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Maximizing leadership development in the U.S. Army: an evaluation study

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Maximizing leadership development in the U.S. Army: an evaluation study

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Content Running head: MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 1
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN THE U.S. ARMY:
AN EVALUATION STUDY

By

Yadriana Kavitz

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2019

Copyright 2019 Yadriana Kavitz

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 2

DEDICATION
First, to my mighty God who gave me the strength to pursue this terminal degree.
To both of my parents, Adriano and Janet, who taught me the importance of education
and for teaching me the values on how to expand my “grit.”
To my beautiful daughters Natalyn and Soraya who happily shared this journey with me
as we supported each other talking together about careers, papers, and grades. The example I
want you both to emulate. To my colleagues, professors, and committee for their unwavering
support.
Lastly, to my kindergarten teacher Mrs. Elba Rivas, who taught me how to read both in
English and Spanish. Thank you for your selfless service. I know you are looking down from the
heavens smiling.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
List of Tables 5
List of Figures 6
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 8
Organizational Context and Mission 8
Organizational Performance Goal 9
Related Literature 9
Importance of the Study 11
Description of Stakeholder Groups 12
Stakeholder Performance Goals 12
Stakeholder Group for the Study 13
Purpose of the Project and Questions 13
Methodological Approach and Rationale 14
Key Definitions 15
Organization of the Paper 16
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 17
Influences on the Problem of Practice 17
Army Leader Core Competencies 17
Lines of Effort/NCO 2020 Strategy: NCO Operating in a Complex World 18
Army Noncommissioned Officer Professional Development System 19
Master Leader Course Resident Versus Non- Resident Professional 19
Role of Stakeholder Group of Focus 20
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Framework 20
Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Skills 21
Motivation 25
Organization 28
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
Organizational Context 33
Conclusion 37
Chapter Three: Methods 38
Participating Stakeholders 38
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale 38
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 38
Observation Sampling Criteria and Rationale 39
Observation Sampling (Access) Strategy and Rationale 39
Data Collection and Instrumentation 39
Interviews 40
Observation 41
Documents and Artifacts 42
Data Analysis 42
Credibility and Trustworthiness 43
Ethics 44
Limitations and Delimitations 45
Conclusion 45
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 4

Chapter Four: Results and Findings 47
We need to branch out to enhance our education Findings 48
Finding 1: Self-Efficacy 48
Finding 2: Course Duration 52
Influences 54
Summary and Implications 54
Chapter Five: Solutions, Integrated Implementation, and Evaluation Plans 55
Knowledge Recommendations 55
Metacognitive Knowledge Solutions 57
Factual Knowledge Solutions 58
Motivation Recommendations 59
Attribution Theory Increases Effort Toward Quality of Instruction 60
Goal Orientation Theory Strengths Quality of Learning 61
Self-Efficacy Theory Provides Solutions on Modeling, Guided Practice, and Targets
Immediate Feedback 62
Organization Recommendations 63
Cultural Models 65
Cultural Influences 66
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Framework and Plan 68
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations 68
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators 69
Level 3: Behavior 69
Level 2: Learning 72
Level 1: Reaction 74
Evaluation Tools 75
Data Analysis and Reporting 76
Summary 77
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach 77
Limitations and Delimitations 78
Future Research 78
Conclusion 79
References 80
Appendix A Interview Protocol 87
Appendix B Observation Protocol 91

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Organizational Mission and Stakeholder Performance Goals 12
Table 2: Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments for Knowledge Gap Analysis 24
Table 3: Motivation Influences and Assessments for Motivation Gap Analysis 28
Table 4: Organizational Influences and Assessments for Organization Gap Analysis 32
Table 5: Participants 48
Table 6: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 56
Table 7: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 60
Table 8: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 64
Table 9: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 69
Table 10: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 70
Table 11: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 71
Table 12: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program. 74
Table 13: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program. 75

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Key concepts conceptual framework “maximizing leadership development.” 36
Figure 2. Blackboard representation. 76

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 7

ABSTRACT
This evaluation study sought to understand how the U.S. Army maximizes leadership
development for senior noncommissioned officers in relation to their strategic Master Leaders
Course and to assess the knowledge, skills, motivation, and organizational influences of those
most influential in strategic learning. Clark and Estes gap analysis served as the general
conceptual and methodological framework for the study. A qualitative study was conducted
using interviews and observations. The interview and observations revealed the need to focus on
the duration of strategic learning. Barriers included limited preparation for those senior
noncommissioned officers who never served in a strategic position but struggle with the odds in
strategic assignments for future promotions. The implications of these findings revealed the need
for a robust professional development curriculum to establish strategic learning. The study
concludes with recommendations for a longer duration for military learning.

Keywords: Senior Noncommissioned Officers, Facilitators, Leadership, Master Leaders Course,
Education Leadership Development System

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CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
This paper addressed the problem of maximizing leadership development within U.S.
Army organizations. Army leadership development refers to past experiences, education, and
training received by providing purpose, direction, and motivation to subordinates (U.S. Army,
2015). Army leadership action impacts a unit’s climate and their subordinates within their
sectors. Research conducted within the Department of Defense revealed the Army’s
noncommissioned officer education system has not been updated as an entire system for over 40
years (U.S. Army Sergeants Major Academy [USASMA], 2017), which demonstrates this is a
problem. According to USASMA (2017), an Army executive order directed the Army-wide
implementation and change of the noncommissioned officer professional development system
(NCOPDS), which is where soldiers receive their educational training. The NCOPDS represents
a transparent and grounded approach to managing future changes in the way the Army trains and
develops soldiers. It is evident the military wants to mold and educate their senior
noncommissioned officers to bridge the gaps in strategic leadership development. It is important
to address maximizing leadership development in the Army because it augments serious
consequences in strategic decision-making, reduces organizational effectiveness, lowers
retention rates, and costs institutions large amounts of money (Box, 2012).
Organizational Context and Mission
The U.S. Army’s mission is to fight and win our nation’s wars by providing prompt,
sustained land dominance across the full range of military operations and spectrum of conflict in
support of combatant commanders (U.S. Army, 2018). This is done by organizations’ equipping,
educating, and training forces for the conduct of prompt and sustained combat operations on
land. Enlisted noncommissioned officers lead, train, and accomplish their mission through lower-
rank enlisted soldiers. The noncommissioned officer corps is referred to as the backbone of the
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 9

Army. They are primarily responsible for executing missions and are the most visible to military
personnel. Army facilitators or instructors’ responsibilities are to prepare, train, develop, and
educate future Army senior noncommissioned officers in strategic content. Training Doctrine
Command (TRADOC) administrators develop Army soldiers as well as design and integrate
capabilities, concepts, and doctrine to build a versatile Army. TRADOC command is also
responsible for all centers of excellence where soldiers receive a military education applicable to
their military specialty and in which organizational performance goals are derived and
implemented.
Organizational Performance Goal
By May 2020, 100% of senior noncommissioned officers will be trained in key strategic
leadership content. This is important because, according to Bass and Avolio (1993), effective
organizations require both tactical and strategic thinking as well as culture structure. Bass also
stated strategic thinking helps create and build the vision of an agency’s future. U.S. Army
noncommissioned officers holding a senior leadership position will be assessed through
qualitative data collection on their respective strategic educational training, daily duties scope,
self-assessment surveys, evaluations, and the use of the evaluation model to determine the
factors that yield implications of strategic leader development for senior noncommissioned
officers. Ultimately a research-based solution might result to maximize leadership development
in the U.S. Army.
Related Literature
The U.S. Army revamped the educational development system for noncommissioned
officers (who are advisors to commissioned officers). This pertinent change was due to several
gaps where senior noncommissioned officers were not efficient as advisors for commissioned
officers working at the strategic level. The skills and abilities expected from noncommissioned
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 10

officers are oral briefings and conveying assigned missions in writing. This lack of skills reverts
to the current system the Army has in place. One education course, in particular, is the Master
Leaders Course (MLC). The MLC was created to fill in the educational gaps between the Senior
Leader Course and the Sergeant Major Course with essential tools Master Sergeants need to
provide the Army with agile, adaptive, and innovative leaders. The course is designed to further
develop the professional skills and competencies required of leaders of the 21st century (U.S.
Army Fort Campbell, 2017). The MLC is a 15-day resident course focusing on leadership,
management, operations, joint operations, soldier readiness, writing, and communications that
assist in preparing noncommissioned officers to transition from tactical leaders to strategic
operational leaders. However, the problem noncommissioned officers encounter is the time
allotted to complete such intense courses. The course structure of 15 days for 27 lessons, which
totals 112 academic hours can be overwhelming and can obstruct learners’ ability to effectively
retain information for future development and possibly creates a toxic educational environment.
Research uncovered several characteristics of toxic leadership when effective leadership
development is not formulated in the Army. According to White (2015), toxic leadership is a
combination of self-centered attitudes, motivation, and narcissistic behaviors that have
unfavorable effects on mission performance, organization, and subordinates. Reed (2004)
discussed that toxic leaders did not add educational value to the organizations they led, even if
the unit performs productively on their watch. The role of a leader is the heart of all military
missions. Trust is a key characteristic of leadership. Soldiers must have confidence and trust in
their leaders. Once this is violated, a leader may be labeled as toxic. For example, Army
recruiters who attend a mandatory 8-week educational course are trained on the tools to become
adaptable, agile, and ambassadors for the U.S. Army. Paul (2017) used snowball sampling to
identify 80 recruiters who transitioned from their recruiting school to their U.S. state of
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 11

assignment. Results showed participants did not fully know how to convey their short training
onto the real world and were exposed to toxic leadership. In fact, toxic leaders are
characteristically unconcerned with subordinates and fail to develop them regarding how to
officially apply their skills, creating an intimidating micromanagement environment. While toxic
leadership performance is based on what is beneficial to them and not on the organization, hard-
driven developed and compassionate leaders who understand the importance of good climate and
leadership development do exist in the U.S. military, contradicting the myth that rule by
intimidation is necessary. This contradiction, therefore, leads to the importance of this study.
Importance of the Study
It is important to solve the problem of toxic leadership for a variety of reasons. The
military’s retention and leadership development rates can become considerably affected based on
a small number of toxic leaders and minimal time on educational training. Also, it obstructs the
ability of the organization to achieve its mission, as leaders become stressed, less resilient, and
have an increased risk of suicide (White, 2015). In addition, it affects the relationship between
civilians and military organizations as well as demoralizes the mission focus. There is not a
prodigious prominence placed on toxic leaders, behaviors, characteristics, and symptoms in
military academic institutions (Box, 2012). Superior leaders are key to maintaining an
organization’s positive climate and culture. Therefore, the U.S. military established an Advisory
Committee of Generals (ACG) to evaluate, mentor, and assess military leaders. In conjunction
with the ACG committee, leaders are responsible for utilizing the Multi Rater Feedback (MFR),
360-degree assessment program online tool to remove bias and help senior leaders classify the
very best leaders and remove toxic individuals. Generally, MFR is administered through a
comprehensive questionnaire given to individuals connected to the leader. Research
demonstrates that MFR is more effective when it involves adapted tools directly related either to
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 12

an employee’s performance or their job functions while taking into account the culture of the
parent organization (Morgeson, Mumford, & Campion, 2005). Furthermore, maximizing
leadership development in the Army diffuses toxic leaders and enhances senior
noncommissioned officers’ ability to become strategic leaders and advisors to higher echelons.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
A variety of stakeholders contribute to and benefit from the achievement of performance
goals, especially the senior noncommissioned officers whose educational development would
increase. Senior noncommissioned officers lead, train, and accomplish their mission through
lower-rank enlisted soldiers. Enlisted soldiers are in the grades of E1 to E4. Junior
noncommissioned officers are in the grades of E5 and E6, and senior noncommissioned officers
are in the grades of E7 to E9. As previously mentioned, the senior noncommissioned officer
corps is primarily responsible for executing missions and preparing, training, developing, and
educating future Army senior noncommissioned officers. TRADOC administrators design and
integrate capabilities, concepts, and doctrine to build a versatile Army.
Stakeholder Performance Goals
Table 1
Organizational Mission and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The U.S. Army’s mission is to fight and win our nation’s wars by providing prompt, sustained land
dominance across the full range of military operations and spectrum of conflict in support of
combatant commanders. This is done by organizations, equipping, educating, and training forces for
the conduct of prompt and sustained combat operations on land.
Organizational Performance Goal
By May 2020, 100% of senior noncommissioned officers will be trained in key strategic leadership
content.
Senior noncommissioned officers Facilitators TRADOC
By December 2019, senior
noncommissioned officers should be
in compliance with strategic learning.
By May 2019,
facilitators will develop
an academic plan.
By January 2019, TRADOC will
develop an action plan to address
noncommissioned officers’
educational concerns.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 13

Stakeholder Group for the Study
Collectively, all stakeholders contribute to the success of the overall organizational goal
of having all senior noncommissioned officers trained in key strategic leadership content. It is
important to evaluate senior noncommissioned officers’ standing with regards to their
performance goal. Therefore, the stakeholders of focus for this study were all senior
noncommissioned officers. The stakeholders’ goal, supported by Army facilitators and
instructors, is that 100% of senior noncommissioned officers will receive educational guidance
and implement strategic tools as advisors to commissioned officers in their daily duties. This
educational guidance includes longer development courses, graduate-level writing in a
curriculum, and senior noncommissioned officer enlisted records review, which shows all
educational accomplishments. Failure to accomplish this goal will lead to a loss of quality senior
noncommissioned advisors to commissioned officers in strategic nominative positions, which
adversely affects the organization’s ability to train and educate all of their senior
noncommissioned officers in strategic content.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to evaluate the degree to which senior noncommissioned
officers maximize their educational leadership development while reaching the goal of 100%
noncommissioned officers trained in strategic key leadership content. The analysis focused on
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving the organizational
goals. The analysis began by generating a list of possible or assumed interfering influences that
were examined systematically to focus on actual or validated interfering influences. While a
complete performance evaluation would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the
stakeholders focused on in this analysis were senior noncommissioned officers. Four research
questions guided this study:
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 14

