137
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 7
Table 23. Summary of Kirkpatrick Level 4 Recommended Solutions 142
Table D1. Post-Training Survey of Level 1 Reaction and Level 2 Learning 182
Table E1. Blended Evaluation® Survey of Levels 1 Reaction, 2 Learning, 3 Behavior, 183
and 4 Results

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 8
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Conceptual framework: Knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences 56
effecting integration of gendered security studies at DIB
Figure 2. Descriptive statistics of study participants (n = 16) 79
Figure 3. Comparison of organizational elements for a cultural model and setting that 97
support teaching a gendered security perspective
Figure 4. Dashboard for Blended Evaluation® on teaching a gendered security perspective 140
Figure 5. Dashboard for aggregated course metrics on teaching a gendered security 141
perspective

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 9
ABSTRACT
Societal violence against women breeds national insecurity through pervasive discrimination and
abuse. This dissertation examined the manifestations and effects of societal violence against
women; hypothesized that security practitioners who are educated in gendered security can
positively affect this problem of practice; and evaluated the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational (KMO) factors that impede the organization of study’s faculty from teaching a
gendered perspective in security studies. The organization of study is a U.S. regional center that
seeks to advance security cooperation through executive education. An explanatory sequential
mixed methods research design was used in this project. Data collection included document
analysis and faculty survey, focus group interviews, and observations of teaching. Research
question one asked, What KMO influences bear on the faculty’s ability to teach a gendered
perspective in security studies? Ten themes emerged that impede the faculty from teaching
gendered security. Findings contend that the faculty lack knowledge and motivation to teach
gendered security, and the organization lacks cultural models and settings to institutionalize the
teaching of the topic. The New World Kirkpatrick Model is the program implementation and
evaluation framework for this study. Recommendations and plans are informed by research
findings and answer the second research question: What recommended solutions will close the
KMO gaps that affect the faculty’s ability to teach a gendered perspective in security studies?
Ten actions are presented as a recurring training program to achieve the goal of the faculty
teaching a gendered security perspective.

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 10
CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Societal violence against women breeds national insecurity through pervasive
discrimination and abuse (Bowen, Hudson, & Nielsen, 2015; Brownmiller, 1975; Caprioli, 2005;
Divale & Harris, 1976; Hoskins, 1988; Hoy, 1994; Hudson, Ballif-Spanvill, Caprioli, & Emmett,
2012; Otterbein, 1980; Sanday, 1981). This dissertation examined the manifestations and effects
of societal violence against women; hypothesized that security practitioners who are educated in
a gendered security perspective can positively affect this problem of practice; and evaluated the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that impede the organization of study’s
faculty from teaching a gendered perspective in security studies.
This chapter contextualized this study by introducing the problem of practice, the
organization of study, the importance in addressing the problem, the purpose of this study, the
research questions, the organizational goal toward addressing this problem, the stakeholder groups
and goals, the conceptual and methodological framework, key terminology, and the construct of
the study.
Introduction to the Problem of Practice
Endangerment and exclusion of women in peace and conflict are correlatively deleterious
to peoples and societies (Caprioli, 2005). This problem is identifiable in what Hudson et al.
(2012) explicated as a taproot of societal violence against women that promotes national and
transnational insecurities through violations of bodily integrity, inequalities in family law, and
disparities in decision-making councils. Practices of discrimination, patriarchal structures, and
exclusion perpetuates women as superfluous as it delimits them from being agents of a better
peace and security (Egnell, 2016). Women are societies’ most vulnerable group in peace and
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 11
conflict, making them susceptible to violence, displacement, and exclusion (United States
Agency for Aid and Development [USAID], 2007).
The 1994 Rwanda Genocide witnessed the rape of 50 percent of the country’s female
population (USAID, 2007); and more than seven years into the Syrian war there are greater than
six million women who had been displaced from their homes (Jouejati, 2017). Despite
international opprobrium for such gender inequality and violence, recent publications (Caprioli,
2003, 2005; Hudson et al., 2012; Jewkes, Fulu, Roselli, & Garcia-Moreno, 2013; Labonte &
Curry, 2016; O’Neil & Domingo, 2015; Stone, 2015; Wolfe, 2014) and datasets (Council on
Foreign Relations, 2019; Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2019; WomanStats, 2014; Georgetown
Institute for Women, Peace, and Security [GIWPS], 2018) elucidate that nation-states have taken
little more than a façade of substantive actions to affirmatively advance gender mainstreaming,
and end societal violence against women with its deleterious effects on national and transnational
security.
Illustrative of state inaction in advancing real reform for women in peace and conflict, is
the reality that only 17 (8.8 percent) of the United Nations’ 193-member states have allocated a
budget to implement their legal obligations under United Nations Security Council Resolution
1325 on Women, Peace and Security (GIWPS, 2018). This dissonance between government
inaction and legal obligations toward WPS suggests that states may not intuitively correlate
societal violence against women with insecurity in peace and conflict (United Nations [UN]
Women, 2015). Two factors–traditional concepts of security and male-masculine dominance of
security sectors–feature prominent in inert approaches toward this exigent problem of practice
(Sjoberg, 2010; Tickner, 2011). Traditional security issues imply threats against a sovereign
state’s citizenry, territory, polity, economy, and interests; and views the coherence of this
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 12
juridical entity as the referent of security while often discounting individual welfare or gendered
security (McGlinchey, Walters, & Sheinpflug, 2017). Security sectors, or institutions that
provide for nation-state security, are soundly representative of the male domain and their
interests, which well aligns to traditional security issues that scarcely consider vulnerable
populations fundamentally or women security issue expressly (Blanchard, 2003; United Nations
Security Council [UNSC], 2000).
The magnitude of this problem is evidenced in the amplification of binding directives of
the United Nations Security Council (1993; 1994; 2000; 2008; 2009a; 2009b; 2010; 2013a;
2013b; 2015; 2016a; 2016b) and United Nations General Assembly (2011) that largely cascade
from Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace, and Security (WPS), which was
promulgated in 2000 to address and resolve issues of women’s roles in peace and security.
Organizational Context and Mission
Defense Institute B (DIB, pseudonym) is one of five regional centers of the United States
(U.S.) Department of Defense that is charged to develop and nurture regional security networks
that reinforce the international rules-based order. In advancing regional security cooperation,
DIB teaches regional studies, security policies, and functional security approaches that include
managing crises, countering violent extremism, advancing security sector reforms, supporting
maritime and border security, and progressing women’s roles in peace and security. A seven-
fold approach guides DIB in mission execution: implement executive education; facilitate the
exchange of ideas; address comprehensive security; create inclusive and shared learning
experiences; value knowledge networks and leadership; build human capital; and foster alumni-
centered networks. DIB annually educates several hundred students who are mid- and senior-
grade security practitioners from throughout the Asia-Pacific. These security practitioners
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 13
generally represent ministries of defense, finance, foreign affairs, interior, justice, and
transportation, and include military service members, Foreign Service officers, police, and
border and maritime security forces who have shared responsibilities for their country’s security.
Each course includes student specific longitudinal projects, referred to singularly as a Fellow’s
Project, to transfer knowledge, skills, and experiences learned in DIB’s classrooms back to the
workplace by assisting students to develop a project that when implemented after course
completion would provide practical solutions to improve security. Within DIB is a college of
security studies with 16 incumbent civilian faculty members; nine positions were unencumbered
during the research phase of this study.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to evaluate the degree to which DIB is achieving its
organizational goal of assisting partner nations to integrate women leaders and women’s
perspectives into security sectors, security-related processes, and decision-making. The analysis
focuses on knowledge, motivation and organizational influences related to achieving these
effects. While a complete performance evaluation would focus on all stakeholders, for practical
purposes the stakeholder focused on in this analysis is the college faculty. To this end, these two
research questions guided this evaluation study:
1. What knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences bear on the faculty’s
ability to teach a gendered perspective in security studies?
2. What recommended solutions will close the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational gaps that affect the faculty’s ability to teach a gendered perspective in security
studies?
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 14
Related Literature
English language sources from the perspective of 31 countries, six continents, and islands
of the Pacific were used in this study, enlarging perspectives beyond just Western thoughts and
experiences. Much of the literature used in this study can be broadly characterized as that
authored by feminist writers, government institutions, and psychological science, organizational
behavior, and inquiry methods. This broad characterization of literature, however, does not
presume like thought or agenda by any grouping. While feminist schools of thought are not as
numerous as bodies of government, they are sundry and warrant general description here.
Categorized by theories of gender inequality, feminisms are broadly trifurcated as either
gender reform feminism (e.g., liberal, Marxist, socialist, transnational), gender resistance
feminism (e.g., lesbian, psychanalytic, radical, standpoint), or gender rebellion feminism (e.g.,
multiracial, postmodern, social construction, third wave) (Lorber, 2012). Theories of gender
reform see inequality as structural discrimination and remedies in the political activities of
gender mainstreaming and gender balancing (parity). Gender resistance theories identify
structural and cultural institutions as perpetrators of gender inequality and resist by promoting
women’s perspectives and issues as a better alternative to the patriarchal order. Gender rebellion
identifies the use of gender roles as the problem and the establishment of a non-gendered social
order as the solution (Lorber, 2012).
Government literature published by either the United Nations or the United States
featured prominently in this study. As the twenty-first century dawned, the international
community proffered hope for greater inclusivity of women in peace and conflict, with the
promulgation of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 (S/RES/1325) on Women,
Peace, and Security in 2000. Coalesced around the principles of prevention, protection,
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 15
participation, and peacebuilding, this watershed decision and its 10 proceeding companionship
resolutions, S/RES/1820 (2008), S/RES/1888 (2009a), S/RES/1889 (2009b), S/RES/1960
(2010), A/RES 65/283 (2011), S/RES/2106 (2013a), S/RES/2122 (2013b), S/RES/2242 (2015),
2272 (2016a), and 2331 (2016b), charged global leaders to protect women and their rights in
peace, peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peacebuilding (UN Department of Political Affairs
[DPA], 2016). A summation of all 11 resolutions is provided below.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace, and Security
(UNSC, 2000) affirmed women’s essential participatory and decision-making roles in conflict
prevention and resolution, and the importance of women’s equal involvement in the
advancement and preservation of peace and security. Resolution 1820 (UNSC, 2008) denounced
sexual violence as a weapon of war, and affirmed that rape and other forms of sexual violence
can constitute war crimes. Resolution 1888 (UNSC, 2009a) strengthened actions to end sexual
violence in conflict by establishing the United Nations Special Representative on Sexual
Violence in Conflict, and urging states to train their forces on the prohibitions of sexual violence
against civilians, and to investigate and prosecute incidents of sexual violence. Resolution 1889
(UNSC, 2009b) supported women’s participation in all stages of peace processes (UNSC,
2009b). Resolution 1960 (UNSC, 2010) directed mechanisms to monitor and report incidents of
sexual violence in conflict. Resolution 65/283 (UN General Assembly [UNGA], 2011) called
upon states to strengthen their efforts and capacities to mediate peaceful settlements of conflict.
Resolution 2106 (UNSC, 2013a) affirmed that long-term efforts to prevent sexual violence in
conflict are contingent on the political, social, and economic empowerment of women; gender
equality; and the mobilization of men toward this cause. Resolution 2122 (UNSC, 2013b)
located women’s equality and empowerment as essential to international peace and security.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 16
Resolution 2242 (UNSC, 2015) called upon member states to use women and women
organizations to develop strategies to counter terrorism and violent extremism. Resolution 2272
(UNSC, 2016a) decried acts of sexual exploitation and abuse committed by United Nations
peacekeepers. Resolution 2331 (UNSC, 2016b) condemned the Islamic State of Iraq and the
Levant (ISIL) for trafficking persons and the use of sexual violence in armed conflict.
Related literature on psychological science considered issues of knowledge and
motivation; organizational behavior literature reviewed subjects of organizational models and
settings, and inquiry methods. Literature of this type features predominately in this study for its
theoretical and empirical merits in the substantiation of postulations and recommendations.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
Societal violence against women, in all its forms, is an assault upon humanity, societies,
and nation-states as it propagates national insecurities, and warrants all efforts to address this
protracted problem (Caprioli, 2005; Hudson et al., 2012). However, nineteen years on from the
enactment of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace, and Security, and far too
little has substantively changed to advance a better peace and security for women (UN Women,
2015; UN DPA, 2016).
The United Nations leads international advancement of women’s rights through reform
advocacy of gender discriminatory practices, policies, and structures. In 1979, the United
Nations General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women as an international bill of rights for women, which is legally
binding in 189 states that have ratified it (UNGA, 1979). The Convention specifically prohibits
gender-based discrimination in all fields to include political, economic, social, cultural, and civil;
and calls upon the ratifying states to take all measures, including legislation for the advancement
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 17
of women on a “basis of equality with men” (Article 1). Women’s rights of marriage and family
life are codified in Article 16 of the Convention; and if signatory states would adhere to its
injunctions, family law discriminations would end. Absent an enforcement mechanism, the 1979
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women remains more
aspirational than foundational, as is each of the 11 United Nation resolutions on Women, Peace,
and Security.
Consequently, the United Nations should use its public platform to advocate ardently for
gender equality. If gender mainstreaming in peace and conflict can be approached or achieved, it
will require nation-states to denounce all violations of bodily integrity as direct violence against
women; dismantle inequitable family laws that perpetuate structural violence against women;
and transform gender culture, which trivializes women’s voices, weakens their presence in
decision-making councils, and propagates cultural violence against women (Hudson, Bowen, &
Nielsen, 2016; Kim, 1994; Moballegh, 2009).
Organizational Performance Goal
Defense Institute B’s organizational performance goal is to assist partner nations in
integrating women leaders and women’s perspectives into security sectors, security-related
processes, and decision-making by February 2021. Metrics for measuring goal achievements
include polls and surveys of student learning, numbers of lectures and facilitated seminars that
address a gendered perspective, numbers of Fellows’ (longitudinal) Projects undertaken that have
a female security focus, and female course participation rates. In 2012, DIB established a WPS
program to comply with the principles of the U.S. National Action Plan on Women, Peace and
Security of 2011 (White House, 2011). Central to DIB’s WPS program was an imperative to
raise female course participation from a previous high of 14 percent to 25 percent or one-quarter
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 18
of class enrollment, which was nearly achieved in 2017 when DIB achieved an average female
course participation rate of 24 percent. Weeks following the U.S. presidential enactment of the
Women, Peace and Security Act of 2017, DIB further committed to its WPS efforts. Building
upon DIB’s WPS accomplishments of the last six years, DIB suggested a further advancement of
its WPS initiatives by targeting female course attendance at 33 percent or one-third of the class,
encouraging course participants to consider undertaking a WPS-based Fellow’s (longitudinal)
Project, and inculcating the gendered perspective in teaching course lectures and seminars.
Evaluating DIB’s performance in advancing its WPS goals will provide stakeholder groups
necessary azimuth checks to make associated program alignments to better achieve the WPS
goal of improving regional security.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
Defense Institute B has three principal parties to implement its organizational goal and
are referred to here as stakeholder groups: the executive leadership, faculty, and students.
Defense Institute B’s executive leadership is a stakeholder group of four individuals who include
the director, deputy director, business operations dean, and college dean. The dean of the college
leads two other stakeholder groups: the faculty and the students. The college had 16 incumbent
civilian faculty members and an average annual student body of 800 security practitioners.
Stakeholder Performance Goals
Nested within the organizational goal are stakeholder goals, which were established to
focus stakeholder efforts toward goal accomplishment. Each stakeholder has a unique goal that
is specific, measurable and time bound so as to focus priorities. The three stakeholder groups are
the (1) college faculty, (2) executive leadership, and (3) students. The faculty’s goal is that all
professors teach a gendered perspective in security studies by February 2021. The executive
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 19
leadership’s goal is to increase female student rates from one-quarter to one-third by February
2021. The students’ goal is to increase the number of completed Fellow’s (longitudinal) Projects
for WPS initiatives by 10 percent of current rates by February 2021. Table 1 identifies the three
stakeholders’ performance goals, which cascade downward from the organizational mission and
organizational global goal.
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals

Stakeholder Group for the Study
Each of the three stakeholder groups importantly contribute to realizing DIB’s
organizational goal and should be studied in a holistic evaluation. This study, however, focused
exclusively on the college faculty, which bridges the executive leadership and the student body
by operationalizing the organizational global goal to assist partner nations in integrating women
leaders and women’s perspectives into security sectors, security-related processes, and decision-
Organizational Mission
Builds resilient capacity, shared understanding, and networked relationships among security
practitioners and institutions to advance a free and open Asia-Pacific.
Organizational Global Goal
Assist partner nations in integrating women leaders and women’s perspectives into security
sectors, security-related processes, and decision-making by February 2021.
Stakeholders and Goals
College Faculty Executive Leadership Students
All professors teach a gendered
perspective in security studies
by February 2021.
Increase female student
rates from one-quarter to
one-third by February 2021.
Increase the number of
completed Fellow’s Projects
for WPS initiatives by 10
percent of current rates by
February 2021.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 20
making. The college has several communities of practice for faculty of similar interests to share
experiences with a collective goal of advancing objectives. The college’s WPS community of
practice is the faculty’s footing for WPS-related endeavors to include goal development,
research, lectures, and student body mentorship. The college’s courses are structured such that
all faculty members lead seminar classes of 14 students who meet after plenary lectures to
discuss lectured topics. Faculty members increase their effectiveness in leading students in
seminar discussions, as they better understand course content, which is the rationale for the
faculty stakeholder goal that all professors teach a gendered perspective in security studies by
February 2021. As keystone between executive leadership and student body, it is imperative that
the faculty constructively represent to the students the leadership’s organizational goal by
effectively teaching a gendered perspective on national security. Efforts short of effective
teaching and student mentorship will place at risk goal actualization.
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework was applied to this project to
systematically evaluate relevant knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that are
essential in achieving the organizational goal. An explanatory sequential mixed methods
research design was used in this project. Consistent with Creswell’s (2014) description of this
research design, this study first collected quantitative survey data before collecting qualitative
data through focus group interviews, faculty observations, and document reviews to explain the
survey results. The quantitative data identified what the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences of goal attainment are, and the qualitative data offered examples of
how the faculty perceive goal attainment (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Normative of mixed
methods research, a pragmatic worldview more nearly informed this project and influenced the
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 21
researcher’s interpretation of findings (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Thirty-seven
years of leadership in the United States Army has cultivated broad, global experiences that have
permeated in me worldviews that tend between two paradigms: constructivism or the belief that
there are no single right answers or one-size-fits-all approaches (Creswell, 2014); and
transformative or the awareness that structural and cultural constructs habitually disenfranchise
vulnerable populations (Freire, 1993; Galtung & Fischer, 2013).
Knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that bear on professors’ abilities to
teach a gendered perspective in security studies were measured from data garnered from focus
group interviews, faculty observations, and documentation (e.g., lecture material). This
methodological approach set the researcher as data collector and analyst to thematically group
data for an inductive process of generalization and to descriptively interpret assessed
performance gaps to discern the implications and processes of this phenomenon (Creswell, 2014;
Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Disciplined subjectivity (Erikson, 1964) between
participants and researcher was ensured through triangulation of data sources and use of
member-checking. The former validity strategy used multiple methods of data collection (i.e.,
focus groups, observations, documents) and sources of data (i.e., different perspectives,
locations, and times), and the latter validity strategy reviewed participants’ findings to ensure
accuracy of representation (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Evidenced-based
recommendations were evaluated and suggested to resolve validated gaps in knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that inhibit the faculty from teaching a gendered
security perspective.
Definitions
Feminism is the advocacy of equality between men and women (Lorber, 2012).
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 22
Gender is a concept that refers to social, behavioral, and cultural attributes and norms that
distinguishes being male and female, or degrees thereof, and ascribes contextual position and
value (World Bank, 2012).
Gender inclusion or mainstreaming is a half-step toward gender equality; an affirmative
approach to include female presence and perspectives in a male dominate sphere; a strategy to
integrate males and females and their perspectives, concerns, and experiences into every sphere
to advance gender equality (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs [DESA], Office of
the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women [OSAGI], 2002).
Gendered security is an approach that emanates up from the community and considers
the individual to be the referent object of security (McGlinchey et al., 2017; Singh, 2006).
National action plan (NAP) is a nationwide blueprint to coordinate work on a priority
issue such as the U.S. National Action Plan for Women, Peace, and Security (White House,
2016).
Patriarchy is a structural and ideological system of male domination and female
subordination (Hunnicutt, 2009).
Security sector is an institution that provides public, national, and/or collective safety and
security and includes military, government, and nongovernment security practitioners
(Blanchard, 2003).
Security studies is a discipline within the field of international relations and represents a
realist construct that reifies the state as the referent object of security (Kissinger, 1994).
Societal violence is the compilation of direct violence, structural violence, and cultural
violence (Galtung, 1969).
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 23
Traditional security guards against a sovereign state’s citizenry, territory, polity,
economy, and interests; and views the coherence of this juridical entity as the referent of security
while often discounting individual welfare or gendered security (McGlinchey et al., 2017).
United Nations Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) is a legally binding decision by the
body of the United Nations that is charged to maintain peace and security among countries
(Fasulo, 2004).
Women, peace, and security (WPS) is an agenda to advance the participation and
protection of women in peace and security as codified in a series of UNSCRs that began with
UNSCR 1325 in 2000 and cascaded through 10 subsequent resolutions and various domestic and
international initiatives to advance this agenda.
Organization of the Study
This study is organized in five chapters. Chapter One begins with the introduction to the
problem of practice; importance of addressing the problem; and the concepts, terminology, and
framework of this study, before centering this research on the organization of DIB and its
associated mission, goals, and stakeholder groups. Chapter Two reviews current literature
related to societal violence against women in peace and conflict before reviewing the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors essential in DIB achieving its organizational goal.
Chapter Three describes the study’s methodology; Chapter Four offers results and findings from
the data analysis; and Chapter Five advances evidenced-based recommendations and an
integrated implementation and evaluation plan to close gaps in knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors for achieving the faculty stakeholder goal.

