University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Female teacher’s implementation of NGSS through Science2Minds

(USC Thesis Other)

Female teacher’s implementation of NGSS through Science2Minds

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running Head: FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 1

Female Teacher’s Implementation of NGSS through Science2Minds

By
Mary Alice Sandoval-Bernal

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2019

Copyright 2019 Mary Alice Sandoval-Bernal
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 2
Dedication
I dedicate my Ed.D. to my father, Antonio Urbieta Sandoval, who left his hacienda, his
homeland to find a better life for his family, who toiled in the agricultural fields and worked on
fixing tractors and cars, the beginning of seeing the importance of STEM, who began an
inspiration of science in my life at the moment we both created a xylophone out of copper for an
innovative competition. My dear mother, Maria Luz Reynoso Sandoval, who took the time to
teach me how to read and write in Spanish so that I could excel as an ELL student, who sat with
me to memorize my multiplication tables and who so lovingly supported me through all my
years of schooling and higher education, who always instilled in me the desire to excel in school,
in higher education and who always expressed a genuine smile of my academic progress. My
dear sister, Maria Sandoval, who sat with me to make sure I learned to read in English and
served as a role model to love education. My brother Rigoberto, who instilled in me a love for
math and physical science, and who always took time with me to discuss and solve problems in
Calculus. My brother Juan, the bravest brother, champion, and educator of children whose
parents toil in the fields.
This work is dedicated to my sons, Chrisantonio, Adrian, and Andrez who have
supported this journey. You have been my inspiration, made me a stronger more fulfilled
person. I love you. To my wonderful grandchildren, Elena, Rafael, and Bernadette, may you
always be inspired by questions and the curiosity to learn. I love you to the moon and back!
To all my past, present, and future students and parents, ‘Si se puede!’ [Yes, we can!]

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 3
Acknowledgments
As a wife, mother, grandmother, and teacher, I would like to thank my Lord, Jesus
Christ, and my Virgin Mary for being with me every step of this journey and for the guidance,
strength and determination to attain my Ed.D.
To Dr. Artineh Samkian, for her expertise and amazing assistance through my Ed.D.
journey. For pushing me to think critically and instilling in me a love for research. I appreciate
her enduring time, knowledge, and support to aid me in becoming the first Latina in my family to
receive the Doctorate in Education. Thank you Dr. Samkian, you have been a great role model
both as a professor and committee chair and I will never forget your amazing patience and
feedback along the way. Your love for qualitative research has made an impact on both my
writing and collegiate career!
I’m grateful for my committee members who chose to work with me. Dr. Frederick
Freking, for his excitement and expertise in science education, and his inspiration to carry forth
the message, that “nobody should be afraid of science. It’s a process we all need to go through
to understand the world we live in.” Dr. Eric Canny, thank you for your enduring guidance,
encouragement, assistance, and for your kind words that my dissertation read like a story!
With deep admiration and appreciation, I thank my husband, Chris Bernal who supported
me, who assisted me, and listened to my thoughts and ideas as I wrote this dissertation. Thank
you for reading my dissertation, giving me feedback and the empowerment to complete it.
Without your unconditional love and support, this huge accomplishment in my life would not
have been possible.
To Elizabeth Kohn Bernal, my beautiful and talented daughter-in-law, for her prayers,
assistance and expertise in graphics. Beautiful Iesha, may you continue to excel in your studies!
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 4
To Dr. Garcia, for his unconditional support in my education, inspiration, and
encouragement in pursuing my doctoral degree.
I’m truly grateful to my sisters, Estela, Gloria, Manuela and my brother Tony, for their
belief in me, for the example of working hard, and for forgiving me when I forgot their
birthdays! Rodrigo, my youngest brother, thank you for spending time with me and offering
your garden to provide inspiration. Dr. Ramon Torres, my brother-in-law, thank you for being a
role model.
My history day students Camila, Daniela, Sofia, Blanca, Jasmine, Karina, Angelica,
Pedro, Alexa, Maria, Anthony, Daniel, Jose, Judith, thank you for your kind words and notes of
encouragement, and I hope that research be a passion for you always. To their parents, Angela,
Sofia, Emilia, Maria, Virginia, Jose, Celsa, Adelina, Ramon, Dulce, Rocio, and Fernando thank
you for your enthusiasm and ‘apoyo’ [support].
To my Vice-Principal and all my dedicated school leaders who go the extra mile for their
students, thank you for support and for inspiring me. To the study participants thank you for
your time and assistance. Without your support this study wouldn’t have been possible. I hope
that your contributions to this study make a difference in science education.
To my youngest son, Andrez, thank you for your time, patience, enduring love, and for
getting me energy drinks when I needed them. The pride in your voice when you would say,
“My mom is working on her dissertation!” meant so much to me! Chrisantonio and Adrian, my
wonderful sons, who have supported me since the beginning of my Ed.D. journey, thank you for
your genuine interest in my dissertation, for your love of science and engineering, your words of
encouragement, and your unrelenting faith in me. I could not have accomplished this without
your love and prayers.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 5
Table of Contents
List of Tables 10
List of Figures 11
Abstract 12
Chapter One: Introduction 13
Introduction of the Problem of Practice 13
Organizational Context and Mission 16
Organizational Goal 18
Related Literature 19
Importance of the Evaluation 22
Description of Stakeholder Groups and Stakeholders’ Performance Goals 23
Stakeholder Group for the Study 25
Purpose of the Project and Questions 26
Methodological Framework 27
Terminology 28
Organization of the Project 28
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 30
Influences on Effective Science Education Implementation 30
Next Generation Science Standards 30
Teacher Science Education Self-Efficacy 32
Science Teaching Outcome Expectancy 34
Gender Influence and Teacher Science Self-Efficacy 35
Teacher Self-Efficacy and Culturally Relevant Teaching 37
Science Identity for Female Science Learners, Particularly Latinas 39
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 6
Attitudes and Beliefs 41
Conclusion 42
Implementation of Science Education 43
Science Inquiry 43
Science Literacy and Thematic Instruction 46
Science Education and Reading Literacy 47
Culturally Relevant Strategies for Latina Learners of Science 49
Pedagogical Content Knowledge 50
Conclusion 53
The Clark and Estes (2008) Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
Framework 54
Knowledge Influences 56
Motivation Influences 70
Organizational Influences 79
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholder’s Knowledge and Motivation
and the Organizational Context 85
Conclusion 90
Chapter Three: Methods 92
Methodological Framework 93
Participating Stakeholders 94
Observation Sampling Criteria and Rationale 94
Observation Sampling Strategy and Rationale 95
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 7
Interview Sampling Criterion and Rationale: Fifth-grade Teachers who
Implemented Science2Minds at AES 96
Interview Group Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 96
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation 96
Observation 97
Interviews 101
Data Analysis 104
Credibility and Trustworthiness 106
Ethics 109
Limitations and Delimitations 112
Chapter Four: Findings 115
Findings for Research Question One 119
Finding One—Science2Minds, a free lending program supported by
Adelante, provided readily accessible resources which gave
teachers the motivation to engage in SE 120
Finding Two—Adelante’s support of Science2Minds has enhanced teacher
confidence in science inquiry and increased science knowledge
of the NGSS practices, disciplinary core ideas, and science literacy 124
Finding Three—Relationships and caring attitudes contributed to teachers
valuing effective SE and building student self-confidence in science
learning. In this study both White and Latina teachers formed
strong connections with their Latina students within the realm of
science inquiry 171
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 8
Finding for Research Question Two 180
Finding Four—Adelante’s professional development that is specific to
science inquiry enhanced science self-efficacy and science
background knowledge 180
Finding Five—Adelante’s District focus on language arts and math
benchmarks decreased focus to science goals, benchmarks,
CAST assessments, science evaluations and teacher time dedicated
to science instruction 189
Conclusion 194
Chapter Five: Discussion 198
Implication for Practice 203
Curriculum 203
Belief in science inquiry 204
Science literacy and reading literacy 206
Relationships and caring attitudes 207
Professional development 208
Language arts and math benchmarks decreased focus to SE 210
Recommendations for Practice 210
Recommendations related to findings 210
Future Research 216
Conclusion 217
References 222
Appendix A: Observation Protocol 275
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 9
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 280
Appendix C: Three Dimensions of NGSS 284
Appendix D: Researcher Biographical Information 285
Appendix E: Consent—Memo to the Superintendent 288

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 10
List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals 24
Table 2: Sample Performance Expectation in the Physical Science PS1A: Structure and
Properties of Matter 61
Table 3: Sample Performance Expectations in the Life Sciences 62
Table 4: Assumed Knowledge Influences 69
Table 5: Assumed Motivation Influences 78
Table 6: Assumed Organization Influences 84
Table 7: NGSS Science Practices and the 5E’s 98
Table 8: Participant Hours of Observation and Interview Data 104
Table 9: Teacher Background and Years of Experience 117

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 11
List of Figures
Figure 1: Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism Learning Theories 52
Figure 2: Commonalities among Science, Math, and English Language Arts 60
Figure 3: SE Conceptual Framework 88
Figure 4: 5E’s 99
Figure 5: SE Conceptual Framework-Final CF 201

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 12
Abstract
This study examined where AES fifth-grade female teachers were with the NGSS
understanding of the performance expectation; NGSS science practices, disciplinary core ideas,
and cross-cutting concepts. The Science2Minds, a pseudonym for a free county science
education lending library was used to examine how female teachers implemented NGSS in their
classroom. The findings related to female teacher’s knowledge and motivation to implement SE
showed: (a) Science2Minds, a free lending program supported by Adelante, provided readily
accessible resources which gave teachers the motivation to engage in science education; (b)
Adelante’s support of Science2Minds enhanced teacher confidence in science inquiry and
increased science knowledge of the NGSS practices, disciplinary core ideas, and science literacy;
and (c) relationships and caring attitudes contributed to teachers valuing effective science
education and building student self-confidence in science learning.
The study findings related to how the organization interacted with female teachers to
support the implementation of SE indicated: (a) Adelante’s professional development that was
specific to science inquiry enhanced science self-efficacy and science background knowledge,
but professional development that was not specific to science inquiry did not build new or less
experienced teachers’ knowledge; and (b) Adelante’s District focus on language arts and math
benchmarks decreased focus to science goals, benchmarks, CAST assessments, science
evaluations and teacher time dedicated to science instruction. Recommendations are provided
that can assist the organization in increasing teacher science self-efficacy that will benefit the
stakeholders of the organization through suggestions in science education curriculum, effective
science education practices, and changes in professional development.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 13
Chapter One: Introduction
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
It is the combination of scientific knowledge, pedagogy, creativity, and engagement that
will spark the science interest of all students. Interest, a positive emotion closely connected to
curiosity and learning, has played an essential role in education (Renninger, Hidi, & Krapp,
2014). The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) may foster deeper interest and learning,
and break the cycle of negative feelings of science, by, for example, teachers allowing students
to experiment and harness the creativity and excitement in science. This is particularly important
for female learners of science who have traditionally experienced science anxiety (Udo, Ramsy,
& Mallow, 2014) or not seen themselves as scientists (Finson, 2002) and is even more critical for
females from marginalized populations who face additional barriers to developing interest in
science (Carter, Larke, Singleton-Taylor & Santos, 2003). Hispanic
1
interest in science
amounted to 38% versus 58% for Whites (ACT, 2015). Traditional methods of science
instruction are not increasing the number of marginalized female students interested in STEM-
related fields (Carter, Larke, Singleton-Taylor, & Santos, 2003). While female minorities are
few among those who graduate with a STEM degree (Beasley & Fisher, 2012), Latino STEM
graduates are even fewer among STEM graduates (Litow, 2008). In 2013, 14% of Latinos
graduated with a STEM degree, and of that amount 27% of Latinas graduated with a STEM
degree compared to 63% Latino males (NCES, 2013). By losing Latina students due to
traditional methods of teaching science, not only is society losing a large portion of the potential
STEM workforce, but the students lose the opportunity to gain through science the sense of

1
Hispanic females will be referred to as Latina. Latina will be used to identify Hispanic female
teachers and students.

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 14
empowerment in their own lives and the lives of their families (Carter, Larke, Singleton-Taylor
& Santos, 2003).
Part of the problem is that Latinas have traditionally been discouraged from science
careers (Rodriguez, 1966). Frau-Ramos and Nieto (1993) state U.S. Schools do not provide
equitable practices for Latina students and that meaningful culturally relevant science
experiences are lacking in classrooms. Beeton, Canales & Jones (2012) indicate that factors such
as lack of role models with whom Latinas can identify, lack of certified science teachers in
underserving school populations, combined with expectations that science is for Anglo men, may
create a negative science identity that Latinas do not belong in science fields. Beeton et al.
(2012) stated that gender roles that expect females to be domestic, cook, clean and not make
more money than males may deter Latinas from science careers. Gonzales (2001) indicates that
reform and educational discourse filtered through the mindset of Latina incapability of higher
scholarly thought, Latino cultural academic deficits, parental disregard of education contribute to
problematic K-12 academic instruction for Latinas. Thus, Gonzalez (2001) directs policy
makers, educators, and researchers to think of young Latinas as ‘pensadoras’ (thinkers) who
“interrogate the social order, and who give meaning to learning, knowing, and power” (p. 1).
The teacher has also been named as a factor in Latinas not performing well academically.
For example, Ehrenberg, Goldhaber, and Brewer (1995) conducted a national longitudinal survey
to determine the influence of teachers’ race, gender, and ethnicity (RGE) on student learning in
science, math, reading, and history. Results suggest that in science education (SE), teacher RGE
influences how much students learn and how teachers evaluate and encourage students in
science. Teachers in general rated White students higher than Latino and Black students; but
female Latina teachers gave higher subjective science evaluations to Latina females in
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 15
comparison to White and Black female students (Ehrenberg, Goldhaber, and Brewer, 1995).
Teachers who promote excitement and creativity in science and provide students with a sense of
belonging and competence, ensure Latino students identify with science (Beeton, Canales, &
Jones, 2012). In a study of four Latina teachers, Weisman (2001), found that Latina teachers
who maintain their cultural identity, not only appreciate the language of their students, but
connect with and affirm their student cultural identity (Weisman, 2001). In the U. S. only 8.8%
of teachers were Latino compared to 80.1% White (NCES, 2017), and while the study just
summarized doesn’t suggest one has to be Latina to teach Latinas well, it points to challenges
when the teacher doesn’t have as much understanding and appreciation for his or her Latina
students.
Historically, schoolteachers nationwide have been predominately female. In recent years,
women entering the teaching force has grown (Ingersoll, Merrill, & Stuckey, 2014). In 2016,
76.6% females were teachers compared to 23.4% males. Despite the larger number of female
teachers in the field, female teachers at the elementary level are products of an educational
system and society that has not prepared them for SE in comparison to male educators (Riggs,
1991). Nonetheless, female teachers need professional development to tackle the rigor of NGSS
(NGSS Lead States, 2013). In order to reverse stereotypes that remind women that science is for
males (Nosek et al., 2009), teachers need to be familiar with NGSS and its implementation of
science performance expectations composed of three dimensions: the science and engineering
practices, the disciplinary core ideas, and cross-cutting concepts (see Appendix C for an
explanation of each dimension).
Effective science teaching is important because research demonstrates that females are
interested in science at the age of nine, but become discouraged by inequitable teacher practices
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 16
in science, a factor that prevents girls from pursuing science thus resulting in science avoidance
or lack of science interest (Shaw & Doan, 1990; Treagust, 1980; Huang, 2013). The problem of
inequitable science practices is important to address. To increase equitable science practices and
Latina students’ self-efficacy to engage in science, it is essential to examine how female teachers
implement science in their classrooms; thereby making it crucial to study standards, teacher self-
efficacy, beliefs, and implementation of NGSS. The rationale for focusing on female teachers is:
(a) most elementary teachers are female; (b) female teachers face barriers themselves (low
science self-efficacy, for example) in effectively teaching science; (c) female teachers can play
an important role in encouraging female students to engage in science as role models. While this
study is not strictly focused on Latina science teachers, additional factors that influence science
learning for Latinas will be examined with regard to Latina science teachers: (a) Latina science
teachers face additional barriers such as cultural roles in discouraging Latinas from embracing
science; and, (b) Latina science teachers have additional ways to reach Latina students of
science. Through support and NGSS training, organizations can assist female teachers, including
Latina teachers, in aligning science beliefs to effective science practices.
Organizational Context and Mission
Adelante Elementary School (AES) (pseudonym) is located in a small rural agricultural
community. The school serves 1,212 students, ranging from kindergarten through sixth grade.
Demographic data of the student population is as follows: 98.3% are Hispanic or Latino, 0.1%
are Black or African American, 1.2% are White, 91.9% are socioeconomically disadvantaged,
74.8% are English learners, and 7.4% are students with disabilities. AES employs 60 staff
members across two departments, administrative and academic. Within the academic
department, AES currently has 46 (40 female and 6 male) highly qualified certified teachers
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 17
including six interns who are not certified but working towards their teaching credential and
masters from the nearby university. Seventy-five percent of the teachers are Latino. The
mission of AES staff is to work with each other to guarantee an engaging educational
environment where all students will grow in self-esteem, excel and learn to become respectful,
knowledgeable, highly productive, and skilled citizens.
In AES, three strategic goals within the AES School Site Plan address language arts,
math, and English Language Development. No goal existed regarding science progress or
improvement. District science benchmarks are non-existent at the elementary level. The only
science assessments are the state end of year CAASPP CAST science assessment. Teachers are
only evaluated every other year in English Language Arts (ELA), math and English Language
Development (ELD), but not in science or history. The subjects evaluated coincide with state
and district assessed subjects at the elementary level: ELA, math, and ELD. State and District
accountability in math and language at AES caused more time dedicated to math and language
arts in lieu of time spent in science instruction (45 minutes per day, if that, in comparison to one
and one-half hours to math and one and one-half to language arts in the 5
th
grade.)
In order for AES to accomplish its mission, it will require a focus on successful
implementation of NGSS. These performance expectations are challenging and require that
teachers understand how to incorporate NGSS performance expectations for each science unit.
It will be crucial for AES leaders to focus on NGSS implementation and teacher professional
development, as well as teaching science beliefs to increase teacher behavior in implementing
science and progress towards the fifth-grade NGSS CAST assessment.
In 2015-16 21.8% females at AES versus 32.4% males scored proficient or advanced in
the 2016 CAASPP science CST’s. It is evident from scores that the majority of AES students,
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 18
98% of whom are Latino, did not meet science standards. It is also evident that a smaller
percentage of AES Latinas (22%) than AES Latinos (34%) scored proficient and above in
science. For students to be scored as proficient, the new CAST science assessment will require
written explanations to phenomena observed. Students will need experiences with science
inquiry and evidence writing to succeed. As such, the coordinator of the Math Coalition
introduced the opportunity for teachers to participate in Science2Minds which assisted teachers
with the implementation of science. Science2Minds is not an AES curriculum, it is a county SE
lending library geared toward fifth-graders. The units provided at no cost consisted of lesson
plans, sentence frames, lab equipment and material, objective and vocabulary charts. All four
fifth-grade teachers volunteered to participate in the Science2Minds program. At AES, all fifth-
grade science teachers were female and three of the four were Latina.
NGSS was released in 2013 as a vision to reshape K-12 SE, AES teachers are only now
beginning to be trained in NGSS. Three AES fifth-grade teachers attended their first NGSS roll-
out during the summer of 2017, and later during the school year fifth through eighth grade
teachers attended three NGSS workshops by the Institute for Engagement.
Organizational Goal
By November 2018, the organization hoped to develop Latina students’ science identity
and close the achievement gap in science between Latina and Latino students. The Assistant
Principal and the fifth-grade Dual Immersion teacher established this organizational goal at a
formal meeting. The achievement of AES’s goal will be dependent in part by teacher’s ability,
knowledge, and motivation to achieve their stakeholder goal: 100% of AES fifth-grade female
teachers will implement NGSS through Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs. By
participating in the NGSS professional development roll-outs, implementing NGSS three
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 19
dimensions (science and engineering practices, disciplinary core ideas, cross-cutting topics), and
the diversity vignettes through Science2Minds, it is believed that teacher science self-efficacy
may be enhanced and in turn their high-quality implementation of science. AES will need to
support and encourage teacher science participation in science professional development in order
to achieve the organizational goal.
Related Literature
To meet the organizational goal, teachers are a critical actor. One important factor when
teaching science is teachers’ self-efficacy. Research on teacher efficacy is well documented
(Guskey, 1987; Guskey & Passaro, 1994; Berman, 1977; Coladarci, 1992; Dembo & Gibson,
1985; Goddard, Hoy & Hoy, 2000). A teacher’s self-efficacy refers to a teacher’s beliefs to
bring about desired outcomes from student learning and engagement even from those who are
not motivated (Bandura, 1977). Teacher beliefs of their self-efficacy, Bandura (1977) explains
for instance, partly determine how teachers create academic instruction and activities in the
classroom and establish how students evaluate their intellectual capabilities. Dembo and Gibson
(1984) studied teacher beliefs regarding instructional efficacy and described two factors
associated with teacher self-efficacy; personal teaching efficacy (PTE) related to Bandura’s self-
efficacy, and teaching efficacy (GTE) related to Bandura’s outcome expectancy (Gibson &
Dembo, 1984; Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). PTE beliefs is defined as a teachers’ evaluation
of his or her ability to positively change student learning while GTE reflects teacher’s belief
regarding the degree which the environment can be controlled by certain factors such as IQ,
family background, and school conditions. Gibson and Dembo (1984) found that personal
teaching efficacy was positively related to high expectations and more engagement in the
classroom through both whole group and small group on task behavior. Teacher efficacy
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 20
“influences goal setting, performance of effort toward goals, and persistence of effort in the face
of difficulty” (Dietz et al., 2002, p. 405). Teacher science self-efficacy is the extent to which a
teacher believes he/she can teach science effectively and affect student learning in the science
classroom (Riggs, 1991; Ramey-Gassert et al., 1996).
Ramey-Gassert et al., (1996) state that teachers who exhibit high science teaching self-
efficacy are independent, professionally active, and desire to improve science instruction for
their peers, and students including teacher interns. These teachers are self-driven with a firm
belief of hands-on science teaching with little reliance on textbooks (Ramey-Gassert et al.,
1996). Some analysts suggest gender disparities in STEM may be attributed to self-efficacy and
bias that limits female participation in science (Gonzalez & Kuenzi, 2012).
The National Science Foundation (NSF) recommends enhancing teacher self-efficacy for
effective SE for marginalized groups (Dietz, Anderson, & Katzenmeyer, 2002). Dietz et al.
(2002), state that it is best to “support natural human abilities in moving science and society
toward a greater fluency between gender and ability” (p. 405). Studying teacher science self-
efficacy and its effect on the implementation of NGSS among marginalized females in rural
organizations may create awareness of critical science issues that have gone unchecked due to
the high-stakes tests of No Child Left Behind.
To improve success of SE, strategies to reduce teacher science anxiety and increase
science efficacy are crucial (Cone, 2009). Teacher self-efficacy and beliefs about elementary
science implementation, the author further states, were positively affected when teachers directly
observed students participating in science inquiry. To increase efficacy, it is crucial, for
instance, for teachers to reflect about their practices and beliefs to develop teacher confidence
and ability to believe in effective science instruction for diverse groups. In addition, the authors
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 21
mention, teachers need to reflect and understand how their beliefs shape the beliefs of their
students. Cone (2009) states that if educators do not take time to reflect, then the achievement
gap in science will continue to lag and scientific literacy for all will not be reached.
Latina educators need opportunities to critically examine their attitudes in conforming to
the dominant group standards to understand their bicultural identity, modify their attitudes, and
be effective in participating in educational practices and contexts that promote their student
linguistic and cultural backgrounds (Weisman, 2001; Nieto, 1992). Gonzalez (2001) introduces
how braiding (trenzas) - weaving of different manners of teaching, knowing, and learning
transports cultural knowledge to the forefront of discussions on educational equity and practices
for Latina learners. Teacher differential treatment exists as lower expectations for Latino
children, especially darker phenotypes (Murguia & Telles, 1996; Hunter, 2002). After a two-
year study, Murguia and Telles (1996) found significant differences in Texas and in teachers
who work in Spanish-dominant neighborhoods in comparison to English-dominant
neighborhoods. Teachers who work in segregated Spanish-dominant neighborhoods with
“darker and more Indian-looking phenotype generally had a significant negative effect on
educational attainment for those of Mexican origin” (Murguia & Telles, 1996, p. 287). In a
study with two science teachers working with Latina English Learners, Bianchini and Cavazos
(2007), found that one science teacher’s strength in connecting with Latinas resulted after
reflection from investigating his own cultural and gender biases of his science teaching with
Latinas. In addition, Bianchini and Cavazos (2007) indicated that the teacher identified ways,
for instance, to provide Latinas greater access to science though student needs, interests, and
promoted diverse opportunities to learn science within and outside the classroom environment.
Teaching science in diverse and equitable ways takes time, persistence, and practice even for
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 22
teachers dedicated to equitable practices (Bianchini & Cavazos, 2007). Teachers’ science self-
efficacy is important in addressing the organizational goal because: (a) efficacious teachers
devote more time to academics, overcome obstacles to student learning by seeking family
support, and overcome barriers to difficult learning situations (Bandura, 1997); (b) these teachers
rely on persuasive manners of behavior rather than authoritarian control to provide “development
of their students’ intrinsic interest and academic self-directedness” (Bandura, 1997, p. 241); and
(c) teachers with high self-efficacy feel they have a positive influence on student learning and
consider their work with students meaningful, expect student progress, and if their students fail,
they examine their instruction to address student gaps (Ashton, 1984).
Importance of the Evaluation
Evaluating the organizational performance goal was important to close the gap for Latina
students in fifth-grade science. Presently in the U. S., there is a shortage of qualified Americans
for careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). U.S. companies hire
STEM workforce from foreign countries due to a shortage of STEM graduates in the U. S. (Kerr
& Lincoln, 2010; Kerr, 2013). Proportionately more females than males left STEM fields by
switching to a non-STEM major (32 % vs. 26 %) (Chen, 2013). The top two reasons for leaving
without completing a program for Hispanic females was academic problems (36.6%) and
personal reasons (64.4%) (NCES, 2004). Specifically, to STEM, when females participate in a
male-dominated discipline, negative feedback of low grades becomes an important factor in
leaving the discipline (Kugler, Tinsley, Ukhaneva, 2017). To increase the presence of SE for all
students, elementary teachers are the essential agents for reform (Gunning & Mensah, 2010), and
the role models for females.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 23
Evaluating the organization’s performance enabled stakeholders to gather formative data
that was used to assess the organization's goal: By November 2018, the organization will
develop Latina students’ science identity and close the achievement gap in science between
Latina and Latino students. If teachers have the self-efficacy and the knowledge to use
instructional strategies aligned to NGSS and understand how to teach science, the likelihood of
engaging all learners, including Latina students, will increase and the organization will move
closer to its goals.
Organizational factors were important to examine as they shape the teachers’ ability to
meet their stakeholder goal, which ultimately affects the organizational goal. If teachers are not
provided with the knowledge of NGSS, do not have a high self-efficacy to implement instruction
aligned with NGSS, and build a repertoire of high-quality science practices, and the organization
does not support them in their work, the organization will likely not adequately fulfill the NGSS
principles and students will not achieve to their highest potential in SE.
Description of Stakeholder Groups and Stakeholders’ Performance Goals
AES had multiple stakeholders that contributed to the organizational goal. The primary
stakeholders, the fifth-grade teachers contributed to the achievement of the organization’s
performance goal by implementing NGSS through Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs.
After teachers implemented NGSS through Science2Minds inquiry lessons and science labs we
could determine progress toward the organizational goal: by November 2018, the organization
will develop Latina students’ science identity and close the achievement gap in science between
Latina and Latino students. Latina students, another stakeholder group, contributed to the
achievement of the organization’s goal by attending a STEM workshop, participated in science
activities, and performed to the desired outcome of Science2Minds post-assessment. Latina
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 24
students generated an NGSS science journal to attach Science2Minds material; reviewed science
concepts to transfer learning and completed Science2Minds pre-post assessments; and, increased
science knowledge to build a positive Latina science image.
Female parents of Latina students, as yet another stakeholder group, attended a STEM
workshop with their Latina students to understand the importance of science, to assist in
breaking cultural stereotypes associated with science, understood three dimensions of the NGSS
through the 5E’s, and understood the importance of participating in science activities with their
daughters. Evaluating the organization’s performance determined what factors influenced
teachers toward meeting the goal of developing Latina students’ science identity and closing the
achievement gap in science between Latina and Latino students. Table 1 describes the AES
organizational mission, and the stakeholder performance goals specific to fifth-grade teachers,
the Latina students, and their parents.
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission: The mission of AES staff is to work with each other to ensure a safe and
engaging learning environment in which all students will grow in self-esteem, excel and learn to
become respectful, knowledgeable, highly productive, and skilled citizens.
Organizational Performance Goal: By November 2018, the organization will develop Latina
students’ science identity and close the achievement gap in science between Latina and Latino
students.

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 25
Fifth-Grade Female Teachers Fifth-Grade Latinas Female Fifth-Grade Parents

By November 2018, 100% of
AES fifth-grade female
teachers will implement
NGSS through Science2Minds
unit lessons and science labs.

By November 2018, AES
fifth-grade Latinas will
generate an NGSS science
journal to attach
Science2Minds material and
create AVID notes to review
science concepts for transfer
of learning and be successful
on Science2Minds post
assessments.

By November 2018, AES fifth-
grade female parents will
attend STEM workshops with
their Latina students to
understand the NGSS three-
dimensional performance
expectations.

Stakeholder Group for the Study
The collective efforts of all stakeholders contributed to the achievement of the overall
organization goal of developing Latina students’ science identity and closing the achievement
gap in science between Latina and Latino students at AES
2
. The purpose of the project was to
examine the knowledge and motivation of AES fifth-grade teachers to implement NGSS through
Science2Minds and how the organization supported them in doing so. However, it was
important to evaluate where all AES fifth-grade teachers were currently with regard to their
knowledge and motivation of implementing the NGSS performance expectations that incorporate
the three dimensions of NGSS: eight science and engineering practices, disciplinary core ideas,
and cross-cutting concepts. Teachers are the key to SE because it is through their high self-
efficacy that they are able to persevere in science instruction (Bandura, 1977) and serve as role
models (Young, Rudman, Buettner, & McLean, 2013) for Latinas. Teachers need high self-
efficacy in SE to implement NGGS through the Science2Minds program. Additionally, they

2
The state did not provide CST state assessment data on the fifth-grade White population at Adelante because it
consisted of a few students. “To protect student confidentiality, test results are not reported on ...10 or fewer
students.” As such, the organizational goal will examine the difference between Latino and Latina students.

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 26
need knowledge of how to implement the program. If AES teachers implement SE with fidelity,
and in the process, model their self-efficacy, it is theorized to have a two-fold outcome: (a)
Latina students will see a role model who is self-efficacious and will build their efficacy; and (b)
Latina students will learn science as a result of the implementation. Therefore, the stakeholders
of focus for this study were all fifth-grade teachers because they were the single grade level that
incorporated Science2Minds within its curriculum. All four AES fifth-grade teachers were
female. Three of the teachers were Latinas and one teacher was White. One of the Latina
teachers was a Dual Immersion teacher. Therefore, only three traditional teachers of the four
teachers were the focus of this study. The stakeholders’ goal, supported by all AES fifth-grade
teachers and Assistant Principal, is that by November 2018, 100% of AES fifth-grade teachers
will implement NGSS through Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs. The result of this
implementation was thought to be a growth in science knowledge among fifth-graders, and
specifically the Latina students AES served. For Science2Minds to be funded, it must collect
pre- and post-assessments to demonstrate growth in scientific knowledge. Evaluating the
organization’s performance enabled stakeholders to gather formative data that could be used to
determine the knowledge and motivation of AES fifth-grade teachers to implement NGSS
through Science2Minds and how the organization supported them in doing so.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of the project was to examine the knowledge and motivation of AES fifth-
grade teachers to implement NGSS through Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs and
how the organization supported them in doing so. While a complete research project would
focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholders focused on in this study were all
AES fifth-grade teachers because: a) teachers play a key role in student learning and b) the only
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 27
elementary grade that gets assessed by the state, and the only grade that implemented
Science2Minds. As such, the questions that guided this study were the following:
1. What are the AES fifth-grade teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to the
implementation of NGSS through Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs?
2. What is the interaction between the organization’s culture and context and AES
fifth-grade teachers’ knowledge and motivation to implement NGSS through
Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources that influence AES fifth-
grade teachers’ knowledge and motivation to implement NGSS through
Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs?
Methodological Framework
The purpose of this study was to explore fifth-grade teacher knowledge and motivation in
implementing NGSS through the Science2Minds curriculum. The best framework to understand
teacher meaning and ideas about science is through a qualitative methodological approach to
data gathering and analysis. A qualitative approach allows the researcher to explore and
understand “the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem” (Creswell,
2014, p. 4). This type of approach allows the researcher to collect data consisting of experiences,
feelings, opinions, knowledge, and direct quotations needed from individuals to understand the
phenomenon being studied (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This qualitative study can produce
meaningful insights on issues from a teacher’s perspective, particularly the perspective from
Latina teachers, and possible influences or barriers to SE. Achieving organizational goals
requires an interaction work process of specialized motivation, knowledge and skills, material
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 28
resources, and organizational culture; the mix needs to be "developed, designed and
implemented to close the gap" (Clark & Estes, 2008, p. 123). Clark and Estes (2008)
recommend designing change programs until programs are integrated with knowledge and
motivation; and, then implementation follows a complete analysis of solutions to gaps. When
the process is followed programs are effective, efficient, and become more accessible to evaluate
(Clark & Estes, 2008). This study incorporated the Clark and Estes (2008) conceptual
framework and gap analysis to make progress toward the organizational goal.
Terminology
In this section I included three terms which I used frequently in this study. The following
are the terminology used in this study.
Science Identity. “A competent learner of science with motivation and interest to learn
more” (NRC, 2012, p.287).
STEM. Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
Science Inquiry. Munford et al. (2002) indicate science inquiry consists of two elements:
“abilities to do scientific inquiry and understandings about science and scientific inquiry…[it]
involves engaging in scientifically oriented questions, giving priority to evidence in responding
to questions, formulation explanations from evidence, connecting explanations to scientific
knowledge and communicating and justifying explanations” (NRC, 2012, p 243).
Organization of the Project
Chapter one consists of the introduction to the problem of practice, organizational context
and mission, organizational goal, related literature, importance of the evaluation, description of
stakeholder groups, stakeholders’ performance goals, stakeholder group for the study, purpose of
the project and questions, methodological framework, and terminology. Chapter two is a review
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 29
of the literature to help contextualize the main influences of the problem of practice. It includes
a review of literature of the influences on effective SE implementation and important factors
attributed to the implementation of SE. It is followed by a discussion of Clark and Estes (2008)
gap analysis consisting of teacher knowledge, motivation, organizational influences, and finally a
conceptual framework related to how these influences shaped SE. Chapter three explains the
research methods, the participating stakeholders, the interview and observation sampling criteria
and rationale, data analysis, credibility and trustworthiness, validity and reliability, ethics,
limitations, and delimitations. Chapter four presents a summary of the findings. Chapter five
discusses the findings of the study and the implications and recommendations for increasing
teacher science self-efficacy and organizational practices that can support female teacher ability
to implement high quality SE and identifies limitations and areas for future research.