1. To what extent is the U.S. Army meeting the goal of training 100% of senior
noncommissioned officers in key strategic leadership content by May 2020?
2. What are the noncommissioned officers’ knowledge and motivation related to achieving
key strategic content by May 2020?
3. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and noncommissioned
officer knowledge and motivation?
4. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Methodological Approach and Rationale
The methodological approach utilized for this study was qualitative. This method of
observation was to gather non-numerical data and refer to the meanings, concepts definitions,
perceptions, and characteristics associated with how noncommissioned officers increased their
educational leadership development. The intent was to further understanding of underlying
reasons and motivations leading to maximizing educational development in the Army for
noncommissioned officers through the lens of an ethnographic case study. Qualitative research
focuses on the process that is occurring as well as the product or outcome (Creswell, 2014). As
the primary researcher of these studies, the particular interest is understanding how things occur
in the U.S. Army leadership educational development process. In addition, qualitative research
was leveraged in this study due to many characteristics of qualitative research, the natural
setting, and multiple sources of data, such as interviews, observations, and documents. The focus
of this approach was on learning the meaning noncommissioned officers ascribe to educational
leadership development and not the meaning the researchers bring to the research or that writers
express in works of literature. This qualitative research tradition relies on the utilization of tacit
knowledge.
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The four basic types of data collection in qualitative research are observation, interviews,
documents, audio, and visual materials. During observations, the researcher takes field notes on
the behavior and activities of noncommissioned officers’ projects in an educational setting. The
researcher records semi-structured prior questions at the site. Also, the researcher engages in
roles varying from nonparticipant to participant by asking open-ended questions allowing the
participants to freely provide their views. Interviews may be conducted in person, via telephone,
or in six to eight groups. These interviews involve a few general open-ended questions to elicit
views and opinions from the participants. During the process of research, the investigator may
collect qualitative documents. These may be public documents, such as newspapers, memos,
official reports, letters, or e-mails (Creswell, 2014).
Qualitative audio and visual materials may be taken in the form of photographs, art
objects, videotapes, website main pages, social media, or any forms of sounds. Qualitative visual
is easily accessible due to the rate of technology. Although all the data collection procedures are
attainable, specific types are included in these methodologies to augment the strengths and
weaknesses of each type. As mentioned in the list of characteristics, qualitative research is
interpretative research; the inquiry is typically involved in a sustained and intensive experience
with participants as the best methodological approach.
Key Definitions
Army Noncommissioned Officer Professional Development System: A synchronized
system that links training, education, and experiences spanning the operational, intuitional, and
self-development learning domains for noncommissioned officers.
Confident Facilitator: A secure, self-confident, and experienced instructor sure of their
teaching abilities when delivering lessons.
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High Probability: An influence is considered to have a high probability of being
validated when it is deemed high priority in terms of closing gaps and achieving knowledge,
motivation, and organizational goals.
Mater Leaders Course: Non-mission occupational specialty-specific course designed to
inculcate the knowledge and skills required of all senior noncommissioned officers who are
preparing to undertake critical strategic leadership roles.
Resourceful Facilitator: A facilitator who adapts well to new or difficult situations and
can think creatively.
Senior Noncommissioned Officers: Advisors to commissioned officers and enlisted
soldiers with specific skills and duties such as training, recruiting, or tech.
Organization of the Paper
This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One introduced the problem of
practice and its importance, provided organizational context, goals, and stakeholders for the
study, detailed the study’s research questions, general conceptual and methodological
framework, and definitions. Chapter Two provides literature on Army leader core competencies,
lines of efforts, and professional development system. The chapter concludes with the conceptual
framework for the study, integrating knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences.
Chapter Three presents the research design and methods for data collection and analysis. Chapter
Four details results and findings and closes with a summary and implications. Chapter Five
reviews the organization and stakeholder group for the study as well as the study’s purpose and
research questions, followed by issuing recommendations for solutions, and providing integrated
implementation and evaluation plans.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 17

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Conceptions of leadership are integrally linked to various factors, including the nature of
reality and ontological issues, stakeholder perspectives, and levels-of-analysis issues (Hunt,
2004). Leadership is defined and will depend on one’s conception of leadership. Conception of
leadership may include leadership as cognition, culture, or development (Hunt, 2004). This
literature review examines the root causes of gaps in maximizing leadership development in the
U.S. Army. The review begins with general research on the importance of the U.S. Army leader
core competencies noncommissioned officers exercise through their lines of effort. This is
followed by an overview of literature on the Army NCOPDS and the MLC resident and non-
resident courses. The review presents a comprehensive discussion on how to better educate
noncommissioned officers to become agile, adaptive, creative, critical thinking, innovative, and
problem-solving leaders who will meet the challenges of an ever-changing complex operating
environment. Lastly, the review turns to the role of the stakeholder group of focus, Clark and
Estes’ (2008) gap analysis conceptual framework, and the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences on Army facilitators’ ability to develop, teach, coach, and mentor
forthcoming strategic noncommissioned officers.
Influences on the Problem of Practice
The U.S. Army TRADOC determined that there are six leader core competencies all
noncommissioned should develop while in a professional military education course.
Army Leader Core Competencies
The six leader core competencies are readiness, leadership, training management, Army
and joint operations, program management, and communications (USASMA, 2017). In addition,
the competencies to lead others, set conditions for a positive climate, and build teamwork
cohesiveness identify an Army leader. Lastly, the leader achieves results by providing direction,
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 18

guidance, and priorities to execute plans and accomplish consistent tasks. However, one key
competency missing is strategic content. This is important because, at the senior
noncommissioned officer level, officers and, most importantly, soldiers look to their
noncommissioned officers for solutions, guidance, inspiration, and development. Soldiers can
relate to noncommissioned officers because they were developed through the enlisted ranks and
the noncommissioned officer education system (TRADOC, 2015). Soldiers expect them to
convey information and provide day-to-day guidance to accomplish the missions in a complex
world, which encompasses the U.S. Army lines of effort.
Lines of Effort/NCO 2020 Strategy: NCO Operating in a Complex World
For the U.S. Army senior noncommissioned officer to perform in a complex
environment, their NCOPDS must fundamentally change and evolve into a comprehensive
leader-development process that links training, education, and experiences spanning the
operational, institutional, and self-development learning domains. The NCO 2020 Strategy is
organized into three distinct lines of effort. The first line of effort is development.
Noncommissioned officers develop as leaders over time through deliberate progressive and
sequential processes incorporating training, education, and experience across the three learning
domains. The second line of effort is talent management, which is the purposeful expansion of a
noncommissioned officer’s core mission occupational specialty proficiency and leadership
provided through developmental positions, opportunities, and assignments both within and
outside of their career management field. The third line of effort is stewardship of the profession.
The third line of effort strengthens the corps by emphasizing the role of the noncommissioned
officer in building and sustaining trust, constantly improving military expertise, setting an
example of honorable service, fostering a climate rich in esprit de corps, and serving as stewards
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 19

of the Army profession (TRADOC, 2015). The lines of effort do not mention strategic content
preparation.
Army Noncommissioned Officer Professional Development System
The Army NCOPDS is a production system for developing the next generation of
competent and committed noncommissioned officers of character as trusted Army professionals
who thrive in chaos and ambiguity, adapt, and are prepared to win in a complex world
(TRADOC, 2015). Through the lines of effort, the NCOPDS integrate and synchronize the
development of the next generation of competent and committed noncommissioned officers.
Master Leader Course Resident Versus Non- Resident Professional
The Master Leaders Course Non Resident (MLCNR), as opposed to the 2-week resident
course, is an intensive 6-week course that covers four Army learning areas: Army leadership and
profession, human dimension, professional competence, and mission command. Each lesson is
examined further each week and the last two weeks’ instruction covers the military decision-
making process (MDMP) and staff exercise. Throughout the MLCNR curriculum, students are
academically challenged in areas that may force them out of their comfort zone. Once enrolled,
students should understand the dedication required to pass. Students without command support
generally struggle to achieve satisfactory course standards. (Warner, 2018). Combine this lack of
support with students’ inability to navigate Blackboard, communicate with peers effectively, and
apply structured time management, and it is a recipe for poor performance. Most students
enrolled in MLCNR may have primary jobs that consume the majority of their time. Additional
outside distractions, such as family considerations not experienced in a resident course due to
students’ remote location, may also take away available time. Bothe the MLCNR and the
resident course are challenging. Leaders have to maintain a positive presence and self-awareness
and shape the joint operational environment in either two or six weeks.
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Role of Stakeholder Group of Focus
Senior noncommissioned officers lead, train, and provide aid to their young soldiers
along with guidance to their commissioned officers. Senior noncommissioned officers instruct
their subordinates and commanders and assist in training all enlisted members. They perform
without supervision. The success of the U.S. Army is in direct proportion to the involvement of
strategic thinking senior noncommissioned officers. The senior noncommissioned officer’s role
is to also break down complex problems in a world of increasing complexity. Adequate strategic
studies enable senior noncommissioned officers to understand how problems are linked from the
tactical level through the strategic level. Strategic studies help leaders think creatively and
critically (Hickman, 2018). Strategic studies ensure senior noncommissioned officers bridge
military and political efforts to achieve a mission’s objectives.
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) provide a systematic, analytical framework that focuses on
conducting a gap analysis to identify, diagnose, and solve human and organizational problems in
any business or educational study (Clark & Estes, 2008). Clark and Estes stated knowledge and
skill enhancements are essential tools for job performance. There are four types of knowledge:
factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Motivation is
another area within an organization where tangible benefits exist and improve performance
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Organizational influences such as organizational culture, resources, and
work policies and procedures can also affect stakeholder performance. When there are issues in
any of these three indicators, it can be challenging to meet goals (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Each of these elements of Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis are addressed below in
terms of the U.S. Army noncommissioned officers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational
needs to meet their performance goal of 100% strategic leadership development training by May
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 21

2020. The first section discusses the assumed influences on the performance goals based on the
knowledge and skills of noncommissioned officers. Then, the focus shifts to motivation and the
assumed influences it has on the attainment of the goal. Discussed last are the assumed
organizational influences affecting the performance goal. Each of these assumed stakeholder
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on performance are then discussed through
the methodology in Chapter Three.
Stakeholders ’ Knowledge and Skills
The Army NCOPDS provides noncommissioned officers with progressive and sequential
leadership, technical, and tactical training relevant to the duties, responsibilities, and missions
they will embark on in operational units after graduation. The training and education process for
the noncommissioned officer starts with an initial leadership development course followed by
basic, branch-specific level training. According to research, people are not aware of their own
knowledge and skills and, many times, are reluctant to disclose their weaknesses (Clark & Estes,
2008). In military culture, a sign of weakness may be negatively viewed during a learning
experience. Based on experience, noncommissioned officers are cognizant when questioning
their facilitator insights, which may display a sign of disrespect and possibly hinder training.
Leader development helps formulate the readiness of the Army by providing knowledge and
skills during training (TRADOC, 2015).
The Army NCOPDS is also the means by which senior noncommissioned officers receive
their assigned training and education. By May 2020, the United States Army will train 100% of
its senior noncommissioned officers in key strategic leadership content. The achievement of this
goal will assist senior noncommissioned officers to effectively become strategic advisors to
commissioned officers and proficiently apply their knowledge and skills by receiving
educational training at the senior level for more than a minimum of a 2-week period. To best
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 22

prepare noncommissioned officers for the challenges of an uncertain future, facilitators must
fundamentally change and evolve the noncommissioned officer education system into a more
comprehensive leader development system that links training, education, and experiences
spanning the operational, institutional, and self-development learning domains. The literature
reviewed in this paper focuses on particular aspects of knowledge, motivation, and skills that
influence the achievement of the U.S. Army’s goal.
Knowledge influences. According to research, the four knowledge dimensions are
factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002). Knowledge in the Army is
crucial because it assists facilitators and learners create a better learning environment and
identify strategies to enhance their learning and skills. Factual knowledge includes the basic
elements students must know to be acquainted with the discipline or solve problems (Krathwohl,
2002). The second type of knowledge dimension is conceptual. Conceptual knowledge involves
the interrelationship among the basic elements of a larger structure that enables them to function
together (Krathwohl, 2002). Procedural knowledge is the third type of knowledge. Procedural
knowledge pertains to how to do something, methods of inquiry, and criteria using skills,
algorithms, techniques, and methods (Krathwohl, 2002). Soldiers knowing how to perform their
respective daily task or an artist’s skills in painting a watercolor are examples of procedural
knowledge.
Metacognitive knowledge is the knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness
and knowledge of one’s own cognition (Mayer, 2011). A primary example is planning how to
approach a learning task and using the appropriate skills and strategies to solve them. Another
example is monitoring one’s own comprehension of self-assessing and self-correcting in
response to a completion of a task (Rueda, 2011). All knowledge dimensions are critical
influences required to meet performance goals. However, this study focused on conceptual,
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 23

metacognitive, and factual influences. The knowledge influences are (a) knowledge of how to
properly deliver the learners content in writing and verbally, (b) knowledge of how to reflect on
participants’ own effectiveness in the classroom, and (c) effectively advising counterparts on
strategic missions. These three knowledge influences, described in more detail below, were used
to analyze what knowledge and skills the U.S. Arm noncommissioned officers need to possess to
achieve the organizational goal.
Express the learner ’s content. Developing the ability to properly summarize orally and
in writing modules of instructions will assist noncommissioned officers in reaching their
organizational goal. This type of knowledge influence is called conceptual. Conceptual
knowledge allows senior noncommissioned officers to effectively generalize the content learned
and effectively express and deliver information to other peers or higher echelons. Furthermore,
being able to classify the information attained in writing is also conducive to Army strategic
planning. This means, when a vision or plan arises, the noncommissioned officer can
meticulously generate the information for others to understand and regurgitate. These types of
knowledge also enhance noncommissioned officers’ confidence level to achieve more without
having to doubt themselves or the audience receiving the information.
Reflect on own effectiveness. Metacognitive knowledge involves knowledge about
cognition in general as well as awareness of and knowledge about one’s own cognition
(Krathwohl, 2002). Senior noncommissioned officers should know how to reflect on their own
effectiveness in the classroom. Having a sense of self-awareness regarding their own learning
will assist them in approaching classroom material in a military environment. Researchers
continue to emphasize the importance of individuals being made aware of their metacognitive
activity (Krathwohl, 2002). This will also allow noncommissioned officers to modify the ways in
which they operate, think, and identify their needs for improvement.
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 24