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 24
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Reviewed in this chapter are global manifestations of societal violence against women in
peace and conflict through an analysis of violations of bodily integrity, inequalities in family
law, and disparities in decision-making councils (Hudson et al., 2012). These endangerments
and exclusions of women in peace and conflict are identifiable in wellsprings of societal violence
that promotes domestic and transnational insecurities (Caprioli, 2005). Framed by Clark and
Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model, this review then considers specific knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that affect the abilities of professors at Defense Institute B (DIB) to
teach a gendered security perspective or imperatives to enhance nation-state security.
Triple Wellsprings of Societal Violence
Former United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan’s address to world leaders is
quintessential in understanding the ramifications of gender inequalities in peace and conflict.
Said he, “The world is starting to grasp that there is no policy for progress more effective than
the empowerment of women and girls. And … no policy is more important in preventing
conflict, or in achieving reconciliation after a conflict has ended” (Annan, 2006, para. 7).
Building upon the works of political scientists Galtung (1969, 1990), Gurr (1970, 1994),
Raymond (2000), and Tilly (1978, 1991), American political scientist Mary Caprioli (2005)
postulated that cultural and social norms of intolerance and inequality perpetuate violence to
resolve conflict.
Norwegian professor Johan Galtung (1969, 1990), founder of the discipline of peace and
conflict studies, postulated a trifurcated societal violence that is shaped by direct violence,
structural violence, and cultural violence. Direct violence is incident oriented and actor
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 25
(individual, group, state) perpetrated; structural violence is an institutionalized process of
discrimination and exclusion; and cultural violence is an invariant that makes structural violence
acceptable, or at least tolerated (Galtung & Fischer, 2013). Galtung’s (1969, 1990) typology
when viewed as societal violence against women could be defined as direct when a woman is
assaulted, which manifests in violations of bodily integrity; structural when thousands of women
are kept in dependency, which presents through inequalities in family law; and cultural when the
subservience of women is perpetrated in religion, language, norms, and symbols, and persists in
gender disparities such as decision-making councils. An evaluation of contemporary research,
particularly Bowen et al. (2015); Caprioli (2003, 2005); Galtung and Fischer (2013); Hudson et
al. (2012); Hunnicutt (2009); O’Neil and Domingo (2015); O’Neill, Savigny, and Cann (2016);
and Sanday (1981) elucidates stark findings of societal violence against women.
Violations of Bodily Integrity
Direct violence against women is the nadir of unequal gender manifestations as it
dehumanizes women, and tears at social unity (Sjoberg, 2010). The United Nations General
Assembly (1993) defined violence against women as “violence that results in, or is likely to
result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women” (Article 1), and
stipulated violence against women as a leading social mechanism by men to subordinate women.
Bodily integrity is an inalienable right of self-autonomy over one’s own body (Pratt v. Davis,
1905/1906).
In peace. Subordination of women is universal among all nation-states as all share
ideologies and constructs of male dominance, and is globally manifested irrespective of social
variances or forms of governance (de Beauvoir, 1953; Nader, 1986). American anthropologist
Peggy Reeves Sanday (1981) correlated male dominance with group insecurity and instability.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 26
American professor of gender and violence Gwen Hunnicutt (2009) ascribed male violence
toward women as an outgrowth of patriarchal systems. The late American anthropologist and
prolific writer Marvin Harris (1977) postulated that male dominance originated in warfare from a
monopoly of weapons, but discounted genetics or convention as its source.
Women suffering, although global in occurrence, is not universal in its uniformity (World
Bank, 2012). Papua New Guinea is an independent state in Oceania and ranks very high in
women’s inequality. Women’s inequality, as measured by incidents of sexual and physical
abuse, is estimated to have been inflicted on two-thirds of all females in Papua New Guinea,
which is higher than reported global averages of one in three women (Alfred, 2016; World
Health Organization, 2016). In Papua New Guinea, 59 percent of surveyed men admitted to
raping a sexual partner (Fossett, 2013; Jewkes et al., 2013). In a United Nations Development
Programme (2013) survey of 10,000 men in nine Asia-Pacific states, half who admitted
perpetrating rape claimed to have first raped as a teenager, of whom upward of 97 percent
claimed to have never been indicted for their crimes. Overwhelmingly, all nine surveyed sites
identified sexual entitlement–the right of sex irrespective of consent–as the principal motivation
for rape (Jewkes et al., 2013; UN Development Programme, 2013). This United Nations study
concluded that violence against women is a manifestation of gender inequalities and
subordination of women in domestic and public domains. Galtung (1969) would ascribe the
abuse of one woman as direct violence, and the abuse of two-thirds of all females in a society as
both structural and cultural violence.
In conflict. For centuries, rape as a form of violence against women was generally
accepted by many as the cost of war, and largely overlooked as a crime against humanity
(Nahapetian, 2013). Neither the Nuremberg trials of 1945-46 nor the Tokyo trials of 1946-48
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 27
convicted a single person solely on the charge of sexual violence against women, despite well
over one million women raped during World War II (Chiasson, 2015; Nahapetian, 2013).
With past as prologue, the international community remained silent as mass incidents of
rape persisted in military conflicts over the 50 years following World War II. Rape as a tactic of
war was perpetrated in the 8-year French Indochina War from 1946 (Rydstrom, 2014), India’s
1948 operation to subdue Hyderabad (Custers, 1987), the 3-year Korean War from 1950
(Cumings, 2010), America’s 10-year Vietnam War from 1964 (Brownmiller, 1975), and the
Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971 that witnessed the rape of as many as 200,000 Bengali
women in just nine months of fighting (Bose, 2007; Saikia, 2011). As the Soviet Union
collapsed in December 1991, former Yugoslavia reft in a series of ethnic wars and insurgencies
that witnessed Europe’s most brutal conflict since 1945. In April 1992, the Bosnian War erupted
in a torrent of ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity, which promulgated the systematic
rape and sexual enslavement of as many as 50,000 women and girls before the war’s end 44-
months later (Hesford, 2004). As the Bosnian War raged in Europe, the Hutu government in
Rwanda led a 100-day genocidal war against its Tutsi population, which included the deliberate
rape of some one half million women and girls (Nowrojee & Human Rights Watch/Africa,
1996).
To prosecute war crimes from these two horrific wars, the United Nations established the
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in May 1993 (UNSC, 1993),
and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) in November 1994 (UNSC, 1994).
The charter for both these judicial bodies included the charge of rape as a crime against
humanity, the first time in history the international community classified rape as a crime of war
(UN DESA Division for the Advancement of Women, 1998). Classifying rape as a crime
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 28
against humanity was the first step. Convicting war criminals of rape would prove to be the
court’s true test.
Since its inception, ICTR has indicted 93 people for genocide and other serious violations
of international humanitarian law committed in Rwanda in 1994 (Karuhanga, 2016); of those, 17
were convicted for crimes against humanity for rape (Wolfe, 2014). In September 1998, Mr.
Jean Paul Akayesu, former mayor of Taba, was the first person ever convicted internationally of
crimes against humanity for rape (UN, 1998). This conviction was anything but proforma, as
Judge Navanethem Pillay, the only female judge on the ICTR bench, is reported to have re-
focused the line of questioning about evidence toward sexual violence, which eventually brought
an amended indictment for charges of sexual violence by Akayesu (Grossman, 2012). In a
statement after the verdict, Judge Pillay offered these remarks: "From time immemorial, rape has
been regarded as spoils of war. Now it will be considered a war crime. We want to send out a
strong message that rape is no longer a trophy of war" (Venumadhava, 2013, p. 6).
Twenty-nine months following the ICTR conviction of Akayesu in Rwanda, ICTY issued
its first convictions for crimes against humanity for rape. In the verdict read by Presiding Judge
Florence Mumba, she stated that Dragoljub Kunarac, Radomir Kovac, Zoran Vukovic, as well as
other Bosnian Serb troops in Foca, used rape as “an instrument of terror” (CNN, 2001, para. 2),
during the Bosnian War. In the prosecution of war crimes in Rwanda and Bosnia, ICTR and
ICTY collectively convicted nearly 70 perpetrators of crimes against humanity for rape (Wolfe,
2014). While these are landmark convictions, given the systematic approach to rape brutally
some one-half million women on two continents, the conviction of a mere 70 people rings
hollow.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 29
Spurred by the horrors of the Bosnian War, the United Nations General Assembly
promulgated Resolution 48/104 in December 1993, which called upon states to condemn,
prevent, and punish violence against women. American lawyer Tamara Tompkins (1999)
postulated that rape is fixed in the male domination of women, and is manifested in aggression,
discrimination, inequality, and misogyny. American feminist author Susan Brownmiller (1975)
suggested that rape is a male method of social control through “a conscious process of
intimidation by which all men keep all women in a state of fear” [emphasis in original] (p. 15).
The nature of warfare in the twenty-first century has shifted from nationalist to ethnoreligious,
with its deeply conservative and reactionary treatment of women and their rights (UN Women,
2015). Consequently, widespread disregard for bodily integrity in today’s conflicts has subjected
millions of women and girls to horrible direct, structural, and cultural violence (Doyle &
Sambanis, 2000; Galtung & Fischer, 2013). While violations of bodily integrity scream injustice
and demand accountability, inequalities in family law silently sow seeds of societal violence
against women.
Inequalities in Family Law
Family or matrimonial law is based on customs and codified by statutes to govern family
relationships, rights, duties, and finances. Customary and statutory laws are often underpinned
by social and religious practices (Kim, 1994; Moballegh, 2009; Naz, Ibrahim, & Ahmad, 2012).
American professors Valerie Hudson, Donna Lee Bowen, and Perpetua Lynn Nielsen (2016)
ascribed statutory or customary family laws that preference male over female as the source of
structural violence against women, which in conflict tends toward its meanest manifestations.
In peace. Family, societies’ primordial unit, has universally advantaged men over
women and boys over girls (McCloskey & Eisler, 1999). Despite worldwide promulgation of
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 30
women’s suffrage, anachronistic family law across the globe continue to bias women and
preference males (Hudson et al., 2012). Whereas social inequalities manifest worldwide, they
are glaringly obvious in family laws. Family law addresses issues of marriage, divorce, custody,
and inheritance, but reflects societal devaluation of women by its inequalities. Gender
inequalities are self-evidenced when males are held superior to females; girls are married
younger than boys; polygyny is embraced; marital rape is non-criminalized; female infanticide is
accepted; men divorce more easily than women; and men are advantaged over women in rights
of property and inheritance (Hudson et al., 2012; McCloskey & Eisler, 1999).
Sanday (1981) suggested that there are two social orders: diarchy and patriarchy (male
dominance). Her adaption of the term diarchy, as defined by American anthropologist Janet
Hoskins (1988), described a male-female political system of shared authorities that fluctuates in
control, and is formalized by principles of interdependence and mutuality. Male dominance is a
condition where men retain most of the power and influence; or more precisely, a structural and
ideological system of male domination and female subordination (Hunnicutt, 2009). Hoy (1994)
suggested three defining characteristics of male dominance: authoritarian aggression by men
against women, authoritarian submission of women to men, and a hierarchical social structure
where men overwhelmingly control political power. Male dominance and patriarchy are
synonymous terms. Macro-patriarchy occurs in governments, bureaucracies, markets, academia,
and religion; and micro-patriarchy occurs in families, relations, social interactions, and
organizations. Of these two social orders, male dominance prevails globally, which is viewed by
many to be deleterious to state security, stability, and prosperity (Bowen et al., 2015;
Brownmiller, 1975; Hoskins, 1988; Hoy, 1994; Sanday, 1981). Sanday (1981) asserted that male
dominance is either authentic or imposed, but either way, it is evidenced by a litany of social ills.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 31
An enumeration of such ills includes the valuation of fear, conflict, and warfare; the preference
for sons over daughters; the pervasiveness of domestic violence; the diminution of women in
public life; the bias toward gender segregation; the perpetuation of creation myths that impute
women as a source of evil; the acceptance of polygyny; and the convention of brideprice or
dowry that consigns women as chattel and economic liabilities.
Caprioli (2005) affirmed that states enlarge their probability of internal conflict through
such practices of gender inequality, which she assessed through an analysis of reproductive
health, empowerment, and labor force. The United Nations Development Programme (2016)
defined and measured the societal impact of each of these three indicators. Reproductive health
can be quantified using the rates of maternal death and adolescent pregnancy, which at high rates
manifests societies’ devaluation of women. When broadly considered, reproductive health is
more precisely viewed as a distillation of inequalities that transcends rates of maternal death and
adolescent pregnancy to affect opportunities for education, employment, and decision-making
authority (World Bank, 2012). Empowerment can be measured using the percentage of women
in parliament, with a recognition that political access enables decision-making over life (Ertan,
2016). A labor force analysis measures gender diversity in labor markets, and denotes gender
inequalities, discrimination, and structural violence (Caprioli, 2005; Galtung & Fischer, 2013).
Compelling empirics indicate that 38.3 percent of all nations embrace structural violence-based
family laws that tend between high and very high in women’s inequality, which strongly
correlates with states that are less peaceful and more fragile (Hudson et al., 2016; WomanStats,
2014; World Bank, 2016).
In conflict. Linkages between sexism (male-dominant societies) and militarism are well-
researched (Caprioli, 2003; Divale & Harris 1976; Hoy, 1994; Otterbein, 1980; Ross, 1986;
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 32
Ruddick, 1983; Sanday, 1981). Divale and Harris (1976) correlated occurrence of war and male
supremacy; Otterbein (1980) drew relationships between incidence of war and societal norms of
patrilocality, patrilineality, and polygyny; Sanday (1981) strongly associated frequency of war
with a society’s incidence of female rape; and Ross (1986) identified prevalence of war with
exclusion of women from public leadership.
In a demographic analysis of 112 societies, Divale and Harris (1976) considered tribal
warfare as the chief cause of institutional and ideological supremacy of males. Male supremacy
or dominance is inherent to gender-based divisions of labor; is manifest in gender-based
asymmetry of political, economic, military, police, and religious institutions; and is ascribed to
the sexual dimorphism that engenders males with greater stature, weight, and hormones that are
useful in dominance that propagates structural violence (Divale & Harris, 1976). While
violations of bodily integrity scream injustice and demand accountability, and inequalities in
family law silently sow seeds of societal violence against women, it is disparities in decision-
making councils that perpetuate disdain for women while meting cultural violence against one
half of the global population.
Disparities in Decision-making Councils
Decision-making is the power to influence private and public life (O’Neil & Domingo,
2015). Patriarchy, however, proscribes women from ascending to decision-making councils,
particularly councils with mandates extending beyond issues that affect women and children.
O’Neil and Domingo (2015) suggested that institutions (norms and rules), structures (social,
economic, and political endowments), and capabilities (education, class, and profession) are
chief determinants in women’s ascent to political power. Discriminatory socio-cultural
institutions and structures, however, delimit women’s opportunities to develop requisite
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 33
capabilities that improve access to professional organizations, labor markets, and decision-
making councils (Domingo et al., 2015). Consequently, it is hoary gender roles in peace and
conflict that perpetuate bad policies of cultural and structural violence, which persistently
broadens the gender gap (Galtung & Fischer, 2013).
In peace. The term security sector broadly describes public, national, and collective
safety and security and includes military, government, and nongovernment security practitioners.
Security practitioners are disproportionately men, and the sector is conventionally masculine
(Enloe, 2004; Roberts, 2017). Gender inclusion, a half-step toward gender equality, is an
affirmative approach to include female presence and perspectives in this male dominate sphere
(UN DESA OSAGI, 2002). Gender inclusion is not tokenism, but a deliberate international
policy approach to achieve universal gender equality in political, economic, and societal spheres
by adopting policies and programs that further equality and arrest inequality (UNGA, 1997).
The United Nations General Assembly (1996, 1997) termed gender inclusion as gender
mainstreaming, which it formally adopted as a policy approach at the Fourth World Conference
on Women in 1995. Five years later, the United Nations Security Council promulgated
resolution 1325 on Women, Peace, and Security to globalize the prospect of greater gender
inclusivity in peace and conflict. Since implementation of Resolution 1325, 81 countries have
established WPS national action plans to advance gender inclusion in issues of peace and
security, including 12 Asia-Pacific countries: Australia (2012), Canada (2010), Chile (2009),
Indonesia (2014), Japan (2015), Nepal (2011), New Zealand (2015), Philippines (2010, 2017),
Republic of Korea (2014), Solomon Islands (2017), Timor Leste (2016), U.S. (2011, 2016)
(Peacewomen, 2019).
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 34
American political scientist Helene Silverberg (1994) cautioned against an “add women
and stir” (p. 718) approach to gender mainstreaming, observing that this practice tends toward
polarization not amalgamation, and wrongly ascribes gender issues as being germane only when
women are included in decision-making councils (also see McGauran, 2009). An aversion to
gender integration in decision-making councils is evidenced when measured globally by the low
percentage of women who have attained seats in national parliaments. In July 2018, only 24.2
percent of women were national parliamentarians, which increased from 17.9 percent in July
2009 and from 11.7 percent in July 1999 (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2019; World Bank, 2016).
Obstructed pathways to attain national power for women perpetuates patriarchy and is
emblematic of cultural violence through gender exclusion (Galtung & Fischer, 2013). Gender
exclusion is a promulgation of the offensive maxim that women should be seen and not heard
(Cutter, 1999). This hoary adage was a national refrain carried in the press when Jeannette
Pickering Rankin (1880-1973) was elected a U.S. congresswoman in 1916 (Finneman, 2015).
Despite one hundred years having transpired since Rankin became the first women to hold U.S.
federal office, the press continues a hostile policy toward women seeking public office (Rigby,
2014) as it trivializes them as being more decorative than substantive (Baird, 2009). For women
who persevere a biased press to become elected, many must then endure overt sexism that
emanates from within parliament (Castle, 2010; O’Neill et al., 2016; Watt, 2013).
In 2010, the United Nations General Assembly established UN Women, the UN Entity
for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, to advance needs of women (UN
Women, 2010). However, as advocate and bellwether for gender mainstreaming, the United
Nations stands in stark contrast to the ideal with only eight percent of its senior staff
appointments being filled by women (Labonte & Curry, 2016). This degree of gender disparity
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 35
is equally manifest at lower operational levels where women account for fewer than four percent
of military and 10 percent of police deployed on 36 UN peace operations (Roberts, 2017).
In conflict. Problems associated with underrepresentation of women in decision-making
councils is manifested in violence against women in peace and conflict (Hudson et al., 2016),
and undervaluation of gender-perspectives in peace and peacebuilding (Taylor, 2015). While
formal or tacit agreements terminate war, successful war termination is measured by five or more
years of conflict cessation permanency (Hewitt, Wikenfeld, & Gurr, 2010). American
international relations scholar Michael Doyle and political scientist Nicholas Sambanis (2000)
compiled a dataset of war terminations since 1944 to 1996 and noted that 65 percent of 124 civil
wars relapsed into fighting within five years of war termination. Despite evidence that women’s
participation in peace negotiations yields greater success in war termination, women continue to
be excluded in large part from negotiating peace agreements (UN Women, 2015; UN DPA,
2016). American researcher Laurel Stone (2015) studied 182 peace agreements signed between
1989 and 2011 and determined that peace processes, which included women as witnesses,
signatories, mediators, or negotiators demonstrated a 20 percent increase in the probability of a
peace agreement lasting at least two years, with 35 percent of those agreements lasting at least 15
years. Canadian professor Fen Osler Hampson (1999) identified the necessity of addressing
women’s needs as one of seven essential factors in realizing a durable peace settlement, which
underscores Stone’s (2015) findings that women peacemakers achieved a more durable peace as
they routinely promoted peace settlement provisions that advanced women’s rights and equality.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
People are a constitution of psychological systems that include knowledge and
motivation (Clark & Estes, 2008; Pear, 2010). Cognitive (i.e., knowledge), psychomotor (i.e.,
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 36
physical skills) and affective (i.e., motivation) are three domains of learning (Bloom, 1956).
Knowledge and skills inform action as motivation stimulates and reinforces action; in turn, each
is essential to influencing goal achievement (Clark & Estes, 2008). This section reviews
knowledge, motivation, and organizational literature and its relevance to the faculty stakeholder
goal that all professors teach a gendered perspective in security studies by February 2021. Table
2 identifies the assumed causes that influence knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps in
achieving the faculty stakeholder goal and associated literature.
Table 2
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences: Assumed Causes Addressed in the Study
Assumed Causes to KMO Gaps Literature
Knowledge
Declarative: Faculty need to know what a
gendered perspective in security studies is.

(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Bowen et al.,
2015; Brownmiller, 1975; Caprioli, 2003,
2005; Caprioli & Emmett, 2012; Clark &
Estes, 2008; de Beauvoir, 1953; Fossett,
2013; Galtung, 1969, 1990; Galtung &
Fischer, 2013; Harris, 1977; Hudson et al.,
2012; Hudson et al., 2016; Hunnicutt, 2009;
Ikenberry & Mastanduno, 2003; Jewkes et al.,
2013; Kim, 1994; Krathwohl, 2002; Nader,
1986; McGlinchey et al., 2017; Moballegh,
2009; Naz et al., 2012; O’Neil & Domingo,
2015; O’Neill et al., 2016; Salisbury, 2003;
Sanday, 1981; Singh, 2006; Sjoberg, 2010;
Stone, 2015; Tickner, 1992; UN, 1996;
UNGA, 1993, 1997; UNSC, 2000; World
Bank, 2012)
Procedural: Faculty need to know how to
integrate a gendered perspective into their
teaching.

(Atchison, 2013; Avis, 1989; Cassese, Bos, &
Duncan, 2012; Enloe, 2004; Krathwohl, 2002;
Roberts, 2017; Salisbury, 2003; Souris, 2018;
Wahlke, 1991; Weingarten, Hurlburt, &
Souris, 2018; White House, 2016, 2019)

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 37
Table 2, continued

Metacognitive: Faculty need to know their
pedagogical approach to teaching a
gendered perspective in security studies.

(Brookfield, 2017; Christie, Carey,
Robertson, & Grainger, 2015; Dewey, 1910;
Ferry & Ross-Gordon, 1998; Flavell, 1979;
Greenwood, 1993; Jones, 2009; Mezirow,
1978, 1981, 1991, 2000; Rodgers, 2002;
Schön, 1983; World Bank, 2012)
Motivation
Self-efficacy: Faculty need individual and
collective self-efficacy to teach a gendered
perspective in security studies.
(Bandura, 1977, 1997, 2000, 2006;
Berkowitz, 2004; Bandura & National
Institute of Mental Health, 1986; Edwards,
2008; Flood, 2011; Pajares, 1997, 2006;
Pintrich, 2003; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010)
Goal Orientation: Faculty need sufficient
mastery goal orientation to teach a
gendered perspective in security studies.
(Ames, 1992; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott
& Dweck, 1988; Elliot, 1999; Nichols-
Casebolt, Figueira-McDonough, & Netting,
2000; Pintrich, 2003)
Utility Value: Faculty need to perceive
usefulness to themselves from teaching a
gendered perspective in security studies.
(Barker, 2006; Eccles, 2006; Eccles et al.,
1983; Nichols-Casebolt et al., 2000; Pintrich,
2003; Schraw & Lehman, 2009; Wigfield,
Eccles, Schiefele, Roeser, & Davis-Kean,
2006)
Organizational
Cultural Model 1: Organization needs to
prioritize the integration of a gendered
perspective into the curriculum of each
course.
(Avis, 1989; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001;
Leiper, Van Horn, Hu, & Upadhyaya, 2008;
Mawere, 2013; Nichols-Casebolt et al., 2000;
van den Brink, 2011; Trenerry & Paradies,
2012; Verdonk, Mans, & Lagro-Janssen,
2006)
Cultural Setting 1: Organization needs to
model integration of a gendered
perspective into the curriculum of each
course.
(Avis, 1989; Cassese, Holman, Schneider, &
Bos, 2015; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001;
Nichols-Casebolt et al., 2000; Phull, Ciflikli,
& Meibauer, 2019)

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 38
Table 2, continued
Cultural Setting 2: Course curriculum
needs to substantively include gendered
security content.
(Atchison, 2013; Avis, 1989; Cassese, Bos,
Duncan, 2012; Figueira-McDonough, 1998;
Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; McGauran,
2009; Nichols-Casebolt et al., 2000; Vinton,
1992; Wahlke, 1991; Weingarten et al., 2018)
Cultural Setting 3: Organization needs to
allocate adequate resources to integrate a
gendered security studies into the
curriculum of each course.
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Lombardo
& Mergaert, 2013; Nduka-Agwu, 2009;
Nichols-Casebolt et al., 2000)

Knowledge and Skills
Knowledge and skills are collective attributes necessary to undertake an action.
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) disaggregated knowledge into four classifications: factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Factual knowledge are basic elements about know-
what and includes fundamental facts and details. Conceptual knowledge is the correlation
between basic elements and includes classifications, principles, and generalizations. Factual and
conceptual knowledge are jointly termed as declarative knowledge. Procedural knowledge is
discipline specific knowledge about know-how and is used in performing a task. Metacognitive
knowledge is self-knowledge or self-awareness of one’s cognition and cognitive processes.
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) differentiated knowledge types with six-tiered cognitive
processes: remember and understand (learner level), apply and analyze (practitioner level), and
evaluate and create (educator level). Clark and Estes (2008) proffered that knowledge and skills
enhancement are relevant for the present when people lack knowledge in the what to do and how
to do it of performance goals achievement, and for the future when they will address new
challenges. Knowledge gaps in performance goals achievement can be addressed by offering
employees information, job aids and training to connect previous experiences with new
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 39
knowledge to overcome new challenges; however, educational opportunities better prepare
employees for undetermined future challenges (Clark & Estes, 2008).
To achieve the faculty stakeholder goal, all professors need factual knowledge of what
gendered security is and its context in the Asia-Pacific, conceptual knowledge to understand the
correlation between societal violence against women and national insecurity, procedural
knowledge to assimilate a gendered perspective into their teaching, and metacognitive
knowledge to self-reflect on their teaching effectiveness of a gendered security perspective.
Factual knowledge of gendered security in an Asia-Pacific context. Factual
knowledge is a knowledge type that describes terminologies and specific details (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001). This type of knowledge is common among faculty stakeholders and
comprises an understanding that the Asia-Pacific is a geographic construct that roughly accounts
for 60 percent of the global population and some 45 of the world’s countries and territories that
stretch from the western seaboard of the Americas to the western borders of Pakistan, China, and
Mongolia, and south to include all of Oceania (Australasia, Micronesia, Melanesia, and
Polynesia). A factual knowledge of gender is an appreciation that the term is a concept that
refers to social, behavioral, and cultural attributes and norms that distinguish between being male
and female, and degrees thereof (World Bank, 2012). Professors need to understand the gender
context in the Asia-Pacific to credibly teach a gendered security perspective or imperative.
Gendered security is an approach that emanates up from the community and considers the
individual to be the referent object of security (McGlinchey et al, 2017; Singh, 2006).
Conceptual knowledge to understand the correlation between societal violence
against women and national insecurity. Conceptual knowledge is the interrelation of factual
knowledge and relates to principles, classifications, theories, and generalizations (Krathwohl,
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 40
2002). Learners apply the cognitive process to remember and understand factual knowledge
(e.g., textbooks) to comprehend conceptual knowledge (e.g., lectures) (Salisbury, 2003).
Conceptual knowledge of Asia-Pacific transcends its factual elements to comprehend how the
region is diversified by ethnicity, culture, prosperity, and governance (Ikenberry & Mastanduno,
2003). In terms of gender context and violence, the faculty needs conceptual knowledge to
synthesize this regional diversity to recognize how opportunities for men and women are often
proscribed or prescribed solely based on gender, perpetuated to socially subordinate women to
men, and correlated to national insecurity (Caprioli, 2005; UNGA, 1993; World Bank, 2012).
Procedural knowledge to assimilate gender issues in teaching security studies.
Procedural knowledge is the comprehension of doing and involves subject matter skills,
techniques, and methods (Krathwohl, 2002). Security practitioners use factual and conceptual
knowledge for cognitive processing to apply and analyze procedural knowledge. This
knowledge type is common for practitioners and represents an important aspect of their
professional education (Salisbury, 2003). The faculty need to have procedural knowledge to
integrate a gendered perspective into teaching. Professors need to teach conformity with
international law and the importance for countries to establish national action plans on women,
peace, and security as a foundational benchmark toward advancing gender inclusion,
perspectives, and protection as fewer than one-quarter of Asia-Pacific states have national action
plans. Moreover, professors would teach procedures for (a) integrating women leaders and
women’s perspectives into security sectors, and security-related processes and decision-making,
(b) advancing women’s protection, rights and needs, and (c) mobilizing men to advance these
efforts (White House, 2016, 2019).
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 41
Metacognitive knowledge to self-reflect on teaching effectiveness of societal violence
against women and implications in security studies. Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge
about the action and interaction of self, task, and strategy to affect cognition (Flavell, 1979). For
Dewey (1910), reflective thought (thinking-on-thinking) meant methodical cogitation on
substantive issues as they both appear and tend. Schön (1983) expressed his epistemology on
reflection as reflection-on-action, and reflection-in-action, and then Greenwood (1993) offered to
the theory, reflection-before-action. While reflexive and adaptive teaching approaches are
commonly applied in academia (Jones, 2009), it is transformative learning that is needed if
learners are to change self and society (Jones, 2009; Christie, Carey, Robertson, & Grainger,
2015). The manifestation of this problem is visible as educators disvalue its worth or when
curricula is replete with content at the exclusion of reflection (Ferry & Ross-Gordon, 1998). The
evidence highlights dissonance in understanding the nature and value of systematic, self-
reflection (Rodgers, 2002).
The need for teachers’ metacognition needs to be prioritized so that teachers themselves
can submit to transformative learning (Mezirow, 1991). Mezirow (1981, 1991, 2000) theorized
transformative learning as an adult learner’s meaning-making process to guide future acts.
Imbued by assumptions that are paradigmatic, prescriptive, and causal (Brookfield, 2017), adults
are left untouched by new knowledge and experience until and unless they are sparked by a
disorienting dilemma (Mezirow, 1978) that gives rise and desire to deliberative cognition to test
their own assumptions. In teaching the implications of societal violence against women on
national security, educators should structure time for self-reflection on gender inequalities and
differences in the Asia-Pacific and how those factors affect their own biases and security
perceptions, as well as how they might affect those of their student-practitioners. Evolving
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 42
gender biased norms is a protracted process that is acutely affected by culture and structure;
notwithstanding, norms can be positively affected with an academic curricular approach to
dismantle gender stereotypes (World Bank, 2012). Table 3 identifies knowledge influences,
types, and assessments for knowledge gap analysis of the stakeholder goal.
Table 3
Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments for Knowledge Gap Analysis