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 30
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Reviewed in this chapter are the influences on effective SE implementation and the
implementation process itself. Then, the framework of Clark & Estes (2008) gap performance
analysis was used to introduce the influences of knowledge, motivation, and organization on SE
that affected fifth-grade teacher's science efficacy and science identity as they engaged in NGSS.
It is followed by the conceptual framework that weaves together the strands of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences to theorize how the interaction among them contribute
to the success of stakeholder goal and the organizational goal.
Influences on Effective Science Education Implementation
This section describes important influences related to effective teacher implementation of
SE by first summarizing the NGSS and then discussing the influences related to implementing
instruction to support the development of the knowledge and skills stipulated in the standards.
Influences include knowledge of NGSS, teacher SE self-efficacy, gender, ethnicity, and the
development of science identity, particularly for Latina teachers, in order to create a sense of
‘belonging to science’ for both themselves and their young Latina learners.
Next Generation Science Standards
The impetus for developing the NGSS is to prepare students for 21
st
-century career
readiness and prepare students to compete globally (NGSS Lead States, 2013; Peltzman &
Rodriguez, 2013). In the U.S., NGSS science reform is incorporating disciplinary core science
ideas in the different scientific domains, crosscutting concepts, and eight science and engineering
practices into performance expectations of what students should know at the end of instruction
(Klieger & Yakobovitch, 2011; NGSS Lead States, 2013; NRC, 2015). The disciplinary core
ideas from NGSS and the Science Framework shift away from too much content to in depth
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 31
development and rigor of disciplinary core ideas (Reiser, 2013). However, the science and
engineering practices that require a shift from using science textbook facts and definitions to the
use of models to explain phenomena, are new and may cause challenges for teachers (Reiser,
2013). The nature of science in the NGSS is connected to the eight science practices and cross-
cutting concepts and can provide an avenue for teachers to expose students to how scientists
approach work in the natural world, the scientific enterprise (Bybee, 2014). In addition to NGSS
suggesting teachers avoid biases and stereotypes against underrepresented students, it is
suggested teachers provide science instruction that focuses on science knowledge students bring
from their cultural backgrounds and communities (Lee, Miller, & Januszyk, 2014).
Teachers need to feel more comfortable with science and devote more instructional time
to the discipline to meet the challenge of engaging their students in the practices, disciplinary
core ideas and concepts suggested by NGSS (Trygstad, Smith, Banilower, & Nelson, 2013).
Implementing NGSS requires experienced teachers to make a shift in their manner of content
teaching (Bybee, 2014). Teachers need to master and teach the three dimensions: the science
and engineering practices, crosscutting concepts, and disciplinary core ideas. To effectively
implement the nature of science, teachers need to know the science and engineering practices:
(a) asking questions and defining problems for engineering; (b) developing and using models; (c)
planning and carrying out investigations; (d) analyzing and interpreting data; (e) using
mathematics and computational thinking; (f) constructing explanations (for science) and
developing designs (for engineering); (g) engaging in argument from evidence; and (h)
obtaining, evaluating and communicating information (NRC, 2015). Teachers need to know
how to integrate the science practices with the crosscutting concept of instruction and
assessments and disciplinary core ideas (NSTA, 2014). NGSS requires teachers to use
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 32
instructional materials and models for student scientific investigations; allow for argumentative
scientific discourse among students; assess, monitor, and support student progression over the
year of science instruction; differentiate education for all students to include and support those
who struggle and excel; maintain an educational atmosphere that stimulates the learning of
science; implement the engineering design into science instruction; and use technology for the
enhancement of student learning (NSTA, 2013). To meet the challenge, Bybee (2014) suggests a
project-based approach of introducing short units of NGSS. To alleviate the challenges with
science instruction, Knaggs and Sondergeld (2015) suggest increasing science self-efficacy in
teachers, discussed in the next section.
Teacher Science Education Self-Efficacy
Since teachers' sense of efficacy is related to students' achievement gains and is directly
tied to classroom instruction, organization, and feedback provided to students experiencing
difficulties (Gibson & Dembo, 1984), it is important to understand how it supports effective
science teaching. Successful science reform is dependent on the self-confidence or influential
self-efficacy of teachers in implementing change as suggested by reform into their classroom
(Azar, 2010). Teacher self-efficacy is not only important to science reform but also to student
success in science at the elementary level of SE (Azar, 2010). Teacher self-efficacy also
influences the successful application of the science programs which are developed (Azar, 2010).
Because the elementary level of education is an important time in the development of children’s
intellectual capabilities, a teacher’s sense of efficacy is an influential factor upon young children
due to child minimal use of evaluating their capabilities (Bandura, 1997). Providing teachers
with opportunities to increase their self-efficacy in SE can be achieved through meaningful
reading assignments and discussions about science instruction (Gunning & Mensah, 2011).
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 33
Teacher self-efficacy is a powerful underlying construct that assists in preparing teachers in
acquiring a strong knowledge foundation in science including the ability to teach it (Blonder,
Benny & Jones, 2014).
Teacher self-efficacy is particularly important to examine in the realm of SE (Ramey-
Gassert & Shroyer, 1992). Science teacher self-efficacy is defined as the belief that teachers
have in their ability to teach effectively in science, and to affect the science achievement of
students (Riggs, 1988). Teacher science self-efficacy affects how teachers accept classroom
challenges in science and how they extend their teaching role to benefit both themselves and
their students (Ramey-Gassert, Shroyer, & Staver, 1996). It correlates with both having a
positive attitude about science and choosing to engage in SE (Ramey-Gassert et al., 1996).
With respect to science education, personal science teaching efficacy (PSTE), positively
correlated with teacher self-rated effectiveness in science, teacher attitude toward science,
deciding to engage in SE, and continuing to learn about science in order to effectively instruct
students, all of which reflect comfort and interest in science (Ramey-Gassert et al., 1996). The
authors, furthermore, found that continuing to learn about science was related to teacher’s
educational level. Teachers who experience success with science teaching take risks, experiment
with constructed responses, and partake in science professional development (Ramey et al.,
1996). Self-efficacy is correlated with teachers willing to implement SE more fully (Ramey-
Gassert & Stayer, 1996). Time dedicated to science was consistent with teacher's perception of
their scientific expertise (Weiss, 1978; Enochs & Riggs, 1990). While time is a constraint to
science implementation, elementary teachers who are confident with science teaching figure how
to implement science effectively within limited time (Bybee, 2014; Cone 2009; Gilbert &
Yerrick, 2001). Teachers who feel at ease with science and have successfully taken courses in
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 34
science have greater self-efficacy (Ramey-Gassert et al., 1996). Teachers who demonstrate high
personal science teaching efficacy had antecedent experiences in science that were favorable
(e.g., growing up on a farm, being raised by a father who worked in a science or related field),
demonstrated an attitude about science that was positive, and were excited about science
teaching (Ramey-Gassert et al., 1996). Liang and Richardson (2009) found that teachers who
engaged in inquiry-based learning demonstrated higher science teaching self-efficacy beliefs.
Windscitl (2003) using the STEBI-B instrument found that teachers who demonstrated authentic
perceptions of inquiry-based learning had extensive prior science research experience. Teachers
with high self-efficacy implement science inquiry lessons in their classrooms, while teachers
with low self-efficacy implemented science using textbook fact memorization curriculum (Cone,
2009). Teacher efficacy in motivating students to expected outcomes and behavior is a powerful
variable in learning situations (Guskey & Passaro, 1994; Berman et al., 1977).
Science Teaching Outcome Expectancy
Science self-efficacy is related to teachers’ belief in their ability to teach science, but
their belief in students’ ability to learn science is called science teaching outcome expectancy
(Ramey-Gassert, Shroyer & Staver, 1996). Choosing to implement SE, for instance, correlates
with both personal science teaching efficacy and science teaching outcome expectancy, and was
associated with teacher interest and comfort with SE and instruction (Ramey-Gassert et al.,
1996). Female teachers who believe science instruction can be influenced by effectively
teaching science (outcome expectancy) will implement SE on a regular basis (Riggs, 1991;
Gibson & Dembo, 1984). External factors, for instance, that can affect science teacher outcome
expectancy include student variables, school/workplace variables, and parent/community
variables (Ramey-Gassert et al., 1996).
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 35
All teachers regardless of efficacy levels feel the pressures of external factors but at
different levels (Ramey-Gassert, Shroyer & Staver, 1996). Student variables such as student
academic achievement, motivation, and science background, for instance, were colored by
teacher's own beliefs and difficulty of science learning. Teachers with high science teaching
outcome expectancy didn’t feel external constraints affected them when compared to teachers
who demonstrated low science teaching outcome expectancy (Ramey-Gassert et al., 1996).
Teachers who demonstrated high science teaching outcome expectancy, believe students can be
successful in science and that success is a direct outcome of science experiences (Ramey-Gassert
et al., 1996). Science teaching outcome expectancy, in addition, was also high for those teachers
who grew up as learners who experienced poor science learning but believed strongly as teachers
that they can empower students in learning science.
Furthermore, teachers with low science teaching outcome expectancy did not participate
in professional development. Ramey-Gassert et al. (1996) suggested low science teaching
outcome expectancy was related to self-perceived deficiencies in science content knowledge and
negative experiences with science courses. “Teachers who have a low self-concept of ability
about learning science may translate their personal beliefs into judgments about their students'
abilities to learn science” (Ramey-Gassert et al., 1996, p. 34). Elementary teachers need to be
cognizant of their students’ beliefs to design experiences that will positively influence science
teacher outcome expectancy and teacher science self-efficacy (Enochs & Riggs, 1990).
Gender Influence and Teacher Science Self-Efficacy
There are several factors that researchers have pointed to in order to explain the STEM
gap between males and females. Female perceptions of themselves as scientists/engineers etc.
profoundly influence their decisions to participate in STEM related fields (Clewell & Campbell,
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 36
2002) and subsequently be science teachers. Clewell and Campbell (2002) and Zavala (2014)
state girls lack of participation in science fields stem from different messages which they receive
from teachers, classmates, parents, and society in regard to the assumed correct roles females
should partake in. Clewell and Campbell (2002) indicate that because of inappropriate
pedagogy, classroom climate, discrimination, or the “very presence of boys, coeducation is
responsible for at least some of the gender differences in mathematics and science” (p. 266). The
authors further state that teacher stereotypes of STEM as pertaining to males creates different
expectations causing differential treatment toward boys and girls in science classrooms.
Furthermore, the authors add that teachers believe males are more confident, interested and have
the capacity to achieve higher in STEM compared to their female counterparts. Furthermore, the
authors indicate that low parental expectations in regard to their daughters in science affects
success in science. Liang and Richardson (2009) made the explicit connection between females
as science learners and females as teachers of science explaining that many elementary teachers
have experienced negative science experiences in school and developed low confidence levels
toward science as learners and as teachers of science. Female teachers build self-efficacy beliefs
through relational experiences with significant individuals including science teachers (Zeldin,
Britner, & Pajares, 2006). Female teachers who relay positive science messages and portray
science self-efficacy modeling serve as a building block from which female students rely on to
help them persist as they encounter obstacles in STEM fields (Zeldin, Britner, & Pajares, 2008).
Comparing female and male science self-efficacy is something researchers have engaged
in. The Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument (STEBI) which measures Bandura's
theoretical constructs of outcome expectancy and efficacy beliefs was utilized by Riggs’ (1991)
in a study of both urban and rural districts’ preservice and in-service teachers. Findings from the
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 37
study indicated that self-efficacy beliefs, a foundation upon which behaviors and attitudes are
built, were significantly lower for female elementary, the majority of elementary teachers. The
reason for this, the author further states, may be attributed to female teacher lack of science
knowledge and within the different inequitable teacher-student experience and interactions where
males tend to receive more feedback than females, a trend that exists from elementary to college.
To close the gender efficacy gap, the author further suggested a need for teachers to reflect upon
their own science experiences regarding gender equity in SE to enable female teachers to
approach science teaching with the same vigor as male teachers. Promoting the learning of all
students especially Latina females, requires teachers to address culture and the teaching methods
than enhance SE.
Teacher Self-Efficacy and Culturally Relevant Teaching
Ritter, Boone, and Rubba’s (2001) development of the Teacher Self-Efficacy Beliefs
about Equitable Science Teaching and Learning (SEBEST) was designed to evaluate teacher
self-efficacy beliefs regarding equitable science teacher practices with diverse learners. The
instrument contains survey items that targeted language minorities, gender, and socioeconomic
status. Ritter et al., (2001) state inequalities in interaction between teachers and students from
culturally diverse groups, low socioeconomic homes is compounded by limited time spent
teaching science, negative attitudes toward science, lack of confidence in teaching science, and
teacher unfamiliarity with the culture of diverse backgrounds. The instrument can be used to
assess and have teachers reflect upon self-efficacy beliefs with regards to science instruction for
diverse learners. Settlage, Southerland, Smith, and Ceglie (2009) using the SEBEST subscribed
to the belief that effective teaching practices can contribute to overcoming these inequities.
Settlage et al.’s (2009) examination of preservice elementary teachers’ identity focuses on
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 38
science teaching self-efficacy and culturally responsive pedagogy within diverse settings. Their
study demonstrated that teachers did not adjust their instruction or associate with culturally
responsive teaching but instead aligned their practices with ‘good teacher’ efforts that kept
children engaged in science through hands-on instructional activities. While Settlage et al.
(2009) data presents little evidence as to how self-efficacy might improve culturally responsive
teaching, it contributes to the notion that something must be done to provide language minorities
and girls equitable science learning experiences. It is also important to acknowledge that teacher
self-efficacy scores may not carry the same interpretation across countries with different cultural
perspectives (Lin, Gorrell, & Taylor, 2002), and therefore a qualitative narrative from Latina
teachers is warranted to understand how culture intersects with gender and self-efficacy.
Ethnicity is another factor important to teachers’ and students’ identity as scientists.
Many teachers aren’t prepared to teach students from diverse backgrounds because they do not
live in the neighborhoods similar to their students and therefore have little knowledge of what to
expect from them (Cone, 2009). Many teachers, Cone (2009) further states, subscribe to the idea
that science is only for a select few and lack the ability to provide meaningful science content
that connects to the lives of their diverse learners. Teachers’ subjective positive evaluations of
low-income students mirror the encouragement they are given from same race teachers
(Ehrenberg et al., 1995). Weisman (2001) states that Latina teachers who maintain a strong
primary cultural connection understand the way society dismisses Latino student needs and
challenge the political structures or status quo. Weisman (2001) states that bicultural teachers
who maintain a strong cultural connection to their primary culture value the importance of the
native language to support Latino learning; and in the process affirm their Latino student cultural
identity so they can succeed academically. Latina teachers who identify with the mainstream
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 39
culture and only value the home language as a tool to communicate with parents and students
tend to dismiss the discriminatory practices that affect the schooling of Latinas (Weisman, 2001).
Elementary teachers need to implement a variety of instructional methods to engage under-
represented groups toward the improvement of scientific achievement; to address the needs of
these students, adequate knowledge of science content and pedagogy is necessary to support a
science identity among Latinas (Kreueger & Sutton, 2001).
Science Identity for Female Science Learners, Particularly Latinas
The school environment where Latinas are exposed to SE is important and interconnected
with science identity (Beeton et al., 2012). Females that lacked an academic talent in science
lacked a scientific identity; females who showed competence in science, but their identity
overlapped inadequately with the ‘identity of a good student' caused problems with their
scientific identity (Brickhouse, 2000). If an individual can see herself with the ability to do more
science as a direct result of mastering a topic or considers success associated with valuable goals,
that individual will persist as seeing herself as a scientist (Triandis, 1980). Teachers can develop
a sense of belonging to science as a discipline by engaging Latinas through creativity in science
instruction, encouraging Latinas to take risks, and allowing them to obtain ownership in their
own learning (Beeton et al., 2012). Teachers, states Beeton et al., (2012) need to also highlight
female scientists from different ethnicities in order to instill in Latinas that they too can be
scientists. When this happens at the stage of being an educator, Triandis (1980) states, creativity
with science will emerge both for teacher and student through indirect learning through other
people.
Teachers who have knowledge of inquiry-based learning and use many inquiry-based
experiments with argumentative science provide their female students an opportunity to engage
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 40
with science and thereby develop a scientific identity (Brickhouse, et al., 2000). Teachers,
Brickhouse et al. further state, need to have the capability to provide a curriculum for females
that permits diversity and engagement within science content. Teachers need to recognize that
the identities of girls do not fall into the typical stereotypes (Brickhouse et al., 2000). To provide
equity to females, teachers not only need to know how to explain to females their successes and
failures in science but also to know whether their female students are willing to break the norms
of how ‘good girls’ should behave in science. Teachers must reflect on whether their students
are able to engage with more diverse ways in engaging with science content; whether they are
allowed by their peers, parents or teachers themselves to select their interest of study in science;
whether the curriculum provides diverse ways in which students might engage with science
content (Brickhouse et al., 2000). The sole engagement of science, for instance, does not itself
promote science identity if teachers do not provide the opportunity for argumentative science
where students seek different solutions to a problem or demonstrate various ways of showing
their knowledge.
Positive science self-identity may be established when teachers address stereotypical
ideas of a scientist through drawings (Finson, 2004). Television stereotypes of scientist, sinister
and living alone may deter students from science fields (Finson, 2004). Furthermore, the author
states, such discussions of stereotypical perceptions by teachers can assist students to change
their negative perceptions and be more likely to enter a science related career. Teachers, for
example, who invite female scientist role models into their classes, promote discussions about
women contributions in science.
Teachers’ attitude and conscious effort to treat female students in equitable ways results
in increasing female science self-efficacy (Shakeshaft, 1995; Bohrman & Akerson, 2001). To
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 41
promote self-efficacy among females from diverse ethnic groups, Bohrmann & Akerson (2001)
suggest three strategies: (a) give specific praise that indicates to females how they are doing
well; (b) provide female guest speakers and role models, and (c) promote equal participation
among gender in science. Reports on science education suggested teacher attitudes and beliefs
are important for science teacher reform in implementation of science standards and practices
(Haney et al., 1996; Berman, 1977). This will be further discussed in the next section.
Attitudes and Beliefs
Researchers agree teacher attitudes are essential to the effectiveness of SE (Bandura,
1977; Van Driel, Beijard & Verloop, 2001; Haney et al., 1996; Haney and McArthur, 2002;
Stuart and Throw, 2000). Bryan and Tippins (2005) stated that both preservice and practicing
elementary teachers still hold negative attitudes about science and SE that are linked to past
science experiences or lack of science confidence. Teachers who have negative attitudes and
lack confidence in SE will have difficulty instilling positive attitudes and beliefs about SE in
their students (Bryan & Tippins, 2005; Palmer, 2002). Mallow, Kastrup, Bryant, Hislop,
Shefner, and Udo (2010) conducted a binational qualitative research among 11 groups of Danish
and American students and a group of American teachers of science enrolled in a science
enrichment program and indicated that attitudes and anxiety towards science was prevalent
among teachers. Mallow et al. (2010) state that a discussion of such attitudes should take place
in the classroom to serve as metacognition of how individuals learn science.
Haney, Czerniak, and Lumpe (1996) identified factors influencing teachers'
implementation of SE and found that attitude toward the behavior (AB) and perceived behavior
control (PBS) was directly related to behavior intention (BI). For instance, AB had the most
influence on teacher’s intent of implementation of the content domains (life, physical,
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 42
earth/space); teachers with the least amount of teaching experience reported the lowest AB
scores; and efficacious teachers reported the highest AB scores. Attitude toward the behavior
construct resulted as the greatest influence of teachers' intent to implement science and suggested
that teacher efficacy, an important component in predicting intention, drives attitudes toward the
behavior of science implementation (Haney et al., 1996).
Mulholland and Wallace (2001) conducted a qualitative study and stated that “teaching
science is a powerful influence on a teacher's confidence and perception of competence,
determining the extent to which the teacher will persevere with science” (Mulholland & Wallace,
2001, p. 1). Katie, a participant in the study, found the power of teaching science as a powerful
confidence influence of competence. For Katie, science mastery experiences stemmed from
successful science lessons including the ability to manage science manipulatives and children
behavior. “Growth of intrinsic interest is fostered through affective self-reactive and self-
efficacy mechanisms. People display enduring interest in activities at which they feel efficacious
and from which they drive self-satisfaction” (Bandura, 1997, p. 219). Katie developed a keen
interest in science but once in the field, her lack of experience with science made it more difficult
to teach than other subjects. Managing the behavior of children created a disincentive to the
instruction of science. Her perseverance assisted her to build a resilient sense of efficacy.
Conclusion
The growing population of Latina learners who can fill the needed spots in STEM careers
in the future requires effective implementation of science in the elementary years of education.
Science Reform for many years has suggested that teacher attitudes and beliefs be considered as
change agents for the implementation of SE. The literature review suggested that for the
implementation process of SE to take place, teacher attitude toward the behavior of science
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 43
implementation needs to be intentional through routine practice of science instruction. The
literature review also suggested that for effective SE to take place: (a) NGSS science practices
required teachers to be creative and innovative through teacher practices that ensure female
students engage in argumentative discussions through critiquing and questioning of scientific
phenomena instead of hands-on center work or textbook discussions; (b) teaching efficacy is
important in implementing science reform and science programs; it’s also related to the ability to
teach science and serves as a foundation for science self-efficacy; (c) high science self-efficacy is
related to teacher engagement and confidence in SE, taking risks, facing challenges, participating
in professional development, and implementing science inquiry; (d) female teachers need to
reflect on stereotypes and change inequitable teaching practices to inclusive practices that ensure
female interest in science; and (e) culturally responsive teaching, using culture and language as
an avenue to increase equitable practices may increase science self-efficacy and science identity.
If effective teacher implementation of SE happens at the elementary stage, teachers serve as
critical role models and create a ‘sense of belonging to science’ which may prevent the loss of
female learners in the science field and begin a powerful pathway to STEM.
Implementation of Science Education
This section describes what teachers need to do in terms of their practices to implement
SE. The implementation process of SE in this section describes how science inquiry, science
literacy and thematic instruction, combining SE and reading literacy, and pedagogical content
knowledge looks like in the classroom.
Science Inquiry
According to the Framework of the K-12 SE and the vision of NGSS where the standards
are articulated, teachers need to provide opportunities for students to engage in inquiry that is
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 44
similar to the way scientists actually work (NRC, 2012). The NGSS practices deter from just
one specific method of participating in science. Instead of just focusing on science through a
series of steps, the NRC (2012) explains inquiry as a process with different spheres
(investigating, evaluating, developing explanations, and solutions) in which a learner enters
through different spheres of activities, for example, the learner can be an observer (first sphere)
or a theorist (third sphere) who uses models to test theory while he partakes in critiquing,
analyzing, and arguing (second sphere) (NRC, 2012). Through teacher implementation of
NGSS’s practices, students generate and evaluate scientific explanations and evidence; provide
opportunities to engage in scientific discourse with others; participate in argumentative
discussions with relevant evidence and data; and provide opportunities for the application of
those argumentative discussions to real life scenarios (NRC, 2012). In other words, teacher need
to understand the nature of science (NRC, 2012; NSTA, 2012).
Scientific inquiry is difficult to manage and implement within the classroom (Smolleck,
L. D., Zembal-Saul, C., & Yoder, E. P. 2006; Windschitl, 2002). Teachers believe it is intended
for above-average students, and therefore do not implement it in the classroom (Windschitl,
2002). Smolleck et al. (2006) developed the Teaching Science as Inquiry (TSI) tool to more
clearly understand the connection between teacher beliefs, self-efficacy and teacher instruction
of science inquiry. The following steps of the inquiry process were included into the tool: “1.
Learner engages in scientifically oriented questions, 2. Learner gives priority to evidence in
responding to questions, 3. Learner formulates explanations from evidence, 4. Learner connects
explanations to scientific knowledge, and 5. Learner communicates and justifies explanations”
(Smolleck et al., 2006, p. 146). The central strategy, for example, for the instruction of inquiry-
based learning, the teacher needs to integrate authentic scientific questions derived from student
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 45
experiences and provide opportunities for students to design their own scientific investigations.
Teachers need opportunities to experience and be engaged in scientific inquiry (Smolleck et
al., 2006). An avenue for ensuring science inquiry is for teachers to feel confidence towards
implementing inquiry ‘both as learners and as teachers’ and suggest that self-efficacy may
influence teacher participation in science inquiry (Smolleck et al., 2006). Bandura (1977)
explains if teachers have experienced unsuccessful attempts with learning or teaching inquiry
science, they will unlikely implement inquiry-based science within their own classes.
The 5E's of inquiry, a tool based on research from psychology, SE and from cognitive
science on how people learn, can assist educators in creating essential science learning
experiences for all students in the classroom (Tanner, 2010; NRC, 2012). The 5E’s of
constructivism science inquiry (engage, elaborate, explain, extend and evaluate) allows the
teacher to avoid front-loading objectives by first engaging with the question or activity to
understand a concept before the term is explained, and gives the teachers the opportunities for
ensuring student science discovery, providing time for students to make connections, elaborating
and allowing students to apply new concepts to the phenomena being studied for a deep
understanding of scientific concepts (Bybee, 2006). This framework is consistent with the
NGSS science practices, because the standards encourage a constructivist approach to learning
science.
Watters and Diezmann (2015) observed teachers of science, who created rich dialectical-
constructivism in the classroom through questioning techniques and constructivist approach to
science inquiry. The authors further indicated that these teachers used Vygotsky's (1978)
dialectical constructivism that stems from socialization with other students within the zone of
proximal development to assist students in co-constructing knowledge. The role of the teacher,
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 46
for instance, is to funnel instruction by selecting questioning strategies to reach a proposed
solution and assumes the role of a facilitator supporting students to develop mathematical and
scientific meaning from the use of senses within the classroom. Teachers, for example,
recognize multiple voices or perspectives where all ideas are explored, but ultimately one
assumed correct answer or point of view is captured.
While implementing science inquiry may be difficult for teachers to manage, teachers
value thematic instruction in assisting students with learning science (Czerniak et al., 1999).
Teacher use of science textbooks favors factual knowledge at the expense of inquiry, but
children’s literature based on science topics provides the reader with rich insights about science
even connecting to the culture of diverse backgrounds (Morrow et al., 1997). Effective science
strategies for minorities and girls include the promotion of scientific literacy (King, Shumow, &
Lietz, 2001), and effective science reform is contingent upon teacher beliefs which play a
powerful role in their attitudes toward implementation of thematic science instruction (Meadow,
2017).
Science Literacy and Thematic Instruction
Two dominant understandings of science literacy include: (a) key science concepts,
principles, and ways of thinking of the natural world; and, (b) connections with language of
science, and knowledge of science concepts within texts (Pearson, Moje & Greenleaf, 2010).
The focus of this section is concerned with the latter understanding of science literacy:
connections with language and science and knowledge of science concepts within rich literature.
Teachers, Pearson et al. (2010) explain, who use science literacy as inquiry can assist students in
reading and writing to advance science knowledge. Teachers, for example, engage students
through sense making of scientific texts as a form of scientific inquiry. Proficiency in scientific
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 47
reading and writing, the authors further explain, requires teachers who are knowledgeable,
believe and understand how literacy enhances rather than replaces science instruction, and that it
becomes an alternative in assisting struggling readers to obtain inquiry skills and subject
knowledge.
Teachers generally, Czerniak et al. (1999) states, have positive perceptions about
thematic units. Teachers believe thematic units, for example, encourage science interest and
provide science excitement. Assessment practice imposed upon teachers, according to Czerniak
et al. (1999), become deterrents to thematic instruction. The integration of science and literacy
makes teaching more interesting (Morrow, Pressley, Smith, & Smith,1997). Through thematic
science instructions, teachers can utilize science literacy to bridge the gap into science teaching.
Morrow et al. (1997) found that integrating literature into science instruction produced higher
scores in science measures and literacy. Teachers who used both literature and science groups
had students who scored higher in literacy than students in a literature only group (Morrow et al.,
1997). Producing higher scores in both literacy and science is beneficial for Latinas who need
ELL support.
Science Education and Reading Literacy
Teachers who use a stimulating setting of integrating hands-on science with reading, have
students who are more motivated to read (Abel, 2017; Guthrie, Perencevich, Wigfield, Taboada,
Humenick, & Barbosa, 2006). Science and reading instruction provide sequential instructional
steps that stimulate student background knowledge, prior ideas and challenges students as they
assimilate and accommodate prior ideas through scientific investigation and reading instruction
through comprehension skills: predicting, questioning, monitoring, imagery, summarizing
during, before, and after reading, and improves both reading and science learning (Abel, 2017).
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 48
Combining science and language arts ensures teachers have time to teach both language arts and
science (Hayman, Hoppe, & Deniz, 2017), an important point given the recent focus in K-12
education on English Language Arts and math to the exclusion of science and other subject
areas.
SE advances the development of language for ELLs (Feldman & Malagon, 2017).
“Scientific literacy unlocks skills across the learning spectrum and can be a powerful lever for
education equity, not to mention a gateway to economic mobility” (Feldman & Malagon, 2017,
p. 3). Teachers who have ELL’s can support language learning through discourse rich and
content-rich classrooms (Quin, Lee, &Valdes, 2003). Providing engagement within the eight
science and engineering practices provides both scientific understandings or sense-making and
language articulation as students develop scientific models of phenomena being studied,
communicate and construct explanations for defending their models or engineering designs
(Quin et al., 2003). The author further states, teachers provide these stimulating environments by
providing time for argumentative science discussions around scientific models or engineering
designs which require both productive and receptive language skills while students listen, read,
and write, as they make presentations of their ideas and converse through engagement of their
argumentative reasoning with their classmates to revise them and attain common conclusions.
Teachers, who implement such practices need to understand the science and engineering
practices to engage all students through a culture of argumentative science no matter the ELL
level of proficiency and ensuring equitable opportunities for all voices to be heard and respected
(Quint et al., 2003). One way to ensure equitable opportunities is to implement culturally
relevant science strategies for Latina students (Marinez, Ortiz de Montellano, & Bernardo,
1988).
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 49
Culturally Relevant Strategies for Latina Learners of Science
Valuing the language and culture of their students, Gutierrez (2002) states, does not
require a teacher to be Latina or Spanish literate or share their ethnic background, but it is
necessary to use strategies that will assist and support their students. Instruction should help
students unravel their own beliefs into complete understandings of subject matter (Donovan,
Bransford, and Pellegrino, Minstrell, 1989). This type of multicultural educational practice
sends a message to all students, including minority children, to be proud of their cultural
background contributions to the field of science and even greater to their own individual science
interest (Marinez, Ortiz de Montellano, & Bernardo, 1988). The scientific and mathematical
intelligence of their ancestors exists in children; and should be used in educational science
instruction (Donovan et al., 1989).
Cultural groups develop “knowledge of the natural world through their members’
participation in informal learning experiences, which are influenced by the groups’ history and
values and demands and demands of specific settings” (NRC, 2012, p. 287). NRC further
explains, these types of cultural approaches to nature depict a perspective of diversity that needs
to be incorporated into SE and is supported with evidence from education, anthropology, and
cultural psychology. Using multicultural education from different cultural groups, for instance,
creates meaningful science and is an asset to develop science learning. According to Ford and
Kea (2009) student-centered approaches and caring relationships contribute to culturally
responsive teaching. Empowerment and a sense of belonging can be achieved through rigorous
and relevant multicultural curricula (Ford & Kea, 2009). Children reared in agricultural
communities in rural settings, for example, have experiences with animals and plants and
demonstrate a high level of cognitive understanding and awareness of the natural world than
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 50
students of the same age in urban or suburban settings (NRC, 2012). To encourage Latinas to
participate and develop interest in science exposure to their cultural discoveries sends the
message “my ancestors or people like me did engage in scientific endeavor and thus I can do it
too” (Marinez & Montellano, 1988). Marinez & Montellano (1988) specify culturally relevant
topics such as studying the Caracol at Chichen to teach archeoastronomy, studying geology
through the Mayan trading system of volcanic artifacts, and the chemistry of color through the
dyes of native plants and the purposes of herbal medicines.
Teachers must acknowledge that students have unique cultural identities to avoid
stereotypes that learners from a certain ethnic background share the same behaviors, attitudes,
and values (Nieto, 1999; Bianchini, Cavazos & Helm, 2000), “otherwise, teachers may develop a
false sense of confidence or begin to stereotype their Latina/o students as all being English
language learners” (Gutierrez, 2002n, p. 1078). In doing so, Nieto (1999) states, teachers may
move away from thinking of differences in negative terms. To make science meaningful for
young Latinas, elementary teachers, for instance, need to implement a variety of instructional
methods to engage under-represented groups toward the improvement of scientific achievement.
Recommendations for teaching Latinas include: (a) honoring the diversity of Latina experiences,
(b) avoiding deficit models, (c) knowing the students, (d) providing opportunities for learning
such as using their language for effective learning environments (Gutierrez, 2002; Moschkovich,
1999). To accomplish this, a teacher needs to, first, understand effective pedagogical content
knowledge.
Pedagogical Content Knowledge
Trygstad, Smith, Banilower, and Nelson (2013) state when teachers introduce science
concepts at the beginning of the lesson, student learning is often stifled. There are
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 51
inconsistencies with theories of pedagogy. Learning theories that encourage teachers’
introduction of concepts are based on behaviorist theory, an outward learning performance,
which emphasizes repetitive means towards mastery whereby students gain new knowledge and
apply it to similar or new scenarios (Ashley, 2017: Ertmer & Newby, 1993). These theories of
pedagogy are contrary to the effective science practices suggested by NGSS (Trygstad et al.,
2013), and may be considered as barriers to effective instruction in science. Another learning
theory, the cognitivism approach focuses on the internal processing of information and the ability
to adapt new learning to preexisting knowledge (Ashley, 2017: Ertmer & Newby, 1993). The
educator, for instance, takes on the role of a guide providing purposeful feedback and making
sure students structure understanding of material for better recall and application through concept
mapping, lecture material, or handouts to understand better the rigor of what they are learning.
The constructivist, a third approach, also focuses on the preexisting knowledge and recognizes
the unique backgrounds of diverse learners and how they construct meaning from acquired
knowledge; knowledge which is constantly revolving taking on new meanings when applied to
new situations (Ashley, 2017: Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Furthermore, collaborative group work,
argumentative reasoning, and debate are important to the constructivism approach. Figure 1
describes the three different approaches to science inquiry.
Elementary teachers need to have a certain knowledge about science to teach science
effectively (Appleton, 2006). The knowledge, for example, that teachers need is highly complex
and includes knowledge of content matter, pedagogical knowledge (how to teach), and
pedagogical content knowledge (content knowledge transformed so students understand it).
While secondary science teachers are trained in science pedagogical content knowledge (PCK),
elementary teachers need to have both PCK and ‘a workable store’ of content knowledge not
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 52
Figure 1. Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism Learning Theories

Figure 1. Ashley (2017). “Learning Theories and Law: Behaviorism, Cognitivism,
Constructivism.” RIPS Law Librarian Blog. Retrieved from https://
ripslawlibrarian.wordpress.com/2017/03/14/learning-theories-and-law-behaviorism-cognitivism-
constructivism/. Adapted from Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism,
constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design
perspective. Performance improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50-72.

only in science but in all subject matters (Appleton, 2006). Furthermore, while some teachers
avoid teaching science in the classrooms, other teachers bridge the content gap by using effective
science PCK and science activities that engage students. Serving as a science mentor in 2008,
Appleton explained to teachers why she was doing certain activities in science, and as she did
this, she exposed teachers to her beliefs about the learning of science, science instruction and the
nature of science – all elements that contribute to science PCK (Appleton, 2008). As teachers
observed Appleton, they assimilated features of her lessons in their instruction leading to the
construction of their own new PCK, development of confidence of science instruction,
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 53
understanding of science content, the ability to adapt science PCK with other methods of teacher
knowledge in their lessons, and adjusted their feelings of science instruction and learning
(Appleton, 2008).
Teachers with effective science PCK have the ability to use the thematic approach to
connect across domains (Putra, Widodo, & Sopandi, 2017). Different levels of PCK, for
example, correspond with teachers’ ability to integrate other subject matter into lessons. The
authors further add that at the lowest level, no integration with other domains exist; at the
beginning level, teachers understand content knowledge of science well and can integrate it with
another domain or subject; at the emergent level, teacher confidence to integrate science with
other difficult subjects is high; the highest level, the fundamental stage, indicates teachers have
developed PCK strategies due to their own personal experience with science application and the
other domains they wish to integrate. Providing support and fostering teacher ability to integrate
science with other subjects, may make SE implementation for diverse Latina populations a
reality.
Conclusion
The literature review outlines important practices in the implementation of SE. NGSS
provides a foundation for female teachers to step away from the traditional science fairs that
focus on the scientific method into an arena of science inquiry where learners can participate and
enter from different perspectives, as an observer, or a theorist who creates models to test
theories. Female teachers can become more comfortable and dedicate more time to science
implementation by using their expertise in language arts to connect to the argumentative,
evaluative forms of informational text to the scientific nature of science that follow the same
patterns, integrating it with the crosscutting concept of instruction and disciplinary core ideas of
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 54
science instruction. The 5E Instructional Model based on the Biological Sciences Curriculum
Study provides and impetus for implementing the constructivist approach to science inquiry
learning and can assist teachers with the management of science inquiry. Teacher ability to
manage science instruction and behavior is important in implementing SE. Since elementary
female teachers are generally more efficacious in language arts, given the focus on this subject
area in schools, they can become more comfortable with science inquiry through thematic
instruction. By combining SE with reading literacy, teachers can confront Latina ELL reading
fluency challenges and time constraints. Teachers can increase their self-efficacy in SE through
meaningful reading assignments and discussions about science instruction. Latina teachers who
value the language and culture of their young Latina students can instill in them a sense of pride
and interest in science through the implementation of lessons that target Latino contributions to
the field of science. Such creativity with science stems away from the Latino academic deficit
attention traditionally found in reform and scholarly research to a belief of Latino scientific and
mathematical intelligence. For this innovative form of science implementation to take place, the
Latina teacher needs to take an interest in science, and as Bandura (1997) states, “interest in
activities at which they feel efficacious and from which they drive self-satisfaction” (p. 219). To
understand the influences that effect female implementation of SE, the conceptual framework
based on Clark and Estes (2008) formed the basis of my study.
The Clark and Estes (2008) Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
Framework
Clark & Estes’ (2008) analytic framework provided a gap analysis process that identifies
problems, provides opportunities for performance improvement, gives advice on strategies, and
assessment towards achieving organizational goals. The first step toward increased performance
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 55
requires one to set clear goals, and then find gaps between performance and goals. Three factors
are theorized in this framework to cause performance gaps: people’s knowledge and skills;
motivation to achieve goals; and, organization barriers. The purpose of the team and individual
gap analysis is to determine if teachers have the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
(KMO) support for the achievement of goals. For successful goal achievement, all factors of
KMO must be aligned.
Four knowledge types and skills based on Bloom's Taxonomy determine stakeholder
performance towards the goal: factual, procedural, conceptual, and metacognitive (Anderson et
al., 2001; Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). The improvement of motivation occurs when the goal
indirectly "influence people's understanding of the impressions they create in others, about their
own ability to do a job, and their beliefs about the person or group benefits of work" (Clark &
Estes, 2008, p. 87). Motivation influences are directly related to active choice, persistence, and
mental effort towards achieving the goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). Motivation toward the
organizational goal is analyzed through a multidimensional model that addresses the
achievement gap by utilizing an organizational toolkit that lists principles, strategies and
assessments that deal with emotion, interest, attribution, and self-efficacy (Rueda, 2011).
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis was used to address teachers’ knowledge,
motivation and organizational factors that influenced the performance goal of 100% of AES
fifth-grade female teachers implementing NGSS through three inquiry-based Science2Minds unit
lessons and science labs to assist the organization in developing Latina students’ science identity
and closing the achievement gap in science between Latina and Latino students. The first
section, understanding knowledge, skills, and its influence on teacher practice is discussed as it
relates to teachers needing to build NGSS awareness, nature of science, and science self-
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 56
awareness. I then reviewed literature that focused on influences of knowledge and skills that
affect teacher’s science achievement. Understanding knowledge and its influence on teacher
practice are vital to the improvement of science teaching and science teacher education
(Magnusson et al., 1999). To attain the teacher stakeholder goal, there were particular
knowledge and skills that a teacher needed to have to facilitate the success of NGSS
implementation and the development of science self-efficacy. Next, motivational influences
were addressed as it pertained to the teacher science performance goal utilizing the principles of
expectancy-value theory and self-efficacy. Motivational influences such as self-efficacy, an
inner belief can only be measured by asking teachers to evaluate their ability in SE (Gray, 2017).
And, because self-efficacy judgments are associated to task attainment, researchers need to
clearly state what participant actions they are evaluating (Gray, 2017). To support teacher
efficacy, it is suggested for organizations to introduce and nurture ‘conceptions of ability’ which
identify the potential for learning and develop teachers’ belief in themselves as intelligent beings
(Darling-Hammond, 1996). Organizations need to consider teacher perspectives towards
implementation of planned changes (Darling-Hammond, 1996; Yore et al., 2005). Finally,
organizational influences such as science commitment, time investment, and assessment toward
the performance goal were discussed. Last, the conceptual framework, which incorporates
teacher knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences and the relationships between them
in achieving the stakeholder and organizational goal were presented.
Knowledge Influences
Literature that is relevant to knowledge as it relates to science instruction and
implementation of NGGS is discussed in this section. It is essential to examine the cognitive
domain of mental skills or knowledge as it relates to science and science instruction. Important
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 57
contributions to cognitive learning based on Bloom’s Taxonomy are four knowledge types:
factual, procedural, conceptual, and metacognitive (Anderson et al., 2001; Rueda, 2011).
Awareness of the four types of knowledge is crucial because different instructional approaches
are “more effective for some types of knowledges than others” (Rueda, 2011, p. 31); some types
are critical for school goals such as acquiring meaningful learning, solving problems, and
transferring knowledge to new settings and being able to solve problems (Rueda, 2011).
Declarative (factual) knowledge includes terminology, elements, details that one needs to be
familiar with to understand or solve a problem (Rueda, 2011). An example of factual
(declarative) knowledge is “the basic elements that [teachers and] students must know to be
acquainted with a discipline” (Krathwohl, 2002, p. 4); it is the observable facts in a science
model, and identifies the knowledge of facts, key ideas, concepts, and elements of science.
Procedural knowledge includes finite skills and methodologies required to accomplish activities:
it “refers to knowing how to do something” (Rueda, 2011, p. 28). An example of procedural
knowledge in science is the teacher’s “methods of inquiry, algorithms, techniques, and methods”
(Krathwohl, 2002, p.4); it refers to a teacher’s ability to carry out actions in a classroom to
complete science tasks. Conceptual knowledge refers to knowledge of theories, categories, and
principles; it is the interrelationship between basic elements among a larger structure that enables
them to function together (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). An example of conceptual
knowledge is how managers visualize the entire organization through a model, work with ideas
and develop connections between abstract concepts (Anderson, 2008); it is the way a science
teacher demonstrates a science model and helps the learner understand the concept better (NSC,
2012). Metacognition knowledge is the "awareness of one's own cognition" (Rueda, 2011, p.
28). The importance of metacognition is teachers and "students being made aware of their
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 58
metacognitive activity, and then using this knowledge to appropriately adapt the ways in which
they think and operate" (Krathwohl, 2002, p. 4). In learning “metacognition includes the
learners’ knowledge of how they learn and the learner’s control of the learning process” (Mayer,
2011, p. 131). Metacognition in science deals with teacher’s self-knowledge and self-regulating
factors towards science. An example of metacognition is setting goals and self-reflection on
strategies used in teaching such as when teachers and students learn about science concepts and
principles and become aware of the shift of initial “metaconceptual views towards the
metaconceptual perspectives of science knowledge” (Duit & Treagust, 2003, p. 675). It is the
science disequilibrium described by Piaget (1989) and supported by Sinatra & Pintrich (2003)
where a learner adjusts his own thinking to mismatches between existing schemata and
observation of natural phenomena as he strives for understanding. While all types of knowledge
are important to the performance outcomes of teachers toward the organizational goal, this study
focused on three types of science knowledge; declarative, procedural, and metacognition. These
knowledge influences were used to analyze the knowledge and skills that teachers need to build
science self-efficacy. Specifically, teachers need: (a) knowledge of NGSS science and
engineering practices; (b) knowledge of the steps necessary to complete the science learning
cycle; and (c) female teachers need awareness of their own stereotypes regarding science
instruction and self-efficacy in science to achieve the organizational goal to implement NGSS
through Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs.
Knowledge of NGSS performance expectations consisting of science practices,
disciplinary core ideas, and cross-cutting concepts. The Next Generation Science Standards
(NGSS) describes targets for science learning based on goals outlined in the Science Framework
which are framed as performance expectations at the end of a grade level or band. The
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 59
framework does not consist of a standard by standard approach, but describes what students
should understand, know and what they should be able to do; and, it illustrates scientific
engagement in science and engineering practices to develop essential science knowledge
(National Research Council, 2012: National Research Council, 2015). Becoming familiar with
the scientific and engineering practices required by New Generation Science Standards (NGGS)
is a declarative/factual starting point. Knowledge of the NGSS is essential to successful
implementation of curriculum (Odili, 2011). The three dimensions of the NGSS are as follows:
(a) science and engineering practices that explain how scientists “investigate phenomena and
build models and theories about the natural world”; (b) cross cutting concepts, which are
“themes that cut across all domains of science” such as cause and effect and stability and change;
and (c) disciplinary core ideas, which include physical science, earth & space science, life
science, and engineering and technology (see Appendix C for the Framework for K-12 Science
Education: The Three Dimensions of the NGSS). While NGSS requires knowledge of the
engineering practices, for this study the focus was on knowledge of the science practices.
The disciplinary core ideas allow for student background experiences, interests, and
questions they may pose at different ages for example “Why is the sky blue?” and “What is the
smallest piece of matter?” (National Research Council 2012, p. H4). The list may seem
overwhelming but coordinating with the performance expectations that are already bundled by
the NGSS Lead States (2013) may assist teachers in selecting, incorporating and planning the
year around the disciplinary core ideas with existing curriculum into a year’s instruction. This
may assist elementary teachers with NGSS implementation towards increasing science self-
efficacy. The National Research Council (2012) also acknowledged the fact that many teachers
may not have the experience to teach new material and decide to combine engineering with
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 60
technology. Teachers and students need to “appreciate the distinctions and relationships between
engineering, technology, and applications of science” (National Research Council, 2012, p. 17).
The engineering cycle of design provides students with the opportunity to apply science
knowledge and technology as they solve problems in the world to meet human needs (National
Research Council, 2012). NGSS provides commonalities among Science, Math, and English
Language Arts to alleviate teacher constraints (see Figure 2 below).
Figure 2. Commonalities among Science, Math, and English Language Arts

Adapted from “CSMP - California Subject Matter Project” by University of California -
Riverside, csmp.ucop.edu/csp.
3

3
Figure 2. Concentric circles demonstrate how science practices interact with different subject areas practices in
English Language Arts and math. Simultaneously it demonstrates how math practices interact with science and
English Language Arts. The same is evident in how English Language Art practices interact with science and math.
All have the commonality of: (a) E2: building a strong base of knowledge through content rich texts; (b) ES: Read,
write, and speak grow; (c) M3 & E4: construct viable arguments and critique reasoning of others; and, (d) engage in
argument from evidence.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 61
By beginning at the factual/declarative stage of science knowledge and acknowledging
the different practices necessary to science instruction, teachers can start to set year-long goals to
implement the practices (NSTC, 2014). They can become familiar with how the three
dimensions consisting of science and engineering practices, disciplinary core ideas, and cross-
cutting concepts come together to form the NGSS performance expectations. Two NRC (2012)
sample performance expectations are explained below for fifth-grade by integrating the three
dimensions. Table 2 describes the performance expectations for the Physical Sciences. Below
the task depicts the student expected performance and the criteria explain how the performance
will be evaluated. Following is an example of how the three dimensions are “brought together in
performing the tasks” (NRC, 2012, p. 13).
Table 2
Sample Performance Expectation in the Physical Science PS1A: Structure and Properties of
Matter
By End of Grade 5
Tasks Students describe strategies for gathering evidence
whether matter exists when not visible.
Criteria The design includes methods of measuring weight with or
without the invisible solute present. Students weigh pure
water and salt before and after it dissolves in water.
Disciplinary Core Ideas
PS3. B: Conservation of Energy
and Energy Transfer
“Matter of any type can be subdivided into particles (tiny
pieces) that are too small to see, but even then, the matter
still exists and can be detected by other means (such as
through its effects on other objects) …The amount of
matter is conserved when it changes form, even in
transitions in which it seems to vanish” (e.g., salt in
solution) (p. 10).
Practices Planning investigations
Matter and energy are conserved in each change” (p. 12).
Crosscutting Concepts Energy and Matter
Matter cycles and conversation
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 62
Argumentation Supporting claims with evidence
Modeling Drawing diagrams of solutes and solvents
National Research Council. (2012b). A framework for K-12 science education: Practices,
crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/13165.
Table 3 below describes the three dimensions in a fifth-grade life science sample
performance. It depicts the expected performance and how the task will be evaluated.
Table 3
Sample Performance Expectations in the Life Sciences
By End of Grade 5
Tasks “Explain how animals use food and provide examples and evidence
that support each type of use” (p. 4).

Criteria “A full explanation should be supported by diagrams and argument
from evidence. It should include and support the claims that food
provides materials for building body tissue and that it is the fuel used
to produce energy for driving life processes. An example of building
materials should include reference to growth and repair. Evidence for
growth and repair should include the use of some of food's weight in
the process of adding body weight or tissue. An example of the use
of energy should include internal motion (e.g., heartbeat), external
motion (self-propulsion, breathing), or maintenance of body
temperature. Evidence for energy use should refer to the need for
energy transfer in performing the activity" (p. 5).
Disciplinary Ideas “All living organisms require energy. Animals and plants alike
generally need to take in air and water, animals must take in food, and
plants need light and minerals; anaerobic life, such as bacteria in the
gut, functions without air. Food provides animals with the materials
they need for body repair and growth and is digested to release the
energy they need to maintain body warmth and for the motion" (p. 6).
Practices “Argumentation: Supporting claims with evidence” (p. 6)
Crosscutting “Patterns, similarity, and diversity: Living organisms have similar
needs but diverse ways of obtaining food. Matter conservation” (p.
7).
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 63
Concepts “Use labeled diagrams and text to present and explicate a model that
describes and elucidates the process in questions” (p. 7).
National Research Council. (2012b). A framework for K-12 science education: Practices,
crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/13165.

Teachers need to know the steps necessary to complete science inquiry-based
learning. To implement the NGSS practices will require teachers to move away from the
textbook toward inquiry-based learning (National Research Council, 2011). According to
Behavioral Theories of Learning, changes in the environment can affect behavior (Daly, 2009;
Tuckman, 2009). “The State Board of Education knows that the NGSS represents a very
different way of teaching from the 1988 California science standards, and knows that change
takes time” (Kirst, 2017, p. 1). Teachers and instruction are major influences on what, how, and
how much students learn, so their change in behavior is critical to the implementation of NGSS.
(Kirst, 2017). Procedural knowledge in science is the teacher’s “methods of inquiry”
(Krathwohl, 2002, p. 4). The Science Framework values inquiry-based science (NRC, 2011).
An understanding of the pedagogy of inquiry-based science is directly related to how teachers
teach science; teachers need to understand the procedural learning cycle of inquiry-based science
(Munck, 2007). Teachers need to understand that science is embedded in inquiry-based learning
(Cavallo, et al., 2002; Munck, 2007; Watters & Diezmann, 2016). By changing teacher behavior
from utilizing textbooks to science labs, teachers can engage students’ thoughts for reflection by
asking questions and using science models (Driver et al., 1994; Duckworth, 1987).
Within inquiry-based learning the scientific roles of a teacher are to provide physical
science experiences and interventions that allow learner reflections with argumentative evidence
in support of assertions (Driver et al., 1994; Piaget & Garcia, 1989; Piaget, 1985). According to
Piaget (1989), inquiry-based science requires the following procedures: experiment, collect,
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 64
interpret data; and discuss outcomes through language discourse among students. This approach
aligns to a constructivist approach to learning and is recommended by NGSS in the 5E
Instructional Model based on the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (Burke, 2014; Bybee,
2006). The steps include: engage (linking past and present experiences; and engagement in the
skill of instruction), explore (students actively identify concepts and skills and explore materials
or the environment), explain (students have opportunities to communicate conceptual
understandings or demonstrate to peers new behaviors and skills), elaborate (students practice
behaviors and skills and develop rigor of learning through novel experiences, refine skills, and
obtain extra information in their areas of interest), evaluate (students receive feedback; students
assess and communicate their own abilities and understandings while allowing the teacher to
evaluate their students' understanding of science concepts; teachers can begin to evaluate from
the beginning of the learning cycle) (Bybee, 2006; Bybee, 2009). Inquiry-based learning is
sometimes confused with hands-on activities or facts that need verification which tends to
overlook science inquiry that can be valuable to the science learner (Bybee, 2006; Munford,
Zembal-Saul, & Friedrichsen, 2002). Scientific inquiry involves engaging in argumentative
science by actively participating in questions, using evidence to respond to questions, developing
explanations using evidence, making a connection to scientific phenomena, justifying and
communicating explanations to peers (Munford et al., 2002; National Research Council, 2000).
This shift moves from science as ‘experiment and exploration' to science as ‘explanation and
argument' (Munford et al., 2002). Learners need to develop conceptual understandings of
scientific inquiry, and teachers need to provide opportunities in the classroom for students to
both engage in inquiry-based investigations and provide time for students to think about their
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 65
processes in scientific inquiry (Munford et al., 2002). Teachers are not prepared to teach in this
manner and need support in science inquiry (Munford et al., 2002).
An essential component of scientific inquiry is argumentative science, but the word
argumentative science may cause confusion (Kuhn, 2014). In the scientific realm, an argument
can be considered as a scientific negotiation where explanations are created, communicated,
verified, and debated (Kuhn, 2014). Teachers need to provide an environment where student
thoughts are welcomed and validated (Kuhn, 2014). Kuhn (2014) demonstrates a mini-activity
of the Next Generation Science Standard 4-PS42 where students are grouped in pairs to complete
a shrinking pupil experiment. Students in pairs filled out a sheet to explain what they observed
immediately after they pulled a bag over their partner's head; students observed their partner's
pupils shrinking to adjust to the light (Kuhn, 2014). Students then had to find partners who held
the similar beliefs (claims) and then had a day to do research proving their claim using the
internet (Kuhn, 2014). This activity allows learners to create disequilibrium and accommodate
their beliefs as they gain new knowledge through scientific observations; if the learner adds new
knowledge then he assimilates the information into the existing framework (Kuhn, 2014). This
type of science argumentative inquiry allows "students ownership of their learning; lets them act
like actual scientists (backing claims with evidence); and negotiation with peers makes the
outcome of the argument more plausible than simply being told by the teacher" (Kuhn, 2014, p.
2). Scientific argumentation is a dialog that "addresses the coordination of evidence and theory
to advance an explanation, a model, a prediction or an evaluation” (Duschl & Osborne, 2002, p.
55-56). It describes the nature of science as a scientist works on scientific new knowledge, “the
application of well-established theories, or a student attempting to comprehend old knowledge,
the argumentation process is essentially similar – both participants have to construct an argument
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 66
that justifies the claims they espouse in the light of the evidence that they have to hand” (Duschl
& Osborne, 2002, p. 56). An important issue, therefore, is providing discourse opportunities in
the science classroom to “reflect or model the discourse practices and processes employed in
science” (Duschl & Osborne, 2002, p. 56).
In addition to the steps and procedures in inquiry-based science learning, the teacher's
role in facilitating the knowledge is different. By changing teacher behavior from utilizing
textbooks to science labs, teachers can engage others’ thoughts for reflection by asking the
following questions when implementing the second science practice, using science models:
What do you mean? How did you do that? Why do you say that? Could you give me an
example? How did you figure that? (Driver et al., 1994; Duckworth, 1987).
Female teachers need to be aware of their own stereotypes regarding science
instruction and self-awareness in science. Educational practices can alleviate inequitable
science learning environments for females (Kahle & Lakes, 1983; Gonzalez & Kuenzi, 2012).
Teachers reflecting on gender equity in classrooms can reduce gender gaps in SE. Ensuring that
girls have equitable opportunities to participate in scientific inquiry-based projects can alleviate
females from losing interest in science (Keeves & Kotte, 1996; Jones, Howe & Rua, 2000). This
metacognitive knowledge influence is a reason for the development of New Generation Science
Standards (NGSS). NGSS is intended to promote scientific literacy for all students. NRC
(2012) Framework for K-12 SE, Chapter 11 Equity and Diversity in Science and Engineering
Education makes two links: (a) differences in science opportunities to learn science is attributed
to inequities within and across districts, schools, and communities; and (b) the second link
discusses how instruction can be more inclusive for marginalized student populations. Inequities
in SE are also attributed to low expectations and biased stereotypes of the abilities of
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 67
marginalized populations (NRC, 2012). Low reading abilities of students in elementary school
cause challenges for teachers in science, math and language arts and reinforces the low
expectations and low ability tracking reducing their pathways to STEM-related fields (NRC,
2012).
All students from different social classes and demographic groupings are capable of
learning science when they are provided supportive learning conditions over extended time
periods (NRC, 2012). Just as students are expected to be able to read and write, then all students
should be expected to learn disciplinary core ideas, as well as science and engineering practices
(NRC, 2012). All students can meet rigorous science standards when teachers avoid biases
against specific demographic groups or individuals, and ensure inclusiveness of diversity (Lee,
Miller, & Januszyk, 2014). Achievement gaps for Latinos are well documented, and female
interest in science declines as they transition to middle school (NRC, 2012). The explanations
for these gaps are many but “often result from ‘resource gaps’ or gaps in ‘opportunities to learn’
(NRC, 2012, p. 6). What we know is that there are stereotypes related to gender, and that girls
have not tended to see themselves as ‘science people’ (Kotte, 1992). Kotte (1992) reported that
females begin to dislike science between 10 and 14 years of age (fifth-grade thru 9
th
grade); in
2000 those same issues existed (Jones, Howe & Rua, 2000). Jones et al., (2000) found that huge
science interests were related to science content which begins early in life; “more females than
males perceived science as difficult to understand and as involving experiments” (p. 2). Implicit
stereotypes and gender differences contribute to the persistent “female gender gap in science
engagement” (Nosek et al., 2009). Through a national study among various ages, Nosek et al.
(2009) found that socio-cultural factors such as women associating men being better in math and
science influence STEM achievement for boys, girls, women and men; the phenomenon “termed
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 68
‘social identity threat’ causes increased anxiety, increased cognitive load, and will produce the
conceived stereotype about one’s group” (Nosek et al., 2009, p. 4). Implicit stereotyping is
related to gender inequality in science (Nosek et al., 2009). Researchers found that “perceived
ability, importance of science, and perceived instrumentality were more highly related to
[females’] stereotyped views of science than was the case with males” (Debacker & Nelson,
1999, p. 88).
Education gaps need to be closed by overcoming the implicit stereotypes. An effective
intervention that changes implicit stereotypes or participation gaps can have cascading
influences; changing one factor produces change upon another toward a new homeostasis point
(Nosek et al., 2009). Teachers need to present science as both appropriate for girls and boys; to
expect girls to engage in science activities and use science tools with ease (Jones, 2000). To do
this, it is crucial that teachers acknowledge their own metacognitive factors; that when they see a
child as a deficit, the child will develop ‘learned helplessness’; the student who has experienced
no connection between rewards and behaviors does not try (Triandis, 1980; Dweck, 2000);
many women convince themselves that they are not capable of learning science because “science
does not connect with rewards” (Triandis, 1980, p. 171). Female teachers need to have the
metacognitive knowledge that these feelings will affect their female students’ interest in science
(Butts et al., 1997). Female teachers need self-regulation to value science learning for
themselves and for their female students, and to ultimately close the performance gaps in
science. To close the gender equity gap, Riggs (1991) suggested teachers reflect upon gender
inequity practices. These prior experiences of negative outcomes with science cause elementary
teachers to avoid teaching science (Butts et al., 1997; Cavallo, Miller, & Saunders, 2002).
Limited knowledge of science causes female teachers to feel uncomfortable teaching science
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 69
(Cavallo et al., 2002; Levitt, 2001). In 2011, 76.1 % of U.S. elementary school teachers were
women (U.S. Department of Education, 2011). If a large percentage of female teachers feel they
are not capable of learning science they pass those inadequate feelings onto their students
(Cavallo, Miller, & Saunders, 2002; Watters & Ginns, 2000). According to Bandura (1977), we
acquire new behaviors through demonstration and modeling with credible models. Female
teachers need to have the knowledge that stereotypes, and biased feelings will affect their female
student’s interest in science (Butts et al., 1997).
This section has detailed the knowledge and skills teachers are theorized to need in order
to meet their stakeholder goal. Clark and Estes (2008), state to close equity gaps, it is necessary
to assess knowledge and skill gaps in reference to deficits; “people are often unaware of their
own lack of knowledge and skills or reluctant to disclose weaknesses about the knowledge and
skills deficits of other people” (Clark & Estes, 2008, p. 44). Below is a summary of the
knowledge influences that serve as a focus for my study (see Table 4).
Table 4
Assumed Knowledge Influences
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type (i.e.,
declarative (factual or
conceptual), procedural, or
metacognitive)
Female teachers need to know the three dimensions of the
Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), the eight
science and engineering practices, cross-cutting concepts,
and core disciplinary ideas and how they come together in
the performance expectations.