Advising their counterparts. Factual knowledge is defined as knowledge of terminology
or knowledge of specific details and elements (Krathwohl, 2002). Senior noncommissioned
officers need factual knowledge on their daily duties but, most importantly, on effectively
advising their counterparts on strategic missions and educational performance goals. For
example, noncommissioned officers gather information as part of their daily problem-solving
skills to effectively meet the organizational and stakeholder goals. Table 1 provides the
organizational mission, global goal, stakeholder’s goal, and information specific to knowledge
influences, types, and assessment. As Table 1 indicates, three metacognitive influences were
used to gain insight into noncommissioned officers’ knowledge measures.
Table 2
Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments for Knowledge Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
Improve the Army senior Noncommissioned officer professional development system.
Organizational Global Goal
Fight and win our Nation’s wars, by better educating noncommissioned officers to become agile,
adaptive, creative & critical thinking, innovative, problem-solving leaders who will meet the challenges
of an ever-changing and complex operating environment.
Stakeholder Goal
By May 2020, the United States Army will train 100% of senior noncommissioned officers in key
strategic development leadership content.
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type (i.e.,
declarative (factual or
conceptual),
procedural, or
metacognitive)
Knowledge Influence Assessment
Senior noncommissioned officers
(NCO) need to properly express
learned content material in writing
and verbally.
Conceptual Senior noncommissioned officers were
asked to summarize orally and in
writing one module of instruction.
Senior noncommissioned officers
need to reflect on their own
effectiveness in the classroom.
Metacognitive Senior noncommissioned officers were
asked to reflect on their own learning
effectiveness using data comments from
previous courses.
Senior NCOs need the knowledge
to effectively advise their
counterparts on strategic missions.
Factual Officers were asked to identify pitfalls
during strategic missions based on NCO
performance.
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 25

Motivation
There are several theories on motivation, but this review focuses on three particularly
relevant theories: self-efficacy theory, and expectancy-value-theory, and leader attributes.
Motivation is the internal psychological process that gets us going, keeps us moving, and helps
us get jobs done (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996). In the context of learning environments, motivation
prompts and maintains the learner’s efforts to engage in the cognitive process required for
making sense of the to-be-learned material (Mayer, 2011). Meaningful learning cannot occur if
students do not exercise effort to engage in appropriate cognitive processing during learning
(Mayer, 2011). Personality researchers identified the concerned with general motives such as a
need for achievement, need for power, and need for affiliation, which reflects wishes or desires
that the individual would like to bring about in many different situations (Pintrich, 2003).
Although motives can be conscious, research states that, in many cases, they are assumed to be
unconscious or implicit and, as such, differ from more cognitive constructs such as goals that
people strive for, which also represent their wishes and desires (Pintrich, 2003). In essence,
motivational dynamics require learner and facilitator persistence and effort. This study focused
on three specific theories: self-efficacy theory, expectancy-value theory, and leader attributes.
Self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy is one’s belief in one’s own ability to succeed, which,
in turn, increases confidence. As confidence increases, commitment to performance goals also
increases (Clark & Estes, 2008). When selecting products or services that motivate people,
strategies to best help the learner increase their confidence. For example, remembering people’s
past successes and pointing them out when faced with a similar task and when interacting with
others projects a genuine expectation that they will succeed. If not, the person may become part
of the problem because they doubt their success. Most important, assigning achievable goals and
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 26

taking ownership of goals may increase self-efficacy. Persistence is greater when goals are
challenging, current, concrete, and possible to achieve (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Army facilitators need to believe they are proficient in effectively conveying learning
instructions. Their ability to believe they can succeed stems from their own intrinsic motivation.
The Army emphasized the team concept and being able to work in teams effectively. Team
confidence is much more than the sum of individual team members’ confidence levels. Team
members must believe in their peers and in collaboration. Initially, team members must believe
in their peers and collectively possess the skills to achieve the team’s performance goals. The
discernment that one or more peers have weaknesses that may prevent team success depresses
team determination. Each team member must believe the entire team can cooperate and
collaborate enough to accomplish team goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). If these conditions are not
met, a team will be distracted and delay or avoid achieving goals.
Expectancy-value theory. High expectations lead to higher performance, enhances the
belief of being able to perform a task, and increases the value attained from performance (Eccles,
2006). Noncommissioned officers are known for their ability to lead, develop, and accomplish
any task. Research states expectancies, values, and determinants influence choice, persistence,
and performance (Wigfield & Cambria, 2010). Noncommissioned officers facilitate and train
based on doctrine and on their personal experience attained over time. Student’s expectancies
and values are influenced by different educational contexts (Eccles, 2006). Students’ perceptions
and interpretations are influenced by social, contextual, and cultural factors (Wigfield &
Cambria, 2010). These may include parents, teachers, personal beliefs, and cultural behaviors.
Over time, research states students’ expectancies and values change over time to include their
relations to one another and their relation to performance, choice, and emotion (Wigfield &
Cambria, 2010).
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 27

Goal orientation. Sometimes, people give up on trying to achieve their goals simply
because these are too vague, they do not know how to make progress toward achieving them, or
the goal is too difficult to tackle (Rueda, 2011). In contrast, goal orientation is patterns of belief
that represent the many ways students approach, engage with, and respond to achievement
situations (Rueda, 2011). Army facilitators’ expectations are that learners will want to do more
than the minimum and advocate making instructions longer than the minimum of two weeks’
standard. Theorists have distinguished between mastery and performance goal orientation.
Mastery goal leads to a task to learn, gain new competence, and accomplish a new challenging
activity. On the other hand, a performance goal orientation leads to a focus on demonstrating
ability in front of others, reward recognition, and avoiding negative judgments. Army research
results revealed the need to develop, evaluate, and refine ways of understanding and measuring
the work motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity of individual soldiers (Motowidlo,
Dowell, Hopp, Borman, & Johnson, 1976). Performance goal orientation is more adaptive to the
learner where competition and ranking are valued (Rueda, 2011).
Facilitator self-efficacy. Noncommissioned officers are more motivated and successful
in academic environments when they believe they belong and are accepted in those environments
(Willingham, 2015). Army facilitators must feel the lack of strategic development for
noncommissioned officers is due to their own minimal efforts at instruction rather than learners’
lack of ability. People who have ample confidence in themselves and their team believe their
organizational goal is achievable (Clark & Estes, 2008). Having positive emotions, such as
contentment and pleasure, supports work commitment among teams (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Noncommissioned officers must apply efforts to think outside the box and believe their learners
can meet course standards based on their ability to effectively deliver instruction. Furthermore,
they must reflect on their learning styles, emotions, and moral values when faced with
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 28

adversaries in a learning environment. Table 3 below depicts three motivational influences that
focus on self-efficacy, goal orientation, and attributions. These influences were used to fully
understand how motivation affects Army facilitators and senior noncommissioned officers’
educational development training.
Table 3
Motivation Influences and Assessments for Motivation Gap Analysis

Organization
An organization is a tool people use to coordinate their actions to obtain something they
desire or value, meaning to achieve their goals (Jones & Jones, 2013). The U.S. Army is made up
of the most dedicated and respected officers, noncommissioned officers, and soldiers in the
Organizational Mission
Improve the Army Senior Noncommissioned Officer education professional development system.
Organizational Global Goal
Fight and win our Nation’s wars, by better educating noncommissioned officers to become agile,
adaptive, creative & critical thinking, innovative, problem-solving leaders who will meet the
challenges of an ever-changing and complex operating environment.
Stakeholder Goal
By May 2020, the United States Army will train 100% of senior noncommissioned officers in key
strategic development leadership content.
Motivational Indicator(s)
I will not have motivational indicators as I am conducting an evaluation practice study.
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Attributions- Army Facilitators should feel that
lack of strategic development for noncommissioned
officers is due to their own efforts of instruction
rather than Army noncommissioned officers’ lack of
ability.
Interview item: What are some of the
causes for your lack of strategic content
development in the Army education system?
Interview Item: How confident do you feel
about your ability to differentiate
instructions from facilitators and own
experience?
Goal Orientation- Army Facilitators should want to
do more than the bare minimum and advocate
making instructions longer than the minimum of two
weeks.
Interview item: How would you continue
to learn about different ways to differentiate
instructions and advocate for longer
instructions
Self-Efficacy- Army Facilitators need to believe
they are proficient in effectively conveying learning
instructions.
Observations: What is the Army
facilitators’ affect when delivering
instructions? How are the lessons delivered?
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 29

world. The U.S. Army’s organizational goal is to fight and win our nation’s wars, educate
noncommissioned officers to become agile, adaptive, creative and critical thinking, innovative,
problem-solving leaders who will meet the challenges of an ever-changing and complex
operating environment while improving the Army senior noncommissioned officer education
professional development system (TRADOC, 2015). Cultural models refer to cultural practices
and shared mental schema within the organization. Cultural settings consist of the organization’s
employees, their mission, and learning environment, how they convey their completed task, and
the social context in which their work is presented (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). This section
discusses the primary cultural model and setting that contribute to organizational stakeholder
influences. The organizational influences worksheet table presents the assessment methods used
in the research.
Organizational influences. Traditionally, the U.S. Army, both in war and peace, has
focused on key factors such as technology, leadership, personnel, training, or a combination of
these factors to influence the culture. The list of possible variables contributing to the
effectiveness of military organizations is the concept of culture. While the U.S. Army culture is
often used as an overarching label for personality, way of thinking, or values, there is little
literature that defines military culture. Organizational culture refers to the taken-for-granted
values, underlying traditions, outlooks, collective memories, and definitions present in an
organization (Gerras, Wong, & Allen, 2008). These values and assumptions are learned as
people in the organization deal successfully with problems of external adaptation and internal
integration. The Army’s TRADOC Culture Center defines culture as a dynamic social system,
containing the values, beliefs, behaviors, and norms of a specific group, organization, society or
other collectivity learned, shared, internalized, and changeable by all members of the society
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 30

(Watson, 2010). Most studies applying organizational culture to military situations fall short in
fully exploiting the implications of the organizational culture concepts, influencers, and models.
Cultural model. Political models sometimes share assumptions with cultural models.
Political models examine how a dominant culture shapes organizational processes; this culture is
referred to as the power culture (Kezar, 2001). Organizations such as the U.S. Army are
perceived as political entities in which dominant coalitions manipulate their power to preserve
the status quo and maintain their privilege. Another way that political models overlap with
cultural models is in their emphasis on social movements and subgroups or subcultures (Kezar,
2001). The Army’s branch schooling system, unit structure, and mission requirements are just a
few factors that facilitate the creation of subcultures. The hierarchy culture has a traditional
approach to structure and control that flows from a strict chain of command view of bureaucracy.
The traditional U.S. Army focus on chain of command and well-defined policies, processes, and
procedures fits this type of organizational model (Gerras et al., 2008). This type of model focuses
on strict rules and procedures. Rather than strict rules and procedures, people are driven through
vision, shared goals, outputs, and outcomes. In addition, efficacy is defined as the confidence
that one can use one’s capabilities to execute a course of action that will result in performance or
trust (Alper, Tjosvold, & Law, 2000). Research has shown that individuals who believe they can
perform needed actions exert effort and are productive (Alper et al., 2000). Cultural trust in the
U.S. Army learning environments between faculty and instructors supports the institutional goal
of developing strategic noncommissioned officers. Furthermore, the TRADOC culture further
promotes the development of cultural capability throughout the Army through the lens of an
overarching, coherent, and connected strategy of training and education that should integrate
various organizations in the Army. Cultural capability, which I have termed “intercultural
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 31

effectiveness,” is the end result of developing competence and regional competence in Army
personnel cultural settings (Watson, 2010).
Cultural setting. Research states that culture is a way to describe the core values, goals,
beliefs, emotions, and processes learned as people develop over time in families and in work
environments (Clark & Estes, 2008). Some people view culture as being in an organization or
setting. Culture also involves beliefs about the importance of individual initiative and
competition as well as the value of group process and collaboration. When facilitators or
instructors in a learning setting seek guidance from mentors who have strategic influence and
content, they augment collaboration to build trust and influence. The U.S. Army utilizes three
different settings or domains for education. The operational settings provide real-world
experience in problem-solving. The institutional setting focuses on education and transitions
through noncommissioned officer education systems and functional area training to develop
noncommissioned officers’ leadership and mission-critical skills. Lastly, the self-development
setting, which is recommended by leaders, but optional, allows learning educational career
enhancement opportunities through the U.S. Army or civilian sectors.
Although these educational settings are productive, research states some of the cultural
assumptions in an organization can come from the occupational background of members of the
organization (Schein, 1984). This makes it possible to have a managerial culture or military
culture coexisting in an organization (Schein, 1984). Moreover, recent research suggests
workplace qualities and values such as trust, work-life balanced, strong team orientation,
community commitment, and self-development are even more important to the military
millennial generation, which is rapidly taking over the workplace (Alsop, 2008; Burton, 2013). It
is time to move from knowing to doing (Berger, 2014). It is time to attend to the foundations of
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 32

employee communication to better meet employees’ needs and improve individual performance,
thereby elevating the organization to new levels of achievement (Berger, 2014).
Table 4
Organizational Influences and Assessments for Organization Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
Improve the Army Senior Noncommissioned Officer education professional development
system
Organizational Global Goal
Fight and win our Nation’s wars, by better educating noncommissioned officers to become
agile, adaptive, creative & critical thinking, innovative, problem-solving leaders who will meet
the challenges of an ever-changing and complex operating environment.