Organizational Mission
Builds resilient capacity, shared understanding, and networked relationships among
security practitioners and institutions to advance a free and open Asia-Pacific.
Organizational Global Goal
Assist partner nations in integrating women leaders and women’s perspectives into
security sectors, security-related processes, and decision-making by February 2021.
Stakeholder Goal
All professors teach a gendered perspective in security studies by February 2021.
Knowledge
Influences Types Influence Assessments
Faculty need to know what is
meant by a gendered
perspective in security
studies.
Declarative Survey: I know what is meant
by gendered perspective in
security studies.
Survey: I know how the effects
of discriminatory laws against
women can manifest in society.
Interview: What does gendered
perspective in security studies
mean to you?
Interview: Describe how
societal violence against
women is perpetrated in peace
and conflict.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 43

Motivation
“If you can dream it, you can do it” is a statement credited to Walt Disney that underscores
the centrality of people’s motivational beliefs (dreams) to goal attainment. Pintrich (2003)
distilled manifold models of social-cognitive constructs into five generalized beliefs: self-
efficacy, goal orientations, utility, attributions, and interests. This section examines these first
three beliefs and their direct effect on achieving the stakeholder goal.
Table 3, continued

Interview: Imagine a country in
the Asia-Pacific with laws
and/or culture that
discriminates or disadvantages
women, describe how the
effects of such laws or culture
might be manifested on a
society and/or national
security.
Faculty need to know how to
integrate a gendered
perspective into their
teaching.
Procedural Survey: I know how to teach a
gendered perspective in
security studies.
Interview: If I were a student at
this institution, describe the
process whereby I would learn
a gendered security
perspective.
Faculty need to know their
pedagogical approach to
teaching a gendered
perspective in security
studies.
Metacognitive Survey: I know my
pedagogical approach toward
teaching a gendered
perspective in security studies.
Interview: Describe your
pedagogical approach toward
teaching a gendered
perspective in security studies.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 44
Self-efficacy theory in teaching a gendered perspective in security studies. Canadian
psychologist Albert Bandura (1977, 1997, 2006) developed the theory of self-efficacy to explain
individual effort exerted in the face of adversity. This self-efficacy theory is foundational to
Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory, which emphasizes that people exert control over their
action and learn from observing, imitating, and modeling. Bandura (2000) postulated that self-
efficacy underpins the motivation to achieve, and that absent the prospect that one’s efforts will
yield success or avert disaster people are uncompelled to persist in adversity. The basis of self-
efficacy is that individuals who believe they can and will do well are more prone toward
motivations of active choice, mental effort, and persistence (Clark & Estes, 2008; Schunk,
Meece, & Pintrich, 2014). The self-efficacy that is necessary to effectively teach a gendered
perspective in security studies is predicated on self-efficacy for instruction (Skaalvik & Skaalvik,
2010). Women in peace and security is not an independent course of study at DIB, which stands
in contrast to courses in counterterrorism, transnational security, maritime security, security
cooperation, and crisis management. Consequently, most professors are ill-experienced at
teaching a gendered perspective, and others possess a general awkwardness or apathy toward the
topic. Notwithstanding such deficits, Edwards (2008) argued that while women are central to
gender discussions, men must also teach and study its content to inspire the greatest effects in the
gender discourse. Teaching efficacy could be bolstered by instituting professional development
sessions that address effective methods of instruction for teaching gendered security studies,
pairing teacher with proficient and less proficient teachers of a gendered perspective, directing
the curriculum committee to review teaching materials for a gendered perspective, and providing
professors feedback on their teaching effectiveness (Pintrich, 2003).
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 45
Goal orientation theory in teaching a gendered perspective in security studies. Goal
orientation theory is among the social cognitive theories of motivation and gives basis and drive
for undertaking achievement tasks (Pintrich, 2003). Theorists (Ames, 1992; Dweck & Leggett,
1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988) express goal orientation in terms of mastery and performance, the
former being the pursuit of self-competence, and the later the search of social-comparison.
Further nuanced, mastery-approach pursues task proficiency whereas mastery-avoid evades task
misunderstanding. Professors who are driven by mastery goal orientation either teach a gendered
perspective from a mastery-approach of self-growth, or mastery-avoid of self-guard against
wrongly teaching the topic. Conversely, professors who are compelled by performance goal
orientation might teach the gendered curriculum from a performance-approach to socially
demonstrate subject competency or peer parity, or from performance-avoid to socially skirt
perceptions of subject incompetency or peer inferiority (Ames & Archer, 1988; Dweck &
Leggett, 1988; Elliot, 1999; Pintrich, 2003). Administrators could motivate faculty with goal
orientation by deemphasizing social comparison and stimulating self-growth and mastery of
gendered security studies (Nichols-Casebolt, Figueira-McDonough, & Netting, 2000; Pintrich,
2003).
Utility value beliefs in teaching a gendered perspective in security studies. American
educational psychologist Jacquelynne Eccles and her colleagues (1983) extrapolated the
expectancy-value theory to education to explain achievement related choices based on two
individual beliefs: success-expectancy and task-value. Eccles (2006) stated that success-
expectancy is an individual’s supposition of their achievement prospect when they undertake a
task, and task-value is about two motivational approaches to undertaking a task: “Can I do it?”
and “Do I want to do it?” While expectancy beliefs play prominent in how well an individual
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 46
performs a task that she or he chooses to undertake, task-value beliefs feature foremost in
whether a person chooses to embark upon a task (Eccles & Wigfield, 1995). Task-value beliefs
are determined by a four-dimension construct of attainment value, intrinsic value, utility value,
and cost (Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield, Eccles, Schiefele, Roeser, & Davis-Kean, 2006).
Attainment assesses an individual’s value in performing a task well. Intrinsic considers an
individual’s enjoyment in performing a task. Utility calculates an individual’s potential benefit
in performing a task. Cost weighs an individual’s consequence in performing a task.
Dissimilar to intrinsic value, which is useful in measuring personal interest to teach a
gendered perspective in security studies, a utility value belief views a task trough a lens of
extrinsic value to calculate the task’s prospective usefulness to an individual’s future endeavor
such as advancing a career (Wigfield, Eccles, Roeser, & Schiefele, 2008). Employees often
conclude career usefulness by observing priorities that are communicated in an organization’s
allocation of resources, implementation of policies, and counseling of employees (Ergin, 2002).
As employees tend to extrinsically value what employer’s preference, the nearer a task aligns
with organizational priorities the more likely that utility value will motivate an employee to
accomplish the task. For utility value to motivate professors to teach a gendered perspective in
security studies, DIB needs to manifest gendered security studies as a priority teaching effort of
its faculty (Avis, 1989; Nichols-Casebolt et al., 2000). Table 4 identifies motivational influences
and assessments for motivational gap analysis of the stakeholder goal.

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 47
Table 4
Motivational Influences and Assessments for Motivation Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
Builds resilient capacity, shared understanding, and networked relationships among security
practitioners and institutions to advance a free and open Asia-Pacific.
Organizational Global Goal
Assist partner nations in integrating women leaders and women’s perspectives into security
sectors, security-related processes, and decision-making by February 2021.
Faculty Goal
All professors teach a gendered perspective in security studies by February 2021.
Assumed Motivation Influence Motivation Influence Assessment
Self-efficacy: Faculty need individual and
collective self-efficacy to teach a gendered
perspective in security studies.
Survey: I am currently certain of my ability to
teach a gendered perspective in security
studies so that all my students learn.
Survey: I am currently certain that [ X%] of
my colleagues can constructively engage all
their students in learning a gendered
perspective in security studies.
Interview: Explain how you feel about your
ability to teach gendered security imperatives.
Goal Orientation: Faculty need sufficient
mastery goal orientation to teach a gendered
perspective in security studies.
Survey: I am currently committed to teaching
a gendered perspective in security studies.
Interview: What approach would you like this
institution to adopt in teaching students a
gendered perspective in security studies?

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 48
Table 4, continued
Utility Value: Faculty need to perceive
usefulness to themselves from teaching a
gendered perspective in security studies.
Survey: This institution currently values
faculty who teach a gendered perspective in
security studies.
Survey: During my last annual performance
counseling session, my reporting senior
emphasized the value of me teaching a
gendered perspective in security studies.
Interview: Consider your approach toward
teaching a gendered perspective in security
studies, describe how this organization
responded to that approach.

Organization
Organizations are the sum of its people (Schneider, Brief, & Guzzo, 1996), who form
distinct cultures that define organizational function and life (Alvesson, 1990). Culture is an
instrument of group control that influences thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors (Schein, 2017).
Leadership is central in shaping organizational culture (Schein, 2017). Gallimore and
Goldenberg (2001) postulated an organizational dyad of cultural models and settings that inform
all that an organization chooses to do, or not to do. This section reviews literature relevant to
organizational influences of cultural models and settings and their effect on achieving the faculty
goal to teach a gendered perspective in security studies.
Cultural model influences in teaching a gendered perspective in security studies.
Cultural models are shared normative perceptions of how organizations function. They
incorporate the collective values, thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors that direct an organization’s
purposes, priorities, and procedures (D’Andrade, 1995; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
Globally, the security sector domain has consistently been dominated by male practitioners and
their security issues (Tickner, 1992; United Nations, 2002; United Nations Development
Programme, 2016). This gender-imbalanced domain pervades the cultural model of the security
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 49
sector and its broadly diminutive approach toward adopting policy priorities that include
women’s issues and participation in peace and security (United Nations, 2000). The
promulgation of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace, and
Security (2000) confronted the cultural model of the male-dominated security sector by directing
all nations to address and resolve issues of women’s roles in peace and security. To advance
security and stability throughout the Asia-Pacific, the U.S. National Action Plan on Women,
Peace, and Security bid DIB to assist partner nations to (a) integrate women leaders and
women’s perspectives into security sectors, security-related processes, and decision-making, (b)
advance women’s protection, rights, and needs, and (c) mobilize men to progress these efforts
(White House, 2016, 2019).
While DIB’s responsibilities in these matters are clear, its success in producing persistent,
positive effects toward that agenda will depend in part on its ability to create a cultural model
that embodies the roles and issues of women in peace and security in its faculty composition and
curriculum content (Trenerry & Paradies, 2012). Defense Institute B’s cultural model of
teaching, or its approach toward developing regional comprehensive security, is reflected in its
educational program of five traditional security studies: security responses to terrorism, crisis
management, maritime security, transnational security cooperation, and security sector
development; and the noticeable absence of a course on gendered security studies. Security
studies developed within the field of international relations and represents a realist construct that
reifies the state as the referent object of security (Kissinger, 1994). Emerita professor J. Ann
Tickner (1992) observed that international relations (her field of study) is among the last of the
social sciences to consider a gendered perspective. Gendered security studies adopted an
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 50
approach that emanates up from the community and considers the individual to be the referent
object of security (McGlinchey et al., 2017; Singh, 2006).
These polarity views toward security suggest the need for a deliberative amalgamation of
gendered security studies in traditional security studies programs. Such an approach might posit
the inevitability that interstate security is a requisite condition for gendered security with
acknowledgement that individual security is also contingent on protection from intrastate abuses
(Hudson, 2005). There are three main ways to incorporate gender into DIB’s security studies: a
course of study, integrated course, and survey course/class (Atchison, 2013; Avis, 1989; Cassese,
Bos, Duncan, 2012). Gendered security studies as a course of study would examine such topics
as gender awareness and perspectives in (a) areas of defense, economics, government, power,
security, society, and vocation; (b) critical perspectives of security studies; (c) prevention and
protection against gender-based violence and vulnerabilities; (d) development and
implementation of national action plans on WPS; and (e) women as denizens, decisionmakers,
and practitioners in peace and conflict. A course of study would accentuate the relevance of
gender in security studies as faculty and students deeply examine the breadth of issues in lectures
and literature (Atchison, 2013; Avis, 1989; Cassese et al., 2012; Wahlke, 1991; Weingarten,
Hurlburt, Souris, 2018). Gendered security studies that are formally taught as an integrated
course would address gender issues in each traditional security studies course, which would
stress the importance of gender issues in security studies. An integrated course of studies is not a
laissez faire approach of addressing gender issues casually or perfunctory as might be associated
with an “add women and stir approach” (Avis, 1989; Silverberg, 1994). A survey course or class
would offer an introductory view of gender issues; however, if only taught as an elective it
would communicate to faculty and students that gender issues are of marginal importance to
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 51
security and for security practitioners (Avis, 1989; Cassese et al., 2012). In deciding between
offering gendered security studies as a course of study or an integrated course, Dr. Judith Myers
Avis (1989) concluded that each produces distinctly different outputs, and that the best approach
is not a choice of either-or, but both. Integrating gender issues at a surface level tends to
generate concerns and defensiveness that are best settled in a course of study where faculty and
students can acquire depth and breadth of knowledge on gender issues. Survey courses and
classes are the least effective way to teach gendered security studies (Cassese et al., 2012;
Wahlke, 1991). Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) concluded that for an organization to
effectively change its cultural model it should first change its cultural settings.
Cultural setting influences in teaching a gendered perspective in security studies.
Cultural settings are recurring group interactions that exist within a cultural model to do what the
group values (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Sarason, 1972). Cultural settings, as defined by
Sarason (1972), are purposeful, longitudinal gatherings that are designed to accomplish things.
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) extended that sense of cultural setting to academia as the loci
where change discourse is actioned, and the cultural model of teaching is fundamentally
improved. New cultural models of teaching are developed when cultural settings are created and
sustained to bring together administrators and faculty to discuss, plan, and implement innovative
approaches to teaching and learning (Goldenberg & Sullivan, 1994). Goldenberg and Sullivan
(1994) determined that four change elements of cultural setting were essential in changing a
cultural model: shared goals, measurable indicators, sage assistance, and staunch leadership.
Such settings matter as they are proven to affirmatively change how educators think about and
implement new teaching models, which demonstrates how culture is created in settings
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Canadian professors John Meyer and Natalie Allen (1991)
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 52
developed a model of three academic cultures and the manner of commitment they exhibit:
constructive cultures foster growth and support change; passive-defensive cultures are
conventional, authoritarian and avoid innovation; and aggressive-defensive cultures are
authoritarian and foster competitive power struggles while controlling change. Professors Ann
Nichols-Casebolt, Josefina Figueira-McDonough and F. Ellen Netting (2000) suggested that
changes to an intellectual and professional culture can elicit resistance that can be intractable in
passive-defensive cultures. They also suggested that aggressive-defensive cultures are amenable
to administration-approved, faculty-implemented change, while constructive cultures would be
most receptive to change.
As a U.S. defense institution, DIB is an authoritarian, hierarchically structured
organization. By practice, the director has consistently been a retired general or admiral who has
established practices that retain decision-making authority for institutional change. This
structure and practice are consistent with an aggressive-defensive culture. Five of its 16-person
faculty are women, three of whom openly advance a gendered approach toward security studies;
those women are joined by one man who also aspires to advance a WPS agenda. This dynamic
informs DIB’s cultural settings, or group interactions. Table 5 identifies theory-based
organizational influences and assessment methods applied in this research.
Table 5
Organizational Influences and Assessments for Organizational Gap Analysis

Organizational Mission
Builds resilient capacity, shared understanding, and networked relationships among security
practitioners and institutions to advance a free and open Asia-Pacific.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 53
Table 5, continued
Organizational Global Goal
Assist partner nations in integrating women leaders and women’s perspectives into security
sectors, security-related processes, and decision-making by February 2021.
Faculty Goal
All professors teach a gendered perspective in security studies by February 2021.
Assumed Organizational Influences Organization Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1: Organization
needs to prioritize the integration of a
gendered perspective into the curriculum of
each course.
Survey: Over the last 12 months, my
reporting seniors emphasized on ‘blank’
occasions that faculty should integrate a
gendered perspective into their teaching.
Survey: This institution currently prioritizes
the faculty teaching a gendered perspective
in security studies.
Interview: Describe how this organization’s
priorities affect your teaching of a gendered
perspective in security studies.
Cultural Setting Influence 1: Course
curriculum needs to substantively include
gendered security content.
Interview: Describe this organization’s
educational model for teaching a gendered
perspective in security studies.
Observation: Review course syllabi to
identify a gendered perspective in security
studies.
Cultural Setting Influence 2: Organization
needs to model integration of a gendered
security perspective into the curriculum of
each course.
Interview: Describe how this organization
models the integration of a gendered
perspective into its course curricula.
Observation: Review organizational
documents to determine how its modeling
integration of a gendered perspective into
course curricula.
Cultural Setting Influence 3: Organization
needs to allocate adequate resources to
integrate a gendered perspective into the
curriculum of each course.
Interview: Describe how this organization
allocates resources toward your teaching a
gendered perspective.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 54
Conceptual Framework:
Interaction of Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation and the Organizational Context
The purpose of a conceptual framework is to fashion structure and clarity to a study
through text and form by weaving the resources of prior research and theory, with one’s
experiences, pilot studies, and thought experiments (Maxwell, 2013). This framework informs
the problem of practice, research questions, data collection methods, analysis techniques, and
interpretation of findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This study is grounded in literature that
explicated a theory that national insecurities in peace and conflict are bred from a phenomenon
that perceives a trifurcated taproot of direct, structural, and cultural violence toward women as a
collective societal violence (Galtung & Fischer, 2013; Hudson et al., 2012). Postulating that
security practitioners can affirmatively oppose societal violence against women, and recognizing
that DIB educates several hundred mid- and senior-grade Asia-Pacific centric security
practitioners each year, this project systematically evaluated knowledge, motivation and
organizational (KMO) influences that are essential in achieving DIB’s organizational goal to
assist partner nations in integrating women leaders and women’s perspectives into security
sectors, security-related processes, and decision-making.
While singly presented in the literature review, knowledge and motivation influencers are
comingled and interrelated in people, who act and react to organizational influences of cultural
models and settings that are collectively organizational barriers to goal achievement (Clark &
Estes, 2008; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Closing performance gaps is contingent on
accurately identifying KMO achievement barriers, their interrelationship, and their influence on
the faculty stakeholder goal of teaching a gendered security perspective that enhance nation-state
security (Clark & Estes, 2008).
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 55
This section acknowledges, then unpacks the interactions of KMO influencers that apply
to this study. Figure 1 illustrates the conceptual framework of this dissertation, which is
grounded in the research question: What KMO influences bear on the faculty’s ability to teach a
gendered perspective in security studies? A gendered perspective approaches security from the
community and considers the individual to be the referent object of security whereas
traditionalist view security from the sovereign and deem the nation-state to be the referent object
of security (McGlinchey et al., 2017; Singh, 2006). These divergent perspectives toward
security necessitate a need for an inclusive approach toward adopting a curriculum of gendered
security studies in DIB’s traditional security studies programs.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 56

Figure 1. Conceptual framework: Knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
effecting integration of gendered security studies at DIB.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 57
Figure 1 graphically depicts DIB as the organization of study and the KMO influencers
that are essential in achieving the organizational global goal and attendant faculty stakeholder
goal. Defense Institute B is depicted in the larger outer blue box that subsumes interior
compartmented boxes. Rendered in red are organizational aspects. The partitioned red box
represents organizational influences of cultural models and settings that create the permissive
space where faculty work, and ultimately set conditions that empower faculty to teach. To
achieve the organizational global goal, DIB should create a cultural model of teaching gendered
security studies, and a cultural setting that prioritizes integrating that teaching model throughout
its curriculum. The organization sets curriculum (inset red rhombus), which should be
incorporative of gendered security studies; if DIB is to affirmatively affect the organizational
global goal.
Portrayed in green are faculty aspects. The green box denotes the faculty as the
stakeholder group of study, which is bifurcated by knowledge and motivational influences upon
faculty teaching a gendered perspective in security studies. Dashed lined boxes convey
permeability of segments (Clark & Estes, 2008), which is graphically reinforced by double
headed arrows. Knowledge influences comprise factual, conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive knowledge that is relative to teaching a gendered security perspective or
imperative that enhance nation-state security (Krathwohl, 2002). Motivation influences include
self-efficacy, goal orientation, and utility value as being relevant to the faculty teaching gendered
security studies (Bandura, 2000).
Cascading from the faculty influencers is the faculty stakeholder goal of teaching a
gendered security perspective or imperative that enhances nation-state security. Emanating from
the organization of study at the top of the figure, and then flowing through each element of the
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 58
organization and faculty, the blue arrow points outward toward the organizational global goal
(framed by blue borders) of assisting partner nations to integrate women leaders and women’s
perspectives into security sectors, security-related processes, and decision-making.
The intra- and inter-connectivity between and among KMO influencers is constant (Clark
& Estes, 2008). Metaphorically, if faculty were lamps then knowledge would be a lightbulb and
motivation the power to light the bulb. With the correct lightbulb and sufficient power, the lamp
illuminates producing visible light. Likewise, faculty that possess requisite knowledge to teach
gendered security studies and the internal motivation to pursue and persevere teaching this field
will effectively educate a gendered perspective (Avis, 1989; Schunk et al., 2014), and may
inspire student-practitioners to affirmatively alter the balance against direct, structural, and
cultural violence (Avis, 1989; Tickner, 1992). The converse is also true, and the consequences
of unknowledgeable and unmotivated faculty teaching a gendered perspective in security studies
could provoke defensiveness, anxiety, and resistance among students who feel confronted by
gendered security studies (Avis, 1989; Nichols-Casebolt et al., 2000). Continuing the metaphor
of faculty as lamp: Organizational factors are a lampshade that either directs and enhances light,
or shrouds and dilutes it.
Defense Institute B’s cultural model may not prioritize the inclusion of gendered security
studies; likewise, its cultural setting may not foster an environment where the integration of a
gendered perspective can be discussed, planned, and implemented. Professor emerita Carol
Agócs (1997) noted that advocates of a gendered perspective often work in organizations that
perpetuate disadvantages of women. In illuminating the predicament, Agócs (1997) typologized
institutional resistance to change by decision makers as either (a) denial of need for change, (b)
refusal to deal with change, (c) refusal to implement agreed upon change, or (d) dismantlement
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 59
of implemented change. Change resistance, she postulated, often derives from leaders’ active
choices to perpetuate advantages, and avoid exposure to the plights of non-dominate groups. Of
the four-resistance efforts, refusal to implement agreed upon change typifies organizations that
erect transformational façades that then want for resources, policies, standards, and
empowerment as the change goal is assailed and discredited (Agócs, 1997; Verge, Ferrer-Fons,
& González, 2018). Cultural models and settings should be examined for this condition in
organizations where change initiatives languish.
In summation, this conceptual framework postulates a theory that student-practitioners,
who are duly educated in gendered security studies at DIB, can assist partner nations to integrate
women leaders and women’s perspectives into security sectors, security-related processes, and
decision-making. This postulation is contingent to a theory that the identified KMO influencers
are essential elements in eliminating organizational barriers, detracting from the faculty
stakeholder goal of teaching a gendered security perspective or imperative that enhances nation-
state security.
Summary
Chapter Two opened with a literature review that established societal violence against
women as a persistent problem of practice that precipitates national insecurities. Asserting that
security practitioners can prevent incidents of societal violence while appreciably advancing the
protection and participation of women in peace and conflict, this chapter then identified 10
assumed gaps of KMO influences that are essential for DIB’s faculty to effectively teach student-
practitioners a gendered perspective in security studies. This study’s conceptual framework was
then introduced to interpose the relationship between security-practitioners who are educated in
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 60
gendered security and their positive impact toward countering societal violence against women; a
global problem of practice.

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 61
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Since 2012, Defense Institute B (DIB) has taught women, peace, and security or gender
and inclusion as a non-integrated plenary lecture or elective in each of its courses, despite having
a goal since early 2017 to integrate a gendered perspective throughout its suite of security
studies courses. This phenomenon of failing to integrate gender throughout the agenda is
consistent with the research findings of Weingarten, Hurlburt, and Souris (2018) who determined
that while a near plurality of international relations professors (91 percent) surveyed stated a
desire to integrate gender resources throughout their teaching, about half (52 percent) of the
respondents actually teach it as a discrete segment or module. Concluding their research,
Weingarten and her colleagues recommended that future research consider the question of why
integrating gender mainstreaming is elusive, and what can be done to assist. The essence of this
question was taken-up in this study.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to evaluate the degree to which DIB is achieving its
organizational goal to assist partner nations in integrating women leaders and women’s
perspectives into security sectors, security-related processes, and decision-making. While a
complete performance evaluation would focus on all stakeholders, this study emphasized the role
of the college faculty in achieving its goal to teach a gendered perspective in security studies.
This approach seems justifiable given the faculty’s centrality to DIB achieving its mission to
enhance stability in the Asia-Pacific, which is undertaken through executive education of
security practitioners. If DIB is to achieve its global goal, the faculty goal is indispensable.
To this end, these two research questions guided this evaluation study:
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 62
1. What knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences bear on the faculty’s
ability to teach a gendered perspective in security studies?
2. What recommended solutions will close the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational gaps that affect the faculty’s ability to teach a gendered perspective in security
studies?
Participating Stakeholders
The college faculty of DIB was identified in chapter one as the primary stakeholder group
for this study. There were 16 incumbent civilian faculty positions; nine positions were
unencumbered during the research portion of this study. The average faculty member had at
least 15 years of experience as an academic and/or security practitioner, although the polarity of
experiences ranged from first-year postdoctoral associate professor to full professor with more
than 40 years’ experience. The faculty teach curriculum in plenary and elective lectured
sessions, and facilitate course learning in small group classes of 14 students. Written permission
from the dean of the college was obtained before recruiting the faculty to participate in this
study. Descriptive statistics of study participants are recorded in Table 6.
Table 6
Descriptive Statistics of Study Participants (n=16)
Variable No. Percentage
Gender
Male
Female

11
5

68.75%
31.25%

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 63
Table 6, continued
Race
Non-White
White

9
7

56.25%
43.75%
Origin
Indo-Pacific
U.S.