Declarative
(factual)
Female teachers need to know the steps necessary to
complete science inquiry-based learning.
Procedural
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 70

Motivation Influences
The motivation-related influences that were pertinent to the achievement of teachers’
goal to implement NGSS by implementing Science2Minds are presented in this section. In
addition to knowledge influences, the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework includes
motivational influences. Pintrich and Schunk (1996) state motivation consists of the “internal,
psychological process that gets us going, keeps us moving, and helps us get jobs done” (as cited
in Clark & Estes, 2008, p. 44). Motivation has three aspects: choosing to complete a goal,
persisting towards the goal, and the mental effort investing in getting it done (Clark & Estes,
2008). Studies on science demonstrate that elementary teachers often express negative attitudes
toward science and teaching science (Cavallo et al., 2002; Koballa, 1988; Westerback, 1982).
Attitudes are important to examine, because people who feel they are effective and capable
achieve more than those who are just as capable but doubt their own abilities (Bandura, 1997;
Clark & Estes, 2008). Individuals who feel they are capable exert effort and persistence in SE
and achievement (DeBacker & Nelson, 1999). The expectancy-value theory is useful to
determine how it is related to "three science outcome measures: effort and persistence in science
learning, and science achievement" (DeBacker & Nelson, 1999). While there are numerous
theories and constructs, expectancy-value theory by Eccles (2006) is discussed as it relates to the
stakeholder goal. Constructs that may be investigated using the expectancy-value model are:
teachers' valuing of science, teachers' science beliefs, and teachers' expectancies for science
achievement (DeBacker & Nelson, 1999). Another important theory to my research was the self-
Female teachers need to be aware of their own stereotypes
in regard to science instruction and self-awareness in
science.
Metacognitive

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 71
efficacy theory based on Bandura (1977) psychological constructs. Self-efficacy in science
teaching is essential in implementing change within elementary schools (Ramey-Gassert,
Shroyer & Staver, 1996; Berman, 1977). Teacher science self-efficacy is “related to teachers’
belief in their ability to teach science, called personal science teaching efficacy (PSTE), and their
belief in students’ ability to learn called science teaching outcome expectancy (STOE)” (Ramey-
Gassert, Shroyer & Staver, 1996, p. 284). These theories are used to examine the importance of
teachers needing to believe they have the knowledge and skills to implement NGSS.
Female teachers need to choose to engage in SE (Expectancy-Value). Expectancies
and values directly influence persistence, performance and task choice (Eccles & Wigfield,
2002). Expectancies and values are influenced by perceptions of competence and by the
difficulty of different tasks. Individuals’ goals are influenced by the person’s perceptions of
expectations for them, and by their previous achievements. Expectancies for success are defined
as “individuals’ beliefs about how well they will do on upcoming task …[and] in a manner
analogous to measures of Bandura’s (1977) personal efficacy expectations” (Eccles & Wigfield,
2002, p. 119). Individuals’ belief expectancies for success or failure, for instance, are related to
their evaluations of competence in different domains, and are related to the question "Can I do
this task?" When teachers respond positively they are motivated to complete challenging tasks.
Expectancy-value theories by Eccles are based on Atkinson's (1964) expectancy-value model
where performance, persistence, and choice are linked to individuals' expectancy-related and task
value beliefs; and "are positively related to each other, rather than inversely related as proposed
by Atkinson" (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002, p. 118). Expectancy-Value Motivational Theory is
defined as the personal value one attaches to learning and influenced by several factors (Eccles,
2006). A theoretical starting point was understanding teachers’ science-related beliefs and
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 72
values. Expectancies and values, for instance, are influenced by task-specific beliefs:
perceptions of task difficulty, perceptions of competence, self-schema and individual’s goals.
Expectancy-Value Motivational Theory “consists of four task value motivational components:
utility value, cost, attainment value, and intrinsic value” (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002, p. 12).
Utility value measures “valuing science for its usefulness in the future” (DeBacker & Nelson,
1999, p. 73). Cost is the worthiness of exerting effort and time for SE; intrinsic value is the
measure of the amount in which [teachers] find enjoyment from science activities (DeBacker &
Nelson, 1999). Attainment value is a measure of how important it is [for a teacher] to master
science concepts and science teaching (DeBacker & Nelson, 1999).
Moderate levels of expectancy and value are essential for teachers to be motivated to
teach science, place value in science, and enjoy science. Utilizing the intrinsic value of the
expectancy-value theory provides important insights of the difficulty in NGSS SE and the
teacher "perceived abilities of science education" (DeBacker & Nelson, 1999, p. 73). "Learning
goal scores were positively related to the value [teachers] placed on the science experience
(intrinsic valuing) and their positive science perceptions (positive affect) stemming from their
participation in the science activities” (Cavallo, Miller, and Saunders, 2002, p. 30).
Eccles &Wigfield (2014) link attainment value to engaging in the task of “confirming or
disconfirming salient aspects of one's self-schema …such as masculinity, femininity, and or
competence in various domains" (p. 12-13). Gender self-schemata and one's gender-stereotypic
beliefs regarding achievement domains are likely to influence task valuing (DeBacker & Nelson,
1999). DeBacker & Nelson, (1999) found that perceived ability significantly was a factor in
predicting female outcomes in science. It was important to determine female teacher perceived
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 73
ability in carrying out SE in the classroom and its effect on Latinas' interest and enjoyment of
science learning.
Changes in competence beliefs predict change in interests, and over time individual's
attach a greater amount of value to well-performed activities for several reasons including: (a)
the positive experience when one performs well, becomes connected to activities which yield
success; and (b) lowering the value on demanding activities is an effective manner in
maintaining an effective positive source of efficacy (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Teachers
practicing SE over time may predict change in interests about science as they experience success
in SE and thereby producing a source of effective efficacy that transforms into the self-efficacy
of Latina science learning.
There is a limited amount of literature that reflects expectancy-value theory and how it
motivates an individual in SE (DeBacker & Nelson, 1999). It is hoped that this research will
shed more light on the subject including the cross-section between expectancy-value, science,
and Latina teachers.
Self-efficacy (social cognitive theory). Self-efficacy theory by Bandura (1997) is
defined as "individual confidence in their ability to organize and execute a given course of action
to solve a problem or accomplish a task…some people have a strong sense of efficacy [on
difficult tasks], and others do not [only on easier tasks]" (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002, p. 2).
Bandura (1997) explains that while some individuals believe a particular behavior may produce a
specific outcome (outcome expectation), they may not believe that they can do the behavior
(efficacy-expectation) (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Self-efficacy influences goal setting, the
performance of effort toward goals, and persistence of effort in the face of difficulty (Hackett &
Betz, 1982). A teacher’s self-efficacy refers to a teacher’s beliefs to bring about desired
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 74
outcomes from student learning and engagement even from those who are not motivated
(Bandura, 1977). Literature presented above by Riggs (1991), has demonstrated that females
avoid science due to negative experiences, but recent research also shows that teachers have
weak science content and negative experiences with science (Knaggs & Sondergeld, 2015).
Increasing science self-efficacy in teachers can alleviate the negativity associated with science
instruction (Knaggs & Sondergeld, 2015). Knaggs & Sondergeld (2015) indicate that as teachers
model science, both student and teachers grow as confident learners simultaneously. Such self-
efficacy beliefs influence behavior and are created from unsuccessful or successful experiences
(Watters & Ginns, 2000). While research on science self-efficacy is available, there is a lack of
empirical cross-sectional research among self-efficacy and Latina science teachers, and the effect
of culture on the self-efficacy of Latina teachers in SE. It is hoped that this research will shed
more information on Latina teacher science self-efficacy.
Female teachers need to have the self-efficacy to believe they have the knowledge and
skills to implement science lessons. The literature mentioned above, presented empirical
research to discuss science teachers and self-efficacy. While research in science, self-efficacy,
and Latina female teachers is limited, this section discusses theoretical research to address SE
and teacher self-efficacy. Bandura’s (1977) psychological theory of self-efficacy states that
perceived self-efficacy affects the individual's choice of behavioral attitudes. Individuals avoid
situations that evoke threat because such settings exceed their capacity to cope, but participate in
activities they can handle (Bandura, 1977). Perceived self-efficacy influences coping
mechanisms developed through eventual successes. Efficacy expectations predict how long
individuals persist as they confront obstacles and difficult experiences (Bandura, 1977). As
individuals persist in threatening situations, their sense of efficacy will "gain corrective
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 75
experiences that reinforce their sense of efficacy, thereby eventually eliminating their defensive
behavior" (Bandura, 1977, p. 194). The stronger the perceived efficacy, the more effort an
individual exerts on a task (Bandura, 1977). If female teachers avoid science due to negative
childhood experiences but learn to face uncomfortable science situations and persist in their
efforts to implement SE, teachers will gain positive experiences to reinforce their teacher self-
efficacy in SE ultimately eliminating defensive behavior of female negative experiences with
science. Bandura (1977) states "participant modeling approach to the elimination of defensive
behavior utilizes successful performance as the primary vehicle of psychological change. People
displaying intractable fears and inhibitions are not about to do what they dread" (p. 197).
Increasing science self-efficacy through vicarious experiences is possible by seeing others
perform science activities without negative consequences and create expectations in teachers that
they can improve in SE if they persist in their efforts (Bandura, 1977). Bandura (1977) proposes
that as modeling of the behavior progresses, individuals achieve performance improvement.
Modeled behavior that demonstrates clear outcomes through observations of activities produces
effective improvements than modeled performances that do not show observable consequences
(Bandura, 1977). Modeled behavior confirms, not only do teachers have to receive professional
development support in SE through expert models, but they must see how it works in the actual
classroom with students.
Bandura (1986) states that there are four components for teacher self-efficacy beliefs:
experiencing success, observing success of a credible model, persuasion by changing negative
beliefs into positive beliefs, and emotional tone provides oneself with the metacognitive
motivation that one is successful in vicarious experiences with science (Haney et al., 1996).
Experiencing success entails that teachers be provided with experiences during training that
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 76
allows teachers to practice the intended behaviors and be given self, peer, or administrative
feedback (Haney et al., 1996). Perceptions of teacher capabilities are formed within
organizational opportunities and challenges (Tschannen-Moran, Hoy & Hoy, 1998).
Using the Rand Instrument, Berman et al. (1977) indicate that teacher efficacy is related
to the number of achieved project goals, the extent of teacher change, the continuation of
projects, and improved student achievement. Teaching efficacy belief “is a teacher’s belief in his
or her own ability to teach, called personal teaching efficacy, and to have students learn, called
teaching outcome expectancy” (Ramey-Gassert, Shroyer, & Staver, 1996, p. 286). A study by
Ramey-Gassert et al. (1996), found that “elementary science teachers indicated that low science
teaching outcome expectancy (a teacher's belief in students' ability to learn science) was related
to self-perceived deficiencies in background knowledge and unsuccessful experiences in science
courses” (p. 34). Thus, preservice teachers who have “a low self-concept of ability about
learning science may translate their personal beliefs into judgments about their students' abilities
to learn science” (Ramey-Gassert, Shroyer, & Staver, 1996, p. 34).
Through motivational influences teachers need “belief in one’s ability to succeed in
specific situations or accomplish a task” (Hackett & Betz, 1982, p. 1). Teachers need to believe
they have the self-efficacy to become familiar with the knowledge of science curriculum
essential for its successful implementation; “a teacher without knowledge of the curriculum will
not be able to present learning in a way as to achieve these skills in pupils” (Odili, Ebisine, &
Ajuar, 2011, p. 7). Thus, knowledge and self-efficacy are related. A teacher with several
courses in science has a more significant orientation towards science, which results in positive
attitudes towards the teaching of science lessons and teacher personal efficacy beliefs regarding
science (Cavallo, Millers & Saunders, 2002). But because high school science scores remain
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 77
low among females, scientific knowledge is not enough to produce teacher science self-efficacy,
science experts who understand science inquiry pedagogy are essential for effective change
within the science field and curricula in K-12 SE (McEwan & McEwan, 2003). Haney,
Czerniak, and Lumpe (1996) used Ajzen’s (1985) theory of Reasoned Action's formula and
indicated that teacher support triggers the intent or attitude of the behavior towards science
implementation and allows teachers to believe in the value of science instruction. Within
science, developing practical science curricula requires finding creative ways to implement the
nature of science opposed to classroom science that follows textbook curricula; science is a
manner of thinking not just a body of knowledge (Lederman, 1993). Implementing science
through effective science curricula like Science2Minds, and through teachers who gain
efficacious attitudes toward SE, this will ultimately both increase Latina self-efficacy and
enhance their learning in science.
Female teachers need to have the self-efficacy to believe they can implement science
literacy for equitable SE. Teachers need to believe that their knowledge of science literacy
especially in the physical sciences makes a difference in SE. Riggs (1991) explains that
inequitable practices stem from low teacher female self-efficacy. Using the STEBI self-efficacy
instrument, Riggs found that both pre-service and in-service female teachers demonstrated a
lower science self-efficacy than males. The difference, she reasons, may stem from inequitable
learning experience males and females encounter in the same classroom setting which begins in
elementary years and continues through college. Effective science strategies for minorities and
girls include the promotion of scientific literacy (King, Shumow, & Lietz, 2001). Unfortunately,
teacher reliance upon textbooks is dependent on teacher’s limited educational backgrounds in
science content knowledge (King, Shumow, & Lietz, 2001). Individuals need to understand that
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 78
scientific literacy entails the scientific process, the logic of experimentation, argumentative
discussions and measurements based on scientific constructs (Miller, 1983; Allum, 2010). The
limited value teachers place upon science literacy as an end of the day activity with readings
from a book, taking notes and completion of worksheets is evident in elementary schools (Rice
& Roychoudhury, 2003). Scientific literacy consists of the meaningful knowledge and
understanding of themes within SE such as nature of science, science-based inquiry and the
conceptual themes such as physical science, matter, earth-space (Yore & Treagust, 2006). It
stresses critical thinking, big ideas, argumentative discussions to persuade others, which are
necessary at high levels for future science professionals (Yore & Treagust, 2006). It can
consider the scientific literacy of different cultures and their contributions to society that can
serve as a motivator for science teaching and learning (Gonzalez, Moll & Amanti, 2005;
Marinez, Ortiz de Montellano, & Bernardo, 1988; Nieto, 2000). Below is a summary of the
motivational influences that serve as a focus for my study (see Table 5).
Table 5
Assumed Motivation Influences
Assumed Motivation Influences

Type of Motivation Influence
Female teachers need to choose to engage
in SE.

Expectancy-Value Theory
Female teachers need to have the self-
efficacy to believe they have the
knowledge and skills to implement science
lessons.
Self-efficacy
Female teachers need to have the self-
efficacy to believe they can implement
science literacy for equitable SE.
Self-efficacy

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 79
Organizational Influences
Literature that focuses on the organization’s cultural models and settings needed to
improve the science achievement of female teachers attaining their organizational goal are
reviewed in this section. Improvement depends on how the organizational culture is considered
to achieve organizational goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Goals are achieved through an interacting
system of knowledge, skills, and motivation, and failing to support the process causes
organizational inefficiencies (Clark & Estes, 2008). Organizational culture exists within the
realms of the unconscious and conscious understandings of what one values, who we are, and
how one accomplishes what is done within an organization (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Understanding knowledge and its influence on teacher change within the organizational culture
may promote desired performance outcomes in science practice. Clark & Estes (2008) state that
organizational gaps may be caused by barriers such as resources, materials, work processes,
culture, value streams, and chains. Research in school culture has provided understandings of
why teachers think and perform in the contextual setting of schools (Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001). Culture models within a school are familiar and invisible and define the way things are
including shared experiences (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural setting works within the
cultural model and is defined as two or more individuals coming together to accomplish a goal;
the Navajo girl who assists her mother’s weaving, and in the fullness of time, becomes a master
weaver herself (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Even when organizations exhibit high
knowledge, misalignment of work processes and resources to support the culture of the
organization will cause performance gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008). To improve the culture of an
organization, it is essential for leaders to observe and follow their own practices and policies
(Schneider, Brief, & Guzzo, 1996). Since values and beliefs are contributing factors that
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 80
constitute the culture of the organization, to make a change to the climate, leaders need to know
how to change member beliefs and values of the organizations (Schneider, Brief, & Guzzo,
1996). Changing or enhancing cultural influences are accomplished in the same manner as
changing performance and motivational skills (Clark & Estes, 2008). The organizational
influences used to analyze the organizational culture needed for teachers to build science self-
efficacy through the implementation of NGSS are: (a) the organization needs to support teachers
with training to implement the newness of NGSS and CAST assessments; (b) the organization
needs to create, disseminate and implement goals and plans to implement new changes in SE;
and (c) the organization needs to set a system of NGSS aligned evaluations.
Cultural settings. Participation is needed within all levels to create change. Leaders
must communicate and identify the current state of the organization and then compare it to the
vision to create tension (Senge, 1990). To manage organizations, leaders need to become helpful
and seek help when subordinates are more knowledgeable (Shein, 2011). Leaders need to create
islands where people from different cultures can suspend rules and discuss how they deal with
trust, authority or deal with bosses who make mistakes (Shein, 2011); if leaders can’t make this
island, then they won’t be able to make teams that work (Shein, 2011). Shein (2011)
recommends being culturally literate; leaders need to visit different occupational groups across
cultural organizations by traveling broadly, not only traveling physically but also
psychologically. Implementing new science frameworks influence organizations’ commitment
to curriculum changes, teacher involvement and training (Robles, 1994). Understanding the new
NGSS will require a safe culture of making mistakes with new innovative methods of teaching
science through engineering, math, technology, and art.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 81
The organization needs to support female teachers with training to implement the
newness of NGSS and CAST assessments. It was important to examine the cultural influences
and culture models as it related to implementation of science reform. For assets and barriers to
change in organizational cultures toward SE, participation is required at all levels to incorporate
change (Senge, 1990). Teacher belief structures are important to improving their own
professional development and teacher practices (Pajares, 1996). Skill-specific and practical
science professional development activities accompanied by teacher participation in the
decisions of projects promotes mutual adaptation (Berman, 1977). Berman (1977) states mutual
adaptations refers to teachers adapting "the change agent project to the reality of their own
classrooms, and in turn be changed by it" (p. 187). Professional development activities that are
timely and practical influence long-term use of appropriate practices, such as science projects in
the classroom (Berman, 1977). Current science reform indicates professional development is
important for student achievement in science (Berman 1977; Supovits & Turner, 2000). This
professional development for science reform and implementation of NGSS not only includes the
principals’ support, but the superintendent’s commitment to change effort towards new
innovations in science reform (Berman, 1977).
The organization needs to create, disseminate and implement goals and plans to
implement new changes in SE. National Standards are a step towards improving SE and to
address challenges, stakeholders of the educational community need roadmaps and notes to deal
with the difficulties of implementing new reform (Bybee, Ferrini-Mundy & Loucks-Horsley,
1997). Change in large organizations is more difficult than it appears; but new policies need to
be aligned to new goals of change (Buckingham & Curt Coffman, 2014). To avoid the mistakes
of previous science reforms, barriers need to be identified (Haney, Czerniak, & Lumpe, 1996).
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 82
Several states have adopted NGSS and California has begun a series of science framework
rollouts to train teachers and administrators [nextgenscience.com]. Teachers’ intention to
implement new science reform is dependent on teachers' attitudes toward the behavior of
implementation. The organizational culture needs to incorporate the beliefs of teachers before
implementing goals and plans to effectively make changes. The organizational culture must
incorporate effective science reform strategies so that it takes place at the local level instead of
top-down politically driven reform that has proven to be ineffective (Haney et al., 1996).
Bandura’s (1986) teacher efficacy model that utilizes four components of efficacious
beliefs that include experience success, observing success, persuasion and emotional tone are
recommended to create teacher training (Haney et al., 1996). Thus, professional development
should incorporate positive attitudes towards NGSS implementation. It requires large changes to
classroom practices that need to be supported by the organizational culture. Researchers concur
that elementary teachers find science difficult to implement because of lack of content
knowledge, and teacher elementary time constraints in lieu of math and science instruction (Fulp,
2002; Tate, 2001). Inquiry-based science and the application of the 5E's (engage, explore,
explain, elaborate, and evaluate) as described by NGSS is linked to the nature of science; the
nature of science is linked to teacher understanding of school district commitment to science
(Shapley & Luttrell, 1992).
NGSS does not come with a particular, curriculum but it is recommended that
educational leaders utilize NRC’s science framework successfully by incorporating the elements
of the NGSS; assist and encourage students to increase the complexity of their cognitive
processes; and assist teachers in understanding the development of scientific models,
argumentative explanations, and scientific engagement practice (NRC, 2012).
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 83
Cultural model: The organization needs to set a system of NGSS aligned evaluations.
Discovering the climate of the organization is important to guide change efforts (Louis &
Murphy, 2017). Organizational change takes root and produces intended results when leaders
focus on the climate of their organizations (Schneider, Brief, & Guzzo, 1996). The leader must
identify and communicate the current state of the organization and then compare it to the vision
to create tension (Senge, 1990). A safe environment is established where people don't get
criticized for their thoughts and concerns (Senge, 1990). Finally, feedback is given quickly so
that organizational values and beliefs influence their interpretations of organizational policies,
practices, and procedures (Schneider et al., 1996). Effective change begins by addressing
motivation influences; it ensures the group knows why it needs to change. It then addresses
organizational barriers, and then knowledge and skills needs (Clark and Estes, 2008). Effective
change efforts ensure that all key stakeholders' perspectives inform the design and decision-
making process leading to the change (Clark & Estes, 2008). Leaders, for example, need to ask
the following questions: Who are the key influencers and how could you involve them in
sharing this information with their networks? Does everyone understand and commit to/value
the goals? Can everyone explain, satisfactorily, what the change is and why it is important?
Such questions can be answered through evaluation procedures. Organizations need to evaluate
SE to determine progress toward the organizational goal and to determine how they can support
their teachers in SE.
Continuous communication [around science] may increase productivity within the
organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). Supervision is needed in all stages of organizational change
and is the primary communication mechanism of the organization (Clark & Estes,
2008). Borrego et al. (2014) states leaders need to be involved in the organization through
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 84
different venues to find out what is happening within the organization. Organizational
engagement guarantees communicated feedback for improvement, and is necessary for
organizational outcomes (Borrego et al., 2014).
Clark and Estes (2008) suggest the following strategies to improve supervisory practices
among teams; supervisors need specific procedural knowledge on supervision, it is a skill that
can be learned and they need honest feedback on how to do it. Establishing structures that
facilitate training or mentoring for supervisors are critical for teacher improvement in science
instruction. Leaders themselves need to be knowledgeable in SE to effectively supervise and
evaluate teacher science instruction in order to support teacher instruction in SE. Below is a
summary of the organizational influences that served as a focus for my study (see Table 6).
Table 6
Assumed Organization Influences

Assumed Organizational Influences Types of Organizational Influences
The organization needs to support female
fifth-grade teachers with training to
implement the newness of NGSS and CAST
assessments.
Cultural Setting Influence 1
The organization needs to create, be
accountable, disseminate, and implement
goals and plans to implement new changes in
SE.
Cultural Setting Influence 2
The organization needs to set a system of
NGSS aligned evaluations.
Cultural Model Influence 1

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 85
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholder’s Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
The purpose of the conceptual framework was to demonstrate a visual representation of
the stakeholders, the knowledge, motivation and organization and their interaction in achieving
the goals as shown in Figure 3. In addition, the purpose of the conceptual framework was used
in this study to ground literature into the study. This section focused on the literature to inform
the conceptual framework as well as the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model. It included
the empirical findings, results, and conclusions for the research (Creswell, 2014). Investigators
who do not take the opportunity or time to review literature may miss out on important
knowledge findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). It serves the function of providing the
foundation for further knowledge contributions to the topic of inquiry (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Conceptual frameworks require critically reading, making connections, and synthesizing
the existing literature review to the research topic and practical contexts (Ravitch & Riggins,
2017; Rogers, 2016). Without a conceptual framework where main ideas and the history of a
topic are stated, a study loses its ground (Rocco & Plakhotnik, 2009). A conceptual framework
guides the sampling strategy, data collection and data analysis activities. It comes from
empirical literature, theoretical literature, personal experience and thought experiments
(Maxwell, 2013). Grounding the research in literature builds a foundation that demonstrates
connections or linkages, and advances knowledge by building a case that identifies gaps in the
known literature (Rocco & Plakhotnik, 2009). These connections and linkages were the focus of
the section below as it related to the assumed influences related to SE implementation. While I
presented each of the potential influences above independent of each other, they did not remain
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 86
in isolation from each other. Below is a narrative and a graphic demonstration of how the
assumed influences interact with each other (see Figure 3).
Implementation that is effective will require understanding and interpretation of science
reform and education (Bybee, Ferrini-Mundy & Loucks-Horsley, 1997). Awareness of standards
is recommended before deep understanding of science inquiry or interpretation activities; when
understanding is not at the forefront of implementation, then everything becomes mechanical and
even temporary (Bybee et al., 1997). The dimensions of NGSS need to be aligned with teacher
awareness and understanding of the performance expectations (NGSS Lead States, 2013).
Practices of science and engineering needs to be integrated in classroom instruction using
inquiry-based science. For these practices to be implemented, the organization needed to
provide opportunities for female teachers to be trained in NGSS roll-outs, and to collaborate with
each other to deal with newness of NGSS. By doing so self-efficacious attitudes begin to form
among female science teachers (Berman, 1977). Teacher beliefs are the precursors and change
agents in educational reform (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Fullan & Miles, 1992; Haney et al.,
1996).
Bandura’s (1997) teacher efficacy model of four components of efficacious beliefs,
experience, success, observing success, persuasion and emotional tone are necessary for teacher
training (Haney et al., 1996). This interaction with the organization’s behavior to train teachers
enhances self-efficacy. Berman (1977) states teacher self-efficacy may be developed through
professional development. Teacher self-efficacy is directly related to successful implementation
of effective science instruction (Berman, 1977). Science teacher self-efficacy “related to
teacher’s belief in their ability to teach science” may be important towards implementing change
in elementary SE (Ramey-Gasser, Shroyer & Staver, 1996). Beliefs in one’s own capabilities are
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 87
essential to self-efficacy (Bandura, 2005), and to teacher sense of efficacy (Berman, 1977), and
eventually passed down to the female learner of science.
Ramey-Gassert et al. (1996) state that teachers who exhibit high science teaching self-
efficacy are independent, professionally active, and desire to improve science instruction for
their peers, and students including teacher interns. These teachers are self-driven with a strong
belief of hands-on science teaching with little reliance on textbooks (Ramey-Gassert et al.,
1996). These teachers interact with science by following the nature of science; the way a
scientist looks at the world instead of textbook science dependent on worksheets and notes.
Science-inquiry using NGSS 5E’s (engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and evaluate) follows
Piaget’s (1989) theory that children learn from past experiences and new experiences as they
undergo a state of disequilibrium of knowledge. The dimensions of the NGSS, awareness,
interpretation, dissemination, and evaluation of new standards are intertwined with the
efficacious elementary science teacher who is supported through training by the organization
who values science instruction. The organization provides support by providing goals and plans
toward the implementation of NGSS, providing professional development and providing
feedback through science evaluations. When these factors are in place, self-efficacy in teachers
is enhanced (Berman, 1977). Most importantly it positively affects the Latina learner’s science
image because she sees her female teacher as a role model who enjoys teaching science.
Enhancement of teacher self-efficacy leads to effective implementation of science programs
(Berman, 1977). Efficacious attitudes overcome stereotypes female teachers have towards
science; and therefore, gap performance analysis was used to evaluate the influences of
knowledge, motivation and organization on SE that affect fifth-grade teacher's implementation of
science, science self-efficacy, and science identity as they engage in NGSS. Teachers positively
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 88
serve as science role models for female learners producing a positive science self-image among
Latina learners at AES. The conceptual framework graphic organizer (see Figure 3)
demonstrates to attain the organizational global goal of developing Latina students’ science
identity and closing the achievement gap in science between Latina and Latino students located
in the red box, the organizational setting and cultural models in the green concentric circle
needed to be addressed. The green arrow points to this important beginning organizational point
in the gap analysis.
Figure 3. SE Conceptual Framework

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 89
The organization’s support to implement, disseminate, create goals, plans, valuing
science evaluations, and science trainings enhance teacher self-efficacy and intertwine with the
yellow arrow into the green concentric circle of teacher knowledge and skills of awareness,
understanding, implementation of the NGSS science reform. The organization’s support to set
plans, and NGSS science trainings feeds into the green concentric circle and allows teachers to
understand the newness of NGSS three dimensions: science and engineering practices,
disciplinary core ideas, and cross-cutting concepts of the performance expectations. But,
teachers must reflect upon their own female stereotypes of science to move from avoiding
science to implementation of effective inquiry-based science (Bohrmann & Akerson, 2001).
Within this green concentric circle key motivational assets highlighted in white, the self-efficacy
to believe they have the knowledge and skills to implement lessons and believe they have the
knowledge to implement equitable SE intertwines with choosing to use Science2Minds
materials. This white highlighted section is important because the teacher that believes that she
can implement science without the textbook connects with valuable science literacy instruction
that promotes argumentative science with deeper content knowledge and connects to equitable
SE. These practices feed into the stakeholder goal in the tan box. The blue arrow points to this
important teacher stakeholder goal of implementing NGSS through Science2Minds unit lessons
and science labs. By accomplishing this important teacher stakeholder goal with fidelity, and in
the process, model their self-efficacy, then that will have a twofold outcome: (a) Latina students
will see a role model who is self-efficacious and will build their own efficacy; and, (2) students
will learn science as a result of the implementation. This connects to the organizational global
goal in the red box. The black arrow points to this important relationship between the
stakeholder goal and the organizational global goal of developing Latina students’ science
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 90
identity and closing the achievement gap in science between Latina and Latino students. The
green arrow points back to the blue concentric circle’s organizational school cultural model and
indicates a revolving cyclical action requiring supervision from the organization through
evaluations to ensure continued implementation of science. The organization needs to evaluate if
it reached its goal. It needs the metacognitive knowledge related to school science achievement
to provide feedback to teachers through teacher science data and teacher science evaluations.
This cyclical action is similar to a cosmos revolving perpetual motion machine…fascinating to
watch. The concentric circles are balanced by forces that need each other to accomplish goals
towards the science self-efficacy of the Latina child.
Conclusion
Female teachers residing in small agricultural towns face challenges in implementing SE.
The cross between gender influence, ethnicity, and teacher science self-efficacy is particularly
important to the way educators engage Latina learners in science and in the manner they
maintain primary cultural identities, value the language of their Latina learners, and make
science accessible and engaging. To make NGSS science for all, teachers need to combine SE
and literacy to engage their students, including ELLs, in the rich argumentative discourses of
science inquiry. As such it can only take place with teachers who demonstrate an intent, the
science self-efficacy to engage in the attitude toward the behavior of implementing SE. Latina
teachers who use culturally relevant strategies to ignite feelings of belonging create powerful
science implementation opportunities that promote Latina learner science identity. The Clark
and Estes (2008) KMO framework indicates that the procedural knowledge of science inquiry is
crucial to the nature of science; choosing to value science leads to confidence in SE and science
self-efficacy; setting organizational goals in science guarantees teacher attitude toward the
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 91
behavior of implementing SE. The influences were analyzed through the Clark and Estes (2008)
gap analysis. The weaving of all this information, the braiding of ‘trenzas’ (Gonzales, 2001),
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors intertwined with each other in a conceptual
framework to make progress toward the organizational goal that by November 2018, the
organization will develop Latina students’ science identity and close the achievement gap in
science between Latina and Latino students.
The following chapter reports the methods used to answer the study’s research questions.
The methods incorporated the framework of Clark & Estes (2007) gap performance analysis to
determine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that influence female teacher
implementation of NGSS; and set the groundwork for all aspects of this study such as the
sample, data collection and data analysis, credibility and trustworthiness, and ethics.

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 92
Chapter Three: Methods
The purpose of this project was to examine the knowledge and motivation of AES fifth-
grade teachers to implement NGSS using Science2Minds and how the organization supported
them in doing so. This chapter describes the research design and methods for data collection and
analysis that were used to conduct the study. The participating stakeholders, interview and
observation sampling criteria and rationale are described. The credibility and trustworthiness of
the study are discussed with issues pertinent to the study. The ethics section includes how I
conducted myself, maintained the integrity of the research, and made sure participants were
aware of their rights through full consent to participation in the study. Lastly, reported in this
chapter are the limitations and delimitations of the study. This research focused on knowledge,
motivation and organizational elements related to achieving fifth-grade teacher implementation
of NGSS using Science2Minds particularly in relation to closing the gap for Latina students. As
such, the questions that guided this study were the following:
1. What are the AES fifth-grade female teachers’ knowledge and motivation related
to the implementation of NGSS through Science2Minds unit lessons and science
labs?
2. What is the interaction between the organization’s culture and context and AES
fifth-grade female teachers’ knowledge and motivation to implement NGSS
through Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources that influence AES fifth-
grade female teachers’ knowledge and motivation to implement NGSS through
Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs?
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 93
Methodological Framework
This project employed a qualitative methodological approach to data gathering and
analysis. The research questions were descriptive to allow participants the ability to discuss their
ideas. The stakeholders were a small group of teachers and purposefully selected to best “help
the researcher understand the problem and the research question” (Creswell, 2014, p. 189) in the
context of one case, a school. Assumed influences explored in the previous chapter on AES
fifth-grade staff’s performance in relationship to the organizational goal were analyzed through
the use of interviews and observations. While many studies have taken a quantitative approach
since 1990 with the development of the Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument by Enochs
and Riggs, a qualitative perspective of fifth-grade teachers allowed insight into their knowledge
and motivation as it related to achieving the organizational goal. Interviews can build a narrative
consisting of quotations reflecting teacher opinions, knowledge, and feelings; observations can
allow for examining behaviors, activities, and actions (Patton, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016),
which were particularly important for examination of teachers’ procedural knowledge.
Interviews are the best ways to identify beliefs and perceptions (Clark & Estes, 2008). Gonzalez
(2001) refers to building rich narratives through a weaving of cultural knowledge, formal
education, practices, ethnicity, and gender to explore Latina contexts, multiple complexities, and
meanings. In this manner the researcher collects, combs, and braids knowledge to understand
Latina experiences (Gonzalez, 2001). In other words, the interaction between the Latina teacher
experiences, cultural background, knowledge and motivation to implement SE interacts with the
support of the organization to effectively instill a positive science identity for themselves and
their Latina learners.

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 94
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder population of focus for this study were three traditional female fifth-
grade teachers employed at AES during the 2018-19 school years. Teachers at this grade level
were the focus of the study because fifth-grade is also the only elementary grade level that gets
assessed by the state as well as the only grade level at this school that agreed to incorporate
Science2Minds within its curriculum. These teachers must administer the new state CAST
4

science assessment. At the time of the study, there were both novice (beginning teachers up to
three years of teaching service) and experienced teachers (five years of teaching service) in this
group of teachers. All three teachers were female and certified. Two of the three teachers were
Latina.
Observation Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Fifth-grade teachers who implemented Science2Minds at AES. Fifth-
grade teachers were instrumental in answering the research questions because fifth-grade was the
only grade level that implemented Science2Minds, which was the focus of this study. The total
population of fifth-grade teachers at AES, including me, was five teachers. Three of my four
colleagues were Latinas and one was White. All teachers were female. Only three of the four
were traditional teachers, the other one was a dual immersion teacher. The three traditional
teachers were the participants for this study. This was the only criterion for sampling
participants.
Criterion 2. Observation of Science2Minds application. The lesson plan observed
included the NGSS implementation within the Science2Minds applications.

4
CAST refers to the California Science Test (CAST), an online NGSS science assessment given to students in fifth,
eighth and high school. The CAST assessment uses the California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress
(CAASPP) test delivery system.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 95
Observation Sampling Strategy and Rationale
This study used a non-probability, purposeful sample for observations, a typical
qualitative method of sampling (Merriam, 2009; Maxwell, 2013). Gaining access to these
settings occurred with teacher permission. Implementing strategies suggested by Merriam and
Tisdell (2016) such as being prepared to answer questions such as what the observer will do;
what will occur with the findings; and being able to answer those questions increased the chance
of gaining entry (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Observations of science lessons provided a
connection between teacher beliefs on SE and science practices in the classroom.
In an informal meeting, as an AES fifth-grade teacher, I discussed the stakeholder and
organizational goals with my assistant principal. After discussing the stakeholder goal with the
assistant principal, I sought the approval and suggestions from the AES principal. I sent a letter
to my new AES Superintendent (See Appendix E) by email correspondence for permission to
conduct the study. I also forwarded the letter to my Principal and two Assistant Principals.
After IRB approval, I initiated the study on NGSS and science implementation through
Science2Minds for my dissertation. I answered any questions the teachers had regarding the
study and followed up with a letter to each teacher regarding the research project.
I explained to teachers, that the observation would be a learning event for me to further
tell their stories through the perspective of a researcher who is a teacher. I wanted to weave their
stories of SE in a manner that explained their ‘trenza,’ their integration of science within many
subjects. I wanted to learn from their perspectives with SE, their SE practices, particularly their
SE interactions with Latina learners.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 96
After the first observation, I asked each participant, if was okay to interview them after
all my observations were completed, and if I could observe them during their implementation of
the Science2Minds science inquiry lessons.
Interview Sampling Criterion and Rationale: Fifth-grade Teachers who Implemented
Science2Minds at AES
Fifth-grade was the only grade level that implemented Science2Minds, which was the
focus of this study. In addition, all four of my colleagues were female teachers, and three of the
four were Latinas. Only three of the four were traditional teachers, the other was a dual
immersion teacher. The three traditional teachers were the participants for this study. This was
the only criterion for sampling interviewees.
Interview Group Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
This study used a non-probability, purposeful sampling for the selection of participants. I
was interested in understanding the traditional fifth-grade female teacher science experiences at
Adelante Elementary School. The sample consisted of three traditional female teachers from the
five fifth-grade teachers. Data for this study were gathered from the three traditional teachers of
the population.
The interviews were conducted after all the observations were completed and used to
collect narratives about SE and NGSS from all fifth-grade teachers to determine what
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors supported or impeded implementation of SE.
I asked each teacher for a convenient time and day for the interview.
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation
This project employed a qualitative approach to data gathering and analysis. In this
research project, all AES fifth-grade teachers’ knowledge and motivation in relationship to the
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 97
organizational goal were described through meaningful teacher narratives collected through
observations and interviews on science experiences. Additionally, interviews gleaned self-
reported information about the teachers’ perspective on the organizational factors that either
facilitated or impeded their progress towards meeting their goal.
Observation
The conceptual framework, the purpose and the problem, and the questions of the study
shaped the observation protocol (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In this project, observations were
conducted, three for each of the three fifth-grade female teachers. The observations were
explained beforehand to all teachers and consisted of inquiry-based science lessons using
Science2Minds. The role I portrayed was as an observer, as a participant to access a wide range
of information and established an insider identity without participating in the activities of the
observation. While interviews build a narrative consisting of quotations reflecting teacher
opinions, knowledge, and feelings, observations include descriptions of behaviors, activities and
actions (Patton, 2015; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The observations per teacher consisted of
three, two-hour classroom observations during the school day. After permission for the three
two-hour observations were granted, I informed the participants that I would be observing their
implementation of NGSS through Science2Minds’ Ecosystem and Energy Flow Unit. I
informed them that they didn’t have to do anything differently from what they normally do, and
indicated that after I wrote up the narrative, I would seek their feedback to determine any
discrepancies. During the observation, I sat in the back in a suggested corner by the teacher and
took notes. I used a SMART Pen, three pens, and a Livescribe Dot Paper notebook to take notes.
I kept all notes and data in a password protected computer inside a briefcase with a three-dial
combination lock.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 98
The observation protocol followed the Bybee et al. (2006) 5E’s science learning cycle
(engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and evaluate) to observe the science inquiry steps utilized
by the teacher. The 5E’s in the observation protocol (See Appendix A) are shown side by side
with the corresponding NGSS science practices. In addition, the observation protocol took into
account the science inquiry pedagogy used by the teacher (teacher guided, student-centered, or
both).
The following is what I took into the field with me to remind me of the areas to
emphasize in my narrative fieldnotes (see Table 7):
Table 7
NGSS Science Practices and the 5E’s
Engagement

Science
Practices—
Ask
questions
Exploration

Science
Practices—
Planning and
carrying
out investigations

Developing and
using models
Explanation

Science
practices—
Constructing
explanation
Elaboration

Science
Practices—
Analyzing and
interpreting data

Science Practices-
Engaging in
argument from
evidence
Evaluation

Science
Practice—

Obtaining,
evaluating, and
communicating
information

After the initial two-hour observations took place, I thanked the participants for their time
and the opportunity to observe them again. After the observations were completed and to guide
the analysis of the teachers’ knowledge in the specific areas aligned to the NGSS standards, I
used a table (see Appendix A) to code the fieldnotes according to what the teacher and student
did, whether it was teacher guided or student-centered instruction, and how the teacher interacted
with females. During the lessons, I looked for equitable practices between female and males, if
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 99
any. Detailed, copious notes on everything I saw and heard were noted. The observation of
teacher science inquiry, the observation of interaction with Latina learners, the knowledge of
NGSS aligned science inquiry shed insight on the concepts in the conceptual framework.
The observations revealed teacher factual and procedural understandings of NGSS
implementation, level of awareness of the three dimensions of science performance expectations,
the 5E's and science inquiry-based learning, ease or anxiety with science including teacher
equitable practices, interactions and feedback with female learners. The observations began
October 18, 2018 once IRB provided the approval. Specific times were negotiated with each
teacher.
Since Science2Minds is a lending library, the observation covered the science unit on the
following: Ecosystems and Energy Flow. Figure 4 below demonstrates the items that were the
focus of the observations during the science lab instruction.
Figure 4. 5E’s

Figure 4. Adapted from Wahub (2017). 5E Instructional Model for Learning. Swiftelearning.
Retrieved from http//www.swiftelearningservices.com/5e-instructional-model-for-elearning-a-
model-preferred-by-nasa/.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 100
The method of science inquiry which the teacher undertook was observed. The following
question guided my observations: “how is the teacher following the Science2Minds
Constructivist approach using the 5E’s or, if not used, how does the teacher use the Behaviorism
or Cognitivism form of Instruction?” (See Figure 1). If the teacher used the Science2Minds
5E’s, the steps the teacher utilized were observed and described.
The Livescribe Smart Pen and notebook which digitizes handwriting into a computer
device was used to make notes during the observation. All observation data were stored into a
secured external hard drive which was kept inside a briefcase with a three-dial combination lock.
Pseudonyms were used for all participants. I conducted three observations of two hours each for
Ms. Beltran and Ms. Laurence. Ms. Beltran and Ms. Laurence agreed to three observations, two
hours each day. Ms. Trevino agreed to three one-hour observations (see Table 8). For each day
I observed a different Ecosystem lesson: Day one, I observed the Science2Minds Ecosystems
and Energy Flow Lesson; day two, I observed the Science2Minds Plants are Producers lesson
plan. During this lesson, Ms. Laurence extended the observation to include an extension on the
unit called, Baking is a Science to demonstrate how the ecosystem extends unto human
consumption; day three, I observed the Science2Minds—Ecosystems and Energy Flow—Lesson
Three, Bees and Pollinators, that included the science lab. For each observation, I selected one
group of students to observe and write copious notes on how the teacher interacted with them,
whether they participated in a teacher guided or a student-centered science inquiry approach and
noted equitable practices between teacher participant and female students.
The observations provided real SE action in place. The 17 hours of SE observations
allowed me to corroborate beliefs with participant actions and provided a hindsight into how SE
actions were more important than beliefs.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 101
Interviews
In this study, three interviews were conducted, one with each of the three fifth-grade
traditional teachers during a one and one-half hour block. Interviews began after IRB approval
and all observations were completed. With permission from the participants, the interviews were
recorded using an audio recorder, and a Livescribe Smartpen which recorded and digitized
handwriting into a computer device. The interview protocol (See Appendix B) used to obtain the
data about AES teachers' knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences consisted of
gathering participant background information as well as 33 items that addressed knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences. Notes were written in a Livescribe notebook that
accompanied the Smartpen and served as a reminder to ask lingering questions from items
discussed.
Interviews were conducted at a place convenient to the teacher. Ms. Beltran preferred to
be interviewed at home. While the interview was supposed to be a one and one-half hour block,
the interview extended to three hours due to the relaxed environment and care of her young
child. Ms. Laurence and Ms. Trevino preferred to be interviewed in a private room in the school
office. Ms. Laurence’s interview lasted one and one-half hour block at school and continued the
interview by phone for one hour because she needed to tend to her husband who had suffered a
stroke three weeks before the interview. Ms. Trevino’s interview lasted one and one-half hours
exactly. The total time for interviews consisted of seven hours (see Table 8).
Semi-structured interviews were utilized through open-ended questions to generate
purposeful data to understand the fifth-grade teachers’ beliefs and experiences with SE (see
Appendix B). Interviews provide the researchers with the feelings and beliefs of participants that
are not readily observable in a natural setting (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Through the
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 102
interviews I was able to understand their SE beliefs and match them to their observable actions.
Semi-structured interviewing allows for increased validity because it provides opportunities for
probing into deep participant understandings of the phenomena under investigation (McLeod,
2014). The interviews provided an opportunity to ask questions about what I heard and saw
during the observations. It provided a disequilibrium between participant and researcher ...a
learning process for both between beliefs and actions. The researcher, states McLeod (2014),
needs to ask for clarification along the way while allowing the participant to direct the path of
the interview. According to Maxwell (2013), the researcher must have a plan on how responses
to each question will be gathered, whether through audio recording, videotaping, coding,
transcribing, content analysis which needs to set up beforehand. The Livescribe Smartpen
provided a quick visual of handwriting notes converted to text in order to quickly identify
lingering thoughts. After I had reviewed and transcribed the observations, lingering questions
about the observations served as prompts to interview questions that provided a deeper
understanding of female teacher beliefs and actions in SE.
As female teachers of science, their knowledge of NGSS performance expectations of
three-dimensional science learning, knowledge of science inquiry, and organizational support
brought forth awareness of the influences on science reform. Through a qualitative study, the
voices of female teachers were heard through their discussion of obstacles or successes they
faced in SE.
As the researcher, I developed the protocols based on literature review on science self-
efficacy protocols and conducted the interviews of all the participants. I wrote my own
reflection memos during and immediately after the interview. The Livescribe 4GB Echo
Smartpen captured pages of notes on the Livescribe Smartpen Notebook and recorded what was
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 103
heard. The Echo Smartpen, an ink and audio pen designed to work with the Echo Desktop
companion software application allowed me to organize and replay notes that were recorded into
the Livescribe Smartpen Dot Paper Notebook. The Echo Desktop utilized the handwriting
recognition software, MyScript for Livescribe that converted handwriting to text. To check
accuracy of all notes, I transcribed the majority of the audios. Since the transcription of the
observations were taking months to complete, I used a transcription service to transcribe the
interview data. To gather correct data between the Livescribe Smartpen audio and text
conversion of the interviews, I checked the accuracy of the transcripts against the audios I
recorded. I then added any missed details to the transcripts. All interview data was stored into a
secured external hard drive which was kept under lock and key in a briefcase. Pseudonyms were
used for all participants.
Since I am a Latina elementary fifth-grade teacher I drew from my personal experience to
weave information and draw insights from what the participants were conveying about SE. I
listened carefully to my participants’ SE views, and when they mentioned important views that
dealt with self-efficacy in science, I asked and prompted why they felt as such; such prompting
led to important insights. Observations shed light upon participant interview SE beliefs and
values and assisted in weaving prominent findings with beliefs that either concurred or
contradicted SE instruction in the classroom. When teachers mentioned something that
contradicted their SE actions, I referred back to the classroom observations for clarification.
While teachers were quiet and thinking, I learned to be patient and wait for an answer. If there
was no answer, I restated the question in form of a ‘why’ question or ‘I saw you do this in the
classroom’ and waited for a response which usually ended in an important insight from the
participant. Asking participants to share their science journeys or through storytelling served as
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 104
a means of collecting wisdom through science experiences. Being patient and listening to their
stories was valuable. Storytelling draws on participant pasts and lessons they’ve learned; it
resonates with participants ‘because it is relevant’ and inspires them because it’s ‘fueled by their
passion’ (Friedman, 2009).
This qualitative research provided needed information on the science experiences of fifth-
grade female teachers both as learners and as teachers and how those experiences supported the
implementation of NGSS through Science2Minds including the SE achievement of their Latina
learners towards the organizational goal. Table 8 provides the participant hours of observation
and interview data collected.
Table 8
Participant Hours of Observation and Interview Data
Interview Hours Observation Hours
Ms. Beltran 3 hours 6 hours
Ms. Laurence 2 ½ hours 8 hours
Ms. Trevino 1 ½ hours 3 hours
Total 7 hours 17 hours