Stakeholder Goal
By May 2020, the United States Army will train 100% of senior noncommissioned officers in
key strategic development leadership content.

Assumed Organizational
Influences

Organizational
Influence
Assessment
Research-Based
Recommendation or
Solution Principle

Proposed
Solution
Cultural Model Influence
Building Mutual
agreement and acceptance
amongst facilitators to
change existing courses.
Interview questions
that seek change or
observations they
have observed;
review course
content for each
class cycle for
changes.
Adults are more
motivated to
participate (and learn)
when they see the
relevance of
information, a request,
or task (the “why”) to
their own
circumstances. They
are goal-oriented
(Knowles, 1980)
Provide
assessment tools
for facilitators to
review course
content for each
class cycle in
order to
collectively
implement
improvements

Cultural Model Influence
Building cultural trust in
the academy between
faculty and facilitators in
order to achieve the
institutional goal of
developing strategic
noncommissioned
officers.
Interview questions
about whether
facilitators trust
faculty
Organizations with
high levels of cultural
trust tend to produce
high-quality products
and services at less
cost (Colquitt, Scott &
Le Pine, 2007, as
cited in Starnes,
Truhon & McCarthy,
2010, p. 6)

Provide tools to
facilitators and
faculty members
on how
facilitators and
faculty members
can effectively
collaborate and
build trust.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 33

Table 4, continued
Assumed Organizational
Influences

Organizational
Influence
Assessment
Research-Based
Recommendation or
Solution Principle

Proposed
Solution
Cultural Setting Influence
Allot facilitators time to
revise course content and
potentially integrate
relevant Army Strategic
Content.
Interview questions
about how much
planning time they
have and whether
facilitators feel they
have enough time.

Effective change
efforts ensure that
everyone has the
resources
(equipment,
personnel, time, etc.)
needed to do their
job and that, if there
are resource
shortages, and then
resources are aligned
with organizational
priorities (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Allocate time for
senior
noncommissioned
officers to plan on
lessons learned.

Cultural Setting Influence
Facilitators need effective
locations (i.e., virtual or
physical education
settings) for their mentors
to share their experience
within their organization.
Specifically, mentors who
have internal knowledge
of strategic influence and
content.
Interview questions
about knowing
others they could
turn to ask how they
have integrated the
topics into their
courses.
Focusing the work
on the school’s
vision was correlated
with
Improvements in
student learning
outcomes (Waters,
Marzano, &
McNulty, 2003).

Provide senior
noncommissioned
officers adequate
learning locations

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders ’ Knowledge and Motivation and
Organizational Context
The purpose of a conceptual framework is to understand the research literature, the
underlying structure, and the scaffolding or frame of the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
intent of this study was to identify underlying reasons and motivations leading to maximizing
educational development in the Army for noncommissioned officers through the lens of a
qualitative ethnographic case study. This conceptual framework drew upon the concepts, terms,
definitions, models, and theories aligned with noncommissioned officers’ knowledge,
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 34

motivation, and organizational context. The theory allows seeing what we would otherwise miss
and helps us anticipate and make sense of events (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Self-efficacy and
expectancy-value are the most common theories of performance augmenting motivational and
knowledge beliefs which the Army as an organization stands for. Noncommissioned officers
practice metacognitive knowledge to transpire self-awareness in capturing their learning
material. However, without believing they can accomplish an educational task or reflect on their
own effectiveness, they hinder the ability of the U.S. Army as an organization to develop
noncommissioned officers into strategic leaders.
Research focused on intrapersonal and interpersonal issues that have an impact on the
motivation and effective leadership in the U.S. Army (Day et al., 2014). The development of
effective leaders and leadership behavior is the prominent concern in the U.S. Army. One of the
tools the U.S. Army utilizes to measure effectiveness in knowledge, motivation, and
organizational context is the Center Annual Survey of Army Leadership (CASAL). The CASAL
assesses and tracks trends in Army leaders’ attitudes, leader development, quality of leadership,
and the contribution of leadership to mission accomplishments (Hinds & Steele, 2012). The
results mainly focus on leader development, the effect of character and climate on leadership,
and professional military education in leader development. U.S. Army commanders’ traditions
on appealing to concepts of motivation, satisfaction, and morale are conducive to a leader’s
knowledge and organization development (Motowidlo et al., 1976). Research was designed to
search for, develop, evaluate, and refine ways of understanding and measuring the work
motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity of individual soldiers’ (Motowidlo et al., 1976).
For example, if noncommissioned officers cannot access their own metacognitive knowledge in
reflecting on their effectiveness in a learning or work environment, their ability to achieve
strategic goals is limited. This type of research allows leaders to discuss where gaps exist in
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 35

increasing motivation, satisfaction, and morale in the U.S. Army and how to properly measure
motivation accurately enough to have the knowledge to know when to improve within the
organization.
Furthermore, the U.S. Army Doctrine Command Training research and analysis
determined that, for officers, counseling subordinates increased confidence in understanding
noncommissioned officers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational roles (Slotnick &
Copeland, 2015). This type of research solicited feedback about the content, adequacy, and
relevance of the U.S. Army institutional training. However, there is a continuous gap where the
U.S. Army organizational culture does not adequately equip leaders to develop their strategic
abilities or provide the organization the funds or proper educational timing to increase their
development. The organization continues to seek and receive feedback from students, instructors,
commanders, and training centers to improve its courses. The conceptual framework illustrates
the concepts of knowledge, motivation, and organization influencers (Figure 1).
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 36

Figure 1. Key concepts conceptual framework “maximizing leadership development.”
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 37

The framework depicts how the U.S. Army utilizes its organizational educational
domains of self-development, learning institutional training, and operational training to build on
noncommissioned officers’ knowledge, and motivation, to achieve their organizational goal
100% development in strategic content. Leader development formulates the U.S. Army’s top
priority, which is readiness (TRADOC, 2015). To best prepare noncommissioned officers for the
challenges of an uncertain future, the U.S. Army must change and aid in evolving the
noncommissioned officer education system into a comprehensive leadership development system
that links training, education, and experiences spanning the operational, institutional, and self-
development learning domains. In summary, this framework connects how knowledge,
motivation, and organizational context influence each other to achieve the organizational goal.
Conclusion
The purpose of the study was to examine the root causes of gaps in maximizing
leadership development in the U.S. Army. Chapter Two presented general research on the
importance of leader core competencies noncommissioned officers must attain and an overview
of the literature on the Army NCOPDS resident and nonresident courses that present the key
stakeholder group’s knowledge, motivation, and influences. The conceptual framework depicted
how the U.S. Army filters its domains by utilizing noncommissioned officers to achieve the
strategic goal of leadership development. Chapter Three presents the study’s methodological
approach to maximizing leadership development for noncommissioned officers.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 38

CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
Chapter Three focuses on inquiry, data analysis, credibility and trustworthiness, validity
and reliability, ethics, limitations, and delimitations of this study. Interviews and observations
shed light on how the participating stakeholder group took part in classroom instruction on
strategic content. The inquiry methods identified for this problem of practice are interview and
observation on what senior noncommissioned officers’ knowledge and motivation related to
achieving key strategic content by May 2020.
Participating Stakeholders
The populations of focus were eight enlisted senior noncommissioned officers who
completed their leadership development courses in strategic content along with the MLC
required for senior noncommissioned officers to advance in the ranks. The criteria for their
selection were that they be noncommissioned officers, as they are the stakeholders most
knowledgeable ton maximizing leadership development for other noncommissioned officers in
the U.S. Army.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. The selection of senior noncommissioned officers serving 10 or more years
in the U.S. Army will assist with examining their knowledge, motivation, and shared experience.
Criterion 2. The selection of senior noncommissioned officers who completed the
strategic MLC in the U.S. Army will assist with strategic knowledge and motivation.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
Interviews were conducted amongst senior noncommissioned officers who completed the
MLC of strategic content. Interviewees were eight noncommissioned officers out of 46,890
enlisted in the U.S. Army. The purpose of nonrandom convenience sampling was to identify
eight participants with experience in one of the highest leader development courses. Standard
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 39

procedures were conducted through interviews, handwritten notes, audiotaping and identifying a
learning location, date, and interviewer.
Recruiting eight people in my current chain of command provided insight and shared
knowledge on participants’ development progress. If the members selected do not want to
participate, nonrandom convenience sampling is beneficial. In addition, leveraging social media
also helps in recruiting participants.
Observation Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. The selection of senior noncommissioned officers serving 10 or more years
in the U.S. Army will assist with examining their knowledge, motivation, and shared experience.
Criterion 2. The selection of senior noncommissioned officers who completed the
strategic MLC in the U.S. Army will assist with strategic knowledge and motivation.
Observation Sampling (Access) Strategy and Rationale
Observations were conducted amongst senior noncommissioned officers currently
attending the MLC of strategic content or mandatory development training. Observing
participants identifies and describes their physical setting, knowledge, and motivation
engagement. A brief proposal for review was emailed to noncommissioned officers’ professional
development organizations to request authorization for the researcher to observe. This method
provided organizational insight into their noncommissioned officer’s development progress.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
The idea behind this qualitative research is to purposefully select noncommissioned
officers at their educational development sites which will best help the researcher understand the
problem and questions (Creswell, 2014). Nonrandom convenience sampling was also beneficial
in identifying those noncommissioned officers who have completed the MLC strategic
development content in the U.S. Army. The two-collection qualitative process chosen involved
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 40

interviews and observations. Interviewing is necessary when we cannot observe behaviors,
feelings, or how people interpret the world around them. The purpose of interviewing is to allow
us to enter into the other person’s perspective (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interviews are
beneficial when the participants cannot be directly observed. They allow the researcher to control
the line of questions, but, most importantly, they help examine interviewees’ knowledge,
motivational, and organizational aspects within their organization. Interviews allowed the
researcher to ask participants open-ended questions that required them to demonstrate knowledge
of basic facts and information related to the causes of the lack of strategic content development
in the U.S. Army education system. Observation allowed the researcher firsthand experience. A
nonrandom convenience sample of eight senior noncommissioned officers was selected for
interviews, and five senior noncommissioned officers along with two facilitators were selected
for observations.
Interviews
A semi-structured interview protocol was used in this study. This type of interview
depicts questions that are more or less structured (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). During this study,
specific information related to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences was
desired from all the respondents, which meant a more structured section to the interview.
However, most of the interview was guided by a list of questions, and neither the exact wording
nor the order of the questions was determined ahead of time. The questions in the study test the
participants’ conceptual, metacognitive, and factual knowledge in strategic content. In addition,
some questions related to their attributions, goal orientation, and self-efficacy in maximizing
their strategic leadership development. Maxwell (2013) stated qualitative research is necessarily
inductive, and any substantial prior structuring of the methods leads to a lack of flexibility to
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 41

respond to emergent insights and can create methodological tunnel vision in making sense of
data. Therefore, semi-structured interviews were the best approach to data collection.
Interviews were conducted with eight noncommissioned officers every other day for two
weeks. This method allowed the researcher to take a day to focus on the interviews and translate
any necessary notes. Each interview was expected to last between 40 and 50 minutes with an
anticipated estimate of eight hours across all participants. Interviews were conducted before
observations due to the time allotted in an educational environment. Senior noncommissioned
officers conducting the training were observed along with two facilitators delivering the training.
Interviews consisted of both formal and informal questions. A conference room was selected to
lessen interruptions during the interview. Data were captured using both notes and an audio
recording device. This practice ensures everything said is preserved for analysis (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). During interviews, jargon, military language, interpretation, and translation were
defined for explanations. Lastly, field notes were taken along with observing the participants’
behavior, interaction, and feedback when receiving a block of instructions.
Observation
The focus of observations was to observe the participants’ verbal and non-verbal
communication, their physical setting, conversations, activities, and interactions. Observing their
factual, conceptual, and metacognitive behaviors in a natural setting provided evidence of facts,
conceptual information, and metacognitive knowledge during MLC educational activities where
learners are asked to summarize material orally and reflect on their own learning.
Once all interviews were completed, the researcher conducted observations during the
MLC of five noncommissioned officers and two facilitators. Each lesson delivered was 50
minutes long. The researcher expected to spend two hours on three observations. The data were
captured through notepads and a laptop. Even if the researcher had been able to take detailed
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 42

notes during an observation, it was imperative that full notes in a narrative format be written,
typed, or dictated as soon after the observation was completed (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This
allowed for capturing the information in detail while it was still fresh in the researcher’s
memory. As the researcher, I served in a participant role, which mitigates any bias or opinion. By
utilizing this method, the researcher might have had access to many people and a wide range of
information, but the group members being observed controlled the level of the information
revealed.
Documents and Artifacts
Using documentary material as data is not much different from using interviews or
observations (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). U.S. Army regulations doctrine, standard operating
procedures, and learning environment MLC guide are documents that revealed and connected
information for maximizing leadership development. Most documents can be obtained online on
the Army publications website. In addition, the course website provides the learning guide and
documents for noncommissioned officer knowledge. The U.S. Army regulations and field
manuals assisted in identifying expectations in maximizing leadership development for
noncommissioned officers along with their commander’s intent to ensure their learning
institution environment is suited for strategic thinkers.
Data Analysis
Data analysis is the process of making sense of the data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016),
which involves consolidating, reducing, and interpreting what people have said and what the
researcher saw and read. The collection of qualitative data for this study took place through
observations and interviews. The data were coded focusing on patterns and insights related to the
purpose and questions guided by the theoretical framework. Coding is assigning a shorthand
designation to various aspects of the data so that the researcher can easily retrieve specific pieces
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 43

of the data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). During fieldwork, notes on a separate memo were
completed to capture reflections, tentative themes, hunches, ideas, and aspects to pursue derived
from the first set of data. This allowed the researcher to note things to ask, observe, or look for
during the next round of data collection. This type of comparison informed the next data
collection methods. This tool allowed the researcher to organize and refine the process. The
purposeful sample consisted of senior noncommissioned offices in their learning development
field.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
In assessing the trustworthiness of qualitative research, it is important to ask what kinds
of questions or problems qualitative research is designed to address. There are several strategies
in qualitative research to increase credibility and trustworthiness. Triangulation is one strategy
that uses multiple sources of data to compare and crosscheck data collected through observations
at different times or in different places or interview data collected from people with different
perspectives or from follow-up interviews with the same people (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
researcher triangulated by using interviews, observations, and artifacts. This strategy reduces the
risk of chance associations and of systematic biases, allows a better assessment of the generality
of the explanations that one develops, and increases credibility and trustworthiness (Maxwell,
2013). Also, thick description provides a good database to allow others to make informed
decisions. In addition, rich data along with copious low-inference field notes enhance credibility.
For observation, rich data are the product of detailed, descriptive note-taking of the specific,
concrete events being observed. Accounting for researcher bias and positionality in various
aspects of the study enhances trustworthiness. In summary, part of ensuring the trustworthiness
of a study’s credibility is the researcher’s trustworthiness in carrying out the study in an ethical
manner.
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 44