12
4

75%
25%
Citizenship
Indo-Pacific
U.S.

8
8

50%
50%
Education Level
Doctorate (Ph.D., Ed.D., J.D.)
Master’s Degree (M.A.)

14
2

87.5%
12.5%
Years Employed at DIB
6 – 18 Years
3 – 5 Years
< 3 Years

11
2
3

68.75%
12.5%
18.75%

Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Surveys quantifiably assess perspectives, perceptions, and trends across a population,
describing what something is (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This explanatory
sequential mixed methods study began with a survey to determine faculty perception of gendered
security studies: feelings about their own knowledge and motivation to teach the topic, and
perceptions about organizational prioritization and effectiveness in instituting the topic. Simple
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 64
random sampling of a stakeholder group population is foundational to sampling theory as it
ensures equal probability of selection. To assure a 95 percent confidence level, 15 of the 16
faculty members would need to be sampled. Johnson and Christensen (2014), however,
recommend sampling whole populations that are fewer than 100 people to accurately understand
a population. Three criteria were applied to ensure that the sampled population was homogenous
in basic terms of shared cultural models and settings, curriculum familiarity, and teaching
opportunities.
Criterion 1. Faculty members with more than six months’ service in the college. This
criterion ensured that the sampled faculty shared experiences of DIB’s organizational influences.
Criterion 2. Faculty members who had taught current curriculum or completed seminar
leader training within the past 12-months. This criterion ensured that the sampled faculty shared
knowledge of DIB’s current curriculum.
Criterion 3. Faculty members who in plenary sessions had lectured, and in small group
classes had facilitated learning as a seminar leader. This criterion ensured that the sampled
faculty shared opportunities to teach a gendered perspective while teaching security studies at
DIB.
Survey Sampling and Recruitment Strategy and Rationale
The applied selection criteria identified all 16 information-rich faculty who, when
surveyed, were able to answer the research questions and address the purpose of this study.
Owing to a small holistic population (N=16), comprehensive sampling was adopted to achieve
complete population representation (Johnson & Christensen, 2014). Of the 16 faculty who were
sampled, 11 were men and five were women. All 16 faculty were recruited to participate in this
study via group email, informing each of the study’s purpose, methods, and duration. The
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 65
recruitment email included an Internet link to an online polling service where the survey was
created and tabulated; a request to complete the survey in seven calendar days was disseminated;
and reminder emails were sent before the survey was closed and the data tabulated. The survey
was administered first, and the results then informed the arrangement of purposeful focus groups.
Focus Group Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Interviews are a primary data source of qualitative studies, and focus groups are
purposeful group interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Informed by the survey data, focus
group interviews sought deeper insights into performance gaps in achieving the organizational
goal (Creswell, 2014). Shared discourse is the salient benefit of focus group interviews, which
can extract group perceptions and meaning making that produces synergistic data (Fink, 2013;
Krueger & Casey, 2014). Criterion-based selection is the sampling strategy of qualitative studies
and is synonymous with purposeful sampling to define inclusion criteria (Johnson &
Christensen, 2014; LeCompte & Preissle, 1993). To foster thoughtful, unhampered group
dialogue on knowledge, motivation, and organizational barriers to teaching gendered security
studies, each focus group was organized along two criteria.
Criterion 1. Faculty members were separated in groups according to gender. The five
women were formed into a single group, and the males were formed into two evenly dispersed
groups.
Criterion 2. Group members did not have known polarity perspectives to forestall
strained dialogues during interviews.
Focus Group Sampling and Recruitment Strategy and Rationale
Faculty members completing the survey were recruited to participate in a focus group.
The faculty were recruited to participate in this study via group email that expressed appreciation
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 66
for survey responses, and explained the purpose, method, location, and duration of the focus
groups. Three focus groups met in 90-minute, standardized, face-to-face interviews of open-
ended questions posited before the group with a goal of soliciting candid viewpoints about
teaching a gendered perspective in security studies (Creswell, 2014; Patton, 2002). Each group
had four to five people to encourage equal discussion among all participants. Four- and one-half
hours were used for the three focus group interviews.
Observation Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Observations, like interviews, are primary sources of data, but unlike interviews,
observations are direct encounters with subject phenomena (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Data
was triangulated from the survey, focus group interviews, and observations and then fused with
analyzed documents, and my own knowledge and experiences to interpret meaning (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Course dependent, upward of three faculty members lecture in plenary sessions
daily, while several faculty members offer multiple elective lectures each course. Faculty are
rotationally assigned to teach eight 14-person small group seminars each course. Lectures and
seminars both offer opportunities for observation. Plenary sessions are unobtrusively video
recorded in auditoriums and available post-lecture for viewing. Seminar class are not recorded.
During the period of data collection, five teaching sessions were assessed for integration of a
gendered perspective, requiring 6 hours of observation.
Criterion 1. Faculty member lectured in 75-minute plenary session. This observation
assessed levels of effort to integrate a gendered perspective in core curriculum.
Criterion 2. Faculty member facilitated small group seminar discussion. This
observation assessed level of effort to integrate a gendered perspective into classroom learning of
core-curriculum.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 67
Criterion 3. Faculty member lectured in 75-minute elective session. This observation
assessed level of effort to integrate a gendered perspective in non-core curriculum.
Observation Sampling and Access Strategy and Rationale
Faculty members who participated in a focus group, were recruited for observation to
triangulate findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Approval was obtained from each faculty
member before observing their teaching. Adopting the role of a complete observer, observations
occurred while seated from the back of an auditorium filled with more than 125 students and
faculty. While the intimacy of a classroom setting altered classroom observations to that of
observer as participant, the intent was to not speak in the classroom. As explained by Merriam
and Tisdell (2016), accentuating the role of observer role over the role of participant tends to
enrich systematic observation offering a broader view.
Quantitative Data Collection and Instrumentation
This study began with quantitative data collection and analysis to identify and describe
gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affect the faculty’s
effectiveness of teaching a gendered perspective in security studies, a nested goal of the
organization’s global goal (Creswell, 2014).
Surveys
A questionnaire survey was administered to the whole population of 16 faculty members
with purposeful selection criteria that accounted for shared cultural models and settings,
curriculum familiarity, and teaching opportunities (Fink, 2013). Two-part, multiple choice
items–stem and response–were used for efficiency, response uniformity, and reliability (Fink,
2013).
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 68
Survey Instrument. Thirteen closed question stems were designed to elicit uniform
responses to inquire about knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences to attain DIB’s
organizational goal. Directly worded statements or stems that consistently frame the inquiry as
positively oriented were used to improve internal consistency reliability (Barnette, 2000).
Response options represented a 4-point Likert scale that used strongly disagree (SD), disagree
(D), agree (A), and strongly agree (SA). An even number of response options was chosen to
forestall neutral responses (Fink, 2013). The survey instrument is at Appendix A.
Survey Procedures. This survey was deployed at the beginning of data collection to
provide a descriptive assessment of the researched phenomenon (Creswell, 2014). The survey
was administered online using Qualtrics, a familiar commercial product to the faculty, to lessen
the extraneous load of learning a unique survey program (van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, &
Schmidt, 2002). An Internet link to the online survey was emailed mid-December 2018 to each
member of the sample population, requesting survey completion within seven days. When only
62.5 percent of respondents had completed the survey in the first seven days, the survey was
reopened to permit the remaining faculty an opportunity to complete the survey, owing to the
holiday season. By mid-January, 15 of 16 professors had completed the survey; 40-days after
the survey was opened, 100 percent of the civilian faculty had completed the survey, achieving
100 percent item response rate. Using the commercial survey product, data collection and
analysis was automated immediately upon closing the survey.
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation
Consistent with Creswell’s (2014) explanatory sequential mixed methods research
design, quantitative data (addressed earlier) offered insight on what the faculty espoused as
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors affecting attainment of the organizational
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 69
goal; while qualitative data (addressed below) amplified how these beliefs were manifested in
documents, interviews, and observations. While documents, interviews, and observations are
primary source data, the value and relevance of such sources tend to improve to the extent
researchers approach data collection with forethought of what to extract from each source
(Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A review of policy documents and course
curricula offered insights into organizational influences, and an examination of lecture materials
undergirded findings of faulty knowledge. To obtain deeper insights into performance gaps in
achieving the organizational goal, qualitative data collected from focus groups addressed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences (Clark & Estes, 2008). Classroom
observations buttressed assessments of faculty knowledge and motivation. This purposeful
collection of qualitative data from documents, interviews, and observations is further explained
in the following paragraphs.
Documents and Artifacts
Policy memorandums, course curricula, and lecture materials offered insights to the
organization’s cultural model, and its implementation of gendered security studies (Avis, 1989;
Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). With organizational consent (Krueger & Casey, 2014), internal
documents were collected from the organization’s intranet and reviewed to identify policy
prioritization to achieve its goal to teach a gendered perspective in security studies. Lecture
materials (e.g., briefing slides and readings) were prepared by professors for course use by
students and were therefore outside an official use purview. Lecture materials outline and
emphasize a professor’s pedagogical approach toward teaching security studies and the treatment
of a gendered perspective (Avis, 1989). Materials void a gendered perspective underscored the
apparent organizational apathy toward the topic, whereas sporadic or surface treatment of the
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 70
issue in lectures were indicative of gaps in faculty knowledge and/or motivation, which were
examined in interviews and observations (Agócs, 1997; Clark & Estes, 2008; Verge et al., 2018).
Interviews
Interview Protocol. This study employed a standardized open-ended interview protocol
to collect qualitative data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002). Twelve interview questions
and several probes were constructed to promote focused responses, maximize interviews, and
facilitate data analysis (Patton, 2002). Interview questions were specifically formulated to
identify knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that are necessary to realize the
organizational goal. The focus group interview instrument is at Appendix B.
Interview Procedures. Focus group interviews were conducted after document
collection and analysis, but before observations. Sequencing interviews after document
collection/analysis offered insights gleaned from the one to better inform the other as this
approach was assessed to enlarge my personal perspective while offering a more informed
context of the participants’ comments (Bowen, 2009). To generate optimal group synergy, five
members of the faculty met in a non-college conference space for 90-minutes of a standardized
open-ended interview protocol to solicit candid responses about achieving organizational and
stakeholder goals (Patton, 2002). The aim was to recruit 16 candidates to meet in three gender
separate focus groups of five people each to yield rich data that would be audio recorded,
transcribed, and coded for analysis; in the end, 13 professors met in three focus group interviews.
Handwritten fieldnotes augmented audio recordings with deliberate emphasis on non-verbal
gestures, group dynamics, and researcher’s perceptions that were difficult to garner from audio
recordings (Patton, 2002).
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 71
Observations
Observations or fieldwork are direct encounters with a researched phenomenon, which in
this study is the teaching of a gendered perspective in security studies (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Its value as a research approach was enhanced by its structured application to address
explicit research questions, which necessitated defined protocol and procedures (Bogdan &
Biklen, 2007).
Observation Protocol. Classroom observations were used to triangulate findings from
documents and interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), with recognition that when goals are
expressed, but not enacted, goal attainment is impracticable. Consequently, it is observations of
teaching that will well arbitrate the organization’s effectiveness in achieving its goals (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2018). Lectures that offer little or no gendered perspective may suggest
organizational influences of cultural models and settings that fail to prioritize a human security
perspective in security studies (Avis, 1989).
Observation Procedures. Faculty who purported in interviews to teach a gendered
perspective were recruited for classroom observation to understand their teaching approach and
effectiveness. Five 75-minute teaching periods were observed, requiring six hours of
observation. As a complete observer, focus was placed on content to ascertain when, if, and how
a lecturer introduced or addressed a gendered perspective, and if and how participants responded
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). When called upon by faculty or students to comment or participate
in class, a momentary transition from complete observer to observer as participant occurred
without fanfare (Patton, 2002). Verbatim notes of all relevant content were handwritten in a
notebook and later coded and analyzed.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 72
Data Analysis
Data analysis that began in research design, persisted through study completion, and was
informed by three years’ close association with the faculty, its organization, and its policies and
practices toward gendered security. Quantitative data from the census survey, which was
collected and interpreted in the first phase of data analysis, provided an early depiction of the
faculty’s perceptions toward teaching a gendered perspective in security studies that accounted
for individual knowledge and motivation, and organizational influences. Quantitative results
better prepared me for qualitative data collection, or the second phase of data analysis, by
shaping lines of inquiry and insight. Data interpretation was the third phase of this triumvirate
mixed methods approach, which ultimately prepared the qualitative data to build from an
established foundation of quantitative data of which the results and findings are presented in the
next chapter of this dissertation (Creswell, 2014).
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The value of a study is not its conclusions, but the credibility and trustworthiness of its
conclusions, which are threatened unless and until the researcher affirmatively addresses
personal subjectivity and reflexivity (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). While the
omission of subjectivity and reflexivity from qualitative research is idealistic, the emission of
veracity is not only realistic, it is indispensable. Consistent with my earlier admonition to adopt
disciplined subjectivity through data source triangulation and member-checking, the credibility
of this study’s conclusions was further established through sustained presence in fieldwork and
peer examination to counter predispositions, preconceptions, and predeterminations (Creswell,
2014; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 73
By research design, data triangulation was the foremost strategy of this study employed
to foster credibility and trustworthiness. This trifurcated collection approach of data from
documents, interviews, and observations yielded in analysis a holistic elucidation of faculty
stakeholder’s perspectives toward attaining the organization’s goal vis-à-vis gaps in requisite
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences (Clark & Estes, 2008; Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As described in this section, these three data sources were garnered
and evaluated sequentially to shape and inform each successive data encountered to understand
and corroborate the phenomenon beyond single source perspectives (Patton, 2015).
Member-checking, as a second strategy, was continuous as emergent inferences were
confirmed with data originators to substantiate suppositions and maintain research integrity
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Specifically, internal policy documents were collated, and germane
content extracted to extrapolate prescribed policy intentions; findings of which were confirmed
for understanding with executive stakeholders. Likewise, lecture materials were reviewed, and
findings of a gendered perspective discussed with each authoring professor to understand
teaching intent. During post-interview data analysis, focus group representatives were
approached as necessary to validate researcher’s formulation of preliminary ideations (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). Classroom observations were followed by brief one-on-one discussions with
observed professors to confirm findings.
Sustained presence in fieldwork to assure adequate engagement in data collection was a
third strategy that began with organizational affiliation and expanded through in-depth research
design, data collection, and data analysis, which accounted for hundreds of hours of focused
effort (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The objective of this approach is dense data collection to
comprehend this study’s complexities across variations to support consideration of alternative
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 74
prospects (Maxwell, 2013; Patton, 2002). Descriptive fieldnotes are a constant for their essential
role in data collection; as such, they provided this study with several accounts of events,
activities, behaviors, dialogues, and reflections; reflective notes were considered when assessing
emerging themes and personal perspectives (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007).
Peer examination offered a fourth strategy to buttress credibility and trustworthiness of
this project’s findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Beyond the institutional structure of
dissertation committee members who labored reviewing this researcher’s work, several
colleagues also reviewed this study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Validity and Reliability
Survey accuracy is a measurement of validity, which in this study means that survey
questions correctly measure knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that are
related to achieving the organizational goal; and that the survey questions are reliable or
consistent in measurement every time (Salkind, 2017). This survey was designed for this study
and was tested for validity and reliability (Salkind, 2017). Eleven peer volunteers (five of whom
were experts) pilot tested the survey to enhance validity and reliability of the survey instrument
(Creswell, 2014). Iterations of examining and testing the survey instrument continued until
successive refinements of format, questions, and scales achieved expert consensus and content
validity of the instrument (Creswell, 2014).
To assure a 95 percent confidence level 15 of 16 professors should be surveyed; however,
given the small population, the whole population were invited to take the survey (Johnson &
Christensen, 2014). High confidence levels necessitate near universal response rates, which
given personal familiarity with participants, was achievable. To promote high response rates, I
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 75
employed two automated email reminders sent to each email account that did not promptly
complete the survey during the response window.
Ethics
A study’s value is the indivisible amalgamation of its researcher’s ethic and rigor as
manifested by candor and credibility (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). While protection of
participants and contribution to disciplines are essential research ethics (Rubin & Rubin, 2012)
as this study was undertaken from the vantage of workplace familiarity, relational ethics also
necessitated role disaggregation between researcher for this study and non-supervisory leader for
this study’s participants (Glesne, 2011).
The following affirmative actions ethically underpinned this study. In compliance to
research ethics for human subject research, this study commenced after obtaining approval from
the University of Southern California’s Institutional Review Board, and the organization of
study. Informed, written consent from each participant was solicited before collecting
participant data from surveys, interviews, and observations (Krueger & Casey, 2014).
Participants were instructed on the study’s purpose, its voluntary nature, data confidentiality, and
potential risk to participant anonymity.
Participants acknowledged informed consent before completing surveys, and signed
written consent forms before interviews and observations. Consent to record interviews and
observations was explicitly authorized by each participant. The researcher’s repeated
admonition of the study’s voluntary nature, use of non-college conference spaces for interviews,
and use of the research institution’s email to correspond with participants underscored my role as
researcher, which further obviated concerns of coercion or undue influence. Petitioned
participants were affirmatively assured that neither favor nor displeasure could be exacted from a
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 76
decision to participate in the study or rejoin in a particular fashion during interviews. No offer of
compensation was represented or extended.
Fieldnotes and data were never left unattended and were secured at the researcher’s
office, where the researcher had exclusive access to the data. Pseudonyms were used to identify
interviewees in transcripts and reports, and the key of real names to pseudonyms was stored on
separate password protected files from the report. All electronic reports and files were password
protected.
Researcher as instrument for data collection and analysis distinguishes qualitative from
quantitative inquiry, obliging researchers to truthfully bare their subjectivities so as to confront
conformation biases and availability heuristics that can tilt a study’s objectivity (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The desire to research the effects of societal violence against women on national
insecurity is indication of my subject interest, and inclination that structural and cultural
constructs are complicit to its perpetration. To check personal projections during this inquiry,
peer examination was used to review the neutrality of interview questions and data analysis to
avoid hidden biases due to gender, seniority, socioeconomic status, and experiences (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
Summary
Belying its value to national security, women in peace and security is a comparatively
minor effort to other disciplines of security studies taught at DIB. This research project
addressed this shortcoming through an explanatory sequential mixed methods study approach
that systematically evaluated knowledge, motivation and organizational influences that are
essential in achieving the faculty stakeholder goal to teach a gendered perspective in security
studies.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 77
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
Data presented in this dissertation were collected in an evaluation study of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences that affect the ability of the faculty at Defense
Institute B (DIB) to teach a gendered perspective in security studies. The faculty stakeholder
goal is a nested objective of the organization’s global goal of assisting partner nations to
integrate women leaders and women’s perspectives into security sectors, security-related
processes, and decision-making (Clark & Estes, 2008). To understand these influences, the
researcher studied DIB’s civilian faculty through survey, focus group interviews, and
observations. This chapter presents the results and findings of data analysis to interpret meaning
from insights of faculty knowledge and motivation to teach gendered security studies, and their
perceptions of organizational influences that affect the realization of that goal. These two
research questions guided this evaluation study:
1. What KMO influences bear on the faculty’s ability to teach a gendered perspective in
security studies?
2. What recommended solutions will close the KMO gaps that affect the faculty’s ability
to teach a gendered perspective in security studies?
Participating Stakeholders
Of DIB’s 16 incumbent civilian faculty (n=16), all received and completed the survey for
a 100 percent survey completion rate, and 13 participated in focus group interviews for 81.25
percent participation rate. Descriptive statistics of study participants suggest a heterogenous
faculty as measured by the six demographics of gender, race, origin, citizenship, education level,
and, years employed at DIB (Table 7; Figure 2).
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 78
Table 7
Descriptive Statistics of Study Participants (n=16)
Variable No. Percentage
Gender
Male
Female

11
5

68.75%
31.25%
Race
Non-White
White

9
7

56.25%
43.75%
Origin
Indo-Pacific
U.S.

12
4

75%
25%
Citizenship
Indo-Pacific
U.S.

8
8

50%
50%
Education Level
Doctorate (Ph.D., Ed.D., J.D.)
Master’s Degree (M.A.)

14
2

87.5%
12.5%
Years Employed at DIB
6 – 18 Years
3 – 5 Years
< 3 Years

11
2
3

68.75%
12.5%
18.75%
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 79

Figure 2. Descriptive statistics of study participants (n = 16).
While all 16 civilian professors had volunteered to participate in focus group interviews,
scheduling conflicts precluded three male faculty members from joining with the 13 focus group
participants. To bolster anonymity, pseudonyms are used in this document to refer to focus
group participants, and descriptive statistics are no further expanded upon from that provided in
Table 7 and Figure 2. Table 8 is a tabulation of focus group participants by pseudonym.
Table 8
Focus Group Participants
Focus Groups
#1 #2 #3
Abel Agnes Dan
Ed Asia Ebert

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 80
Table 8, continued
Oscar Emma Isaac
Scout Flo Umut
Zena
Data collection occurred over eight weeks and flowed from document analysis to a 16-
item online survey of all 16 civilian professors to three 90-minute focus group interviews with 13
of 16 incumbent civilian faculty members, and concluded with five observations of teaching.
Results and Findings
Survey results and focus group findings, as related to research question one, are described
here applying KMO influences that were advanced in the conceptual framework, bolstered
through a literature review, and validated in this research study. This chapter concludes with a
synthesis of this study’s results and findings. Research question two, which considers
recommended solutions to address KMO gaps identified in research question one, is addressed in
Chapter Five.
Research Question One
Research question one asked, What KMO influences bear on the faculty’s ability to teach
a gendered perspective in security studies? Each finding of the KMO performance indicators is
thematically substantiated below. Finding one contends that faculty lack declarative, procedural,
and metacognitive knowledge to teach a gendered perspective in security studies. Evidence of
knowledge gaps include faculty assertions that they and their colleagues do not fully understand
the topic, know how to integrate it into their teaching, or recognize their effectiveness in teaching
a gendered security perspective. Finding two contends that faculty are challenged by flagging
motivation in self-efficacy, goal orientation, and utility value. Evidence include faculty
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 81
declarations of low confidence or desire to teach the topic, topic avoidance, and perceived
organizational indifference to the topic. Finding three contends that the organization lacks
cultural models and settings necessary to institutionalize the teaching of the topic. Evidence
include broad faculty concordance that the organization does not value the topic, course
curriculum maltreats the topic, and resources have been insufficiently allocated to effectively
understand and teach a gendered security perspective. Table 9 tabulates the findings and themes
to research question one.
Table 9
Research Question One Findings and Themes
RQ1. What KMO influences bear on the faculty’s ability to teach a gendered perspective in
security studies?
Findings Themes
Finding One. Faculty lack declarative,
procedural, and metacognitive knowledge to
teach a gendered perspective in security
studies.
(a) Disparate concepts of gendered security.
(b) Uncertainty in how to teach gendered
security.
(c) Scant thinking on how to better educate
security practitioners on gendered security.
Finding Two. Faculty are challenged by
flagging motivation in self-efficacy, goal
orientation, and utility value to teach a
gendered security perspective.
(a) Disbelief in abilities to teach gendered
security.
(b) Teaching avoidance because of topic
unfamiliarity and negative connotations.
(c) Uncertain usefulness from teaching
gendered security.

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 82
Table 9, continued

Finding Three. Organization lacks cultural
models and settings necessary to
institutionalize the teaching of the topic.
(a) Ambiguous organizational value, priority,
and attitude toward gendered security.
(b) Course curriculum does not substantively
include gendered security content.
(c) Frustration in the absence of an
organizational model for teaching gendered
security.
(d) Gendered security is a modest effort with
no allocated resources for expertise.