Data Analysis
For interviews and observations, data analysis began during data collection. Maxwell
(2013) and Merriam (2009) suggest conducting rich data requires adequate involvement and
engagement in the collection of data. The time allotted to semi-structured interviews and
observations ensured that teachers were able to demonstrate their NGSS knowledge, motivation,
concerns, beliefs, and obstacles in implementing SE.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 105
I wrote reflective, analytic memos to process thinking during and after each interview and
after each observation. In qualitative research the researcher “often is the instrument, relying on
his or her skills to receive information in natural contexts” (Merriam 2009, p. 345). I focused
analysis on the research questions and the conceptual framework concepts. I documented my
concerns, thoughts, and initial conclusions about the data in relation to my conceptual framework
and research questions. Once I left the field, interviews were transcribed and coded. I collected
255 pages of observation transcripts single spaced with 78,096 characters and transcribed by
myself. I reviewed audios and transcription several times to ensure accuracy. I also collected
158 pages of interview transcripts single spaced from the three participants, a total of 83,770
characters. I utilized a transcription service to assist with the transcription of the interviews and
reviewed all audios to ensure accuracy. In the first phase of analysis, I used the ATLAS.ti 8,
software for qualitative analysis, to create open coding, looked for empirical codes and applied a
priori codes from the conceptual framework. There were different distinct levels of analysis
through ATLAS.ti 8: (a) open coding; (b) In Vivo coding where quotations were connected to
codes, and; (c) theoretical coding created through ATLAS.ti 8 network which was utilized to
distill detailed coding to determine themes that emerged from the data. Completed transcripts
for the interviews and observations were downloaded into the ATLAS.ti 8 to analyze the data.
During the analysis, any information that assisted in answering the research questions or was
relevant to the influences was highlighted and saved as quotations in the ATLAS.ti 8. It allowed
me to capture the quote and analyze it through open coding, using a short phrase that I saw in the
data. I took advantage of ATLAS.ti 8 In Vivo coding and converted the text into a code to
analyze it further. As I continued analyzing, some codes were repeated such as engaged,
confident, and power. Coding built the foundation for the analysis. I was able to use a memo to
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 106
note down anything I wanted to assist me in data analysis. It was convenient and useful, and I
was able to write analysis, descriptions of what was going on, doubts, ideas, or questions. A
content analysis was also achieved through ATLAS.ti 8 auto coding to search for important
words through the three interviews simultaneously; its corresponding quotations were recorded
with codes throughout all the interview documents. Codes were color-coded and grouped. The
content analysis through ATLAS.ti 8 manually provided a good idea of important findings, and
density of the data related to the research questions and influences. Reports of the data were
exported and studied to define commonalties and differences among the participant transcripts.
The ATLAS.ti 8 Co-occurrences tool allowed for relations among data and assisted in defining
the findings. Throughout the analysis process, I ensured that I bracketed my biases through my
own experiences as a Latina who was a STEM major (described in more detail below and in
Appendix D). Strauss & Corbin’s (1990) analytic tools assist researchers in stimulating the
qualitative research process by looking at phenomena through different perspectives, listening to
what people are saying, and providing for creative ways to categorize and label themes. The two
analytic tools which were used in this research were the use of questioning and drawing from
personal experience. Asking questions allows the researcher to probe for questions and think
outside the box.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
I used strategies discussed by Locke, Silverman, and Spirduso (2010) to address
credibility and trustworthiness to ensuring findings were credible to both the participants and the
reader. Developing findings, interpreting and making sense of collected material appears
difficult in a research project for the first time (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). I focused upon my
research questions to do my coding and referred to my conceptual framework to keep focused on
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 107
the purpose of the study. I employed counting codes to ensure the analysis did not reflect what I
found interesting, but that the enumeration of the code occurred more than one time to
demonstrate dependability and consistency in my data to reach transparent finding. The
ATLAS.ti 8 Document Manager allowed me to see relationships through word clouds, network
of relationships, frequencies and density of the data. The data from observations are
corroborated among the members of the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Validity threats on
how certain situations may increase responses that are desired by respondents but not truly
reflect their opinions need to be considered beforehand to anticipate what may go wrong and
strategies for handling them need to be thought out carefully (Maxwell, 2013). Teachers may
want to respond that they implement science in their classroom; therefore, to get an accurate and
holistic picture, I observed teachers first to determine how their knowledge and skills of SE were
demonstrated within the realm of SE inquiry through Science2Minds. Their SE instruction may
conflict with their beliefs, therefore I made sure interview questions asked for detail of actual
science activities in the classroom, including my own ideas of what SE should look like in the
classroom, but did not allow it to cloud my perspective and was open to the participant
perspective of SE and with their methods of instruction.
In qualitative research the researcher “often is the instrument, relying on his or her skills
to receive information in natural contexts” (Merriam 2009, p. 345). To determine if my findings
were accurate, I triangulated my findings with other participant transcripts. Triangulation can be
accomplished by using interview data from multiple people who demonstrate different
viewpoints (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The differences in SE instruction from a science expert
with a bachelor's in biology and a minor in chemistry to female teachers with a multiple subjects
credential and without a post-science secondary degree were important to note, to value, and to
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 108
discuss, and for the participants to feel that I was not an evaluator of their SE but as a researcher
trying to gather data to learn first and to ultimately assist female teachers. The observations
provided triangulation for the interview data to understand NGSS aligned science
implementation, level of awareness of the three dimensions of science performance expectations,
science inquiry-based learning, their SE instruction and beliefs about science and SE, their
confidence levels in SE, their science self-efficacy, and their connection to their Latina learners.
It provided a vivid picture to connect to their SE stories.
Another strategy to increase credibility was member checks where the researcher seeks
feedback on emerging findings from the people interviewed. To ensure the validity of my
findings I asked participants to address discrepancies in my findings to ensure that I had
represented their ideas correctly. To avoid projecting any biases in my interviews or
observations, and maintain trustworthiness of the research project, written dialogues of the
qualitative observation data were shared during the interview with participants through member
checking to ensure accurate representation of the thoughts of the participants (Glesne, 2011;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) suggest that in qualitative research understanding the
researcher’s positionality and employing researcher reflexivity can enhance the trustworthiness
of the study. Researcher assumptions, perspectives, and biases need to also be transparent to the
reader, so that values and expectations are transparent, hence allowing the reader to understand
how conclusions and conduct of the study are affected by biases (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016;
Maxwell, 2013). As a Latina researcher and a female fifth-grade teacher at AES, I may have
bias and sensitivity to the portrayal of Latino academic deficits (more information can be found
in Appendix D Researcher Biographical Information). Experiences of racial, ethnic and gender
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 109
discrimination undermine minority and female sense of belonging at school (Eccles, 2006).
Through this study, I grew as a researcher and valued the profession of teaching as I realized that
sometimes racial tendencies may be in the eyes of the researcher but not in the participants and
approached the study with an open mind. Through the completion of my dissertation, I hope
more teachers will build scientific intellectual domains in Latinas early in life so that obstacles
don’t hinder them from science careers. Additionally, I hope that Latinas who live in rural
agricultural communities may pursue STEM degrees and remove themselves and their families
from poverty. Research has demonstrated that females lose interest within group collaboration
with males. I tried not to have a bias when I observed teachers not interacting with female girls
with dark-skinned phenotypes or assuring that males listen to their viewpoints. These biases
must both be accounted for and may allow for a connection between researcher and participants,
thus improving the ultimate findings. During the observations I found that equal participation of
both males and females were carried out through effective teacher pedagogy strategies and that
the color of skin was not an issue when it came to SE.
Ethics
Qualitative research requires a rich meaningful narrative of individual experiences
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As a fifth-grade elementary school teacher, I was fully aware that I
was in a position of responsibility and trust among my grade level teacher colleagues. While
conducting this research, I observed all ethical standards and maintained the highest integrity. I
did not harm, pressure, exploit, or publish material that revealed information that would cause
participants to lose their jobs. Participants decided if they wanted to participate, thus making
their participation voluntary. They were provided with informed consent of the nature and
purpose of the research, and, understood clearly that they could refuse to answer any questions or
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 110
quit participation at any time. To maintain ethical behavior, confidentiality was maintained and
consent for recording was obtained. All participants agreed to be recorded and the transcript for
each interview was marked as such in the text. Furthermore, Rubin and Rubin (2012) suggest
reminding participants that they can choose to stop the recording. I employed this strategy to
ensure that participants had multiple opportunities to consent. To demonstrate respect, when the
participant wished not to be quoted, material was marked as such in the text; furthermore,
participants were reminded periodically that they were being recorded (Rubin & Rubin, 2012) in
case they opted to stop the recording. I thought some of the participants were going to feel
uneasy to have a fellow teacher observe them, but some of the teachers actually thanked me for
taking the time to observe their science lessons and expressed gratitude during the interviews.
Through the collection of data, participants gained trust, and I became privy to
confidential information. By following the above procedures, ethical behavior was ensured,
participation was encouraged, and integrity and conversational partnership was maintained
(Rubin & Rubin, 2012). I have gone through University of Southern California (USC) CITI
training (to ensure ethical practice in my research) and received IRB clearance from USC which
provided guidelines that needed to be adhered to before the onset of my research project.
Participants were made aware that as a researcher, I was obligated to keep strict
confidentiality (Rubin & Rubin, 2012; Glesne, 2011; Krueger & Casey, 2009). I promised to
acknowledge the rights of all my participants and retained the privilege to report my findings
provided I follow all ethical protocols mentioned above. Maintaining ethical qualitative
research, continual interaction and communication with teacher participants throughout the
research requires researcher to ensure correct data collection and reporting activities to minimize
researcher bias (Glesne, 2011).
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 111
The teacher participants selected from the school district were not identified by name in
any written report, analysis, or publication and kept confidential to the extent provided by law.
Pseudonyms were assigned to teachers who participated in the interviews. Kaiser (2009)
suggests keeping participants informed of the use of data; providing who is the intended
audience for the research including how the results will be disseminated; and provide ease of
dialogue in terms of how data will be utilized. Speaking with teacher participants regarding how
data would be shared was crucial for them to understand how their stories would assist others in
understanding how teachers learn to teach science. The female teachers in this study were
cooperative in sharing their own SE experiences, science instruction, and beliefs of SE in order
to advance SE for learners.
No compensation was offered for participation and to avoid coercion, however a $25.00
gift card was provided at the end of my study as a small token of my appreciation rather than as
an incentive for participation.
This research project was thought to be ethical in its framing because the findings
hopefully could be beneficial to marginalized Latinas, female learners and teachers of science.
As I observed the teachers, I found that what makes any project ethical for all is the pedagogical
strategies of the teachers, and as such, the same can be applied to the researcher. If teachers
implemented NGSS with fidelity, and in the process, modeled their self-efficacy, and learn how
to teach science, then it would have a two-fold outcome: (a) Latina students will see a role
model who is self-efficacious and will build their own efficacy; and (b) students will learn
science as a result of the implementation. If it was found that they didn’t implement with
fidelity, the barriers to implementation could be examined to try to mitigate any challenges
teachers faced. With the implementation of Science2Minds, and all resources provided, the
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 112
female teachers of this study implemented with fidelity the lessons, and the barriers they
discussed were only attributed to time during the interviews.
Limitations and Delimitations
The small sample of participants in this study was a limitation. There were only three
female fifth-grade teachers in the traditional program who implemented Science2Minds.
Therefore, the results of this study may not reflect fifth-grade teacher population at large. In
addition, the study was limited to female teachers, and did not address male teachers, and it’s
likely that they would have different approaches. The study was also limited to fifth-grade and
did not reflect other grade levels. Another limitation related to sampling was the observations
were a snapshot in time and may not reflect what happens in the classroom the majority of the
time. Due to the nature of Science2Minds lending library, the material and all the labs are
picked up after the scheduled time and new material is replaced, therefore teachers realized the
exposure to the science unit has to be covered before the new unit arrived. The time for
interviews and observations of the deep rigor of NGSS was adequate to provide accurate findings
of teacher science implementation of SE, but a limitation was that it addressed only certain
disciplinary core ideas.
The anticipated limitations may include my identity as Latina, female, and a fellow fifth-
grade teacher. I included my personal experience in Appendix D. Researchers may confront
unforeseen dangers when they are not careful about their own or others’ cultural systems of
knowing and understanding the world (Milner, 2007). While two of the three teachers were
Latinas, I cannot assume or project my upbringing or cultural identity with their own upbringing.
One teacher is White, and therefore a limitation is associated with a lack of knowing her cultural
worldview perspective. Learning opportunities fail when one puts up a color-blind and culture-
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 113
blind ideology to the participants cultural background (Milner, 2007). To assume that White
teachers are the norm and others are diverse (Milner, 2007) limits the learning of diverse ways of
cultural upbringing from all teachers in this study. I learned through Ms. Laurence’s interview
that a color-blind ideology is counteracted through connections across cultures. Ms. Laurence
connected with her Latina learners because she grew up in poverty. Connections across cultures
occur among teachers and students when experiences are similar.
Another limitation may have included the truthfulness of my respondents. As their
fellow fifth-grade teacher, I conducted the interviews. I did not have any supervision duties over
the teachers, and therefore the observations were not evaluative in any manner. Initially, I felt
that teacher responses were influenced by reluctance to express stereotypes or childhood
experiences to a fellow teacher. During the observations and interviews the teachers were
relaxed and discussed their concerns, beliefs, and ideas about SE as teachers and learners. Only
one teacher could not complete the six hours of observation but agreed to three hours due to a
high-risk student that was placed in her class. While I did not have specific concerns related to
the accuracy of the data, there was still a chance that my participants didn’t provide honest
responses.
The interviews served as stories of SE told through the viewpoint of fifth-grade female
teachers and a fifth-grade teacher/researcher. Their stories were woven with my experiences in a
‘trenza’ (braid) of information. The delimitations were associated with the interview questions
and the follow-up interviews which I conducted during my study. The Clark and Estes (2008)
Gap Analysis framework upon which I decided to bound my study, the time period, site,
stakeholder group, gap analysis were all delimitations to my study. The findings were limited to
a rural agricultural town school and not reflect the teaching population at large. Given the small
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 114
sample size, the sharing of information from the interview through internal communication
between teachers could have been a limitation, but during the interview, it was apparent that the
sharing of information was not an issue. Each observation and interview was unique to each
participant.

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 115
Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of the project was to examine the knowledge and motivation of AES fifth-
grade teachers to implement NGSS through Science2Minds and how the organization supported
them in doing so, if at all. Teachers are the key to SE because it is through their high self-
efficacy that they are able to persevere in science instruction (Bandura, 1977) and serve as role
models for Latinas (Young, Buettner, McLean & Rudman, 2013). Teachers need high self-
efficacy in SE to implement NGGS through the Science2Minds program. Additionally, they
need knowledge of how to implement the program. If AES teachers implement SE with fidelity,
and in the process, model their self-efficacy, it is theorized to have a two-fold outcome: (a)
Latina students will see a role model who is self-efficacious and will build their efficacy; and (b)
Latina students will learn science as a result of the implementation. The research questions for
this study were:
1. What are the AES fifth-grade teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to the
implementation of NGSS through Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs?
2. What is the interaction between the organization’s culture and context and AES
fifth-grade teachers’ knowledge and motivation to implement NGSS through
Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs?
I was interested in understanding how teachers interacted with science, what promoted or
hindered engagement in science, and how they were supported by the organization. This project
employed a qualitative approach to data gathering and analysis and was consistent with
methodology and literature grounded in theory. I believe that a teacher’s engagement in science
is defined through the teacher and student’s enjoyment in science; teacher and student
interactions provided a view to how teachers implemented science, how they demonstrated
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 116
science knowledge, and motivation of SE. In this research project, all AES fifth-grade staff’s
knowledge and motivation in relationship to the organizational goal was described through three
meaningful teacher narratives collected through observation and interviews on science
experiences. The observations provided an important connection between teacher actions and
knowledge related to science education. Additionally, interviews gleaned self-reported
information about the teachers’ perspectives about science education and on the organizational
factors that either facilitated or impeded their progress towards meeting their goal.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder population of focus for this qualitative study were three female fifth-
grade teachers employed at AES during the 2018-19 school years. There were both novice and
experienced teachers in this group of teachers. All three teachers were female and certified.
Two of the three teachers were Latina. Ms. Beltran, a Latina fifth-grade teacher, had an A.A. in
Liberal Arts, a B.A. in Liberal Studies and a Multiple Subject Teaching Credential with a
Supplement in English, that enabled her to teach high school English. She was a tenured teacher
of six years with a background in music and dance. She had taught GATE in the past but this
year her class was a mixture of GATE and traditional students. Ms. Laurence, a White teacher in
the traditional program, was in sales before she received her B.A. in Liberal Studies. She got her
Multiple Subjects credential in 1993 and later attained her English Single Subject credential.
Four years ago, the Adelante School Principal hired her as a reading lab tutor. She did that for
two years and then was hired as a fifth-grade teacher. And finally, Ms. Trevino, a Latina teacher
in the traditional program, had her B.S. in Biology and a Minor in Chemistry. Before attaining
her teaching credential, she volunteered at the Adelante summer science camp and then worked
for the local Housing Authority doing science activities for the students in their after-school
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 117
program. Later, she went through a one-year residency program through the local university to
receive her teaching credential. Under the residency program, she worked under two teachers,
one a GATE 6
th
grade teacher and the other, a junior high science teacher. The following year
she got her M.A. in Curriculum and Instruction. This was her third year at Adelante Elementary
School and was serving her second year as a fifth-grade grade probationary elementary school
teacher. Below is a summary of the participating Adelante female fifth-grade teachers’
educational background and years of teaching experience (see Table 9).
Table 9

Teacher Background and Years of Experience

Teacher Background Years of Experience

Ms. Beltran: Associate of Arts Degree – Liberal
Studies; Bachelor of Arts degree – Liberal Studies;
Multiple Subjects Teaching Credential
Tenured fifth-grade teacher of five
years
Ms. Laurence: Bachelor of Arts–Liberal Studies;
Multiple Subjects Teaching Credential; English Single
Subject
Private school teacher of five years;
probationary AES fifth-grade
teacher of two years
Ms. Trevino: Bachelor of Science–Biology with a
Minor in Chemistry; Multiple Subjects Teaching
Credential; Master of Arts: Curriculum and Instruction
Probationary fifth-grade teacher of
two years

Five themes of science experiences that influenced teacher SE emerged from the data. A
first theme that emerged among the three teachers was that teachers were motivated to be
engaged in SE due to the readily accessible material provided by the free lending program,
Science2Minds. By engaging in SE through Science2Minds a second deeper theme emerged:
teachers discussed science inquiry as storylines of hands-on activities that were important for
learners and for science instruction. In other words, the teachers developed procedural
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 118
knowledge with the help of Adelante’s support for the curriculum Science2Minds, and thus
demonstrated they had knowledge of the NGSS practices. As the stories emerged through oral
description and through visual observation, the teachers’ knowledge of the NGSS practices were
evident through the Science2Minds 5E’s of science inquiry in their lessons. While the teachers
were not able to describe the Performance Expectation (PE), a developing conceptual
understanding, it was evident from the observations that teachers implemented the PE (NGSS
Practices, Disciplinary Core Ideas, and Cross-Cutting Concepts) through Science2Minds.
Within this second theme, as teachers described science inquiry, an underlying common
finding among all three teachers was confidence with science inquiry instruction. And as such,
an underlying component and precursor to the second theme was that all teachers had negative
elementary science experiences and experienced science anxiety, but it did not affect their own
science instruction.
The third theme, an interesting and important construct that emerged was that all teachers
described relationships of caring attitudes. I went in thinking that Latina teachers would have a
stronger connection to their students, but that wasn’t the case, as long as you could find ways to
connect. Within this theme, connections formed a ‘trenza’ that transcended across cultures.
Connections across cultures occurred among teachers and students when experiences were
similar, making the intersection between ethnicity, gender and SE invisible. In other words, in
this study, the interaction between the Latina teacher experiences, cultural background,
knowledge and motivation to implement SE was not dependent on ethnicity but within
connections of common experiences or within relevant SE inquiry experiences.
The fourth theme was that Adelante’s professional development that was specific to
science inquiry enhanced science self-efficacy. An important component of this theme was how
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 119
professional development that was specific to science curricula used by teachers enhanced
science self-efficacy. Adelante’s support for the Science2Minds County Director training on
specific Science2Minds’ inquiry lessons promoted teacher motivation and science confidence to
implement the lessons. Another component was how science background knowledge or the lack
of it enhanced or caused barriers to science knowledge during professional development.
Adelante’s District’s NGSS professional development enhanced knowledge for teachers with
science background
5
; but not for teachers without a post-secondary science degree.
The fifth and final theme highlighted the fact that Adelante’s District focus on language
arts and math benchmarks decreased focus on science goals, benchmarks, CAST assessment,
science evaluations, and teacher time dedicated to science instruction. Adelante’s District focus
on language arts and math mirrors the state’s focus to K-4
th
grade CAASPP math and language
arts focus, and can decrease the focus to SE.
Findings
The observations developed for this study were intended to tell a narrative of teacher SE
actions intertwined with the interviews of the study to gain an understanding of the self-reported
information about the teachers’ perspective on the organizational factors that either facilitated or
impeded their progress towards meeting their goal. As such, the findings are described below.
Findings for Research Question One
The following section describes the findings related to research question one related to
the AES fifth-grade teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to the implementation of NGSS
through Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs.

5
Science background refers to teachers with a science degree. In this study Ms. Trevino had a B.S. in Biology with
a minor in Chemistry. Teachers without a science background refers to teachers who have a Multiple Subjects
Teaching Credential and teach science within the instructional day. Both Ms. Laurence and Ms. Beltran had a
Multiple Subjects Teaching Credential.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 120
Finding One—Science2Minds, a free lending program supported by Adelante,
provided readily accessible resources which gave teachers the motivation to engage in SE.
Having readily accessible material that was supported by Adelante was important to all three
female teachers because it made it easy to implement SE in the face of obstacles. Materials that
were prepared for the teachers helped Ms. Beltran in teaching the Science2Minds Ecosystem
lesson. Ms. Beltran said:
It's just sometimes it's nerve wracking but not like all the time. I enjoy it and once we get
into it and do the actual hands-on stuff, I love it. Yeah. To be honest with you. It's when
those Science2Minds kits came along. Once we started doing a lot of hands-on, like at
first when we would do it out of the book, like it wasn't really, it was harder and then
when we did the consumable books we would just touch, touch base on it, like it was
very simple. Once we started to work with the Science2Minds kits, it was a lot easier and
I think it was because I didn't have to stress about making copies of everything. I didn't
have to stress about writing my own lesson, like the whole entire thing. Now I could just
read it and then take my notes on a separate paper and because it's all there for you. It's
scripted, but also the science lab materials are given so we don't have to go and buy our
own things because it's all there.
Ms. Beltran identified the importance of having everything available for a teacher to implement a
science curriculum because it reduced the stress involved in creating her own curriculum. As she
said, “it’s all there for you.” According to Erduran and Dagher (2014) it is “widely accepted
that learning to teach is not a linear process and that educational change is not a “natural
consequence of receiving well-written and comprehensive instructional materials” (p. 182). For
Ms. Beltran, though, a teacher without a science background, having well-written science lessons
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 121
and comprehensive science instructional material including science lab items was necessary for
the implementation of science education and counteracted science anxieties.
Similar to Ms. Beltran, Ms. Laurence indicated that she enjoyed teaching science with
Science2Minds. She said:
Science2Minds is nice because it’s all there for you. Well, I mean the Science2Minds
stuff comes with everything—lkthat's great because that's kind of almost a no-brainer.
It's not like we have to go search for the material and items needed. When we open the
science books that we have in the classroom, then maybe there's something that you need.
Maybe you need items or text for everybody or whatever, and then you got to go gather
that, but the Science2Minds--that one's nice because it's all there for you ...I have to teach
all this vocabulary… if it's something like that, then it's a lot easier. To open their
science book, it's almost overwhelming, really, to them. So, the Science2Minds, that's a
good deal for us, especially were our kids are with the reading …if I get out some
Science2Minds parachutes and some balls and some junk that they can drop, and a tape
measure, that they go, ‘Yeah. I can see that this is 1’ to 36,’ or whatever it is. Something
that they can do that they can be successful at. A book with a chapter full of words they
don't know, that's pointless.
As demonstrated in the above quotation, Ms. Laurence indicated an appreciation for the
Science2Minds resources because, again, it was “all there for you.” On limited time, she
implemented the science inquiry lessons that are hands-on instead of the textbook science that
contained difficult vocabulary for her students without the necessary supports. She said, “So, the
Science2Minds, that's a good deal for us, especially where our kids are with the reading.” Ms.
Laurence demonstrated an appreciation for Science2Minds science literature which was provided
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 122
at the students’ reading ability and allowed them to actively engage in science even if they
weren’t fluent in the English language. The National Research Council (2011) stated that to
implement the NGSS practices teachers will have to move away from the textbook toward
inquiry-based learning. By changing teacher behavior from utilizing textbooks to science labs,
teachers can engage students’ thoughts for reflection by asking questions and using science
models (Driver et al., 1994; Duckworth, 1987). The female teachers in this study welcomed this
change, and as such their behavior to implementation of NGSS science inquiry was positive
because, according to them, through the inquiry, their students were able to understand difficult
vocabulary in ways they would struggle had they only had the text explanations of the scientific
language.
In slight contrast to the other two teachers, Ms. Trevino indicated that Science2Minds
may be too scripted but appreciated the resources and the science literacy that it provided. She
said:
I think that Science2Minds gave me the resources and the things that I needed to teach
my students and help them through the 5E’s. I think that's what's great about
Science2Minds is that I took those concepts and then combined it with photosynthesis,
and then I could talk about chemistry and add small things in that. Maybe they weren't
embedded in the lesson, but it gives that opportunity to, ‘Okay, well let's talk.’ The kids
ask this question, ‘So let's talk about this now. And do you guys see how this is all
connected?’ And I think that's what I like about it. So, it does really well in modeling for
teachers what an NGSS lesson might look like in a classroom. One misconception that
teachers who have not been exposed to NGSS could have is that it needs to be so
scripted; because should a teacher who has never had experience with NGSS, I feel like
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 123
they would feel they need to stick with this to where--that's not what NGSS is about. It's
about, ‘Here's some ideas. If it works for your class, let's do it. If not, you don't have to
stick to this script.’ There were some things in my lesson where the kids asked a
question. I was like, ‘Hold on to that. We'll come back to it.’ And it wasn't in the lesson
plan, but we were able to hit it. So, having that background knowledge in science.
Looking at this I could say, ‘Okay. Well, this is great. So, let's use this, but let's get rid
of the script.’…The resources are there and if you can think of a different way that might
be more engaging and allow for the 5E's to occur throughout the lesson, then yeah, by all
means do it.
So, while the other two teachers preferred the scripted nature of Science2Minds because it was
all there for them, Ms. Trevino felt that it was too structured. Her slightly different response
points to her own self-efficacy in teaching science. As she said, because she had the
“background knowledge in science” she could move away from the script but know that she was
still advancing the goals of the class.
All teachers in this study indicated they engaged in SE because of the readily accessible
material provided by the Science2Minds curriculum. Ms. Beltran indicated it made it easy for
her to implement SE because it reduced the stress of making copies and having to buy her own
things; and even though she felt anxious about the science concept she researched the material to
have a good understanding about it. Ms. Laurence indicated it made it easy for her to implement
in the face of limited time and that she didn’t have to go out and buy material since everything
was provided by the Science2Minds program. She also appreciated the supports provided by
Science2Minds, which allowed even her students with limited English fluency to engage with
SE. Ms. Trevino said she liked the way Science2Minds provided all the resources as well as the
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 124
manner in which it presented the NGSS practices, through the 5E’s. But, for Ms. Trevino, the
teacher with science knowledge, science self-efficacy was not contingent upon a structured
science curriculum. She saw the curriculum as more of a resource to model how to teach the
5Es, not needing to use the script given her experience teaching science.
Finding Two—Adelante’s support of Science2Minds has enhanced teacher
confidence in science inquiry and increased science knowledge of the NGSS practices
6
,
disciplinary core ideas, and science literacy. A common finding among all three teachers was
confidence with science inquiry instruction. An underlying component was that all teachers had
negative elementary science experiences and experienced science anxiety, but it did not affect
their own science instruction. In this section, I first described teachers’ own experiences with
science, which was described as negative. Then, I demonstrated how that experience did not
affect SE inquiry in the classroom by describing how all three teachers engaged their students in
the 5E’s, in part thanks to readily accessible materials like Science2Minds as explained in the
earlier section.
According to Bandura (1983) strong self-percepts of coping efficacy erase anticipatory
fear. Facing obstacles in teaching serves a purpose, success requires effort and the gained
perseverance allows one to become stronger in the face of adversities (Bandura, 1995). The
teachers in this study recounted negative experiences learning science and as a result
remembered feeling intimidated. For example, Ms. Trevino described her elementary and
secondary science learning as limited and based on a textbook and explained her anxieties or
intimidation with science.