Ethics
As a researcher, my responsibilities were to ensure compliance with the institutional
review board for research projects involving human subjects. Allowing participants to make their
own choices and protecting those who cannot is characterized by having respect for persons.
Ethics governs the standards of conduct for researchers. It is important to adhere to ethical
principles to protect the dignity, rights, and welfare of research participants. Under beneficence
ethics, the researcher’s responsibility is to maximize possible benefits and minimize possible
harm. Justice determines who can and should participate in research. On the contrary, injustice is
when some benefit while others are denied that benefit.
As a service member working for the federal government, the process required additional
approval from my field. Informed consent must be valid and applicable, participation must be
voluntary, and the data obtained from the interviewee must remain confidential. Most
importantly, data were stored in a secure secret location within my organization. Research
material must be properly secured or the project can become tarnished and create issues for the
interviewees. The primary method was to write a brief proposal for review by noncommissioned
officers professional development organizations explaining the purpose of the research and
volunteering procedures to avoid any ethical issues. The proposal emphasized how this research
could provide insights int r noncommissioned officers’ development progress. Social media
groups were also notified. The ethical issues with social media are unprofessional comments and
difficulty obtaining leadership approval. Any interviewer faces the challenge of making it
possible for the interviewee to bring the interviewer into his or her world (Patton, 2002). The
quality of the information obtained during an interview is largely dependent on the interviewer’s
methods of approach.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 45

Limitations and Delimitations
My relationship as a senior noncommissioned officer in the U.S. Army is to lead and
train soldiers to conduct their mission according to doctrine and provide strategic advice to my
commander. The goal is to maximize strategic leadership development amongst my peers and
subordinates who, one day, will serve as strategic advisors to their commanders. The study took
place in my work field, and my interest relies on my peers of the same rank or higher and
subordinates reaching the senior rank level. These may impede participation due to participants
feeling inferior because lack of participation may affect their performance evaluation. My role as
a researcher was to ensure this did not occur and to explain my ethics obligation regarding
confidentiality. In addition, interviewing my peers can be perceived as a conflict of interest. It is
my duty to be transparent and fully explain my role as a student conducting research.
As a senior minority female leader, some of the biases I would encounter are the male
perception of how minority women in the military should not serve or question males’ position
or seniority. During data collection, my participants may have received a different protocol brief
during my arrival on what to say or not to disclose during the interviews, which can damage the
research. Some leaders may not have participated due to the fear their career may be at stake if
they comply.
Conclusion
The purpose of the study was to examine the root causes of gaps in maximizing
leadership development in the U.S. Army. Chapter Three presented the study’s methodological
approach to maximizing leadership development for noncommissioned officers by choosing the
appropriate method of research through interviews and observations assessing noncommissioned
officer classroom instruction in strategic leadership development. Chapter Three also presented
general research on the importance of ethics, credibility, and limitations that could impede the
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 46

research. Chapter Four presents the study’s results and findings on maximizing leadership
development for noncommissioned officers.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 47

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
Chapter Four focuses on the results and findings regarding senior noncommissioned
officers’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational efforts in achieving strategic content by May
2020. The purpose of this study was to explore and understand senior noncommissioned officers’
educational leadership development in strategic content. It was an attempt to give senior
noncommissioned officers a voice and a seat at the table regarding their experiences in strategic
educational leadership development. Specifically, it examined how participants perceived their
role as strategic leaders exposed to strategic content. As such, four research questions guided this
study:
1. To what extent is the U.S. Army meeting the goal of training 100% of senior
noncommissioned officers in key strategic leadership content by May 2020?
2. What are the noncommissioned officers’ knowledge and motivation related to achieving
key strategic content by May 2020?
3. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and noncommissioned
officer knowledge and motivation?
4. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Participating Stakeholders
The chart below depicts the eight senior noncommissioned officers serving 10 or more
years in the U.S. Army who participated in this study. They were observed during their
attendance in the MLC and interviewed after they completed the course. They were assessed
based on their knowledge, motivation, and shared organizational experiences.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 48

Table 5
Participants
Pseudonyms Gender Title Race/Ethnicity Years of
Service
Age
Master Sergeant Doe Male Facilitator White/Caucasian 18 39
Master Sergeant Snuffy Male Facilitator White/Caucasian 19 38
Master Sergeant Bull Male Facilitator White/Caucasian 17 41
Master Sergeant Red Male Facilitator White/Caucasian 18 44
Master Sergeant Energy Male Student White/Caucasian 16 35
Master Sergeant Trojan Male Student White/Caucasian 18 36
Master Sergeant High Male Student White/Caucasian 18 38
Master Sergeant Win Male Student White/Caucasian 19 33

Results
In this qualitative study no survey was conducted in relation to knowledge, motivation,
and organizational elements.
We need to branch out to enhance our education Findings
Based on this qualitative research study and Clark and Estes’ (2008) framework, two
findings and two themes emerged: self-efficacy, conceptual knowledge, MLC duration, and
cultural diversity.
Finding 1: Self-Efficacy
The participants’ level of self-efficacy influenced their role as facilitators, and they
believed the educational interactions they had with their students and their instruction were
effective. The facilitators expressed various levels of confidence in their ability to help senior
noncommissioned officers academically in strategic content and in conveying learning. Bandura
(2000) explained that self-efficacy is one’s belief in the ability to do something. Based on the
level of self-efficacy communicated, facilitators enacted their roles in various ways and had
different types of academic interactions during practical exercise with senior noncommissioned
officers. Willingham (2015) asserted that facilitators’ motivational efforts are combinations of
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 49

their self-efficacy and environment, which is socially constructed. Therefore, we will see that
facilitators constructed their roles based on their beliefs in their ability to help senior
noncommissioned officers learn strategic content and on the expectations the MLC had for them
to be involved.
The facilitators in this study demonstrated two separate levels of efficacy, which was
reflected in their interactions with senior noncommissioned officers. The facilitators supported
senior noncommissioned officers’ academic learning through the experiential learning model in
ways that were within the MLC curriculum. The two levels are resourceful and confident.
A resourceful facilitator adapts well to new or difficult situations and can think
creatively. A resourceful facilitator demonstrated moderate self-efficacy in their belief in helping
senior noncommissioned officers think critically and strategically. One facilitator fell within the
resourceful level. Resourceful facilitators do not express the same level of involvement as
confident facilitators, but they do express an awareness that they were not solely positioned to
help senior noncommissioned officers in terms of experience due to the short duration of the
course. Leaders argue effectively conveying the message requires more time. The resourceful
facilitator reached out to other MLCs to get assistance on creating a different exercise that helps
increase self-efficacy. The resourceful facilitator was technology savvy and consistently tried
new gadgets to make the course user-friendly in comparison to the confident facilitator. Master
Sergeant Doe stated, “We need to branch out to enhance our education system besides military
doctrine, which most of the information is not supported by research.” In addition, Master
Sergeant Bull stated, “We should seek guidance from outside professionals where there is some
empirical research behind education to enhance our learning.” Master Sergeant Doe sought
learning techniques outside of the military structure. A resourceful facilitator was innovative,
which made him goal-oriented, and he attributed the lack of strategic development to his own
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 50

efforts or lack of experience in the field. The resourceful facilitator was self-aware of his abilities
to help his senior noncommissioned officers reach out for assistance and work as a team because,
as a facilitator, he was not positioned to do it all alone.
A confident facilitator is secure and self-confident regarding own experience and
teaching abilities when delivering lessons. Confident facilitators were confident in their ability to
support senior noncommissioned officers academically and portray the highest level of self-
efficacy. The facilitators expressed their confidence by the way they talked about the MDMP and
by the way they positioned themselves to share their own strategic experiences. Master Sergeant
Snuffy stated, “I am extremely confident when orally conveying instructions.” His statement
demonstrated a belief in his ability to guide senior noncommissioned officers in learning the
strategic MDMP process. The facilitator’s self-efficacy was linked to interactions with strategic
duty stationed assignments. Confident facilitators were familiar with strategic material, were
knowledgeable about some components of the curriculum and the students’ background. Master
Sergeant Red stated, “Those senior noncommissioned officers and facilitators that were exposed
or assigned to strategic assignments tend to do better in attending or teaching the course. It takes
weeks, maybe months to teach and effectively apply the MDMP process.”
Conceptual. The senior noncommissioned officers who underwent the MLC in this study
expressed the lack of ability to conceptualize what was being taught during a practical exercise
due to their own limited experiences and to the fact that this was their first time learning the
material. Myers and Groh (2010) explained the development of conceptual, interpersonal, and
technical competencies in a collaborative and experiential learning environment contributes to
the ability of leaders to contend with future complex strategic issues. Developing complementary
distance and resident curriculum tools advances the quality and effectiveness of a leader
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 51

education. In relation to how senior noncommissioned officer conceptualize, Master Sergeant
Energy stated,
I did not have a full picture of strategic content. I was not intelligent enough in the
strategic or planning process due to my positions. I did not have much experience in
knowledge with mission command. We as senior noncommissioned officers lack the facts
on research. The Master Leaders Course is a forcing function to gauge and improve our
strategic knowledge. Senior noncommissioned officers need to get smarter on the
planning process such as the engagement of the military decision-making process. We
need a seat at the table with our officer’s counterpart and we currently don’t have one.
We are only trained to be the executors and managers. We have to inject ourselves in the
planning and strategic process.
Master Sergeant Trojan also stated, “If we do not obtain the skills or given the opportunity to
learn how to conceptualize, officers will lose trust in our ability to effectively make strategic
decisions.” Therefore, the lack of conceptual knowledge was based on limited experience and
knowledge of strategic and planning processes. With the military’s high demands, many did not
have the opportunity to experience strategic assignments. In addition, the military is currently
applying the strategic content at the senior level rather than earlier. Based on the observations
conducted, participants struggle with their MDMP and course of action development PowerPoint
presentation because it was their first time conducting this type of presentation, and they had
never experienced delivering a briefing at the strategic level. The facilitators mitigated this issue
by pairing those who had experience with those who did not. The ability to conceptualize is not
effectively exercised or currently mastered.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 52

Finding 2: Course Duration
The participants’ course duration influenced their ability to fully understand and retain
the strategic content taught. The facilitators and students in this study expressed the need to
extend the MLC to retain the information. Davies (2006) explained that, while intensive modes
of teaching are encouraged as a way to make learning more flexible in response to changing
student demands, this does not imply that these methods promote better learning outcomes.
When asked about the 14-day curriculum of the MLC, Master Sergeant Red stated,
I think it could have been longer. I think we probably could have benefitted a lot at least
another week of training. Because 14 days seems like we rush, especially the amount of
new stuff that is being introduced to the leaders. Especially when it comes down to the
joint planning process and the mission command process, because I think that’s where we
lack strategic content on, and I think that, in essence, it should or it could require a few
more days in kind of getting more into the weeds in the process. And I think definitely
gain better momentum and better learning outcome, and that’s pretty much the norm as
far as the type of feedback we get at the end of course critiques. The learner kind of
complains about it’s too short, more time is needed, and stuff like that. And I think
eventually it will get there.
Master Sergeant High also stated, “This course intent should be to make us strategic thinking
leaders, not a course that overloads us with information.”
The duration of the MLC was linked to accommodating reserves and guard military
components who trained two weeks a year and maintained their civilian sector employment.
Because the military funding falls under a collective funding umbrella, the active duty senior
noncommissioned officers must also train in two weeks. As the military education system
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 53

continues to develop, considering longer courses with the support of research and based on what
is being taught may aid the development of senior noncommissioned officers’ strategic content.
Cultural diversity. The facilitators and students in this study expressed the need for
diversity amongst facilitators. Zeichner (1993) explained the lack of professors and students of
color in teacher education programs makes the task of educating teachers for diversity especially
difficult to achieve. All facilitators were men and predominantly White. When asked what
should be changed in the MLC, Master Sergeant Energy stated,
I would request the need for an increase in women and minority facilitators. Also, I
would recommend, in the future when implementing new curriculum, to reach out to a
more diverse group instead of retired or solely current male figures. I would also
advocate changing the culture to new students arriving to the course and elaborate that
this course is not meant to make anyone feel overwhelmed and, lastly, receive
educational diverse training. We don’t receive much training here. Our faculty trusts us
that we will always do the right thing. However, that is not enough to develop myself and
grow as a facilitator and become culturally aware in an educational environment.
Master Sergeant High stated, “I don’t always feel comfortable speaking with a male. I wish we
had a diverse group of facilitators.” In addition, Master Sergeant Win stated, “We need female
facilitators in this course.”
Therefore, the lack of diversity and training set an intimidating tone to other senior
noncommissioned officers who could not relate to one another nor effectively receive feedback
in a manner with which they could relate. Facilitators do not receive training to enhance and
make them aware of cultural diversity in an education environment, which also contributes to the
limited development of their students.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 54