Finding One: Faculty Lack Declarative, Procedural, and Metacognitive Knowledge to
Teach a Gendered Security Perspective
Finding one maintains that faculty lack declarative, procedural, and metacognitive
knowledge to teach a gendered perspective in security studies. Declarative knowledge includes
factual knowledge of thematic facts and details, and conceptual knowledge to associate facts that
form classifications, principles, and generalizations. Procedural knowledge is discipline specific
sequential details to perform tasks. Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge about the action and
interaction of self, task, and strategy to affect cognition. Three themes emerged from the data on
knowledge influences: (a) disparate concepts of gendered security, (b) uncertainty in how to
teach a gendered perspective in security studies, and (c) scant thinking on how to better educate
security practitioners on gendered security. Each theme is explored below to elucidate gaps in
knowledge influences that are necessary to achieve the faculty goal of all professors teaching a
gendered perspective in security studies.
Disparate concepts of gendered security. Eighty-one percent (13/16) of the faculty
self-assessed in survey their declarative knowledge of what is meant by a gendered perspective
in security studies. However, through focus group interviews, it became clear that as few as 23
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 83
percent (3/13) of the faculty interviewed possess more than a superficial understanding of the
topic. Consequently, topical unfamiliarity has produced disparate concepts of what gendered
security is among the faculty based on interviews.
Each focus group interview began by asking the participants to explain what a gendered
perspective in security studies meant to them. Responses were varied as many struggled to
define it. Emma, Asia, and Isaac framed gendered perspective as a female perspective. Stated
Isaac, “[It] is basically hearing the voices of women, and particularly getting their perspectives.”
Ebert framed it as a binary gender issue, stating “I think a gendered perspective in the security
sector is understanding the socially constructed roles that men and women occupy within their
societies and how those differences affect how their security is affected differently.” For Oscar,
it was procedural and U.S.-centric, “I suppose it’s inspired by UN Resolution 1325, and the
Department of Defense's activities under that resolution and U.S. adherence to it.” For Flo it
meant something entirely different; it meant priorities. Said Flo, “For me, it's more about
priorities. I mean, in the end some of the perspectives are probably more similar than different,
but we prioritize things differently.” In exasperated tones and with bewilderment that was not so
different from her colleagues, Agnes grappled to find meaning in this topic as she said, “What's
the driving conceptual focus of the gendered perspective that we're trying to get out of people
when we start teaching them?” In disparate concepts, the faculty expressed gendered security as
(a) “a female perspective”; (b) “a binary gender issue”; (c) as “procedural and U.S.-centric”; (d)
as an issue of “priorities”; or (e) with uncertainty.
The faculty’s conceptual knowledge of societal violence against women largely centered
on direct violence with few drawing connections to structural or cultural violence. When asked
to describe how societal violence against women was perpetrated in peace and conflict Scout
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 84
simply stated, “As I told you, I have no knowledge on this issue.” Oscar’s comments, however,
were more representative of his colleagues who, like himself, could not visualize societal
violence against women to be an issue broader than domestic violence. Said Oscar, “I associate
the concept of [societal] violence against women with domestic violence, family violence,
violence by a husband or a boyfriend or a lover. That's what pops into my mind.” With similar
sentiments, Abel offered that “particularly in peacetime settings, it's probably more seen as being
a domestic or a household type issue.” Without exception, each focus group first associated
domestic violence as societal violence; and then group one was at a loss to expand their thoughts
much further. The relevance of this is found in the value of professors discussing with their
student-practitioners the realities of societal violence against women in war and conflict.
Ebert and Dan took umbrage to the postulations of Umut who stated that “In conflict,
women are the first victims”; and of Isaac who said, “I would extend that and say, in times of
peace, women are the first victims.” Ebert countered:
I think that, you know, in the current narrative that we exist in, it's popular to focus more
on the violence perpetrated against women than men. And I think that that can be a
mistake to say that women are the first victims in war. I don't think it's really accurate
because men are the ones that are killed in war. Right?
It is worth noting that neither Ebert nor Dan distinguished between a civilian victim of war and a
combatant casualty of war as their implication was that male combatants are the first victims of
war. While a cogent argument could be made that men are forced to fight and therefore, they are
the victims of war, in the context of the discussion, Ebert and Dan seemed to have conflated
combatant casualties of war, which are common and inherent among soldiers, with civilian
victims of war, which are common and tragic among women (Eckhardt, 1989; Roberts, 2010).
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 85
In convicted tones, Dan cautioned that a “dangerous trend is to broaden violence to anything.”
To wit Ebert said, “I should add that I concur completely with Dan about the danger of
conflating physical violence and any kind of emotional stress. I mean, we really do need to have
different categories for those things.” While discounted by others in his group, Isaac offered
“what we don't see is the violence against [women] during peace, unless it happens to be, you
know, the usual gang rape, or rape, or someone has been beaten up and sent to the hospital.”
Oscar commented how women are more vulnerable to rape than men … and [that] it's kind of
built into the system, so to speak … both in peacetime and in wartime.” Direct violence against
women, whether in peace or conflict occupied the substance of much of the discussion on
societal violence against women; leaving structural and cultural violence untouched by all but
three female faculty.
Dissimilar to the faculty who viewed societal violence against women through the narrow
lens of direct violence, three of five female faculty members expressed it in broader terms as
they spoke on topic for nearly 20 minutes. Agnes was the first to comment on this interview
item, after qualifying her comment with, “I think it's evolved”; meaning her knowledge of the
topic. Agnes continued:
One part of it is actors, people themselves, who make conscious decisions to do the
things they do . . . and then you've got institutions that . . . sort of promote, enable,
justify, provide the rationale for certain practices and so forth; condone violence against
women…and the third part I think is the policies. The policies of governments that either
don't recognize a gendered perspective, or don't recognize that there are problems.
Agnes well expanded the discussion from direct violence to structural violence. Asia and Emma
then spoke at length, echoing and amplifying Agnes’s comments about structural violence. Zena
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 86
seemed skeptical at the postulated linkage between cultural enablement of direct violence and
discriminatory laws with manifestations of national insecurity, stating “Depends how you define
national security. If half the population feels vulnerable and at risk, because of what happens
behind closed doors. Then, is that a matter of national security?” While cultural violence was
broached on three occasions in the female group, it never extended beyond how it enabled direct
violence.
In her final comments of the interview, Flo well expressed the faculty’s collective lack of
declarative knowledge of gendered security, offering this response:
We have a certain percentage who don't understand what it is. We have a certain
percentage who don't care what it is, it's not their subject matter so they're not going to
teach it. And we have another percentage that would talk about it, but they all talk about
it, we all talk about it in different ways.
While the sentiments of topic apathy “don’t care” and avoidance “not going to” are addressed in
later findings, the assertions that faculty “don’t understand” and that they “talk about it in
different ways” lies center to the theme that the faculty have disparate concepts of gendered
security. Furthermore, the faculty’s indeterminate descriptions of how societal violence against
women is perpetrated in peace and conflict seemed rooted in their collective uncertainty about
the institutional objectives in teaching a gendered perspective in security studies. Through all
three interviews, most faculty members had difficulty considering that societal violence was
something broader than rape in wartime or domestic abuse in peacetime. Faculty were few who
viewed societal violence against women through the comprehensive lens of direct, structural, and
cultural violence. These are not trivial points, considering DIB’s mission to advance regional
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 87
and transnational security; and the correlation between societal violence against women and
national insecurity.
Uncertainty in how to teach gendered security. Akin to inflated survey responses on
declarative knowledge, 69 percent (11/16) of the faculty self-assessed in agreement they had
procedural knowledge of how to teach gendered security. When interviewed, however, the
number of faculty professing such procedural knowledge was 38 percent (5/13). The faculty at
large expressed individual and collective struggles to facilitate learning on this topic. Speaking
generally about faculty consternations to lead gendered security discussions, Flo summed her
engagements with colleagues like this:
I've had people come up to me and say I don't know what I'm going to do with that WPS
lecture, you know. . .. And they don't know what to do with it. And so, when it's usually
scrunched with another topic, they spend the entire time talking about the other topic and
very little about WPS because they're basically, not scared of it, but just don't know what
to do with it.
Dan echoed Flo’s comments in his focus group interview with an expression that reverberated as
a common theme of how the faculty “have very different definitions of gendered security.” Said
Dan:
So, a lot of time, we talk past each other because we have very different definitions of
what we think. You know, people talk about WPS, but are thinking gender perspectives;
and people talked about WPS, and are pointing to the UN resolutions in the law, and so
on and so forth.
Umut’s declaration of his uncertainty with how to teach gendered security, seemed not so
different from some of his colleagues; said Umut, “As I already said before to you, it's not my
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 88
area of expertise. So, I don't see myself as a part of the faculty that focuses on this.” Agnes’s
exclamation, “We need training for seminar leading!” was equally not a unique opinion as it
resonated in the other focus groups as well. In their own words, the faculty expressed their
uncertainties in teaching gendered security studies; said they, “[we] don’t know what to do with
it”; “we talk past each other”; “it’s not my area”; and “we need training.”
Responding to the query on how they integrate gender into security studies, Emma
retorted, “Well, I think we can't go to the how until we know [the why]. Right? So, if we ha[d]
a clear vision and clear objective[s] then we [could] get everybody lined up.” Queued at the
front of the line to learn how to teach gendered security would be those six survey respondents
who disagreed that they had declarative knowledge of what is gendered security and how societal
violence against women manifests in society, or procedural knowledge of how to teach a
gendered perspective in security studies (see Table 10). From their interview responses, Agnes,
Dan, Oscar, Scout, Umut, and Zena might also queue in the line to learn how to teach gendered
security, if they had not already assembled as one of the four survey respondents identified as
lacking declarative knowledge. To be clear, declarative knowledge of a topic is requisite before
one can credibly demonstrate procedural knowledge of a discipline specific task (Krathwohl,
2002).
Scant thinking on how to better educate security practitioners on gendered security.
Sixty-nine percent (11/16) of faculty expressed agreement in knowing their pedagogical
approach toward teaching a gendered perspective in security studies. The substance of this
question was designed to delve into the faculty’s metacognitive knowledge of teaching gendered
security studies. Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge about the action (e.g., teaching
gendered security) and the interaction of self, task, and strategy to affect cognition (Flavell,
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 89
1979). As declarative knowledge is the bedrock to procedural knowledge, metacognitive
knowledge to affect one’s teaching of a gendered security perspective does not occur in the
absence of needed declarative and procedural knowledge. The path to develop the faculty’s
pedagogical approach toward teaching a gendered perspective in security studies begins first by
learning the prerequisite declarative and procedural knowledge. Table 10 crosswalks the seven
professors whose responses identify their need for knowledge development.
Table 10
Survey Responses for Knowledge Types
Survey questions

Professor
Q1. I know what a
gendered
perspective in
security studies is
[DK].
Q2. I know how
the effects of
discriminatory
laws against
women can
manifest in society
[DK].
Q3. I know how
to teach a
gendered
perspective in
security studies
[PK].

Q4. I know my
pedagogical
approach toward
teaching a gendered
perspective in
security studies
[MK].
2 A A Disagree Disagree
3 Disagree Disagree Disagree Disagree
4 A Disagree A A
11 A A A Disagree
12 Disagree SA Disagree Disagree
13 Disagree A Disagree Disagree
14 A A Disagree A
Note. A = agree; DK = declarative knowledge, MK = metacognitive knowledge, PK =
procedural knowledge, SA = strongly agree.
From the survey responses on knowledge, 44 percent (7/16) of professors need training
and education to develop their metacognitive knowledge on this issue. In focus group
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 90
interviews, the faculty were asked to describe their pedagogical approach, which provoked a
deeper response than the survey question. From focus group interviews, faculty expressed less
certain metacognitive knowledge of the topic, which intimated that as few as 38 percent (5/13) of
faculty exhibit gender specific metacognitive knowledge.
The faculty offered cursory descriptions of their individual pedagogical approaches.
Oscar and Umut both framed a gendered security perspective as issues of classroom inclusion.
“The main thing that I do is to ensure inclusion in the seminar,” said Oscar. Umut stated, “it's
not your awareness of gender perspective on security, but to get everybody in the room around
the table to have his or her say.” For Abel it was about using gender neutral terminology. Said
he, “For me . . . [it’s] coming up [with] some terminology for certain things in my lectures.”
Continuing he said, “[I] take that approach to remove, to make it gender neutral.” For Flo,
gender was another frame for critical thinking. Flo said, “to me all of this [on gender security]
should be tied in more to the whole framing type of thing than anything else.” In a spirited
debated with Emma on the importance of teaching gendered security, and the prospect of stirring
students to experience a disorienting dilemma, or in Flo’s vernacular “to blow people’s minds,”
Flo distanced herself from gendered security as an important field of security studies, stating, “I
don't want to get too wrapped around the axle around gender.” Continuing, “It [blowing minds]
is not going to be a lecture … on women.” While broadly the faculty exhibited scant thinking on
how they might individually facilitate better learning of gendered security in their classrooms
with their student-practitioners, the faculty did engage in robust discussions in each group
interview on variegate approaches that the organization might consider in addressing the topic.
By their own declarations, faculty members expressed both disparate concepts and
complete unfamiliarity with gendered security, others communicated uncertainty in how to teach
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 91
gendered security, and many exhibited scant thinking on how to better educate security
practitioners on gendered security. These expressions indicate the absence of declarative,
procedural, and metacognitive knowledge that is necessary for the faculty to effectively teach a
gendered perspective in security studies.
Finding Two: Faculty are Challenged by Flagging Motivation in Self-efficacy, Goal
Orientation, and Utility Value to Teach a Gendered Security Perspective
Finding two contends that the faculty are challenged by flagging motivation in self-
efficacy, goal orientation, and utility value to teach a gendered perspective in security studies.
Self-efficacy addresses a teacher’s belief in her ability; goal orientation refers to a teacher’s
desire; and utility value denotes a teacher’s perception that undertaking a task will advance her
career (Pintrich, 2003). Three themes emerged from the data on motivational influences: (a)
disbelief in abilities to teach gendered security, (b) teaching avoidance because of topic
unfamiliarity and negative connotation, and (c) uncertain usefulness from teaching gendered
security. Each theme is explored below to reveal gaps in motivational influences that are
necessary to achieve the faculty goal of all professors teaching a gendered perspective in security
studies.
Disbelief in abilities to teach gendered security. Self-efficacy to teach gendered
security studies was notably low in focus group interviews as assessed from faculty expressions
of their individual and collective perceived inabilities to teach the topic. Few felt equal to the
task – as few as 31 percent (4/13). This stands in contrast to survey results wherein 69 percent
(11/16) of faculty assessed certainty in their individual abilities to teach a gendered perspective
in security studies so that all their students learn. When surveyed about collective self-efficacy,
only three of 16 professors (18.75 percent) expressed confidence that 61 to 80 percent of their
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 92
peers could effectively teach this topic; most felt differently about their peers as 43.75 percent
(7/16) assessed 0 to 20 percent, 18.75 percent (3/16) gauged 21 to 40 percent, and the last 18.75
percent (3/16) thought 41 to 60 percent. Aggregated survey responses are provided in Table 11.
Table 11
Survey Responses for Collective Self-efficacy
Survey question #6
I am currently certain that X% of my colleagues can constructively engage all their students in
learning a gendered perspective in security studies.
Frequency # Faculty Percentages
0%-20% 7 43.75%
21%-40% 3 18.75%
41%-60% 3 18.75%
61%-80% 3 18.75%
81%-100% 0 0.00%
Total 16 100%
When asked in interview if they thought that the faculty was collectively motivated to
teach gendered security studies, Flo responded without hesitation: “No!” Asia, restated the
question with “‘Collectively?’ No!” Emma’s comments to Asia well framed this low degree of
collective self-efficacy: “[Asia] you definitely are very clear about where you’re going (teaching
ability). While there are some of us, [it’s] not across the board.” Emma’s response seems
accurate as few faculty members expressed either collective- or self-efficacy to teach a gendered
security perspective.
Dan gave voice to an even stronger sentiment that was echoed by three-fourths of the
professors in his focus group about low individual self-efficacy, when he professed that he had
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 93
“[no] ability” to teach a gendered perspective. Isaac doubled down, stating “Not one of us can
do it, and I mean do it on gender.” Umut stated, “My take, . . . leave it to subject matter experts.”
When asked about his ability to teach the topic Oscar said, “I think it's limited and I'm culture
bound, but I do my best.” Abel, who otherwise presented a confident demeanor, lowered his
voice and said, “I'm fine teaching it, but again, feeling genuinely limited as well because of my
experiences.” Continuing, Abel said, “I don't feel I'm in the right place to talk about all these
challenges or opportunities for women, because I'm not a female.” In disquieted tones, Ed said,
“I mean, I understand that women like to see men supporting their advancement, but I am
genuinely uncomfortable going up there and preaching about inclusion . . . it's not easy, it's not
easy.” In their own words, professor after professor expressed disbelief in their abilities to teach
a gendered security perspective. Isaac then suggested that those who know how to integrate a
gendered perspective in security studies could model it so that “Others are going to see it [and
think] 'Okay, this is how he's done it. Maybe I can do it differently, maybe I can do the same, but
I see where this is going.’” Isaac’s proposition for faculty models resonated with others and is
addressed in a later section on the need for cultural settings.
The faculty conveyed little self-efficacy or beliefs in their ability to teach gendered
security studies through statements of doubt that included “not one of us can do it”; “I think
[I’m] limited”; and “I don’t feel I’m in the right place to talk about [it].” Such statements run
counter to the principle that those who believe they can do well, will do well and are then more
prone toward motivations of active choice, mental effort, and persistence (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Teaching avoidance because of topic unfamiliarity and negative connotation. While
75 percent (12/16) of surveyed faculty asserted current commitment to teach a gendered
perspective in security studies, only 25 percent (4/16; 3F+1M) of those purportedly committed
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 94
have actually joined the college’s community of practice on women, peace, and security (WPS).
The community of practice on WPS leads DIB’s gendered security endeavors to include
research, lectures, and student body mentorship.
In interviews, the faculty universally ascribed topic unfamiliarity and negative
connotations as reasons to avoid teaching gendered security studies. Said Emma, “We always
get a lot of resistance from course managers not wanting to allocate time [to it].” Asia
concurred, stating “because, all the course managers are not always committed to it, sometimes
we don't have [it in] seminar.” Flo then suggested that the faculty meet in a “completely honest
no holds barred discussion” on how they should collectively teach a gendered security
perspective. Said she, “I think we ought to have a conversation and find out why people are
opposed to it [gendered security studies]. There are people who just don't care; and there's
people on the other end of the bell curve who really do care, but we need to have that
conversation.” In somewhat exasperated tone, Agnes asked for clarity on the rationale for
teaching the topic. Said she, “Are we trying to use [this topic] as a tool to improve security,
improve gendered situations, what is it? So, it's not very clear in my mind sometimes. It's very
hard to steer the [seminar] discussion….” Such comments as those are indicative of topic
unfamiliarity among the faculty to say nothing of organizational purpose, which is addressed in a
later section.
In focus group three, there were strong assertions of activism associated with teaching
approaches that caused topic avoidance. Offered Isaac, “Because there is this sense of, you
know, activists that it puts off people.” In response, Dan said, “I can tell you that even some of
the females are put off.” After vocally agreeing, Ebert added “I know, and they are no longer
here. [Female professor’s name] wanted nothing to do with it because of that; and there are
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 95
others too.” While perceptions of activism gave rationale for topic avoidance by some, other
concerns also surfaced. In the first male focus group, Ed also noted negative connotations
associated with teaching gendered security. Ed stated, “We consistently got some of our poorest
ratings in our WPS classes, and that made most of the faculty a little bit reluctant about going too
fast and too far down that track.” Abel then remarked on his uneasy feelings about teaching
gendered security. Said Abel, “the reason why I feel uncomfortable is you don't want to create
these men versus women [situations in the classroom].” Ed then posed a third alternative
avoidance rationale: “You know, if we're going to push this, this wagon hard, we need to have
evidence.” To wit Abel replied, “And then we’d be presenting the value that women bring to the
table in the security sector.”
Explicated in this section were rationale of teaching avoidance for topic unfamiliarity and
negative connotations. Issues of topic unfamiliarity exhibited thematic consistency from earlier
sections. However, the reasons for topic avoidance—perceptions of activism, poor survey
ratings, and evidenced-based needs—represented different areas of faculty concern. Of note,
only three of 16 faculty members currently demonstrate mastery-approach or self-growth toward
the goal orientation of teaching gendered security studies. The remaining 13 professors, will be
stymied by issues of teaching avoidance unless and until they can locate their motivation among
the other three goal orientation techniques; mastery-avoid, performance-approach, and
performance-avoid.
Uncertain usefulness from teaching gendered security. One-third or 31 percent (5/16)
of the surveyed faculty responded that the organization does not currently value faculty who
teach a gendered perspective in security studies. To be clear, the question was whether the
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 96
organization valued the faculty not whether it valued the topic. This faculty perception would
most certainly produce uncertain usefulness in teaching gendered security (Wigfield et al., 2008).
In dyadic conversation, Isaac and Dan asserted that some faculty are not interested in this
topic. Isaac stated, “Training: is it gonna make us smarter in the seminar room? Nine out of 10
[times], no! Because we're not interested.” Remarks like Isaac’s and others intimate uncertain
usefulness in teaching gendered security. Ebert comments implied only a degree of usefulness
so long as learning to teach a gendered security perspective was voluntary and not mandatory.
Ebert offered, “I think it's useful to ask people to think about it [gendered security], but to require
it is, I think, is just too hard.” Umut resolutely thought the topic unimportant as he commented,
“I don't think we should be talking about WPS, there are more important things to talk about….”
In the other male focus group session, Ed expressed sentiments that the topic was only useful to
female faculty. Said he, “You know [women] should be leading the charge because if we were
the downtrodden, I wouldn't expect someone else to go and work my cause, I'm going to work
my own cause. I don't know.” The presence of large numbers of faculty who find uncertain
usefulness in teaching a gendered security perspective will perpetuate topic avoidance unless and
until the organization is successful in establishing a direct linkage between teaching the topic and
their career advancement at DIB.
By their own admissions, the faculty generally project disbelief in their abilities to teach
gendered security, actively avoid teaching it because of topic unfamiliarity and negative
connotation, and see uncertain usefulness from teaching gendered security. These statements
indicate the absence of active choice, mental effort, and persistence that is necessary for the
faculty to develop the self-efficacy, goal orientation, and utility value needed to effectively teach
a gendered perspective in security studies (Clark & Estes, 2008; Schunk et al., 2014).
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 97
Finding Three: Organization Lacks Cultural Models and Settings Necessary to Teach a
Gendered Security Perspective
Finding three reasons that the organization lacks the cultural models and settings
necessary for the faculty to teach a gendered security perspective. A survey and group
interviews assessed the organizational dyad of cultural models and settings and their
effectiveness toward establishing an environment supportive of teaching a gendered security
perspective (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). The faculty’s response indicates a potential say-do
incongruence of the organizational culture (Guzzo, Nalbantian, & Parra, 2014). Figure 3
distinguishes six of the survey inquiries as representative of cultural models and cultural settings.

Figure 3. Comparison of organizational elements for a cultural model and setting that support
teaching a gendered security perspective.
The top four items are categorized as organizational elements of a cultural model or
shared normative perceptions of how the organization functions (Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001). Survey responses were mixed as related to the cultural model for teaching a gendered
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 98
security perspective: (a) organizationally emphasized (81 percent agreed; 19 percent disagreed),
(b) individually valued (75 percent agree; 25 percent disagree), (c) organizationally valued (69
percent agree; 31 percent disagree), and (d) organizationally prioritized (37.5 percent agree; 62.5
percent disagree). The bottom two items are categorized as organizational elements of a cultural
setting or reoccurring group interactions that exist within a cultural model to do what the group
values (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). These survey responses were noted as largely negative
as related to what the organization does to advance its teaching of a gendered security
perspective: (a) organizationally resourced (37.5 percent agree; 62.5 percent disagree), and (b)
performance evaluated (6 percent agree; 94 percent disagree). This juxtaposition of
organizational elements between its cultural model and cultural setting accentuates the
divergence between what is being said (that it is valued and emphasized) and what is not being
done (prioritization, resourcing, and performance accountability) for DIB to narrow the
organizational say-do gap between creating an enduring model and setting that consistently
furthers the integration of a gendered perspective into security studies teachings.
Four themes emerged from the data on organizational influences: (a) ambiguous
organizational value, priority, and attitude toward gendered security, (b) course curriculum does
not substantively include gendered security content, (c) frustration in the absence of an
organizational model for teaching gendered security, and (d) gendered security is a modest effort
with no allocated resources for expertise. Each theme is explored below to interpret gaps in
organizational influences that are necessary to achieve the stakeholder goal of all professors
teaching a gendered perspective in security studies.
Ambiguous organizational value, priority, and attitude toward gendered security.
Four of the 14 (29 percent) core survey items directly pertain to the organization’s cultural
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 99
model. Survey responses suggest a cultural model of organizational ambiguousness as to how it
values and prioritizes the faculty teaching a gendered perspective in security studies. In response
to these four survey items: 31 percent (5/16) disagreed that the organization values faculty who
teach the topic. Sixty-two percent (10/16) disagreed that the organization prioritizes the faculty
teaching the topic. Ninety-four percent (15/16) disagreed that their reporting senior had
emphasized the value of them teaching the topic during their annual performance review. The
most common or mode response was one to the question of how many times over the last 12
months had their reporting senior emphasized that faculty should integrate a gendered
perspective into their teaching; see Table 12.
Table 12
Reporting Senior Emphasized Gendered Perspective Teaching in Last 12 Months (n=16)
In focus group interviews, several professors perceived little organizational value or
prioritization for integrating a gendered perspective in security studies, despite acknowledgement
that the organization had emphasized teaching a plenary lecture on Women, Peace, and Security
in each course since 2012. Flo suggested that the topic would not be taught at all “if [teaching] it
wasn't prioritized from the top.” But then in the next few breaths, she expressed concerns that
the degree of organizational prioritization by executive leadership was insufficient. Said Flo,
“But here's the deal. The thing is … it isn't working now.” Asia and Emma both asserted that it
was course managers who were failing to prioritize the topic. Said Asia, do “you know how
many hours I wasted? I mean, I had spent just talking to [the course manager]. Emma retorted,