6
I didn’t observe the engineering component during the data collection. Science2Minds has a section on
engineering for each unit but it’s usually an extension and one of the last lessons which the teachers didn’t cover
during my observation.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 125
I feel like at the start of my college career, it was a bit of a challenge. So, in the
beginning, there was a lot of males in the class. A lot of times, I felt intimidated because
some of them are really smart and I came from a private school. And these kids, they've
had different experiences than me. And I felt like I was not used to the experimenting, so
I was always very timid to start things up. But, as I progressed and I started finishing my
degree, it was like, ‘No, we're doing this.’ Or I developed my confidence [laughter].
And then towards the end, that last year, I remember there's so many females. So, it did
change.
Ms. Trevino built her confidence and assured her place in labs. She said her confidence had
made a difference for her own students. Ms. Trevino stated that building science confidence
stems from teachers expressing to students, “‘You can do this’ and allowing them to make
mistakes and letting them think on their own.”
Ms. Beltran also indicated limited science learning and anxieties with science.
She described her elementary science experiences as if she was cheated out of a good science
education because of limited experience learning science based on textbook science. She
described her struggles with science:
I didn't like it. It was math and science that I didn't like. Um, I don't know. They just
seemed very hard to me and I felt like I kind of like slipped through the cracks in regard
to education because I had a lot of trouble and I was struggling a lot. But it's interesting
because I was bad at it. But now I love to teach science. Sometimes I will get nervous
when I teach a science lesson, but I like it. And um, and it's all there for me. So, if I
have any questions I can just research. But it takes, considering the fact that I wasn't so
good in science and I still may not be the best in science, but if I haven't, I could just
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 126
research on it and it makes me feel a lot better. Yeah well, kids need to learn it and I
want them to have a joy for science. That way they don't end up like a student, like I
was.
Bandura (1977) explains if teachers have unsuccessful attempts with learning or teaching inquiry
science, they will be unlikely to implement inquiry-based science within their own classes.
While Ms. Beltran and Ms. Trevino did not have good elementary learning experiences, they
overcame their anxieties, and built confidence to effectively implement science inquiry. Ms.
Beltran wanted her students to enjoy science so that they wouldn’t have negative antecedent
experiences like she did. Ramey-Gassert et al. (1996) studied factors that led to “high
efficacious science teaching” (p. 285). The authors found that teachers who had negative
antecedents with poor science instruction and disliked science desired to make science fun for
their students.
Ms. Beltran’s attempt to make science fun was evident during an observation of her class.
Ms. Beltran held a little notebook in her hands. She said, “I like to write it down and highlight
stuff. Even though it took a lot of time to copy it, it helps me to be more prepared that way the
kids could get the actual lesson that was supposed to be taught.” In this way, Ms. Beltran made
sure she had what she needed to be successful and demonstrated her knowledge to teach science
inquiry. For example, as the vignette below demonstrates, she used the notebook to get her
lesson started in an effective and engaging manner:
Ms. Beltran: [Stops the music. Ms. Beltran is at the front of the classroom and
holds a small notebook from where she reads and begins the lesson
with the question.] What do you think producers and consumers
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 127
are? [She puts up two words on the Promethean board, producers
and consumers.]
Ms. Beltran asked a question to start the lesson, which according to NGSS begins the 5E process
of Engage. The 5E Engage corresponds the NGSS Science Practices--Ask questions. She said:
Ms. Beltran: I want you to think about what do these two words mean,
producers and consumers.
Ms. Beltran continued the NGSS 5E model by Engaging the students with questions.
Ms. Beltran: Oh, I forgot to mention something. Remember in science we don’t
mention the objective in the beginning, we mention it ….
Students: At the end.
Allowing students to use their background knowledge (remembering something they had already
learned) to figure out the objective is part of the constructivist approach to teaching science.
Later in the lesson, she continued by saying:
Ms. Beltran: Rodrigo I see you want to add something. What would you like to
add?
Rodrigo: [Looks at a chart of sentence starters situated above the window
and says,] I agree with [what] John said and would like to add my
own perspective and say, I believe a producer makes something,
makes something for the consumer and the consumer takes or eats
what the producer gives.
Students: [Students then collaborate in small group and share what they think
producers and consumers are? Partners situated across each other
begin to share their ideas. The room becomes lively with student
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 128
collaboration. Two partners from each group begin to discuss their
definition of producers and consumers.]
The room was quite lively with the sound of all students who discussed producers and
consumers. By providing the opportunity for all students to engage in science, Ms. Beltran
followed NGSS Science for ALL. Ms. Beltran prepared herself to teach concepts she was
nervous about, by, for example, having a notebook to remind her of good practices, so that she
would have the scientific knowledge to instruct SE using the 5E’s in order for students to learn
science the correct way within a limited time. During the Engage section of the 5E’s, Ms.
Beltran challenged students to discuss in small groups the words producer and consumer and
allowed students to give their group definition. During the observation Ms. Beltran
demonstrated effective teaching pedagogy to engage students in science inquiry and provided
time for collaboration where students discussed, agreed, disagreed, and reached a consensus on
scientific ideas and models. According to Czerniak & Haney (1998) teachers who use teacher
directed strategies by reading the text and using lectures demonstrate low-self-efficacy in
science. It was evident in the observation that Ms. Beltran used student-directed learning, a
constructivist approach to SE to cover the 5E’s and demonstrated scientific knowledge of the
5E’s. And while she may have reported not having high science self-efficacy and needing a
notebook to remind her of what to do, the observation showed that she was able to implement a
successful, engaging lesson.
Similarly, during the class observation, Ms. Laurence used role playing to cover the
NGSS practices, ask questions, through the Science2Minds 5E’s Engage concept of food chains
and the energy flow of matter. In this way, she demonstrated that she had the procedural
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 129
knowledge to implement science. Below is a vignette that demonstrated this more active
teaching style of the DCI LS2.A: Interdependent Relationships in Ecosystems:
Ms. Laurence: So, Juan earlier told us about eating something and then
something eats that thing and then something else eats that
thing. So, we're going to have a little fun right now and I'm
going to choose some of you and we're going to come up
and play some roles. Alright. [Ms. Laurence uses sticks
with student names to call students forward.]
Ms. Laurence: What do you think you should probably do with those pictures?
What idea do you have about that?
Jorge: Put them in order?
Ms. Laurence: So how are we going to do that?
Gregorio: Biggest to little.
Ms. Laurence: Okay. Biggest to little, that's one way of ordering things. Alright.
What's another way?
Ms. Laurence: I want you guys to talk to each other …and see where each should
go to. Maybe if they can't figure it out, we can help. And those of
you with the arrows. The arrows are going to be pointing, yes like
that. So, you'll just hold it that way. Okay? All right.
Ms. Laurence: [Ms. Laurence looks at the students with their role cards at the
front of the class, and says,] What should we do with the arrows?
Where do the arrows go?
Ben: Oh! [Ben gets excited.]
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 130
Nathania: They go in the middle of each thing.
Students: [The students wearing the role cards are moving around. Some are
discussing what the fox eats. A student says,] What's fox going to
do to the grass? [Students arrange themselves in the following
pattern: sun-->clover-->fox-->rabbit-->]
Ms. Laurence: [Ms. Laurence pulls out another stick and says,] Joe are they in the
right order?
Ben: I guess.
Ms. Laurence: Okay, so how would you figure out how to get them in the right
order? What would you do?
Ms. Laurence used the 5E’s Engage to create interest in the concept of Food Chains. The
students made connections, showed interest, and asked questions. Through Science2Minds, Ms.
Laurence accessed the NGSS DCI LS2.A: Interdependent Relationships in Ecosystems and
The Performance Expectation of 5-LS2-1, develop a model to describe the movement of matter
among plants and animals and the environment. Ms. Laurence also pulled sticks to call students
names in order to ensure equality in participation and guided the students during the
demonstration through questions. She utilized the NGSS science practices, asking questions, and
continued the Engage section of the 5E's. Researchers found that “perceived ability, importance
of science, and perceived instrumentality were more highly related to [females’] stereotyped
views of science than was the case with males” (Debacker & Nelson, 1999, p. 88). Here, in Ms.
Laurence case her own stereotypical experiences of science as a learner did not interfere with her
SE, equitable practices, or motivation to teach it. Ms. Laurence said,
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 131
“I remember science book learning. I ended up dropping biology in high school because
I was struggling in that. And then they put me into general science because biology was
too hard for me. ‘That wasn't really my thing. I loved language arts, and stories, and all
that kind of thing.’ But, I like teaching science ...For me it's always about a story that's
meaningful. You stop listening when things aren't very relevant. I mean if you can't
really relate to it.”
By using Science2Minds, Ms. Trevino like Ms. Laurence intertwined a storyline with the DCI
LS2. A: Interdependent Relationships in Ecosystems and the NGSS science practices
developing models of the food chain. The following is a vignette from Ms. Trevino’s classroom
observation, that demonstrated her ability to teach science according to the NGSS principles:
Ms. Trevino: Nathaniel come and be my snake. Stand next to the snake. You
are going to ravel her up right now. This snake is hungry he needs
energy and is going to survive. He finds a fluffy bunny that just
ate a plant. He needs some energy from that bunny, and he's needs
to survive right.
Students: [Students nod yes.]
Ms. Trevino: He needs to survive. He needs to eat the bunny to survive. Is he
going to get all the energy? [Ms. Trevino takes the paper and tears
the half in half to get fourths.]
Students: [Students gasp and say,] OHHH!
Student: O she cut it.
Ms. Trevino: The little bunny had half. Now he ate the bunny, but did he get all
the energy from the bunny?
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 132
Students: Half ...a fourth.
Ms. Trevino used her background knowledge in science as she confidently developed her
storyline to engage the students in the Ecosystem lesson. She began the Engage section of the
5E’s which was consistent with the following NGSS practices: access prior learning, stimulate
interest, generate questions. Ms. Trevino also entered the Explain section as she explained the
energy flow of the ecosystem through role playing and in its process demonstrated the
disciplinary core idea, PS3.D: Energy in Chemical Processes and Everyday Life and the cross-
cutting concepts of energy and matter. Ms. Trevino’s confidence in science knowledge was
evident as she continued the storyline expanding beyond Science2Minds Lesson.
Ms. Trevino: What would the snake have to do to get enough energy to survive?
Talk among your groups.
Star Group: [Yesenia says] eat another animal. [Arturo says] eat another
consumer. [Both females and males participate equally.]
Ms. Trevino: What would the snake have to do to get enough energy.
Lorena: Eat another animal.
Ms. Trevino: Eat another animal. He might even need more than one animal.
What do you think?
Ms. Trevino: What do you notice happened to the energy that came from the
plants? What is happening to the food energy? Talk to your
groups.
Star group: [Arturo says,] It goes from one energy to another a reaction. The
energy is being passed. All of it ...no like 1/2.
Ms. Trevino: Ahhh!
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 133
Ms. Trevino: From that little producer where photosynthesis took place is now
part of the food energy. Is all the food energy being passed?
Student: No
Ms. Trevino: Like 1/2 of the energy.
Ms. Trevino: There is an animal laying on a rock, and I have an eagle that is
flying. [She roams around and goes back to front of the class and
acts like an eagle.] He has been looking for lunch all day and he
spots a beautiful big snake and sees a bump in him. Hum that's a
goo...d lunch. [She gets the snake.]
Students: [Students laugh.]
Ms. Trevino provided scenarios with stories to deconstruct the flow of energy among producers
and consumers. Within it she integrated the DCI of Interdependent Relationships in Ecosystems
and the NGSS Performance Expectation of creating real life models of science concepts through
storylines and role playing, and within that storyline, she integrated the disciplinary core ideas of
Energy in Chemical Processes and Everyday Life and the cross-cutting concepts of energy and
matter. She provided collaborative opportunities where both females and males participated
equally in small groups. Ms. Trevino correctly said in her interview, “Scientific inquiry involves
the NGSS practices, participating in questions.” NGSS requires the engagement in
argumentative science by actively participating in questions, using evidence to respond to
questions, developing explanations using evidence, making a connection to scientific
phenomena, justifying and communicating explanations to peers (Munford et al., 2002; National
Research Council, 2000). Ms. Trevino provided her students the opportunities for explanation
and argumentative science and made science fun and relevant.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 134
All teachers also implemented the 5E’s Explore section of the lesson. Ms. Beltran
allowed the students to read the material in collaborative groups. Frustration developed now and
then within the groups, but Ms. Beltran allowed them to work it out during the 5E Explore
section of the lesson. For example, Ms. Beltran allowed students to explore and create models
on their own and as a result covered the Performance Expectation building models of the
movement of matter among plants, animals and the environment
Liana: [Liana reads the lab sheet,] In this investigation, you will be using
a model to investigate materials that might help pollinate a
flowering plant. The models used in this investigation are
pollinating sticks with three different textures on the ends.
Research Question: On a bee, which texture works best to
pollinate a flowering plant.
Roger: It says make a prediction. I know this is my prediction. I predict
the best texture is ....we need to think of the texture smooth. No
rough.
Liana: [Mumbles something under her breath to Roger’s prediction.]
Roger: I know this is my prediction. I predict the best texture is ...we need
to think of the texture smooth. No rough
Omar: Not rough. To pollinate is rough or smooth. I think it's smooth
cause if it goes rough the pollination won't go.
Roger: I predict the best texture to use is smooth, smooth, smooth.
Liana: It says make your own prediction.
Roger : I know, I'm making my own prediction.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 135
The students integrated the Performance Expectation through models of pollinators being an
important part of the food chain and how the lack of movement of pollinators among plants
would be detrimental to the environment. And, even though Ms. Beltran could not explain the
Performance Expectation during the interview by stating, “Vaguely, I remember.” When asked
to refer to the Science2Minds lessons she said, “Oh yeah. Hey. Okay. I remember now.
Students who demonstrate understanding can develop, develop a model, describe the movement
of matter among plants and yeah, they did all this. Plants depend on pollinators to reproduce and
assure a bountiful supply of food for the first level consumers.” Here in this lesson Ms. Beltran
integrated the NGSS Performance Expectation for MS-LS1-4-Use argument based on empirical
evidence and scientific reasoning to support an explanation for how characteristic animal
behaviors and specialized plant structures affect the probability of successful reproduction of
animals and plants respectively. Ms. Beltran through the Science2Mind’s lesson on the
Ecosystem and Energy Flow also covered the NGSS Crosscutting Concepts: Energy and
Matter—Energy can be transferred in various ways and between objects. Ms. Beltran
encouraged the students to first read the book, “What If there were no Bees? A book about the
grassland Ecosystem.” And after they read the book she encouraged her students to work
together without direct instruction, she observed and listened to the students as they interacted
and without providing answers redirected the students back to their own investigations when
necessary:
Roger: I think median means like the amount. I think that's what it means.
Omar: It's like the whole amount? I don't know what it is and it's
embarrassing. I can't figure it out. There is a clue in the
Chromebook.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 136
Group Mars: [Group Mars asks Ms. Beltran if they can look it up on the
Chromebook.]
Ms. Beltran: You sure you don't know? Discuss it. You'll be surprised when
you find out?
Ms. Beltran: Liana what do you think?
Liana: Can we use the Chromebook?
Ms. Beltran: Okay.
Omar: [Looks up the information on the Chromebook and says.] Median.
The mean is the three averages. Average, the mean, is where you
add up all the numbers and divide by the numbers. Median is the
middle value. Didn't you say that something about in the middle of
numbers? [Omar was speaking to Ms. Beltran.] I forgot.
Ms. Beltran: It’s okay. It’s okay to make mistakes.
Omar: I don't get it. Omar looks at the data on his sheet. Is it …?
Ms. Beltran: Well you tell me. Well how do you know?
Ms. Beltran does not provide an answer, just redirects the question back to the students.
Omar: The median a number its' going to be ...three numbers, there are
three fives so it’s five.
Group Mars: Group is recording data on their lab sheet.
Omar: Its three, five, three, five, four, two, and one.
Roger: How do you know? Roger: Omar don't tell me, it’s five, five, five
equals 15.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 137
Omar: The median, its' the middle number. Five for the sticky one, the
next one is three. Then, four, two, and one.
Group Mars: [Students continue to collaborate and complete their lab sheet.]
Even after Ms. Beltran indicated they should discuss the word median, Liana took the initiative
and asked to use the chrome book and sought the information about the median. Omar made
connections and asked questions within his own group. Group Mars tried to understand how
something worked, shared their ideas as they participated in their lab investigations. Omar took
time and explained his thought process with Liana and Omar. The students followed the nature
of science approach in a student-centered environment.
Omar: [Reads] Question 2: Use your collected data to explain how the
texture of the material on each stick affects the amount of pollen
that the stick dropped off.
Omar: So, this one was sticky.
Liana: It didn’t drop pollen.
Omar: Oh, I get it. You know how bee picks up pollen in nature. From
each flower the pollen goes like this [he is using the swabs to
demonstrate and drops it to another flower and demonstrates how it
falls]. Like a bee body is supposed to be soft and then, then picks
up pollen and then moves around like a bee getting some nectar
and pollen and it gives pollen to flower and picks up more pollen
and then gives to each flower. It moves to another flower and
doesn’t keep still.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 138
Ms. Beltran provided time for the students to puzzle through problems and acted as a consultant
for her students. During the 5E Exploration, students used the cross-cutting concepts, cause and
effect and proportions and quantity as they investigated, tested predictions and hypotheses with
hands-on activities, tried alternatives and discussed them with others and developed a model that
described the movement of pollinators among plants in the environment. Ms. Beltran followed a
student-centered approach. Her students posed questions, formulated explanations after they
summarized evidence, and formulated reasonable and logical arguments to communicate
explanations. While students in Ms. Beltran’s class were free to discuss their opinions and ideas,
Roger from the Mars group became quite bossy with Liana. Liana at the end was firm with her
response.
Omar: I think, predict the best texture to use is a smooth texture so the
pollen doesn't go everywhere, so the pollen is the best texture to
use is a smooth texture, so that the pollen doesn't go everywhere.
Group Mars: [Group Mars is agreeing on what to say.]
Liana: Wait.
Liana: A hard texture doesn't pollinate well, but if it's smooth, it pollinates
well.
Roger: Omar don't write everything I wrote. I predict that the best texture
is smooth texture.
Omar: Let's do mine, a rough texture.
Liana: [Liana is very quiet just writing what Roger and Omar say.]
Omar: I think that's going to be it.
Roger: This is hard. This is hard. [Looking through lab steps.]
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 139
Liana: I think, I think …we're doing a good job. My prediction is that if it
feels like bumps. If I go to a big bump [looks at lab sheet], it’s soft
[refers to bee’s legs]. But where there is not too much, it feels like
a clump. [Students record the prediction regarding the proportion
and quantity of pollen to be picked up.]
Liana, after she remained quiet with her ideas, finally figured how to deal with Roger. She
complimented the group by saying, “we’re doing a good job.” Then she interjected her
prediction. Liana finally built her confidence and stated her ideas instead of murmuring
something under her breath. Students in Group Mars listened to Liana and wrote the prediction
on their lab sheets. They made their predictions based on the cross-cutting concepts, cause and
effect regarding the smoothness or roughness of the Q-tips, X, Y, and Z as it related to the bee’s
legs, and how much pollination it would pick up and dispersed to flowers on the lab sheet. Liana
continued to demonstrate her confidence by stating her ideas.
Roger: I have Y.
Liana: It collected less.
Roger: Hold on.
Liana: Look the X, it collects more, and the Y collects less. [Liana
proved her concept of the model.]
Liana held her ground and made sure Roger listened to her ideas regarding the movement of
pollinators among plants and the environment. After figuring how to deal with Roger, she
stopped murmuring her ideas under her breath, stated her ideas, and then continued to assert
herself so that the group would listen to her ideas. Ms. Beltran’s student-centered approach was
in part the reason Liana was able to do this. She provided her learners with time to determine
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 140
what constituted evidence and collect it, formed links to explanations, and formulated reasonable
and logical arguments to communicate explanation. It also provided an opportunity for Liana to
work through a difficult moment and built her confidence to firmly interject her argument. All
students in Group Mars investigated, tested predictions and hypotheses with hands-on activities;
they tried alternatives and discussed them with others; they planned, built models, and collected
data; recorded observations and ideas; and asked related questions, all of which are important to
the NGSS practices and to the way a scientist investigates phenomena. Through a student-
centered approach, the students participated in argumentative science during the science lab
investigation. Important to NGSS is communication because in the natural world, scientists can
only advance if they are able to communicate findings or discuss the findings of other scientists;
communication of scientific inquiry ideas are orally communicated through discourse with peers
through writing, models, tables and graphs (Bybee, 2011). In my interview with Ms. Beltran,
she acknowledged that Roger is domineering at times by expressing, “Roger can be domineering
so I have to re-direct him sometimes.” In this example, she didn’t need to intervene. Ms.
Beltran encouraged students to seek their own answers. She valued reasoning among students so
that they themselves argued, discussed, reasoned and came to a consensus within their groups.
Ms. Beltran said:
So, they get ideas from each other. Okay. And they learn from each other and it's more
engaging because like when we work together to get something done, we get more ideas.
And then if you have questions and you're like kind of doubting yourself, but you ask the
person next to you and then they, clarify it for you. Then you know you're on the right
track. They should feel confident and comfortable enough to be able to say why they
disagree, even if it's not a valid reason. Maybe that answer that the other person came up
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 141
with was correct. But if they can explain their thinking, that's important too ...you're
always testing things in science. [pauses] If a student says they disagree, then you ask
them why and if they can explain why, then I feel that that's a valid answer ...no matter
what you're learning, you should be able to defend your answer, not just in science, but
across the curriculum.
Reasoning highlights a key value in scientific reasoning derived from scientific values (Erduan
& Dagher, 2014). Scientists read, write, and have discussions (arguments) about models,
explanations, and data within cultural and social contexts that effect their statements and
interpretations (Duschl & Grandy, 2008; Erduan & Dagher, 2014). Roger, Liana, and Oscar
went through argumentative discussions and reached an agreement before they wrote their final
solution in their activity sheet. It also gave Liana an opportunity to assert herself with
confidence and voice her opinion. Liana building confidence and asserting her opinion provided
an important insight to the cross-section between Latina teachers, their female learners, and
stereotypes - the opportunity of breaking typical stereotypes through student-centered inquiry.
Argumentation is a method to assist students to comprehend the science knowledge that ‘needs
to be taught’ (Erduran & Jimenez-Alexandre, 2008, p. ix) and is an important component of
scientific literacy (National Research Council, 1966). According to NGSS cross-cutting concepts
"a major activity of science is investigating and explaining causal relationships and the
mechanisms by which they are mediated. Such mechanisms can then be tested across given
contexts and used to predict and explain events in new contexts" (NRC, 2013, p. 413).
Ms. Beltran also believed in the value of working hard and shared that value with her
students:
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 142
So, working for something really hard is very rewarding ...you have to work hard for
something you feel really accomplished afterwards. So, even with teaching, like it's very
rewarding when a student understands, like the light bulb clicks because you know you're
doing your job. I want my students to work hard and seek their own answers when they
collaborate during science inquiry.
Ms. Beltran had the self-efficacy to believe in her ability to teach science and believed in her
students’ abilities but recognized they might need to be in the right frame of mind to demonstrate
those abilities. The teacher had the self-efficacy to believe in the steps of science inquiry and
reasoning among students so that they themselves argued, discussed, and reached a consensus
within their groups.
Ms. Laurence also covered the 5E’s Explore in her class. For example:
Ms. Laurence: So, there's a certain way to go about, can everyone see okay here
what I have going on. You guys can't see. [Ms. Laurence situates
the students so that they can see what she is doing.] Generally,
when someone's doing a cooking demonstration they have a mirror
over the top, so you can look up there and see exactly what is
going on. When it's dry you drop it down and you scoop it off the
top. So now you have an exact cup. So funny, last year, our
breads were all different shapes and sizes and textures and colors.
Everybody used the same recipe, but maybe they didn't scoop all
the flour in. Some really, really small loafs (laughs). They didn't
have all the ingredients. [Ms. Laurence is supplementing the
Science2Mind unit with an activity that is relevant to students.]
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 143
Cascade Group: [The two females and male student from the Cascade Group who
were playing yesterday are attentively listening. All three females
of the group are just standing up to see what Ms. Laurence is
doing. All males of the group are carefully watching Ms.
Laurence's demonstration. The students appeared to be interested
in a science lesson that is relevant to them and to the opportunity
of actually making their own bread loaf.]
Cascade Group: [Ariel and Jenny begin to argue about how they will measure the
rice. Mark says,] Break it up and level it. [Robert says,] Not yet,
you need to measure it with a teaspoon.
Ariel and Jenny were assertive as they argued over who would be first. The males tried to break
up the argument. Ensuring that girls have equitable opportunities to participate in scientific
inquiry-based projects can alleviate females from losing interest in science (Kotte, 1992; Jones,
Howe & Rua, 2000). Ms. Laurence ensured that no learners were discouraged from participating
in science inquiry.
Ms. Laurence: [Ms. Laurence circulates around and says to Cascade Group,] Your
measuring cup is not full. [Ms. Laurence gets her bowl with rice
and says,] What does it look like for two cups of flour? And. All
right, I'd like to see that.
Cascade group: [Meanwhile Cascade group has a discussion.] There, [says Jenny.]
No, you're not supposed to do it, [says Mark.]
Ms. Laurence: Okay, don't forget the rules. Number two, measure two and one-
half tsp of baking powder. [She writes it on the board and says the
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 144
measurement out loud as she writes it.] Hold up the utensil when
you find it. What does that say? [Ms. Laurence walks around and
checks to see if students are using the right teaspoon. She doesn’t
tell the students if they are right or wrong, just directs them to read
the measurement on the teaspoon.]
Cascade Group: [Jenny gets one cup. Mark and Jenny try to tell her she got the
wrong one. Ariel says,] You need two cups.
Ms. Laurence: You do need that one. You do need that one. You got one
teaspoon. How many of those are you going to put in there?
Cascade Group: [Jenny says,] One.
Ms. Laurence: You need two. Two and one-half teaspoon. You need two of
those and one-half. You got to put two in. [She approaches
another group.]
Cascade Group: [Ariel, Mark, and Robert watch as Jenny measures and pours the
rice into the bowls.]
Jenny quickly measured her portion and was not interested in the opinion of others. Ms.
Laurence did not change her assertive behavior; she redirected her attention and assured she
understood the quantity that needed to be measured. To provide equity to females, teachers not
only need to know how to explain to females their successes and failures in science but also to
know whether their female students are willing to break the norms of how ‘good girls’ should
behave in science (Nozek et al., 2009). Jenny did not conform to the traditional female gender
role of being complacent. She broke the norms of how ‘good girls’ should behave in science, so
crucial for young Latinas. Jenny was provided with the opportunity to engage in argumentative
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 145
science and showed her knowledge in science in her own way. The two components engagement
in science and the opportunity for argumentative science promotes science identity (Brickhouse
et al., 2000). Through science inquiry, Ms. Laurence provided Jenny an opportunity to build
science identity. Beeton et al. (2012) stated that expectations that science is for men may create
a negative science identity that Latinas do not belong in science. If Latinas internalize these
expectations, when they are older as Beeton et al. (2012) states, they may conform to gender
roles that expect females to be domestic, cook, and clean which may deter Latinas from science.
Gonzalez (2001) directs educators to think of young Latinas as ‘pensadoras’ (thinkers) who
“interrogate the social order, and who give meaning to learning, knowing, and power” (p. 1).
Ms. Laurence provided Jenny the opportunity to interrogate the social order giving power to her
science identity. Ms. Laurence also provided equitable ways to increase female science self-
efficacy such as using popsicle sticks to call out students and allowed Liana to make mistakes
and then through teacher-guided strategies redirected her. Teachers’ attitude and conscious
effort to treat female students in equitable ways results in increased female science self-efficacy
(Shakeshaft, 1995; Bohrman & Akerson, 2001). To promote self-efficacy among females from
diverse ethnic groups, Bohrman & Akerson (2001) suggest promoting equal participation among
gender in science. And, while Ms. Laurence allowed the students to participate in investigations
in their own groups, she directed the learners to collect certain measurements through some
guided direction during the 5E Explore section of the lesson. As such, she played a strong role
as the facilitator of their knowledge. While Ms. Beltran used student-centered approaches to
increase Latina learner science identity, Ms. Laurence used teacher-guided approaches to do the
same.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 146
Ms. Trevino also covered the 5E Explore. For example, in a science inquiry lab on bees
and pollinators in the ecosystem, Ms. Trevino allowed the students to compare the collected
pollen on X and Y swabs. She followed a teacher-guided approach to make sure students
understood the lab directions, then allowed students to complete the lab work through a student-
centered approach:
Ms. Trevino: Group five is ready. Hold it. All right. And place it on the pollen
drop-off sheet. So, pollen drop-off sheet, you're going to lay it
down on your drop-off sheet.
Star Group: [Students take out stick X. One student puts it inside the
pollen petri dish. Taps it and drops it on the pollen sheet. They look
at how much it dropped off. Arlene says,] it looks more fluffy [as
she collects on stick X]. We will record the investigation. [David is
recording it on the lab sheet. The lab sheet has X, Y, and Z on
separate tables with flowers going across. The students tap the
pollen on the flower. Dalia says,] Z looks sticky. The wax will get
stuck to the paper.
Star group: [Dalia says,] I forgot to write the number. [Students repeat the
procedure. Students record data on the lab sheet. They compare
and contrast the image on the data sheet to amount of pollen
dropped on the flower and label it.]
Ms. Trevino: Okay. I'm waiting for groups to show me they're ready. Looks
like group one is ready. Thank you, group one. Lay it on top of
Y.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 147
Ms. Trevino: Do the same with bags Y and Z. When you remove the stick
from bag Z, remember to also pull it out of the paper. So, you're
going to pull one stick out of Y and one stick out of Z. Make
sure you're taking turns. Okay? So, if you already did it, let
someone else do it. [Ms. Trevino ensures students know exactly
what to do by following a teacher-directed approach.]
Star group: [Begin to do the experiment. David grabs X. Arlene says,] It’s
only Y.
Star group: [Arlene says,] It's only Y. [Dalia says,] It’s only Y. [Both Arlene
and Dalia are assertive and tell the male student, David what to
do.]
Star group: [Star group selects another student to take turns following the
procedure. Julie gets the stick, puts it in the petri dish and drops it
into the lab sheet.] [During the group lab, Ms. Trevino
encourages the students to work together without direct
instruction.]
Ms. Trevino: Okay. Don't forget, when you pull the one out of Z, what are you
going to take?
Students: One.
Ms. Trevino: So, Z ...
Ms. Trevino: Get the Z.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 148
Star group: [Darlene says,] Oh, yeah. I forgot to. [Darlene repeats the
procedure. The student dumps Z into the petri dish, rolls it, taps it
on the lab sheet.]
Ms. Trevino: Okay. I'm waiting for groups to show me they're ready. Looks
like group one is ready. Thank you, group one.
Ms. Trevino: Lay it on top of ...? Lay it on top of Z.
Star Group Z data sheet.
Ms. Trevino: Okay. You're ready? For those of you that have it laid it out, step
two says, ‘Observe the texture at the end of each stick. Record a
description of the texture of each material in the table below.
Place your used stick in the large plastic bag.’ So, we're just
going to record an observation. I want everyone to look at stick
X. Does it look smooth, fuzzy, rough?
Ms. Trevino, first, followed a teacher-guided approach. She read the directions on the lab sheet
and ensured the students knew what to do. She asked teacher-directed questions, allowed them
to explore in their own groups and then the activity became student-centered. Ms. Trevino
followed both teacher-directed and student-centered approach after the students knew exactly
what to do. During the interview, Ms. Trevino expressed the self-efficacy to implement student-
centered inquiry, “I think that's when I feel successful when I'm able to just kind of let them be
messy with things and let go of all the control and just let them explore.” During the
observation, Ms. Trevino didn’t follow her beliefs concerning student-centered instruction in
certain parts of the science inquiry. Ms. Trevino knew and believed about the concepts of
student-centered science inquiry and the steps necessary to implement it, valued the importance
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 149
of exploration, and had the self-efficacy to implement NGSS through Science2Minds unit
lessons and science labs. When asked why she followed a teacher directed approach in part of
her lesson, Ms. Trevino responded:
That’s probably could have been the scientist in me not wanting them to mess up the
data. I just think, ‘It's data. Don't ruin it. Please don't—[laughter].’ And I think that
sometimes a hard part for me is kind of letting go sometimes for things like labs where I
don't want them to skew data but just letting them go and then letting them find out,
‘Okay, you guys, what happened here?’ Last year we did a lesson on density and so I
kind of didn't even explain to them what density was, we just started doing these things
and they were using different liquids and pouring them into a cylinder and then started
making all these observations and they're like, ‘Why is this all going to the bottom?’ I
think that's when I feel successful when I'm able to just kind of let them be messy with
things and let go of all the control and just let them go.
Ms. Trevino incorporated both a teacher directed and student-centered approaches but found that
it was hard to let go, to allow them to be messy with the investigation, even though she also felt
the most successful when she did “let them be messy.” Above she described some science
lessons she had previously done with density, and how she extended the lesson and allowed the
students to be messy with it. While Ms. Trevino used teacher-directed strategies, she did not
demonstrate low science self-efficacy. In fact, she effectively finished the three science lessons
in three hours while the other teachers took six hours to complete. She allowed her students to
work collaboratively and participate in lab activities after they had effective science collection
knowledge. For Ms. Trevino, effective SE and science self-efficacy was not dependent on the
instructional approach but on the self-confidence of the teacher to implement SE.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 150
The teachers used the 5E’s Explain principle. Ms. Laurence used the 5E’s Explain and
Elaborate and made it relevant to the students’ cultural backgrounds and community. The cross
between gender influence and teacher science self-efficacy is particularly important to the way
educators engage Latina learners in science. If material is relevant to student lives, Hulleman,
Godes, Hendricks & Harckiewics (2010) found that perceptions of interest and utility value
increased especially for low performing students. Before the lesson, Ms. Laurence shared some
material regarding the lesson. The culminating project will consist of her whole class making
pancakes. An item that was highlighted indicated the following: “Heterotrophs, also known as
other-feeders, can’t capture light or chemical energy to make their own food out of carbon
dioxide. Humans are heterotrophs. Instead, heterotrophs get organic molecules by eating other
organisms or their byproducts.” For example, Ms. Laurence used science literacy as she
integrated the Ecosystem Food Chain lesson with chemistry through the Day two-Part one
Baking is a Science.
Introduction: When we dedicate areas of land to agriculture, we are redirecting
energy to produce our own food. We use some of that food to
bake. [Science of Baking is written on the board.]
Ms. Laurence: [Ms. Laurence is at the front of the class behind a table with
different colored bowls. Inside the bowls are measuring utensils.]
Ms. Laurence: So, science is something that generally follows an exact pattern.
Just like in science there's a method for things. Baking, there's a
definite scientific method that you follow. All right. So, yesterday
I showed you your measuring cups and your measuring spoons.
Today I have an additional cup that I want to show you and we
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 151
more than likely will not be using the liquid measuring cup even
though we will be measuring some milk and some oil that are
liquid just because this one will work okay. But as a rule, this one
is for measuring liquids.
Ms. Laurence: Dough generally is the by-product of things that have been
measured. By-product is the thing that comes after you do the
measuring. Dough is a wet item, but it cannot be poured.
Ms. Laurence continued the 5E’s Explain by integrating DCI 5-PS1 Matter and Its Interactions.
Ms. Laurence integrated science literacy by combining the Ecosystem with Matter and Its
Interaction - heterotrophs, humans get organic molecules, carbon dioxide, by eating other
organisms or their byproducts. She did this by integrating a lesson on baking to make the
scientific concept relevant - humans consume carbon dioxide. And when her students didn’t
answer in complete sentences, she repeated the answer in a complete sentence. This procedure
assisted her ELD learners who were able to hear complete sentences modeled for them. Ms.
Laurence made the lesson relevant and covered the 5E’s Elaborate. NGSS suggests teachers
avoid biases and stereotypes against underrepresented students by providing science instruction
that focuses on science knowledge students bring from their cultural backgrounds and
communities (Lee, Miller, & Januszyk, 2014). The use of different baking scenarios that will
ultimately lead to the culminating activity of making pancakes is relevant not only culturally but
to the community. First, Ms. Laurence used a PowerPoint to demonstrate CO2 as a byproduct
through pumpkin bread, and then connects with the students through a Thanksgiving pie story.
For example:
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 152
Ms. Laurence: If we were making some wonderful pumpkin bread and we don't
put any leaving agents, we don't put any baking soda, any baking
powder or any yeast, something is going to happen to our breads.
Ms. Laurence: [Ms. Laurence has the PowerPoint with visuals for students to see.
The PowerPoint has pictures of leavening agents. It says, ‘Yeast in
bread dough--> consumes available sugars and converts it into
CO2 as a byproduct--> Expanding gases make dough rise. Baking
soda or sodium bicarbonate reacts with acidic ingredients and heat
--> creates CO2 as a byproduct’ (DCI Structure and Properties of
Matter) ]. [Ms. Laurence points to: Steam-->Some ingredients
like butter in a cupcake, contain water-->When heated it changes
to steam and expands-->causing the batter to rise. She draws the
corresponding image on the board. Students draw the model in
their science journal.]
Ms. Laurence: It's so very important to measure correctly. Remember, it's a
science and I do this all the time and most of the time it works out
pretty well, but then I'm on the phone. I have a Thanksgiving pie
in the oven and there's, that little voice in your head, saying,
’Something's wrong, something's wrong.’ And I am walking
around the house checking the turkey and I go, oh my gosh, I
forgot to put the sugar in the pumpkin pie. So, I yank them out of
the oven, and I stir sugar into the pie. So, everyone makes
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 153
mistakes. Especially when you think you know what you are
doing, generally that's when you have to be really careful.
Ms. Laurence covered the 5E’s Explain and extended the Ecosystem lesson by integrating the
DCI Structure and Properties of Matter to explain the chemical reaction of sugar turning into
CO2 through heat. She used the Explain section of the 5E’s which was consistent with the
NGSS practices, constructing explanations to explain the by-products of things. Ms. Laurence
covered the Elaborate section of the 5E’s by making the lesson relevant to a real life scenario
through a storyline of missing ingredients and mistakes that occur when one doesn’t follow the
science of baking. Through the 5E Elaborate, gender influence and teacher science self-efficacy
is significant by the mere opportunity of making material relevant to student lives. Hulleman,
Godes, Hendricks & Harckiewics (2010) found that perceptions of interest and utility value
increased especially for low performing students through the realization of why content was
relevant to them. According to Cohen, Garcia, Apfel & Master (2006) a written assignment on
why values are relevant to oneself closed the achievement gap by 40% and improved the grades
of minority students. Ms. Laurence also used the 5E’s Explain by utilizing science instruction to
teach reading comprehension:
Mary: Hawks, for example, do not eat green plants. But the hawk ate the
wren that ate the caterpillar that ate the leaf of a green plant. And
so, the hawk is linked to green plants. [Mary pauses trying to
pronounce the word.]
Ms. Laurence: through
Mary: through the food chain. It needs the plants as much as the
caterpillar does.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 154
Ms. Laurence: That reminds me of ‘The Little Old Lady Who Swallowed a Fly.’
[students laugh] Alright Juan next page.
Juan: Take a walk and look around. You will see parts of many food
chains. Look at the leaves and flowers of plants. Look at the bark
of trees. Look at fruits, nuts, and seeds that have fallen to the
ground. What animals are eating them?
Ms. Laurence: Okay, Mia next page. Nice and loud.
Mia: You [Mia pauses.]
Ms. Laurence: Wait a minute. You might see ...
Mia: might see a grasshopper eating a blade of grass. You may not see
another animal eat the grasshopper. But you can find out which
animals eat grasshoppers by going to the libary. [Mia pronounces
library as ‘libary.’]
Ms. Laurence: Wait. Going to the what?
Mia: libary
Ms. Laurence: Library. [Ms. Laurence pronounces the ‘ra’ in library for Mia.]
Mia: library. You can read up on grasshopper
Ms. Laurence: Grasshoppers. [Ms. Laurence pronounces the ‘s’ in grasshoppers.]
Mia: grasshoppers. And any other animal you've seen. You can draw
food chains.
Ms. Laurence was teaching science and reading literacy at the same time through science
literacy. Ms. Laurence assisted students with decoding skills such as the ‘r’ in library and
pronouncing the 's' at the end of words like grasshoppers. Decoding through science academic
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 155
content is preferable than basal readers in gaining ‘cumulative understanding’ (Guthrie and
Ozgundor, 2002; Vitale et al., 2006). Reading instruction through science content guaranteed
higher achievement on national normed reading and science assessments (Vitale & Romance,
2011). Ms. Laurence continued using science content to teach reading literacy.
Ms. Laurence: So, remember if I stop you, number one, I want you to be speaking
correct English. Alright that's why I stopped you at library
because we don't say ‘libary.’ And also, you don't add ‘s’ or add
letters to words; sometimes it changes their meaning. So, I just
want you to think about that. I'm not trying to embarrass you or
hurt you. Our next reader is Daisy.
Ms. Laurence affirmed her reason for correcting students during reading literacy. She said, "I'm
not trying to embarrass you or hurt you." She told them she wanted to demonstrate correct
English. During the interview Ms. Laurence explained her rationale:
Some of my students are reading at a first grade or second grade level and they are in
fifth-grade. I've read different things, especially about kids that are non-English
speakers. Oh, you shouldn't correct them. Oh, you should always correct them. And,
you know what? What's the best chance that they have? It’s if I tell them the right way.
I know that I can't pronounce all the Spanish words correctly. I could do my best, and
every time I try, they usually say, ‘Well, that's not the right way, Ms. Laurence.’ And
that's okay. But when they say things, and they say them incorrectly, then I correct them.
And you know what? I got a letter last year from a girl that was leaving sixth grade. And
she said ...I was bawling, reading this thing. ‘I thank you for teaching me how to speak
correctly.’
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 156
Ms. Laurence indicated not only the importance of using the student’s home language in class
but also the importance of taking time to use science literature as means for reading literacy and
to teach students how to pronounce words correctly, so important for ELLs. Science instruction
is beneficial for teaching ELL’s English language proficiency and literacy development (Lee &
Avalos, 2002). In a study of two districts with a total of 20 schools, Shea, Shanahan, Gomez-
Zwiep & Straits (2012) utilized Bybee’s 5E cycle of inquiry as a model for the development of
science and language development and indicated that science is an important context to
simultaneously develop both science content and ELL language and literacy. Weisman (2001),
found that Latina teachers who maintain their cultural identity, not only appreciate the language
of their students, but connect with and affirm their student cultural identity (Weisman, 2001).
Ms. Laurence demonstrated the importance of the Spanish language in her classroom; one does
not have to be Latina to appreciate the languages of others and affirm their student cultural
identity. Ms. Laurence continued to use SE to teach reading comprehension:
Students: [Students turn the page and look at the illustrations of a penguin,
blue whale, and a killer whale.]
Ms. Laurence: What do you notice differently about the killer whale than the blue
whale? What do you notice? [Ms. Laurence pulls out a stick and
says,] Natalia.
Students: OOO!!! [Some students are excited about answering and raise
their hand.]
Natalia: The blue whale is kinder than the killer whale.
Ms. Laurence: How do you know that a blue whale is kinder than the killer
whale?
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 157
Natalia: It doesn't have sharp teeth.
Ms. Laurence: Blue whales got something in their mouth called baleen plates, like
a comb or brush. It hangs down and they scoop up a whole bunch
of water in their mouth. They spit it out; and, that baleen that's in
their mouth catches all the ...?
Students: Yeah! Krill!
Ms. Laurence: Krill. Yes. Good job. They swallow it, and they eat lots and lots
of that every day. Okay, so let’s look at the next page, the killer
whales, they have sharp teeth. That's definitely a sign of a what?
Student: Killer whale
Jasine: A predator. [Jasine was loud when she responded.]
Ms. Laurence: Thank you, Jasine. I've never heard your voice like that. Thank
you. Predator.
Jasine: [Jasine laughs with a smile.]
Jasine was loud and demonstrated excitement toward the topic. Ms. Laurence praised Jasine for
speaking up. Jasine said, "predator" nice and loud for everyone to hear. Jasine smiled after Ms.
Laurence recognized her name and her answer. Engagement with science sparked Jasine’s
interest and created self-confidence for her to speak-up. For ELL learners “with limited
exposure to literacy, concrete experiences build the basis for complex and abstract thinking. As
students relate their prior knowledge and experience to newly constructed knowledge, science
learning becomes meaningful and relevant” (Lee & Avalos, 2002). Ms. Laurence continued:
Angel: Do they eat krill all the time.
Ms. Laurence: Yes sir, they eat them all the time.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 158
Ms. Laurence: Yareli you will read the half of that page and next will be Jenny.
[The page is long with three paragraphs.]
Yareli: Will killer whales hurt people if they do something to them?
Ms. Laurence: No killer whales are looking for their food. So, they live up to
their name. They're looking for food, so that doesn't mean that it
has to be provoked. They're not killing things for the sake of
killing them. But that doesn't mean that they're terrible. They are
wonderful and amazing, but they have that name for a reason.
You've seen them at sea world. They kill things and sometimes
they don't eat it.
Ms. Laurence: Go ahead Yareli.
Yareli: The drawing shows a web of food chains at the far south of the
world. The arrows show who eats what. Follow the arrows and
find the animals that feed on krill--one of them is the blue whale,
the biggest animal on earth. Find the animals that eat animals that
eat krill. Sometimes people walk, talk [Yareli self-corrects her
mispronunciation.] about catching krill for human food. But what
would happen to the food web if fisherman took huge catches of
krill each year? To find out, look at the drawing again. Humans
often make changes in food chains and webs. Then they find that
one change causes other changes. That was what happened when
hunters killed nearly all the Pacific sea otters.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 159
Ms. Laurence: Sometimes humans have an effect on the food chain. Alright.
This happens all the time. How many of you know what
tumbleweeds are? [Several students raised their hand or nodded
their head.] In the 1800’s, late 1800’s. They were raising a lot of
cattle and they needed a source of food. So, somebody brought
over some tumbleweeds from Russia. The story has not been
verified, but it's kind of interesting and it gives you an idea
whether it's true or not. But, now we have some tumbleweeds
everywhere and the cows can't eat them, right. They're terrible.
They don't eat them. They are all over the place and they can poke
you. So, it was a bad idea. Sometimes they introduce a little fish
in a pond to get rid of something and then that fish is eating the
other fish.
Student: [A student laughs hearing her story.]
Ms. Laurence used the Science2Minds science literature to address reading comprehension. It
was evident that some of her students at a fifth-grade level had difficulty reading “Who Eats hat?
Food Chains and Food Webs” by Patricia Lauber, a reading level book of 3.8. An important
reform strategy for early childhood education has been to increase basal reading time especially
for at-risk students by decreasing time to other content including science to increase results in
state reading assessments which ultimately affect future high school achievement (Vitale,
Romance, & Klentschy, 2006). Students are exposed to process or skills instead of meaningful
content to raise scores and suggest science instruction as an avenue for reading comprehension
(Vitale, Romance, & Klentschy, 2006). Ms. Laurence used SE, the 5E’s Explain and Elaborate
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 160
as she taught reading comprehension to explain the tumbleweed and fish scenario. She provided
a real-world experience. Students made connections with her story, a student laughed after
hearing, "Sometimes they introduce a little fish in a pond to get rid of something and then that
fish is eating the other fish.” And Jasine who was quiet before, built her self-confidence to speak
up in class about a science topic. Science has the tendency to excite, build interest and engage
the minds of learners (NRC, 2012).
Ms. Trevino also covered the 5E’s Explain and the 5E’s Elaborate, and demonstrated like
Ms. Laurence, her procedural knowledge of teaching science inquiry:
Ms. Trevino: When photosynthesis happens, you have sun beams coming down.
I am going to draw a little flower. The energy from the sun is
hitting the flower. [Ms. Trevino writes chemical reaction.] Let me
give you a scenario. You have a soda bottle and Mentos. You say,
‘What would happen if I put the Mentos in the soda?’ Talk to each
other.
Star group: [Dalia says,] If you put it in, it goes whish. [Students seem excited
with the concepts. Michael says,] It would shake, make gas.
Ms. Trevino: Would anyone like to share their prediction?
Michael: Chemical reaction. It would shake, bubble, make gas. It gets a
reaction.
Ms. Trevino: If we put the Mentos in, it starts to fizz and whish! The soda will
shoot out. So, this is what happens when the sun hits the plants
inside ...where your eyes can't see a chemical reaction is taking
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 161
place. This is what happens. Breathe out not too hard ...that is air
coming out. It is not oxygen. It's carbon dioxide.
Ms. Trevino provided a relevant scenario on a Mentos reaction separate from Science2Minds
content to describe the chemical reaction that took place inside plants. She described it with ease
and confidence. Ms. Trevino continued to explain and elaborate upon the chemical reaction:
Students: [Students breathe in and out.]
Ms. Trevino: Plants love carbon dioxide. And they use it with the energy that is
in them that they get from the sun. They also take in water. They
take in sunlight and water to make carbon dioxide. All that works
together to make a chemical reaction. I need some volunteers that
feel comfortable reading in front of an audience. I don't want to
make you feel uncomfortable. And I will be here to help you.
[Fabiola raises her hand.] Come up I just want you to stand here.
I'm going to give you a card that has what you need to read. I want
you to look over it while I call the other volunteers. [Volunteers
raise their hand. Ms. Trevino calls them forward.] Ariana, Daisy,
Jasmine, Petra, Salvador and Matthew come to the front of the
class. [Volunteers come up and Ms. Trevino hands out a role card
to each of them.] I want you to read over it while I talk to them.
Here we have the sun, carbon dioxide over there, water, we have
some signs, sugar and some oxygen. This is the chemical reaction
that is happening inside plants. It starts with the sun, carbon
dioxide and water. When that reaction happens, it produces sugar
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 162
and oxygen. Sugar is energy. Remember how Mr. Garcia came in
and said if you had too much candy you might get hyper and Ms.
Trevino might not appreciate it. That's what plants produce, sugar
or we call it energy and that's what animals use.
Ms. Trevino taught the DCI Matter and Its Interactions with ease and confidence as she
presented the 5E’s Explain of the chemical reaction taking place inside the plants. She utilized
the 5E Elaborate by associating the chemical reaction by making it relevant with a real life
storyline of Mr. Garcia and the discussion of candy. Like Ms. Laurence, Ms. Trevino provided
opportunities for Latina learners to relate to science concepts through relevant stories. Darby-
Hobbs (2013) discusses relevant science stories as a ‘transformative experience.’ While the
relevance is based on student interest, teaching it relates to the transformation and
empowerment from what students learn and how to make the connection (Darby-Hobbs, 2013).
Ms. Trevino, like Ms. Laurence appreciated science instruction to assist her students with
literacy skills and explain science concepts. She said:
It's, [science literature], something they want to read, instead of something you're making
me read or something I have to read for points. Instead, we're reading this because it's
relevant to what we're learning. It's something they want to read. Yeah. Their
vocabulary would increase so much. Just doing this Science2Minds lesson, they're using
this vocabulary when they're talking to each other. So, when we're talking about
endangered species even my level one language learners, they're like, ’Habitats, and
predators, and preys,’ and it's becoming a part of their vocabulary. And so, imagine if we
could take that in fifth-grade and apply it to kindergarten and first grade. Their
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 163
vocabularies and science understandings would be amazing by the time they got to fifth
and sixth grade ...that would blow Mr. Samson [the middle school science teacher] away.
Ms. Trevino valued science literacy through scientific literature to develop science understanding
and vocabulary. She stated that if it started in Kindergarten, student science knowledge would
be amazing at a fifth-grade level. Science benefits ELL’s through science learning, literacy
development, proficiency and communication skills including critical thinking (Lee & Avalos,
2002). For limited ELL’s concrete science experiences assist in abstract, higher level thinking
without the burden of language use (Lee & Avalos, 2002).
All teachers utilized the 5E’s Evaluate, thus demonstrated their procedural knowledge to
use the 5Es. For example, Ms. Laurence administered the Science2Minds Ecosystem and Flow
of Energy pre-test:
Ms. Laurence: Does everyone have their name on it. I'll read the question. I see
that just about all of you have your name on it. Number one,
listen. Where does the energy that flows through a change begin?
Ms. Laurence: Let me just read through them and then you could go back and take
your time. Number two, what is the difference between a prey and
predator? Number three, what is a producer and why is it
important to a food chain? Number four, why is pollination
important to an ecosystem? Number five, draw a food chain for a
hawk that eats a mouse. Be sure to begin with the sun and include
the decomposers. Number six, explain the following terms,
herbivore, omnivore, carnivore, and the composer. Alright. Get
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 164
busy. Do the best you can. If you don't know it, just skip it. Do
the best you can.
By reading the questions out loud first, Ms. Laurence previewed the assessment, which was also
a support for students with limited English fluency for whom hearing the questions is easier than
reading them.
Ms. Beltran also had her students take the Science2Minds Ecosystem and Flow of Energy
Pretest:
Ms. Beltran It's time to begin a test, this time it's a pre-test. [Ms. Beltran plays
‘Sky Full of Stars’ by the Piano Guys, a relaxing, soothing, and
slightly upbeat music and tells students to take out their office
space folders to provide privacy and inspiration for the pre-test.
The Office Space folders are colorful with messages. The outside
of the folders have messages such as ’Do not disturb need my
space.’ Students in unison read the message inside the folders with
Ms. Beltran]:
I am smart.
I am confident I can do this.
I’m not just smart because Ms. Beltran and Ms. Zuniga
Tell me I can, but because I know I’m SMART.
Ms. Beltran used a relaxation technique that utilized both music and calming words to ease
students’ test anxiety in science, if any. Ms. Beltran built confidence in each child that they were
smart and promoted a belief in themselves that they could accomplish the task. This procedure
even helped Luz who was demonstrating anxiety. During the observation, she had her head
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 165
down, her leg shook, and she leaned her hand over her desk. Ms. Beltran had the patience to
wait until all her students were relaxed before they took the test. For example, the following is a
vignette as the class was getting ready to take a test:
Ms. Beltran: Think of something that makes you happy, it could be anywhere in
the world. Any place that makes you happy. It could be on a
beach, on a mountain or someplace far, far away. Take a deep
breath and let it out. How many in your happy place?
Students: [Twenty students raise their hand.]
Ms. Beltran: [Still waiting for some.] Hands down.
Luz: [Continues to have head down, with hand leaning over her desk.]
Ms. Beltran: [Waiting for three.] Okay take a deep breath and let it out. Okay
raise your hand if you are in a happy place. Students who are in a
happy place raise their hands. Hands down. Okay waiting on two
people. It could be anywhere in the world. [Calming music
continues to play. Ms. Beltran says to a female student who is
nervous,] Why are you so nervous, it’s a pre-test.
Luz: [With hand up, shakes her leg and looks at the sheet on her desk.
Luz seems to be having anxiety with the pre-test.]
Ms. Beltran: It will be okay not to answer all the questions. [Music continues to
play.] Okay, raise your hands if you are in a happy place.
Students: [All students raise their hand.]
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 166
Ms. Beltran: Before I pass out the pre-tests, let’s repeat the message in the
inside of the office space folders. [Student in unison with Ms.
Beltran read the message.]
Ms. Beltran provided an environment conducive to learning and reducing anxieties. Ms. Beltran
provided the environment to affect student learning positively by reducing student anxiety at the
beginning of the Science2Minds unit. Female science anxiety starts at the age of eight (Mallow,
2006). Mallow (2006) suggests teachers use metacognitive skills, monitoring ‘how we learn
what we learn’ by decreasing science anxieties through innovative ways for students to learn and
process information. Ms. Beltran’s use of calming music and motivational expressions, an
innovative relaxing strategy, provided an avenue for all students to process what they know
about science. Ms. Beltran acknowledged Luz’s anxiety, reflected and expressed to her it was
just a pre-test.
Ms. Beltran used a relaxation technique with Luz, utilizing both music and calming
words to ease students’ test anxiety in science. Music has the capability of decreasing stress and
providing a positive experience (Yehuda, 2011). When asked why she did this, she responded:
I do that because when I was growing up I would get really nervous taking tests; and, I
think that is why I would do so terrible because I would get really nervous and your
nerves can take over a lot. I let them know, when you're nervous you're not going to do
well. And that's why I try to like calm them down. My professor told us that research
says that if you take yourself to a happy place, you keep yourself there, then you will do
much better on your assessment. I tell my students don't be nervous especially with the
pretest ...it's just at the beginning to see what you know and so eventually you're going to
learn it.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 167
Mallow (2006) found that gender was not a predictor of anxiety, but females who experienced
science anxiety assessed themselves with low ability to perform well in science than males. Ms.
Beltran used a metacognitive strategy, she observed what students were not in a happy place and
reflected back a message, ‘it’s just a pre-test’ to ease Luz’s anxiety, to calm her so that her
nerves wouldn’t take over her. Background music motivates students to stay on task, increase
behavior and learn (White, 2007).
All teachers used the 5E’s Evaluate. According to Bybee (2014), during the 5E evaluate,
teachers need to use science experiences which are consistent and understandable with the prior
5E’s and the teacher determines how to obtain it (Bybee, 2014). The use of the same
Science2Minds pre and post-test constructed response assessment allowed students to become
familiar with the material to be tested at the end of the Science2Minds Unit. The constructive
assessments evaluate if the science inquiry labs enhanced student learning with understanding or
in other words are ‘students learning the process of doing science’ (Novak, 1988; Tobin, 1990).
Teachers also allowed students to draw models of the phenomena, energy flow in the ecosystem
which served as an evaluation of their science learning. “Engaging students in personally
relevant science projects where they connect science models to typical science resources”
through internet science research provides for lifelong learning (Linn, Bell, & Hsi, 1988, p. 4).
Evidence of learning can be achieved through group activities where students explore science
topics and critique each other ideas of science concepts (NRC, 2014; CDE, 2016).
Engineering
7
practices are part of the NGSS practices. Due to lack of time and the
engineering extension as lesson six, the engineering practices were not observed. But during the
interview the teachers defined the engineering practices. For example:

7
Engineering practices were not observed during the study. Science2Minds engineering lessons are presented at
the end of the unit.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 168
Ms. Beltran That's also very engaging, you know, planning, designing, fixing
it, if it doesn't work, testing it and fixing it. If it doesn't work, but
if you are pressed for time, you don't have a lot of time to do that
[fix it]. Well then you can't get it done.
Ms. Beltran explained the engineering design quite easily. She said, “I participated in the
District Math Coalition where we did a lot of STEM activities.” She indicated that when it came
to finding out “it doesn’t work,” being pressed for time may be a barrier for students to fix their
model. While the NGSS science and engineering practices are the same, the engineering design,
ask, imagine, plan, create, improve ask, is easier for Ms. Beltran to remember and discuss.
Mnemonic devices are helpful in assisting students in remembering procedural steps to solutions
and recalling information (Miller & Hudson, 2007; Lombardi & Butera, 1998), and can assist
adults in remembering procedures (Schumacher, 2005). “The actual doing of science or
engineering can also pique students’ curiosity, capture their interest, and motivate their continued
study” (NGSS Lead States, 2013, Appendix F, pg. 2). Ms. Trevino also discussed the
importance of the engineering practices. For example:
Trevino: It's giving the students the opportunity to take those concepts that
they have learned in science and engineering and show what
they've learned, whether it be building something, creating
something, or modeling something.
Ms. Trevino said, “As an intern I taught the summer STEM sessions where my students
participated in the STEM activities.” Like Ms. Beltran, Ms. Trevino could not name the NGSS
engineering practices, but she said it was building, creating, and exploring. The NGSS practices
for both the science and engineering practices are the same, but the descriptions are long.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 169
Mnemonic devices can produce instant performance than semantic-context approaches (Wang &
Thomas, 1995). “Curriculum developers and teachers determine strategies that advance
students’ abilities to use the practices” (NGSS Lead States, 2013, p.2). Science2Minds describes
the Engineering Extension as the last lesson in each unit and provides all materials for the
teacher and students. Because NGSS is new, my study focused on the NGSS science practices
only.
Teachers’ access to the Science2Minds program provided them the opportunity to engage
in SE. And, as they engaged in science inquiry, teachers demonstrated SE knowledge and
science self-efficacy to implement NGSS through Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs.
An avenue for ensuring science inquiry is for teachers to feel confidence towards
implementing inquiry ‘both as learners and as teachers’ and research suggests that self-efficacy
may influence teacher participation in science inquiry (Smolleck et al., 2006). According to
Bandura, “People also rely partly on their physical and emotional states in judging their self-
efficacy. Efficacy beliefs are strengthened by reducing anxiety and depression, building physical
strength and stamina, and correcting the misreading of physical and emotional states” (Bandura,
2012, p. 13). As the three AES teachers implemented Science2Minds they participated in SE
with fidelity, integrated science literacy as they incorporated different DCI’s through
Science2Minds, and in the process overcame anxieties with preparation and demonstrated their
self-efficacy by implementing NGSS science practices, disciplinary core ideas, cross-cutting
concepts through Science2Minds.
Science2Minds provided an avenue to science knowledge and to the implementation of
the NGSS practices whether it be through teacher directed or student-centered approaches with
their learners. As a result, this study found improved science knowledge and science self-
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 170
efficacy for the female teachers in this study. While the teachers did not name all the
Disciplinary Core Ideas (DCI’s) in the interviews, the observations demonstrated that teachers
were addressing the DCI’s through Science2Minds lessons. For example, they did so in the
lessons on Energy Transfer within the Ecosystem Food Chain and Interdependent Relationships
in Ecosystems, Matter and It’s Interactions, and science labs Ecosystem and Energy Flow
lessons, which covered the cross-cutting concepts of cause and effect, proportion and quantity
through the Pollination Science Lab mentioned above, and of course Energy and Matter (5-PS3-
1). The Performance Expectation was integrated by students’ models of the movement of matter
among plants, animals and the environment. Awareness of standards is recommended before
deep understanding of science inquiry or interpretation activities; when understanding is not at
the forefront of implementation, then everything becomes mechanical and even temporary
(Bybee et al., 1997). The dimensions of NGSS need to be aligned with teacher awareness and
understanding of the performance expectations (NGSS Lead States, 2013). In this study female
teachers had a good NGSS science curriculum that provided the guidance to cover the
Performance Expectation and the NGSS science practices through the lesson’s 5E’s and
Argumentation: Supporting claims with evidence.
The three female teachers demonstrated the importance of weaving science inquiry
stories to engage the minds of Latina learners, and they accomplished this through the
implementation of Science2Minds. As the three AES teachers implemented Science2Minds they
participated in SE with fidelity, integrated science literacy as they incorporated different DCI’s
through Science2Minds and used science literature to teach reading literacy and comprehension
to ELLs; and in the process overcame anxieties with preparation and demonstrated their self-
efficacy by implementing NGSS science practices, disciplinary core ideas, and cross-cutting
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 171
concepts through Science2Minds. AES female teachers’ efficacious attitudes allowed them to
overcome past antecedent stereotypes towards science; and, contributed to the teachers’ ability to
positively serve as science role models for female learners thus theoretically producing a positive
science self-image among Latina learners at AES.
Finding Three—Relationships and caring attitudes contributed to teachers valuing
effective SE and building student self-confidence in science learning. In this study both
White and Latina teachers formed strong connections with their Latina students within the
realm of science inquiry. Guskey & Passaro (1994) defined personal teaching efficacy as a
teacher’s evaluation of his/her ability to positively change student learning, which is related to
Bandura’s teacher’s self-efficacy, a teacher’s belief to bring about desired outcomes from student
learning and engagement even from those who are not motivated (Bandura, 1977). Relationships
and caring attitudes are qualities that drive teachers to impart knowledge and instill motivation in
their students in order to ultimately achieve educational success among their students. Bybee
(2014) found that teachers “rated personal relations with students and enthusiasm for science
teaching higher than knowledge of science pedagogy” (p. 220-221). In the 1970’s Bybee
became interested in ‘the characteristics of good science teaching’ (Bybee, 2014). Using a Q-
sort, Bybee in 1973 investigated academics, teachers, students, and ‘scientists’ perceptions of the
ideal science teacher’ and found that science teaching required an understanding of science and
the ability to use a ‘variety of different teaching strategies,’ but the result of his research rated
‘personal qualities higher than knowledge of science and pedagogy’ (Bybee, 2014). Bybee
reminds us that effective SE is more than NGSS but an “entire constellation of competencies and
qualities that contribute to effective teaching and learning” (Bybee 2014, p. 220-221).
Valenzuela (1999) and Noddings (1992) stressed the importance of teaching as ‘an emotionally
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 172
connected endeavor’ centered on student needs. Authentic caring creates deeper learning and
counteracts subtractive teaching (Valenzuela, 1999; Gonzalez, 2015). In this section I
demonstrated how caring attitudes, an important teacher quality served as a precursor to efficacy,
a “teachers' belief or conviction that they can influence how well students learn, even those who
may be considered difficult or unmotivated” (Guskey & Passaro, 1994, p. 2). Science inquiry
coupled with teacher caring attitudes created connections across cultures making issues with race
non-existent.
All three teachers in this study demonstrated their desire to go above and beyond for
their students. Ms. Laurence mentioned she would stay up late trying to figure out how to assist
her students. She brought in her husband, her mother, recruited personnel from Adelante to
assist in the culminating Baking is a Science Activity. She expended lots of time and energy to
give her students the best opportunities to succeed. When asked why she did this, she said:
Well, I mean I look at my own life and I think …I came from a family, very poor, but I
did have a lot of love in my home and my parents were not educated. …So, I think that
when you're loved you know that even if you're wrong then you're still safe. But when
someone loves you and believes in you and says, ‘Hey, I think you can do this’ then all of
a sudden you're stronger and you can reach something that maybe didn't seem attainable
before. Believing in our students is important. If they know that you believe in them
then they start believing in themselves. Yeah. That has to happen. You won't get much
out of them without that. I say, ‘Hey, I believe in you. You can do this.’ And sure
enough, they rise to the occasion.
Ms. Laurence described a caring relationship when she indicated “when someone loves you and
believes in you.” She demonstrated her own love for her students and her belief in their abilities
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 173
to rise to the occasion and learn scientific concepts. She felt this was only possible when
students know their teachers have built a caring relationship with them. Harper and Williams
(2014) found that students from poor schools became successful in life because of special caring
relations between students and teachers, and because of the clearly communicated high
expectations for them. Noddings (2013) discusses the importance of the teacher/student
relationship in a value-based education model of learning. Researchers have indicated that
teaching efficacy is based on influencing students to learn, positively changing student learning
to bring about those desired outcomes from student engagement (Guskey & Passaro, 1994;
Bandura, 1977). A teacher’s belief in the importance of relationships and caring are influences
that can promote teacher self-efficacy to bring about desired outcomes in SE. Ms. Laurence
connected her own experiences with those of her own students when she said, “I came from a
family, very poor.” Ms. Laurence counteracts the color-blind culture ideology through a
connection of similar cultural experiences. A caring relationship is a driving force or
characteristic toward positively changing student learning. For Ms. Laurence, caring attitudes
contributed to her effective teaching and desire to affect her students’ learning and in its course
contributed to her high self-efficacy, a belief in her own efficacious abilities in imparting science
knowledge and in the abilities of their students ‘to rise to the occasion.’
Ms. Trevino valued science for her Latina students. She said it empowered them to
someday give back and impact their community. Ms. Trevino was raised in the same community
as her students and discussed a special connection to the community and giving back to it. In her
mind, she was teaching the next generation of young people who may return to their community
like she did. She said:
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 174
A love for science, for learning, it can change so many things, it could change—these
females that we have in just in fifth-grade now if they could—have that realization. They
have the power as a group of fifth-graders in the future to change the demographics of
our city, change—affect our community in a positive way. And so many of these
students, they do come back to their community and they do things for their community.
And if we can have just the students that we have now in fifth-grade, just in fifth-grade
do that, it would be so helpful to the community and the schools because they're going to
value their science education. And should they come back; they'll have—they'll be able
to have a positive impact on our community.
Ms. Trevino returned to her community to make a difference in the lives of her young Latina
learners. According to her science master teacher, she had “the ability to serve as a science role
model to the school, to her Latina learners and to her community.” Ms. Trevino said, “Hearing
those words empowered me.” She expected to build that relationship with her students, to have a
love for science, to empower them so that they can someday give back to their community too.
Individuals’ belief expectancies for success or failure, for instance, are related to their
evaluations of competence and when teachers respond positively students are motivated to
complete challenging tasks (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Relationships and caring attitudes serve
as a utility value to motivate students to complete challenging tasks in science and value science.
The findings confer Torres & Baxter (2004) research that a symbiotic relationship between
cognitive and identity development promote learning; but, I will add that a symbiotic relationship
between science identity, caring attitudes, and cognitive development promote student learning.
Teacher’s ideas about caring attitudes confer Harper and Williams (2014) that caring relations
between students and teachers allow students to be successful because of the clearly
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 175
communicated high expectations. Ms. Trevino also wanted to build a relationship with her
Latina learners to understand the value of working hard. She expressed it’s important for Latinas
to understand,
‘It’s not that I'm not smart. It's just that I need to work hard.’ And it makes whatever
goals they have attainable. They have this realization that, ‘Oh, you mean it's not that I'm
not smart. It's that those students are working hard. And if they can work hard, I can
work hard, too.’ So, I think it's just because it was so important to me and it was such a
valuable lesson that I learned. It's important that I take the time and let them know I care.
Some of them are going to learn from my mistake, I would hope, and they're going to
take it to heart and apply it when they get older.
Ms. Trevino demonstrated a caring attitude when she said, “It’s important that I take time and let
them know I care.” She wanted to influence her students by taking the time to teach them the
value of working hard because for her it was a valuable lesson that she learned to be successful
in her own science courses. Her caring attitude contributed to her desire to motivate her students
to be successful science learners. The problematic nature of Ms. Trevino’s comment, that their
academic success is due to working hard and not because they are smart, may be considered as
subtractive teaching, not believing in the intelligence of Latina females. The myth of
meritocracy is also at play which may prevent equity in education for underserved populations
(Rodriguez, 1998). To dispel the myth, Rodriguez (1998) makes a recommendation, to learn
how underserved population have succeeded in science ‘in spite of obstacles.’ Ms. Trevino
succeeded in her science educational career by graduating with a biology major and a minor in
chemistry. She tells students to work hard, because it’s what made her successful at the
university level. It’s what Ms. Trevino encountered when she entered the university. She felt
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 176
students were smarter than her and it intimidated her. She discovered the attitude of working
hard got her the grades she needed.
Ms. Beltran also described her connection with her Latina learners:
I’m Latina, and I want my Latina learners to succeed and I want like whatever anyone
has told them in the past that’s negative, I want them to know that that's not true. I'm sure
Latinas hear a lot of stuff in the media ...people think they are not as smart. But if you
think about it, there are a lot of Latina doctors, nurses, and leaders. I just feel like it's just
a stereotype and it might just affect them in their learning. And, if you take the time to
believe in them, then I feel like they're going to do great. And then they're going to say,
‘Oh wow, that person or that teacher, whoever it was that told them that they weren’t
smart, wasn't right.’ I want them to have a joy for science. That way they don't end up
like a student. Like I was. I didn't like it and I feel like if the teachers would have been
more enthusiastic about science in elementary school ...perhaps I would have understood
and comprehended it. So, it’s important to build that science relationship now with my
Latina learners.
Ms. Beltran connected with her Latina learners because she herself is Latina. Ms. Beltran
wanted to build a relationship with her students and motivated them to enjoy science so that they
don’t have negative antecedent experiences like she did. Science teaching outcome expectancy,
in addition, was also high for those teachers who grew up as learners who experienced poor
science learning but believed strongly as teachers that they can empower students in learning
science (Ramey-Gassert et al., 1996). Ms. Beltran was aware of stereotypes that depicted
Latinas not being smart which could affect their self-awareness in science and in their learning.
She mentioned they are just stereotypes. According to Chouinard, Vezeau, Bouffard and Jenkins
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 177
(1999) females have a tendency to demonstrate “lower competence beliefs and ascribe less value
to the domain [math]” (p. 503). In a later study, Chouinard, Karsenti and Roy (2007) found that
females have a tendency to demonstrate “lower competence beliefs” but do not ascribe ‘less
value to the domain [math]’ (p. 513). Individuals’ belief expectancies for success or failure, for
instance, are related to their evaluations of competence and when teachers respond positively
students are motivated to complete challenging tasks (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Relationships
and caring attitudes served as a utility value to motivate students to complete challenging tasks in
science and value science. A caring relationship is a driving force or characteristic toward
positively changing student learning and important to counteracting Chouinard et al. (1999) and
Chouinard et al. (2007) stereotypes of females having a tendency to demonstrate ‘lower
competence beliefs [in math].’ The same can be related to science. Ms. Beltran mentioned
whatever she did in the class helped, such as providing opportunities for Latinas to be teachers
(leaders) in the classroom helped them be interested in science. She wanted her Latina learners
to feel special, so she allowed them to be teachers in the classroom. She described why she
allowed her Latinas to be teachers:
Well, because it gives them this sense of I don't want to say ...well power, but it makes
them feel important and special. Like, Oh, I'm the teacher. Like Ms. Beltran, she's a
teacher, she teaches all of us, so I get to play that role. And I think that that is very
beneficial to feel important and it probably helps them become leaders too. I will tell
them, ‘Don’t worry about it. You or your team is not being judged. This is a safe place.’
So, I think me telling them, reminding them that they are safe and that it's okay to make
mistakes. I think that helps them a lot with their self, with self-esteem. And being
leaders, I think that putting them in that role helps them think, ‘Okay, science and they,
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 178
they're like in it.’ You know what I mean? They're like in that role. It makes them feel
like scientists. I think it helps them a lot to do that in science.
Ms. Beltran had a special relationship with her students. She desired for her students to learn in
a safe environment where they were not intimidated to speak up and feel like leaders. Ms.
Beltran took a step towards bringing ethnicity identity and gender identity together, an
“interactive nature of the two categories” (Zinn, 1980, p. 23), a step towards breaking typical
Latino social cultural stereotypes of Latinas “girls being more likely to think of themselves in
terms of family” (Zinn, 1980, p. 22). "Teachers ...need to understand [that] the symbiotic
relationship between cognitive development issues and identity development issues ...can inform
and promote students' learning processes" (Torres & Baxter, 2004, p.346). Ms. Beltran’s
pedagogical strategies to make Latinas feel like leaders assisted them with self-esteem and their
science identity. An important function of self-awareness is “to permit people to think how they
are seen by others” (Leary & Tangy, 2011, p. 14). Teacher relationships with their students and
personal connections were important influences in the development of science identities (Beeton,
2007). Ms. Beltran mentioned students need to feel like scientists. From the observation her
beliefs matched her actions. Students engaged in discourse, disagreed, agreed and came to a
conclusion before they reported their conclusions on their lab sheets.
The three female teachers, indicated the importance of relationships with their students
promoted a positive self-awareness in themselves as students who are loved, cared for, and that
they are capable of succeeding through hard work and realizing that they are smart too, which
contributes to student self-confidence in science learning. Harper and Williams (2014) stated
that success for Latinos and Black Americans consisted of adults expecting them to be
successful, having high expectations for them, and “that people saw something in them at an
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 179
early age that they had not yet come to realize for themselves” (p. 15). Teachers who
demonstrate caring attitudes can reduce anxiety in students. Bybee (2014) indicates that teacher
personal qualities, such as caring attitudes, remind us that SE is more than the knowledge of
NGSS’s performance expectations, science practices, DCI’s, and crosscutting concept.
Educators need to consider all qualities and competencies that “contribute toward effective
teaching and learning” (Bybee, 2014, p. 220-221). Teacher relationships and caring attitudes
can serve as motivators for effective science teaching.
The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) and the Council
for Accreditation for Educator Preparation (CAEP) suggests that dispositions significantly
influence one’s learning, behavior, and development of all K-12 students (NCATE, 2002; CAEP,
2019). According to NCATE “Dispositions are guided by beliefs and attitudes related to values
such as caring, fairness, honesty, responsibility, and social justice” (NCATE, 2002). Borko et al.
(2007) found teachers considered the following dispositions, honesty, responsibility,
dependability, loving, and helpful as the most important values. It is evident in this study that
teachers valued caring, loving, and helpful attitudes. Watt and Richardson (2007) studied
teachers’ decision to teach and found that the strongest motivators for the profession were social
utility value, intrinsic value, perceived teaching ability, prior teaching, learning experiences and
personal utility value. This study indicated that teachers were connected to their students due to
learning experiences and demonstrated a social utility value and personal utility value to make a
difference in the lives of their students. The three teachers, both White and Latina, demonstrated
the importance of caring relationships and how such attitudes served as a motivator for effective
science teaching, to empower their students, build self-confidence in learning, and provide a joy
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 180
for science, and that transcended across cultures making the cross-section between culture and
science in effectively teaching SE to not be an issue.
Findings for Research Question Two
The following section describes the findings related to research question two related to
the interaction between the organization’s culture and context and AES fifth-grade teachers’
knowledge and motivation to implement NGSS through Science2Minds unit lessons and science
labs.
Finding Four—Adelante’s professional development that is specific to science
inquiry enhanced science self-efficacy and science background knowledge. An underlying
theme that also was found was that while some of the Adelante’s more active PD that was
specific to science inquiry were well received, teachers without a post-secondary degree in
science had negative perceptions of the District NGSS PD and its ability to increase their
knowledge. There were two different PDs, one specific to Science2Minds training and the other,
the district NGSS PD.
Adelante’s support for the Science2Minds County Director training workshop based on
science inquiry lessons promoted teacher interest and motivation to partake in lessons and built
teacher confidence to implement Science2Minds lessons. For example, Ms. Beltran stated:
Well, the Science2Minds coordinator introduced the science program on electricity and it
was very engaging. So, I taught it and I've been teaching it for the last three years. I feel
like if I didn't have Science2Minds I would be completely lost.
Ms. Beltran remembered the Science2Minds training from three years ago. She indicated that it
was engaging, and she had been teaching it for the last three years. Curriculum plays an
important role in the reform of education and in training (Powel & Anderson, 2002). Powell and
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 181
Anderson (2002) found that effective change in the classroom through curriculum training was
difficult to sustain due to lack of resources and added responsibilities on teachers. For Ms.
Beltran, though, effective change in SE was easy to sustain with Science2Minds. She said, “If I
didn’t have Science2Minds I would be completely lost.”
Ms. Laurence also stated:
The Science2Minds lady [county coordinator] came out? She did a training around the
Gravity Science2Minds lesson. We and our students could get their hands on it and drop
some balls and answered a few questions, and kind of understand—oh, yeah. They
understood gravity and they realized what was happening with that. They dropped some
balls; they got their hands on it. They understood it, too. At any rate, if it's something
like that, then it's a lot easier. Okay. ‘We're going to read this science textbook.’ All I'm
going to do is frustrate them. But if I get out some parachutes and some balls and some
junk that they can drop, and a tape measure, they go. ‘Yeah. I can see that this is one
foot to 36 feet. I look up and its lunchtime, I look up, it's time to go home. The kids are
like, ‘It's lunchtime already? What? It's recess.’ Something that they can do that they
can be successful.
Ms. Laurence expressed that the Science2Minds county coordinator trained them through science
inquiry and as a teacher and learner she was engaged through exploration, hands-on
investigations. She implemented the same science inquiry lesson in class instead of reading
about gravity though a science textbook, and kept the students engaged. She integrated math and
science because she was constantly working against the clock. Ms. Laurence expressed her
students were so engaged with the Science2Minds Gravity lesson in science they said, "It's
lunchtime already?" She was efficacious about teaching the gravity science inquiry lesson by
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 182
implementing it in the class after she observed the Science2Minds training. Experiences that can
increase teaching efficacy in science need to be important components of professional
development in science (Ramey-Gassert & Shroyer, 1992). PD should include pedagogical
content knowledge (Posnanski, 2002). Through a heavy use of science inquiry utilizing hands-
on activities and cooperative learning in the classroom with students, the Science2Minds
coordinator provided vicarious experiences through modeling of effective PCK that could easily
be implemented in the classroom. The transference of implementation into the classroom
indicated that the Science2Minds PD directly related to curriculum and conducted in the
classroom setting with students enhanced teacher science self-efficacy.
Both Ms. Beltran and Ms. Laurence had positive things to say about the District
supported Science2Minds inquiry training that targeted the Science2Minds lessons. Powell &
Anderson (2002) state that PD that uses curriculum materials is transformative and not just based
on the teacher’s creativity to develop the material in conjunction with the PD. The teachers
mentioned engagement with the inquiry lessons. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK),
teacher ability to transforming content knowledge into a pedagogically powerful form
(Shulman, 1987; Park & Oliver, 2008) was observed when the expert Science2Minds county
coordinator conducted the PD. When teachers observed PD based upon curriculum, teachers
saw PCK in action, and could then implement it the classroom with readily available resources
and material. PCK is “the capacity of a teacher to transform the content knowledge he or she
possesses into forms that are pedagogically powerful and yet adaptive to the variations in ability
and background presented [to] ...the students” (Shulman, 1987, p. 15). The Science2Minds
coordinator presented the training with material teachers would use and modeled effective
PCK. The act of teaching is to transform knowledge as understood by the educator to the “minds
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 183
and motivation of learners” (Shulman, 1987, p. 16). “The ubiquitous nature of curriculum
materials in schools allows us to consider materials designed to reflect current reform ideas in
science education as an important vehicle for change” (Powell & Anderson, 2002).
The District also provided NGSS training through the Reading For Life Company. When
teachers were asked how they felt about the District supported NGSS training, the teachers
mentioned that Adelante’s District one-day NGSS professional development that focused on
science inquiry sparked motivation for science instruction. For example, Ms. Trevino said:
I think at one of the [professional developments], this lady did an activity where it was
like, ‘You have so many people and they're standing on this side of the river. And how
many times are we going to have to cross?’ And there were certain simulations. ‘Only
one adult can go. Or, two children but not an adult and a child.’ And so, everyone's
really excited. And they were trying to figure it out. And there was so much excitement
even from the teachers who were like, ‘Oh, I wish I knew that? What is this new thing?’
And so, having them understand that something like that, you can take that and apply it to
a science concept and make it fun and exciting. And it doesn't have to be where we're
always sitting in our chairs, reading from a book and writing down answers or taking
down notes. But sometimes we're out of our seats, we're loud, we're messy. Sometimes,
yes, you'll have to tell them, ‘Okay, make sure you're working.’
Ms. Trevino explained an ideal NGSS workshop based around science inquiry as one that
actively engaged participants. Ms. Laurence also described the NGSS science inquiry training as
effective only when it was tied to science inquiry:
It was kind of boring. I'm sorry. I hope that doesn't—it was, ‘Oh, yeah. You got to do
this, and you got to do that and get the kids excited.’ But I'm like, ‘Well, I'm not very
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 184
excited about this.’ And so yeah. There's a lot there that you could do to make it more--
and we did a couple things. We were making the thing with the straw and all that. Yes.
That was much better. But again, the stories and the transitions and the hands-on things.
Ms. Laurence mentioned that the NGSS professional development was boring except the activity
with the straws. She connected engagement in the PD through hands-on things to stories and
transitions. NGSS requires a new shift in teaching, “teaching involves building a coherent
storyline across time. Treating learning as building coherent explanations, combined with the
commitment to building knowledge through science practices, has important implications for
how teachers need to approach science teaching” (Reiser, 2013, p. 1). Interventions which are
directed at primarily strengthening teachers’ content knowledge will be insufficient to changing
practices (Reiser, 2013). Liang and Richardson (2009) found that teachers who engaged in
inquiry-based learning demonstrated higher science teaching self-efficacy beliefs. Therefore,
building a coherent storyline across time through inquiry requires what Darling-Hammond
(1995) and Reiser (2013) express, ample opportunities for the application of ideas into teacher
own practice (Darling-Hammond, 1995; Reiser, 2013).
Adelante’s District’s one day NGSS professional development directly tied to science
inquiry enhanced knowledge for teachers with science background. For example, Ms. Trevino
indicated the value of NGSS science inquiry professional development:
I think at one of the professional developments, they had a lot of great resources and we
did an activity with a boat and pennies where the boat was a spider and the pennies were
the spider’s babies. You had to put the pennies on the little spider, and she had to be able
to hold her babies in the water, or whatever it was, and not fall over. And so that was
great for density. ‘Oh, why is this floating? Why did it stop floating? Why did it fall
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 185
over?’ Different things like that. So, she did a really great job of bringing them these
things to engage and to have them exploring different concepts in science. I think that
was a strength because not only students, but teachers are engaged in some sort of new
NGSS, I think there's more buy-in.
In this quote, Ms. Trevino recounted an active learning strategy used in one of the PDs that
demonstrated her satisfaction with science inquiry PD. Professional development that provides
opportunities for hands-on activities and focuses on content increases content skills and
knowledge (Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman & Yoon, 2001). Ms. Trevino described effective
NGSS professional development as providing opportunities for teachers to engage in science
inquiry and explore different science concepts. She stressed the importance of available science
resources and how science engagement secured teacher buy-in. Professional development needs
to be based in inquiry, on experimentation that are participant-driven, collaborative, and
educators sharing knowledge (Darling-Hammond, & McLaughlin, 2011).
While some of the more active PD that was specific to science inquiry were well
received, teachers without a post-secondary degree in science had negative perceptions of the PD
and its ability to increase their knowledge. Teachers understood the NGSS practices through the
Science2Minds 5E’s and disciplinary core ideas, but they had difficulty actually telling me the
Performance expectation, including the teacher with a science background. For example, Ms.
Laurence indicated:
Okay. I probably wouldn't be really great at explaining them. I'd probably come over
and talk to you and, ’Will you give me some literature?’ And I could hone up on it,
engage, explain, and explore.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 186
Ms. Laurence could not restate the NGSS Performance Expectation to the Ecosystem lesson but
mentioned some of the 5E’s and indicated the importance of utilizing other teachers as resources.
U.S. schools have begun to assign staff and resources to the classroom teacher to increase time
for teachers to collaborate and learn together; as a result, those opportunities increase teacher
expertise, commitment and student achievement (Darling-Hammond, 2005). Effective
professional development is not a one day PD but needs to be sustained with lots of opportunities
to practice. PD must be sustained, ongoing, intensive, and supported by modeling, coaching, and
the collective solving of specific problems of practice (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 2011).
Ms. Beltran did not like the NGSS professional development. She indicated:
I vaguely remember learning about the Performance Expectation. I feel like you almost
need to do the training for a whole week and be able to maybe participate in a
walkthrough of classrooms that are actually doing it or through a school that does the
science the way it's supposed to be done. I feel like it takes more than a day training. I
would want them to provide all the materials that is needed for the experiments or
whatever science we're doing. I would ask them to provide meaningful like meaningful
work that is common core. I would ask them to please provide a book that's going to
benefit our students and not just cause it’s easy to teach.
Ms. Beltran mentioned the importance of administration providing more than one day of training
and desired a curriculum that consisted of all materials needed for SE and experiments, and that
it contain meaningful science material that is common core based to implement the newness of
NGSS similar to Science2Minds. Instead of traditional ‘one-shot workshops,’ teachers require
ample opportunities to apply new ideas to make changes in their own teaching practice (Darling-
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 187
Hammond, 1995). Intensive and sustained professional development has a greater impact on
enhancing knowledge and skills than shorter professional development (Garet et al., 2001).
Since Ms. Trevino had a post-secondary degree in science, she stressed the importance of
the NGSS components of the professional development:
The professional development instructor made us design a—I want to say it was a unit on
NGSS. So, we had to pick a standard, design an NGSS unit, and make it the five E's.
Use the five E's. So that was something that I was pretty familiar with. So, going into
these professional developments, I had a really good understanding of, okay, I know what
cross-cutting concepts are. So, I think the professional developments have been helpful
in kind of just understanding where my grade level is and their understanding of it. Or
where my school is as a school site and district. And knowing, ‘Okay, these are the
things we need to work on.’ Or, ‘These are the things that people might be overwhelmed
by.’
Due to her science background, Ms. Trevino valued the professional development whether it was
connected to science inquiry or not. Ms. Trevino had a good understanding of NGSS and
appreciated the understanding where her grade level, school site, and district are with SE; and
comprehended what teachers might be overwhelmed by. Berman (1977) states teacher self-
efficacy may be developed through professional development. Ms. Trevino’s appreciation of all
sections of the PD assisted in enhancing her science knowledge, skills and science self-efficacy.
Teacher self-efficacy is directly related to successful implementation of effective science
instruction (Berman, 1977).
In order for Districts to improve teachers’ knowledge and motivation to
implement NGSS, it’s important for districts to tailor to the needs of teachers without post-
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 188
secondary science degrees vs. those with science backgrounds. Teachers without a strong
background knowledge didn’t feel like the professional development enhanced their knowledge
or at least they couldn’t articulate the concepts when interviewed even though I observed them
implementing them. Professional development based on science inquiry and curriculum
increased science knowledge of the 5E’s Explore for all teachers and increased science self-
efficacy. The PD not aligned to science inquiry was not perceived as increasing science
knowledge of the Performance Expectation or science self-efficacy. This is evidenced by teacher
statements that indicated they did not have the knowledge of the NGSS performance
expectations because it is a developing conceptual knowledge. Professional development can
contribute to both positive teaching behavior and self-efficacy changes if patterned from a
research-based model which contains lots of hands-on activities, limited lecture, cooperative
learning with student-centered strategies, reflective journal writing, and performed based
assessments (Posnanski, 2002). For Ms. Trevino, with the post-secondary degree in science, all
sections of the professional development enhanced her background science knowledge of NGSS
and the 5E’s.
The readily available Science2Minds material coupled with PD specifically targeted to
train teachers in Science2Minds was effective and provided Ms. Beltran with the ability and
science self-efficacy to engage in it for three years. While other countries spend three-fourths of
their funds in education and teachers represent 60% to 80% of all the school personnel, in the
U.S. only 52% of educational funds are used for the classroom and 43% of staff hired for
education are classroom teachers (Darling-Hammond, 2005). County funded programs like
Science2Minds that provide free PD in association with the curriculum was effective for teacher
PCK, science self-efficacy, and student learning. Programs have joined with districts to provide
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 189
PD similar to teaching hospitals providing best practices for both novice and veteran teachers
while conducting research and improving both teacher knowledge, skills, and student learning
(Darling-Hammond, 2005). The findings in this section also indicated that when providing
professional development, organizations need to take into consideration the science background
knowledge of elementary teachers and implement PD based on their needs.
Finding Five—Adelante’s District focus on language arts and math benchmarks
decreased focus to science goals, benchmarks, CAST assessments, science evaluations and
teacher time dedicated to science instruction. This section will demonstrate that the district
focus on Math and ELA was perceived as a barrier to teachers’ science learning and having the
self-efficacy to teach science the right way.
Ms. Beltran explained that science is not important to the district in comparison to math
and language arts. Ms. Beltran for example said:
Their [District] focus is tests in language arts and math. Because they probably don't see
science as important as math and language arts probably like, how would I explain it?
You know how teachers will be like, well, we don't have time to teach this? We don't
have time to teach that. We only got time for math and language arts. So, I feel like
that's how the district thinks.
Ms. Beltran indicated that if they were testing too much in language and math, it decreased her
time for science and “didn't have the time to teach properly so that students were successful on
CAST tests.” Equity in education is not guaranteed when organizations have to place an
emphasis on language arts and math consequently forcing schools to diminish learning
opportunities for students to be successful in other academic subjects (Spohn, 2008). Ms.
Beltran reflected on “‘numbers’ for the district but it’s not what is needed for student success.”
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 190
The incentive to perform well for the district was important for Ms. Beltran. For some teachers,
it seemed that efficacy expectations to do well on continuous tests overshadowed efficacy
expectations to continue lessons that benefited students, which meant some teachers focused
more on the content that was tested rather than more holistically organizing their curriculum. Do
good results on tests drive some teachers but not others? Ajzen (2002) states that beliefs about
the expectations from other individuals called normative beliefs results in ‘perceived social
pressure’ and affects the intent of the behavior to perform the task. Ms. Beltran’s beliefs about
testing did not align with her actions in the classroom. Ms. Beltran indicated that district
continuous testing interfered with student learning and SE, “But because of testing we have to
stay on a certain track so the NGSS professional development could not be implemented in the
classroom due to testing and staying on track.” A widespread phenomenon due to state
accountability in elementary schools has been decreasing or replacing science with instruction in
reading and math to improve state assessments (Vitale, Romance, & Klentschy, 2006). But
during the observations, Ms. Beltran followed the Science2Minds scripts and was able to
implement the lessons with great success as described in a previous section. The testing
expectations from the District were overwhelming and exerted an overwhelming amount of
social pressure to do well but did it further or hinder her performance? When asked what an
ideal science classroom looks like, Ms. Beltran indicated, “her classroom.” She exerted the
science self-efficacy with this comment and demonstrated her self-perceived knowledge of the
NGSS and the motivation to implement NGSS through Science2Minds unit lessons and science
labs.
Ms. Laurence also discussed time limitations and constant testing as an impediment to
science instruction. She said:
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 191
The struggle I have is with time. Because if it gets too technical and all of that, they're
lost. They're lost. And people will say, ‘Well, [you?] but you're just not spending
enough time on it.’ Well, yeah. That's true. But there are realities that we have to deal
with around here, and in any school, and it's always-- I look up and its lunchtime, I look
up, it's time to go home. What? It's recess [laughter]?’ Well, I guess, but it's like you're
constantly working against that clock. And you go, ‘Okay. How am I going to be best
served here?’ Okay. So, do I focus on the constant testing, the common formative
assessments to prepare the students for the district benchmarks on language arts and
math? Or am I going to do an intricate science lesson? Okay. I get out some parachutes
and some balls and some junk that they can drop, and a tape measure, that they go,
‘Yeah. I can see that this is one foot to 36 feet, or whatever it is. Something that they can
do that they can be successful at ...The biggest struggle that I have is the time. We have a
time allotment of 45 minutes to science. To me, it should be across the board. That's
how it was today. Today, I'm teaching them about cooking and the science of that.
They're getting vocabulary, they're getting science. I understand, yes, there's a time ...but
the thing that's the most meaningful is if you could relate it across the board to other
subjects. I think it should be going on all day long. It would be one curriculum. And
then, with some hands on things to do in each one that would be ideal. I'm thinking about
the cougar story that's in our language arts—so maybe you talk about some cougars and
you do some math and you do some graphing and you do some things with that. And
then language arts comes along, and we've got this cougar story, and so we talk about
that. And then science comes along, and then we talk about the food chain, and where do
the cougars fall into that. And so, I would say, to relate it across the board per week.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 192
And that you don't have 10 vocabulary words in language arts, and we've got eight in
math and we've got 12 in science. It's too much. And it then it just becomes, just words.
Ms. Laurence acknowledged that she constantly worked against the clock, maintained 45
minutes of science, especially because of the pressures to teach math and language arts, and
stated she tested a lot. But to be able to deal with organizational constraints, she discussed the
idea of one curriculum encompassing all the disciplines. In a study conducted by Griffith and
Scharmann (2008) half of the teachers interviewed stated they reduced science instruction time
and the reason for the decrease was to increase reading and math instruction time; 79.3%
believed they had to decrease the time while 18.8% did not cut science time. Cutting time from
science to improve reading and math was more than mandates from administration (Griffith &
Scharmann, 2008). Teachers who didn’t reduce science time were confident with science
instruction and 13.8% stated integration of math, reading skills, and science through ‘science
based thematic units’ (Griffith & Scharmann, 2008). Ms. Laurence was confident to integrate
science in lieu of many tests, maintained her 45 minutes of science instruction, and indicated not
only thematic instruction but the use of one curriculum, an innovative idea since multiple subject
teachers are given a different curriculum for each subject. Vitale, Romance, and Klentschy
(2006) stated that teachers do not have enough instructional time to dedicate to reading and
science comprehension separately but recommended a curricula alternative, ‘reading
comprehension within science instruction.’
All teachers also indicated they were not evaluated in science. The limited amount of the
organization’s involvement in science assessments decreased the importance of their focus on
science instruction. Two teachers indicated there were no science benchmarks. Ms. Beltran
explained why she felt science wasn’t evaluated:
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 193
Because it goes back to the important stuff [emphasizes the word important stuff], math
and language arts. Then they probably figured out, oh, they don't have time to teach
science.
Ms. Trevino also explained why science wasn’t evaluated:
I feel like it's not evaluated. And that the one time, the CAST state science assessment,
it's not a fair evaluation because if you're going to use the state test at the end of the year
to evaluate my teaching then you're not doing a good job at evaluating me as a teacher. I
feel we don’t have teacher evaluations in science because people are intimidated by
science. I feel like people look at teachers like, ‘Oh, they should know everything, but
they don't.’ And I mean, we don't need to have teachers that have just a general
education. No. Let's hire teachers that have backgrounds in math, that have backgrounds
in language arts, that have backgrounds in science because that’s going to make our
school that much stronger, and you have resources that you can use. I don't want to seem
arrogant or—but I'm a resource. Use me. I mean, I love this stuff. Use me. I would
love to share my knowledge. And, ‘Yes, let's do this. Let's not do that. No, that's
horrible. Get rid of that.’ Of course, I mean, you sat here with me, I could talk about
science all day long [laughter]. And you can probably tell that I'm excited about it
because I love science.
Ms. Trevino exhibited high science knowledge and high science self-efficacy. She said, “I don't
want to seem arrogant or—but I'm a resource. Use me. I mean, I love this stuff. Use me. I
would love to share my knowledge.” Currently, in the U.S. teachers are not given ample time to
collaborate, reflect, or discuss and test innovative ideas unless its PD projects (Darling-
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 194
Hammond, 2005). Organizations need to utilize elementary expert science teachers as resources
to improve SE and science self-efficacy.
Time allotment to science instruction needs to be addressed; researchers concur that the
major barriers to classroom inquiry are teachers’ lack of time, resources, and technical support,
as well as pressure from administration regarding standardized testing (Anderson & Helms,
2001; Carroll, 1963; Carter et al., 2003; Fulp, 2002; Munck, 2007). While Common Core
requires rigor and in depth SE instruction, the Dashboard makes districts accountable for not
only benchmarks but also state CAASPP assessments in math and language arts, and as a result
decreased time dedicated to SE. Increased time to test preparation occurred more in low-
achieving schools, and affected minority students due to emphasis on skills and not on in depth
comprehension, and as such, those low comprehension skills transferred into high schools
affecting achievement not only in science but other content as well as evidenced by state tests
and course assessments (Vitale et al., 2006). Since state mandates dictate what districts will
focus on, the Adelante district focus on Math and ELA served as a barrier to teachers really
learning and having the self-efficacy to teach science the right way. Even with limited time, if
the district demonstrated that they value science even though they are mandated to administer the
other tests, they can do that by hiring people with STEM expertise and use them as resources to
impart science knowledge and science self-efficacy.
Conclusion
To sum up the five themes in this study were as follows:
1. Science2Minds, a free lending program supported by Adelante, provided readily
accessible resources which gave teachers the motivation to engage in SE.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 195
2. Adelante’s support of Science2Minds has enhanced teacher confidence in science
inquiry and increased science knowledge of the NGSS practices, disciplinary core
ideas, and science literacy.
3. Relationships and caring attitudes contributed to teachers valuing effective SE
and building student self-confidence in science learning. In this study, both White
and Latina teachers formed strong connections with their Latina students within
the realm of science inquiry.
4. Adelante’s professional development that was specific to science inquiry
enhanced science self-efficacy and science background knowledge.
5. Adelante’s District focus on language arts and math benchmarks decreased focus
to science goals, benchmarks, CAST assessments, science evaluations and teacher
time dedicated to science instruction.
Together the findings within these five themes demonstrated the interactions between
teachers, their beliefs and actions, and science self-efficacy and how their organization supported
them in SE. In many ways the findings corroborated the importance of science inquiry and how
the implementation of Science2Minds provided an avenue for teachers to engage in SE and
enhanced their knowledge of NGSS science practices, DCI’s, and cross-cutting concepts. In
other ways it highlighted how the teachers of this study demonstrated the importance of not only
knowledge and the self-efficacy to believe in one’s ability to engage in both science inquiry and
science literacy for equitable SE, but also how typical stereotypes did not interfere with SE. This
study also showed that female teachers felt they were more successful if and when they built
caring relationships with their students. Both White and Latina teachers formed connections
with their Latina students within the realm of science inquiry. Such caring relationships
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 196
provided an interactive nature between ethnicity identity and gender identity empowering Latina
learners to identify with science, dispelling Cone (2009) statement that teachers aren’t prepared
to teach students from diverse backgrounds because they don’t live in similar neighborhoods and
have little knowledge of what to expect from them.
Commonalities and differences among teachers were highlighted through vignettes of
observations and comments made in interviews. The study showed that teachers did engage in
science inquiry, preferred science inquiry over textbooks, and their prior anxieties did not
prevent SE. Research has indicated that scientific inquiry is difficult to manage and implement
within the classroom (Smolleck, Zembal-Saul, & Yoder, 2006; Windschitl, 2002) but the
teachers in this study engaged in science inquiry both as teachers and learners through PD
opportunities. Research has indicated that the science practices require a shift from using
science textbook facts and definitions to the use of models to explain phenomena that are new
and may cause challenges for teachers (Reiser, 2013). The teachers in this study demonstrated
that they preferred science inquiry over textbook science. Teachers with high self-efficacy
implement science inquiry lessons in their classrooms, while teachers with low self-efficacy
implement science using textbook fact memorization curriculum (Cone, 2009). Research has
indicated that prior experiences of negative outcomes with science cause elementary teachers to
avoid teaching science (Butts et al., 1997; Cavallo, Miller, & Saunders, 2002). However, this
study demonstrated that the three female teacher participants had prior negative experiences with
science but enjoyed implementing science through Science2Minds. Research has indicated that
limited knowledge of science causes female teachers to feel uncomfortable teaching science
(Cavallo et al., 2002; Levitt, 2001), but this study demonstrated that teachers who had an
effective science curriculum like Science2Minds gave teachers the motivation to engage in SE,
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 197
implement the NGSS practices, and build science self-efficacy. To increase District science
practices even with limited time, the District needed to demonstrate that they value science even
though they are mandated to administer CAASPP tests in math and ELA.

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 198
Chapter Five: Discussion
This study aimed to understand Adelante’s fifth-grade female teacher implementation of
NGSS through the program Science2Minds and whether their experiences enhanced or hindered
science self-efficacy. Through this study some major findings shaped the understanding of
teacher science self-efficacy, how teachers interacted with NGSS through Science2Minds, and
how the organization interacted with teachers to support the implementation of SE.
Historically, schoolteachers nationwide are predominately female. According to Riggs
(1991) despite the larger number of female teachers in the field, female teachers at the
elementary level are products of an educational system and society that has not prepared them
for SE in comparison to male educators. Research has indicated that female teachers experience
science anxiety due to negative experiences as learners (Liang & Richards, 2009; Mallow et al.,
2010; Riggs, 1991; Udo, Ramsey, & Mallow, 2004). Listening to the voices of female teachers
was crucial to understand that perspective. As it turned out, the female teachers in this study did
have negative experiences with learning science, but what was crucial was understanding if those
elementary teachers’ beliefs transferred into their SE classroom and what actions supported or
hindered their implementation of SE. Thus, it was crucial for AES leaders to understand teacher
science beliefs and actions regarding NGSS implementation, teachers’ perceptions of NGSS
professional development, especially at the fifth-grade level to increase teacher behavior in
implementing SE and understand the support teachers need toward the fifth-grade NGSS CAST
assessment. Accomplishing the mission in a rural agricultural town with 98.3% Latino
population is necessary to ensure teachers have the self-efficacy and are implementing science in
order to close the achievement gap between female and male students. Thus, the purpose of this
study was to examine the knowledge and motivation of AES fifth-grade female teachers to
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 199
implement Science2Minds and how the organization supported (or didn’t support) them in doing
so. While a complete research project would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the
stakeholders in this study were three traditional female fifth-grade AES teachers because it is the
only elementary grade that gets assessed by the state, and the only grade that implementing
Science2Minds. The questions that guided this study were the following:
1. What are the AES fifth-grade teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to the
implementation of NGSS through Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs?
2. What is the interaction between the organization’s culture and context and AES
fifth-grade teachers’ knowledge and motivation to implement NGSS through
Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources that influence AES fifth-
grade teachers’ knowledge and motivation to implement NGSS through
Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs?
The findings demonstrated the interactions between teachers, their beliefs, self-efficacy,
SE actions, and how the organization supported them in implementing SE. These factors
ultimately influence their Latina learners, so this was an important study to conduct. The
findings of this study included five themes that related to the conceptual framework. The
findings helped inform minor changes to the conceptual framework as the arrows had to be
shifted as shown below in Figure 5. The fifth theme was partly confirmed by teachers, that the
organization needed to disseminate, create, and implement goals and plans to implement new
changes in SE. The teachers confirmed that the District had been providing professional NGSS
development and supported Science2Minds training and curriculum. According to the teachers
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 200
there were no District or AES Single Plan for Student Achievement (SPSA) science goals nor
teacher NGSS aligned science evaluations, therefore the yellow arrow was changed to point
towards the green circle with the words teacher high science self-efficacy inscribed inside,
because it is through high teacher science self-efficacy that science is implemented when district
science goals are not in place. The yellow arrow continues in the blue circle because when
teachers are not evaluated in science by administration or that science district benchmarks are not
in place, it is teacher high science self-efficacy that ensures SE takes place to close the
achievement gap in science. The green arrow now points from the District training indicating
that the organization needs to support female teachers with training specific to science
background and science curriculum being utilized. The blue arrow was turned the opposite
direction because Science2Minds’ 5E lessons provided an avenue for teachers to understand the
NGSS practices, DCI’s and crosscutting concepts and enhanced the motivation to engage in
science inquiry and in its path enhanced teacher science self-efficacy and equitable SE.
Curriculum that is easily assessable with all material and resources for science inquiry labs and
supported by the organization encouraged teacher engagement in SE. Through Science2Minds,
teachers addressed the Performance Expectations that were difficult to describe during the
interview, indicating that it takes practice for new conceptual knowledge to be mastered.
A finding that was added to motivational influences ‘weaves like a trenza’ among all
other influences: female teachers who value relationships and demonstrate caring attitudes
contribute to effective science teaching and student self-confidence in learning. Female teacher
relationships and caring attitudes are qualities that drive teachers to facilitate knowledge and

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 201
Figure 5. SE Conceptual Framework-Final CF

instill motivation in their students to build self-confidence in science learning. All female
teachers of this study, both White and Latina, connected with their Latina learners through caring
relationships and feelings that science had a way of empowering their Latina learners, especially
in the very manner in which teachers engaged in science through inquiry and allowed their
learners to state and defend their SE opinions.

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 202
To reflect the findings, the conceptual framework was revised to include a parallel force
between teachers and administrators to ensure SE. In this circuit, if one fails, the other keeps
going. In the case of this study, teachers’ science self-efficacy ensured SE when organizational
SE goals and benchmarks were absent.
An important contribution of this study was the SE perspectives of fifth-grade female
teachers on how their science self-efficacy influenced the SE of their Latina learners. Another
contribution is the discussion of Latina teacher SE and SE female gender equity in elementary
education, especially as it affects Latina learners. This study, while focused on both female
teacher perspectives and previous experiences of SE, raised important influences and issues
related to SE. Research has indicated that female elementary teachers lack science knowledge
and experience anxieties to teach science effectively, but this study’s contribution has shown that
with effective science curriculum, teaching pedagogy, and the internet within one’s grasp,
teachers can enhance science content knowledge to compensate for the lack of science
knowledge. The implications require an examination of research attributed to female teacher
science implementation and professional support for both elementary teachers with post-
secondary science degrees and without post-secondary science backgrounds.
8
Following the
implications for practice, recommendations that influence AES fifth-grade teachers to implement
NGSS through Science2Minds unit lessons and science labs will be discussed, and finally
suggestions for future research will follow.

8
Teachers with science backgrounds refers to elementary multiple subject teachers with a post-secondary science
degree. Teachers without a science background refers to elementary multiple subject teachers without a post-
secondary science degree.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 203
Implications for Practice
Given the findings, the dissertation suggests a number of practices to improve SE through
the perspectives of female teachers. This research both affirms and encourages the practice of
Science2Minds already in place at Adelante to address NGSS. This study also suggests practices
that increase teacher science self-efficacy to support Latina learner SE, and organizational
practices that can support female teacher value of SE. As I describe this section, the findings
pave the way for suggestions drawn from ideas from participants, to provide possible
implications for SE practice.
Curriculum. To improve SE, organizations must take into account the voices of
elementary female teachers. Haney et al. (1996) stated that attitude toward the behavior of
science instruction had the most influence on teacher’s intent of implementation of the content
domains (life, physical, earth/space) and suggested that teacher efficacy, an important component
in predicting intention, drives attitudes toward the behavior of science implementation. The
teachers of this study perceived there to be this kind of effect that having all accessible material
to implement SE was a stronger driver towards the implementation of NGSS, increased science
engagement, enhanced science self-efficacy, and counteracted science anxieties, and they were
happy they didn’t have to go out and buy needed items to implement science inquiry. Both
female teachers with and without a post-secondary degree in science engaged in the nature of
science through the 5E’s. Based on the findings of this study, the implications for practice
indicate three important items: (a) to increase female science self-efficacy organizations need to
provide good science inquiry curriculum with science resources contingent on teacher science
background; (b) to increase science self-efficacy and counteract science anxieties, organizations
need to provide teachers without science background all materials including lab items needed to
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 204
implement SE; (c) since this is the adoption year for new science curriculum, organizations need
to select both teachers without post-secondary degrees in science and with post-secondary
degrees in science to select District curriculum in science, or it will not serve the purpose of
those without science background experience.
This study showed that readily accessible curriculum was most useful to those without
post-secondary degrees in science. The teachers of this study who were either newer veteran
teachers or probationary teachers appreciated the readily accessible Science2Minds curriculum;
but, distinctive nuance differences did exist within the scripted Science2Minds lessons. Ms.
Trevino stated that keeping to a script kept one from creativity in science, ‘getting messy with
science.’ For Ms. Trevino, despite years of teaching, it was a realization that she could do better.
The curriculum actually was blocking her from ‘the messiness’ from which students learn
science, a self-reflection to curriculum that made her go to that point, and one that administrators
need to understand, that making teachers adhere to curriculum can affect SE creativity and
learning. This year districts have the opportunity to be involved in adopting new NGSS science
curriculum with rich science inquiry components and science reading literature. Sometimes
when districts adopt curriculum, they depend on certain teachers to pilot curriculum and
sometimes that curriculum doesn't meet the needs of all elementary teachers or all students.
Belief in science inquiry. “Teaching science is a powerful influence on a teacher's
confidence and perception of competence, determining the extent to which the teacher will
persevere with science” (Mulholland & Wallace, 2001, p. 1). Findings in this study suggest that
female teachers with or without post-secondary science degrees value and believe they can
implement science inquiry when compared to using a textbook to teach science. The 5E’s
Explore phase contributes to meaningful learning due to hands-on and ‘minds-on inquiry’
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 205
(Ercan, 201; Bybee, 2006). Even though NGSS is a new framework, findings from this study
suggested that AES female fifth-grade teachers can become experts in the nature of science
through the Science2Minds 5E’s, were confident to carry out the Performance Expectation to
allow students to make models of the phenomena being studied, provided valuable science
literacy instruction, promoted argumentative science with deeper content knowledge, and
ensured equitable SE for all.
The implications for practice are that a student-centered approach or both a student-
centered and teacher-guided approach, provided female students an opportunity to defend their
thoughts through scientific argumentative process such as observing, investigating, testing
predictions, communicating and critiquing others, making models, and collecting data.
Science is an important context to simultaneously develop both science content and ELL
language and literacy (Shea, Shanahan, Gomez-Zwiep & Straits, 2012). This study demonstrated
that the implementation of NGSS was facilitated through the Science2Minds 5E cycle of science
inquiry. In a study of two districts with a total of 20 schools characterized by a high minority
population and low SES, Shea et al. (2012) utilized Bybee’s 5E cycle of inquiry as a model for
the development of science and language development. Their study demonstrated that the 5E
professional development improved teacher science self-efficacy and increased pedagogy in
science and language integration, but teachers require support and opportunities to improve
science content knowledge.
To accomplish NGSS ‘Science for All,’ utilizing sticks to call students names ensured
equality in participation between males and females in science inquiry and contributed toward
teacher attitudes and conscious effort to treat female students in equitable ways. Equity requires
common standards for all children; we must not forget that while students at risk need
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 206
interventions, they must be exposed to higher learning methods just as high ability learners;
instruction needs to be curtailed to them so that NCLB bureaucratic suggestions once again not
leave behind the neediest students of our society. Tate (2001) indicates that while NCLB high-
stake accountability to math and language arts decreased science instruction, mandates to
increase testing in science may have a negative effect on science instruction, forcing teachers to
abandon the creativity and engagement in science to “low level curricular objectives ...yet avoid
teaching or lack the teacher expertise to implement more rigorous content objectives [in
science]” (p. 7).
Science literacy and reading literacy. Integrating science literacy across the curricula
assists ELL learners in gaining scientific knowledge and literacy skills. Wood (2018) compiled
literature for teachers to use in connection to the DCI’s. National Teacher’s Association for
Science list of Outstanding Trade Books is a resource for schools to purchase science literature
books to promote science interest and literacy skills. Ms. Laurence and Ms. Trevino mentioned
how a reading lab based on science literature would contribute to both literacy skills and
vocabulary development for ELLs. Implications for practice suggest: (a) to meet the time
constraints of a school day teachers can be trained to integrate both ELA and science
simultaneously; (b) reading labs that integrate science literacy with ELL students can stimulate
interest, engagement, vocabulary development, and literacy skills; and (c) engaging science
literature with science should pave the way to teaching both science literacy and reading literacy
skills for all students.
Questions make people seek answers, science is the area students naturally, since early
childhood, ask why things happen in or why things occur; administrators realizing and valuing
that reading comprehension through science instruction has the capacity to raise reading scores,
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 207
can then look into science curricula that provide both science inquiry manipulatives, labs that
provide all items needed and correlate it with rich literature at different reading levels to raise
reading literacy, comprehension, and science literacy scores. Administrators need to know and
carry forth the message, “nobody should be afraid of science ...it’s a process we all need to go
through to understand the world we live in” (F. Freking, personal communication, August 19,
2019).
Relationships and caring attitudes. Even though teachers did not live in the rural
community, findings suggested that rural teachers of this study, both Latina and White,
demonstrated caring relationships and science self-efficacy to instruct ‘all students’ which
contradicts Cone (2009) that few teachers lack the ability to provide meaningful science content
that connects to the lives of their diverse learners. Organizations can build upon the findings of
the 5E Elaborate wherein gender influence and teacher science self-efficacy was significant by
the mere opportunity of making material relevant to students’ lives. Hulleman, Godes,
Hendricks & Harckiewics (2010) found that perceptions of interest and utility value increased
especially for low performing students through the realization of why content was relevant to
them.
Organizations can learn from this study’s teacher lessons that weaving science storylines
into SE contributed to a powerful connection of trust and caring between female teachers and
their learners. The 5E’s Elaborate is a powerful practice for relevant science strategies that ignite
feelings of belonging that promote Latina learner science identity. Making lessons relevant to
culture and community are necessary but require time and funds. To make such activities
possible organizations need to: (a) support and fund such activities by hiring STEM personnel
who can encourage and support such activities; (b) provide professional development on
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 208
culturally relevant science activities. Teachers need to become practitioners who as Ford and
Kea (2009) state, practice the ethos of empowering and caring to connect with students; and,
motivate and create successful students in SE. This is extremely important, especially in rural
schools where agricultural knowledge assets exist, because it provides Latinas with equitable
science learning experiences.
When I began this study, I thought Latinas had this special connection to their Latina
learners, more so than my fellow White teachers. This study demonstrated that it didn't matter
what race one belonged to; connections built on caring attitudes or similar background
experiences connected teachers to the student population they served. For example, Ms.
Laurence, the White teacher, understood what it was to be raised in a low SES environment, and
desired to make a difference in the lives of her students. She had a special connection to her
Latina learners. She also used the 5E’s Elaborate to provide relevant experiences that sparked
and ignited learner enthusiasm to be engaged in SE, an aspect of the 5E’s that has the capacity to
transcend across cultures and engage the minds of all learners. The 5E’s, elaborate, provides
time for the teacher to become “a co-investigator with the students ...It makes it a more equitable
practice that way ...[moving] science beyond just content knowledge, more than just knowing it,
a process of researching it together, ...and teachers just getting to know the kids and really
understanding them” (F. Freking, personal communication, August 19, 2019).
Professional development. Teacher self-efficacy is directly related to successful
implementation of effective science instruction (Berman, 1977; Azar 2010). The implications of
this study indicated that in order for districts to improve teachers’ conceptual knowledge and
motivation to implement NGSS, it is important for districts to tailor to the needs of teachers
without science backgrounds vs. those with science backgrounds. Districts must support and
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 209
train teachers on NGSS and provide PD in different ways from teachers who have a post-
secondary degree in science. In other words, professional development needs to be differentiated
to be most helpful. For teachers without a post-secondary degree in science, PD and science
curriculum needs to be connected to ensure high self-efficacy and engagement with it for years.
Teacher ability to transform content knowledge into a pedagogically powerful form
(Shulman, 1986; Park & Oliver, 2008) was observed when the expert Science2Minds county
coordinator conducted the PD. To provide the transference of SE implementation into the
classroom, promote SE ability, and enhance teacher science self-efficacy, organizations need to
provide PD where teachers observe PCK in action directly related to curriculum and conducted
in the classroom setting with students. Organizations can learn from this study that science PD
that transfers into the classroom promoted science knowledge through continuous
implementation of NGSS. Modeled behavior that demonstrates clear outcomes through
observations of activities produces effective improvements than modeled performances that do
not show observable consequences (Bandura, 1977).
U.S. schools have begun to assign staff and resources to the classroom teacher to increase
time for teachers to collaborate and learn together. As a result, those opportunities increase
teacher expertise, commitment and student achievement (Darling-Hammond, 2005).
Administration needs to use expert science teachers as resources. Ms. Trevino allowed her
students to work collaboratively and participate in lab activities after they had effective science
collection knowledge. The district can use her as a model to: (a) demonstrate the effectiveness
of using both a teacher guided and student-centered approach; (b) provide teachings on scientific
topics making concepts easier to introduce and extend; (c) explain her concept of working hard
and how it helped her stay committed to science in domineering and intimidating environments.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 210
Language arts and math benchmarks decreased focus to SE. Findings from this
study suggest to increase district science practices even with limited time, the district needed to
value science even though they are mandated to administer CAASPP math and ELA. Districts’
demonstration of value of SE is important for teacher science self-efficacy and student
achievement in SE.
Griffith & Scharmann (2008) stated “time needed to provide the foundation layer of this
[science] knowledge is being decreased by the majority of the elementary teachers [they]
surveyed ...and some teachers commented that when science becomes part of the yearly state
assessment, they will have to spend more time on it” (p. 44). This study demonstrated that, in
large part because of the district’s focus on math and language arts and teacher perceptions of
having limited instructional time, fifth-grade teachers engaged in SE within limited timeframes.
The recommendations to improve SE are described below.
Recommendations for Practice
Organizations and researchers can build upon the findings in this study by utilizing the
methods these female teachers used when they incorporated the 5E science inquiry cycle. They
can also use this study to understand what SE practices or SE beliefs influenced the three female
teachers of this study in the implementation of SE.
Recommendations related to findings
The following section describes the recommendations for organizational practice in the
areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources that influence AES fifth- grade
teachers’ knowledge and motivation to implement NGSS through Science2Minds unit lessons
and science labs.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 211
NSF recommended a variety of inquiry-oriented science curriculum programs with
teacher guides and material for labs and activities, and further noted that districts have adopted a
procedure to loan the materials to teachers (NRC, 2000). Teachers in rural schools usually have
to travel far distances so the luxury of having extra time to run off material is an impeding factor
that organizations can alleviate. A recommendation for curriculum reform for agricultural rural
schools is the adoption of a SE curriculum like Science2Minds where all material and resources
are dropped off to teachers, to make NGSS implementation easier for teachers. Ms. Laurence
indicated that educational policy reform needs to change the way curriculum is issued to schools
and issue ‘one curriculum’ with all content integrated.
Innovative leaders need to face the challenge and question why SE isn’t happening in
every grade level, every day. Mrs. Laurence said, “Thank you for observing me in science. I've
tried to get my administration for two years to come in and observe my Baking is a Science unit,
but they haven’t.” A recommendation is for state reform to address District Superintendents to
receive SE training enabling them to rise to the occasion and train or find supportive and
knowledgeable administrators to develop and lead elementary schools through NGSS science
education.
AES administrators need to value SE not only for the engagement and learning
opportunity it provides but in raising reading literacy and comprehension. The AES District has
been looking for a qualified reading literacy expert to assist with low reading and comprehension
scores but hasn’t been successful. A recommendation is for the District to be innovative and
value SE for all, at all grades even if state accountability is only directed towards math and
language arts by hiring an expert science teacher with reading literacy experience to integrate
science instruction through reading literacy.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 212
A recommendation to accomplish NGSS ‘Science for All’ and not lower teacher SE
motivation may be addressed by: (a) AES clearly delineating how science curriculum goals,
professional development, and the resource allocation process for the school system inform and
support each other through teacher science input; (b) utilizing an expert science teacher to
implement a reading lab that incorporates science instruction through reading literacy to serve as
a two-fold benefit by providing the needed literacy skills for students through SE; and (c) at the
same time the reading lab can serve as a learning lab for teachers to observe how science
instruction and reading literacy can come together to provide what Tate (2001) indicates:
science education is not just a matter for teachers to act upon but is a civil rights issue
...“economic access and full citizenship depend crucially on math and science literacy” (p. 1).
An expert science teacher with experience in teaching reading literacy can promote ‘science for
all’ and ensure that Latino students are exposed to both the rigor of science and rich literacy
learning and discussions at an early age. More importantly, teachers will have time to observe an
expert teacher provide equitable science practices for all students, primarily equitable practices
by watching a science expert be a co-investigator. In this manner, the nature of science is linked
to teacher understanding of school district commitment to science (Shapley & Luttrell, 1992).
Another recommendation would be using multiple measures of science data assessment that
align with NGSS standards that value inquiry-based learning for deeper learning such as science
journals and mini research science projects instead of rote memorization of science terms
dependent on textbooks to make decisions related to science instruction. Currently, in the U.S.,
teachers are not given ample time to collaborate, reflect, or discuss and test innovative ideas
unless they are part of PD projects (Darling-Hammond, 2005). It is recommended for
organizations to develop science talks between teachers to gain insights about the 5E’s, to build
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 213
their knowledge and skills. In this manner organizations can value that through the 5E’s
Explore; the engagement in the 5E’s provided an opportunity for teachers to allow Latinas an
opportunity ‘to figure it out,’ to build their confidence to speak up and defend their science
opinions. It is in this manner ‘a weaving, a trenza’ is formed between teacher science self-
efficacy, Latina self-confidence, and science identity so important for Latina science self-
efficacy.
In this study, female teachers without a post-secondary degree in science preferred
scripted SE lessons while the teacher with a post-secondary science degree preferred curriculum
that was not scripted to guarantee creativity in science. A recommendation is for districts to
meet the needs of teachers through differentiated curriculum, for example a curriculum that has
everything provided for teachers without a post-secondary science degree and another
curriculum for those teachers that have a post-secondary science degree. Change theory needs to
take place at the state level—state reform needs to occur where curriculum is differentiated; to
certify SE publishing companies, the State Department of Education must provide a
differentiated curriculum for teachers who prefer scripted lessons vs those who don’t so that a
new teacher can utilize it fully scripted and still cover all the NGSS standards; and a veteran or a
teacher with a post-secondary degree in science can take the same curriculum and do even more,
going beyond what maybe a newer teacher would do in SE (A. Samkian, personal
communication, August 19, 2019).
NSTA (2013) states to “differentiate education for all students to include and support
those who struggle and excel; maintain an educational atmosphere that stimulates the learning of
science” (p. 21). Another recommendation is for administrators to become familiar with the 5E
model in order to provide differentiated science instruction. According to Freking (2019), the 5E
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 214
model can be differentiated: (a) the first 5E Engage can be differentiated through the KWL
(what students know, what they want to know, and what they learned) in order for teachers to
discover and understand their student’s background knowledge around a science topic; and (b) to
work with a mandated curriculum, the 5E model can be differentiated. For example, during the
5E Elaborate phase, students can do individual research projects, allowing students to choose
their own questions for further investigation; in this manner teachers differentiate science content
by modifying it to the needs of their particular students (F. Freking, personal communication,
August 19, 2019).
According to Freking (2019) Speedometry Project, students can develop mini science
research projects where students develop their own questions to scientific phenomena; research
the concepts, then learn from each other when they change the variables of their investigations,
and as a result develop a scientific community. It is recommended for school districts to add
such rigor to SE so that the teacher becomes a facilitator, a co-investigator of science making it a
more equitable practice; it moves science beyond just content knowledge, more than just
knowing it; it's a process of researching it together (F. Freking, personal communication, August
19, 2019).
Individuals tend to associate with role models who are similar to them (Bandura, 1977;
Karunanayake & Nauta, 2004; Losin, 2012). Another recommendation is for districts to ensure
that science PD trainers either have had similar experiences as the teachers or can employ
inclusive practices. Additionally, these trainings must be differentiated according to teachers’
background science knowledge for training to be effective. A recommendation is to use expert
science county teachers and schoolteachers to provide training in science content. NGSS
requires exploration through a student-centered approach; organizations and researchers can
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 215
further examine if a combination of teacher directed and student-centered instruction promote
effective science teaching and resulting learning. Professional development from the
Science2Minds county coordinator on student-centered approaches would be beneficial for the
teachers to develop SE knowledge or put teachers at ease to allow students to work on their own.
Districts could also use their master teachers to model for others. For example, teachers could:
(a) observe how Ms. Beltran used calming music to relax students during science assessments;
(b) observe how Mrs. Beltran encouraged students to work together and conduct scientific
investigations without direct instruction; (c) observe how Ms. Beltran provided time for the
students to puzzle through problems and acted as a consultant for her students; (d) observe Ms.
Trevino as she asked probing questions to redirect the students’ investigations when necessary;
and (e) observe how opportunities for Latina learners to build confidence and state their
conclusions in group settings among males who may be domineering can assist females in
maintaining their interest in science.
Teachers in this study were confident with science instruction and stated the importance
of thematic instruction especially for the development of vocabulary for ELLs. Administrators
can build upon these research findings to utilize reading labs based on science instruction to
teach reading comprehension.
The increasing population of Latinas makes the goal of science for all a challenge. Low
reading abilities of students in elementary school cause challenges for teachers in science, math
and language arts and reinforces the low expectations and low ability tracking, reducing their
pathways to STEM-related fields (NRC, 2012). NGSS provides an avenue for meeting the
challenge. AES teacher implementation of NGSS through Science2Minds’ 5E’s provided
engagement with science that sparked both female teacher and female learner interest and
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 216
created self-confidence for female learners to speak up, defend their opinions; and for ELL
learners with limited reading abilities, science provided the concrete experiences to promote
scientific thought and communication. Reading comprehension through science instruction and
relevant experiences can address effective implementation of NGSS in the elementary years of
education. In this manner educators can feed the minds of the Latina poor, and make them
successful individuals in years to come. Such a recommendation addresses the growing
population of Latina learners who can fill the needed spots in STEM careers, especially because
science is an avenue to raise many out of poverty. Fostering a perceived collective efficacy can
promote equity in science (Lee & Luykx, 2007; National Research Council, 1996). This can be
accomplished at AES by both leaders and female teachers developing clear, reasonable and
concrete science goals to move the organization towards 100% of teachers implementing NGSS
into Science2Minds and closing the gap between Latinos and Latina female learners of science.
Future Research
The findings of this study do not reflect the entire fifth-grade teacher population nor
elementary teachers at large. Future research could include a county-wide study of all fifth-
grade teachers who utilize Science2Minds. Additionally, future research could employ external
evaluators who could approach a county-wide study of the Science2Minds as a whole. While it
is useful for practitioner-scholars to engage in research in their own settings, researchers may
confront unforeseen dangers when they are not careful about their own or others cultural systems
of knowing and understanding the world (Milner, 2007). I am a fellow fifth-grade teacher, so
having an outside researcher conduct a similar research with Science2Minds may provide
another viewpoint to my findings.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 217
The organization’s goal to develop Latina students’ science identity and close the
achievement gap between Latina and Latino students needs more implementation time to be
reached. The CAASPP CAST results have not been reported to determine the achievement gap.
Further research could determine if teachers can effectively implement the engineering practices,
which was not explored in this study.
This study intended and was limited in determining if Latina science teachers face
additional barriers such as cultural roles in discouraging Latinas from embracing science. This
study did not find any, but further research regarding this topic is suggested. Relatedly, engaging
in research that centers Latina students’ perspectives could be another important area to pursue.
This study focused only on science teachers but triangulating the data with students’ perspectives
would be meaningful and insightful.
The study’s sample was very small, so having a larger pool of different ethnicities and
gender would extend this study. While this study’s small sample of female teachers found
certain features regarding fifth-grade female implementation of SE, hypothetically we don’t
know how this study would be with a male teacher, so future research would definitely include a
study of how fifth-grade males implement SE.
Conclusion
Fifth-grade female teachers in this study revealed that effective and equitable science
practices were important to address within SE lessons. Through the Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis, factors that influenced the AES goal were analyzed. The weaving of all this
information, the braiding of ‘trenzas’ (Gonzales, 2001), knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors intertwined with each other in a conceptual framework to make progress
toward the organizational goal. Haney, Czerniak, and Lumpe (1996) used Ajzen’s (1985) theory
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 218
of Reasoned Action's formula and indicated that teacher support triggers the intent or attitude of
the behavior towards science implementation and allows teachers to believe in the value of
science instruction. This study found that attitudes toward the behavior of science
implementation were not the only constructs that were important when considering science
education. This study demonstrated that actions of science instructors within the classroom and
high science self-efficacy demonstrated a higher predictor of teacher engagement in SE and
NGSS implementation than beliefs of science anxiety. Organizationally supported curricula with
all readily assessible science curriculum for all students, removed barriers to engagement with
SE and enhanced science self-efficacy among teachers. Bybee’s 5E’s science inquiry learning
cycle that was incorporated in Science2Minds provided an avenue for teachers to implement
NGSS science practices and as they did so, it enhanced their science knowledge and self-
efficacy. As a result, all three teachers of this study engaged their Latina learners in SE, and
through argumentative science, according to Brickhouse et al. (2000), the two components
engagement in science and the opportunity for argumentative science promotes science identity.
Bybee’s 5E’s Explore provided teachers the opportunity to break stereotypical attitudes of ‘good
girls’ by allowing Latinas to build self-confidence in science, assert themselves, and stand up and
defend their ideas and opinions with actions or scientific reason. It is the unweaving of the
‘trenza’ by their female teachers, that will provide a vision for Latinas to see that knowledge and
motivation to be a scientist doesn’t have to conflict with cultural roles. Science2Minds’
Performance Expectation provided an opportunity for students to model the phenomena under
study; an avenue for students to create vivid images of what they were learning, an evaluative
scientific process for both learner and teacher into the way a scientist does science in the natural
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 219
world; and the opportunity for students to picture themselves as scientists and identify with
science as a discipline.
Teacher caring attitudes and equitable practices to engage students sent a strong message
that ‘science is for all.’ “Teaching science is a powerful influence on a teacher's confidence and
perception of competence, determining the extent to which the teacher will persevere with
science” (Mulholland & Wallace, 2001, p. 1). When teachers practiced science, science self-
confidence was built to enhance science self-efficacy for the female teacher. SE is an avenue to
motivate not only the learner but also the teacher because it is engaging, interesting, and exiting
to both teach and learn. Weisman (2001) found that Latina teachers who maintain their cultural
identity, not only appreciate the language of their students, but connect with and affirm their
student cultural identity (Weisman, 2001). All the teachers, the two Latina and one White
teacher, of this study connected to their students through caring attitudes and relationships to
motivate and affirm their students’ science abilities. Ms. Laurence demonstrated the importance
of Spanish in her classroom; one does not have to be Latina to connect, appreciate and affirm
student cultural identity.
Organizational PD based on science inquiry, connected to curriculum and presented in
the classroom with students was perceived to bring about a higher transfer of training in practice
and enhanced teacher science self-efficacy. To enhance teacher efficacy in science and
conceptual knowledge of NGSS, it is recommended for organizations to provide PD that adapts
to teacher backgrounds in science. For teachers without a post-secondary science degree, PD
needs to be connected to PCK and hands-on science inquiry, preferably within the context of the
classroom with students. It is also recommended for organizations to differentiate curriculum, if
not through curriculum through the differentiation of the 5E’s.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 220
NCLB mandated assessments created a reduction to content area subjects such as science
in exchange for increased reading and math scores (Vitale, Romance, & Klentschy, 2006). This
study demonstrated that teachers perceived the decreased time to SE to increase math and
language arts accountability is still a lingering effect even with Obama’s “Every Student
Succeeds Act.” Even with state science mandates at the fifth-grade level, teachers indicated that
a lack of science goals, science benchmarks, and science evaluations sent the message that the
district did not value SE. While it is important for districts to set clear goals, when there is a lack
of district science goals, science education must be carried out by efficacious teachers. In this
study, readily accessible curriculum facilitated this process by engaging teachers in SE and
provided an avenue for teachers to build their self-efficacy.
Israel provides science standards, core content, curriculum, pedagogy, and cognitive
strategies within their science reform (Klieger & Yakobovitch, 2011). U.S. science reform
provides the standards for SE but does not provide a curriculum; perhaps state reform policy
needs to be more innovative towards it. “Over 20 years of school reform [has taken place] to
enhance student achievement on state-mandated reading assessments by replacing content area
instruction with practice on reading test preparation materials” (Vitale et al., 2006, p. 18); it’s
now 33 years of the same practice and Bybee (1997) stated the same concern in 1997. Research
practices will only infiltrate schools when federal, state, and local administrators understand the
effects of displacing in-depth, engaging content like science only to make room for math and
reading. An effective curriculum alternative is incorporating ‘reading comprehension within
science instruction’ (Vitale et al., 2006). The betterment of life for Latinas depends on
organizations that value SE; and have a focus on reading literacy through science instruction.
Until then, SE depends on the efficacious attitudes of elementary female teachers to close the
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 221
achievement gap in science, a burden too heavy for them to carry alone. And while that in itself
may not close the achievement gap in science between Latinas and Latinos, it is a powerful step
toward it.