Influences
Based on Clark and Estes’ (2008) framework, this study encompassed three major
influences. The first finding was participants’ motivation influences in relation to their self-
efficacy when facilitating the MLC. The conceptual theme stems from participants’ knowledge
influences and their ability to conceptualize what was taught to express the learned content in
writing or orally. Lastly, the organization’s cultural influences stem from limited diverse groups
of facilitators and setting a newly intimidating constructed course that detracted from a focus on
the test out papers and essays as opposed to maintaining an emphasis on the content delivered by
the facilitators.
Summary and Implications
In summary, the results of this qualitative evaluation study reveal the knowledge,
motivation, and organization influences and implications senior noncommissioned officers face
in their educational strategic development process. The research questions were answered in
ways that corresponded with the need to maximize senior noncommissioned officers’ leadership
development. The interviews revealed that the learners do not feel they are gaining conceptual
strategic knowledge. Although the facilitators believe their instruction is adequate, the quotes
from the learners do not support that belief. The study also examined the importance of research
on maximizing leadership development for senior noncommissioned officers along with
revamping their education system. Although the learners feel they lack strategic understanding,
they have high motivation to learn and do well in their careers. As the military continues to grow
and adapt to its complex environment, it is imperative to align and keep up to date with senior
noncommissioned officers’ educational curriculum.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 55

CHAPTER FIVE: SOLUTIONS, INTEGRATED IMPLEMENTATION, AND EVALUATION
PLANS
In Chapter Four, the first and second research questions were answered regarding senior
noncommissioned officers’ achievement in learning strategic content while maximizing their
leadership development. Clark and Estes’ (2008) framework of knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organizational influences was used to present results. Chapter Five answers the
third and fourth research questions. The chapter is organized similarly to Chapters Two and
Four with a focus on the Clark and Estes (2008) framework. Context-specific recommendations
for knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational solutions are provided, followed by an
integrated implementation and evaluation plan of solutions that incorporates the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Chapter Five ends with strengths and
weaknesses of the study, its limitations and delimitations, and recommendations for future study.
Knowledge Recommendations
The knowledge influences in Table 6 represent the complete list of assumed knowledge
influences and their probability of being validated based on the knowledge influences on
achieving the stakeholders’ goal most frequently mentioned by participants. Clark and Estes
(2008) suggested declarative knowledge about something is often necessary to have before
applying it to classify or identify, as in the case of reviewing the MLC for accuracy and
completeness. The senior noncommissioned officer population has a larger probability gap in
terms of achieving their knowledge influence goal. As such, as indicated in Table 6, it is
anticipated that these influences have a high probability of being validated and have a high
priority in terms of achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Table 6 also shows the recommendations
for these highly probable influences based on theoretical principles.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 56

Table 6
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Validated as a
Gap?
Yes, High
Probability or
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Senior
noncommissioned
officers need to
properly express
learned content
material in writing and
verbally. (Conceptual)
High Probability Yes Conceptual
knowledge
involves the
interrelationship
among the basic
elements of a larger
structure that
enables them to
function together
(Krathwohl, 2002).
Provide
noncommissioned
officers the tools on
how to properly
summarize orally and
in writing modules of
instructions will assist
noncommissioned
officers in reaching
their organizational
goal.
Senior
noncommissioned
officers need to reflect
on their own
effectiveness in the
classroom.
(Metacognitive)
High Probability Yes Metacognitive
knowledge is the
knowledge of
cognition in general
as well as
awareness and
knowledge of own
cognition (Mayer,
2002).
Provide senior
noncommissioned
officers training in
self-awareness
regarding their
learning of classroom
material.
Senior
noncommissioned
officers need the
knowledge to
effectively advise their
counterparts on
strategic missions.
(Factual)
High Probability Yes Factual knowledge
is defined as
knowledge of
terminology or
knowledge of
specific details and
elements
(Krathwohl, 2002).

Provide
noncommissioned
officers information on
the facts of their daily
duty scopes.

The results and findings of this study indicated that participants need to properly express
learned content material orally and in writing. A recommendation rooted in cognitive load theory
was selected to close this conceptual knowledge gap. Krathwohl (2002) found that conceptual
knowledge involves the interrelationship of the basic elements of a larger structure that enables
them to function together. The recommendation is to provide senior noncommissioned officers
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 57

the tools to properly summarize modules of instructions orally and in writing. This
recommendation will assist them in reaching their organizational goal.
The data showed that participants lacked conceptual knowledge about delivering learned
material verbally and in writing. Cognitive load theory informs an effective recommendation for
addressing this gap. Mayer (2011) encouraged learners to self-explain or answer deep questions
during learning and to outline, summarize, or elaborate on the material. Training tools provide
the needed guided practice and corrective feedback to help senior noncommissioned officers
achieve their goals. The recommendation is that senior noncommissioned officers receive
training on how to conversationally express their learned material in writing and verbally rather
than in a formal style.
Metacognitive Knowledge Solutions
The results and findings of this study indicated that participants need to reflect on their
own effectiveness in the classroom. A recommendation rooted in information processing system
theory was selected to close this metacognitive knowledge gap. Metacognitive knowledge is the
knowledge of cognition in general as well as awareness and knowledge of own cognition
(Mayer, 2002). This would suggest that providing learners with opportunities to debrief their
thinking process upon completion of a learning task would support their learning. The
recommendation is to provide senior noncommissioned officer training in self-awareness
regarding their learning of classroom material.
The data showed that participants lacked metacognitive knowledge specifically about
reflecting on their own effectiveness in the classroom. Information processing system theory
informs an effective recommendation for addressing this gap. Baker (2006) encouraged
facilitators to provide opportunities for learners to engage in guided self-monitoring and self-
assessment. Continued training practice promotes automaticity and takes less capacity in
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 58

working memory (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). Having a sense of self-awareness regarding
their own learning will assist them in approaching classroom material in a military environment.
The recommendation is to provide senior noncommissioned officers training on how to reflect on
their own effectiveness in the classroom.
Factual Knowledge Solutions
The results and findings of this study indicated that participants need the knowledge to
effectively advise their counterparts on strategic missions. A recommendation rooted in social
cognitive theory was selected to close this factual knowledge gap. Factual knowledge is defined
as knowledge of terminology or knowledge of specific details and elements students must know
to be acquainted with the discipline to solve problems (Krathwohl, 2002). This would suggest
that providing learners with strategies to manage their time and learning strategies, control their
social environment, and monitor performance would support their learning. The recommendation
is to provide senior noncommissioned officers information on the facts and strategies to perform
their daily duties.
The data showed that participants lacked factual knowledge about advising their
counterparts on strategic missions. Social cognitive theory informs an effective recommendation
for addressing this gap. Shute (2008) encouraged facilitators to provide timely feedback that
links to use of learning strategies with improved performance by being clear about and following
through on reinforcements and consequences (Tuckman, 2009). Senior noncommissioned
officers should be encouraging to set their own goals and determine if their goals have been met.
The recommendation is to provide them training on strategies that will help enhance their daily
duty scope.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 59

Motivation Recommendations
The motivation influences in Table 6 represent the complete list of assumed motivation
influences and their probability of being validated based on the motivation influences on the
stakeholders’ goal that were most frequently mentioned during interviews and are supported by
the literature review and the review of motivation theory. Clark and Estes (2008) suggested there
are three indicators of motivation in task performance: choice, persistence, and mental effort.
Choice is going beyond intention to start something. Persistence is continuing to pursue a goal in
the face of distractions, and mental effort is seeking and applying new knowledge to solve a
novel problem or perform a new task. As all senior noncommissioned officers have chosen to
enter the profession and complete the MLC, the assumed causes appear to suggest persistence
and mental effort may be lacking for senior noncommissioned officers in the completion of the
MLC. The senior noncommissioned officers population has a larger probability gap in terms of
achieving their motivational influence goal. As such, as indicated in Table 7, some motivational
influences have a high probability of being validated and are a high priority in achieving the
stakeholders’ goal. Table 7 also shows the recommendations for these influences based on
theoretical principles.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 60

Table 7
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Motivation
Influence
Validated as
a Gap
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Army facilitators’
lack of strategic
development for
noncommissioned
officers is due to
their own efforts of
instruction rather
than Army
noncommissioned
officers’ lack of
ability.
(Attributions)
High
Probability
Yes Attribute success or
failure to effort rather
than ability
(Anderman &
Anderman, 2009).
Provide Army
facilitators’ attribution
retraining that directs
increased effort
toward their quality of
instruction.
Army facilitators’
should want to do
more than the bare
minimum and
advocate making
instructions longer
than the minimum of
two weeks. (Goal
Orientation)
High
Probability
Yes Adjust time on task
requirements for
individuals having
trouble completing
work and allow
individuals to plan
work schedules and
timelines for progress
(Yough & Anderman,
2006).
Provide senior
noncommissioned
officers praise in
private by pointing out
their strengths and
what they are
contributing to the
organization.
Army facilitators
need confidence that
they are proficient in
effectively
conveying learning
instructions. (Self-
Efficacy)
High
Probability
Yes Make it clear that
individuals are capable
of learning what is
being taught or are
capable of performing
a task (Pajares, 2006).
Provide senior
noncommissioned
officers modeling,
guided practice, and
target immediate
feedback related to
their ability to convey
learning instructions.

Attribution Theory Increases Effort Toward Quality of Instruction
The results and findings of this study indicated that facilitators’ lack of strategic
development for noncommissioned officers is due to their own minimal experiences or efforts at
instruction rather than learners’ lack of ability. A recommendation rooted in attribution theory
was selected to close this attribution gap. Pintrich (2003) stressed the nature of learning,
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 61

including the importance of effort, strategies, and potential self-control of learning. This suggests
that providing facilitators with guidance and counseling on their efforts would support and
positively increase their own attributes. The recommendation is to provide facilitators attribution
retraining that directs increased effort toward the quality of their instruction.
Anderman (2009) stated providing feedback should include identifying the skills or
knowledge the individual lacks along with communication that skills and knowledge can be
learned, followed by the teaching of these skills and knowledge. Pintrich (2003) stated building
supportive and caring personal relationships in the community of learners enhances the learners’
efforts. Pintrich (2003) stated opportunities to exercise some choice and having control increases
individual efforts. Therefore attribution theory may increase effort to increase the quality of
instruction.
Goal Orientation Theory Strengths Quality of Learning
The results and findings of this study indicated that facilitators should want to do more
than the minimum and advocate for making instruction longer than two weeks. A
recommendation rooted in goal orientation theory was selected to close this goal theory gap.
Pintrich (2003) focused discourse on mastery, learning, and understanding, and Yough (2006)
found that adjusting time on task requirements for individuals having trouble completing work
would allow them to plan work schedules and timelines for progress. This suggests that
providing facilitators guidance and training on goal orientation will increase their goal
orientation skills. The recommendation is to privately provide senior noncommissioned officers
their strengths and what they can bring into the organization.
Pintrich (2003) stated the quality of learning is enhanced through task, reward, and
evaluation structures that promote mastery, learning, effort, progress, and self-improvement
standards while relying on social comparison or norm-referenced standards. Army research
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 62

results showed a need to develop, evaluate, and refine ways of understanding and measuring the
work motivation, and productivity of individual soldiers (Motowidlo et al., 1976). Therefore,
goal motivation is a technique to simplify how senior noncommissioned officers prioritize and
complete their learning through goal orientation. Therefore, goal orientation may strengthen the
senior noncommissioned officers’ quality of learning.
Self-Efficacy Theory Provides Solutions on Modeling, Guided Practice, and Targets
Immediate Feedback
The results and findings of this study indicated that facilitators need confidence that they
are proficient at conveying instruction in all material. A recommendation rooted in self-efficacy
theory was selected to close this self-efficacy gap. Pajares (2006) recommended making it clear
that individuals are capable of learning what is taught or are capable of performing a task. In
addition, Pintrich (2003) found that linking rewards with progress to show improvement and
learning enhances self-efficacy. This will suggest that providing Army facilitators with
recognition and clear guidance will increase their confidence. The recommendation is to provide
senior noncommissioned officers facilitators’ solutions on modeling, guided practice, and target
immediate feedback.
Denler (2009) found that self-efficacy helps learners acquire new behaviors through
demonstration and modeling. Increasing the self-efficacy of senior noncommissioned officers is
important because completing a task becomes difficult if an individual believes they do not have
multiple opportunities for goal-directed practice and frequent, accurate, credible, targeted, and
private feedback on learning and performance progress (Pajares, 2006). As confidence increases,
commitment to performance goals also increases (Clark & Estes, 2008). Increasing senior
noncommissioned officers’ self-efficacy augments the level of interaction and performance they
will emulate. Therefore, self-efficacy guides the process and targets immediate feedback.
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 63

Organization Recommendations
The organizational influences in Table 8 represent the complete list of assumed
organization influences and their probability of being validated based on the organizational
influences on achieving the stakeholders’ goal that were most frequently mentioned during
interviews and were supported by the literature and the review of organization and culture
theory. Clark and Estes (2008) suggested organization and stakeholder goals are often not
achieved due to a lack of resources, most often time and money, and stakeholder goals that are
not aligned with the organization’s mission and goals. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001)
proposed two constructs about culture: cultural models, or the observable beliefs and values
shared by individuals in groups, and cultural models, or the settings and activities in which
performance occurs. Thus, resources, processes, cultural models, and cultural settings must align
throughout the organization’s structure to achieve the mission and goals. The senior
noncommissioned officers population has a larger probability gap in terms of achieving their
organizational influence goal. As indicated in Table 8, some organizational influences have a
high probability of being validated and are a high priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal.
Table 8 also shows the recommendations for these influences based on theoretical principles.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 64

Table 8
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence

Validated as
a Gap
Yes, High
Probability,
No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
Building Mutual agreement
and acceptance amongst
facilitators to change
existing courses. (Cultural
Model Influence)
High
Probability
Yes Adults are more
motivated to participate
(and learn) when they
see the relevance of
information, a request,
or task (the “why”) to
their own
circumstances. They
are goal-oriented
(Knowles, 1980).
Provide
assessment tools
for facilitators to
review course
content for each
class cycle in
order to
collectively
implement
improvements.
Building Cultural trust in
the academy between
faculty and facilitators in
order to achieve the
institutional goal of
developing strategic
noncommissioned officers
(Cultural Model Influence)
High
Probability
Yes Organizations with
high levels of cultural
trust tend to produce
high-quality products
and services at less cost
(Colquitt, Scott & Le
Pine, 2007, as cited in
Starnes, Truhon &
McCarthy, 2010, p. 6)
Provide tools to
facilitators and
faculty members
on how instructors
and faculty
members can
effectively
collaborate and
build trust.
Allot facilitators’ time to
revise course content and
potentially integrate
relevant Army Strategic
Content. (Cultural Setting
Influence)
High
Probability
Yes Effective change efforts
ensure that everyone
has the resources
(equipment, personnel,
time, etc.) needed to do
their job and that, if
there are resource
shortages, then
resources are aligned
with organizational
priorities (Clark &
Estes, 2008).
Allocate time for
noncommissioned
officers to plan on
lessons learned.
Facilitators need effective
locations i.e. virtual or
physical education setting
for their mentors to share
their experience within their
organization. Specifically,
mentors who have internal
knowledge of strategic
influence and content.
(Culture Influence Setting)
High
Probability
Yes Focusing the work on
the school’s vision was
correlated with
improvements in
student learning
outcomes (Waters,
Marzano, & McNulty,
2003).
Provide senior
noncommissioned
officers adequate
learning locations.
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 65

Cultural Models
Increasing instructors ’ collaboration process for course content change. The results
and findings of this study indicate that facilitators do not agree on or accept changes to existing
courses. A principle rooted in organizational change theory was selected to close this resource
gap. Adults are more motivated to participate and learn when they see the relevance of
information, a request, or task (the “why”) to their own circumstances, which means they are
goal-oriented (Knowles, 1980). This suggests that explaining the importance of acceptance and
course change will increase mutual agreement. The recommendation is to provide assessment
tools for instructors to review course content for each class cycle to collectively implement
improvement. As an example, after-action review assessments may serve as platforms for
collaborative input among instructors.
Organizational culture is created through shared experience, shared learning, and stability
of membership. Culture is learned and cannot be imposed (Schein, 2004). Employees’ attitudes,
particularly feelings that they matter and that their work makes a difference are correlated with
numerous organizational outputs (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999; Harter, Schmidt, Killham, &
Asplund, 2006; Schlossberg, 1989). Creating positive relationships with staff is correlated with
gains in student learning outcomes in schools (Waters, Marzano, & McNulty, 2003). Therefore,
the recommendation is to increase collaboration for change.
Increasing faculty and facilitators ’ cultural trust. The results and findings of this
study indicated that faculty and facilitators lack cultural trust in the academy to achieve the
institutional goal of developing strategic noncommissioned officers. A principle rooted in
organizational change theory was selected to close this resource gap. Organizations with high
levels of cultural trust tend to produce high-quality products and services at a lower cost
(Colquitt, Scott & Le Pine, 2007, as cited in Starnes, Truhon, & McCarthy, 2010, p. 6). This
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 66

suggests that incorporating a culture of trust will increase institutional goals. The
recommendation is to provide tools to instructors and faculty members on how they can
effectively collaborate and build trust. As an example, reinforcing institutional values may serve
to increase collaborative input among faculty and instructors.
Organizations with high levels of cultural trust tend to produce high-quality products and
services at a lower cost because they can recruit and retain highly motivated employees (Colquitt
et al., 2007, as cited in Starnes et al., 2010, p. 6). These employees are more likely to enjoy their
work; take the time to do their jobs correctly; make their own decisions; take risks; innovate;
embrace the organization’s vision, mission, and values; and display organizational citizenship
behavior (Colquitt, 2010). Participants engaging in reflective work need to have complete and
accurate information about the topic of discussion, be free from bias, and meet in an environment
of acceptance, empathy, and trust (Mezirow, 1997, 2000). The recommendation is to increase
faculty and instructors’ cultural trust.
Cultural Influences
Increase facilitators ’ course time. The results and findings of this study indicated that
facilitators do not have the time to revise course content and potentially integrate relevant Army
strategic material. A principle rooted in organizational change theory was selected to close this
resource gap. Effective change efforts ensure everyone has the resources, equipment, personnel,
and time needed to do their job, and that, if there are resource shortages, then resources are
aligned with organizational priorities (Clark & Estes, 2008). This suggests incorporating a
designated time slotted for instructors would increase the revision of Army strategic material.
The recommendation is to allocate time for senior noncommissioned officers to plan on lessons
learned. As an example, a block off period or non-teaching days may benefit instructors.
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 67

Ensuring staff members’ resource needs are met is correlated with increased student
learning outcomes (Waters et al., 2003). Staying current with research and practice is correlated
with increased student learning outcomes (Waters et al., 2003). External accountability systems
can be used to develop new mechanics of internal accountability and organizational capacity
(Norton, Grubb, & Badway, 2005). Therefore, meeting allocated resources may assist, support,
and increase facilitators’ course time.
Increasing physical education setting. The results and findings of this study indicated
that facilitators need effective virtual or physical locations for their mentors to share their
experience within their organization. Specifically, their mentors have internal knowledge of
strategic influence and content. A principle rooted in organizational change theory was selected
to close this resource gap: focusing the work on the school’s vision correlated with
improvements in student learning outcomes (Waters et al., 2003). This suggests incorporating the
school’s vision will improve physical education settings. The recommendation is to provide
senior noncommissioned officers adequate learning locations. As an example, new professional
establishments for instructors and senior noncommissioned officers would be appropriate
settings.
The U.S. Army utilizes three different settings or domains for education. The operational
settings provide real-world experience in problem-solving. The institutional setting focuses on
education and transitions through the noncommissioned officer education system and functional
area training to develop leadership and mission-critical skills among noncommissioned officers.
Lastly, the self-development setting, which is recommended by leaders, but optional, allows
career enhancement opportunities through the U.S. Army or civilian sectors. Although these
educational settings are productive, research states some of the cultural assumptions in an
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 68

organization can come from the occupational background of members of the organization
(Schein, 1984).
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Framework and Plan
The model that informs this implementation and evaluation plan is the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) based on the original Kirkpatrick Four
Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). This model suggests that
evaluation plans start with the goals of the organization and work backward and that, by doing
so, the leading indicators that bridge recommended solutions to the organization’s goals are both
easier to identify and more closely aligned with organizational goals. Further, this reverse order
of the New World Kirkpatrick Model allows for a sequence of three other actions: (a) the
development of solution outcomes that focus on assessing work behaviors, (b) the identification
of indicators that learning occurred during implementation, and (c) the emergence of indicators
that organizational members are satisfied with implementation strategies. Designing the
implementation and evaluation plan in this manner forces connections between the immediate
solutions and the larger goal and solicits proximal buy-in to ensure success (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
The purpose of maximizing leadership development in the U.S. Army is to improve the
MLC content by ensuring senior noncommissioned officers have an adequate learning
experience that is longer than two weeks. This project examined the knowledge and skills,
motivational, and organizational barriers that prevent senior noncommissioned officers from
conveying what they have learned and applying it to their profession. The proposed solution, a
comprehensive training program, related on-the-job supports, and a shift in the incentive system
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 69

for senior noncommissioned officers, should produce the desired outcome: an increase in the
number of senior noncommissioned officers who can apply strategic content in the workplace.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 9 shows the proposed Level 4 results and leading indicators in the form of
outcomes, metrics, and methods for both external and internal outcomes for senior
noncommissioned officers. If the internal outcomes are met as expected as a result of the training
and organizational support for new strategic material content performance on the job, then the
external outcomes should also be realized.
Table 9
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Master Leader Course
schedule extended for
noncommissioned officers.
Thirty senior noncommissioned
officers available to attend.
Establish an order of merit list
for those required to attend; time
to completion.
2. Improved relationship
with faculty and facilitators.’
Frequency of interactions between
faculty and facilitators during
meetings.
Solicit After-Action Reviews and
End of Course Critique after
every course cycle.
Internal Outcomes
3. Increased time to
effectively review lesson
plans in strategic content.
The number of days required
reviewing strategic content material
from receipt of the faculty review
to facilitator.
Aggregate data from senior
noncommissioned officers After-
Action Reviews, self-report,
interviews, or observations.
4. Increased facilitators’
confidence/ self-efficacy.
Positive or Negative Feedback
from facilitators.
Set aside regular times for
conversation between facilitators
and faculty.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are senior noncommissioned officers. The
first critical behavior is that facilitators must conduct weekly huddles on project status and
improvements within the strategic MLC and among the senior noncommissioned officers. The
second critical behavior is that they must review learners’ strategic handwritten material for
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 70

accuracy. Bias can be eliminated by identifying each learner by their identification number and
not by their birth name. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome
behaviors appear in Table 10.
Table 10
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Conduct weekly
facilitator huddles that
include all after-action
reviews after each
course to project status
and improvements.
The number of after-
action reviews
submissions by each
senior
noncommissioned
officer.
Lead facilitator tracks
after-action reviews to
ensure each senior
noncommissioned officer
completed one along with
relevant questions.
During every
class course.
2. Review senior
noncommissioned
officer strategic
handwritten material for
completeness; correctly
identify gaps.
Provide rubric for
corrections made by the
facilitator.
Lead facilitator shall
monitor grading-tracking
system, looking for
consistency or major flaws
not applicable to content.
During every
class course.

Required drivers. Senior noncommissioned officers require the support of their direct
supervisors and organization to reinforce what they learn in the training and to encourage them
to apply what they learned to a review of strategic content accurately and on time. Rewards
should be established for the achievement of performance goals to enhance the organizational
support of new reviewers. Table 11 shows the recommended drivers to support new reviewers’
critical behaviors.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 71

Table 11
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Job Aid on how to properly
summarize orally and in writing
modules of instructions.
Weekly 1,2
Job Aid for senior
noncommissioned officer
training in self-awareness
regarding his or her own learning
of classroom material.
Ongoing 1, 2
Encouraging
Feedback and coaching from
facilitators to senior
noncommissioned officers.
Praise by pointing out their
strengths and what they are
contributing to the organization.
Weekly 1,2
Collaboration and peer modeling
for senior noncommissioned
officers during group break-out
and meetings in relation to
learning instructions.

Ongoing 1,2
Rewarding
Performance incentives such as
awards when senior
noncommissioned officer
exceeds course content.
Quarterly 1, 2
Public acknowledgement when
weekly course content is met
beforehand.
Weekly 1, 2
Monitoring
Conduct whole course
assessment to communicate
goals, facilitators, and senior
noncommissioned officers
accomplishment
Quarterly 1, 2
Assess both facilitator and senior
noncommissioned officers’
training and oversight.
Quarterly 1,2

Organizational support. The critical behaviors and required drivers monitored for
performance improvement are premised upon implementation of recommendations at the
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 72

organizational level. In this case, for the stakeholders to achieve their goals, the organization
would need to provide assessment tools for facilitators to review course content for each class
cycle to collectively implement improvements. Also, the organization would need to provide
tools to instructors and faculty members on how they can effectively collaborate and build trust.
In addition, it would have to allocate time for senior noncommissioned officers to plan on
lessons learned. Lastly, senior noncommissioned officers require adequate learning locations.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following completion of the recommended solutions, most notably, the
MLC, the stakeholders will be able to
1. Summarize and express strategic content orally (Conceptual)
2. Summarize and express strategic content verbally (Conceptual)
3. Be confident that senior noncommissioned officers can apply strategic content in the
workplace (Self-efficacy)
4. Apply the steps to reflect on their own learning (Procedural)
5. Attribute facilitator success and failures to effectively assist noncommissioned officers in
class (Attribution)
Program. The learning goals listed in the previous section will be achieved with a
revamped MLC program that explores the strategic content applicable to each senior
noncommissioned officer. The learners will study a broad range of strategic military topics
pertaining to mission command along with the MDMP. The total time for the program in
strategic content is 30 days. During Blackboard modules, learners will be provided a job aid of
key terms and reference to mission command as well as charts of the process. The job aid will
demonstrate video scenarios and key terms will be defined with examples. This will give the
senior noncommissioned officers the opportunity to exercise strategic content verbally and in
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 73

writing. Following the demonstrations, they will receive feedback from their peers and
facilitators. The training topics will empower noncommissioned officers to engage strategically
on how to apply their learning in their current positions. For instance, one goal aid will be
designed to help set goals for each module regarding how they can apply their learning to their
field.
Evaluation of the components of learning. Demonstrating declarative knowledge is
often necessary as a precursor to applying the knowledge to solve problems. Thus, it is important
to evaluate learning for both declarative and procedural knowledge. It is also important that
learners value the training as a prerequisite to using their newly learned knowledge and skills on
the job. However, they must also be confident that they can succeed in applying their knowledge
and skills and be committed to using them on the job. As such, Table 11 lists the evaluation
methods and timing for these components of learning. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016)
defined Level 2 Learning component as knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence, and
commitment. Evaluating senior noncommissioned officer knowledge will entail measuring their
understanding of the training content. Senior noncommissioned officers’ skills refer to
demonstrating their knowledge in practice. Their attitude determines if they see value in applying
the content on the job. Evaluating their confidence will address uncertainty or barriers in their
learning. Table 12 lists the methods and components of learning and timing for each component.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 74

Table 12
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it. ”
Knowledge check during senior
noncommissioned officer group activities.
Periodically after each module and break
out groups.
Knowledge checks on before/after material. Pop quiz before and after each class.
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now. ”
Feedback from peers and facilitators during
group sharing.
At the end of class.
Senior noncommissioned officer application of
strategic content.
At the end of class.
After-Action Reviews- Asking for their level
of proficiency before and after the course.
At the end of class.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile. ”
Facilitators’ observation of senior
noncommissioned officers’ statements and
actions demonstrating that they see the
importance and benefits of the course.
During Class.
Open discussions on the value of their learning
content.
During Class.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job. ”
Discussion following practice module and
feedback.
During Class.
Post-Test assessment brief. After the course.
Commitment “I will do it on the job. ”
Counseling discussion sections. During Class.
Post-Test Assessment brief. After Class.

Level 1: Reaction
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) defined Level 1 as the customer satisfaction level.
Level 1 evaluation is both summative and formative. It is relevant through training because it
checks for comfort with aspects of the learning environment such as facilitator interaction, and
content. Table 13 depicts details methods and timing of measuring Level 1 reactions

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 75

Table 13
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Completion of all course material modules. Ongoing during the course.
Observation by the facilitator. Ongoing during the course.
Senior noncommissioned officers’ attendance. Ongoing during the course.
Master Leaders Course Evaluation. Summative assessment conducted at the end
of the course.
Relevance
Temperature check during discussions. Formative assessment after every module.
Master Leaders Course Evaluation. Summative assessment conducted at the end
of the course.
Customer Satisfaction
Temperature check during discussions. Formative assessment after every module.
Master Leaders Course Evaluation. Formative assessment at the end of course.

Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. During the Blackboard portion
of the course, the learning tools will collect data about the start, duration, and completion of
modules by the learners. These data, along with physical presence during class, will indicate
engagement with the course material. The facilitator will administer an after-action review
requesting the senior noncommissioned officers indicate the relevance of the material to their
current job performance and their overall satisfaction with the Blackboard content and physical
deliverance during the course. For Level 1, during the classroom portion, the facilitators will
conduct temperature checks by asking senior noncommissioned officers the relevance of the
content to their work and the organization, delivery, and learning environment. Level 2 will
include checks for understanding by using real scenarios in mission command among peers in
response to questions drawn from the content.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. After eight weeks of training
implementation, on the last day, facilitators will administer an after-action review containing
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 76

open-ended questions about the senior noncommissioned officer’s perspective, satisfaction and
relevance of the training to their work (Level 1); confidence and value of applying their training
(Level 2); application of the training to faculty review processes and peers (Level 3); and the
extent to which their performance in strategic content has become more applicable in their
current position.
Data Analysis and Reporting
The talent senior noncommissioned officers demonstrate after completion of the course
will be a measure of the Level 4 goal of the MLC. Each week, the facilitator will track the
number of senior noncommissioned officers fully engaged in the course. Blackboard will report
data on the measures as a monitoring and accountability tool. Similar Blackboard sites will be
created to monitor Levels 1,2 and 3. See Figure 2 below for Blackboard representation.
Level 1 Reaction Engagement to Master Leaders Course material
Level 2 Learning Summarize strategic content Job aid
Level 3 Behavior Teach, Coach, Mentor
Level 4 Results By May 2020, 100% of strategic senior noncommissioned officers

Figure 2. Blackboard representation.
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 77

Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) was used as the framework for developing
this study’s recommended solutions, implementation strategies, and evaluation plan to maximize
leadership development for senior noncommissioned officers in the U.S. Army. The model
presents the four levels in reverse, starting with Level 4, which is how the levels are considered
when planning a program (Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, 2016). This model integrates all methods
and metrics for the desired results. The New World Kirkpatrick Model retains appeal, flexibility,
and ease of implementation for all types of programs.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
There are strengths and weaknesses with methodological approaches. One of the
strengths of Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework was the ability to identify
organizational influences that confirm senior noncommissioned officers’ knowledge, skills, and
motivation in maximizing their strategic leadership development. Both integration of the gap
analysis model (Clark & Estes, 2008) and Kirkpatrick’s (1998) levels of evaluation aligned and
aided in the results and findings to create an evaluation plan. The application of the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) placed a focus on interventions for
reaction, learning, behavior, and results with support from existing research. This type of
intervention resulted in a plan for senior noncommissioned officers to implement solutions to
enhance their educational development system.
Weaknesses of this study approach include that, as a government organizational study,
findings and solutions may lack external factors, especially considering the fact that most
educational organizations in the military are government structures with far more restrictions and
policies as compared to civilian educational entities. Additionally, given the fast-paced
educational environment for senior noncommissioned officers and their continued growth, it is
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 78

uncertain whether the suite of proposed solutions and evaluations methods will be implemented,
Not implementing all proposed solutions may minimize the potential positive impact of those
which are implemented.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations are the study’s characteristics of design or methodology that affected or
influenced the interpretation of the findings and results (Price & Murnan, 2004). In this study,
one limitation was the small population size of eight senior noncommissioned officers. Also,
there were no prior studies to draw upon for measuring the MLC’s influences on senior
noncommissioned officers. The interview and observation methods were original and lacked
proven validity or reliability. Interviewees’ responses exhibited varied levels of articulation and
perceptivity to topics raised, leaving the researcher to ask probing questions, reword terms, and
ask clarifying questions to determine meaning. In addition, the researcher was a member of a
military organization. In efforts to reduce bias, it is possible that the knowledge of senior
noncommissioned officers while attending the MLC subjectively influenced researcher
interactions and data interpretation. The Army special operations MLC was not observed for this
study. In addition, there was only one MLC chosen for this study as opposed to several located in
different states. Lastly, for participants, the presence of the researcher may have been perceived
as invasive, thus potentially impacting their reactivity and limiting results. Delimitations deal
with population, sample, setting, and instrumentation. In this study, the online version
curriculum of the MLC was not examined and only eight senior noncommissioned officers were
interviewed.
Future Research
As the senior noncommissioned officer paradigm shift continues in the educational
development system, the military would benefit from studies on strategic leadership
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 79

development. Instead of relying on longstanding military doctrine that is not supported by
research, implementing practices deemed effective by future studies may aid in the continuous
development of senior noncommissioned officers. Additionally, senior noncommissioned
officers’ dialog with other strategic entities outside of the military nationwide will lead to shared
ideas, understanding, and collaboration with other government MLCs. Senior noncommissioned
officers would benefit from in-depth study of their talent management, such as an examination of
the selection of the MLC facilitators as well as learners’ emotional intelligence, strategic content,
and public speaking. This would also capture the development level for noncommissioned
officers at the start of their learning strategic content. Lastly, a diverse group of leaders with a
military or civilian background as participants in future research would have a broader impact on
senior noncommissioned officers’ future development and new educational curricula.
Conclusion
This study sought to understand the extent to which senior noncommissioned officer
leadership development is maximized in relation to learned strategic content at the MLC by
assessing knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. The general conceptual and
methodological framework for this study was Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model.
Interview and observation results clarified gaps, including limited knowledge of strategic
content, the MDMP, past or present strategic position, and a stressful rushed learning
environment. The implications of these findings indicate that, to produce strategic senior
noncommissioned officers and enhance their leadership development, their knowledge
experience, motivation, and organizational resources require enhancement. By implementing the
recommended solutions, senior noncommissioned officers may begin to address their strategic
leadership development to increase retention in the military, ensure mission success, and, overall,
strengthen their character as leaders.
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 80

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MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 87

APPENDIX A
Interview Protocol
The principal researcher posed the following questions to eight senior noncommissioned
officers. The principle researcher asked predetermined standardized questions but allowed for a
semi-structure approach for spontaneous follow-up probes for the purposes of clarification, detail
enhancement, and to remain conversational. Parenthetical notations demonstrate the tie to the
conceptual framework and research questions. These notations were for the researcher and
provide the reader awareness only. They were not stated in the interview. Each interview
proceeded as follows:
Introduction
Good Morning or Good Afternoon Sergeant First Class Snuffy. First, I would like to
thank you for participating in this profound study. Your experiences and contributions are vital
to this evaluation study in maximizing leadership development for senior noncommissioned
officers serving in the military. This study seeks to identify; (1) senior noncommissioned
officers’ levels of strategic content, and (2) the organization effectiveness in preparing senior
noncommissioned officers to become strategic leaders while at the same time maximizing their
professional educational development. Different types of questions will yield different
information however, ethically, you are not obligated to answer any questions for which you are
not comfortable with. The questions are confidential, and what you disclose here today are for
research purposes only. Your name and identity will remain anonymous and protected.
Pseudonyms will be used to protect participants and the organization. You are encouraged to be
sincere as these questions directly impact the betterment of our senior noncommissioned
educational professional development system. I will ask a total of twenty-one questions, based
on the Clark & Estates research framework of your knowledge, motivation, and organization
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 88

influences. I might ask some probing questions. Probes are questions or comments that follow up
on something already ask in order to clarify the previous statement. This interview will take
approximately thirty to forty minutes. I will use the means of note taking, however with your
permission would you allow me to voice record? Again, your consent is very important. Please
take a moment to read and review the informed consent form of confidentially, and please sign
below for agreement. Are there any questions before we get started?
I will first start with knowledge-based questions surfacing the Master Leaders Course (MLC)
1) (K) Describe your experience during the Master Leaders Course in applying or engaging in
strategic leadership planning? (Patton ’s: Experience Question)
2) (K) How would describe your strategic duties in your current or previous duty position? How
would you describe any pitfalls regarding the military decision-making process? (Patton ’s:
Sensory Question)
3) (K) How would describe strategic content in the U.S. Army? (Patton ’s: Knowledge
Question)
4) (K) What was your experience with the U.S. Army Master Leaders Course (MLC) facilitators
when they taught the strategic content? What did you learned? What are your thoughts about the
course content or quality? (Patton ’s: Experience Question)
5) How would you summarize orally and in writing one module of instructions?
6) May you share and reflect on your own learning based on the previous students’ comments
from the last courses?
I will now transition with motivational questions pertaining to the Master Leaders Course
7) (M) What are your thoughts on the 14-day duration of the Master Leader Course (MLC)?

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 89

(Patton ’s: Opinion and values Question)
8) (M) In your opinion, what inhibits the development for the lack of strategic content
development in the Army education system? (Patton ’s: Opinion and values Question)
9) (M) How would you describe the facilitators affect or instructions motivation when teaching
the Master Leaders Course (MLC)? (Patton ’s: Sensory Question)
10) (M) From a scale of one through ten, what would you rate the Master Leaders Course
effectiveness and why? What excites you about the Master Leaders Course? (Patton ’s: Opinion
& Feeling Question)
11) ) (M) What are some of the training goals? Do you feel you meet those goals?
12) (M) How confidant do you feel about your ability to differentiate instructions from
facilitators and own experience?
13) (M) How would you continue to learn about different ways to differentiate instructions and
advocate for longer instructions?
Lastly, I will now end with some organizational questions
14) (O) Suppose it were my first day in this training program. What would the Master Leaders
Course (MLC) be like? (Sabshin ’s: Hypothetical Question)
15) (O) What would you like the U.S. Army to start implementing in strategic leadership training
for leaders to divest in? (Sabshin ’s: Ideal Question)
16) (O) What steps has the U.S. Army conducted to prepare you for strategic leadership content?
(Patton ’s: Knowledge Question)
17) (O) What would you change in the Master Leaders Course (MLC)? Why? (Patton ’s:
Opinion and values Question)
18) (O) What support is needed to develop more content into the Master Leaders Course?
19) (O) How do instructors interact with faculty?
MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 90

20) (O) How much time do you have planning for the next lesson? Is it enough? Why or why
not?
21) (O) What is the policy on asking the facilitators or other students for assistance? Was it
helpful?
Interview Conclusion
Is there anything else you will like to share? If not, thank you for your participation, time and all
you shared today. I really appreciate it. Again, you responses will be kept confidential, and your
identity will be protected. Have a great day.

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 91

APPENDIX B
OBSERVATION PROTOCOL
Below is the template for observations of senior noncommissioned officers and
facilitators during class instructions. The researcher will also collect any printed agendas and
other handouts during class instructions.
Sampling
Strategy
The number in
Stakeholder
population
Number of
Proposed
participants from
stakeholder
population
Start and
End Date
for Data
Collection
Interviews: Purposeful
(Nonrandom
Convenience
Sampling)
46,890
Senior
noncommissioned
officers
8
Senior
noncommissioned
officers
15AUG-
31AUG2019
Observations: Purposeful
(Nonrandom
Convenience
Sampling)
46,890
Senior
noncommissioned
officers
5
Senior
noncommissioned
officers 2
Facilitators
15AUG-
31AUG2019
Documents: N/A N/A
Surveys: N/A N/A

Description:
Interpretation:
Time:
Instruments:
Personnel:
Observer Comments:
Summary:
Reflection of Observation:

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 92

Observation Protocol: Field Notes
Date___________ Observation#___________________ Information Handouts__________
Location________________ Time Start________________ Time End_______________
# Facilitators Present_____________ # Senior Noncommissioned Officers Present__________
Others Present____________________

Description of Setting/Context Strategic KMO-Related Inferences

Diagram of Activity: What are senior noncommissioned officers/facilitators knowledge, skills,
motivation, and organizational influences related to achieving the organizational goal?

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 93

Time Stamp Observation of Activity KMO-Related Inferences

Related Documents Collected Strategic KMO-Related Inferences

MAXIMIZING LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT 94

Post-Observation Reflections/Impressions Related to KMO Influences
Emerging Questions/Initial Analysis
Future Action/Focus for Future Observations

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Kavitz, Yadriana Maria (author)

Core Title Maximizing leadership development in the U.S. Army: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 11/12/2019

Defense Date 10/09/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education leadership development system,facilitators,leadership,Master Leaders Course,OAI-PMH Harvest,senior noncommissioned officers

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Pearson, Mark (committee chair), Robles, Darline (committee chair), Tobey, Patricia (committee chair)

Creator Email pujols@usc.edu,yadri1120@yahoo.com

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