Mean Median Mode
Standard
Deviation
Min Max Range
Occasions 2.75 2 1 2.67 0 10 10
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“You know, the course manager has to do it. If the course manager discounts it or doesn't value
it or put it into priority.” Asia replied, “it's very difficult when the [executive leader] tells me that
it's up to the course manager to decide.” Emma, rejoined with sentiments of insufficiency for
executive leaders to relinquish program prioritization to course managers who inherently lack the
unity of vision or supervisory authority that is necessary to advance new cultural models and
settings. Said Emma, “So, I think the issue is that the [WPS] working group can provide
something, but I think it's up to the [executive leader] to make sure, you know; he has the
authority to ensure that everybody is on the same sheet of music.” When asked how the
organization should approach gendered security studies, Emma quickly answered: “Well, I mean,
you know, prioritize it.” Agnes proclaimed, “there's no guiding light, there's no guiding vision
that tells exactly ‘this is what you get out of our gendered perspective approach.’” These and
other similar comments bemoaned the lack of active organizational vision and prioritization for
engaging in gendered security studies.
In a separate interview, Ebert, and Dan debated the purpose of the organizational goal
for integrating a gendered perspective in security studies. Said Dan, “But what is important?
We don't know. We know vaguely, you know, WPS, inclusion, well whatever, gender.”
Responding Ebert said, “when you say 'we don't know what the purpose is,' I think the purpose,
we do have a consensus on the purpose, right?” Dan then voiced the larger concern of many
others that spoke of an unstructured, hands off organizational approach toward teaching a
gendered security perspective. Said Dan:
Better security, right? Better security, a better quality of education. But it’s just vaguely,
you know, understood. It’s not really well articulated, and also, it's not really well
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integrated into the program. Because when you design a program you put thing here you
put things there, you know.
Continuing Dan said, “But now, you know, we have a new [executive leader] and we also are,
you know, are losing the sight on what’s really the purpose, and what do we really want to do?”
Said Isaac, “I agree that in the last five or six years it's been very confusing, one day it's this one
day it's that.” This brief exchange between Ebert and Dan indicate a perceived absence of
organizational purpose for introducing a gendered perspective in security studies. Collectively,
these several exchanges in each interview addressed the professed lack of a cultural model that
incorporates the collective values, thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors to direct the organization’s
purposes, priorities, and procedures for teaching a gendered perspective in security studies.
Course curriculum does not substantively include gendered security content. At first
look, the faculty who disagree with the survey item that the organization’s course curricula
substantively include teaching a gendered perspective in security studies is only 35 percent
(6/16). However, three faculty who agreed with that statement also responded in the survey that
they are not currently committed to teaching a gendered perspective in security studies. So,
when viewed through the lens of the 12 faculty members who expressed current commitment to
teach a gendered perspective in security studies (survey item #7), 50 percent (6/12) disagreed
that the topic was substantively covered in the course curricula; an issue of the organization’s
cultural setting.
When asked in the focus group to describe how the organization integrates a gendered
security perspective into its course curriculum, unhesitatingly Oscar offered: “It’s up to the
individual faculty member, which is inevitable I think.” Ed rejoined “Yeah, well we have a
limited number of faculty that we can draw on to do that.” Perhaps typifying Ed’s rejoinder,
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Abel offered “I'd suggest, it's just encouragement to make sure that [in] … seminar time … we
talk about both men and women perspectives.” While this approach seemed diminutive of the
topic, it was nonetheless echoed in similar tones in each of the focus group interviews by others
to include Oscar, Flo, and Umut. Such sentiments typify an unstructured approach toward topic
integration into the course curriculum.
In a dyadic discussion, Dan and Ebert debated the amount of time dedicated per course to
lectures focused on topics of gendered security or women, peace, and security. Dan insisted that
time investment to those topics was “very high.” When pressed to define his perspective of
“very high,” he reiterated with, “Fairly high. I don't remember exactly, but every time we have a
long course, we have one or two [lectures] each on WPS.” Document analysis of course
curricula supports Dan’s assertion that each of the seven to eight courses conducted by DIB
annually have had, with few exceptions, a single plenary lecture and often one or two electives
devoted toward a women, peace, and security topic.
In response, Ebert categorically stated, “In all our courses, we 've never had two plenary
sessions on WPS.” For context, long courses of four and five weeks have between 30 and 40
plenary lectures and upward of 15 elective sessions of some 40 separate lectures. One-week
courses have 15 plenary lectures and upward of eight elective sessions offering some 30 distinct
lectures. Accordingly, both long and short courses have typically allocated between three and
four percent of available lecture time toward gendered security topics. Through observations,
non-gendered security specific lectures did not apply a gendered security frame in teaching on
traditional security topic; although there were rare instances of peripheral references about
women or women’s issues. Interchanges on faculty dependent approaches toward topic
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inclusion and time requirements for teaching gendered security lend substance to survey
responses that the topic is insufficiently covered in course curricula.
Frustration in the absence of an organizational model for teaching gendered
security. In unanimous refrains, the faculty in turn expressed fault with the way gendered
security had been taught in plenary lectures, and expressed frustration with the absence of an
organizational model for teaching the topic. When asked to describe the organization's
educational model for teaching a gendered security perspective, all agreed that there were three
basic components: female participation, a plenary lecture, and a seminar discussion. Said Ebert,
“One pillar is participation. And so, we've set a target, an increasingly higher target, for the
percentage of female participants in our classes and workshops. So, the number went from 20 to
25 to now 33 percent female participation.” Continuing he said, “The second pillar has been to
have a component in all of our long courses where we specifically discuss women, peace, and
security issues; UN Security Council 1325, and all this kind of stuff.” On seminars, Asia said:
Ideally, we should have it in seminar as well because we know that the greatest learning
takes place in seminar. But because all the course managers are not always committed to
it, sometimes we don't have a seminar. So, we lose the opportunity to discuss it in
seminar. Secondly, seminar leaders sometimes don't get it. So, if they are not sure then
the value of teaching it in seminar, advancing certain ideas in seminars can also be
problematic.
Agreement on the program components of female participation, plenary lecture, and seminar
discussion did not attend to the collective larger issue that there is an absence of an
organizational model for teaching a gendered perspective in security studies.
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Absent purpose and objective for DIB’s gendered or women, peace, and security
program, the organization has clung to the three program components. The faculty, however,
were unabashed in expressing their frustrations with the absence of an organizational model for
teaching gendered security. Agnes submitted, “You really have to care about what our intentions
are for teaching a gendered perspective, like, ‘what's the bottom-line concept…that underpins
[our] whole approach?’” Flo responded, “We don't have those articulated objectives yet: ‘what
do we want to get out of this discussion?’” Dan, associated the absence of an organizational
model with the absence of organizational purpose for teaching a gendered security perspective,
said he, “I don't think that we have a clear outline for the model, as there is no clear purpose for
the model.” Dan well related the organizational absence of a cultural model that both values and
provides purpose for teaching gendered security, and their want for an associated cultural setting
that creates a model for teaching gendered security.
In the absence of a well-defined organizational model for teaching gendered security,
several professors proposed supplanting a gendered security or women, peace, and security
agenda for an amorphous inclusion agenda. Ed, Abel, and Oscar weighed differing teaching
approaches. Abel began, “But one of the challenges … raised by women when they've had the
WPS lecture is that they felt offended by it that they felt like they were being singled out as a
vulnerable group.” Said Oscar, “I feel kind of odd myself getting up and saying ‘well, women
need this; women are vulnerable here; and women are,’ because I ain’t a woman.” Ed stated his
preference “to roll WPS into inclusion … and treat it like, you know, we have to be inclusive in
lots of different ways not just gender and not highlighting it”; such sentiments were also echoed
by others.
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Five others intimated concordance with ending gendered security for either an inclusion
or diversity curriculum. Oscar offered, “I think approaching gender inclusion in the broader
topic of diversity is justified.” Said Flo, “I mean that's what I'd like to see as the final objective,
and that's why it's called inclusion and not gender.” Dan spoke of his efforts, “I tried to promote
the use of the word inclusion because I thought inclusion would have a better reception among
people. It doesn't really divide people, but when you say women, you know, people will be
divided.” Isaac shot back, “Yes.” Asia noted, “[an executive leader] insists on, you know,
calling it [WPS] inclusion.” Ed then treaded further from his earlier comment about morphing
gendered security into a broader plenary lecture on inclusion by suggesting it be moved to an
elective. Said he, “You know where it [gendered security] really blossoms is in the electives,
because there you've got, you know, self-selecting people going into the electives because they're
really interested in it.” While gendered security and inclusive security may share common
themes, it was not evident in the 45-minute plenary lecture on “Whole of Society Inclusion,”
which simply listed gender as one among other inclusion elements. This example underscored
the organizational need for a defined model on teaching gendered security.
Supplanting a gendered security curriculum for an inclusion lecture was not a universal
stance as Asia, Emma, and Ebert each voiced the approach toward inclusion as an attempt to end
DIB’s established gendered or women, peace, and security agenda. Asia exclaimed, “remember
how … the [executive leader] was willing to take it [gender lecture] out of plenary.” Said Emma
about branding the topic as inclusion, “if you have it out there then it's too far away [from
gendered security]. In a counter retort about the inclusion topic, Emma continued, “That's a
different design, you know, again back to the objective [of a gendered security perspective].”
Ebert also retorted his objections in his group, “It's not a consensus, I still think we should have
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WPS.” Asia sought to placate her group by proffering a diverse approach toward teaching about
gender and women:
I think there is no uniform way of talking about gender … we talked a lot about UNSCR
1325, the global agenda…. We put the role of women in conflict resolution and peace
building, which was their participation. Then the protection of women and vulnerable
communities. Then there is the role of women in prevention of conflict and peace
building.
Candid frustration with the absence of an organizational model for teaching gendered security
seemed to be the impetus for these faculty remarks. Absent an organizational teaching model
that flows from accepted values and priorities for a gendered security curriculum may have
contributed to faculty criticisms that were expressed below in one interview.
The teaching model question prompted a rousing discussion in focus group three on the
assertation that certain faculty members approached gendered security as activists or advocates
rather than educators. The two terms, activist and advocate, were uttered 31 times during that
interview to label unnamed colleagues and their approaches toward gendered security. Ebert
initiated the discussion, stating “I think many of them also (sigh) are trying to sell a particular
agenda that is in competition with traditional cultures, and they've already made a value
judgment about which is better.” In response, Isaac said, “He used the word agenda. I think
we've seen more activists than educators.” Dan then propounded “So, people come here with the
expectation that they are going to be educated rather than be converted.” As the conversation
grew in intensity, the group opened up and expressed what appeared to be suppressed sentiments
on the issue of teaching a gendered perspective in security studies. Umut stated, “I believe that
topic itself is problematic because the opposite of WPS [women, peace, and security] is men,
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war, and insecurity.” Chuckling, Dan rejoined stating “MWI.” In response, Isaac quipped, “I
thought it was, MCP, male chauvinist pig.” “Feminazis, they're feminazis,” said Umut. These
expressions of resistance in some instances and criticisms in others lasted for four- and one-half
minutes. Manifestations of frustrations like those expressed by the faculty seemed to have
produced angst among most and discontent among others, which reasons for haste in establishing
an organizational model to teach gendered security.
Gendered security is a modest effort with no allocated resources for expertise.
Sixty-two and one-half percent (10/16) of the faculty disagreed that the organization currently
allocates substantial resources (time, money, activities) toward the faculty teaching a gendered
perspective in security studies. Five of 10 faculty in fact strongly disagreed, accounting for one-
third of the total “strongly disagree” responses recorded in the entire survey.
Most interviewed lent credence to the sentiment that gendered security was a modest
organizational effort with few resources. Ed recounted a time when the executive leaders had
discounted his request to fund evidenced-based research on women in the security sector; said
he, “So, I just felt that, you know, at that point, that the whole push for WPS was a talk.” Asia
related her discussions with executive leaders about working gendered security issues, “So at
least whenever I talk about gender, I mean, I am always hearing ‘no we don't have staff, we don't
have the resources.’” When asked how does the organization allocate resources to be able to do
this teaching? Ed simply said, “It doesn't.” Oscar responded with, “as I say, my first order
answer is the same as yours, none.” Flo and Emma in unison suggested, “Not enough.” Emma
continued, “we're on a treadmill too much … [and] gender, it's on the bottom.” Asia added
more, “So, there is, I would say organizational bipolarity, on so many levels.” In broad terms,
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the faculty opined that inadequate resources had been allocated toward a gendered security
agenda.
As conversations turned toward hiring qualified gendered security practitioners, Flo
began, “So, but we haven't put it in the hiring core criteria knowledge of … gender perspectives.
And it doesn't mean you have to be a woman, but we don't prioritize it in our hiring criteria.”
Oscar tendered, “the best thing that we can do as a center to enable that [WPS] is to model it.
That in fact it's our employment of females…” In a later discussion, Oscar doubled down on his
position, “I think it's awesome. I think to achieve that [WPS research] what you need to do is to
hire a faculty position against those kinds of requirements.” Umut advocated hiring several
gendered security focused professors, “I mean, there should be a small group, like in every topic
we have got three or four [professors]. Isaac also supported hiring qualified experts, “I think it is
whether we have the right resources … I'm thinking personnel. I mean people who can do this.”
In more focused terms, several professors specifically identified the need to hire gendered
security practitioners.
At the time of these interviews, DIB had nine unencumbered faculty positions. Some like
Flo and Umut seemed to intimate that existing and emerging talent vacancies offered the
organization an opportunity to append the employment process by explicitly recruiting for
gendered security experts and proponents to join the faculty. Umut appeared to clearly suggest
that this approach would purposefully cultivate a cadre of faculty who possess both knowledge
and motivation to advance organizational objectives in teaching gendered security studies.
Others to include Oscar and Isaac may have been suggesting other actions like the appointment
of a gender advisor, which would seem to be a visible manifestation of the organization’s
prioritization toward inculcating a gender perspective into security studies.
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Summary
This chapter presented an analyzed coalescence of data that was gathered from an
explanatory sequential mixed methods study that was conducted over the first eight weeks of
2019. With certainty, the faculty in its entirety share cognizance that since 2012, the
organization has adopted a women, peace, and security agenda that has included class quotas for
female students and a targeted plenary lecture in each course. Evidentiary data, however, has
explicated significant gaps of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that until
and unless fully addressed will continue to impede goal achievement in both the aforementioned
nethermost ambition as well as the more significant stakeholder goal that all professors teach a
gendered perspective in security studies.
Ten themes emerged in the research: three each in areas of knowledge and motivation,
and four in organizational influences. With 10 thematic gaps (see Table 13), it is important to
locate a starting point.
Table 13
Research Question One Findings and Themes
Research question #1
What KMO influences bear on the faculty’s ability to teach a gendered perspective in security
studies?
Findings Themes
Finding One. Faculty lack declarative,
procedural, and metacognitive knowledge to
teach a gendered perspective in security
studies.
(a) Disparate concepts of gendered security.
(b) Uncertainty in how to teach gendered
security.
(c) Scant thinking on how to better educate
security practitioners on gendered security.

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Table 13, continued

Finding Two. Faculty are challenged by
flagging motivation in self-efficacy, goal
orientation, and utility value to teach a
gendered security perspective.
(a) Disbelief in abilities to teach gendered
security.
(b) Teaching avoidance because of topic
unfamiliarity and negative connotations.
(c) Uncertain usefulness from teaching
gendered security.
Finding Three. Organization lacks cultural
models and settings necessary to
institutionalize the teaching of the topic.
(a) Ambiguous organizational value, priority,
and attitude toward gendered security.
(b) Course curriculum does not substantively
include gendered security content.
(c) Frustration in the absence of an
organizational model for teaching gendered
security.
(d) Gendered security is a modest effort with
no allocated resources for expertise.
Hence, the recommendation is to begin by addressing the four organizational gaps in cultural
models and settings, namely (1) ambiguous organizational value, priority, and attitude toward
gendered security, (2) course curriculum does not substantively include gendered security
content, (3) frustration in the absence of an organizational model for teaching gendered security,
and (4) gendered security is a modest effort with no allocated resources for expertise (see Table
13). Locating the starting point is not synonymous with an undervaluation of the other identified
gaps, they too should be regarded for the organization to realize its stakeholder goal. Chapter
Five provides theoretical and empirical evidenced-based recommendations closely enmeshed in
an integrated implementation and evaluation plan that specifically addresses each identified gap.
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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Evidenced-based recommendations, and integrated plans for implementation and
evaluation are detailed in this chapter. The New World Kirkpatrick Model is the program
implementation and evaluation framework for this study, and is structured along Kirkpatrick’s
four levels of training evaluation, namely, Level 4 Results, Level 3 Behavior, Level 2 Learning,
and Level 1 Reaction (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The recommended solutions and plans
are informed by the research findings that were validated in Chapter Four, and answer the second
of these two research questions that guided this evaluation study:
1. What knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences bear on the
faculty’s ability to teach a gendered perspective in security studies?
2. What recommended solutions will close the KMO gaps that affect the faculty’s ability
to teach a gendered perspective in security studies?
Ten actions are recommended herein to close three knowledge gaps, three motivation gaps, and
four organizational influence gaps. These 10 actions are presented as a recurring training
program that is buttressed by required drivers for support and accountability of critical behaviors
that are deemed necessary to achieve the desired result or goal of the faculty teaching a gendered
security perspective.
Chapter scaffolding includes detailed evidenced-based recommendations, program of
interventions, and planned evaluations to address the validated gaps in knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences.
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Recommendations of Practice to Address KMO Influences
Theory and empirical evidence inform each recommendation of practice presented in this
section to address 10 validated gaps of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that
impede the faculty from effectively teaching a gendered security perspective. Many of these
recommendations can be implemented in parallel, but implementing knowledge and motivation
recommendations without concurrent implementation of organizational recommendations is
anticipated to have lessened effects.
Knowledge Recommendations
The faculty lacks requisite knowledge to effectively teach a gendered perspective in
security studies. The research validated that knowledge gaps exist in declarative knowledge of
what gendered security studies is, procedural knowledge of how to integrate declarative
knowledge into teaching, and metacognitive knowledge to consider what pedagogical approach
to take to facilitate student learning of the issue (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Table 14
identifies three validated gaps of knowledge influences and context specific recommendations to
address these knowledge shortfalls. Each of the three recommendations offered below suggests
training approaches for the faculty to gain know-what and know-how knowledge so they can
confidently teach a gendered security perspective.
Table 14
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations

Assumed Influence

Validated

Priority

Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Faculty need to know
what a gendered
perspective in security
studies is (DK).
Y Y Attendant conceptual
knowledge needed to
perform skills increases
procedural knowledge (Clark
& Estes, 2008).
Provide faculty literature and
video content that explains a
gendered perspective in security
studies.
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Table 14, continued

Faculty need to know
how to integrate a
gendered perspective
into their teaching
(PK).
Y Y Performance scaffolding
such as guidance, modeling,
and coaching are effective in
teaching procedural
knowledge (Mayer, 2011).
Provide faculty training that
identifies how to integrate a
gendered perspective into
teaching and then pair professors
who are learning how to teach a
gendered security perspective
with professors who know how
to teach the subject.
Faculty need to know
their pedagogical
approach to teaching
gendered perspective
in security studies
(MK).
Y Y Comprehensive knowledge
arises in those who possess
significant discipline specific
declarative knowledge, are
well practiced in
synthesizing it, and recognize
when to apply it (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
Rise in metacognition
promotes rise in learning
(Baker, 2008).
Provide faculty training where
peer models display and provide
practice of pedagogical
approaches with intermittent
times for self-reflection on
teaching a gendered perspective
in security studies.
Note. DK = declarative knowledge, MK = metacognitive knowledge, PK = procedural knowledge, Y = yes.
Provide faculty content to better understand a gendered perspective in security
studies. Despite survey responses wherein 81 percent of the civilian faculty claimed knowing
what a gendered perspective in security studies is, focus group interviews identified significant
declarative knowledge gaps, indicating that fewer than 23 percent of professors possess more
than cursory understanding of the topic. This disconnect is not unique as people often assert
knowledge beyond their level, thinking they know more about a topic than they actually do or to
avoid embarrassment from not knowing something (Clark & Estes, 2008). Consequently, it is
foundational that the faculty first gain knowledge of relevant facts and concepts about societal
violence against women and a gendered security perspective. Providing the faculty with
literature and video content that explains a gendered perspective in security studies is
recommended as an approach toward establishing a shared basis of declarative knowledge of this
subject. This might be addressed during recurring inservice training.
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In the summer of 2017, Weingarten and her colleagues (2018) solicited survey responses
from some 750 professors to establish how gender was being taught within the 38 graduate
schools of the Association of Professional Schools of International Affairs (APSIA). This and
other studies (Avis, 1989; Hong, Pi, & Yang, 2018; Weingarten et al., 2018) determined that in
most cases of teaching gender, the faculty need new declarative knowledge, which could be
achieved by providing the faculty with selected reading and
video materials.
Integrate a gendered perspective into teaching for professors to effectively teach a
gendered security perspective. Sixty-nine percent (11/16) of the faculty self-assessed in
agreement they had procedural knowledge of how to teach gendered security. However, it was
assessed through interviews that no fewer than 38 percent (5/13) of the faculty possess the
procedural knowledge to teach a gendered security perspective. Information processing theory
presents a useful mode in closing this knowledge gap. In learning procedural knowledge, Mayer
(2011) identified the value of providing learners with performance scaffolding such as guidance,
modeling, and coaching. This suggests that coupling procedural training with mentoring would
support faculty learning. The recommendation then is to provide faculty training that identifies
how to integrate a gendered perspective into teaching and then pair professors who need to learn
how to teach a gendered security perspective with professors who know how to teach the subject.
Powell and Ah-King (2013) conducted a case-study on integrating a gendered perspective
in teaching and as subject classes at a natural science university in Sweden. Adopting an action
research methodology, the study occurred over three iteration with 55 teachers. Each course was
led by dual qualified (hard science and gender studies) professors in a time limited workshop of
four half-day sessions of discussion seminars, self-reflection assignments, and literature reading.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 115
Riley and Claris (2009) preceded Powell and Ah-King’s case study with a five-year research
project at a women’s liberal arts college in Massachusetts to locate critical and feminist liberative
pedagogies in a thermodynamics engineering course. Among other achievements, this study
offers detailed examples of integrating feminist epistemologies in a male dominant hard science
as well as resultant resistance and its contribution toward learning. A willingness to integrate a
gendered perspective in teaching was established in these case studies. This finding underscores
the aforementioned recommendation to provide faculty training that identifies how to integrate a
gendered perspective into teaching and then pair professors who need to learn how to teach a
gendered security perspective with professors who know how to teach the subject.
Use peer models to practice pedagogical approaches, and self-reflect to effectively
teach a gendered security perspective. Metacognitive knowledge gaps to teach a gendered
security perspective were consistent among faculty who lack declarative and/or procedural
knowledge to teach this subject. No less than 44 percent (7/16) of faculty know or can voice
their pedagogical approach toward teaching a gendered perspective in security studies.
Information processing theory provides insights into addressing gaps in metacognitive
knowledge. Schraw and McCrudden (2006) attest that comprehensive knowledge arises in those
who possess significant discipline specific declarative knowledge, are well practiced in
synthesizing it, and recognize when to apply it. Ellis, Denton, and Bond (2014), in an analysis of
empirical research, determined that modeling is the most prevalent strategy to teach
metacognitive knowledge. The recommendation then is to provide faculty training where peer
models display and provide practice of pedagogical approaches with intermittent times of self-
reflection in teaching a gendered perspective in security studies.
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Mathews (2014) surveyed 140 teachers on the effectiveness of professional development
or inservice training that confirmed five prominent aspects of effective inservice training. These
five determinants were earlier validated in other large studies, including Garet, Porter, Desimone,
Birman, and Yoon (2001) who conducted a national probability sample of 1,027 teachers, and
Penuel, Fishman, Yamaguchi, and Gallagher (2007) who studied 454 teachers assessing various
qualities of inservice training. Significant determinations from each of these three studies
included the importance to ensure that inservice training provide content focus, active learning,
coherence, duration, and collective participation. Properly implemented, these focus areas would
provide teachers with opportunities to observe and be observed, practice and receive feedback,
and reflect inward and outward. These studies validate the recommendation to provide faculty
training where peer models display and provide practice of pedagogical approaches with
intermittent times of self-reflection in teaching a gendered perspective in security studies.
Motivation Recommendations
The research validated that the faculty are challenged by flagging motivation in self-
efficacy, goal orientation, and utility value to teach a gendered perspective in security
studies. Self-efficacy addresses a teacher’s belief in their ability; goal orientation refers to a
teacher’s desire; and utility value denotes a teacher’s perception that undertaking a task will
advance their career (Pintrich, 2003). Table 15 identifies three validated gaps of motivational
influences and context specific recommendations to address these motivation shortfalls. Each
recommendation is presented below with evidence to support specific approaches to motivate the
faculty to teach a gendered security perspective.
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Table 15
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations

Assumed Influence

Validated

Priority

Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Faculty need individual
and collective self-
efficacy to teach a
gendered perspective in
security studies (SE).
Y Y Feedback and
modeling increase self-
efficacy (Pajares,
2006).
Provide faculty training that uses
mentor models to demonstrate
effective methods to teach
gendered security studies, pair
proficient with less proficient
teachers for guided practice, and
provide professors feedback on
their teaching effectiveness.
Faculty need sufficient
mastery goal orientation
to teach a gendered
perspective in security
studies (GO).
Y Y Focusing on mastery,
individual
improvement, learning,
and progress promotes
positive motivation
(Yough & Anderman,
2006).
Deemphasize social comparison
by ceasing faculty-wide
distribution of student surveys of
all professors’ individual
performance, and stimulate self-
growth and mastery of gendered
security studies.
Faculty need to
perceive usefulness to
themselves from
teaching a gendered
perspective in security
studies (UV).
Y Y Motivation increases
when extrinsic
reasoning for task
engagement is
evidenced (Wigfield &
Eccles, 2000).
Demonstrate rationale for
teaching a gendered security
perspective while providing
professors with frequent, private
feedback on their individualized
efforts to teach a gendered
security perspective.
Note. GO = goal orientation, SE = self-efficacy, UV = utility value, Y = yes.
Use models, peer pairings, and feedback to elevate self-efficacy in faculty to teach a
gendered security perspective. Nine of 13 or 69 percent of interviewed professors intimated
low self-efficacy to teach a gendered security perspective, which was nearly twice as low as
survey results wherein only 31 percent (5/16) of professors assessed their individual self-efficacy
as low. Survey results for collective self-efficacy were also low, as 44 percent (7/16) of the
faculty felt that as few as 0-20 percent of their peers could effectively engage students in learning
a gendered security perspective. Recommendations based on self-efficacy theory are appropriate
to address this type of motivational gap. Accordingly, Pajares (2006) recommended peer
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 118
modeling and effort-focused feedback as essential to enhancing self-efficacy. The
recommendation is to provide faculty training that uses models to demonstrate effective methods
to teach gendered security studies, pair proficient with less proficient teachers for guided
practice, and provide professors feedback on their teaching effectiveness.
Schmidt and Deshon (2010) studied 75 college students to assess the connection between
self-efficacy and performance, determining that high performance ambiguity generates negative
self-efficacy, which can be moderated through explicit and timely feedback. In a meta-analytic
review, Lazowski and Hulleman (2016) synthesized several intervention studies and validated
the effectiveness in enhancing positive self-efficacy when learners receive effort feedback.
Schunk and Zimmerman (2007) proffered theoretical evidence of the centrality of modeling,
guided practice, and feedback to self-efficacy. These studies elucidate the need to emulate these
practices if Defense Institute B (DIB) is to effectuate positive self-efficacy of its faculty in
teaching a gendered security perspective.
Deemphasize social comparison and stimulate self-growth and mastery of gendered
security studies. Of the 75 percent (12/16) of the faculty who identified on the survey with
being currently committed to teaching a gendered perspective in security studies, half registered
with “strongly agree.” However, without exception each focus group noted inclinations by many
to avoid teaching the topic, owing to frequent courses where student-practitioners had negatively
evaluated the women, peace, and security lectures. Goal orientation theory offers solutions
based on two types of avoidance orientation approaches, mastery-avoidance orientation from a
concern of getting the topic wrong, and performance-avoidance orientation from a concern of
looking foolish. Yough and Anderman (2006) contend that learners tend to focus on topic
mastery (vice performance) when instruction is focused on learning, improvement, and progress,
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 119
rather than scores, and comparisons. Informed by goal orientation theory, the recommendation is
to deemphasize social comparison and stimulate self-growth and mastery of gendered security
studies by ceasing faculty-wide distribution of student surveys of all professors’ individual
performance, limiting a professor’s access to student survey information that relates to their own
performance and not their peers.
Young (2005) surveyed 257 undergraduates to assess the theoretical association of
achievement goal theory, and self-regulated learning strategies. The study validated the direct
relationship between metacognitive learning strategies and mastery goal orientation, and cursory
learning strategies and performance goal orientation. Environmental conditions were also
validated as determinants of learning with evidence supporting the correlation between intrinsic
motivation and recipients of focused interaction, specified expectations, and direct
feedback. Christensen (2009) surveyed the association between motivations of goal orientation
among 157 law students and academic success, substantiating the link between mastery goal
orientation and achievement. These studies accentuate the necessity to promote mastery goal
motivation that draws doers toward distinction, and reject performance goal motivation that pits
colleagues as competitors.
Emphasize institutional value in faculty teaching a gendered security
perspective. Ninety-four percent (15/16) of the faculty indicated on the survey that their
reporting senior had not emphasized the value of their teaching a gendered perspective in
security studies. Furthermore, 31 percent responded (5/16) that the institution does not currently
value faculty who teach the topic. Wigfield and Eccles (2000) state that motivation increases
when extrinsic reasoning for task engagement is evidenced such as when supervisors make
explicit issues of importance for employees to undertake. Predicated on extrinsic value or utility
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 120
value, it is recommended that DIB demonstrate rationale for teaching a gendered security
perspective while providing professors with frequent, private feedback on their individualized
efforts to teach a gendered security perspective.
Hu et al. (2018) surveyed 152 mining employees to examine how effort toward
compliance is influenced by various factors to include supervisor helping procedures, which was
confirmed as important in manifesting perceived usefulness or utility value of organizational
priorities. Howell, Kirk-Brown, and Cooper (2012) examined the relationship between
perceptions of espoused and enacted organizational values from a survey of 343 employees from
six organization. Their findings empirically validated that employees’ affected commitment is
demonstrably elevated when espoused and enacted values are congruent. These research
conclusions importantly establish the necessity of the organization to eliminate its say-do gap
between its espoused and enacted values for teaching a gendered security perspective in order to
extrinsically motivate the faculty who are not intrinsically driven to teach this subject.
Organizational Recommendations
The data signals that the organization lacks the necessary cultural model and cultural
settings to effectively teach a gendered perspective in security studies. Organizational influences
of cultural models and settings are determinants of what an institution chooses to do or not to do
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). A cultural model conjoins the organization’s values, thoughts,
attitudes, and behaviors that direct its purposes, priorities, and procedures; cultural settings occur
within a cultural model as recurring group interactions that do what the institution values
(D’Andrade, 1995; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Sarason, 1972). Table 16 identifies three
validated gaps of organizational influences and context specific recommendations to address
these organizational shortfalls.
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Table 16
Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations

Assumed Influence

Validated

Priority

Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Organization needs to
prioritize the integration
of a gendered
perspective into the
curriculum of each
course (CM).
Y Y Organizational values,
thoughts, attitudes, and
behaviors direct its purposes,
priorities, and procedures
(Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001).
Organizational structures,
policies, and practices
influence goal achievement
(Rueda, 2011).
Establish a gender
committee of executive
leaders and senior faculty
who develop a gendered
security integrated
curriculum policy and
monitor curriculum
implementation.
Course curriculum
needs to substantively
include gendered
security content (CS).
Y Y Knowledge of effective
practices in curriculum is
needed for senior
administrators to guide
teachers’ teaching and
learning (Marzano, Waters,
& McNulty, 2005).
Develop a gendered security
perspective curriculum and
assess effectiveness through
observations and program
reviews.
Organization needs to
model integration of a
gendered security
perspective into the
curriculum of each
course (CS).
Y Y Leaders that emphasize and
support an issue provide the
needed cohesion to establish,
implement, and achieve goals
(Goldenberg & Sullivan,
1994).
Executive leaders unify
their commitment to the
gendered security goals and
then demonstrate the goal
value in recurring settings
with faculty.
Organization needs to
allocate adequate
resources to integrate a
gendered perspective
into the curriculum of
each course (CS).
Y Y Conflict between
organizational culture and
performance goals lead to un-
resourced or under-resourced
objectives (Clark & Estes,
2008).
Hire a gender advisor to
lead the gendered security
program and advise
organizational leaders and
faculty in the advancement
of gendered security
studies.
Note. CM = cultural model, CS = cultural setting, Y = yes.
Demonstrate gendered security as an organizational priority by establishing a
gender committee of executive leaders and senior faculty. Measured by responses to multiple
survey items and interview questions, the faculty believe that the organization does not value or
prioritize the integration of a gendered perspective into their teaching. In response to the survey
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 122
item inquiring as to the organization’s current prioritization of faculty teaching a gendered
perspective in security studies, 63 percent (10/16) felt that it was not prioritized; of whom, five
“strongly disagreed” that it was a prioritized issue. Moreover, when asked how often in the last
12 months their reporting seniors emphasized that faculty should integrate a gendered
perspective into their teaching, the mode or the most common response was once. These two
survey items are buttressed by the two aforementioned survey items on utility value. Grounded
in theory and empirics that values, attitudes, and behaviors direct purpose, priorities, and
procedures, Rueda (2011) asserted that organizational structures, policies, and practices
influence goal achievement. The works of these scholars and others (see Alvesson, 1990;
D’Andrade, 1995; Schein, 2017), help inform approaches for addressing gap issues in cultural
models. The recommendation is that the organization establish a gender committee of its
executive leaders and senior faculty to develop a gendered security integrated curriculum policy
and then monitor the curriculum implementation.
Leiper, Van Horn, Hu, and Upadhyaya (2008) case studied the efforts of the Race and
Gender Committee at the School of Nursing of the University of North Carolina to promote
cultural competence in nurses, observing the school’s success in developing foundations of
cultural awareness and knowledge, and attitudinal and behavioral changes. In response to a
national project to integrate gender in medical education, Verdonk, Mans, and Lagro-Janssen
(2006) researched seven of the eight Dutch medical schools to establish a baseline understanding
of existing gender curricula in medical education, and concluded that significant scholastic
omissions exist in the integration of gender in the medical curricula. In a later study, van den
Brink (2011) analyzed 286 records and interviewed 21 recruiters, revealing the under-
representation of women in academic medicine in the Netherlands. Mawere (2013) evaluated the
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 123
Nziramasanga Report and related recommendations on academic gender equity in Zimbabwe
from 2000 to 2010, and assessed that the use of a gender mainstreaming and empowerment
framework helped the country to realize several gains that included the development of a
National Gender Policy, an associated Implementation Strategy, and an amendment to the 2004
Education Act that further advanced gender equity in education. Each of these studies help
elucidate the organizational prioritization that is required to integrate gender mainstreaming in
institutions, policies, and curricula; thereby buttressing the recommendation for DIB to establish
a gender committee to guide the development of a gendered security integrated curriculum.
Develop a gendered security perspective curriculum. One half or 50 percent (6/12) of
surveyed faculty expressing current commitment to teaching a gendered perspective in security
studies assess that the organization’s course curricula does not substantively address teaching a
gendered perspective in security studies. Educational leadership theory and research lends
important perspectives to this specific cultural setting issue of leadership’s involvement in
curriculum development to address priorities. To that end, Marzano, Waters, and McNulty
(2005) attested that knowledge of effective practices in curriculum is needed if senior
administrators are to effectively guide teachers’ teaching and learning. The recommendation is
to develop a gendered security perspective curriculum and assess effectiveness through
observations and program reviews.
Phull, Ciflikli, and Meibauer (2019) researched gender bias in International Relations
curriculum through a comprehensive study of 43 syllabi at the London School of Economics,
determining that 79.2 percent of all text was authored exclusively by men, and that female
professors included female-authored text more often than male colleagues, suggesting a
connection between faculty gender composition and curriculum development. Similarly,
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Cassese, Holman, Schneider, and Bos (2015) studied gender content integration through an
analysis of 18 textbooks on political science research methods and research design and 79
methods syllabi, determining the near complete separation of gender between these fields. Such
research conclusions highlight the breadth of gendered curricular exclusion in male dominant
fields, suggesting a need for DIB to review its curriculum for gendered inclusion and then take
action to develop a gendered security perspective curriculum.
Unify and demonstrate commitment to gendered security goals. No fewer than 62
percent (8/13) of interviewed participants expressed broad frustration from the absence of
leadership in developing a clear organizational model for teaching a gendered perspective in
security studies. Leadership theories are relevant in considering solutions to this identified gap
in the organization’s cultural setting. Goldenberg and Sullivan (1994) determined that when
leaders emphasize and support an issue, they provide it the needed cohesion to become
established, implemented, and to ultimately achieve the intended goal. Therefore, the
recommendation is that executive leaders resolutely unify their commitment to its gendered
security goal and then unmistakably demonstrate this goal value in frequent recurring settings
with faculty and staff.
McGauran (2009) used insider action research to conduct interviews and study policy
documents on implementation of gender mainstreaming in public sectors, concluding that gender
mainstreaming benefits more from a transformative (vice integrationist) approach were
executives establish unambiguous policy objectives, lines of authority, effective communication,
and adequate resources. In earlier research, Voss, Cable, and Voss (2006) studied the
deleteriousness of divergent leadership in a survey of 113 nonprofit professional theaters that
assessed the effects of a firm’s top two executives advancing dissimilar views of an
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 125
organizational identity, and concluded that disagreements of this nature produce internal conflict,
stakeholder confusion, and resource diffusion. Such conclusions demonstrate the organizational
need for unity among the executive leadership in their affirmative support of the organization’s
gendered security goals through placement prioritization of time, resources, and efforts.
Hire a gender advisor. In survey, 63 percent (10/16) of faculty disagreed (5/10 strongly
disagreed) that the organization currently allocates substantial resources to include time, money,
and activities toward faculty teaching a gendered perspective in security studies. The absence of
adequate resources was reasserted in interviews by 67 percent (8/12) of faculty. Organizational
literature offers salient insights into issues of resourcing organizational efforts. Clark and Estes
(2008) stated that conflict between organizational culture and performance goals lead to un-
resourced or under-resourced objectives. The recommendation is to hire a gender advisor to lead
the gendered security program and advise organizational leaders and faculty in the advancement
of gendered security studies.
Nduka-Agwu (2009) studied gender mainstreaming and sexual exploitation through
review of literature and interviews by comparing the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone
(1999-2001) and United Nations Mission in Liberia (2003-2018), concluding that the absence of
a gender advisor office in the earlier mission produced an unfunded, reactive approach toward
allegations of sexual exploitation vice the later mission, which received special gender funding
and adopted a proactive approach toward gender awareness. In an entirely different context,
Lombardo and Mergaert (2013) researched institutional and individual resistance to gender
mainstreaming through assessment of 12 European-based gender training engagements wherein
they identified several forms of resistance, explicating dissimilarities of implicit individual
resistance as evinced in inaction from limited resources of knowledge, time, finance, etcetera,
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 126
and implicit institutional resistance that is coupled to resource decisions. These case study
conclusions offer salient insights into the societal merits of gender mainstreaming, backlight
prospective challenges to implementation from implicit institutional or individual resistance, and
demonstrate organizational imperatives to resource its efforts to integrate a gendered security
perspective into all curricula, including the hiring of a gender advisor.
Summary. Evidenced-based recommendations were presented to address 10 validated
KMO gaps that have hindered the faculty from teaching a gendered security perspective in
security studies. Table 17 is a summary of the KMO influences and accounts for three
knowledge, three motivation, and four organizational influences and associated content-specific
recommendations.
Table 17
Summary of KMO Influences and Recommendations
Assumed KMO Influences Context-Specific Recommendation
Knowledge Influences
Faculty need to know what a gendered perspective
in security studies is (DK).
Provide faculty literature and video content that
explains a gendered perspective in security studies.
Faculty do not know how to integrate a gendered
perspective into their teaching (PK).
Provide faculty training that identifies how to integrate
a gendered perspective into teaching and then pair
professors who are learning how to teach a gendered
security perspective with professors who know how to
teach the subject.
Faculty need to know their pedagogical approach
to teaching a gendered perspective in security
studies (MK).
Provide faculty training where peer models display and
provide practice of pedagogical approaches with
intermittent times for self-reflection on teaching a
gendered perspective in security studies.

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 127
Table 17, continued
Motivation Influences
Faculty need individual and collective self-
efficacy to teach a gendered perspective in
security studies (SE).
Provide faculty training that uses mentor models to
demonstrate effective methods to teach gendered
security studies, pair proficient with less proficient
teachers for guided practice, and provide professors
feedback on their teaching effectiveness.
Faculty need sufficient mastery goal orientation to
teach a gendered perspective in security studies
(GO).
Deemphasize social comparison by ceasing faculty-
wide distribution of student surveys of all professors’
individual performance, and stimulate self-growth and
mastery of gendered security studies.
Faculty need to perceive usefulness to themselves
from teaching a gendered perspective in security
studies (UV).
Demonstrate rationale for teaching a gendered security
perspective while providing professors with frequent,
private feedback on their individualized efforts to teach
a gendered security perspective.
Organizational Influences
Organization needs to prioritize the integration of
a gendered perspective into the curriculum of each
course (CM).
Establish a gender committee of executive leaders and
senior faculty who develop a gendered security
integrated curriculum policy and monitor curriculum
implementation.
Course curriculum needs to substantively include
gendered security content (CS).
Develop a gendered security perspective curriculum and
assess effectiveness through observations and program
reviews.
Organization needs to model integration of a
gendered security perspective into the curriculum
of each course (CS).
Executive leaders unify their commitment to the
gendered security goals and then demonstrate the goal
value in recurring settings with faculty.
Organization needs to allocate adequate resources
to integrate a gendered perspective into the
curriculum of each course (CS).
Hire a gender advisor to lead the gendered security
program and advise organizational leaders and faculty
in the advancement of gendered security studies.
Note. Knowledge influence types: DK = declarative knowledge, MK = metacognitive knowledge, PK =
procedural knowledge. Motivation influence types: GO = goal orientation, SE = self-efficacy, UV = utility value.
Organizational influence types: CM = cultural model, CS = cultural setting.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Defense Institute B (DIB) advances regional security cooperation through executive
education of mid- and senior-grade security practitioners. The organizational performance goal
is to assist partner nations in integrating women leaders and women’s perspectives into security
sectors, security-related processes, and decision-making. This evaluation study examines the
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 128
manifestations and effects of societal violence against women; hypothesizes that security
practitioners who are educated in a gendered security perspective can positively affect this
problem of practice; and evaluates the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that
impede the stakeholder goal of all faculty members teaching a gendered perspective in security
studies. The aforementioned recommendations for directed training approaches, which focused
motivational initiatives and affirmed organizational prioritizations with associated plans for
implementation and evaluation, should close the assessed gaps and achieve the stakeholder goal
of teaching a gendered security perspective.
The paragraphs that follow explicate the implementation and evaluation plan, using
Kirkpatrick’s four descending training evaluation levels (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This
tiered approach disaggregates the nebulousness of “training evaluation” by affixing an evaluation
framework that flows from specified program results that are connected to improved work
performance that arise out of the learning event. Level 4 Results and Leading Indicators identify
and measure the attainment of desired outcomes that rise from learning engagements and
associated support and accountability efforts. Level 3 Behavior identifies and measures essential
learning participants’ actions that are needed to progress from their learning engagement toward
Level 4 Results attainment. Level 2 Learning measures participants acquired knowledge, skill,
attitude, confidence, and commitment from a learning engagement. Level 1 Reaction measures
participants’ valuation and relevance of a learning engagement.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) analogize Level 4 Results with ascending a mountain
toward a planted flag of desired results. Along this analogous ascent, people who have acquired
Level 2 Learning assemble at the base camp and look toward the summit where they can
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 129
visualize a series of leading indicator flags that represent intermediate objectives, signaling the
approach toward the flag of desired results. In this study, the flag of desired results is the
stakeholder goal that all faculty teach a gendered security perspective. As the earlier identified
training recommendations achieve Level 2 Learning, several internal and external outcomes will
begin to manifest along the faculty’s ascent toward effectively teaching a gendered security
perspective. Those outcomes, or leading indicators, are identified in Table 18, beginning with
foundational internal outcomes and then progressing outward toward external outcomes and
responses that indicate the significance associated with actually achieving the desired results.
Table 18
Internal and External Outcomes (Leading Indicators), Metrics, and Methods
Outcomes Metrics Methods
Internal Outcomes
1. Professors gain a greater depth
of knowledge of a gendered
security perspective.
Number of teachers who read and
view recommended content on a
gendered security perspective.
Faculty self-report to mentors and
supervisor their completion of
recommended readings and videos.
2. Professors know how to
facilitate seminar discussions on a
gendered security perspective.
Number of seminar discussions per
course that facilitate a gendered
security perspective in classroom
discussions.
Formative and summative student
surveys.
3. Professors know how to
integrate a gendered security
perspective into their teaching.
Number of plenary lectures per
course that integrate a gendered
security perspective into their
teaching.
Course managers’ review of
plenary lectures before the start of
each course.
Course managers’ and leaders’
assessments of professors’ efforts to
integrate a gendered security
perspective during plenary lectures.
Formative and summative student
surveys.
4. Professors self-assess how to
integrate a gendered security
perspective into their pedagogical
approach.
Qualitative improvements over time
in faculties teaching and facilitating
a gendered security perspective.
Course managers’ and leaders’
assessments of professors’ efforts to
integrate a gendered security
perspective during plenary lectures
and seminars.

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Table 18, continued
External Outcomes
5. Students express/demonstrate
increased understanding and
appreciation for a gendered security
perspective.
Student application of gendered
security considerations during
courses.
Faculty evaluate student responses
during course exercise(s).
Number of students providing
positive course feedback on the
gendered security curricula.
Formative and summative student
surveys.
6. Security practitioners (alumni)
positively affect societal violence
against women.
Number of post-course surveys
wherein graduates identify how
they have positively advanced
gendered security in their countries.
45-day and 90-day post course
surveys with graduates.
Number of completed Fellows’
Projects that advance gendered
security.
Quarterly email check-in with
graduates who developed a
Fellow’s Project to advance
gendered security.

Level 3: Behavior
From the perspective of the organization, the purpose of training is that people transfer
the knowledge gained in the learning environment to the workplace; that process is Level 3
Behavior (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Left to chance, the process of affecting critical
workplace behaviors from training is unrealized far too often, unless learning engagements are
developed to actually affect those few critical behaviors. Evaluating Level 3 Behavior outcomes
necessitates identifying the critical behaviors that the training audience can affect, and the
processes and systems (or required drivers) that support and monitor compliance of critical
behaviors.
Critical behaviors. Faculty application of gendered security training is the essence of
Level 3 Behavior, and necessitates recurring workplace implementation of acquired knowledge
before the value of classroom learning becomes efficacious (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). Accordingly, newly trained faculty in a gendered security perspective will need to
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 131
repeatedly apply that new knowledge in recurring pre-course seminar leader training, seminar
class facilitation, lecture development and presentation, and student mentorship of Fellow’s
Projects. Through each successive iteration of these critical behaviors, the faculty will more
closely approach the essence of teaching a gendered security perspective with the prospect of
enhancing regional security through the actions of their graduating students. Table 19 tabulates
five identified critical behaviors and their associated metrics, methods and timing for evaluation.
Table 19
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Outcomes Metrics Methods Timing
1. Faculty participate in
recurring pre-course
seminar leader training on
gendered security
perspective teaching.
Number of faculty
participating in pre-course
seminar leader training.
Course managers
administer training
sessions and record
participation levels.
Bimonthly
2. Faculty facilitate a
gendered security
perspective in course
seminars.
Number of faculty
integrating a gendered
security perspective in
facilitated seminars.
Student formative and
summative surveys.
Twice per course
3. Faculty teach lectures
that implicitly include a
gendered security
perspective.
Number of faculty
implicitly integrating a
gendered security
perspective in lectures.
Leaders’ and course
managers’ observations.
Every lecture
4. Faculty develop and
teach lectures that
explicitly include a
gendered security
perspective.
Number of faculty
explicitly integrating a
gendered security
perspective in lectures.
Leaders’ and course
managers’ observations.

Student formative and
summative surveys.
Every lecture
5. Faculty mentor
students in the
development of a
Fellow’s Project that
advances a gendered
security perspective.
Number of students who
develop Fellows’ Projects
that advance a gendered
security perspective.
End of course report of
Fellows’ Project
categories.
Once per course
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Required drivers. Critical behaviors are underpinned by processes and systems that reinforce,
encourage, and reward performance in a support class of required drivers; or monitor
performance in an accountability class of required drivers (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). In
tandem, support and accountability drivers are important tools to maximize application of
learning in the workplace. Table 20 identifies required drivers and implementation timing for
the support and accountability of the aforementioned Level 3 Behaviors that in turn buttress
efforts to achieve Level 4 Results of all faculty teaching a gendered security perspective.
Table 20
Required Drivers for Support and Accountability of Critical Behaviors
Methods
a
Timing
Reinforcing
Provide faculty selected literature and video content that explains a gendered perspective in
security studies.
Bimonthly
Provide faculty training that identifies how to integrate a gendered perspective into teaching
and then pair professors who are learning how to teach a gendered security perspective with
professors who know how to teach the subject.
Bimonthly
Provide faculty training where peer models display and provide practice of pedagogical
approaches with intermittent times of self-reflection in teaching a gendered perspective in
security studies.
Bimonthly
Encouraging
Provide faculty training that uses mentor models to demonstrate effective methods to teach
gendered security studies, pair proficient with less proficient teachers for guided practice,
and provide professors feedback on their teaching effectiveness.
Bimonthly
Deemphasize social comparison by ceasing faculty-wide distribution of student surveys of
all professors’ individual performance, and stimulate self-growth and mastery of gendered
security studies.
Monthly
Demonstrate rationale for teaching a gendered security perspective while providing
professors with frequent, private feedback on their individualized efforts to teach a gendered
security perspective.
Quarterly

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 133
Table 20, continued
Rewarding

Publicly recognize faculty who integrate a gendered security perspective in their teaching by
highlighting specific laudatory comments from student surveys.
Quarterly
Monitoring
Demonstrate rationale for teaching a gendered security perspective while providing
professors with frequent, private feedback on their individualized efforts to teach a gendered
security perspective.
Ongoing
Establish a gender committee of executive leaders and senior faculty who develop a
gendered security integrated curriculum policy and monitor curriculum implementation.
Immediate;
Monthly
Executive leaders unify their commitment to the gendered security goals and then
demonstrate the goal value in recurring settings with faculty.
Immediate,
Monthly
Hire a gender advisor to lead the gendered security program and advise leaders and faculty
in the advancement of gendered security studies.
Immediate,
Monthly
Note.
a
Critical Behaviors supported = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

Organizational support. The strength of this proposed implementation and evaluation
plan is its approach toward organizational accountability. Organizational support begins with
executive leaders who first demonstrate goal commitment and rationale as they hire a gender
advisor, establish a gender committee, develop gendered security integrated curricula, and
provide recurring gendered security training. These decisive initial actions are followed by
processes that monitor and assess curriculum implementation and faculty’s efforts to teach a
gendered security perspective.
Level 2: Learning
Concurrent with organizational efforts to create the cultural models and settings that are
needed to set conditions of value, priority, and practice, course managers will institute Level 2
learning events. It is the Level 2 learning events where professors acquire the requisite
knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment to teach a gendered security perspective
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 134
Learning goals. After Level 2 Learning of the aforementioned recommended solutions,
the faculty will have acquired the essential knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and
commitment to:
1. Demonstrate factual understanding of gender by summarizing social-psychological
views of a gender perspective as expressed through various views such as feminism, social
constructionism, functionalism, and essentialism (declarative knowledge).
2. Demonstrate factual understanding of gendered security by summarizing its tenants
and concepts (e.g., gendered security is an approach that emanates up from the community and
considers the individual to be the referent object of security) (declarative knowledge).
3. Demonstrate conceptual knowledge to recognize how opportunities for men and
women are often proscribed and prescribed solely based on gender, perpetuated to socially
subordinate women to men, and correlated to national insecurity (declarative knowledge).
4. Demonstrate procedural knowledge to integrate a gendered perspective into security
studies by teaching topics that include the integrations of women leaders and women’s
perspectives into security sectors, and security-related processes and decision-making; and
advancement of women’s protection and participation in security sectors (procedural
knowledge).
5. Demonstrate metacognitive knowledge to affect one’s teaching of a gendered security
perspective by reflecting inward and outward on gender-based differences, inequalities, and
violence in the Asia-Pacific, and how those factors affect their own biases and security
perceptions and those of their student-practitioners (metacognitive knowledge).
Program. Course managers administer pre-course seminar leaders’ training in six annual
iterations. During these weeklong inservice training sessions, the faculty prepares to teach the
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 135
course material. This established, recurring training process, offers an appropriate venue to
integrate a training program for the faculty to learn how to teach a gendered security
perspective. Adhering to best practices that provide content focus—active learning, coherence,
duration, and collective participation—these sessions will provide the faculty opportunities to
observe and be observed, practice and receive feedback, and reflect inward and outward.
In the pre-training phase of this recommended solution, course managers prepare faculty
for the learning event by assigning selected literature and video content that explains a gendered
security perspective and establishes a shared basis of declarative knowledge. In the training
phase, the course manager deftly incorporates the solution with the established seminar leader
training so that gendered security learning is layered throughout the weeklong training program,
and includes acquisition of know-what declarative knowledge on gendered security, know-how
procedural knowledge to integrate a gendered security perspective into their teaching of
traditional security studies, and self-aware metacognitive knowledge to consider one’s own bias
and pedagogical approach. The program uses peer models to display and provide practice of
pedagogical approaches with intermittent times of self-reflection, and pairs proficient with less
proficient teachers for guided practice and reciprocal feedback on teaching effectiveness.
Evaluation of learning components. Level 2 Learning is the acquisition of declarative
knowledge, procedural skills, attitude, confidence and commitment. Consequently, the
evaluation of Level 2 Learning necessitates the evaluation of these five learning components.
Table 21 below proffers several specific methods, tools, and techniques to evaluate these five
learning components of Level 2 Learning.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 136
Table 21
Evaluation of Learning Components for the Program
Methods, Tools, Techniques Timing
Declarative Knowledge: “I know it.”
Knowledge checks through facilitated group
discussions, and think-pair-share activities.
Daily, during the learning event.
Procedural Skills: “I can do it right now.”
Paired feedback of practice and guided teaching. Daily, during the learning event, and weekly during
guided teaching events.
Attitude: “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Instructor’s observation of learners’ engagements
with the program to help the instructor adjust the
program as appropriate
Throughout the learning event.
Classroom polling with TurningPoint software to
promote group conversation on the value of the
learning topic and approach.
Throughout the learning event and at the final synthesis
session.
Confidence: “I think I can do it on the job.”
Paired feedback. After each practice and guided teaching session.
Classroom polling with TurningPoint software to
promote group conversation on levels of
confidence.
Last day of learning event.
Discussions with reporting senior. Semiannually, during performance evaluation
counseling.
Commitment: “I will do it on the job.”
Development of individual action plans that apply
new learning toward integration of a gendered
perspective in security studies teaching.
Last day of learning event.
Learner-centric survey to solicit learners’ program
experiences and views with emphasis on their
commitment, confidence, and attitude of the
learning topic and approach.
Post-program administered via electronic survey.
Discussions with reporting senior. Semiannually, during performance evaluation
counseling.

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 137
Level 1: Reaction
Level 1 Reaction is the evaluation of the learners’ engagement, relevance, and
satisfaction with the learning and learning environment and is administered by formative and
summative assessments (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Formative assessments are woven
throughout learning engagements as seamless evaluations that foster improved learning as
teachers recognize and reduce sources of learning friction. Summative assessments occur after
the learning engagement and are logically timed to solicit relevant feedback from
participants. Table 22 offers various Level 1 evaluation methods and activities with associated
timings to measure learners’ degree of engagement, relevance, and satisfaction with the ascribed
solutions to train the faculty to teach a gendered perspective in security studies.
Table 22
Evaluation of Learning Components for the Program
Methods and Activities Timing
Engagement
Instructor’s observation of learners’ engagement with
the program to help adjust the program as appropriate. Throughout learning event.
Completion rate of pre-course readings and videos. First & last day of learning event.
Dedicated observer from the WPS-CI.
Throughout learning event.
Relevance
In stride pulse checks with participants. Throughout learning event.
Summative survey of participants. Last day of learning event.
Satisfaction

Exit survey to pulse views and solicit comments. End of each day’s training.
Exit focus group interview(s) with select individuals. Last day of learning event.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 138
Evaluation Tools
Training programs and associated evaluation plans are designed concurrently, which
necessitates early consideration on the types of evaluation tools or methods that will be used
during, immediately following, and after program implementation. The Kirkpatrick Blended
Evaluation® approach applies multiple tools to assess all four Kirkpatrick levels concurrently,
not incrementally (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This approach discards the hoary practice
of regarding learning events as endstates and evaluations as ancillaries, and more appropriately
views them as indivisible. The recommended solution in this study, uses evaluation tools
throughout. Level 1 Reaction and Level 2 Learning are concurrently assessed during and
immediately following the program implementation with a combination of formative and
summative evaluation tools administered to the training participants. Evaluation of Level 3
Behavior and Level 4 Results commences shortly after the learning event and continues through
achievement of the desired result or stakeholder goal of all faculty teaching a gendered
perspective in security studies. While the previous sections addressed formative and summative
tools used during training, this section identifies evaluation tools used immediately after training
and the period that follows thereafter.
Immediately following the program implementation. Formally structured into the last
day of the training program is a nine-item survey that evaluates Level 1 Reaction and Level 2
Learning. Items one through three evaluate Level 1 engagement, relevance, and satisfaction;
items four through eight evaluate Level 2 declarative knowledge, procedural skills, attitude,
confidence, and commitment; and item nine is a section for open-ended comments. Responses
from this evaluation feed directly into the redesign of the follow-on training iterations. The
proposed evaluation tool is provided in Appendix D, Table D1.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 139
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Faculty completing seminar
leader training, immediately assume duties as seminar leaders in a five-week course; during the
course they lecture in plenary and elective sessions. Monday before commencement, the course
manager should open the Blended Evaluation® survey for seminar leaders and then close the
survey at the close of business on Friday following commencement. Faculty members seminar
lead multiple times a year, which permits this entire cycle to be repeated at bimonthly iterations;
six times per year. This survey data should be tracked overtime to measure cumulative
change. As earlier described, the Blended Evaluation® surveys elements of all four evaluation
levels. The proposed evaluation tool is provided in Appendix E, Table E1, and surveys for Level
1 Reaction to training relevance; Level 2 Learning confidence to teach the topic; Level 3
Behavior for the critical behaviors of facilitating, teaching, and mentoring; and Level 4 Results
of leading indicators that draw near to the significance of the faculty teaching a gendered
security perspective.
Data Analysis and Reporting
In coordination with the gender advisor, course managers will analyze data from the
surveys administered at the end of each pre-course seminar leaders training and then at the
conclusion of each course. Data analysis will be viewed through the lens of three questions
across evaluation metrics of each level (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Question one: “Does
the level of ‘blank’ meet expectations?” Question two: “If not, why not?” Question three: “If so,
why so?” For Level 1 Reactions, the question is: “Does the level of reactions meet expectations
during implementation of the solution for engagement, relevance, and satisfaction?” For Level 2
Learning, the question is: “Does the level of learning meet expectations for (a) knowledge and
skills obtained and demonstrated during implementation of the solution; and (b) attitude,
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 140
confidence, and commitment to apply new knowledge and skills on the job?” For Level 3
Behavior, the question is: “Does the level of identified critical behaviors, and required drivers of
support and monitoring meet expectations?” For Level 4 Results, the question is: “Does the
level of results meet expectations for movement toward the leading indicator and the desired
outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The necessity of collecting this data is to identify
the root causes that preclude the organization from meeting expectations. Findings will be
included in each end-of-course written after action report and submitted to the executive leaders
for review and discussion, using the dashboard at Figure 4.

Figure 4. Dashboard for Blended Evaluation® on teaching a gendered security perspective.
The gender advisor will track aggregated findings across all courses over time, using the
dashboard for aggregated course metrics on teaching a gendered security perspective at Figure 5,
LVL-1/Perceived relevance to teaching
LVL-2/Confidence to facilitate seminar
LVL-3/Procedural skills used in seminar
LVL-3/Knowledge used in lecture
LVL-3/Knowledge used to mentor Fellows' Projects
LVL-4/Integrated GSP in pedagogical approach
LVL-4/Students understand & appreciate GSP
LVL-4/Alumni addressing violence against women
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Course Metrics
Seminar Leaders' Responses
BLENDED EVALUATION® ON
TEACHING A GENDERED SECURITY PERSPECTIVE
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 141
and brief results and make recommendations for goal achievement during monthly meetings of
the Gender Committee.

Figure 5. Dashboard for aggregated course metrics on teaching a gendered security perspective.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 Q 2 0 2 0 2 Q 2 0 2 0 3 Q 2 0 2 0 4 Q 2 0 2 0 1 Q 2 0 2 1 2 Q 2 0 2 1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Faculty Metrics
Quarterly Timeline
Students & Alumni Metrics
AGGREGATED COURSE METRICS
TEACHING A GENDERED SECURITY PERSPECTIVE
Students Understand & Appreciate GSP
Alumni Addressing Societal Violence Against Women
Faculty Facilitating GSP in Seminar Classes
Faculty Lecturing GSP in Plenary
Faculty Mentoring GSP Fellows Projects
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 142
Summary
Concepts presented here are evidenced-based recommendations to resolve validated gaps
in knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that inhibit the faculty from teaching a
gendered security perspective and the nested organizational global goal to assist partner nations
in integrating women leaders and women’s perspectives into security sectors, security-related
processes, and decision-making. The strength of these solutions is found in the implementation
of the Kirkpatrick Blended Evaluation® Plan, which transcends beyond training as the perceived
sole panacea (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Using the New World Kirkpatrick Model, the
training solutions are presented with buttressing required drivers for support and accountability
of the identified critical behaviors to achieve the desired solution of teaching a gendered security
perspective. The closer the organization adopts the recommended solutions of this section that
are summarized in Table 23, the more consequential will be the data gathered, which fed back
into the training process will in turn yield a more valued intervention.
Table 23
Summary of Kirkpatrick Level 4 Recommended Solutions
Recommended Solutions
Level 4 Leading Indicators @ Table 18
Level 3 Critical Behaviors @ Table 19
Level 3 Support & Accountability Drivers @ Table 20
Level 2 Learning Events / Seminar Leader Training
Level 2 & Level 1 Learning Event Evaluation @ Tables 21, 22, D1, and E1

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 143
Limitations and Delimitations
Extant literature on gendered security studies, modest sample population, and constrained
research duration represent the predominant limitations of this study. Heed was mustered to
transcend these limitations thus upholding the academic acumen of this evaluation study. While
inappreciable was the corpus on gendered security studies, adequate was the compilation of
gender theory and empirical writings in peripheral issues and male dominate fields to amply
ground this study. The fortuity to undertake insider research in a characteristically opaque
domain and on a polemical problem of practice, lends understanding to the limited sample
population, which was further mitigated by census survey results and near holistic interview
participation by the entire stakeholder group. While the data collection period was limited to 90-
days, time was in essence enlarged through the absence of unfamiliarities of settings, protocols,
and participants.
The limitation on data collection duration gave cause for delimiting this study to a single
stakeholder group. This delimitation was prudent despite the acute awareness that a
comprehensive study would have also researched the executive leadership team and student
body, which with the faculty, form the triumvirate of the internal stakeholder group. A richer
data set would also extend the research to the various external stakeholder groups, including the
alumni, the various foreign ministries throughout the Asia-Pacific region, the U.S. embassies that
engage those same ministries, and the Office of the Secretary of Defense, which is the higher
headquarters for the organization of study. Delimiting this study to English language literature,
while perhaps not unique, did exclude a wealth of literature that would have greatly strengthened
this study. As a countermeasure, this study included English language sources from the
perspective of 31 countries, six continents, and islands of the Pacific.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 144
Future Research
This research generated robust data from faculty perspectives on gaps of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that are precluding the faculty from teaching a
gendered perspective in security studies. Over the last several years, I have observed many
lectures and facilitated discussions on gendered security. In most observations of teaching
security practitioners about gendered security, female and male students alike pushed back on the
topic and noted their disapprovals in written class surveys. On a few occasions, however, I have
observed classes embrace the topic and join in robust discussions of its concepts and application.
As Weingarten and her colleagues (2018) noted, far too few professors of international relations
(and security studies) effectively teach gender. Given the worth of the topic and the challenges
that many have in teaching it, future research might approach teaching gendered security from
the students’ perspectives to understand how to connect students with the topic. The findings of
a student-focused study on teaching gender could have broad application to male dominant
disciplines and career fields.
Conclusion
In 2012, DIB arose as a pacesetter among regional centers by advancing a WPS agenda
with purposeful recruitment of female students, and inclusion of a WPS lecture in a plenary
session of each course. In early 2017, DIB modified its WPS goals by increasing its objective
female student recruitment to 33 percent, and integrating a gendered perspective in its security
studies program. While female student recruitment had increased, at the time of this research,
the faculty had yet to integrate a gendered security perspective into their teachings.
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework was applied to this project and
systematically assessed gaps in relevant knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 145
Ten themes emerged in the research that impeded the faculty from teaching a gendered security
perspective. To close these validated KMO gaps, 10 evidenced-based actions were
recommended for inclusion in recurring seminar leader training programs with an integrated
evaluation plan that was designed using the New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Looking beyond the well-researched forms of resistance that challenge gender
mainstreaming, this project generated rich data from interviews with seasoned professors of
security studies to uncover important knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that
require tending for faculty to undertake teaching a gendered perspective in security studies.
While institutes of security studies should directly extrapolate this study’s finding for close
application, the broader community of male dominated fields should find significant usefulness
from the results, findings, recommendations, and plans for implementation and evaluation.
Incongruence between security practitioners’ mandates to protect and defend their nations and
their general apathy toward gender mainstreaming conveys ignorance or indifference of the
parallels between the two and the forfeiture of opportunities to advance a better security. This
evaluation study on teaching a gendered security perspective offers contributions toward an
opportunity to realize that better security.

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 146
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VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 174
APPENDIX A
SURVEY PROTOCOL
Aloha! I am James Minnich, a doctoral candidate at the University of Southern
California. I am researching this organization’s effectiveness in assisting partner nations to
integrate women leaders and their perspectives into security sectors, security-related processes,
and decision-making. This 5-minute survey examines knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences related to achieving these effects. Both this organization and the
Institutional Review Board of the University of Southern California have authorized me to
conduct this research. Your voluntary participation is invaluable to this study, and I personally
appreciate your willingness to participate. PLEASE COMPLETE THIS SURVEY TODAY,
BUT NO LATER THAN 21 DECEMBER 2018.
If you consent, you will complete a 5-minute, anonymous online survey of 16 questions.
The researcher will know if you completed a survey, but all the identifiable information is
delinked from survey responses, and completely anonymous. Again, participation is voluntary in
this survey, and your responses will never be associated with your identity. Questions should be
directed to jminnich@usc.edu.

Thank you in advance for your participation.

Sincerely,
James Minnich
Doctoral Candidate – Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 175
Survey Questions
1. I associate my gender as:
(a) Female, (b) Male
2. I know what a gendered perspective in security studies is.
(a) Strongly Disagree, (b) Disagree, (c) Agree, (d) Strongly Agree
3. I know how the effects of discriminatory laws against women can manifest in society.
(a) Strongly Disagree, (b) Disagree, (c) Agree, (d) Strongly Agree
4. I know how to teach a gendered perspective in security studies.
(a) Strongly Disagree, (b) Disagree, (c) Agree, (d) Strongly Agree
5. I know my pedagogical approach toward teaching a gendered perspective in security
studies.
(a) Strongly Disagree, (b) Disagree, (c) Agree, (d) Strongly Agree
6. I am currently certain of my ability to teach a gendered perspective in security studies so
that all my students learn.
(a) Strongly Disagree, (b) Disagree, (c) Agree, (d) Strongly Agree
7. I am currently certain that [ ___%] of my colleagues can constructively engage all their
students in learning a gendered perspective in security studies.
(a) 0% to 20%, (b) 21% to 40%, (c) 41% to 60%, (d) 61% to 80%, (e) 81% to 100%
8. I am currently committed to teaching a gendered perspective in security studies.
(a) Strongly Disagree, (b) Disagree, (c) Agree, (d) Strongly Agree
9. This organization currently values faculty who teach a gendered perspective in security
studies.
(a) Strongly Disagree, (b) Disagree, (c) Agree, (d) Strongly Agree
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 176
10. During my last annual performance counseling session, my reporting senior emphasized
the value of me teaching a gendered perspective in security studies.
(a) No, (b) Yes
11. This organization’s course curricula substantively include teaching a gendered
perspective in security studies.
(a) Strongly Disagree, (b) Disagree, (c) Agree, (d) Strongly Agree
12. Over the last 12 months, my reporting seniors emphasized on ______ occasions that
faculty should integrate a gendered perspective into their teaching.
(a) Fill in number
13. This organization currently prioritizes the faculty teaching a gendered perspective in
security studies.
(a) Strongly Disagree, (b) Disagree, (c) Agree, (d) Strongly Agree
14. This organization currently allocates substantial resources (time, money, activities)
toward faculty teaching a gendered perspective in security studies.
(a) Strongly Disagree, (b) Disagree, (c) Agree, (d) Strongly Agree
15. I am a member of the organization’s Women, Peace and Security (WPS) Working Group:
(a) No, (b) Yes
16. If you have additional comments, please include them here.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 177
APPENDIX B
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Participants: _________________________________________________________________
Date/Time of Interview Start: ___________________________________________________
Date/Time of Interview End: ____________________________________________________
Location of Interview: _________________________________________________________
Interview Introduction
Thank you for participating in today’s focus group interview, which will inform my
doctoral dissertation research on gendered security studies. While each of your perspectives is
greatly valued for this study, there are neither obligations nor incentives for either agreeing to
participate or continuing in this interview once it has begun. Your participation in this study is
anonymous, and your names and other identifying information will never be revealed. I intend
to take notes and record this interview to accurately chronicle your perspectives. All electronic
reports and files will be password protected. If there are no concerns, please sign the informed
consent document at your seats, which will be collected before we begin. Thank you.
Interview Questions (bold text is imperceptible to participants)
Transition: Let us begin.
1. What does a gendered perspective in security studies mean to you?
2. Describe how societal violence against women is perpetrated in peace and conflict.
3. Imagine a country in the Asia-Pacific with laws and/or a culture that discriminates or
disadvantages women, describe how the effects of such laws or culture might be
manifested on a society and/or national security.
a. Transition: At its core, this institution educates regional security practitioners.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 178
4. Describe this organization’s educational model for teaching a gendered perspective in
security studies.
5. Describe how this organization’s priorities affect your teaching of a gendered perspective
in security studies.
a. Transition: The last question was on organizational priorities; this next one is about
organizational resources.
6. Describe how this organization allocates resources toward your teaching a gendered
perspective in security studies.
7. Describe how this organization integrates a gendered perspective into its course curricula.
8. Describe your pedagogical approach toward teaching a gendered perspective in security
studies.
9. Consider your approach toward teaching a gendered perspective in security studies,
describe how this organization responded to that approach.
a. Probe: How has that affected your desire to teach a gendered perspective in security
studies?
10. What approach would you like this institution to adopt in teaching students a gendered
perspective in security studies?
a. Probe: Describe your reasoning for adopting that postulated approach.
b. Transition: Now think of a recent experience lecturing or facilitating a course.
11. If I were a student at this institution, describe the process whereby I would learn a
gendered security perspective.
a. Transition: Finally, let us transition and discuss motivation.
12. Explain how you feel about your ability to teach gendered security imperatives.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 179
a. Probe: How do you think that compares with the faculty’s collective effectiveness at
teaching a gendered perspective in security studies?
b. Transition: In conclusion, is there anything else regarding a gendered perspective in
security studies that we should discuss.
Interview Conclusion
Participation in today’s interview was greatly appreciated; thank you. Over the next
several days, I will review today’s notes and recording. If response clarifications are necessary, I
will contact you individually. On the other hand, please feel free to follow-up today’s interview
with written comments as desired. Thank you and that is all.

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 180
APPENDIX C
INFORMED CONSENT FORM
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway Los Angeles, CA 90089

ASSISTING PARTNER NATIONS TO INTEGRATE
WOMEN LEADERS AND THEIR PERSPECTIVES INTO SECURITY SECTORS,
SECURITY-RELATED PROCESSES, AND DECISION-MAKING.

This sheet obtains informed consent and provides information about this study. Please inquire of
any uncertainties.

Purpose. This study examines knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to
your organization’s effects to assist partner nations in integrating women leaders and their
perspectives into security sectors, security-related processes, and decision-making.
Voluntary Nature. Invitation to participate in a research study is voluntary and neither favor
nor displeasure can be exacted from a decision to participate in the study or rejoin in a particular
fashion. No offers of compensation are represented or will be extended.
Participation
• Participants who consent, will complete an anonymous online survey of 16 questions that
will take upward of 15 minutes. The researcher will know if an email recipient completed a
survey (or not), but all the identifiable information is delinked from survey responses, and
completely anonymous to the researcher.
• Participants who consent to continue the study after completing the survey will be asked to
join a focus group interview with colleagues for upward of 90 minutes.
• Participants who consent to continue the study after completing a focus group interview will
be asked permission for the researcher to observe a lecture or classroom facilitation.
Confidentiality. Identifiable information obtained in this study will remain confidential.
Pseudonyms will be used to identify interviewees in transcripts and reports, and the key of real
names to pseudonyms will be stored on separate password protected devices from the report.
While the interview will be audio recorded to assist with transcription, the researcher will never
directly link respondents to responses. Recordings and transcripts are exclusively available to
research team members and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection
Program, and will be destroyed with 24 months of the study’s completion. Despite all
precautions, a potential risk to participant anonymity exists.
Principal Researcher. Questions should be directed to James Minnich, Doctoral Candidate,
University of Southern California at jminnich@usc.edu.
IRB Information. If you have questions or concerns about your rights as a research participant
or the research in general and are unable to contact the principal researcher, or if you want to talk
to someone independent of the researcher, please contact the University Park Institutional
Informed Consent and Information Sheet for Exempt Non-Medical Research

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 181
Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213)
821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

I have read this information sheet, and have been offered an opportunity to ask questions,
which have been answered to my satisfaction. I agree to participate in this study, and have
received a copy of this form.

Audio. □ I agree to be audio-recorded. □ I do not want to be audio-recorded.

Name of Participant: __________________________________

Signature of Participant: _______________________________ Date: ___________________

I have explained the research to the participant and answered all questions. I believe that
participant understands the information described in this document and freely consents to
participate.
Name of Person Obtaining Consent: James Minnich

Signature of Person Obtaining Consent: ___________________ Date: ___________________
Participant’s Signature

Researcher’s Signature

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 182
APPENDIX D
POST-TRAINING SURVEY
Table D1
Post-Training Survey of Level 1 Reaction and Level 2 Learning

Circle the number that corresponds to your assessment.
Strongly
Disagree
1

Disagree
2

Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
1. I was actively engaged in the training.
(Level 1 Engagement)
1 2 3 4
2. The training was relevant to my work as a professor.
(Level 1 Relevance)
1 2 3 4
3. I am satisfied with this training experience.
(Level 3 Satisfaction)
1 2 3 4
4. Pre-course reading and viewing content and in-class training
contributed to my knowledge of gendered security studies.
(Level 2 Declarative Knowledge).
1 2 3 4
5. The procedural skills taught during training better prepared me to
facilitate learning on a gendered security perspective in seminar class.
(Level 2 Procedural Skills)
1 2 3 4
6. Facilitating the integration of a gendered perspective into security
studies is an important aspect of my work as a professor.
(Level 2 Attitude)
1 2 3 4
7. Because of this training, I have greater confidence in my ability to
facilitate learning on a gendered security perspective in seminar class.
(Level 2 Confidence)
1 2 3 4
8. I am committed to apply what I learned in this training program to
facilitate learning on a gendered security perspective in my seminar
class.
(Level 2 Commitment)
1 2 3 4
9. Comment Section:

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND NATIONAL INSECURITY 183
APPENDIX E
BLENDED EVALUATION® SURVEY
Table E1
Blended Evaluation® Survey of Levels 1 Reaction, 2 Learning, 3 Behavior, and 4 Results

Circle the number that corresponds to your assessment.
Strongly
Disagree
1

Disagree
2

Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
1. Gendered security perspective training is relevant to my work as a
professor. (Level 1 Relevance)
1 2 3 4
2. Because of knowledge gained from seminar leader training, I exhibited
greater confidence in facilitating learning on a gendered security
perspective in my seminar class. (Level 2 Confidence)
1 2 3 4
3. I used the procedural skills taught during seminar leader training to
facilitate learning on a gendered security perspective in my seminar class.
(Level 3 Behavior)
1 2 3 4
4. I used knowledge learned from seminar leader training to integrate a
gendered security perspective in my lecture. (Level 3 Behavior)
1 2 3 4
5. I used knowledge learned from seminar leader training to mentor a
student(s) in the development of a Fellow’s Project that advances a
gendered security perspective. (Level 3 Behavior)
1 2 3 4
6. Through my reflections since seminar leader training, I have integrated
a gendered security perspective into my pedagogical approach. (Level 4)
1 2 3 4
7. My students have learned to express and demonstrate increased
understanding and appreciation for a gendered security perspective.
(Level 4)
1 2 3 4
8. Alumni from my seminar classes are now positively affecting societal
violence against women as measured by a tangibly achievement such as a
gendered security perspective focused Fellow’s Project. (Level 4)
1 2 3 4
9. Comment Section:

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Societal violence against women breeds national insecurity through pervasive discrimination and abuse. This dissertation examined the manifestations and effects of societal violence against women

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Asset Metadata

Creator Minnich, James Milo (author)

Core Title Societal violence against women and national insecurity: an evaluation study of teaching a gendered security perspective

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 10/17/2019

Defense Date 09/03/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag cultural model,cultural setting,cultural violence,direct knowledge,direct violence,faculty,feminism,gap analysis,gender advisor,gender mainstreaming,gendered security,goal orientation,inclusion,Kirkpatrick Blended Evaluation,KMO,knowledge, motivation, and organizational,Level 1 Reaction,Level 2 Learning,Level 3 Behavior,Level 4 Result,metacognitive knowledge,mixed methods research,national action plan,New World Kirkpatrick Model,OAI-PMH Harvest,procedural knowledge,qualitative research,quantitative research,resolution 1325,security cooperation,security practitioner,security sector,security studies,self-efficacy,societal violence,structural violence,teaching,UNSCR 1325,utility value,women, peace, and security,WPS

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Stowe, Kathy (committee chair), Datta, Monique (committee member), Robles, Darline P. (committee member)

Creator Email james.minnich@gmail.com,jminnich@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-225790

Unique identifier UC11673740

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Legacy Identifier etd-MinnichJam-7864.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

Rights Minnich, James Milo

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

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