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 222
References
Abell, S. (2007). Perspectives: Reading and Science. Science and Children, 45(3), 56-57.
ACT (2015). Condition of STEM 2015. Retrieved from
www.act.org/content/act/en/research/condition-of-stem-2015.html.
Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. In Action control (pp.
11-39). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Ajzen I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior.
Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall.
Ajzen, I. (2002). Perceived behavioral control, self‐efficacy, locus of control, and the theory of
planned behavior 1. Journal of applied social psychology, 32(4), 665-683.
Allum, N. (2010). Science literacy. Encyclopedia of science and technology communication,
724-727.
Anderson, C. W. (2003). Teaching science for motivation and understanding. East Lansing, MI:
Michigan State University.
Anderson, R. D., & Helms, J. V. (2001). The ideal of standards and the reality of schools:
Needed research. Journal of research in science teaching, 38(1), 3-16.
Appleton, K. (2006). Science pedagogical content knowledge and elementary school
teachers. Elementary science teacher education: International perspectives on
contemporary issues and practice, 31-54.
Aschbacher, P. R., Li, E., & Roth, E. J. (2010). Is science me? High school students' identities,
participation and aspirations in science, engineering, and medicine. Journal of Research
in Science Teaching, 47(5), 564-582.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 223
Ashley (2017). “Learning Theories and Law: Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism.” RIPS
Law Librarian. Retrieved from https://
ripslawlibrarian.wordpress.com/2017/03/14/learning-theories-and-law-behaviorism-
cognitivism-constructivism/.
Ashton, P. (1984). Teacher efficacy: A motivational paradigm for effective teacher
education. Journal of teacher education, 35(5), 28-32.
Armor, D., Conry-Osequera, P, Cox, M., Kin, N., McDonnel, L., Pascal, A., Pauly, E., and
Zellman, G. (1976). Analysis of the school preferred reading programs in selected Los
Angeles minority schools. (R-2007-LAUSD) Santa Monica, CA: The Rand Corporation.
Atkinson, J. W. (1964). An introduction to motivation. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand.Avalos, B.
(2011). Teacher professional development in teaching and teacher education over ten
years. Teaching and teacher education, 27(1), 10-20.
Aud, S., Wilkinson-Flicker, S., Kristapovich, P., Rathbun, A., Wang, X., & Zhang, J. (2013).
The Condition of Education 2013. NCES 2013-037. National Center for Education
Statistics.
Azar, A. (2010). In-service and pre-service secondary science teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs
about science teaching. Educational Research and Reviews, 5(4), 172-185.
Ball, D. L. (1988a). Knowledge and reasoning in mathematical pedagogy: Examining what
prospective teachers bring to teacher education (Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State
University).
Ball, D. L. (1988b). Unlearning to teach mathematics. For the learning of mathematics, 8(1), 40-
48.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 224
Ball, D. L. (1996). Teacher learning and the mathematics reform: What we think we know and
what we need to learn. Phi Delta Kappan, 77(7), 500.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological
Review, 84(2), 191.
Bandura, A. (1983). Self-efficacy determinants of anticipated fears and calamities. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 45(2), 464.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive perspective.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Princeton-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning.
Educational Psychologist, 28(2), 117-148.
Bandura, A. (1995). Exercise of personal and collective efficacy in changing societies. Self-
efficacy in changing societies, 15, 334.
Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1977). Social learning theory.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.
Bandura, A. (2000). Cultivate self-efficacy for personal and organizational
effectiveness. Handbook of principles of organizational behavior, 2.
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual review of
psychology, 52(1), 1-26.
Bandura, A. (2005). The evolution of social cognitive theory. In K. G. Smith & M. A. Hitt
(Eds.), Great minds in management (pp. 9–35). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bandura, A. (2006). Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. Self-efficacy beliefs of
adolescents, 5, 307-337.
Bandura, A. (2010). Self‐efficacy. The Corsini encyclopedia of psychology, 1-3.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 225
Bandura, A. (2012). On the functional properties of perceived self-efficacy revisited.
Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G., & Pastorelli, C. (1996). Multifaceted Impact of Self-
Efficacy Beliefs on Academic Functioning. Child Development, 67(3), 1206-1222.
doi:10.2307/113188842.
Barksdale-Ladd, M. A., & Thomas, K. F. (2000). What’s at stake in high-stakes testing: Teachers
and parents speak out. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(5), 384.
Barnes-Johnson, J. (2011). Efficacy-related beliefs and practices about equitable science
teaching: A case study in an urban elementary school (Order No. 3457862). Available
from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (874289510).
Battistich V, Solomon D., Watson M. & Schaps, E. (1997). Caring school communities,
Educational Psychologist, 32(3), 137-151. doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3203_
Beals, C. (1925). MEXICAN INTELLIGENCE. Southwest Review, 11(1), 23-31.
Beasley, M. A., & Fischer, M. J. (2012). Why they leave: The impact of stereotype threat on the
attrition of women and minorities from science, math and engineering majors. Social
Psychology of Education, 15(4), 427-448.
Becerril, J. E., & Jimenez, B. (2007). Potable water and sanitation in Tenochtitlan: Aztec
culture. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 7(1), 147-154.
Beeton, R. P. (2007). A case study of the effects of social experiences on the science identity
formation of Mexican American females in high school chemistry.
Beeton, R., Canales, G., & Jones, L. (2012). A CASE STUDY: Science Identity Formation of
Mexican American Females in High School Chemistry. Chicana/Latina Studies, 11(2),
38-81.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 226
Beilock, S. L., Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., & Levine, S. C. (2010). Female teachers’ math
anxiety affects girls’ math achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 107(5), 1860-1863.
Benavidez, V. Mythology in the Formation of Mexican American Female Identity. Retrieved
from http://anthrojournal.com/issue/October-2011/article/mythology-in-the-formation-of-
mexican-american-female-identity
Bensimon, E. M. (2004). The diversity scorecard: A learning approach to institutional
change. Change: The magazine of higher learning, 36(1), 44-52.
Berman, P. (1977). Federal Programs Supporting Educational Change, Vol. VII: Factors
Affecting Implementation and Continuation.
Berman, P., & McLaughlin, M. W. (1974). Federal Programs Supporting Educational Change: A
Model of Educational Change. Volume I.
Berman, P., McLaughlin, Bass, Paul, & Zellman, (1977). Federal Programs Supporting
Educational Change, Vol. VII: Factors Affecting Implementation and Continuation. Santa
Monica, CA: The Rand Corporation.
Bernal, D. D. (1998). Using a Chicana feminist epistemology in educational research. Harvard
Educational Review, 68(4), 555-583.
Bernhard, J. (2002). Toward a 21st Century Developmental Theory: Principles to Account for
Diversity in Children's Lives. Race, Gender & Class, 9(4), 45-60.
Best, J., & Dunlap, A. (2014). Next Generation Science Standards: Considerations for Curricula,
Assessments, Preparation, and Implementation. McREL International.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 227
Bianchini, J. A., & Cavazos, L. M. (2007). Learning from students, inquiry into practice, and
participation in professional communities: Beginning teachers' uneven progress toward
equitable science teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44(4), 586-612.
Bizzo, Nelio, Ed.; Kawasaki, Clarice Sumi, Ed.; Ferracioli, Laercio, Ed.; Leyser da Rosa, Vivian,
Ed. Rethinking Science and Technology Education To Meet the, 745.
Blonder, R., Benny, N., & Jones, M. G. (2014). Teaching self-efficacy of science teachers.
In The role of science teachers’ beliefs in international classrooms (pp. 3-15).
SensePublishers, Rotterdam.
Bogdan, R., & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative Research for Education: An Introduction to
Theories and Methods: Pearson.
Bohrmann, M., & Akerson, V. (2001). A Teacher's Reflections on Her Actions to Improve Her
Female Students' Self-Efficacy Toward Science. Journal of Elementary Science
Education, 13(2), 41-55.
Bong, M., & Skaalvik, E. (2003). Academic Self-Concept and Self-Efficacy: How Different Are
They Really? Educational Psychology Review, 15(1), 1-40.
Borko, H., Liston, D., & Whitcomb, J. A. (2007). Apples and fishes: The debate over
dispositions in teacher education.
Borrego, M., Boden, D., & Newswander, L. K. (2014). Sustained change: Institutionalizing
interdisciplinary graduate education. The Journal of Higher Education, 85(6), 858-885.
Borrego, M., & Henderson, C. (2014). Increasing the use of evidence‐based teaching in STEM
higher education: A comparison of eight change strategies. Journal of Engineering
Education, 103(2), 220-252.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 228
Borrego, M., & Henderson, C. (2014). Theoretical Perspectives on Change in STEM Higher
Education and Their Implications for Engineering Education Research and
Practice. Journal of Engineering Education, 103, 220-252.
Bouck, E. C. (2004). How size and setting impact education in rural schools. Rural
Educador, 25(3), 38.
Brickhouse, N. W., Lowery, P., & Schultz, K. (2000). What kind of a girl does science? The
construction of school science identities. Journal of research in science teaching, 37(5),
441-458.
Britner, S. L., & Pajares, F. (2001). Self-efficacy beliefs, motivation, race, and gender in middle
school science. Journal of women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 7(4).
Britner, S. L., & Pajares, F. (2006). Sources of science self‐efficacy beliefs of middle school
students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching: The Official Journal of the National
Association for Research in Science Teaching, 43(5), 485-499.
Brookover, W. B., & Lezotte, L. W. (1979). Changes in School Characteristics Coincident With
Changes in Student Achievement. Occasional Paper No. 17.
Brotherston, G. (2000). Indigenous Intelligence in Spain's American Colony. In Forum for
Modern Language Studies (Vol. 36, No. 3, pp. 241-253). Oxford University Press.
Brunsell, E., Kneser, D. M., & Niemi, K. J. (2014). Introducing teachers and administrators to
the NGSS: A professional development facilitator's guide. NSTA Press.
Bryan, L. A. (2003). Nestedness of beliefs: Examining a prospective elementary teacher's belief
system about science teaching and learning. Journal of research in science
teaching, 40(9), 835-868
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 229
Bryan, L. A., & Atwater, M. M. (2002). Teacher beliefs and cultural models: A challenge for
science teacher preparation programs. Science Education, 86(6), 821-839.
Bryan, L. A., & Tippins, D. J. (2005). The Monets, Van Goghs, and Renoirs of science
education: Writing impressionist tales as a strategy for facilitating prospective teachers’
reflections on science experiences. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 16(3), 227-
239.
Buckingham, M., & Coffman, C. (1999). First, break all the rules. New York: Simon and
Schuster. pp. 25–49, 53–67.
Buckingham, M., & Coffman, C. (2014). First, break all the rules: What the world's greatest
managers do differently. Simon and Schuster.
Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupations with the largest job declines 2014 and projected 2024
Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_table_106.htm
Burke, B. N. (2014). The ITEEA 6E Learning ByDesign™ Model: Maximizing Informed Design
and Inquiry in the Integrative STEM Classroom. Technology and Engineering
Teacher, 73(6), 14-19.
Butts, D., Hofman, H., & Anderson, M. (1993). Is hands-on experience enough? A study of
young children’s views of sinking and floating objects. Journal of Elementary Science
Education, 5, 50–64.
Butts, D. P., Koballa, T. R., & Elliott, T. D. (1997). Does participating in an undergraduate
elementary science methods course make a difference? Journal of Elementary Science
Education, 9(2), 1-17.
Bybee, R. W. (2006). Scientific Inquiry and Nature of Science. Implications for teaching,
learning, and teacher education.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 230
Bybee, R. W. (2009). The BSCS 5E instructional model and 21st century skills. Colorado
Springs, CO: BSCS.
Bybee, R. W. (2011). Scientific and engineering practices in K-12 classrooms. Science
Teacher, 78(9), 34-40.
Bybee, R. W. (2014). NGSS and the next generation of science teachers. Journal of science
teacher education, 25(2), 211-221.
Bybee, R. W., Ferrini‐Mundy, J., & Loucks‐Horsley, S. (1997). National standards and school
science and mathematics. School Science and Mathematics, 97(6), 325-334.
Bybee, R. W., Taylor, J. A., Gardner, A., Van Scotter, P., Powell, J. C., Westbrook, A., &
Landes, N. (2006). The BSCS 5E instructional model: Origins and
effectiveness. Colorado Springs, Co: BCS, 5, 88-98.
California Department of Education, (2004a), "California Science Framework." Retrieved from
http://www.cde.ca.gov/ci/sc/cf/documents/scienceframework.pdfn.
California Department of Education, (2016), "2016 California Science Framework." Retrieved
from https://www.cde.ca.gov/ci/sc/cf/cascienceframework2016.asp
California Department of Education (CDE) (2016b). CAASPP Paper-Based Test
Results. California CAASPP System.
California Department of Education (2017c). “California Science Test Informational
Video.” California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP) System.
Retrieved from http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/ca/castpilotvideo.asp.
Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers college record.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 231
Carroll, K. M. (2000). An analysis of program planning in schools with emerging excellence in
science instructional design (Order No. 3018062). Available from Dissertations & Theses
@ the University of Southern California. (304628777).
Carter, N. P., Larke, P. J., Singleton-Taylor, G., & Santos, E. (2003). CHAPTER 1: Multicultural
Science Education: Moving Beyond Tradition. Counterpoints, 120, 1-19.
Cavallo, A. M., Miller, R. B., & Saunders, G. (2002). Motivation and affect toward learning
science among preservice elementary school teachers: Implications for classroom
teaching. Journal of Elementary Science Education, 25-38.
Center, M. (2017), Director of the Assessment Development and Administration Division
Department at the California Department of Education. California Department of
Education (2017). “California Science Test Informational Video.” California Assessment
of Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP) System. Retrieved from
https//www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/ca/castpilotvideo.asp.
Cervetti, G., & Pearson, P. (2012). Reading, writing, and thinking like a scientist. Journal of
Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 55(7), 580-586.
Chen, X. (2013). STEM Attrition: College Students' Paths into and out of STEM Fields.
Statistical Analysis Report. NCES 2014-001. National Center for Education Statistics.
Chen, X. (2015). STEM attrition among high-performing college students: Scope and potential
causes. Journal of Technology and Science Education, 5(1), 41-59.
Chouinard, R., Vezeau, C., Bouffard, T., & Jenkins, B. (1999). Gender differences in the
development of mathematics attitudes. Journal of Research and Development in
Education, 32(3), 184–192.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 232
Chouinard, R., Karsenti, T., & Roy, N. (2007). Relations among competence beliefs, utility
value, achievement goals, and effort in mathematics. British journal of educational
psychology, 77(3), 501-517.
Clark, R. E., & Estes, F. (2008). Turning research into results: A guide to selecting the right
performance solutions. IAP.
Clewell, B. C., & Campbell, P. B. (2002). Taking stock: Where we’ve been, where we are, where
we’re going. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 8(3&4).
Cohen, G. L., Garcia, J., Apfel, N., & Master, A. (2006). Reducing the racial achievement gap: A
social-psychological intervention. science, 313(5791), 1307-1310.
Colburn, A. (2004). Inquiring scientists want to know. Educational Leadership, 62, 63-67.
Coladarci, T. (1992). Teachers' sense of efficacy and commitment to teaching. The Journal of
experimental education, 60(4), 323-337.
Coladarci, T., & Breton, W. (1997). Teacher Efficacy, Supervision, and the Special Education
Resource-Room Teacher. The Journal of Educational Research, 90(4), 230-239.
Colby, S. L., & Ortman, J. M. (2014). The baby boom cohort in the United States: 2012 to
2060. Population estimates and projections, 1-16.
Cole, D. & Espinoza, A. (2008). Examining the Academic Success of Latino Students in Science
Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) Majors. Journal of College Student
Development 49(4), 285-300. The Johns Hopkins University Press.
doi.org/10.1353/csd.0.0018
Coleman, W. T., & Selby, C. C. (1983). Educating Americans for the 21st century. Washington,
DC: National Science Foundation.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 233
Collins, A. (1997). National Science Education Standards: Looking Backward and Forward. The
Elementary School Journal, 97(4), 299-313.
Cone, N. (2009). A bridge to developing efficacious science teachers of “all” students:
Community-based service-learning supplemented with explicit discussions and activities
about diversity. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 20, 365-383.
Corbin, J., Strauss, A., & Strauss, A. L. (2014). Basics of qualitative research. sage.
Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP) Retrieved from http://caepnet.org/
Creswell, J. W. (2014). A concise introduction to mixed methods research. SAGE publications.
Crisp, G., & Nora, A. (2012). Overview of Hispanics in science, mathematics, engineering and
technology (STEM): K-16 representation, preparation, and participation.
Czerniak, C. M., & Lumpe, A. T. (1996). The relationship between teacher beliefs and science
education reform. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 7(4), 247-266.
Czerniak, C. M., & Haney, J. J. (1998). The effect of collaborative concept mapping on
elementary preservice teachers' anxiety, efficacy, and achievement in physical
science. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 9(4), 303-320.
Czerniak, C., Lumpe, A., & Haney, J. (1999). Science Teachers' Beliefs and Intentions to
Implement Thematic Units. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 10(2), 123-145.
Czerniak, C. M., Lumpe, A. T., Haney, J. J., & Beck, J. (1999). Teachers’ beliefs about using
educational technology in the science classroom. International Journal of Educational
Technology, 1(2), 1-18.
Daly, A. J. (2009). Rigid response in an age of accountability: The potential of leadership and
trust. Educational Administration Quarterly, 45(2), 168-216.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 234
Darby-Hobbs, L. (2013). Responding to a relevance imperative in school science and
mathematics: Humanising the curriculum through story. Research in science
education, 43(1), 77-97.
Darling-Hammond, L. (1995). Changing conceptions of teaching and teacher
development. Teacher Education Quarterly, 9-26.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2005). Teaching as a profession: Lessons in teacher preparation and
professional development. Phi delta kappan, 87(3), 237-240.
Darling-Hammond, L., Bullmaster, M. L., & Cobb, V. L. (1995). Rethinking teacher leadership
through professional development schools. The elementary school Journal, 96(1), 87-
106.
Darling-Hammond, L., & McLaughlin, M. W. (2011). Policies that support professional
development in an era of reform. Phi delta kappan, 92(6), 81-92.
Darling-Hammond, L., Wise, A. E., & Pease, S. R. (1983). Teacher evaluation in the
organizational context: A review of the literature. Review of educational research, 53(3),
285-328.
Darling-Hammond, L., & Youngs, P. (2002). Defining “highly qualified teachers”: What does
“scientifically-based research” actually tell us? Educational Researcher, 31(9), 13-25.
DeBacker, T. K., & Nelson, R. M. (1999). Variations on an expectancy-value model of
motivation in science. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 24(2), 71-94. Article ID
ceps.1998.0984. Retrieved from http://www.idealibrary.com
DeBoer, G. E. (2000). Scientific literacy: Another look at its historical and contemporary
meanings and its relationship to science education reform. Journal of research in science
teaching, 37(6), 582-601.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 235
Deemer, S., & Minke, K. (1999). An Investigation of the Factor Structure of the Teacher
Efficacy Scale. The Journal of Educational Research, 93(1), 3-10.
Deemer, E. D., Thoman, D. B., Chase, J. P., & Smith, J. L. (2014). Feeling the threat: Stereotype
threat as a contextual barrier to women’s science career choice intentions. Journal of
Career Development, 41(2), 141-158.
Dembo, M., & Eaton, M. J. (2000). Self-regulation of academic learning in middle-level schools.
The Elementary School Journal, 100(5), 473–490.
Gibson, S., & Dembo, M. H. (1984). Teacher efficacy: A construct validation. Journal of
educational psychology, 76(4), 569.
Dembo, M., & Gibson, S. (1985). Teachers' Sense of Efficacy: An Important Factor in School
Improvement. The Elementary School Journal, 86(2), 173-184.
Denessen, E., Vos, N., Hasselman, F., & Louws, M. (2015). The relationship between the
primary school teacher and student attitudes towards science and technology. Education
Research International, 2015.
Dietz, J. S., Anderson, B. T., & Katzenmeyer, C. (2002). Women and the crossroads of science:
Thoughts on policy, research, and evaluation. Journal of Women and Minorities in
Science and Engineering, 8(3&4).
Dinner, F. N. A., & Update, H. Innovation: Enhancing Student Learning.
de Souza Barros, S., & Elia, M. F. (1997). Physics teacher's attitudes: How do they affect the
reality of the classroom and models for change? Connecting research in physics
education with teacher education.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 236
Donovan, M. S., Bransford, J. D., & Pellegrino, J. W. (1999). How people learn: Bridging
research and practice. National Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Avenue NW, Lockbox
285, Washington, DC 20055.
Driver, R., Asoko, H., Leach, J., Scott, P., & Mortimer, E. (1994). Constructing scientific
knowledge in the classroom. Educational Researcher, 23(7), 5-12.
Duckworth, E. (1987). "The having of wonderful ideas" and other essays on teaching and
learning. New York: Teachers' College Press.
Duit, R., & Treagust, D. F. (2003). Conceptual change: A powerful framework for improving
science teaching and learning. International journal of science education, 25(6), 671-688.
Duschl, R. A., & Grandy, R. E. (2008). Teaching scientific inquiry: Recommendations for
research and implementation. Sense Publishers.
Duschl, R. A., & Osborne, J. (2002). Supporting and promoting argumentation discourse in
science education.
Dweck, C. S. (2000). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality and development.
Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
Eccles, J. (2006). Expectancy value motivational theory. Retrieved
from http://www.education.com/reference/article/expectancy-value-motivational-theory/.
Eccles, J. S. (1987). Gender roles and women's achievement‐related decisions. Psychology of
women Quarterly, 11(2), 135-172.
Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual review of
psychology, 53(1), 109-132.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 237
Ehrenberg, R. G., Goldhaber, D. D., & Brewer, D. J. (1995). Do teachers' race, gender, and
ethnicity matter? Evidence from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of
1988. ILR Review, 48(3), 547-561.
Ellis, B. (2017), Physics Teacher at Natomas Charter School in Sacramento. California
Department of Education (2017). “California Science Test Informational
Video.” California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP) System.
Retrieved from https://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/ca/castpilotvideo.asp.
Else-Quest, N. M., Mineo, C. C., & Higgins, A. (2013). Math and science attitudes and
achievement at the intersection of gender and ethnicity. Psychology of Women
Quarterly, 37(3), 293-309.
Enochs, L. G., & Riggs, I. M. (1990). Further development of an elementary science teaching
efficacy belief instrument: A preservice elementary scale. School science and
mathematics, 90(8), 694-706.
Enochs, L. G., Riggs, I. M., & Ellis, J. D. (1993). The development and partial validation of
microcomputer utilization in teaching efficacy beliefs instrument in a science
setting. School Science and Mathematics, 93(5), 257-263.
Ercan, O. (2014). Effect of 5E learning cycle and V diagram use in general chemistry
laboratories on science teacher candidates ‘attitudes, anxiety and
achievement. International Journal of Social Sciences and Education, 5(1), 161-175.
Erduran, S., & Dagher, Z. R. (2014). Reconceptualizing the nature of science for science
education: Scientific knowledge, practices and other family categories (Vol. 43).
Springer.
Erduran, S. & Jiménez-Alexandre (2008), MP (eds.) Argumentation in Science Education.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 238
Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing
critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance improvement
quarterly, 6(4), 50-72.
Espinosa, L. (2011). Pipelines and pathways: Women of color in undergraduate STEM majors
and the college experiences that contribute to persistence. Harvard Educational
Review, 81(2), 209-241.
Feldman, S., & Malagon, V. F. (2017). Unlocking Learning: Science as a Lever for English
Learner Equity. Education Trust-West.
Fink, A. (2013). How to conduct surveys: A step-by-step guide (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
SAGE.
Finson, K. D. (2002). Drawing a scientist: What we do and do not know after fifty years of
drawings. School science and mathematics, 102(7), 335-345.
Fletcher, S. S., & Luft, J. A. (2011). Early career secondary science teachers: A longitudinal
study of beliefs in relation to field experiences. Science Education, 95(6), 1124-1146.
Ford, D. Y., & Kea, C. D. (2009). Creating culturally responsive instruction: For students' and
teachers' sakes. Focus on Exceptional Children, 41(9), 1-16.
Freking, F. (2019). “See Speedometry™ in Action.” Speedometry – Learn Math and Science |
Hot Wheels. Retrieved from
http://www.hotwheels.mattel.com/enus/explore/speedometry/index.html.
Friedman, S. (2009). How a 2-minute story helps you lead. Harvard Business Review.
Fullan, M.G., & Miles, M.B. (1992). Getting Reform Right: What works and what doesn't. Phi
Delta Kappan, 73(10), 745-752.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 239
Fulp, S. (2002). The status of elementary science teaching: National survey of science and
mathematics education. Chapel Hill, NC: Horizon Research, Inc.
Gallimore, R., & Goldenberg, C. (2001). Analyzing cultural models and settings to connect
minority achievement and school improvement research. Educational
Psychologist, 36(1), 45-56.
Gándara, P. (2015a). Fulfilling America’s Future: Latinas in the US, 2015.
Gándara, P. (2015b). FULFILLING AMERICA’S FUTURE: LATINAS IN THE U.S., Patricia
Gándara, Professor of Education, UCLA and Co-Director, The Civil Rights Project and
The White House Initiative on Educational Excellence for Hispanics. Retrieved from
http://sites.ed.gov/hispanic-initiative/files/2015/09/Fulfilling-Americas-Future-Latinas-
in-the-U.S.-2015-Final-Report.pdf
Garet, M. S., Porter, A. C., Desimone, L., Birman, B. F., & Yoon, K. S. (2001). What Makes
Professional Development Effective? Results From a National Sample of Teachers.
American Educational Research Journal, 38(4), 915–945.
doi.org/10.3102/00028312038004915
Garibay, G. (2016). Self-efficacy beliefs of underrepresented minorities in science, technology,
engineering, and math (Order No. 10195338). Available from Dissertations & Theses @
University of Southern California. (1868501070).
Glesne, C. (2011). Chapter 6: But is it ethical? Considering what is right. Becoming qualitative
researchers: An introduction, 4, 162-183.
Goddard, R. D., Hoy, W. K., & Hoy, A. W. (2000). Collective teacher efficacy: Its meaning,
measure, and impact on student achievement. American Educational Research
Journal, 37(2), 479-507.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 240
Goddard, R. D., Hoy, W. K., & Hoy, A. W. (2004). Collective efficacy beliefs: Theoretical
developments, empirical evidence, and future directions. Educational Researcher, 33(3),
3-13.
Gonzalez, F. E. (2001). Haciendo que hacer-cultivating a Mestiza worldview and academic
achievement: Braiding cultural knowledge into educational research, policy,
practice. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 14(5), 641-656.
Gonzalez, H. B., & Kuenzi, J. J. (2012, August). Science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics (STEM) education: A primer. Congressional Research Service, Library of
Congress.
González, M. Amanti, González, N., Moll, L., & Amanti, C. (Eds.). (2005) Funds of knowledge:
Theorizing practices in households, communities, and classrooms. Routledge.
González, N., Moll, L. C., & Amanti, C. (Eds.). (2006). Funds of knowledge: Theorizing
practices in households, communities, and classrooms. Routledge.
Gonzales, S. M. (2015). Abuelita epistemologies: Counteracting subtractive schools in American
education. Journal of Latinos and education, 14(1), 40-54.
Gray, K. (2017). Assessing gains in science teaching self-efficacy after completing an inquiry-
based earth science course. Journal of Geoscience Education, 65(1), 60-71.
Gregson, S. (2017), Director of the Curriculum Frameworks and Instructional Resources
Division. Retrieved from http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/ca/castpilotvideo.asp.
Griffith, G., & Scharmann, L. (2008). Initial impacts of No Child Left Behind on elementary
science education. Journal of elementary science education, 20(3), 35-48.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 241
Gunning, A. M., & Mensah, F. M. (2011). Preservice elementary teachers’ development of self-
efficacy and confidence to teach science: A case study. Journal of Science Teacher
Education, 22(2), 171-185.
Gurvitch, R., & Metzler, M. W. (2009). The effects of laboratory-based and field-based
practicum experience on pre-service teachers' self-efficacy. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 25(3), 437-443.
Guskey, T. R. (1986). Staff development and the process of teacher change. Educational
Researcher, 15(5), 5-12.
Guskey, T. (1987). Context Variables That Affect Measures of Teacher Efficacy. The Journal of
Educational Research, 81(1), 41-47.
Guskey, T. R. (2002). Professional development and teacher change. Teachers and
teaching, 8(3), 381-391.Guskey, T., & Passaro, P. (1994). Teacher Efficacy: A Study of
Construct Dimensions. American Educational Research Journal, 31(3), 627-643.
Guskey, T. R., & Passaro, P. D. (1994). Teacher efficacy: A study of construct
dimensions. American educational research journal, 31(3), 627-643.
Guthrie, J. T., & Ozgungor, S. (2002). Instructional contexts for reading
engagement. Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices, 275-288.
Guthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., Humenick, N. M., Perencevich, K. C., Taboada, A., & Barbosa, P.
(2006). Influences of stimulating tasks on reading motivation and comprehension. The
Journal of Educational Research, 99(4), 232-246.
Gutierrez, R. (2002). Beyond essentialism: The complexity of language in teaching mathematics
to Latina/o students. American educational research journal, 39(4), 1047-1088.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 242
Hackett, G., & Betz, N. E. (1982). Mathematics Self-Efficacy Expectations, Math Performance,
and the Consideration of Math-Related Majors.
Haigh, M. J. (2001). Constructing Gaia: Using journals to foster reflective learning. Journal of
Geography in Higher Education, 25(2), 167-189.
Haney, J. J., Lumpe, A. T., Czerniak, C. M., & Egan, V. (2002). From beliefs to actions: The
beliefs and actions of teachers implementing change. Journal of Science Teacher
Education, 13(3), 171-187.
Haney, J. J., Czerniak, C. M., & Lumpe, A. T. (1996). Teacher beliefs and intentions regarding
the implementation of SE reform strands. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 33(9), 971-993.
Haney, J. J., & McArthur, J. (2002). Four case studies of prospective science teachers' beliefs
concerning constructivist teaching practices. Science Education, 86(6), 783-802.
Harper, S. R., & Williams Jr, C. D. (2014). Succeeding in the city: A report from the New York
City Black and Latino male high school achievement study. Philadelphia: Center for the
Study of Race and Equity in Education, University of Pennsylvania.
Hattie, J. (2003). Teachers Make a Difference, What is the research evidence?
Hayman, A., Hoppe, C., & Deniz, H. (2012). Putting science literacy on display. Science and
Children, 50(3), 58.
Hazari, Z., Sadler, P. M., & Sonnert, G. (2013). The science identity of college students:
Exploring the intersection of gender, race, and ethnicity. Journal of College Science
Teaching, 42(5), 82-91.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 243
Hechter, R. (2011). Changes in Preservice Elementary Teachers' Personal Science Teaching
Efficacy and Science Teaching Outcome Expectancies: The Influence of
Context. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 22(2), 187-202.
Huang, C. (2013). Gender differences in academic self-efficacy: a meta-analysis. European
Journal of Psychology of Education, 28(1), 1-35. doi:10.1007/s10212-011-0097-y
Huang, G., Taddese, N., & Walter, E. (2000). Entry and Persistence of Women and Minorities in
College Science and Engineering Education. Education Statistics Quarterly, 2(3), 59-60.
Huinker, D., & Madison S.K. (1997). Preparing efficacious elementary teachers in science and
mathematics: The influences of methods courses. Journal of Science Teacher
Education, 8(2), 107-126.
Hulleman, C. S., An, B., Hendricks, B. L., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2007). Interest development,
achievement, and continuing motivation: The pivotal role of utility value. Poster
presented at the Institute for Education Sciences 2007 Research Conference, Washington,
DC.
Hulleman, C. S., Godes, O., Hendricks, B. L., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2010). Enhancing interest
and performance with a utility value intervention. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 102(4), 880.
Hunter, M. L. (2002). “If you're light you're alright” light skin color as social capital for women
of color. Gender & society, 16(2), 175-193.
Hurd, P. D. (1994). New minds for a new age: Prologue to modernizing the science
curriculum. Science Education, 78(1), 103-116.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 244
Hushman, C. J., & Marley, S. C. (2015). Guided instruction improves elementary student
learning and self-efficacy in science. The Journal of Educational Research, 108(5), 371-
381.
Ingersoll, R., Merrill, L., & Stuckey, D. (2014). Seven trends: The transformation of the teaching
force.
Israel, G. D. (1992). Determining sample size.
Jimerson, L. (2005). Placism in NCLB—How rural children are left behind. Equity & Excellence
in Education, 38(3), 211-219.
Johnson, R. B., & Christensen, L. B. (2015). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative,
and mixed approaches (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks: SAGE
Jones, C., & Levin, J. (1994). Primary/elementary teachers' attitudes toward science in four
areas related to gender differences in students' science performance. Journal of
Elementary, 6(1), 46-66.
Jones, M. G., Howe, A., & Rua, M. J. (2000). Gender differences in students' experiences,
interests, and attitudes toward science and scientists. Science education, 84(2), 180-192.
Kahle, J., & Lakes, M. (1983). The myth of equality in science classrooms. Journal of Research
in Science Teaching, 20, 131– 140.
Kaiser, K. (2009). Protecting respondent confidentiality in qualitative research. Qualitative
health research, 19(11), 1632-1641.
Karunanayake, D., & Nauta, M. M. (2004). The relationship between race and students'
identified career role models and perceived role model influence. The Career
Development Quarterly, 52(3), 225-234.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 245
Katz, P., & McGinnis, J. (1999). An Informal Elementary Science Education Program's
Response to the National Science Education Reform Movement. Journal of Elementary
Science Education, 11(1), 1-15.
Keeves, J., & Kotte, D. (1992). Disparities between the sexes in science education: 1970– 84.
Keeves, J. P., & Kotte, D. (1996). Patterns of science achievement: International comparisons.
In Gender, science and mathematics (pp. 77-93). Springer, Dordrecht.
Kena, G., Hussar, W., McFarland, J., de Brey, C., Musu-Gillette, L., Wang, X., & Barmer, A.
(2016). The Condition of Education 2016. NCES 2016-144. National Center for
Education Statistics.
Kerr, W. R., & Lincoln, W. F. (2010). The supply side of innovation: H-1B visa reforms and US
ethnic invention. Journal of Labor Economics, 28(3), 473-508.
Kerr, W. R. (2013). US high-skilled immigration, innovation, and entrepreneurship: Empirical
approaches and evidence (No. w19377). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Keys, C. W., & Bryan, L. A. (2001). Co‐constructing inquiry‐based science with teachers:
Essential research for lasting reform. Journal of research in science teaching, 38(6), 631-
645.
Kimble, L., Yager, R., & Yager, S. (2006). Success of a Professional-Development Model in
Assisting Teachers to Change Their Teaching to Match the More Emphasis Conditions
Urged in the National Science Education Standards. Journal of Science Teacher
Education, 17(3), 309-322.
King, K., Shumow, L., & Lietz, S. (2001). Science education in an urban elementary school:
Case studies of teacher beliefs and classroom practices. Science Education, 85(2), 89-
110.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 246
Kirst, S., & Flood, T. (2017). Connecting Science Content and Science Methods for Preservice
Elementary School Teachers. Journal of College Science Teaching, 46(5), 49.
Kiviet, A. M., & Mji, A. (2003). Sex differences in self-efficacy beliefs of elementary science
teachers. Psychological Reports, 92(1), 333-338.
Klieger, A., & Yakobovitch, A. (2011). Perception of Science Standards' Effectiveness and Their
Implementation by Science Teachers. Journal of Science Education and
Technology, 20(3), 286-299.
Knaggs, C.M. & Sondergeld, T.A., (2015). Science as a Learner and as a Teacher: Measuring
Science Self-Efficacy of Elementary Preservice Teachers. School Science and
Mathematics, 115(3), 117-128.
Koballa Jr, T. R. (1988). Attitude and related concepts in science education. Science
education, 72(2), 115-126.
Koballa Jr, T. R., & Crawley, F. E. (1992). Attitude-Behavior Change in Science Education: Part
II, Results of an Ongoing Research Agenda.
Kotte, D. (1992). Gender differences in science achievement in 10 countries: 1970/71 to
1983/84. Lang.
Krajcik, J., Codere, S., Dahsah, C., Bayer, R., & Mun, K. (2014). Planning instruction to meet
the intent of the Next Generation Science Standards. Journal of Science Teacher
Education, 25(2), 157-175.
Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom's taxonomy: An overview. Theory into
practice, 41(4), 212-218.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 247
Krueger, A., & Sutton, J. (2001). EDThoughts: What We Know about Science Teaching and
Learning. Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning, 2550 S. Parker Road,
Suite 500, Aurora, CO 80014-1678.
Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M. A. (2014). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research.
Sage publications.
Kugler, A. D., Tinsley, C. H., & Ukhaneva, O. (2017). Choice of Majors: Are Women Really
Different from Men? (No. w23735). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Kuhn, M. (2014). What we have here is a failure to communicate: evaluating negotiation in an
elementary science classroom. CSTA California Science Teacher Association (CSTA)
California Classroom Science.
Lasley, T. J. (1980). Preservice teacher beliefs about teaching. Journal of Teacher
Education, 31(4), 38-41.
Leary, M. R., & Tangney, J. P. (Eds.). (2011). Handbook of self and identity. Guilford Press.
Lederman, N. G. (1992). Students' and teachers' conceptions of the nature of science: A review
of the research. Journal of research in science teaching, 29(4), 331-359.
Lederman, N. G. (1993). A Summary of Research in Science Education--1991.
Lee, C.A., & Houseal, A. (2003). Self-efficacy, standards, and benchmarks as factors in
teaching elementary school science. Journal of Elementary Science Education, 37-55.
Lee, O., & Avalos, M. A. (2002). Promoting science instruction and assessment for English
language learners. Electronic Journal of Science Education, 7(2).
Lee, O., & Luykx, A. (2007). Science education and student diversity: Race/ethnicity, language,
culture, and socioeconomic status. Handbook of research on science education, 1, 171-
197.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 248
Lee, O., Miller, E. C., & Januszyk, R. (2014). Next generation science standards: All standards,
all students. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 25(2), 223-233.
Leonard, J., Barnes-Johnson, J., Dantley, S. J., & Kimber, C. (2011). Teaching science inquiry in
urban contexts: The role of elementary preservice teachers’ beliefs. The Urban
Review, 43(1), 124-150.
Leslie, L. L., McClure, G. T., & Oaxaca, R. L. (1998). Women and minorities in science and
engineering: A life sequence analysis. The journal of higher education, 69(3), 239-276.
Levitt, K. E. (2001). An analysis of elementary teachers’ beliefs regarding the teaching and
learning of science. Science Education, 86, 1-22.
Liang, L., & Richardson, G. (2009). Enhancing Prospective Teachers' Science Teaching Efficacy
Beliefs Through Scaffolded, Student-Directed Inquiry. Journal of Elementary Science
Education, 21(1), 51-66.
Lin, H., Gorrell, J., & Taylor, J. (2002). Influence of Culture and Education on U. S. and Taiwan
Preservice Teachers' Efficacy Beliefs. The Journal of Educational Research, 96(1), 37-
46.
Linn, M. C., Bell, P., & Hsi, S. (1998). Using the Internet to enhance student understanding of
science: The knowledge integration environment. Interactive learning environments, 6(1-
2), 4-38.
Litow, S. (2008). A silent crisis: The underrepresentation of Latinos in STEM careers. Education
Week, 27, 1-2.
Locke, L. F., Silverman, S. J., & Spirduso, W. W. (2009). Reading and understanding research.
Sage Publications.
Locke, L. F. Silverman, & SJ, Spirduso, WW (2010). Reading and understanding research.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 249
Lomax, R., West, M., Harmon, M., Viator, K., & Madaus, G. (1995). The Impact of Mandated
Standardized Testing on Minority Students. The Journal of Negro Education, 64(2), 171-
185. doi:10.2307/2967240
Lombardi, T., & Butera, G. (1998). Mnemonics: Strengthening thinking skills of students with
special needs. The Clearing House, 71(5), 284-286.
Losin, E. R. (2012). Exploring the Neural Architecture of Cultural Imitative Learning (Doctoral
dissertation, UCLA).
Louis, K. S., & Murphy, J. (2017). Trust, caring and organizational learning: the leader’s
role. Journal of educational administration, 55(1), 103-126.
Lumpe, A. T., Haney, J. J., & Czerniak, C. M. (1998). Science teacher beliefs and intentions to
implement science-technology-society (STS) in the classroom. Journal of Science
Teacher Education, 9(1), 1-24.
Lumpe, A. T., Haney, J. J., & Czerniak, C. M. (1998). Science teacher beliefs and intentions
regarding the use of cooperative learning. School Science and Mathematics, 98(3), 123-
135.
Lumpe, A. T., Haney, J. J., & Czerniak, C. M. (2000). Assessing teachers' beliefs about their
science teaching context. Journal of research in science teaching, 37(3), 275-292.
Madaus, G. F. (1991). The effects of important tests on students: Implications for a national
examination system. The Phi Delta Kappan, 73(3), 226-231.
Magnusson, S., Krajcik, J., & Borko, H. (1999). Nature, sources, and development of
pedagogical content knowledge for science teaching. In Examining pedagogical content
knowledge (pp. 95-132). Springer Netherlands.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 250
Mallow, J., Kastrup, H., Bryant, F. B., Hislop, N., Shefner, R., & Udo, M. (2010). Science
anxiety, science attitudes, and gender: Interviews from a binational study. Journal of
Science Education and Technology, 19(4), 356-369. doi: 10.1007/s10956-010-9205-z
Mallow, J. V. (2006). Science anxiety: research and action. Handbook of college science
teaching, 3-14.
Maltese, A. V., & Tai, R. H. (2011). Pipeline persistence: Examining the association of
educational experiences with earned degrees in STEM among US students. Science
Education, 95(5), 877-907.
Marinez, D. I., de Montellano, O., & Bernardo, R. (1988). Improving the Science and
Mathematic Achievement of Mexican American Students Through Culturally Relevant
Science. ERIC Digest.
Matsui, B. I. (1997). Action mapping: A planning tool for change. PREL.
Maxwell, J. A. (2012). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (Vol. 41). Sage
publications.
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE.
McEwan, E. K., & McEwan, P. J. (2003). Making sense of research. Thousand Oaks, CA:
SAGE. Chapters 1–2.
McLaughlin, M. W., & Marsh, D. D. (1990). Staff development and school change. Schools as
collaborative cultures: Creating the future now, 213-232.
McLeod, J. (2014). Doing research in counselling and psychotherapy. Sage.
Meadows, L. (2007). Commentary: Looking Back: A Nation at Risk and National Standards. The
Science Teacher,74(8), 10-12.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 251
Mehalik, M. M., Doppelt, Y., & Schuun, C. D. (2008). Middle‐school science through design‐
based learning versus scripted inquiry: Better overall science concept learning and equity
gap reduction. Journal of engineering education, 97(1), 71-85.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (3rd ed). San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. (2016). Qualitative research: A guide to design and
implementation (4th ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Miller, J. D. (1983). Science literacy: a conceptual and empirical review. Daedalus, 11, 29-48.
Miller, M. D. (2006). Science self-efficacy in tenth grade Hispanic female high school
students (Doctoral dissertation, University of Central Florida Orlando, Florida).
Miller, S. P., & Hudson, P. J. (2007). Using evidence‐based practices to build mathematics
competence related to conceptual, procedural, and declarative knowledge. Learning
Disabilities Research & Practice, 22(1), 47-57.
Milner IV, H. R. (2007). Race, culture, and researcher positionality: Working through dangers
seen, unseen, and unforeseen. Educational researcher, 36(7), 388-400.
Miner, K. N., Diaz, I., & Rinn, A. N. (2017). Incivility, Psychological Distress, and Math
Self-Concept among Women and Students of Color in STEM. Journal of Women
And Minorities in Science and Engineering, 23(3).
Morrow, L. M., Pressley, M., Smith, J. K., & Smith, M. (1997). The effect of a literature‐based
program integrated into literacy and science instruction with children from diverse
backgrounds. Reading Research Quarterly, 32(1), 54-76.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 252
Moschkovich, J. N. (1999). Understanding the needs of Latino students in reform-oriented
mathematics classrooms. Changing the faces of mathematics: Perspectives on Latinos, 4,
5-12.
Mulholland, J., & Wallace, J. (2001). Teacher induction and elementary science teaching:
Enhancing self-efficacy. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17(2), 243-261.
Muller, P. A., Stage, F. K., & Kinzie, J. (2001). Science achievement growth trajectories:
Understanding factors related to gender and racial-ethnic differences in precollege
science achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 38(4), 981-1012.
Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/risk.html
Munck, M. (2007). Science pedagogy, teacher attitudes, and student success. Journal of
Elementary Science Education, 19(2), 13-24.
Munford, D, Zembal-Saul, C; Friedrichsen, P. (2002), Science Learning as Argument Building:
An innovative course for secondary science.
Murguia, E., & Telles, E. E. (1996). Phenotype and schooling among Mexican
Americans. Sociology of Education, 276-289.
National Science Education Standards (1996). National Academy of Sciences. National
Academy Press, Washington, D.C. Retrieved from
http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) 2015. U.S. Department of Education,
Institute of Educations Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 253
National Center for Education Statistics, Average National Assessment of Educational Progress
(NAEP) science scale score, standard deviation, and percentage of students attaining
science achievement levels by grade level, selected student and school characteristics,
and percentile: 2009 and 2011.
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2012). The Nations Report Card:
Mathematics 2012 (NCES 2012-046). Institute of Education Sciences. U.S. Department
of Education, Washington, D.C.
National Commission on Excellence in Education (NCEE). 1983. A nation at risk: The
importance of educational reform. Retrieved from
https://www.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/index.html
National Council for the Accreditation of Colleges of Teacher Education (NCATE). (2002).
Professional standards for the accreditation of schools, colleges, and departments of
education. Washington, DC.
National Research Council (NRC). (1996). National Science Education Standards. Washington,
D. C.: National Academy Press. doi.org/10.17226/4962.
National Research Council. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school:
Expanded edition. National Academies Press.
National Research Council. (2000b). Inquiry and the national science education standards: A
guide for teaching and learning. National Academies Press.
National Research Council. (2007). Taking science to school: Learning and teaching science in
grades K-8. National Academies Press.
National Research Council. (2011). Successful STEM Education: A workshop summary. National
Academies Press.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 254
National Research Council. (2012a). “11 Equity and Diversity in Science and Engineering
Education.” A Framework for K-12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting
Concepts, and Core Ideas. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.
17226/13165.
National Research Council. (2012b). A framework for K-12 science education: Practices,
crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/13165.
National Research Council. (2012c). A framework for K-12 science education: Practices,
crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. National Academies Press.
National Research Council. (2013). Appendix G Crosscutting Concepts in the Next Generation
Science Standards. National Academies Press. Retrieved from
https://www.nap.edu/read/18290/chapter/13
National Research Council. (2014). Developing assessments for the next generation science
standards. National Academies Press. 12.
National Research Council. (2015). Guide to implementing the next generation science
standards. National Academies Press.
National Science Board (US). Commission on Precollege Education in Mathematics, Science,
and Technology, Coleman, W. T., & Selby, C. C. (1983). Educating Americans for the
21st Century: A Plan of Action for Improving Mathematics, Science and Technology
Education for All American Elementary and Secondary Students So that Their
Achievement is the Best in the World by 1995. National Science Foundation.
National Science Teachers Association – NSTA (2013). “NSTA Position Statement.” NSTA
Position Statement: Next Generation Science Standards, NSTA, Retrieved from
https://www.nsta.org/about/positions/ngss.aspx.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 255
National Science Teachers Association – NSTA (2014). STEM Starts Here. Retrieved from
https://www.ngss.nsta.org
Neill, M. (2016). The testing resistance and reform movement. Monthly Review, 67(10), 8-28.
NGSS Lead States. (2013). Appendix F-Science and Engineering Practices in the NGSS. Next
Generation Science Standards: For States, By States.
NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For States, By States.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Retrieved from
https://www.nextgenscience.org/
Nieto, S. (1992). We speak in many tongues: Language diversity and multicultural
education. Díaz, C: Multicultural education for the 21st century, 112-136.
Nieto, S. (1999). Multiculturalism, social justice, and critical teaching. Education is politics:
Critical teaching across differences, K-12, 1-32.
Nieto, S. (2012). Teaching, caring, and transformation. Knowledge Quest, 40(5), 28.
Noddings, N. (1992). The challenge to care in schools: An alternative approach to education.
Advances in contemporary educational thought. (Vol. 8). New York: Teachers College
Press.
Noddings, N. (2013). Caring: A relational approach to ethics and moral education. Univ of
California Press.
Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L., Sriram, N., Lindner, N. M., Devos, T., Ayala, A., ... & Kesebir, S.
(2009). National differences in gender-science stereotypes predict national sex
differences in science and math achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 106(26), 10593-10597.
Novak, J. D. (1988). Learning science and the science of learning.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 256
Oakes, J. (1990a). Lost talent: The under participation of women, minorities, and disabled
persons in science.
Oakes, J. (1990b). Multiplying inequalities: The effects of race, social class, and tracking on
opportunities to learn mathematics and science.
Odili, J. N., Ebisine, S. S., & Ajuar, H. N. (2011). Teachers' Involvement in Implementing the
Basic Science and Technology Curriculum of the Nine-Year Basic Education. US-China
Education Review B 5 636-642.
Olynick, F. A. (2016). STEM education: a pathway to developing twenty-first-century leadership
and career skills.
Ong, M., Wright, C., Espinosa, L., & Orfield, G. (2011). Inside the double bind: A synthesis of
empirical research on undergraduate and graduate women of color in science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics. Harvard Educational Review, 81(2), 172-209.
Osborne, J., Simon, S., & Collins, S. (2003). Attitudes towards science: A review of the literature
and its implications. International journal of science education, 25(9), 1049-1079.
Oscos-Sanchez, M. A., Oscos-Flores, L. D., & Burge, S. K. (2008). The teen medical academy:
Using academic enhancement and instructional enrichment to address ethnic disparities in
the American healthcare workforce. Journal of Adolescent Health, 42, 284-293.
Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy
construct. Review of educational research, 62(3), 307-332.
Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of educational
research, 66(4), 543-578.
Palmer, D. H. (2002). Factors contributing to attitude exchange amongst preservice elementary
teachers. Science Education, 86(1), 122-138.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 257
Park, S., & Oliver, J. S. (2008). Revisiting the conceptualization of pedagogical content
knowledge (PCK): PCK as a conceptual tool to understand teachers as
professionals. Research in science Education, 38(3), 261-284.
Pasley, J. D., Trygstad, P. J., & Banilower, E. R. (2016). What Does “Implementing the NGSS”
Mean? Operationalizing the Science Practices for K–12 Classrooms.
Patton, M. Q., (2015). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (4
th
ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Pearson, P. D., Moje, E., & Greenleaf, C. (2010). Literacy and science: Each in the service of the
other. Science, 328(5977), 459-463.
Peltzman, A., & Rodriguez, N. (2013). Next Generation Science Standards: Adoption and
Implementation Workbook. Achieve, Inc.
Perry, B. L., Link, T., Boelter, C., & Leukefeld, C. (2012). Blinded to science: Gender
differences in the effects of race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status on academic and
science attitudes among sixth graders. Gender and Education, 24(7), 725-743.
Piaget, J. (1985). The equilibration of cognitive structures: The central problem of intellectual
development, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Piaget, J., & Garcia, R. (1989). Psychogenesis and the history of science. New York: Columbia
University Press.
Pintrich, P., & Schunk, D. (1996). The role of expectancy and self-efficacy beliefs motivation in
education: Theory, research & applications. Bergen County, NJ: Englewood Cliffs.
Plante, I., Protzco, J., & Aronson, J. (2010). Girls’ internalization of their female teacher’s
anxiety: A “real-world” stereotype threat effect? Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences, 107(20), E79-E79.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 258
Posnanski, T. (2002). Professional Development Programs for Elementary Science Teachers: An
Analysis of Teacher Self-Efficacy Beliefs and a Professional Development
Model. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 13(3), 189-220.
Powell, J. C., & Anderson, R. D. (2002). Changing teachers' practice: Curriculum materials and
science education reform in the USA.
Pruitt, S. L. (2014). The next generation science standards: The features and challenges. Journal
of Science Teacher Education, 25(2), 145-156.
Putra, M. A., Widodo, A., & Sopandi, W. (2017, September). Science Teachers’ Pedagogical
Content Knowledge and Integrated Approach. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series
(Vol. 895, No. 1, p. 012144). IOP Publishing.
Quinn, H., Lee, O., & Valdés, G. (2012). Language demands and opportunities in relation to
Next Generation Science Standards for English language learners: What teachers need to
know. Commissioned Papers on Language and Literacy Issues in the Common Core
State Standards and Next Generation Science Standards, 94, 32.
Ramey-Gassert, L., & Shroyer, M. (1992). Enhancing Science Teaching Self-Efficacy In
Preservice Elementary Teachers. Journal of Elementary Science Education, 4(1), 26-34.
Ramey‐Gassert, L., Shroyer, M. G., & Staver, J. R. (1996). A qualitative study of factors
influencing science teaching self‐efficacy of elementary level teachers. Science
Education, 80(3), 283-315.
Ravitch, S.M., & Riggan, M. (2017). Reason & rigor: How conceptual frameworks guide
research (2
nd
ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 259
Reiser, B. J. (2013). What professional development strategies are needed for successful
implementation of the Next Generation Science Standards. In Paper written for the
Invitational Research Symposium on Science Assessment (Vol. 24, p. 25).
Renninger, A., Hidi, S., & Krapp, A. (Eds.). (2014). The role of interest in learning and
development. Psychology Press.
Rice, D. C., & Roychoudhury, A. (2003). Preparing more confident preservice elementary
science teachers: One elementary science methods teacher's self-study. Journal of
Science Teacher Education, 14(2), 97-126.
Riggs, I. M. (1991). Gender Differences in Elementary Science Teacher Self-Efficacy.
Riggs, I. M., & Enochs, L. G. (1990). Toward the development of an elementary teacher's
science teaching efficacy belief instrument. Science Education, 74(6), 625-637.
Ritter, J. M., Boone, W. J., & Rubba, P. A. (2001). Development of an instrument to assess
prospective elementary teacher self-efficacy beliefs about equitable science teaching and
learning (SEBEST). Journal of Science Teacher Education, 12(3), 175-198.
Roberts, J., Henson, R., Tharp, B., & Moreno, N. (2001). An Examination of Change in Teacher
Self-Efficacy Beliefs in Science Education Based on the Duration of Inservice
Activities. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 12(3), 199-213.
Robles, D. P. (1994). Implementation factors related to successful outcomes in mathematics and
science for limited English proficient students.
Rocco, T. S., & Plakhotnik, M. S. (2009). Literature reviews, conceptual frameworks, and
theoretical frameworks: Terms, functions, and distinctions. Human Resource
Development Review, 8(1), 120-130.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 260
Rodriguez, A. J. (1997). The dangerous discourse of invisibility: A critique of the National
Research Council's National Science Education Standards. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching: The Official Journal of the National Association for Research in
Science Teaching, 34(1), 19-37.
Rodriguez, A. J. (1998). Busting open the meritocracy myth: Rethinking equity and student
achievement in science education. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and
Engineering, 4(2&3).
Rodriguez, A. J. (2015). What about a dimension of engagement, equity, and diversity practices?
A critique of the next generation science standards. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 52(7), 1031-1051.
Rogers, R.H. (2016). Using lenses to make sense of research: A review of Sharon M. Ravitch
and Matthew Riggan’s reason & rigor: How conceptual frameworks guide research. The
Qualitative Report, 21(9), 1708-1712.
Rosenholtz, S. J. (1987). Education reform strategies: Will they increase teacher
commitment? American Journal of Education, 95(4), 534-562.
Ross, T., Kena, G., Rathbun, A., KewalRamani, A., Zhang, J., Kristapovich, P., & Manning, E.
(2012). Higher Education: Gaps in Access and Persistence Study. Statistical Analysis
Report. NCES 2012-046. National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from
http://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_2015/#mathematics?grade=4
Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of
reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and applied, 80(1), 1.
Rowe, K. (2003). The importance of teacher quality as a key determinant of students’
experiences and outcomes of schooling.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 261
Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (2012). Chapter 6: Conversational partnerships. Qualitative
interviewing: The art of hearing data, 85-92.
Rudman, L. A., & Goodwin, S. A. (2004). Gender differences in automatic in-group bias: Why
do women like women more than men like men? Journal of personality and social
psychology, 87(4), 494.
Rutherford, F. J. (1997). Sputnik and science education. In Symposium "Reflecting on Sputnik:
Linking the Past, Present, and Future of Educational Reform." Washington, DC.
Salzman, H. (2013). What Shortages? The Real Evidence About the STEM Workforce. Issues in
Science and Technology (Summer 2013), 58-67. http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.7282/T3JS9S2T
Sandholtz, J. H., & Ringstaff, C. (2014). Inspiring instructional change in elementary school
science: The relationship between enhanced self-efficacy and teacher practices. Journal
of Science Teacher Education, 25(6), 729-751.
Schneider, B., Brief, A. P., & Guzzo, R. A. (1996). Creating a climate and culture for sustainable
organizational change. Organizational dynamics, 24(4), 7-19.
Schneider, R. M., Krajcik, J., Marx, R. W., & Soloway, E. (2002). Performance of students in
project‐based science classrooms on a national measure of science achievement. Journal
of Research in Science Teaching, 39(5), 410-422.
Schraw, G., Flowerday, T., & Lehman, S. (2001). Increasing situational interest in the classroom.
Educational Psychology Review, 13, 211-224.
Shraw, G., & Lehman, S. (2009). Interest. Retrieved
from http://www.education.com/reference/article/interest/
Schraw, G., & McCrudden, M. (2006). Information processing theory. Retrieved
from http://www.education.com/reference/article/information-processing-theory/.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 262

Schumacher, D. L. (2005). Do your CATS PRRR?: A mnemonic device to teach safety checks
for administering intravenous medications. The Journal of Continuing Education in
Nursing, 36(3), 104-106.
Schunk, D. H. (1991). Self-efficacy and academic motivation. Educ. Psychol. 26: 207-231.
Schwartz, R. S., & Lederman, N. G. (2002). “It's the nature of the beast”: The influence of
knowledge and intentions on learning and teaching nature of science. Journal of
Research in science teaching, 39(3), 205-236.
Settlage, J., Southerland, S. A., Smith, L. K., & Ceglie, R. (2009). Constructing a doubt‐free
teaching self: Self‐efficacy, teacher identity, and science instruction within diverse
settings. Journal of Research in science teaching, 46(1), 102-125.
Senge, P. (1990). The leader’s new work: Building learning organizations. Sloan Management
Review, 32(1), 7–23.
Shakeshaft, C. (1995). Reforming science education to include girls. Theory into practice, 34(1),
74-79.
Shapley, K. S., & Luttrell, H. D. (1992). Implementing Hands-On Science in the Elementary
Schools: A District-Wide Approach. Science Educator, 1(1), 15-18.
Shaw, E., & Doan, R. (1990). An investigation of the differences in attitude and achievement
between male and female second and fifth grade science students. Journal of Elementary
Science Education, 2(1), 10-15.
Shea, L. M., Shanahan, T. B., Gomez-Zwiep, S., & Straits, W. (2012). Using science as a context
for language learning: Impact and implications from two professional development
programs. Electronic Journal of Science Education, 16(2), 1-29.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 263
Shein, J. B. (2011). Reversing the slide: A strategic guide to turnarounds and corporate renewal.
John Wiley & Sons.
Shlain, T., Steele, S. (2015). The adaptable mind [Video file]. The Moxie Institute. Retrieved
from https://vimeo.com/133190364
Shulman, L. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational
Researcher, 15(1), 4–14.Shulman, L. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of
the new reform. Harvard educational review, 57(1), 1-23.
Shulman, L. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard
Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22.
Shute, V. J. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 153–
189.
Sickel, A. J., & Friedrichsen, P. (2015). Beliefs, practical knowledge, and context: a longitudinal
study of a beginning biology teacher's 5E unit. School Science and Mathematics, 115(2),
75-87.
Sinatra, G. M., & Pintrich, P. R. (2003). The Role of Intentions in Conceptual Change Learning:
Gale M. Sinatra and Paul R. Pintrich. In Intentional conceptual change 10-26. Routledge.
Skamp, K., & Mueller, A. (2001). A longitudinal study of the influences of primary and
secondary school, university and practicum on student teachers' images of effective
primary science practice. International Journal of Science Education, 23(3), 227-245.
Smartpens. Retrieved from http://www.toptenreviews.com/electronics/family/best-digital-pens/
Smolleck, L. D., Zembal-Saul, C., & Yoder, E. P. (2006). The development and validation of an
instrument to measure preservice teachers' self-efficacy in regard to the teaching of
science as inquiry. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 17(2), 137-163.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 264
Snyder, T. D., De Brey, C., & Dillow, S. A. (2018). Digest of Education Statistics 2016, NCES
2017-094. National Center for Education Statistics.
Song, C., Qu, Z., Blumm, N., & Barabási, A. L. (2010). Limits of predictability in human
mobility. Science, 327(5968), 1018-1021.
Soodak, L. C., & Podell, D. M. (1996). Teacher efficacy: Toward the understanding of a multi-
faceted construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 12(4), 401-411.
Southerland, S. A., & GessNewsome, J. (1999). Preservice teachers' views of general science
teaching as shaped by images of teaching, learning, and knowledge. Science
Education, 83(2), 131-150.
Spohn, C. (2008). Teacher perspectives on No Child Left Behind and arts education: A case
study. Arts Education Policy Review, 109(4), 3-12.
Stake, R. E. (1978). Case Studies in Science Education, Volume I: The Case Reports.
Stegemiller, M. (2013). The Effect of Background Music in the Classroom.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research. Sage publications.
Stuart, C., & Thurlow, D. (2000). Making it their own: Preservice teachers' experiences, beliefs,
and classroom practices. Journal of teacher education, 51(2), 113-121.
Suldo, S. M., Shaffer, E. J., & Shaunessy, E. (2008). An Independent Investigation of the
Validity of the School Attitude Assessment Survey—Revised. Journal of
Psychoeducational Assessment, 26(1), 69–82. doi.org/10.1177/0734282907303089
Supovitz, J. A., & Turner, H. M. (2000). The effects of professional development on science
teaching practices and classroom culture. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
37(9), 963-980.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 265
Tate, W. (2001). Science education as a civil right: Urban schools and opportunity‐to‐learn
considerations. Journal of Research in Science Teaching: The Official Journal of the
National Association for Research in Science Teaching, 38(9), 1015-1028.
The condition of STEM 2015. national. (2015). ().ACT, 500 ACT Drive, P.O. Box 168, Iowa
City, IA 52243-0168.
Thomas, D., Richardson, A., Harris, M., & Ottiwu, C. (2017). Racism.
Tobin, K. (1990). Research on science laboratory activities: In pursuit of better questions and
answers to improve learning. School science and Mathematics, 90(5), 403-418.
Tomasello, M., Kruger, A. C., & Ratner, H. H. (1993). Cultural learning. Behavioral and brain
sciences, 16(3), 495-511.
Torres, V., & Baxter Magolda, M. B. (2004). Reconstructing Latino identity: The influence of
cognitive development on the ethnic identity process of Latino students. Journal of
College Student Development, 45(3), 333-347.
Tosun, T., & Tosun, T. (2000). The Impact of Prior Science Course Experience and
Achievement on the Science Teaching Self-Efficacy of Preservice Elementary
Teachers. Journal of Elementary Science Education, 12(2), 21-31.
Treagust, D. F. (1980). Gender‐related differences of adolescents in spatial representational
thought. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 17(2), 91-97.
Triandis, H. C. (1980). Social factors in science education. Instructional Science, 9(2), 163-181.
Trigwell, K., Prosser, M., & Waterhouse, F. (1999). Relations between teachers' approaches to
teaching.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 266
Trygstad, P. J., Smith, P. S., Banilower, E. R., & Nelson, M. M. (2013). The Status of
Elementary Science Education: Are We Ready for the Next Generation Science
Standards? Horizon Research, Inc.
Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, A. W. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive
construct. Teaching and teacher education, 17(7), 783-805.
Tschannen-Moran, M., Hoy, A. W., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and
measure. Review of educational research, 68(2), 202-248.
Tucker, C. M., Porter, T., Reinke, W. M., Herman, K. C., Ivery, P. D., Mack, C. E., & Jackson,
E. S. (2005). Promoting teacher efficacy for working with culturally diverse
students. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and
Youth, 50(1), 29-34.
Tucker, M. S. (2011). Standing on the Shoulders of Giants: An American Agenda for Education
Reform. National Center on Education and the Economy (NJ3).
Tuckman, B. (2009). Operant conditioning. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/operant-conditioning/
Ucar, S. (2012). How Do Pre-Service Science Teachers' Views on Science, Scientists, and
Science Teaching Change Over Time in a Science Teacher Training Program? Journal of
Science Education and Technology, 21(2), 255-266.
Udo, M. K., Ramsey, G. P., & Mallow, J. V. (2004). Science anxiety and gender in students
taking general education science courses. Journal of Science Education and
Technology, 13(4), 435-446.

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 267
U.S. Census Bureau. (2012a). National Population Projections. Washington, DC. 2012a. ,
accessed May 20, 2013. Retrieved from
https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/newsroom/releases/2015/cb15-
tps16_graphic.pdf
U.S. Census Bureau. (2012b). National Population Projections. Washington, DC. 2012a.,
accessed May 20, 2013. Retrieved from
https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/newsroom/releases/2015/cb15-
tps16_graphic.pdf
U.S. Department of Commerce Economics and Statistics Administration STEM: Good jobs now
and for the Future. Retrieved from
http://www.esa.doc.gov/sites/default/files/stemfinalyjuly14_1.pdf
U.S. Department of Education (2013). National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and
Staffing Survey (SASS), "Public School Teacher Data File," 1987-88 through 2011-12;
"Private School Teacher Data File," 1987-88 through 2011-12; and "Charter School
Teacher Data File," 1999-2000. Retrieved from
https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_209.10.asp
U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education
Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), various years, 1990–
2015 Mathematics and Reading Assessments. Retrieved from
https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_2015/#?grade=4
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated
Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2013. Retrieved from
https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2016/2016007.pdf
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 268
U.S. Department of Education (2015a). Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for
Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2009, 2011,
and 2015 Science Assessments. Retrieved from
https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/science_2015/#?grade=4
U.S. Department of Education (2015b). National Center for Education Statistics. (2012). The
Condition of Education 2012. (NCES 2012-045), Indicator 47.
U.S. Department of Education (2015c) Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for
Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), various
years, 1992–2015 Mathematics Assessments. Retrieved from
https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_2015/#mathematics?grade=4
U.S. Department of Education (2015d). Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for
Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2009, 2011,
and 2015 Science Assessment. Retrieved from
https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/science_2015/#groups/chart_loc_1?grade=8
U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences (2015e), National Center for
Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2009, 2011,
and 2015 Science Assessments. Retrieved from
https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/science_2015/files/overview.pdf
U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences (2015f), National Center for
Education Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2009, 2011,
and 2015 Science Assessments. Retrieved from
https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/science_2015/#?grade=4
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 269
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2016). Digest of
Education Statistics, 2015 (NCES 2016-014), Introduction and Chapter 2.
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated
Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS), Fall 2009 through Fall 2015,
Completions component. (This table was prepared October 2016.) Retrieved from
https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d16/tables/dt16_318.45.asp
U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education
Statistics, National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 2009, 2011, and 2015
Science Assessments. Retrieved from
https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/science_2015/files/overview.pdf
Valenzuela, A. (1999). Subtractive Schooling: US-Mexican Youth and the politics of caring.
SUNY Series. The Social Context of Education.
Valenzuela, A. (2010). Subtractive schooling: US-Mexican youth and the politics of caring. Suny
Press.
Van Driel, J. H., Beijaard, D., & Verloop, N. (2001). Professional development and reform in
science education: The role of teachers' practical knowledge. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 38(2), 137-158.
Vitale, M. R., Romance, N. R., & Klentschy, M. (2006, April). Improving school reform by
changing curriculum policy toward content-area instruction in elementary schools: A
research-based model. In Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, San Francisco, CA.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 270
Vitale, M. R., & Romance, N. R. (2011). Adaptation of a knowledge-based instructional
intervention to accelerate student learning in science and early literacy in grades 1 and
2. Journal of Curriculum and Instruction, 5(2), 79-93.
Wahub (2017). 5E Instructional Model for Learning. Swiftelearning. Retrieved from
http//www.swiftelearningservices.com/5e-instructional-model-for-elearning-a-model-
preferred-by-nasa/.
Wang, A. Y., & Thomas, M. H. (1995). Effects of keyword on long-term retention: Help or
hindrance? Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(3), 468.
Watt, H. M., & Richardson, P. W. (2007). Motivational factors influencing teaching as a career
choice: Development and validation of the FIT-Choice scale. The Journal of
experimental education, 75(3), 167-202.
Watters, J. J., & Diezmann, C. M. (2015). Challenges confronting career-changing beginning
teachers: A qualitative study of professional scientists becoming science
teachers. Journal of science teacher education, 26(2), 163-192.
Watters, J. J., & Diezmann, C. M. (2016). Engaging elementary students in learning science: an
analysis of classroom dialogue. Instructional Science, 44(1), 25-44.
Watters, J. J., & Ginns, I. S. (2000). Developing motivation to teach elementary science: Effect
of collaborative and authentic learning practices in preservice education. Journal of
Science Teacher Education, 11(4), 301-321.
Weibell, C. J. (2011). Principles of learning: 7 principles to guide personalized, student-centered
learning in the technology-enhanced, blended learning environment. Retrieved from
https://principlesoflearning.wordpress.com.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 271
Weinstein, C. S. (1989). Teacher education students' preconceptions of teaching. Journal of
teacher education, 40(2), 53-60.
Weiss, I. R. (1978). Report of the 1977 National Survey of Science, Mathematics, and Social
Studies Education. Final Report.
Weisman, E. M. (2001). Bicultural identity and language attitudes: Perspectives of four Latina
teachers. Urban education, 36(2), 203-225.
Westerback, M. E., & Long, M. J. (1990). Science Knowledge and the Reduction of Anxiety
About Teaching Earth Science in Exemplary Teachers as Measured by the Science
Teaching State‐Trait Anxiety Inventory. School Science and Mathematics, 90(5), 361-
374.
Wirt, J., Choy, S., Rooney, P., Provasnik, S., Sen, A., & Tobin, R. (2004). The condition of
education 2004 (NCES 2004-077). US Department of Education. National Center for
Education Statistics. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 5.
White, K. N. (2007). The Effects of Background Music in the Classroom on the Productivity,
Motivation, and Behavior of Fourth Grade Students. Online Submission
White, R. W. (1959). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psychological
Review, 66(5), 297.
Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation.
Contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 68-81.
Wilson, S. M., & Berne, J. (1999). Chapter 6: Teacher Learning and the Acquisition of
Professional Knowledge: An Examination of Research on Contemporary Professional
Development. Review of research in education, 24(1), 173-209.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 272
Windschitl, M. (2002). Inquiry projects in science teacher education: What can investigative
experience reveal about teacher thinking and eventual classroom practice? Science
Teacher Education, 87, 112–143.
Windschitl, M. (2003). Inquiry projects in science teacher education: What can investigative
experiences reveal about teacher thinking and eventual classroom practice?. Science
education, 87(1), 112-143.
Witham, K., Chase, M., Bensimon, E. M., Hanson, D., & Longanecker, D. (2015). Moving the
attainment agenda from policy to action. Change: The Magazine of Higher
Learning, 47(4), 6-15.
Wood (2018). NGSS Interactive Read-Aloud. A comprehensive list of children’s literature
aligned to the NGSS standards. Retrieved from http://www.kbs.msu.edu/wp-
content/uploads/2017/02/NGSS-Interactive-Read-Alouds.pdf
Worth, A.Q. (1989). Project 2061: Science for All Americans. The Psychologist. A Publication
of the Physiologist Society, 32(5), 1-16. Retrieved from http://www.the-
aps.org/mm/Publications/Journals/Physiologist/1980-1989/1989/October.pdf
Yehuda, N. (2011). Music and stress. Journal of Adult Development, 18(2), 85-94.
Yildirim, A. (1994). Teachers' theoretical orientations toward teaching thinking. The Journal of
Educational Research, 88(1), 28-35.
Yore, L. D., & Treagust, D. F. (2006). Current realities and future possibilities: Language and
science literacy—empowering research and informing instruction. International Journal
of Science Education, 28(2-3), 291-314.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 273
Yosso, T., Smith, W., Ceja, M., & Solórzano, D. (2009). Critical race theory, racial
microaggressions, and campus racial climate for Latina/o undergraduates. Harvard
Educational Review, 79(4), 659-691.
Young, D. M., Rudman, L. A., Buettner, H. M., & McLean, M. C. (2013). The influence of
female role models on women’s implicit science cognitions. Psychology of Women
Quarterly, 37(3), 283-292.
Zavala, M. D. R. (2014). Latina/o Youth's Perspectives on Race, Language, and Learning
Mathematics. Journal of Urban Mathematics Education, 7(1), 55-87.
Zeldin, A.M., Britner, S.L., & Pajares, F. (2007). A comparative study of the self-efficacy beliefs
of successful men and women in mathematics, science and technology careers. Journal of
Research in Science Teaching, 45(9), 1036-1058.
Zeldin, A. L., Britner, S. L., & Pajares, F. (2008). A comparative study of the self‐efficacy
beliefs of successful men and women in mathematics, science, and technology
careers. Journal of Research in Science Teaching: The Official Journal of the National
Association for Research in Science Teaching, 45(9), 1036-1058.
Zeldin, A. L., & Pajares, F. (2000). Against the odds: Self-efficacy beliefs of women in
mathematical, scientific, and technological careers. American Educational Research
Journal, 37(1), 215-246.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 25(1), 82-91.
Zinn, M. B. (1980). Employment and education of Mexican-American women: The interplay of
modernity and ethnicity in eight families. Harvard Educational Review, 50(1), 47-62.
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 274
Zonkel, P., 2016. "About Us," Mendez v Westminster. Retrieved from
http://sylviamendezinthemendezvswestminster.com/aboutus.html

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 275
APPENDIX A
Observation Protocol
Before the observation, I will ask permission for the observation. After permission is granted, I
will say:

I will be observing your implementation of NGSS through Science2Minds. You don’t have
to do anything differently from what you normally do. After I write up the narrative, I will
seek your feedback to determine any discrepancies. During the observation, I will sit in the
back and take notes.

I will sit in a suggested corner by the teacher. I will use a clipboard, note paper, three pens and a
SMART Pen to take notes. I will keep all notes and data in a password protected computer.

The observation protocol will follow the Bybee et al. (2006) 5E’s (engage, explore, explain,
explore, elaborate) to observe the science inquiry steps utilized by the teacher. The 5E’s in the
observation protocol are shown side by side with the corresponding NGSS science practices. In
addition, the observation protocol takes into account the science inquiry pedagogy used by the
teacher (teacher guided, student-centered, or both).

The following is what I will take into the field with me to remind me of the areas to emphasize in
my narrative fieldnotes:

Engagement

Science
Practices—
Ask questions
Exploration

Science
Practices—
Planning and
carrying
out
investigations

Developing and
using models
Explanation

Science
practices—
Constructing
explanation
Elaboration

Science
Practices—
Analyzing and
interpreting data

Science Practices-
Engaging in
argument from
evidence
Evaluation

Science
Practice—

Obtaining,
evaluating, and
communicating
information

After the initial two-hour observations takes place, say: Thank you for the time you have
provided for the observations

The following table will be used AFTER the observations are completed to help guide my
analysis of the teachers’ knowledge in the specific areas aligned to the NGSS standards. This
table will be used to guide the coding of the fieldnotes.

Running Head: FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 276
5E’s What the teacher does What the student does Teacher
Guided
Student
Centered
Interacts
with females
Engagement

Science
Practices—Ask
questions
• Creates interest
• Raises questions
• Elicits responses that
assess prior knowledge
• Makes connections, show
interest
• Asks questions such as, “Why
did this happen?” “What do I
already know about this?”

Learner selects
among
questions, poses
new questions
Learner poses
a question
Teacher
listens to
female
questions
Exploration

Science
Practices—
Planning and
carrying out
investigations

Developing and
using models
• Encourages the students
to work
• together without direct
instruction
• Observes and listens
to the students as they
interact
• Asks probing
questions to
• redirect the students’
• investigations when
necessary
• Provides time for the
students to puzzle
through problems
• Acts as a consultant for
students
• Investigates, tests predictions
and hypotheses with hands-on
activities
• Test predictions and forms
new predictions and
hypotheses
• Tries alternatives and
discusses them with others
• Design, plan, build models,
• collect data
• Records observations and
ideas
• Asks related questions

Learner
directed to
collect certain
data
Learner
determines
what
constitutes
evidence and
collects it
Teacher
observes
females as
they interact

Teacher
listens to
females

Teacher
observes and
comments
on female
created
models

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 277
Explanation

Science
practices—
Constructing
explanation
• Clarifies
understanding
Encourages the
students to explain
concepts and
definitions in their
own words
• Formally clarifies
definitions,
explanations, and new
labels when needed
• Uses students’
previous
experiences/activities
as the basis for
explaining concepts
• Assesses students’
growing
understanding
• Explains possible
solutions or answers
to others
• Listens critically to
others’ explanations
• Questions others’
explanations
• Listens to and tries to
comprehend
explanations that the
teacher offers
• Refers to previous
activities
• Uses recorded
observations in
explanations
• Assesses own
understanding
• Learner guided
in the process
of formulating
explanation
from evidence
• Learner
formulates
explanation
after
• summarizing
evidence
• Teacher
encourages
females to
explain
concepts
and
definitions
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 278
Elaboration

Science
Practices-
Analyzing and
interpreting data

Science
Practices-
Engaging in
argument from
evidence
• Expects the students
to use formal labels,
definitions, and
explanations provided
previously
• Encourages the
students to apply what
they have learned or
extend their
knowledge, the
concepts and skills in
new situations
• Reminds the students
of alternate
explanations
• Refers the students to
existing data and
evidence and asks,
• “What do you already
know?” “Why do you
think …?”
(Strategies from
exploration also apply
here.)
• Applies new labels,
definitions,
explanations, and
skills in new but
similar situations—
students build on
their understanding
of concepts
• Uses previous
information to ask
questions, propose
solutions, make
decisions, and design
experiments
• Apply
explanations and
skills to new, but
similar, situations
• Draws
reasonable
conclusions from
evidence
• Records observations
and
explanations
• Checks for
understanding among
peers
• Learner
directed
toward areas
and sources of
scientific
knowledge

• Learner
independently
examines
other
resources and
forms the
links to
explanations
• Teacher
encourages
females to
apply or
extend
what they
have
learned
• Provide practice and
reinforcement –
application

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 279
Evaluation

Science
Practice
Obtaining,
evaluating, and
communicating
information
• Uses evaluation
activities to assess
student progress
• Observes the students
as they apply new
concepts and skills
• Assesses students’
knowledge and skills
• Looks for evidence
that the students have
changed their thinking
or behaviors
• Allows students to
assess their own
learning and group
process skills
• Asks open-ended
questions such as,
“Why do you think
…?” “What evidence
do you have?” “What
do you know about
x?” “How would you
explain x?”
• Evaluates his or her
own progress and
knowledge
• Answers open-ended
questions by using
observations,
evidence, and
previously accepted
explanations
• Draws conclusions
using evidence from
previous experiences
• Demonstrates an
understanding or
knowledge of the
concept or skill
• Asks related
questions that would
encourage future
investigations
• Learner
coached in
development
of
communication
• Learner
formulates
reasonable
and logical
argument to
communicate
explanation
• Teacher
observes
females
apply new
concepts
and skills
Source: Bybee, R. W., Taylor, J. A., Gardner, A., Van Scotter, P., Powell, J. C., Westbrook, A., & Landes, N. (2006). The

BSCS 5E instructional model: Origins and effectiveness. Colorado Springs, Co: BSCS, 5, 88-98.

Running Head: FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 280
APPENDIX B
Interview Protocol
I. Introduction (Appreciation, Purpose, Line of Inquiry, Plan, Confidentiality, Reciprocity,
Consent to Participate, Permission to Record):
Appreciation
I appreciate the time that you have set aside to answer some of my questions. The interview
should take about one hour and 30 minutes, does that work for you?
Consent to Participate
I want to thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I wanted to remind you that your
participation is voluntary and if at any time you feel uncomfortable we can stop the interview
and you have the right to discontinue being part of the study. You can also decide to not answer
one or several of the questions, but still be a part of the study.
Purpose of the Study
Before we start, I would like to provide you with an overview of my study and answer any
questions you might have about participating in this study. I am currently enrolled as a student at
USC and am conducting a study on NGSS and science education. I am particularly interested in
understanding how NGSS and implementation of Science2Minds is shaped by teacher science
self-efficacy and ultimately as an end goal how it affects fifth-grade Latina science efficacy in
the school environment. I would like to observe all traditional AES fifth-grade classrooms and
talking to all traditional fifth-grade teachers at AES to learn more about this.
Confidentiality
I want to guarantee you that during this time I am wearing the hat of a researcher, therefore, my
questions and observations are not meant to be evaluative. I would like to know what
organizational needs are required to support you as a teacher to implement NGSS; to understand
what important factors, or important knowledge the organization needs to know to implement
science education through Science2Minds. This interview is confidential. You will not identify
yourself. Your name, school, and perspectives regarding science education will be kept strictly
confidential and not be shared with anyone outside of the research team. The research team
includes my USC chair and me.
Line of Inquiry
The interview will begin with questions regarding your beliefs and attitudes toward science, and
then guiding questions will serve as a basis for the interview which will be conducted in a
conversational manner. Follow up questions may follow to clarify any ideas.
Permission to Record
I would like to ask permission to audio record the conversation. I have brought a recorder and
phone which has a voice recorder phone app today so that I can accurately capture what you
share with me. The recording is solely for my purposes to best capture your perspectives and
will not be shared with anyone outside the research team. I will be recording the interview with a
SMART Pen. Temi.com software will be used to transcribe the material. I will be the only
person who has access to the SMART Pen and audio recordings. In case the software does not
work, a transcriber will be used to transcribe the material. The audio will be destroyed after
transcription. All other data will be destroyed after three years. May I also have your
permission to record our conversation?
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 281
Do you have any questions about the study before we begin? If there no other questions, I would
like with your permission to begin the interview.

Opening: I’d like to start by asking you some background questions about you.
First, tell me about your background in education?
A. What degrees and credentials do you hold?
B. How long have you worked in the field?
C. What roles or positions have you held?

Now I’d like to ask you some questions about your experiences with science. (Instruct teachers
to think about the question and then answer).

1. When you were a student what experiences did you have learning science? (K3,
M2 self-efficacy)
a. Can you give me an example of a time that best demonstrates this
experience you are sharing?
b. What opportunities did you have to take science classes?
c. How did you do in your science classes?
2. How do you like teaching science now as a teacher?
3. Tell me about a time when you felt successful teaching science.
a. How about a time when you felt successful teaching science in a way that
all of your students could access?
4. Tell me about a time when you didn’t feel very successful teaching science.
a. How about a time when you didn’t feel very successful teaching science in
a way that all of your students could access?

I would like to ask you some questions about gender and science.
5. Tell me how your female students are doing in your science class. (K3)
a. How are they doing compared to their male peers?
6. Some people think that males are better at science. What would you say to them?
(K3)
7. Describe what you think female students need to effectively learn science. (K1,
K2, K3)
a. How should instruction look different for males vs. females, if at all?

I would like to ask you now to think about your Latina learners and what would support them
in your science classroom.

8. Describe an ideal science environment for Latina learners. (K1-3)
9. What are the things you think about related to how you teach SE to your Latina
students? K1
a. What types of materials do you use? (K1)
b. What topics do you include? (K1)
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 282
10. How do you know you are effectively teaching SE to your Latina ELL learners in
your classroom? (K1, K2, M2)
a. How do you get your Latina students interested in science?
11. Explain what you do when a Latina is having a difficult time grasping a science
concept? (K2, K3, M2)
a. How confident do you feel in supporting your Latina students in science?
(M3)

I would now like to change gears and ask you about how you describe SE.

12. If someone was to ask you what the NGSS is, what would you say? (K1)
13. What about the science and engineering practices, how would you explain them?
(K1)
14. How are the performance expectations drawn from the NGSS and the practices?
(K1)
15. What are your thoughts on teaching science with the new NGSS in mind? (M1)
a. Why do you think the NGSS is important, if at all?
b. Why do you think the NGSS is not important, if at all?
16. What is inquiry based learning? (K2)
17. If I was to walk into an ideal lesson where science inquiry was happening, what
would I see? (probe for steps). (K2)
18. Tell me about Science2Minds. How does it support the implementation of NGSS,
if it does? (probe for the dimensions mentioned above and specific examples).
(K1)
19. Where does Science2Minds fall short of implementing NGSS, if at all? (probe for
the dimensions mentioned above and specific examples). (K1)
Now I would like to ask about your professional development/training experiences with
science? (if any)

20. Describe the professional development you have had to help you teach with
NGSS, if any (O1)
a. What were the strengths of the PD you had?
b. What were the limitations of the PD you had?
21. What made you attend the professional development? (M1)
22. Describe any professional development you had that covered NGSS with a focus
on diversity and SE, if any? (O1, O2).
23. Describe any professional development you had that covered NGSS with a focus
on gender and SE, if any? (O1, O2)
24. Describe the professional development you have had to help you understand the
CAST assessment, if any? (O1)
25. Tell me about a time when you felt supported to teach SE. Who supported you?
How did they do so? (O1)
26. What are some ways you wish you would be supported to teach SE, but currently
aren’t? (O1) (probe for PD, resources etc.)

Now I would like to ask about district science goals and assessments? (if any)
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 283

27. What goals has your district developed related to implementing the new NGSS, if
any? (O2)
a. School site Council?
b. School?
28. How have they communicated these goals with the rest of the organization, if at
all? (O2)
29. What science benchmark assessments has your district developed?
a. School?
30. Can you describe how your instruction in SE is evaluated? (O3)
31. How do you obtain feedback from your district about the science CSTs or the
CAST, if at all? (O1, O3)

I began this interview asking you to reflect on your experiences in science. The last two
questions use the research findings as a way to start the discussion.

32. Research findings suggest that female teachers have a hard time effectively
implementing science due to a history of stereotypes about females’ inability to
engage in science. What are your thoughts on this? (K3, M1)
33. What would you say needs to happen to change this stereotype about female
teachers teaching science? (Instruct teachers to think about the question and
then answer).
IV. Closing Question (Anything else to add)
Is there anything else you would like to add related to the topic of implementing NGSS using
Science2Minds?
V. Closing (thank you and follow-up option):

I want to thank you so much for taking the time to share your experiences, feelings, and
thoughts. Your time has been greatly appreciated and valued. Your insights are helpful for my
project of study. If I need to ask you follow-up questions, may I contact you through email?
Please feel free to email me as well if you forgot to mention something. Once again thank you
so much for taking the time to participate in this study. As a token of my gratitude, please take
this gift card to a school supply store.

VI. Post interview summary and reflection
[ADD shortly after each interview]

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 284
Appendix C
Three Dimensions of NGSS

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 285
Appendix D
Researcher Biographical Information
An episode I experienced early in my education is difficult to recount but makes my
dissertation purposeful. I was in my second year as a chemistry major at CSUB, when I
contracted chickenpox. I had to miss my math exam; when I returned to class my professor
seemed not to believe me. I remember him looking at me for a while; there were no marks on
my face, just on my body which was fully covered. He didn’t allow me to retake the exam.
Negative racial, gender, and social class stereotypes lead teachers to communicate low
expectations for the academic achievements through teacher student face-to-face interactions
providing inferior experiences and encouragement for high educational experiences that promote
achievement levels and confidence for continued success (Eccles, 2006). My attainment,
intrinsic and utility value where high, that it did not affect me; but, two weeks later, my father
died. My math professor wanted me to withdraw from school. Luckily my chemistry professor
praised my educational achievement and made sure that the math professor allowed me to retake
the class if needed. I began to feel I didn’t belong in science. My chemistry professor’s positive
feedback increased my self-efficacy and influenced my motivation to continue the course.
According to Schraw & Lehman (2009) engagement enables learners to develop essential
procedural skills and conceptual knowledge within a domain which facilitates persistence
necessary to develop true expertise; this increases self-efficacy and confidence, making a subject
easier and enjoyable to learn. I remember doing so well in the math class; I, along with some
Asian classmates, would work together in class completing assignments. Soon the same
professor removed me from the group and placed me in an all-White group. I felt out of place
and excluded; I didn’t complain or have the confidence to go up to the professor and tell him
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 286
how I felt. People who have a strong sense of efficacy master difficult tasks as challenges and
maintain strong commitment to their goals in the face of problems (Bandura, 2010). Taking me
away from a familiar group should not have affected my self-efficacy in math, but it did.
According to Eccles (2002) expectancies and values are influenced by task-specific beliefs such
as “perceptions of competence, perceptions of the difficulty of different task, and individuals’
goals and self-schema” which “are influenced by individuals' perceptions of other peoples'
attitudes and expectations for them” (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002, p. 12). The expectations I sensed
from the new group reduced my self-efficacy. By seeking same role models (Bandura 2006;
Bandura, 2010), Latinas maintain high self-efficacy in the face of indirect contact with
microaggressions. I sought advice from an Indian professor, Dr. Lethi, who was the Human
Development Department Chair. I loved working with children and decided to switch majors;
my chemistry professor wanted me to stay in the chemistry field. I felt I needed to switch majors
to stay in school and feel I belonged somewhere. Latinas counteract such effects by seeking
support from Chicana faculty and peers; and prove racial stereotypes of Mexicans wrong (Yosso
et al., 2009). Latinas seeking support from models of their own race reinforce self-efficacy
(Bandura, 2007; Bandura, 2010). Even though, Dr. Lethi was not Hispanic, I associated with her
because her skin tone was similar to mine. Later, I was engaged to be married, and felt a science
job was not befitting of a Latina mother. For Latinas, the desire to challenge gender and social
roles contrary to cultural and familial values may reduce STEM self-perceptions (Andujar, 2006;
Hasari et al., 2013; Aschbacher et al., 2010). Eccles identified "cost" as a critical component of
value (Eccles et al., 1983; Eccles, 1987). Cost is conceptualized in terms of the negative aspects
of engaging in the task, such as “performance anxiety and fear of both failure and success as well
as the amount of effort needed to succeed and the lost opportunities that result from making one
FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 287
choice rather than another” (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Developing a strong science identity that
challenges the stereotypical Latina cultural role is important to develop early in life so that
Latinas stay in STEM careers; the reason for this dissertation.

FEMALE TEACHER IMPLEMENTATION OF NGSS 288
Appendix E
Consent—Memo to the Superintendent

Memo to Superintendent
Dear Dr. Fernandez,

I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern California (USC) under the supervision of
faculty member, Dr. Artineh Samkian, conducting research on teacher perception of science
education reform, NGSS, science self-efficacy and its influence on Latina students’ science self-
efficacy. I would like to explore how the implementation of Science2Minds shapes teachers’
own self-efficacy. Results from this study may help leaders and educators support each other
towards the implementation of effective science education, and as a result develop Latina
students’ science self-efficacy in an effort to draw more Latina interest in science fields.

Fifth-grade is the only grade level that administers the state science assessment, the CAST and
the only grade level where fifth-grade teachers are implementing Science2Minds in their classes.
Therefore, I will ask fifth-grade traditional female teachers to volunteer to participate in this
study. Interested teachers will be interviewed from one to two hours. The teacher participants
and the school will not be identified by name in any written report, analysis, or publication and
kept confidential to the extent provided by law. Pseudonyms will be assigned to teachers who
participate in the interviews; and, teachers will be informed that they have the right to withdraw
from the study at any time without consequence. No compensation will be offered for
participation so as to avoid coercion, however a $25.00 gift card to GW’s school supply will be
provided at the conclusion of my study as a small token of my appreciation.

I have gone through CITI training (to ensure ethical practice in my research) and will receive
IRB clearance from USC before beginning my research project. Please inform me if I must meet
further District or the local teacher union regulations before I begin my study. If you have any
questions about this research project, please contact me at AES after 3:00 p.m.

Sincerely,

Mary Alice Sandoval-Bernal
AES Fifth-Grade Dual-Immersion Teacher

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study examined where AES fifth-grade female teachers were with the NGSS understanding of the performance expectation

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

The pedagogy of science teachers from non-natural science backgrounds

PDF

Implementing standards-based grading in the era of common standards: an evaluation study

PDF

Preservice teacher preparation for engineering integration in K-5

PDF

Teacher role in reducing the achievement gap: an evaluation study

PDF

Elementary teachers’ perceptions of gender identity and sexuality and how they are revealed in their pedagogical and curricular choices: two case studies

PDF

Impact of mindfulness on early education teacher well-being: an evaluation study

PDF

Administrators' role in supporting teachers through feedback

PDF

The interaction of teacher knowledge and motivation with organizational influences on the implementation of a hybrid reading intervention model taught in elementary grades

PDF

Leadership and implementation of 1:1 technology: considering teacher self-efficacy in the implementation process

PDF

The continuous failure of Continuous Improvement: the challenge of implementing Continuous Improvement in low income schools

PDF

Developing a computer science education program: an innovation study

PDF

Culturally responsive teaching in science: an action research study aimed at supporting a resident teacher in developing inquiry-based culturally responsive science lessons

PDF

An examination of professional development in algebra for fifth-grade teachers

PDF

Enabling dis/abled females

PDF

Evaluation study: building teacher efficacy in K8 computer science integration

PDF

The relationships between teacher beliefs about diversity and opportunities for culturally and linguistically diverse students, reflectiveness, and teacher self-efficacy

PDF

Educating hearts and minds through high-quality service learning curriculum in U.S. high schools

PDF

Teacher perceptions of evaluation policy in Hawaii

PDF

Female elementary school principals and building capacity for teacher leaders

PDF

K-12 dress codes and gender equity: an examination of policy and practice of dress code implementation

Asset Metadata

Creator Sandoval-Bernal, Mary Alice (author)

Core Title Female teacher’s implementation of NGSS through Science2Minds

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 10/24/2019

Defense Date 08/19/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag elementary,female teacher,fifth-grade,Latina,NGSS,OAI-PMH Harvest,Science education,science implementation,science self-efficacy

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Samkian, Artineh (committee chair), Canny, Eric A. (committee member), Freking, Frederick Wilhelm (committee member)

Creator Email maryalis@usc.edu,mbernal@lesd.us

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-228734

Unique identifier UC11673833

Identifier etd-SandovalBe-7879.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-228734 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-SandovalBe-7879.pdf

Dmrecord 228734

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Sandoval-Bernal, Mary Alice

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA