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Women of color senior leaders: pathways to increasing representation in higher education

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Women of color senior leaders: pathways to increasing representation in higher education

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Content Running head: WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS 1

WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS: PATHWAYS TO INCREASING
REPRESENTATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION

by

Leslie Ann Hughes

__________________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2019

Copyright 2019 Leslie Ann Hughes

WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS 2
DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to the women of color senior leaders and the women of color who aspire
to be leaders in higher education.
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge my dissertation committee members Dr. Robles, Dr.
Malloy, and Dr. Bensimon for their guidance in the process of developing this dissertation.
Without their input, I would not have been inspired to develop a study that was deeply
meaningful to me and to the work of advancing equity, diversity, and inclusion in higher
education. I was also blessed to work with Dr. Donato who provided me steadfast guidance
throughout; I am thankful for his encouragement and constant reminders to “Fight On!”
To my partner, Dr. Andrew Hughes, thank you for agreeing that one Dr. Hughes was not
enough in our family and encouraging me to complete this process. You believe I can do
anything in this world and your unwavering support makes me believe I can too. Thank you for
doing the dishes, bringing me food, and cheering me on while I was all consumed by this
dissertation.
To my “SC Squad,” Kelly Esperias, Chelsea Heyward, Christine Ruth, and Amanda
Vanni, thank you for being a group of strong women who constantly reminded me of my own
strength. You taught me it was ok to let some balls drop in my life in order to achieve this goal,
that I was capable and enough, and that humor was the key to our survival! The sisterhood we
developed was by far my most cherished outcome of this program.
To my family, friends, and colleagues who believed I could, thank you. You
communicated admiration, unconditional support, and understanding of my divided attention for
the past three years. My life is more meaningful because you are in it. To my mom and Thom,
Jeanie and O. Keith Hughes, Grandma Net, and my “Sisterfriends” specifically, thank you for
your belief in me, your willingness to talk through the process, and continued check-ins. To Dr.
Anna Gonzalez, thank you for supporting my writing and telling me to get out of the office and
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS 4
to stop looking at my email! Without your support, this journey would have been much more
difficult for me.
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 10
Introduction to the Problem of Practice 10
Related Literature 13
Importance of the Study 15
Description of Stakeholder Groups 16
Global Performance Goal 17
Stakeholder Group for the Study 17
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions 18
General Conceptual and Methodological Framework 19
Organization of the Dissertation 20
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 22
Influences on the Problem of Practice 22
The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework 32
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences 33
Conceptual Framework: Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation 46
and Organizational Context
Conclusion 49
Chapter 3: Methods 51
Introduction 51
Participating Stakeholders 52
Data Collection and Instrumentation 53
Data Analysis 56
Credibility and Trustworthiness 57
Ethics 58
Limitations and Delimitations 60
Chapter 4: Results and Findings 62
Participating Stakeholders 63
Data Validation 68
Results and Findings for Knowledge Influences 68
Results and Findings for Motivation Influences 76
Results and Findings for Organization Influences 83
Summary of Validated Influences 91
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS 6
Chapter 5: Solutions, Implementation, and Evaluation 94
Organizational Context and Mission 94
Global Goal 95
Description of Stakeholder Groups 95
Purpose of the Project and Questions 96
Introduction and Overview 97
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences 99
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 112
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach 128
Limitations and Delimitations 129
Future Research 130
Conclusion 131
References 133
Appendices 146
Appendix A: Interview Protocol 146
Appendix B: Immediate Feedback Survey 148
Appendix C: Delayed Feedback Survey 149
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Global Goal, Global Performance Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals 17
Table 2. Global Goal, Assumed Knowledge Influences, and Knowledge Influence 37
Assessments
Table 3. Global Goal, Assumed Motivation Influences, and Motivation Influence 41
Assessments
Table 4. Global Goal, Assumed Organizational Influences, and Organizational 46
Influence Assessments
Table 5. Professional Demographics of Participants 67
Table 6. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 101
Table 7. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 105
Table 8. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 108
Table 9. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 115
Table 10. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 117
Table 11. Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 119
Table 12. Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 123
Table 13. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 124

WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

8
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Conceptual framework figure 48
Figure 2. Responses to item: “How do you identify racially?” 64
Figure 3. Responses to item: “What is your title?” 64
Figure 4. Responses to item: “Who do you report to within the organization?” 65
Figure 5. Responses to item: “What is your age?” 66
Figure 6. Characteristics of participant experiences based on status as women of color 69
Figure 7. Characteristics of participant perceptions of top pathways for women of color 73
senior leaders
Figure 8. Characteristics of participant perceptions of value of work 76
Figure 9. Characteristics of participant perceptions of confidence 80
Figure 10. Characteristics of participant perceptions of what has contributed to 80
confidence
Figure 11. Characteristics of participant perceptions of what contributes to organizational 84
value of women of color senior leaders
Figure 12. Characteristics of participant perceptions of institutional practices that 88
promote diversity, equity, and inclusion
Figure 13. Visual representation of initiatives implemented 126

WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS 9
ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to evaluate the influences that affect the recruitment, retention and
advancement of women of color senior leaders at small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions
in the United States. Utilizing Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework, the study
investigated the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences contributing to the
underrepresentation of women of color senior leaders. Using a qualitative design, the study
utilized interviews with women of color senior leaders to answer the following: (1) What is the
stakeholder perception of the various knowledge and motivation influences related to senior
leadership attainment for women of color in higher education? (2) What is the interaction
between organizational culture and context and the knowledge and motivation influences?
(3) What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources? Ten women of color senior leaders from across the
country ranging from associate deans to presidents provided data on their experiences and
perceptions of pathways for success. The study found that knowledge and organizational factors
were most evident in current gaps within the institutions, while motivation factors were less
evident. The main knowledge factors were identified as the need for institutional leaders and
decision makers to receive training about bias-reduction and equity-minded practices. The
motivation factors included findings that mentoring programs should be established to support
the success of women of color senior leaders. Finally, organizational factors revolved around
creating a culture of inclusion in decision-making and creating equity-minded hiring practices.
The study provided recommendations for programs as well as an integrated implementation and
evaluation plan, designed to help organizations begin to execute best practices around these
findings.
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CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction to the Problem of Practice
The disparity of women of color senior leaders in the academy is quite apparent. Women
comprise only 30% of college president positions, with a scant 5% representation for women of
color (American Council on Education [ACE], 2017). Despite the fact that women students have
earned half or more of all baccalaureate degrees for the past three decades, and half of all
doctoral degrees for almost a decade, they are not proportionally represented in senior leadership
roles (Bruckmüller, Ryan, Rink, & Haslam, 2014; Catalyst, 2019; Cook & Glass, 2014; Johnson,
2016; Krivkovich, Robinson, Starikova, Valentino, & Yee, 2017). Half of graduates are women,
yet the data show that women are not ascending to leadership roles across degree-granting
postsecondary institutions, even though they hold a greater share of the entry-level, service, and
teaching-only positions than their male counterparts (Johnson, 2016). Moreover, this trend is
more profound for women of color (ACE, 2017; Catalyst, 2019; Johnson, 2016). Women of
color are drastically underrepresented in senior leadership positions in the academy, and there is
a long history that is well documented in the literature about the ways in which women of color
do not have access to leadership opportunities in nearly all industries for a variety of reasons.
This study explores some of the barriers, biases, and pathways that affect aspiring women
of color in their professional progression to senior leadership roles at small, private, selective,
liberal arts institutions. Additional areas that will be discussed include understanding the
experience of women of color in positions of power in higher education, learning participants’
worldviews and how they frame their lived experiences as successful senior leaders, and
identifying the pathways that have contributed to their success.
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Background of the Problem
The underrepresentation of women of color in senior leadership remains a relevant
problem in every industry. An example of this disparity can be seen by looking at CEOs of the
Fortune 500, which are overwhelmingly white, straight, and male. Only 4.8% of CEO positions
are held by women, and women of color, women born outside of the United States, and Lesbian,
Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) women are grossly underrepresented (Catalyst, 2019).
While the 2018 midterm elections were history making for women and women of color in
Congress, still only 23.7% of the United States Congress is comprised of women, and
disturbingly only 8.7% is comprised of women of color (Eagleton Institute of Politics, 2019).
Women of color are underrepresented in senior leadership positions due to the barriers that they
face associated with their gender and their race.
Women face many barriers when seeking promotions in the workplace, which contributes
to their underrepresentation in senior leadership positions. Conscious and unconscious mental
associations about women, and assumptions that men naturally possess better leadership abilities,
contribute to the gender bias women face in advancing into leadership positions (Eagly & Carli,
2007). Koch, D’Mello, and Sackett (2015) affirmed the presence of gender bias in their
research. They conducted random effect meta-analyses, which examined the effects of decision-
maker gender, amount and content of information available to the decision maker, type of
evaluation, and motivation to make careful decisions on gender bias in organizational decisions.
They found that women may be more likely to face discrimination in male dominated
environments and that women may tend to face the most discrimination in jobs that generally
produce the highest pay and status. In addition to the overt discrimination women face in the
workplace, they must also reconcile assumptions that successful leadership encompasses
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

12
traditionally masculine traits (Koch et al., 2015). Moreover, Bruckmüller et al. (2014)
contributed to our understanding of this problem when they reviewed evidence of gender
discrimination and affirmed that women leaders are still more rare, face real barriers, and
experience higher scrutiny that serves to keep senior leadership roles as predominantly accessible
to men. Gender bias remains a real threat to the success of aspiring women leaders in the
workplace.
Leadership stereotypes contribute to collective bias toward women leaders. Koenig,
Eagly, Mitchell, and Ristikari (2011) conducted a meta-analysis of three paradigms of research
by reviewing 69 studies and they attributed the presence of gender bias to leadership stereotypes.
The primary studies fit into one of three paradigms: (1) Schein’s (1973) think manager–think
male paradigm; (2) Powell and Butterfield’s (1979) agency–communion paradigm; and
(3) Shinar’s (1975) masculinity–femininity paradigm. They found a strong tendency for
leadership to be viewed as culturally masculine, and provided evidence that women experience
prejudice in leadership roles (Koenig et al., 2011). They emphasized that men fit cultural
expectations of leadership better than women, and concluded that they have better access to
leadership roles and face fewer challenges in becoming successful as a result (Koenig et al.,
2011). Our cultural template for what we imagine as a person in power remains determinedly
male, and we struggle to envision a model for what a powerful woman looks like (Beard, 2017).
Additionally, Sandberg and Grant (2015) frame the cultural expectations that women experience
in professional settings as walking a tightrope when speaking; they are either barely heard or
perceived as too aggressive. There is a long history of silencing women in the past as well as our
contemporary culture which is related to the abuse that women who speak out are subject to even
in our modern society (Beard, 2017). Furthermore, the biases and barriers that women of color
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13
face in the workplace are even more complicated and pervasive than the discrimination that
white women face.
Furthermore, women who are also marginalized by their race experience additional
barriers to their attainment of and success in senior leadership positions which are further
complicated by their intersectional identities. The literature suggests that women of color
experience even greater underrepresentation in senior leadership positions (Krivkovich et al.,
2017; Madden, 2005; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010; Sanchez-Hucles & Sanchez, 2007).
Furthermore, the biases, barriers, and complexities facing women of color in leadership are more
complicated than what white women experience (Krivkovich et al., 2017; Madden, 2005;
Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010; Sanchez-Hucles & Sanchez, 2007). Moreover, much leadership
literature implicitly refers to white women, ignoring the different types of stereotypes women of
color experience (Ospina & Foldy, 2009; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010).
Related Literature
In the United States, women of color are underrepresented in the higher education
industry, with a scarce 9% representation in the higher education workforce (McChesney, 2018).
The disparity of women of color faculty members is apparent with Asian women holding 4.9%
of tenure-track positions and 3.0% of tenured positions; Black women holding 3.6% of tenure-
track positions and 2.3% of tenured positions; and Latina women holding 2.7% of tenure-track
positions and 2.4% of tenured positions (Catalyst, 2019). Moreover, men of color hold full
professor positions more often than women of color despite the fact that women of color often
outnumber them in lower-ranking faculty positions (ACE, 2017). The data shows that women of
color are not represented equally in academic positions that provide them avenues toward
leadership and the same is true for administrative positions in the higher education industry.
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

14
In addition to the underrepresentation seen in faculty roles, women and racial minorities
are underrepresented in higher education administration. A recent study utilizing College and
University Professional Association for Human Resource (CUPA-HR) data compared the
representation of sex and ethnicity for student affairs professionals relative to the student
populations they served. They found that white women and men, and Black men were
overrepresented in senior leadership roles while Hispanic and Asian professionals were
underrepresented compared to the student populations (Pritchard & McChesney, 2018). Women
of color are not represented in administrative roles that generally produce the highest pay and
status.
As a broader phenomenon, women tend to occupy lower-paying roles than men, and this
is true of the higher education industry as well. Women administrators receive only $0.82 for
every dollar paid to men (Pritchard & McChesney, 2018). Faulty compensation also represents a
gender disparity. According to a report prepared by the American Council on Education, male
full-time faculty members made an average of $89,190, and female full-time faculty members
made an average of $73,782 at degree-granting postsecondary institutions (ACE, 2017). The pay
gap in higher education serves as a clear indication of the glass ceiling metaphor; representing
the intangible systemic barriers that prevent women from obtaining senior-level positions (ACE,
2017).
In order to evaluate how to meet the needs of aspiring women of color senior leaders
within higher education, it is important to understand the experiences of senior women of color
leaders who are in the industry. This study will focus on the experiences of prominent senior
leaders in small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions. The information gathered from this
study can be used to help organizations understand possible pathways to increase the
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15
representation of women of color in senior leadership roles in higher education within the next
10 years. It is important to learn what has supported, transformed, or failed them in these
environments, what barriers exist for achieving senior leadership roles, and pathways to bolster
their success. By looking to the few women of color senior leaders within this industry, data
may help provide answers for what ways that individual organizations could better serve aspiring
women of color senior leaders in higher education.
Importance of the Study
The problem of the underrepresentation of women of color in leadership is important to
evaluate because Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibits discrimination in the
workplace, has failed to close the race and gender gap in senior leadership roles (Ely, Ibarra, &
Kolb, 2011). Moreover, the problem of barriers to women of color attaining senior leadership
positions in higher education is important to address because research reveals that diversity
yields better business outcomes. Gender diversity enriches the workplace and is associated with
increased sales revenue, more customers, and greater relative profits (Herring, 2009). For
example, Herring (2009) reviewed data and concluded that diversity within a workforce,
compared to a homogeneous workforce, produces increased sales revenue, more customers,
greater market share, and greater relative profits. Additionally, a theoretical report conducted by
McKinsey & Company found that companies with multiple women in senior-level positions
performed better financially (Desvaux, Devillard-Hoellinger, & Baumgarten, 2007). Despite this
evidence, there has been no real progress for women of color at the top of any industry and
women’s voices are still not equally involved with making decisions that most affect our world
(Sandberg, 2013).
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Description of Stakeholder Groups
The stakeholders in this study include students, faculty, administrators, college
presidents, boards of trustees, and women of color senior leaders at higher education institutions.
All stakeholders will benefit from this study, but specifically top-level leaders such as college
presidents and boards of trustees, and women of color senior leaders are the primary focus. Top
level leaders such as college presidents and boards of trustees and other administrators will
benefit from tangible and actionable methods to address cultural needs to better recruit, retain,
and advance women of color senior leaders.
Women of color faculty and administrators in the academy do not reflect the shifting
demographic of students in higher education; increasing numbers of underrepresented students
are gaining access to the pathways that allow for their college access (Dean, Bracken, & Allen,
2009). Diversity of thought and experience will contribute to a better learning environment for
students, as well as provide a better way to produce outcomes for faculty and staff stakeholders
working within the institutions (Desvaux, Devillard-Hoellinger, & Baumgarten, 2007; Herring,
2009). Barriers related to cultural, historical, and social factors result in limited opportunities for
women from underrepresented populations in the academy (Dean et al., 2009). The lived
experiences of women of color can contribute to the understanding of ways in which institutions
can better recruit, promote, mentor, and retain these senior leaders. Through the assessment of
lived experiences of women of color senior leaders, as well as their knowledge, motivation, and
understanding of organizational influences, these stakeholders will provide essential information
that will inform the knowledge that institutional leaders and decision-makers need in order to
increase the presence of women of color senior leaders. The stakeholders that may receive the
greatest benefit from this study are women of color senior leaders.
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Global Performance Goal
Table 1
Global Goal, Global Performance Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Global Goal
Recruit, retain, and advance more aspiring women of color senior leaders at small, private,
selective liberal arts institutions in the next 10 years.
Global Performance Goal
By 2020, 100% of institutional leaders and decision makers at the small, private, selective,
liberal arts institutions of this study will engage in a program designed to empower women
of color seeking leadership opportunities.
Women of Color Senior
Leaders
By 2020, women of color
senior leaders will engage in
equity-minded institutional
mentoring initiatives
designed to support their
success as senior leaders.
College Presidents
By 2020, College Presidents
will engage in a program
designed to increase equity-
minded initiatives on the
campus with the intention of
increasing the recruitment,
advancement, and retention
of women of color senior
leaders.
Boards of Trustees
By 2020, Boards will engage
in a program designed to
increase equity-minded
initiatives on the campus with
the intention of increasing the
recruitment, advancement,
and retention of women of
color senior leaders.

Stakeholder Group for the Study
Although a complete analysis would involve all stakeholder groups, for practical
purposes this study focused on innovating a program for small, private, selective, liberal arts
institutions that empower women of color senior leaders in the United States. The program
design was informed by the qualitative experiences of women of color senior leaders at small,
private, selective, liberal arts institutions and is designed for top level leaders such as college
presidents and boards of trustees to build skills around equity-minded practices that support the
success of women of color senior leaders. In order to understand the knowledge, motivation, and
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18
organizational influences on the problem, women of color senior leaders were selected to provide
qualitative data to understand their experiences and influences that they have experienced in
these institutions. The women of color that were considered to be senior leaders within the
higher education institutions included past or present experience as presidents, vice presidents,
assistant or associate vice presidents, and senior leadership roles within the faculty.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this project was to uncover the influences that have affected women of
color in senior leadership as they relate to the larger problem of advancement and success within
their roles at small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions. The analysis focused on
identifying the characteristics and lived experiences that have influenced the areas of knowledge
and skill, motivation, and organizational resources for the participants. As such, the questions
that guided this study are the following:
1. What is the perception of women of color in senior leadership of the various
knowledge and motivation influences related to their senior leadership attainment
within their small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions of higher education?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the knowledge
and motivation influences?
Based on the analysis of the findings, Chapter 5 will include recommendations in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organization that will inform the design of a program that is meant
to increase the number of women of color in senior leadership positions within select small,
private, selective, liberal arts institutions.
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General Conceptual and Methodological Framework
This study employed a qualitative approach with a narrative inquiry methodology and
examined the quality of experiences for women of color senior leaders at small, private, selective
liberal arts institutions in an inductive manner. Clark and Estes (2008) identify three factors for
examination in a gap analysis: knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational factors
(Clark & Estes, 2008). A modified version of Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis was utilized
as the general conceptual framework for this study to explore possible influences and solutions
for the success and barriers for women of color senior leaders. According to Creswell and
Creswell (2018), qualitative research seeks to explore and understand the meaning individuals or
groups ascribe to a social or human problem. The advantage of this type of research design is
that it seeks to understand how something actually works (McEwan & McEwan, 2003). In
relation to the above questions, this research sought to answer what has bolstered, transformed,
or failed women of color senior leaders within higher education organizations. In the case of
promoting women of color in leadership, it is necessary to examine the flow of power in society
as a direct response for the problem of justice as it relates to leadership theory (Dugan, 2017).
The design of the study was exploratory in nature, with a focus on deriving general,
abstract theory of the process and interactions of the participants over the course of the study
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Rather than making a prediction using dependent and independent
variables that can either be proven or disproven, this inductive approach allows for truths to
emerge during the study (McEwan & McEwan, 2003). Much of the data relied on words from
women of color senior leaders, and analysis of the data was utilized by thematic coding and
interpretation of narrative data (McEwan & McEwan, 2003).
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The worldview of the researcher also aligned with a qualitative approach. The researcher
holds a transformative worldview, with the assumption that the world is a place full of
oppression that needs to be confronted and addressed. According to Creswell and Creswell
(2018), inquiry should be interwoven with a political change agenda to confront such issues as
inequality, social oppression, suppression, and domination. Therefore, the primary focus of the
study sought to find meaning to help address the needs of women of color that experience
oppression on their journeys toward leadership. This transformative worldview highlights
asymmetric power dynamics (Creswell & Creswell, 2018) and the research aims to provide a
relevant solution by linking social justice to leadership pathways.
This study employed the critical research method of qualitative design, which critiques
and challenges injustice, while keeping the dynamics of power relations at the forefront of the
study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The nature of this study, which aimed to understand racial and
gender disparities in the leadership pipeline, lent itself to this method, as the researcher hoped to
challenge institutionalized power dynamics as a result of engaging in and completing the study.
The researcher is an outsider in terms of the critical race issues, as she is a white woman. This
issue was evaluated regularly and included both in field notes as well as in the research
discussion. The selection of participants was purposeful, as the researcher invited administrators
and faculty that identify as women of color in senior leadership roles specifically. Techniques
included semi-structured interviews, observations recorded through field notes, and documents in
the form of reflective journals (McEwan & McEwan, 2003).
Organization of the Dissertation
Five chapters are used to organize this dissertation. This chapter provided the reader with
the key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about the underrepresentation
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21
of women of color in leadership. The organization, stakeholders, and the initial concept of
adapted needs analysis were introduced. Chapter 2 provides a review of current literature
surrounding the scope of the study. Topics of gender and race in leadership, as well as
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences will be discussed. Chapter 3 details the
assumed needs for this study as well as methodology when it comes to the choice of participants,
data collection and analysis. Chapter 4 presents the data and the analysis of the study. Chapter 5
provides recommendations, based on data and literature, for addressing the needs and closing the
performance gap as well as recommendations for an evaluation plan for the solutions.

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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This literature review will examine the root causes of the gaps in the presence of women
of color in senior leadership positions. The review begins with general research on gender and
race in leadership. This is followed by an overview of the biases and barriers that women of
color experience on their paths toward senior leadership. The review will present an in-depth
discussion on recommendations for specialized training as a means of promoting women of color
in leadership positions. This section includes current research on best practices for reducing
bias, identity-conscious leadership frameworks, and professional development. After exploring
the general research literature, the review utilizes Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analytic
Conceptual Framework to assess the knowledge, motivation and organizational influences to
explore possible influences and solutions for the success and barriers for women of color senior
leaders at small, private, selective liberal arts institutions.
Influences on the Problem of Practice
Gender and Race in Leadership
Influence of gender on leadership. It is important to consider gender influences on
leadership and the ways in which individuals are deemed as leaders through social norms. In
American society, women are perceived as having traits such as kindness, warmth, and
gentleness, which seem to fit with subordinate and service roles (Eagly & Chin, 2010; Kite,
Deaux, & Haines, 2008; Koenig et al., 2011; Newport, 2001). Given that leadership perceptions
have historically ignored women, there are some theories of leadership that hold potential for
women leaders. Both relational and contingency theories of leadership have tremendous
potential to emphasize context and situations in which diversity in leadership is needed and also
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

23
can be enhanced (Eagly & Chin, 2010). Information-processing theories have emphasized leader
prototypes and the importance of leaders matching followers’ prototypical expectations and this
is compatible with research on gender that highlights the challenges that women face in light of
the typical cultural masculinity of leadership roles (Eagly & Chin, 2010). In order to understand
the ways in which leadership development can better promote populations that include women of
color, we must first understand the barriers and biases that underrepresented populations face
within the leadership pipeline.
In the 2016 American Association of University Women (AAUW) status of women in
leadership report, key barriers and biases women continue to face with respect to leadership are
identified. The report highlights issues such as the pipeline myth, persistent sex discrimination,
perceptions of caregiving and women’s choices, lack of effective networks and mentors, and
stereotypes and bias as some of the prevailing obstacles for women in leadership (Hill, Miller,
Benson, & Handley, 2016). The report debunks the myth that qualified and ambitious women
are in short supply, as women have earned more bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees then
men while also participating in the workforce (Hill et al., 2016). Furthermore, the report brings
to light the concept of a woman’s “choice” not accurately capturing their experience of
managing paid employment and parenting; women are still balancing domestic work and roles
more than men while also trying to advance professionally (Hill et al., 2016).
Williams and Dempsey (2014) refer to a woman’s choice to leave the workforce for
motherhood as a “maternal wall” in which gender bias creates barriers for women to have
successful careers and families. Furthermore, they identify three other barriers to women in the
workplace: “prove it again,” the concept that women have to work twice as hard as men; “the
tightrope,” when women must choose between being perceived as too soft or too aggressive; and
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24
“tug of war” patterns, where women experience rivalry in the workplace and hold other women
back in their careers (Williams & Dempsey, 2014). Women need understanding of the politics
they face in the workforce as well as necessary skills to help them navigate barriers deeply
shaped by gender (Williams & Dempsey, 2014). Gender needs to be a vital topic that is explored
in leadership development.
Gender should become a variable that is incorporated into theory building in leadership
(Ayman & Korabik, 2010). Leaders’ and subordinates’ gender or culture influences their
worldviews and these factors affect how leaders’ behaviors are described and evaluated (Ayman
& Korabik, 2010). As an example of how these identities can be considered, Chemers’s (1997)
integrative model of leadership explicitly acknowledged a role for culture and gender. In his
model, gender and culture influence the leadership relationship through social norms, and the
leaders’ and subordinates’ interpretation of situations (Ayman & Korabik, 2010). Leadership
models must consider gender influences and perceptions in the scope of their frameworks.
Furthermore, race is an influential factor in the impression of leadership ability (Ayman &
Korabik, 2010).
Influence of race on leadership. Much of the focus on underrepresentation of women in
leadership has not centered on women of color in leadership. When researchers write about
“women and leadership,” they implicitly refer to white women, ignoring the different types of
stereotypes women of color experience (Ospina & Foldy, 2009). Women of color have their
own social identities separate from white women (Ospina & Foldy, 2009) and it is important to
consider the way that race plays a role for women of color in leadership.
Women of color face unique challenges and barriers in the quest to attain leadership
roles. As Sanchez-Hucles and Davis (2010) bring to light, early research on leadership tends to
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

25
ignore the role of race and gender, partially because it was constructed by mostly white male
researchers. They identify that it is challenging for women of color to advance; women of color
carry the burden of racism and sexism in the workplace and receive lower pay than white men
and women as well as men of color (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). The authors acknowledge
that the biases, barriers, and complexities facing women of color in leadership are more
complicated than what white women experience, which is why it is important to understand the
unique challenges women of color experience with regard to leadership (Sanchez-Hucles &
Davis, 2010).
Crenshaw (1989) made an important theoretical contribution to women’s studies when
the term intersectionality was developed in response to a court case in which five black women
sued General Motors on the grounds of race and gender discrimination (Yuval-Davis, 2006).
Crenshaw (1989) highlighted the problem that anti-discrimination law looks at race and gender
separately and that the court did not recognize that Black women encounter combined race and
sex discrimination. Intersectionality argues that we should not treat race and gender as mutually
exclusive traits, nor consider discrimination on only one, single axis (Crenshaw, 1989). Rather,
by centering the experiences of Black women, Crenshaw was able to articulate the unique
marginalization that individuals with multiple oppressed identities endure (Crenshaw, 1989).
Furthermore, Crenshaw (1989) argued that the intersectional experience is greater than the sum
of racism and sexism, and failure to analyze marginalization through that lens cannot sufficiently
address the method of the subordination of Black women. The concept of intersectionality has
since been regarded as one of the most important contributions to women’s studies, and feminist
scholars from different disciplines, theoretical perspectives, and political persuasions agree it is a
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

26
critical lens (Davis, 2008). The intersection of race and gender must be a prominent
consideration in the study and practice of leadership pathways.
Building on the principle of intersectional identities, women of color in leadership roles
may experience a triple jeopardy because of the multiple stereotypes associated with gender,
race, and ethnicity that they trigger in others (Madden, 2005; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010;
Sanchez-Hucles & Sanchez, 2007). Women who have experienced oppression as a result of
multiple aspects of their identities carry a more complex burden that more privileged women do
not bear (Madden, 2005; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010; Sanchez-Hucles & Sanchez, 2007).
Eagly and Chin (2010) bring to light the stereotypes women of color face in hegemonic
American culture, where women and members of minority groups based on race, ethnicity, and
sexual orientation are not viewed as leaders in some important respects. Racial stereotypes hold
disadvantageous meaning for leadership potential: “African Americans are stereotyped as
antagonistic and lacking competence, Hispanics as uneducated and unambitious, and Asian
Americans as quiet and unassertive” (Eagly & Chin, 2010, p. 216). The prevalence of such
stereotypes means that fully qualified individuals from these groups tend to be associated with
lacking skills and attributes associated with leadership potential (Eagly & Chin, 2010; Heilman
& Eagly, 2008; Leslie, King, Bradley, & Hebl, 2008). Leadership education must include
examination of the complexities that women of color face in the workforce in order to fully
understand and counter norms that do not promote diverse social identities as possessing
leadership potential.
Unless leadership scholars raise their awareness and develop a deep, social science-based
theoretical conceptualization of the construct of race, they may perpetuate stereotypes and use
material as evidence that reproduces racist discourses and representations (Dugan, 2017; Dugan
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

27
et al., 2011; Ospina & Foldy, 2009). Considering the collective dimensions of both leadership
and social identity challenges the assumptions of linear causation from race–ethnicity to
leadership and from leaders to followers (Dugan, 2017; Dugan et al., 2011; Ospina & Foldy,
2009). Women of color are subject to stereotypes about their race and gender, and must manage
multiple aspects of workplace discrimination, making them the most marginalized population in
the leadership pipeline and this contributes to their underrepresentation as leaders.
Underrepresentation of women of color in leadership. Furthermore, women of color
experience even greater underrepresentation in senior leadership positions. McKinsey
(Krivkovich et al., 2017) has spent over 10 years researching women in the workplace and found
that fewer than 1 in 30 C-suite leaders is a woman of color and women of color face further
obstacles such as receiving less support from managers and getting promoted more slowly. In
fact, they found that of the 222 US corporations they examined, women of color represented only
17% of entry-level professional positions; 11% of manager positions; 8% of senior
manager/director positions; 6% of vice president positions; and only 3% of C-suite positions
(Krivkovich et al., 2017). One of the factors they believe contributes to this problem is the fact
that women are less likely to receive advice from managers and senior leaders on career
advancement, yet employees who do are more likely to be promoted (Krivkovich et al., 2017).
Furthermore, they found that Black women are the most likely of all to report they never have
senior-level contact (Krivkovich et al., 2017; Sanchez-Hucles, & Davis, 2010). Women, and
specifically women of color, are not receiving the same treatment in the workplace that would
contribute to their career advancement.
The likelihood of women reaching senior leadership is bleak, and even worse for women
of color (Devillard, Hunt, & Yee, 2018), however, representation is not just a problem at the top.
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

28
Women are underrepresented at each stage of the corporate pipeline and the odds are stacked
even higher for Asian, Black, and Latina women (Devillard et al., 2018). Despite the research
that highlights that diversity brings the value of different perspectives, backgrounds, leadership
styles, and experiences, women of color are still the most underrepresented at all levels of
employment (Catalyst, 2019; Cook & Glass, 2014; Devillard et al., 2018; Herring, 2009;
Krivkovich et al., 2017). The barriers that women of color experience in the workplace
exacerbate the gap in equity when it comes to their attainment of leadership positions.
Women of color are drastically underrepresented in senior leadership roles as well as all
levels of management in the workforce which is linked to the bias they endure (Krivkovich et al.,
2017; Madden, 2005; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010; Sanchez-Hucles & Sanchez, 2007).
Leadership development in higher education can be a means to improve they way leadership
characteristics and potential is viewed collectively (Holvino, & Blake-Beard, 2004; Sanchez-
Hucles & Sanchez, 2007). Changing the ways that we view leadership development in colleges
and universities is one potential way to address this important problem.
Leadership Development in Higher Education
Traditional leadership education. Literature used to teach leadership to college
students frames leadership in common terms as a process in which all individuals have the
capability of developing and engaging in whether they hold a formal position or not (Hughes,
Ginnett, & Curphy, 2001; Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2009; Kouzes & Posner, 2002;
Northouse, 2018; Wren, 1995). According to the conclusions of Dugan et al. (2011), the notion
that leadership can be learned serves as a contributing factor to the increased presence of formal
leadership programs in higher education, however the differential impact of individual leadership
experiences remains understudied in general leadership literature (Dugan et al., 2011). It is
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

29
important to examine the intended outcomes of leadership education when seeking to impact the
problem of the underrepresentation of women of color in senior leadership in the academy.
The traditional ways of teaching and assessing leadership capacity may need to evolve.
Empirical and conceptual research on the hallmarks of formal leadership programs consistently
state the importance of a theoretical grounding to frame program delivery (Dugan et al., 2011).
Furthermore, this theoretical grounding should be consistent with an institution’s mission while
also reflecting calls for socially responsible leadership as a key college outcome (Dugan et al.,
2011; Pendakur, 2016). The theoretical underpinnings of leadership education should expand
beyond traditional viewpoints to include knowledge that better serves and promotes diverse
leaders.
Including complex content in leadership education may contribute to the development of
better leaders. Dugan et al. (2011) found that with the exception of capstone leadership
programs, the individual leadership experiences that required the most administrative effort did
not have significant effects on outcome measures (Dugan et al., 2011). This seems to support the
argument that program development is less about being involved in complexly structured
experiences and more about being involved in experiences with complex content (Dugan, 2017;
Dugan et al., 2011; Eich, 2008; Gonzalez, 2018; Pendakur, 2016). Complex content can span
beyond theoretical understanding of leadership to include knowledge and skills that promote
social responsibility, thus potentially enhancing the role of diverse leaders (Dugan, 2017; Dugan
et al., 2011).
Socially responsible leadership is one way to focus on inclusion and equity within the
development of leaders (Dugan et al., 2011; Gonzalez, 2018; Pendakur, 2016). Effective
leadership programs should promote inclusivity, empowerment, and community (Gonzalez,
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30
2018; Pendakur, 2016). By incorporating inclusion, equity, and social justice within leadership
education, the knowledge of ways leaders can be effective while also promoting diversity can
have a high impact.
Researchers have distinguished some characteristics of effective leadership program
design. The data analysis conducted by Eich (2008) revealed 16 attributes of high-quality
leadership programs organized into three clusters: (1) participants engaged in building and
sustaining a learning community; (2) student-centered experiential learning experiences; and
(3) research-grounded continuous program development (Eich, 2008). High-quality programs
actually practice the kind of inclusive, empowering, purposeful, ethical, and process-oriented
leadership for positive change that they advocate to their students (Dugan, 2017; Dugan et al.,
2011; Eich, 2008; Gonzalez, 2018; Pendakur, 2016). Students learn about leadership in the
process of understanding themselves, others, and the world around them (Eich, 2008). Focusing
on leadership development with an inclusive lens that encourages the examination of identity
may be a better way to educate future potential leaders.
Socially responsible leadership development. Leadership training should produce
social responsibility and change for the common good. The Social Change Model is an approach
to leadership that is collaborative, civil and respectful, open to different perspectives, and clear
and consistent about values (Dugan & Komives, 2010; Komives & Wagner, 2009; Wagner,
2007). Socially responsible leadership is an approach that maintains a sense of responsibility for
the welfare of others as the group works to achieve its goals (Komives, Dugan, Owen, Slack, &
Wagner, 2011; Komives & Wagner, 2009; Wagner, 2007). Socially responsible leadership
means operating with an awareness of the ways in which the group’s decisions and actions affect
others (Komives et al., 2011; Komives & Wagner, 2009; Wagner, 2007). Socially responsible
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

31
leadership requires the leader to consider and develop skills that historically were not centered in
leadership education.
As our understanding of the needs of modern leaders evolves, the social change model
can be an effective tool in shaping diverse leaders. In a study conducted by Dugan (2006a), a
random sample of 60 undergraduate courses resulted in 859 participants from 10 undergraduate
colleges. The participants identified in the following ways: 443 as women; 410 as men; 530 as
Caucasian; 149 as Asian/Pacific Islander; 58 as Hispanic; 47 as African American/Black; 34 as
multiracial; and 8 as American Indian (Dugan, 2006a). The results from the study highlighted
the significant relationship between community service and leadership development. Service
emerges as a medium through which socially responsible leadership may be achieved (Dugan,
2006b; Soria, Fink, Lepkowski, & Snyder, 2013; Wagner & Pigza, 2016; Wuetherick, 2018)
which may be an important aspect in helping leaders develop a sense of their identities in relation
to others.
Furthermore, there are seven core values within the social change model targeted at
enhancing students’ self-awareness and ability to work with others: consciousness of self;
congruence; commitment; common purpose; collaboration; controversy with civility; and
citizenship (Dugan, 2006b, 2017; Posner, 2009; Tyree, 1998). These values function at the
individual (i.e., consciousness of self, congruence commitment), group (i.e., common purpose,
collaboration, and controversy with civility), and societal (i.e., citizenship) levels (Dugan, 2006b,
2017; Posner, 2009; Tyree, 1998). The dynamic interaction across levels and between values
contributes to social change for the common good (Dugan, 2006b). By helping leaders focus on
common good, the concept of a leader as an authority figure shifts to the leaders as an agent for
justice.
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32
Socially responsible leadership invites social justice and the examination of social
inequity into a leadership development framework. Strategic social change demonstrates the
conceptual and pragmatic value of a wide-ranging approach to using leadership theory, and
illustrates what the multifaceted treatment of justice could and ought to look like as a theory
(Dugan, 2017; Wuetherick, 2018). Grounded humanism is the foundation for the framework of
strategic social change leadership, and the key principles guiding the framework are: value of
social justice; working assumptions including the recognition of structural inequity and belief
grounded in humanism; systemic inequity; and visions of justice (Dugan, 2017; Posner, 2009).
Strategic social change leadership offers a perspective that challenges dominant assumptions
from a social justice lens and its movement away from a prescriptive, leader-centric emphasis on
behaviors (Dugan, 2017). This expansion of leadership considerations allows for the critical
examination of the role that identity plays in leadership development (Dugan, 2017).
The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) provide an analytic framework that helps to examine the
knowledge, motivation and organizational influences specifically that may contribute to a
problem (Clark & Estes, 2008). To better understand the knowledge influence, Krathwohl
(2002) provides definitions and a framework for the four types of cognitive domains: factual
knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge.
Factual knowledge is understood to be the basic elements students must know including
terminology, details, and elements. Conceptual knowledge builds upon factual knowledge to
examine the interrelationships among basic elements that allow them to function together in a
larger structure. Procedural knowledge, or knowledge of subject-specific skills, techniques,
methods criteria, and algorithms, focuses on how to do something. Finally, metacognition is
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

33
one’s knowledge about his/her own cognition, cognitive tasks, and self-knowledge (Krathwohl,
2002). Motivation influences can be understood in terms of the choice to consider goal
achievement, continuing to work toward the goal and the mental effort to accomplish the goal
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Additionally, principles such as self-efficacy, attributions,
values and goals can be considered when analyzing motivation for the purpose of the
performance gap (Rueda, 2011). Lastly, organizational influences may include work processes,
resources and workplace culture related to stakeholder performance (Clark & Estes, 2008).
The knowledge, motivation, and organization influences as described by Clark and Estes
(2008) have been addressed in terms of the gap analysis of the goal of evaluating how to meet
the needs of aspiring women of color senior leaders in small, private, selective liberal arts
institutions. The first section includes a discussion of the knowledge and skills assumed to be
influences on the stakeholder performance goal. Next, assumed motivational influences on the
attainment of the stakeholder goal are examined. Finally, assumed organizational influences
pertaining to the stakeholder goal are explored. Each of these assumed stakeholder influences on
performance are then examined through the methodology discussed in Chapter 3.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
This section is dedicated to a review of literature that focuses on knowledge-related
influences that are pertinent to the achievement of women of color senior leaders for higher
education institutions. It is important to assess knowledge issues in order to ensure that
institutions can anticipate challenges that may require problem solving to support women of
color within their organizations (Clark & Estes, 2008). Knowledge and skills are critical factors
that contribute to performance gaps in an organization; when an organization is unaware of what
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

34
knowledge and skills are lacking, it is difficult to design and attain performance goals (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Krathwohl (2002) provides definitions and a framework for the four types of
cognitive domains: factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and
metacognitive knowledge. Factual knowledge is understood to be the basic elements students
must know including terminology, details, and elements (Krathwohl, 2002). Conceptual
knowledge builds upon factual knowledge to examine the interrelationships among basic
elements that allow them to function together in a larger structure. This cognitive domain
focuses on classifications, categories, principles and generalizations, theories, models, and
structures (Krathwohl, 2002). Procedural knowledge, or knowledge of subject-specific skills,
techniques, methods criteria, and algorithms, focuses on how to do something (Krathwohl,
2002). Finally, metacognition is one’s knowledge about his/her own cognition, cognitive tasks,
and self-knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002).
While all cognitive domains are essential to learning, this study will focus on procedural
and conceptual knowledge influences that will support the stakeholders. The identified
procedural and metacognitive knowledge influences, respectively include: (1) institutional
leaders and decision makers need to understand the barriers and biases that affect women of
color on their pathways to senior leadership roles; and (2) institutional leaders and decision
makers need to understand the pathways that bolster the success of women of color leaders and
what that looks like for their professional practices. These two knowledge influences will be
analyzed in order to understand their importance.
Leadership pathways. Conceptual knowledge is focused on interrelationships among
basic elements and is concerned with knowledge of theories, structures, and models (Krathwohl,
2002). Conceptual knowledge is the domain that is necessary to begin to categorize and
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

35
structure pathways for women of color that will effectively promote their success as leaders.
While utilizing conceptual knowledge, the intent is to build agency within organizations to
transform and apply theory in ways that make a meaningful difference in the way women of
color achieve success as leaders. It is very common for us to default to norms and collective
understandings about leadership and what it means to be a leader rather than examining the
assumptions, perspectives, and shared meanings (Dugan, 2017; Dugan et al., 2011; Wuetherick,
2018). The use of critical social theory that examines the flow of power in society is a direct
response to scholarly calls for the problem of justice as it relates to leadership theory (Dugan,
2017). By understanding the barriers and biases that women of color endure specifically,
institutions may have a better understanding of systemic issues that prevent aspiring women of
color from attaining leadership positions. This knowledge may contribute to determining
organizational obstacles as well as positive resources or support that exists.
In order to identify pathways to success for women of color leaders, a multitude of
conceptual knowledge is required such as an understanding of social norms and shared meanings
associated with leadership broadly and within the context of individual organizations.
Understanding the ways in which theories, practices, and models intersect will contribute to the
conceptual knowledge of institutions seeking to promote women of color in senior leadership
roles. Further, this conceptual knowledge will serve as a strong foundation for the following
procedural knowledge influence.
Navigation strategies. Procedural knowledge is the domain necessary to determine the
appropriate procedures and protocols within an organization that will contribute to the success of
women of color aspiring to be leaders. Procedural knowledge is focused on the mechanics,
methods, skills, and determination of procedures when seeking to accomplish a task (Krathwohl,
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

36
2002; Rueda, 2011). By understanding concepts and theories related to women of color’s
identities, institutions can identify strategies, or procedural knowledge, for the purpose of
practical application.
Historical determinants, structural forces, and deficit views of historically marginalized
populations are just a few of the barriers that women of color endure when seeking to attain
senior leadership roles. Sanchez-Hucles and Sanchez (2007) assert that the first dilemma diverse
women leaders face is discovering loosely documented rules in order to make conscious
decisions whether to follow the rules or not. Furthermore, they assert that these rules are not
often shared openly, and diverse women leaders must find ways to understand these rules so that
they will be able to minimize the time they spend on this “political” activity, and focus on
exceeding the objectives of the organization (Sanchez-Hucles & Sanchez, 2007). Women of
color leaders often must spend time contemplating and addressing cultural norms and beliefs that
contribute to navigating appropriate protocols and procedures that other leaders take for granted
within the context of their organizations.
Table 2 identifies the global goal, the knowledge influences, and knowledge influence
assessment identified in this study.

WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

37
Table 2
Global Goal, Assumed Knowledge Influences, and Knowledge Influence Assessments
Global Goal
Recruit, retain, and advance more aspiring women of color senior leaders at small, private,
selective liberal arts institutions in the next 10 years.
Assumed Knowledge Influences Knowledge Influence Assessment
Conceptual Knowledge: Women of color
need institutional leaders and decision
makers to acknowledge the barriers and
biases that affect their pathways to senior
leadership.
Procedural Knowledge: Women of color
need institutional leaders and decision
makers to have knowledge of how to provide
institutional access and opportunities to
strengthen skills that contribute to their
professional pathways.
Women of color senior leaders were asked
via in-person interviews to identify the
barriers and biases they had faced in their
pathways to leadership.
Women of color senior leaders were asked
via in-person interviews to identify the steps
that have strengthened their skills that
contribute to their professional pathways to
leadership.

Motivation
Motivation is an important factor to consider for institutions that wish to promote women
of color in senior leadership. Motivation is the internal, psychological process that initiates
action, and helps one persist and complete goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Understanding
motivational influences is an essential component in assessing needs and determining how to
bolster performance of women of color leaders within an organization.
There are many methods to understand motivation and the ways in which it influences
performance. This study will focus primarily on Expectancy Value Theory and Self Efficacy as
motivational influences for women of color senior leaders at TCC. These concepts will be used
to examine: (1) whether women of color senior leaders’ value of their roles outweigh the cost of
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

38
the effort and challenges; and (2) whether women of color feel confident in their abilities to
address barriers and biases that affects them on their pathways to senior leadership.
Expectancy value theory. Eccles (2006) focuses on two essential motivational
questions by which individuals determine expectancy: their capability of doing a task, and how
much they value or desire the task. Furthermore, she asserts that there are several ways in which
individuals may determine the value of a task, including: (1) intrinsic value, or positive feelings
when engaged in a task; (2) attainment value, or an individual’s image of who they are or want to
be; (3) utility value, or how well the task might achieve a goal; and (4) cost value, or the time,
energy, emotion the task may take. The amount of importance individuals place on any given
task is determined by the associated value (Rueda, 2011).
Mayer (2011) focuses on the science of learning and his work overlaps with Eccles
(2006) in the areas of intrinsic value, attainment value, and utility value, while also adding
additional insights into motivation. He asserts that what motivates individuals to learn is driven
by the learner’s cognitions and recognizes the following five conceptions of how motivation
works: (1) interest, or personal value; (2) beliefs; (3) attributions, or successes and failures
related to effort; (4) goals, or mastery, and; (5) partnership. In order for women of color to
determine whether the benefit of pursuing senior leadership role outweighs the cost, they might
consider if they are able to align their work to these five conceptions.
Furthermore, in order for women of color in leadership to persist, their motivational
values for tasks may need to be nurtured. Clark and Estes (2008) talk about the three facets of
motivated performance as: (1) active choice; (2) persistence; and (3) mental effort. Moreover,
they assert that the path to increasing an individual’s work commitment is to suggest connections
to their values and the benefit of attaining goals. To promote motivation within individuals, they
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

39
should be active participants in making space to center the importance of value for significant
goals.
Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy, as defined by Bandura in his 1976 seminal social-cognitive
theory text (Bandura, 1976), refers to the beliefs people hold about their own capabilities, which
then determine their actions. Moreover, Machida and Schaubroeck (2011) provide a theoretical
examination of the ways self-efficacy beliefs influence leader development. They assert that
leader self-efficacy is key to understanding the ways a leader develops an effective practice, and
explain that the varying levels of a leader’s self-efficacy influence the extent to which a leader is
effective in organizational improvement and professional development (Machida &
Schaubroeck, 2011). Self-efficacy is an important factor to consider when seeking to understand
the persistence of women of color senior leaders.
When leaders are learning to lead, repeated and uninterrupted failure will tend to decrease
self-efficacy and encourage downward spirals (Machida & Schaubroeck, 2011). As a result, a
leader who experiences what she believes to be persistent failure may feel demoralized and may
experience a cycle of negativity where the leader believes she no longer has control over her
ability to improve performance (Machida & Schaubroeck, 2011). It is important that women of
color who aspire to senior leadership have a balance in their achievements and their failures in
order to feel confident in their abilities to address barriers on their pathways.
A leadership approach based on Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory proposes
leadership self-efficacy as the key cognitive facet to regulate leader functioning. Leadership
efficacy represents the internal beliefs regarding individuals’ ability to be successful leaders
(Hannah, Avolio, Luthans, & Harms, 2008). Leadership self-efficacy is an important
consideration when thinking about the way women of color hold internal beliefs about their
WOMEN OF COLOR SENIOR LEADERS

40
capacity to lead within an organization, especially in organizations that have historically
underemployed minoritized and marginalized identities in senior leadership roles.
Collective Racial Esteem (CRE) examines an individual’s self-concept related to
membership in a broader racial group and may be used as a correlate of racial identity in
assessing the impact of race in quantitative research (Dugan, Kodama, & Gebhardt, 2012).
Dugan et al. (2012) collected data from 8,510 participants from 101 colleges and universities in
the United States and provided evidence of the additive value of including measures of CRE
above and beyond simple indicators of racial group membership. Racial identity should be
considered and incorporated into theories of leadership for the promotion of diverse leaders in
practical application. Results indicated that for students of color the effective development of an
internally validated racial self-concept was a significant contributor to leadership capacity.
Moreover, they found that high degrees of private CRE among students of color may be
correlated with increased resilience, the ability to reject stereotype threat, and/or successful
navigation of hostile climates; necessary skills associated with navigating predominantly white
leadership contexts that often situate whiteness as normative and a central profile for leadership
(Dugan et al., 2012; Ospina & Foldy, 2009). The contributions of CRE unveiled a previously
unexplored and important contributor to explaining students’ leadership capacities (Dugan et al.,
2012). These findings may contribute to our understanding of ways in which organizations can
support the personal development of women of color leaders.
Table 3 identifies the global goal, motivation influences, and motivation influence
assessments identified in this study.

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41
Table 3
Global Goal, Assumed Motivation Influences, and Motivation Influence Assessments
Global Goal
Recruit, retain, and advance more aspiring women of color senior leaders at small, private,
selective liberal arts institutions in the next 10 years.
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivation Influence Assessment
Expectancy Value: Women of color need
to feel that the value of senior leadership
outweighs the cost of the effort and
challenges.
Self-Efficacy: Women of color need to
feel confident in their abilities to address
barriers and biases that affect them on
their pathways to senior leadership.
Women of color senior leaders were asked via
in-person interviews to identify the value they
gained from their roles in contrast to the costs
they had faced in their pathways to leadership.
Women of color senior leaders were asked via
in-person interviews to identify their confidence,
strategies and abilities to address barriers and
biases in their roles as leaders.

Organization
General theory. Educational organizations are complex systems with multiple structures
built as scaffolding to each other over time (Rueda, 2011). Colleges and universities confront a
range of organizational challenges including environmental, structural, and interpersonal
complexities that contribute to their ability to be responsive to problems (Bess & Dee, 2012).
Additionally, insights into organizational factors and dynamics can provide understanding for the
influences on people’s behavior within the organization (Rueda, 2011). To better understand the
complexity of higher education institutions, multiple paradigms can be considered for the
purpose of analyzing the organization. Three of the most common paradigms in science today,
positivist, social constructionist, and postmodernism, can be useful lenses to view organizational
structures (Bess & Dee, 2012). Postmodernism, in particular, is useful when examining social
inequities and seeks to deconstruct the latent abuses of hierarchies in organizations, critically
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42
examining the relationships between knowledge and power. Furthermore, postmodernism calls
for a critical reassessment of institutional priorities and values-based action stemming from
individual philosophic positions and provides frameworks for radically restructuring colleges and
universities (Bess & Dee, 2012).
Cultural settings and cultural models. Cultural processes are more often assumed to be
linked to individuals rather than organizations and can be difficult to define because they are not
always visible, cultural knowledge is often automated, and the values are often relative (Rueda,
2011). Culture is often thought of as behavioral, however, there is an element of shared learning
when members use the same language, and hold similar perceptions, thoughts, and reactions
(Schein, 2017). Furthermore, culture exists at many levels which include observed behavioral
regularities when people interact; climate; formal rituals and celebrations; espoused values;
formal philosophy; group norms; rules of the game; identity and images of self; embedded skills;
habits of thinking, mental models, or linguistic paradigms; shared meanings; and “root
metaphors” or integrity symbols (Schein, 2017).
Cultural models assist in defining what is customary and normal while cultural settings
can be thought of as social context, or the who, what, when, where, why, and how (Rueda,
2011). As Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) frame it, cultural settings include the employees,
their tasks, how and why tasks are completed, and cultural models define cultural practices and
shared mental schemas within an organization. Moreover, the cultural settings and cultural
models that exist in an organization can aid in analyzing the organizational culture as a whole
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
Schein (2017) proposes that there can be three major levels of cultural analysis: artifacts;
espoused beliefs and values; and basic underlying assumptions. Artifacts refer to the visible and
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43
feelable structures and processes as well as observed behavior. Espoused values and beliefs are
the ideals, goals, values, aspirations, ideologies, and rationalizations within a culture. Lastly,
basic underlying assumptions refer to the unconscious beliefs and values within the culture
(Schein, 2017).
Managing change within an organization. Schneider, Brief, and Guzzo (1996) observe
that without changing the psychology of an organization, it is unlikely that change can be
sustained. They explain that change management is truly about managing the impact of a
particular organizational change. Moreover, they assert that change is nonlinear, there is often
no clearly defined beginning or end, effective change interweaves multiple improvement efforts,
and change is both top-down and bottom-up. Similarly, Erez and Gati (2004) propose reciprocal
top-down, bottom-up processes across different levels of culture. Their model asserts that top-
down processes convey the influence of higher-level contextual factors on phenomena at lower
levels of the system, while bottom-up processes describe phenomena that have their origins at a
lower level and can emerge to become higher-level property.
It often takes a crisis to bring about radical change within an organization (Schneider et
al., 1996). Therefore, it is advisable for institutions engaging in change to conduct institutional
self-audits or assessments of their cultures (Kezar, 2000). Rather than seeking to find mutually
agreeable understandings leading to organizational action, leaders can incorporate a
postmodernist paradigm as a strategy. This lens allows leaders to shift from planning and
controlling to empowering members to be innovative in a constantly changing environment
(Bess & Dee, 2012).
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44
Stakeholder Specific Factors
Opportunity gap in higher education. An opportunity gap for certain groups,
especially women of color, exists and results in inequities for this population in society and
higher education. An opportunity gap can be defined as the ways in which race, ethnicity,
socioeconomic status, English proficiency, community wealth, and other factors contribute to or
perpetuate achievement and attainment (Pendakur, 2016). McKinsey’s Women in the
Workplace series (Devillard et al., 2018) continues to identify that representation of women is
not just a problem in top leadership positions; it remains an issue at each stage of the workplace,
with the most disparity occurring with Asian, Black, and Latina women, as well as other women
of color.
Under President Obama’s leadership, The Council on Women and Girls was founded in
2014, with a work stream called “Advancing Equity” focused on policies and programs across
the federal government concentrated on unique obstacles faced by women and girls of color and
women and girls from marginalized communities (The White House, 2016). The Council on
Women and Girls released a report in 2014 identifying obstacles and inequalities facing women
and girls of color including educational attainment and economic security and called to action the
creation of a federal working group charged with developing opportunities for advancement (The
White House, 2016). In 2015, the Council on Women and Girls released another report focusing
on data-driven issues for women and girls of color and intervention guidance (The White House,
2016). This report affirms that education is a prerequisite to the success of women and girls of
color, included interventions designed to reduce school discipline strategies disproportionately
affecting girls of color, and interventions for reducing opportunity gaps that affect women of
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45
color broadly (The White House, 2016). It is important that women and girls of color see role
models and mentors that look like them in the academy.
Commitment to women of color in leadership. In order to promote the success of
women of color as leaders, institutions will need to focus on increasing equity for historically
minoritized and marginalized populations through thoughtful organizational initiatives.
Vinnicombe and Singh (2003), as women’s leadership experts, recommend that organizations
should provide specific support in the form of mentoring, coaching, and specialized training
programs in order to empower women to clarify their leadership objectives, identify their
leadership strengths, and access leadership positions. It is important for organizations to look at
the ways that they can provide evidence-based solutions to bolster women of color into senior
leadership roles and to include them in the top-level decisions and work of the organization.
Dugan et al. (2012) examine the intersections of racial equity and leadership and remain
critical of the lack of progress in the emerging literature. They acknowledge the existence of an
outdated “color blind” approach to the literature despite gains in knowledge and practice on
leadership development that have expanded (Dugan et al., 2012). This approach fails to
recognize the needs, approaches and/or styles, as well as specific barriers and biases that are
unique to women of color leaders. Furthermore, policies and procedures need to support women
of color senior leaders in higher education to increase their representation. It is important that
our understanding of leadership continues to evolve in order to better support the potential and
success of women of color leaders.
Table 4 identifies the global goal, organizational influences, and organizational influence
assessments identified in this study.

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Table 4
Global Goal, Assumed Organizational Influences, and Organizational Influence Assessments
Global Goal
Recruit, retain, and advance more aspiring women of color senior leaders at small, private,
selective liberal arts institutions in the next 10 years.
Assumed Organizational Influences Organizational Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence: Women of color
need to be included in decision-making at the
top levels of the organization.
Cultural Setting Influence: Institutional
leaders and decision makers need to
recognize the need for policies and practices
that support women of color senior leaders.
Women of color senior leaders were asked
via in-person interviews to describe
examples of the ways in which their
institution communicated a culture of
inclusion.
Women of color senior leaders were asked
via in-person interviews to identify the
institutional policies and practices that
support women of color.

Conceptual Framework: Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation
and Organizational Context
A conceptual framework, or system of concepts, beliefs, assumptions, expectations, and
theories, assists in illustrating the underlying structure of the influences of a problem and how
they interact (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A conceptual framework is unique to a specific
problem, and constructed from the key factors, concepts, and variables of the problem (Maxwell,
2013). Moreover, a conceptual framework illuminates interrelated relationships and provides
insights into research methodology (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Furthermore, it allows for
making explicit emergent, or overarching, theoretical assertions resulting from the data collected
(Maxwell, 2013). The format of this conceptual framework is informed by the work of Clark
and Estes (2008), who utilize the influences of knowledge, motivation, and the organization
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47
through gap analysis of the stakeholder goal attainment. While the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational elements of the conceptual framework will be explained independently, their
interaction will also be examined as it creates the unique context of the problem. The conceptual
framework of a qualitative study, when focused and clearly articulated, tells the story about what
is assumed to be happening and why in order to make sense of a problem (Maxwell, 2013).
The interrelationships between leadership development, social justice, and identity
consciousness are embedded in the conceptual map for this study. As the research problem
frequently results from the interactions of the researcher, experiential knowledge can provide a
major source of insights and hypotheses (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The lens used to study the
problem is that of a student affairs practitioner, as opposed to a faculty member, an academic
researcher, or a social justice advocate, since each of those professionals would view the problem
of the underrepresentation of women of color in leadership from a different conceptual
framework. Key terms and concepts will be grounded in the frame of critical perspectives
(Dugan, 2017) and used to inform decisions regarding the appropriate methods of the study
(Maxwell, 2013).
Current scholars examining the intersections of racial equity and leadership remain
critical of the lack of progress in the emerging literature despite gains in knowledge and practice
on college student leadership that have expanded, and acknowledge the existence of an outdated
approach that fails to acknowledge identity (Dugan et al., 2012). Prior theory and research are
sparse in regard to the impact of traditional leadership education on the promotion of women of
color in leadership. The research is clear, however, that the lack of women of color in leadership
roles in every industry remains a significant issue (Catalyst, 2019; Cook & Glass, 2014;
Devillard et al., 2018; Herring, 2009; Krivkovich et al., 2017). The conceptual framework
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48
addresses the influences of knowledge, motivation, and the organization on the study and
research into small, private, selective liberal arts institutions’ ability to support women of color
in senior leadership roles.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework figure.

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Explanation of Conceptual Framework Figure
The figure illustrates the influences of knowledge, motivation, and the organization on
the accomplishment goal to recruit, retain, and advance aspiring women of color senior leaders at
small, private, selective liberal arts institutions. This figure highlights relationships between
stakeholder knowledge and motivation domains within the organization. Barriers to the success
of women of color senior leaders exist within each domain, and there may be correlations or
relationships that highlight opportunities to better serve these leaders. The intersections of the
knowledge and motivation domains hold possibility for personal achievement of the goal,
although these elements alone will not achieve the global goal.
The three circles represent the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences.
Women of color leaders may do everything within their ability to persist against biases and
barriers, but unless an organization is truly committed to the success of women of color leaders,
the number of women of color in senior leadership roles will not increase. Within the
organization, knowledge and motivation to combat biases and barriers to the success of aspiring
women of color senior leaders is needed. Organizational models and cultures must reflect a
commitment to reducing the barriers and biases women of color leaders face to promote their
success.
Conclusion
This literature review examined the root causes of the gaps in the presence of women of
color in senior leadership positions. The review began with an overview of the biases and
barriers that women of color experience on their paths toward leadership positions. Then, the
review examined the underrepresentation of women and women of color in senior leadership.
The review presented an in-depth discussion on recommendations for changing organizations
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50
and empowering women of color in leadership positions. After exploring the general research
literature, the review utilized Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework and
knowledge, motivation and organizational influences on women of color in leadership. Chapter
3 will present the study’s methodological approach.

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CHAPTER 3
METHODS
Introduction
Chapter 2 discussed several areas of literature that provide context to the study of women
of color in senior leadership roles. This chapter outlines the methodology and methods that were
used to conduct the research and analyze the participant stories. It also discusses the theoretical
perspectives and includes a statement on the positionality of the researcher. It concludes with an
introduction to the participants in the study.
This was a qualitative study with a narrative inquiry methodology that focused on the
meaning-making and personal experiences of women of color senior leaders. The aim of this
evaluation study is to better understand the ways to promote women of color senior leaders at
small, private, selective liberal arts institutions. The project goal is to understand the lived
experiences of women of color senior leaders to gain insights about how organizations can
promote women of color who aspire to be senior leaders. As such, the questions that guided this
study are the following:
1. What is the perception of women of color in senior leadership of the various
knowledge and motivation influences related to their senior leadership attainment
within their small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions of higher education?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the knowledge
and motivation influences?
Based on the analysis of the findings, Chapter 5 will include recommendations in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organization that will inform the design of a program that is meant
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52
to increase the number of women of color in senior leadership positions within select small,
private, selective, liberal arts institutions.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder population of focus was women of color senior leaders at small, private,
selective liberal arts institutions in the United States. Criteria for selection included identifying
as a woman of color in a senior leadership role. Given the importance of understanding the
meaning that persons or groups ascribe to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2014), criteria
also included at least six months working in a senior leadership role in order to have experienced
the organizational cultures, procedures, and attitudes. Diversity in the sample was important
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) and the sampling included professionals from diverse institutions in
diverse roles from president to faculty and senior administration groups. Expertise was also
diverse, with a mix of professional knowledge and experience as well as academic backgrounds.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Faculty and administrators from small, private, selective liberal arts
institutions that identify as women of color in senior leadership roles were identified for
interviews.
Criterion 2. After determining which faculty and administrators met criterion 1, faculty
and administrators that had been employed six months or more in senior leadership roles were
identified; cultural context is an important factor to be able to assess the knowledge and
motivation of this population.
Criterion 3. Finally, a diverse sample of faculty and administrators in senior leader roles
that represent diverse institutions in diverse roles were identified and invited to participate.
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Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
For interviews, sampling was non-probability, non-random, and purposeful (Creswell,
2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Mitrinović, Pečarić, & Fink, 2013). The use of non-probability,
non-random, purposeful selection of participants was designed to gain information deliberately
from a specific setting and persons unique to the problem to be solved in order to provide
relevant information (Maxwell, 2013). Ten participants serving as senior leaders from small,
private, selective liberal arts institutions were identified by the researcher. The participants were
then invited to voluntarily participate in interviews via a personal email from the researcher and
scheduled based on their individual availability. This amount of individual participation was
appropriate for the number of women of color in senior leadership roles at small, private,
selective liberal arts institutions. This approach aligned with more of a panel approach, which is
designed to gain information from people uniquely qualified to provide expertise (Maxwell,
2013). The interviews were conducted at the beginning of the data collection process.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Qualitative data can allow for deep inductive knowledge to build throughout the research
process, as researchers seek to understand how people make meaning of their experiences
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). While qualitative research cannot provide every answer, it does
offer a variety of explanations for the “how-does-it-work” questions (Creswell, 2014). The
nature of this study was phenomenological, and inquiry was interwoven with a political change
agenda to confront such issues as inequality, social oppression, suppression, and domination
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
This study utilized narrative inquiry, grounded in the study of the particular, where
participants use language and stories to communicate meaning (Riessman, 2008). This type of
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54
inquiry allows individuals to share aspects of their identities through the use of the stories, and
themes can be uncovered through narrative analysis (Riessman, 2008). More specifically,
narrative inquiry is the study of how people communicate their lived experiences and has been
shaped by the work of educator John Dewey. Dewey asserted that experiences cannot be taken
out of context, place, or time since each is an important part of an individual’s past, present, and
future (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000).
For the purpose of qualitative research, the researcher serves as an integral piece to the
data and interviews are the most successful way to gather information (Merriam, 2009). To that
end, interviews were utilized for this study to help the researcher examine the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences contributing to the success or barriers for women of
color senior leaders. Interviews were utilized to determine whether institutions were meeting the
global goal to recruit, retain, and advance aspiring women of color senior leaders,
recommendations for strategies that may help better achieve this goal, and the knowledge and
motivation gaps and assets that may exist within the organizations. Interviewing is essential
when one cannot observe behavior, feelings, worldviews, or interpretations (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Moreover, open-ended questions and discussion that leads to “conversation with a
purpose” in nature gives the interviewer insight into the unique context of the culture and
problem being studied (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Interviews
Semi-structured qualitative interviews were utilized in this study in order to capture
information and to allow the researcher to respond to emerging themes and worldviews from the
respondents (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Depending on the circumstances and schedules of
participants, both in-person and synchronous online interviews were conducted. Given that the
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55
researcher is an outsider, interviews allow access to information based on the observation of
others, and highlight information about settings that might otherwise be unfamiliar or
inaccessible (Weiss, 1994). Furthermore, interviews provide information that is difficult to
observe but may capture participants’ perspectives, feelings, and intentions related to a topic
(Patton, 2002; Weiss, 1994). Therefore, the sample included 10 women of color senior leaders
from small, private, selective liberal arts institutions, who, across their group, represent various
experiences and disciplines.
Each of the 10 participants engaged in one conversational, standardized interview, which
helped to manage the focus of the questions and to ensure the interviews remained relevant to the
study’s research questions and conceptual framework (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The
interview questions explored the knowledge, skills, motivation, and organizational influences of
the women of color senior leaders that were interviewed. Furthermore, a semi-structured
approach was utilized to allow for casual conversation, providing ease in the interview, and
allowing for spontaneous follow-up probes to gain clarification and enrich detail (Weiss, 1994).
The standardized interview questions were strategically ordered, singular, clear, and neutral in
order to glean the most helpful responses from participants (Patton, 2002). Open-ended
interview questions were used to promote participant sharing of perspectives and opinions
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Question content and order were predetermined in order to
provide assurance that all interviewees were asked about the same topics in the same manner,
which aided standardized administration (Patton, 2002). Standardized, open-ended interview
questions and follow-up questions are available in Appendix A.
The location of interviews was contingent upon the convenience and geographic location
of each person within the sample, and each interview lasted between 60 and 120 minutes. All
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56
interviews were one-on-one, conversational, semi-structured, and conducted by the researcher.
Two audio recording devices were utilized with prior written consent of each participant in order
to ensure preservation of each interviewee’s full experience as stated (Patton, 2002).
Additionally, the researcher used a structured set of critical questions to ensure that each subject
received the same questions, in the same order, in order to maintain consistency (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Interviews took place over either the website Zoom.us or on the participants’
various campuses in their private offices based on scheduling and availability of the participants.
During all of the interviews, the researcher also took handwritten notes for the purpose of
capturing observations of nonverbal behavior, to archive key moments in the interview for the
researcher’s analysis, and to act as a backup in the event of recording failure (Patton, 2002).
Once each interview was transcribed using the website rev.com, the researcher deleted all
recordings and began analysis and debrief notes to record observations not already noted nor
captured on recordings (Patton, 2002).
Data Analysis
Data analysis began during data collection during participant interviews. The researcher
wrote analytic memos after each interview, and documented thoughts, concerns, and initial
conclusions about the data in relation to the conceptual framework and research questions. Once
the researcher left the field, interviews were transcribed and coded. In the first phase of analysis,
the researcher used open coding, looking for empirical codes and applying a priori codes from
the conceptual framework. A second phase of analysis was conducted where empirical and a
priori codes were aggregated into analytic/axial codes. In the third phase of data analysis the
researcher identified pattern codes and themes that emerged in relation to the conceptual
framework and study questions.
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57
Credibility and Trustworthiness
When understanding is the primary rationale for the investigation, a researcher’s careful
design of the study is important to establish authenticity and trustworthiness of the study
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Given the researcher’s role as a member of the organization of
study, the researcher may have assumptions about the participants’ knowledge, motivation, and
the organizations in relation to the study topic. Therefore, one goal for the design of this study
was to minimize bias without eliminating valuable within-organization knowledge that
contributes to the understanding of the study. In order to accomplish this, the researcher utilized
member checking and reflexivity, and triangulation of data (Bowen, 2009; Creswell & Creswell,
2018; Maxwell, 2013).
Member checks, or respondent validations, are systems of soliciting feedback about data
and conclusions from people within the study (Maxwell, 2013). To this end, the researcher had a
group of colleagues evaluate the questions in order to provide feedback on any implied biases
they interpreted. The ongoing dialogue ensured the value of the data collected (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018).
Researchers who are a part of the world they study (Maxwell, 2013) can engage in
reflexivity by taking into account their biases, values, personal backgrounds such as gender and
race, history, culture, and socioeconomic status that can shape their interpretations during a study
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The researcher wrote notes about personal experiences during the
study that included observations, hunches, and concerns about participant reactions. The
researcher then spent time in reflection, considering how the researcher’s personal experiences
shaped the interpretation of results (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
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58
By triangulating data, a researcher attempts to provide a confluence of evidence that
produces credibility (Bowen, 2009). Triangulation involves using multiple points and types of
data to enhance the synthesis of information from the data (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The
researcher utilized interviews and member checks as a process of triangulation to promote
credibility within this study.
Ethics
In order for people to have confidence in research, the trustworthiness of a study must be
established (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Given that there are human subjects involved in this
study, the researcher considered ethical implications to ensure protection from harm, right to
privacy, and informed consent (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). It was essential that the participants
had sufficient information to make informed decisions about participating in this study (Glesne,
2011). In order to ensure the participants had sufficient information, a process of informed
consent, the study, purpose, and methods, were explained in detail to participants during both
group and individual meetings, allowing participants to ask questions and learn how the research
would be used. Participants were informed of potential risks and benefits, told that the study was
voluntary and confidential, and that they could leave the study at any time (Krueger & Casey,
2009). They were also reminded that they may elect not to participate and that they could choose
to stop participating at any time (Glesne, 2011). The researcher made sure to communicate to
the participants that while they were not anonymous to the researcher, their responses were kept
confidential and privacy would be respected (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The researcher has a collegial relationship with some of the participants and considered
the impact of relational ethics in order to maintain an awareness of her role within the study
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher reassured participants that they had the right to
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59
privacy (Glesne, 2011), and that their responses would not be shared with other colleagues. The
researcher is also a colleague of some of the participants and has access to knowledge that may
be considered “intimate,” predicated on trust, care, and a sense of collaboration. While these
relationships provide a route to understanding, the researcher was mindful of responsibilities and
considerations to keep this information confidential and focused only on the purpose of this
study (Glesne, 2011).
The researcher conducted semi-structured and open-ended interviews to encourage
participants to share their perspectives and descriptions of their experiences (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016) as senior leaders. The questions were designed from a phenomenological lens with the
intention of the researcher uncovering the essence of individuals’ lived experiences and
meanings that guide actions and interactions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interview sessions
were recorded with permission, and a clear explanation was given that the recordings would only
be used for the purpose of a memory aide in the study and not for the purpose of publishing or
sharing publicly.
The biases and assumptions of the researcher were also examined related to women of
color in senior leadership (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The assumptions that the researcher had
prior to the collection of data from participants were that there are biases and barriers related to
the cultural models and cultural settings within small, private, selective liberal arts institutions
that affect the promotion, retention, representation, and success of women of color senior
leaders. The researcher resisted making statements regarding her beliefs surrounding the
organizations and potential biases and barriers (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
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Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations are constraints that are largely beyond the control of the researcher yet can
still impact outcomes of the study (Simon & Goes, 2013). The researcher’s goal in this study
was to determine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences as they related to
women of color senior leaders. As such, the researcher focused on a sample size (10) that, while
appropriate for this specific qualitative research, was not large enough to provide a statistically
valid cross section of opinions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Due to the fact that this qualitative
study occurred in the natural setting, it is extremely difficult to replicate elsewhere (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018; Simon & Goes, 2013). This study provides insight for small, private, selective
liberal arts institutions specifically, yet the results of the analysis of data do not represent all
women of color in senior leadership roles in the academy.
The design of the study focused primarily on interviews, which can provide indirect
information that is filtered through the views of the interviewees (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
In this study, the views and opinions of the participants were shaped by their backgrounds,
unique workplace experiences, and experiences at previous institutions the interviewees have
been employed within. Furthermore, not all interviewees were equally articulate and perceptive
of experiences, trends, and organizational culture (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Unlike limitations, delimitations result from specific choices made by the researcher and
include the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions while developing the study plan
(Simon & Goes, 2013). The first delimitation is that this study is limited to women of color
senior leaders in small, private, selective liberal arts institutions. The second notable
delimitation is that the researcher’s background is in the field of student affairs within higher
education. The researcher has been an administrator at institutions of higher education for 15
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61
years. In order to mitigate this bias, the researcher utilized the process of bracketing the
researcher’s notions, worldviews, and assumptions to minimize personal thoughts and opinions
when analyzing the data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

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CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The qualitative data analysis in this section serves to synthesize the results of this study
which sought to evaluate the influences that have affected women of color in senior leadership as
it relates to the larger problem of advancement and success within their roles at small, private,
selective liberal arts institutions. It seeks to answer the research questions:
1. What is the perception of women of color in senior leadership of the various
knowledge and motivation influences related to their senior leadership attainment
within their small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions of higher education?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the knowledge
and motivation influences?
Based on the analysis of the findings, Chapter 5 will include recommendations in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizations that will inform the design of a program that is meant
to increase the number of women of color in senior leadership positions within select small,
private, selective, liberal arts institutions.
The results and findings in this chapter were organized according to the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences in line with Clark and Estes’ (2008) framework
developed in Chapter 2. Each influence was observed through an analysis of the qualitative
answers from participant interviews for the purpose of validating assumed influences. Data
analysis began during data collection during participant interviews and continued through the
coding process. The answers to each research question found in the analysis of these influences
and findings will be presented according to the assumed KMO influence type discovered. Then,
each influence is categorized by the finding and whether or not the data validated the assumed
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influence. Each of the influences were found to be either validated or partially validated based
on the analysis of data. The final section of this chapter provides a summary of the overall
findings in preparation for the development of solutions in Chapter 5.
Participating Stakeholders
Employing qualitative research designs, the researcher used purposive sampling with 10
women of color senior leaders at small, private, selective liberal arts institutions. Participants
were selected based on their identities and positionality as senior leaders in their organizations in
accordance with the criteria described in Chapter 3. Due to the limited number of women of
color in senior leadership in higher education nationally, the sample size was small, with 20
potential participants identified, resulting in 10 participants. The race, ages, titles, and reporting
lines of the participants were de-identified from the other demographic information to protect
confidentiality. Of those interviewed, eight participants identified as African American and two
identified as biracial, as depicted in Figure 2.

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Figure 2. Responses to item: “How do you identify racially?”

All of the participants identified as women. Titles within organizations ranged from
Associate Dean to President, as depicted in Figure 3, and participants reported to the board of
trustees, presidents, and dean of faculty as depicted in Figure 4.

Figure 3. Responses to item: “What is your title?”

1
2
7
8
2
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Figure 4. Responses to item: “Who do you report to within the organization?”

Participants ranged from 41 to 75 years of age with nine participants reporting they were
between the ages of 40 and 60 years old. This is significant when coupled with the professional
years working in higher education (Table 5) as it contributes to the first-hand knowledge of the
evolving landscape for women of color senior leaders in higher education over the years. The
one outlier who was 75 years of age served to provide rich generational context and experiences
related to the experience as a woman of color senior leader in higher education. Figure 5
represents the ages of participants.

8
1
1
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Figure 5. Responses to item: “What is your age?”

In general, tenure in current leadership roles was relatively short in the group of
respondents, with four participants having been in their current role for two years or less and four
participants having been in their current role for four to five years. Two outliers with very long
tenures in the role compensated for a few respondents for whom it was the first year in the role.
Participants who were in their current roles less than a year still had significant experience in the
field of higher education, ranging from 25 to 33 years. Participants had deep professional
education and experience in the field of higher education ranging from nine years to 33 years.
Eight participants hold a Doctor of Education or Philosophy, or a Juris Doctorate. The
professional demographics of the participants, with pseudonyms in place of actual names, are
shown in Table 5.

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Table 5
Professional Demographics of Participants
Participant* Education Year in Current Role Years in Higher Education
Audrey Master’s 0–1 year 25 years
Barbara Ph.D. 0–1 year 26 years
Celina J.D. 4–5 years 12 years
Dionne Ed.D. 0–1 year 33 years
Eve J.D. 5 years 22 years
Fiona Ph.D. 5 years 20 years
Gayle Ph.D. 2 years 20 years
Helena J.D. 13 years 29 years
Irene Ph.D. 11 years 11 years
Jayde Master’s 5 years 9 years
Note. *Pseudonyms replaced actual names.

The interviews followed a semi-structured protocol (see Appendix A) with open-ended
questions to allow participants to increase the depth of their responses while bringing to light
specific and additional topics (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2002). There were 19 questions
with follow-up prompts used to mine the data from participants. Each interview lasted between
60 and 120 minutes and data collection was conducted via both in-person interviews and using a
virtual, cloud-based audio/video conferencing platform called Zoom.
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Data Validation
Six influences were examined through the qualitative interview process. An influence
was validated when there was affirmation amongst seven of the interviewees that the area was
significant. An influence was partially validated when at least half of the interviews showed a
significant influence, and half of the interviews did not show an influence. Data triangulation
was used by involving multiple sources to mine the information about assumed influences and
the data was continually validated throughout the interview and coding process. The length of
each interview was determined by saturation when the researcher discerned that no new themes
or information were emerging. All interviews were recorded with a device and a transcription of
each interview utilizing Rev.com preceded the detailed qualitative analysis for collating and
organizing the findings. The data presented below are separated by knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences. The names are pseudonyms which bear no resemblance to the
interviewees’ names and the quotes have been lightly edited to ensure anonymity of the
respondents and their respective organizations. The following is representative of the women of
color senior leaders’ responses, sometimes prompted with follow-up questions.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Influences
Two influences emerged from the literature review and developed the knowledge
influences of the conceptual framework outlined in Chapter 3. The focus of the qualitative
research centered on how institutional leaders and decision makers can understand the necessary
knowledge and skills that women of color need in order to successfully achieve senior leadership
within small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions. A discussion of each influence follows
sequentially and includes the findings and themes surfacing.
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Conceptual Knowledge
Influence 1. Women of color need institutional leaders and decision makers to
acknowledge the barriers and biases that affect their pathways to senior leadership.
Interview findings. All of the women of color senior leaders that were interviewed
perceived that biases and barriers based on their intersectional identities were a prominent part
of their professional journeys and shared that their supervisors were not always aware of how
these biases were embedded systemically. Figure 6 shows the identified thematic groupings of
participant reference to conceptual knowledge as it pertains to biases and barriers.

Figure 6. Characteristics of participant experiences based on status as women of color.

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All of the participants spoke of the biases that they have experienced, and the stereotypes
that have been assigned to them and that inform their behavioral choices in the workplace. Eight
of the participants spoke about the interactions that they have had where assumptions were made
about them at first sight, such as being an administrative assistant instead of a vice president or
being questioned about their credentials. Seven of the participants spoke of the burdens they
have experienced as the first woman of color in a position and the weight of expectations for
them to represent other people or groups that also hold a status as historically underrepresented
and/or marginalized. Furthermore, six of the participants felt that women of color must work
twice as hard in order to prove their competency in the workplace and six of the participants
stated that they were always aware and reminded of their identity status in professional settings.
Dionne articulated her knowledge of biases and barriers toward women of color in higher
education in this way:
when you begin to see a pattern of slights, no matter how minimal they might seem, how
micro they may seem, it’s the accumulation of those things over time that . . . wears you
down, wears on your soul, steals your joy, all of those things.
Dionne described the sophisticated way in which higher education organizations and the people
within those organizations exhibit biases and barriers toward women of color. Most institutions
of higher education understand that it is illegal to discriminate against things like race, religion,
and gender, and so the way that discrimination against women of color senior leaders looks is
often subtle and can be arguably subjective, thus making it difficult to name and confront.
Eighty percent of participants articulated their knowledge of situations in which
assumptions were made at first sight about them based on their identities. Participants
referenced being treated as secretaries when they were in fact in positions of power, having their
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professional credentials or capabilities questioned, and enduring abusive behavior as a result of
someone’s first impression of them. Audrey stated: “We have to take abuse from people; we
have parents walking in who don’t expect to see us” in relation to her senior leadership role as a
woman of color. Dionne describes a regular occurrence at her first meetings with some
individuals:
There is still some sense that people in senior leadership roles are typically white men, if
not white men then white women, and so being a woman of color there’s still the first
meetings where I can see the surprise in their face questioning my preparation for the
role.
Dionne often must first manage the reaction of others in addition to her own thoughts and
feelings about the bias she is experiencing. The reactions, perceptions, and biases imposed upon
women of color senior leaders can create potential barriers in accomplishing goals for them in
the workplace. Barbara also described this struggle:
It’s hard because I walk into a space and my biopolitics come in as well and everyone
judges me based on that whether they know me or not. Even if they know me they don’t
really know me it’s all just based on assumptions of their narrative of me.
Some of the participants spoke about the tangible ways that the biases and barriers can
potentially inhibit their career success and opportunities for professional development. The
participants spoke of the unwritten expectations, such as mentoring students of color, and student
expectations that women are more available and open to them, that came along with the visibility
of being a woman of color leader. Helena shared her experience and observations of pitfalls in
working toward faculty promotion:
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Because women of color take on the majority of the work with students they don’t have
as much time for scholarship; when it comes for promotion and tenure what they look at
is scholarship and they’re not looking at the fact that you’ve done a gazillion hours of
service to the community.
Furthermore, Helena describes the way in which institutional leaders and decision makers are
seemingly unaware and unresponsive of the additional burden that women of color endure within
their organizations: “The organization’s inertia sets in and they don’t recognize that we are
running out of steam. They know it is exhausting but it seems like we are fine . . . we’re happy,
they see us smiling, right?” Helena astutely articulates the reality of the disconnect between the
experience of women of color senior leaders and the institutional acknowledgement, support, and
response to inequity.
Summary. The information discovered in the interviews highlights that women of color
need institutional leaders and decision makers to acknowledge the barriers and biases that affect
pathways to senior leadership for women of color. The participants communicated a general
lack of understanding and acknowledgement from institutional leaders and decision makers
about racial and gender equity and inclusion at small, private, selective liberal arts institutions.
Environmental influences and behaviors affect the experiences of women of color senior leaders
and can create burdens that other leaders do not have to endure in their professional work.
Procedural Knowledge
Influence 2. Women of color need institutional leaders and decision makers to have
knowledge of how to provide institutional access and opportunities to strengthen skills that
contribute to their professional pathways.
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Interview findings. All of the participants identified that internal and organization-
specific professional development opportunities were essential to bolster the success of women of
color in senior leadership. All of the participants articulated the need to be given
responsibilities and access to notable opportunities within the organization to increase their
skills and visibility.
The participants felt that access to the knowledge of top-level leaders within the
organization as well as procedural knowledge about how to practice leadership and develop
professionally within the organization in meaningful ways were essential to their ability to be
promoted within the field of higher education. Figure 7 shows the identified thematic groupings
of participant reference to procedural knowledge as it pertains to influences that bolster
professional pathways.

Figure 7. Characteristics of participant perceptions of top pathways for women of color senior
leaders.
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All of the participants spoke of general professional development as the primary pathway
for women of color to succeed as senior leaders in higher education. Eight of the participants
spoke about organization-specific professional development that allows women of color to
participate in important decisions and work such as chairing committees, supervising, and being
assigned special projects. Additionally, eight participants spoke of the ways that supervisors can
provide support by selecting them for opportunities that elevate their visibility and allow them to
contribute meaningfully to high level decisions and actions within the organization.
When asked what has been transformative for your success, Fiona replied: “being given
professional development opportunities, and specifically ones that provide space for women of
color.” Similarly, Irene shares the importance of professional pathways for women of color:
I think there are ways to provide leadership opportunities to give them exposure on
campus. It gives them a way to build their CV, but also to see if they can be successful at
something like chairing a committee in a safe and controlled environment.
Irene talks about the ways in which women of color senior leaders can become visible for their
skills and abilities within organizations by means of involvement in substantial ways. This is an
opportunity for skill building and broadening of experience while also making important
professional connections.
Likewise, Dionne talks about the professional pathways needed to be able to advance the
careers of women of color: “Give them opportunities to learn and discuss a more senior issue,
develop a clear picture of how budgets are handled, and to be a supervisor in order to help them
prepare to advance to the next level.” Dionne points out the importance of ensuring women of
color have opportunities to expand their responsibilities and portfolios in order to be considered
for future leadership positions.
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As captured in Chapter 2, women of color are less likely to have access to supervisors
who can contribute to their professional trajectories. Eve talks about a transformative experience
in her career when her supervisor gave her a professional opportunity:
Your mentors may not look like you. Alan was a white man and he was in charge of the
opportunities that he gave me. It was Alan who told me he wanted me to be involved in
communicating to the entire Law School.
Eve reflected on how that one opportunity, and Alan’s mentorship, was an essential point in her
career: “The opportunity quite frankly was, I think it literally shaped and laid the trajectory for
what would become my career.” Furthermore, Eve reflected on the other benefits that she gained
from that professional opportunity: “It exposed me to a larger network. It gave me the
opportunity to really be creative, show what I could do.” Having the opportunity to take on a big
task, and learn a new skill allowed for her to prove her capability not only to the organization,
but herself as well. Eve remembered that interaction and Alan’s belief in her very fondly and
used it as an example to show how top-level leaders could support women of color senior
leaders.
Summary. The information discovered in the interviews highlights the need for
institutional leaders and decision makers to have knowledge of how to provide institutional
access and opportunities to strengthen skills that contribute to the professional pathways of
women of color. Most historically white institutions (HWI) have systemic biases and barriers
built into their fabric that value the white man’s way of leading. Women of color senior leaders
acknowledged professional development as the primary pathway to bolster their success as well
as the benefits of professional opportunities within their organizations to engage in meaningful
work as senior leaders in higher education.
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Results and Findings for Motivation Influences
Expectancy Value
Influence 3. Women of color need to feel that the value of senior leadership
outweighs the cost of the effort and challenges.
Interview findings. All of the participants articulated a strong intrinsic value for their
work and roles as senior leaders and eight participants also indicated that they were in this
industry in order to make a difference in the lives of students and in the larger society as their
students graduated.
Participants were able to speak to a higher motivation that was a driving force for their
persistence and continued interest in senior leadership roles. Figure 8 shows the identified
thematic groupings of participant reference to their expectancy value.

Figure 8. Characteristics of participant perceptions of value of work.
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All of the participants spoke on multiple occasions of the intrinsic value that led them to
careers in higher education, and the intrinsic value that motivates them to persist as senior
leaders. Eight of the participants spoke specifically about valuing making a difference in the
lives of students and greater society. Furthermore, eight participants articulated that they valued
being able to help others learn in reference to students, staff that work with them, or top-level
leaders in the organization. Additionally, seven participants spoke of the value they gained as
women of color in positions of power who were challenging dominant narratives of what it
means to be a leader.
Audrey shares that the value she finds in her work is in her interactions with students and
the potential to improve the world as a result:
Because I’m called to do it and it’s making a difference in the lives of the young people.
Being around young people who are coming up is encouraging if we can help them
navigate how they can make a little bit of a difference, then we have an impact on the
world.
Similarly, Fiona finds much intrinsic value in working with students to make a difference in their
lives. She states that her philosophy is to engage as high-touch and high-impact as possible to
make a difference in the lives of students. Fiona is motivated by the “amazing potential and
amazing opportunities to be able to influence and be a part of their journey.”
Celina also believes that the work she does with students has an impact that could create
meaningful change. She acknowledges that she may be the first woman of color in a position of
power that many of her students interact with. When explaining her persistence as a woman of
color in senior leadership at an HWI, Celina states:
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I’m gonna embrace this. I’m gonna find meaning in this. I think I started to realize that I
am probably the first black person to do this and I can’t believe there’s that many spaces
in the world that a black person hasn’t done something.
Like Audrey and Celina, Barbara views her impact as a woman of color senior leader as a way to
impact society. She acknowledges the privilege of the type of student that is admitted to small,
private, selective liberal arts institutions. Barbara is motivated by the opportunity to challenge
privilege and power when she shares: “In our work, we do what makes life beyond these
institutions better for other people. When I work with highly privileged people, I try to help
them become better individuals and not just promote hierarchy, privilege, patriarchy.” Dionne
also speaks about the context of a small, private, selective liberal arts institution and the impact
of that context on her motivation: “I am having interactions with the trustees and the president
and I am helping the college make informed policies and decisions that address the needs of
students and think about how specific decisions will land distinct populations.”
In addition to the intrinsic value of making a difference in the lives of students, some
participants described the attainment value they felt in working in academia. Celina shared that
one of the reasons she is drawn to her position is that she enjoys the wonderful exchange of ideas
between herself and the dean of faculty and the executive cabinet. Intellectual exchange as it
pertains to leadership as a motivating factor came up in Irene’s interview as well. Irene
explained that making decisions at the senior levels of leadership is oftentimes more costly:
Higher education leadership is not as black and white. There are consequences on both
sides of the decision, and you have to weigh those, and then someone has to make the
decision and live with whatever consequences come from it.
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Celina and Irene capture the intrinsic value of problem solving in complex organizations with
diverse stakeholders and how that can be a rewarding challenge.
Summary. The information discovered in the interviews highlights that the women of
color senior leaders who were interviewed felt that their work was valuable, interesting, and
meaningful at multiple levels of the organization. As a result, expectancy value was not
identified as a validated gap for women of color senior leaders. Rather, it may be an influence
that these participants bring to their work already which contributes to their success.
Self-Efficacy
Influence 4. Women of color need to feel confident in their abilities to address the
barriers and biases that affect them on their pathways to senior leadership.
Interview findings. All of the participants talked about formal and informal access to
mentors and seven of the participants discussed the necessity of professional networks as a
means to support women of color senior leaders. The participants pointed to these relationships
as helping to bolster the confidence and abilities of women of color as they aspired to senior
leadership.
The participants were able to speak about the biases they endured often in their senior
leadership roles, including having to prove themselves based on assumptions about their
identities. Many of the participants recalled interactions with colleagues, parents, and other
faculty or staff that called into question their credentials or ability to perform their duties.
Participants spoke of the importance of mentors who helped them develop their skills, provide
them with emotional support, and mitigate institutional barriers. Figure 9 shows the identified
thematic groups of participant reference to confidence in abilities and Figure 10 shows the
identified thematic groups of participant reference to what has contributed to their confidence.
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Figure 9. Characteristics of participant perceptions of confidence.

Figure 10. Characteristics of participant perceptions of what has contributed to confidence.
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All of the participants communicated a strong level of confidence in their abilities to
address biases and barriers that affect them, and all of the participants had confidence in their
skills, experience and credentials despite commonly being overtly questioned about their
preparedness. Furthermore, all of participants talked about formal and informal access to
mentors and seven participants discussed the necessity of professional networks as a means to
support women of color senior leaders and as a means to bolster their confidence in their
abilities.
Dionne speaks about the importance of having mentors in her life that presented
viewpoint diversity:
I think it’s important to have multiple mentors who can speak to different aspects and to
give you the other side of the story. It was important for me to have women of color in
my life who could understand how it felt to be treated in a dismissive fashion, but it was
also important to have white men in my group.
Dionne acknowledges the specific benefits to having two different kinds of mentors in her
professional network. Outgroup mentors may be able to provide context and advice in a way
that is familiar for navigating the organization itself. Dionne explained: “These men could say I
think you’re being sensitive, and you need to consider these factors, or maybe you want to say it
that way because you may get more traction.” Intergroup mentors, on the other hand, can
provide the type of understanding that is necessary to debrief and decompress after encountering
biases and barriers.
Gayle explains that as a top leader in her organization that she expects bias and that
discrimination is nothing new for her. She has become accustomed to being challenged or
critiqued based on her intersectional identities: “It’s not anything new. It’s been all my life. It’s
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just this is in a different way in my position of power and I’m different with different stakes
now.” Intergroup mentors serve an important role in helping women of color senior leaders
process and respond to barriers and biases. Irene talks about the specific way in which her
mentor, who shared her racial identity, was transformative for her understanding as a woman of
color leader:
My mentor and I were able to have conversations that other people wouldn’t have been
able to be privy to. He shared a lot about his experience, especially when he first started
as president, of not being supported, primarily I think because of his race.
Irene spoke to the type of intergroup mentoring that has provided her with strategies for
combating biases and barriers based on her race. Irene’s mentor provided her with insight about
his motivation and persistence in the role that was still very valuable to her as she thought about
her own leadership journey and self-efficacy.
Professional networks were also discussed by participants as pathways that bolster the
success of women of color. For many, these networks provided them with outlets to process
biases and barriers and created a network of support for their persistence in their roles. Fiona
talks about professional networks as a strategy for coping personally and professionally with
biases and barriers in the workplace:
You have to find a set of people that you can call at three o’clock in the morning. We
don’t get to choose when we turn on or off our blackness and we turn on our being a
woman. A part of it is acknowledging it does exist and providing role models and
mentors.
Women of color senior leaders were very clear that mentors have had a positive impact on their
professional practice, career trajectories, and confidence as leaders. Despite these very real and
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persistent barriers and biases throughout her career, Eve reflected on her development of
confidence over the years:
I think the difference now is that I’m in a position of influence and power. If I see stuff
happening in my sphere of influence, I can address it. I also think that over time, I’ve
just become more confident in my own abilities.
Eve talks about her confidence in confronting injustice professionally. Eve sees herself as an
agent of justice, a common theme among participants.
Summary. The information discovered in the interviews highlights that women of color
need to feel confident in their abilities to address the barriers and biases that affect them on their
pathways to senior leadership. Despite adversity, women of color that have risen to the senior
levels of leadership communicated confidence in their abilities to address biases and barriers in
their professional work and affirmed the necessity of mentors on their professional journeys to
help build their capacity.
Results and Findings for Organization Influences
Cultural Models
Influence 5. Women of color need to be included in decision-making at the top
levels of the organization.
Interview findings. Eight participants believed that support from top leaders in the
organization communicated value to the women of color senior leaders, and eight participants
cited that including women of color leaders in important decisions and functions of the
organization was valuable and important.
When top leaders supported women of color senior leaders and valued the inclusion of
diversity in the decision-making of the organization, it demonstrated support of the women of
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color. Figure 11 shows the identified thematic groupings of participant reference to their
perceptions of support from organizations.

Figure 11. Characteristics of participant perceptions of what contributes to organizational value
of women of color senior leaders.

Eight participants identified that support from their supervisors, top leaders within the
organization, contributed to a positive culture that supported women of color senior leaders.
Further, eight participants identified that specific actions such as including women of color in
important institutional decisions and providing them with opportunities to engage in high level
work communicated the value of women of color senior leaders within the organization.
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Eve describes the culture at small, private, selective liberal arts institutions as deadly.
Eve stated: “Someone once told me the politics are so treacherous because there’s so little at
stake.” Given the treacherous politics within these organizations, biases and barriers are often
subtle and instances of discrimination can be justified or explained away. Furthermore, there is
still a general lack of diversity at the top levels of the organization from the board of trustees, to
presidents, to the executive cabinet. Therefore, it may often be the case that women of color are
the first or only person of color or woman in their roles.
Participants felt that when their superiors believed their stories and backed them without
question, it was one of the most effective ways that the organization could communicate support
to them. For example, Fiona described a time in which she was meeting with a corporate partner
regarding a deal with her institution. During the meeting, the man did not look at her or address
her once and only spoke to her colleague who was also present. At the end of the meeting after
the man still had not acknowledged her, she told the man that she was the ultimate decision-
maker regarding this partnership and that she had decided not to move forward. Fiona recalls the
response from her president after describing that incident to him:
The president decided that we didn’t want a partnership or relationship because of that.
And it wasn’t ‘Well did you hear it right? Did you experience it right?’ It was ‘Nope,
this is what you said’ and this is what we’re going to do.
In addition to being supported and believed, it was also important that women of color
senior leaders were trusted with high levels of responsibility to feel valued and included in the
organizations. Having the trust of top leaders was a strong theme throughout the interviews that
made women of color feel valued in their work. Gayle recalls her time at a previous institution
when she states: “I certainly had the trust of the president. He would give me a problem and just
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let me solve it.” This communicated that Gayle was valued and that the organization valued
diversity in the important decisions and solutions within the organization.
Participants consistently communicated that they did not necessarily need special
accommodations or treatment. Instead, they addressed the fact that there often is not a level
playing field in these organizations. When asked what kind of culture Eve needs to feel
supported, she stated:
I need the same respect that you would give to anyone else who has earned the position.
I didn’t get this position because I was cute or because I was a person of color, or because
I was charming. I got it because I deserved it. Because I’m competent, and I know how
to do the job.
Eve articulated to the subtle undermining that can occur in the cultural model of a small, private,
selective liberal arts institution. Women of color often feel that they are having to constantly
prove themselves and work harder than others to prove their worth. When asked about what
aspiring women of color need to know about senior leadership as a woman of color Fiona stated:
You will you always have to work twice as hard for the same result. It’s not fair.
There’s no equity involved in this at all. But that’s what you must do. This is the only
way it gets better in our profession is if everybody does it right.
Fiona spoke of the systemic biases and barriers that have to be countered by women of color
daily. Participants were aware of bias in the cultures of small, private, selective liberal arts
institutions. Many participants stated that support from top levels of leadership served as a
mitigating factor for other institutionalized discrimination that they endured.
When top leaders supported women of color senior leaders in public or controversial
situations, especially when women of color believed they were being subjected to bias or
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discrimination, women of color senior leaders felt it demonstrated organizational equity and
inclusion.
Summary. The information discovered in the interviews highlights the importance of
women of color being included in decision-making at the top levels of the organization.
Furthermore, women of color senior leaders need access to organizational opportunities that
communicate institutional support and confidence in their skills and abilities. Women of color
need top level leaders to believe them and address biases and barriers when women of color
share their experiences in order to communicate support.
Cultural Settings
Influence 6. Institutional leaders and decision makers need to recognize the need
for policies and practices that support women of color senior leaders.
Interview findings. All participants were able to speak about tangible ways that
organizations did, or potentially could, demonstrate practices that promote inclusion.
Additionally, nine participants were able to speak about tangible ways that organizations did, or
potentially could, demonstrate practices that promote diversity and equity.
Participants were able to speak about the ways in which organizations could be
committed to diversity, equity and inclusion at the top levels and promising hiring policies and
practices for organizations to consider implementing. Figure 12 shows the identified thematic
groupings of participant reference to organizations promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion.

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Figure 12. Characteristics of participant perceptions of institutional practices that promote
diversity, equity, and inclusion.

All of the participants spoke of the ways organizations can positively demonstrate a
commitment to inclusion in their practices and behaviors. Nine participants spoke of the ways
organizations can positively demonstrate a commitment to diversity in their practices and
behaviors. Additionally, nine participants also spoke of the ways organizations can positively
demonstrate a commitment to equity in their practices and behaviors. Participants spoke of their
own lived experiences that contributed to feeling valued and supported by organizations as well
as the ways in which organizations had failed them as women of color senior leaders. As such,
participants were able to identify institutional practices that support diversity, equity and
inclusion.
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Dionne offered the following insight regarding the experiences of women of color senor
leaders who are often one of the few mentors in organizations that are lacking diversity: “It’s not
just enough for an organization to say ‘We recognize that marginalized leaders who identify with
marginalized groups are taking on additional work that other people aren’t.’” Dionne highlights
the challenge of having to represent diversity as one of the only top leaders of color in her
organization. She asserts that institutions should acknowledge the additional burdens endured by
women of color senior leaders by acknowledging and incorporating space for the extra work they
may have as a result of their intersectional identities:
When you are worn out because of the multiple demands beyond the demands of your
job, how is the organization regularly acknowledging and affirming that there are these
additional responsibilities and that the fulfillment of those responsibilities really does
benefit the institution?
Institutions should be committed to practices and policies that expand the diversity of faculty and
staff as one way to mitigate this additional burden. Celina shared an institutional policy that she
helped to create in order to expedite a “Target of Opportunity Hiring Policy” for diverse faculty:
We have a separate path that we can hire that person that’s more efficient, that’s a little
faster. The department has to support it but then we can bring them to campus, and I
don’t have to do a full search.
Celina spoke of the need to be able to expedite the process when the institution comes across
highly qualified diverse candidates because they are in high demand. Having a policy that
allows more aggressive recruitment is one way to work to increase diversity in the organization.
Ensuring that candidate pools are diverse is also an important way to create diversity in
the hiring process within all levels of the organization. Fiona spoke about the way she has
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created a culture with her staff around search committees and their review of candidates. Fiona
explained that her staff is aware that she expects to know exactly how many candidates represent
diversity before they proceed with moving to an interview round. She shares that she chooses to
be very involved with the searches:
I’m pretty hands on when it comes to the hiring process. I’m not going to have finalists
on campus if there is no diversity in the finalists. So now when our hiring officers talk
with me about candidates, they don’t even come to me if there’s not a diverse pool.
Once diverse staff and faculty are hired at organizations, it is important that these
institutions have practices and policies that promote equity and inclusion. Participants had
several ways in which they felt organizations could achieve this goal. One of the ways that
organizations can show their value of diversity is to recognize that women of color need
additional layers of support to mitigate the biases and barriers they endure as a result of their
intersectional identities. Barbara recommends that institutions support women of color by giving
them professional coaches:
Give us executive coaches, not as a deficit, but to say I think they’re gonna be times
when you’re going to want to talk with someone and keep getting coached through this.
Provide an executive coach of their choosing that comes through it from a diverse angle
who has an understanding of your experiences.
Equity and inclusion can be promoted as an institution’s professional landscape
diversifies. Jayde is now part of an organization that has diversified at the top levels and
articulates what it looks like to have more equity and inclusion in her organization:
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What it looks like at my institution is that there are three Black women and one Latina in
the same cabinet. There’s that visibility of including women of color in leadership and it
is just really on the progressive front in so many ways.
Summary. The information discovered in the interviews highlights the importance of
institutional leaders and decision makers recognizing the need for policies and practices that
support women of color senior leaders. Small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions need to
prioritize hiring practices that bring diversity into the organizations. Furthermore, there is a need
for policies and practices that promote equity and inclusion for historically minoritized and
marginalized staff and faculty who join the organization.
Summary of Validated Influences
Knowledge
Two influences were used to evaluate the knowledge of biases and barriers women of
color senior leaders endure as well as the pathways that bolster their success. The first influence
assessed the conceptual knowledge of women of color senior leaders pertaining to the biases and
barriers they experience related to their intersectional identities as women and people of color.
The findings indicate that institutional leaders and decision makers need to acknowledge the
barriers and biases that affect their pathways to senior leadership. The second influence assessed
the procedural knowledge of women of color pertaining to their understanding of the pathways
that bolster the success of women of color senior leaders. The findings indicate that institutional
leaders and decision makers need to have knowledge of how to provide institutional access and
opportunities to strengthen skills that contribute to their professional pathways. These two
influences gave the researcher insight into the knowledge institutional leaders and decision
makers must be aware of as agents of change in their organizations.
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Motivation
Two influences were used to evaluate the motivation of women of color who have
successfully attained senior leadership roles. The first influence assessed the expectancy value
that women of color senior leaders perceived in their work. The findings indicate that women of
color senior leaders found value in impacting the lives of students as well as the greater
community and enjoyed the intellectual exchange opportunities afforded to them in these
organizations. This finding indicated that there was not a gap in the expectancy value of the
women of color senior leaders that were interviewed. The second influence assessed the
confidence that women of color communicated regarding their ability to address the barriers and
biases that affect them as senior leaders. The findings indicate that women of color senior
leaders need to feel confident in their abilities to address the barriers and biases that affect them
on their pathways to senior leadership. These two influences gave the researcher insight into the
motivation that contributed to the successful attainment of senior leadership for these women of
color and suggest that mentoring programs will support women of color senior leaders.
Organization
Two influences were used to evaluate the cultural models and cultural settings of small,
private, selective liberal arts institutions and how they affected the experiences of women of
color senior leaders. The first influence assessed the ways in which institutions need to support
women of color senior leaders in their roles. The findings indicate that women of color need to
be included in decision-making at the top levels of the organization. The second influence
assessed the cultural settings at small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions and how these
institutions should have policies and practices that support diversity, equity, and inclusion to
promote women of color senior leaders. The findings indicate that institutional leaders and
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decision makers need to recognize the need for policies and practices that support women of
color senior leaders. These two influences gave the researcher insight into the ways in which
women of color can be supported when institutional leaders and decision makers promote
diversity, equity, and inclusion within their organizations, and suggest that equity-minded
practices around recruiting, hiring, and retaining women of color would be beneficial to the
organizations.
Chapter 5 will use empirical evidence from the analysis of data to offer recommendations
for the solutions of the influences supported by the literature.

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CHAPTER 5
SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION, AND EVALUATION
Organizational Context and Mission
A conceptual framework, or system of concepts, beliefs, assumptions, expectations, and
theories, assists in illustrating the underlying structure of the influences of a problem and how
they interact (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A conceptual framework is unique to a specific
problem, and constructed from the key factors, concepts, and variables of the problem (Maxwell,
2013). Moreover, a conceptual framework illuminates interrelated relationships and provides
insights into research methodology (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Furthermore, it allows for
making explicit emergent, or overarching, theoretical assertions resulting from the data collected
(Maxwell, 2013). The format of this conceptual framework is informed by the work of Clark
and Estes (2008), who utilize the influences of knowledge, motivation, and the organization
through gap analysis of the stakeholder goal attainment. While the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational elements of the conceptual framework will be explained independently, their
interaction will also be examined as it creates the unique context of the problem. The conceptual
framework of a qualitative study, when focused and clearly articulated, tells the story about what
is assumed to be happening and why in order to make sense of a problem (Maxwell, 2013).
The interrelationships between leadership development, social justice, and identity
consciousness are embedded in the conceptual map for this study. As the research problem
frequently results from the professional experiences of the researcher, experiential knowledge
can provide a major source of insights and hypotheses (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The lens used
to study the problem is that of a student affairs practitioner, as opposed to a faculty member, an
academic researcher, or a social justice advocate, since each of those professionals would view
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the problem of the underrepresentation of women of color in senior leadership from a different
conceptual framework. Key terms and concepts will be grounded in the frame of critical
perspectives (Dugan, 2017) and used to inform decisions regarding the appropriate methods of
the study (Maxwell, 2013).
Current scholars examining the intersections of racial equity and leadership remain
critical of the lack of progress in the emerging literature despite gains in knowledge and practice
on college student leadership that have expanded, and acknowledge the existence of an outdated
“color blind” approach to the literature (Dugan et al., 2012). Prior theory and research are sparse
in regard to the impact of traditional leadership education on the promotion of women of color in
leadership. The research is clear, however, that the lack of women of color in leadership roles in
every industry remains a significant issue (Catalyst, 2019; Cook & Glass, 2014; Devillard et al.,
2018; Herring, 2009; Krivkovich et al., 2017). The conceptual framework addresses the
influences of knowledge, motivation, and the organization on the study and research into small,
private, selective liberal arts institutions’ ability to support women of color in senior leadership
roles.
Global Goal
Recruit, retain, and advance more aspiring women of color senior leaders at small,
private, selective liberal arts institutions in the next 10 years.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The program design was informed by the qualitative experiences of women of color
senior leaders at small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions and is designed for top level
leaders such as college presidents and boards of trustees to build skills around equity-minded
practices that support the success of women of color senior leaders. In order to understand the
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knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on the problem, women of color senior
leaders were selected to provide qualitative data to understand their experiences and influences
related to the problem of practice. Women of color are drastically underrepresented at these
organizations with a scant 5% of college presidents nationwide identifying as women of color,
great underrepresentation in tenured faculty positions, as well as disproportionate women of
color senior administrators in comparison to student demographics (ACE, 2017; Catalyst, 2019;
Pritchard & McChesney, 2018). Criteria for selection included participants identifying as a
woman of color in a senior leadership role. Most participants reported directly to the board of
trustees or presidents at their respective institutions. Given the importance of understanding the
meaning that persons or groups ascribe to a social or human problem (Creswell & Creswell,
2018), criteria also included at least six months working in a senior leadership role in order to
have experienced the organizational cultures, procedures, and attitudes. Diversity in the sample
was important (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) and the sampling included professionals from diverse
ethnic backgrounds, lived experiences, and roles within the academy. Expertise was also
diverse, with a mix of professional knowledge and experience as well as academic backgrounds.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to uncover the influences that have affected women of
color in senior leadership as they relate to the larger problem of advancement and success within
their roles at small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions. The analysis focused on
identifying the characteristics and lived experiences that have influenced the areas of knowledge
and skills, motivation, and organizational resources for the participants. As such, the questions
that guided this study are the following:
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1. What is the perception of women of color in senior leadership of the various
knowledge and motivation influences related to their senior leadership attainment
within their small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions of higher education?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the knowledge
and motivation influences?
Based on the analysis of the findings, Chapter 5 will include recommendations in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizations that will inform the design of a program that is meant
to increase the number of women of color in senior leadership positions within select small,
private, selective, liberal arts institutions.
Introduction and Overview
This innovation study analyzed the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
utilizing the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analytical framework to understand the influences that
affect the professional pathways for women of color senior leaders at small, private, selective,
liberal arts institutions. Chapter 1 offered an introduction to the problem of practice and the
stakeholders at the institutions to be evaluated. Chapter 2 provided the assumed influences on
the problem of practice related to the stakeholder group by means of reviewing related literature.
Chapter 3 identified and explained the research methods and data collection in detail. Chapter 4
provided an analysis of the data collected in response to the two research questions of the study,
which evaluated the various knowledge and motivation influences, and the interaction between
organizational culture and context with those influences. This chapter provides
recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources.
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The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) provides the
framework for the basis for recommendations in this chapter. The New World Kirkpatrick
Model provides a practical approach to driving and evaluating outcomes by examining reactions
(Level 1), learning (Level 2), behavior (Level 3), and results (Level 4) (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Rather than suggesting one overarching solution, the recommendations are
adaptable and present multiple actions and training that when implemented may achieve the
global goal of increasing the recruitment, retainment, and advancement of aspiring women of
color senior leaders at small, private, selective liberal arts institutions. Level 4: Results examines
the achievement of internal and external outcomes for success, Level 3: Behavior is used to
evaluate the degree to which institutional leaders and decision makers apply what they learn
during training in their roles, Level 2: Learning examines the degree to which participants
acquire the intended knowledge, skills, attitudes, confidence, and commitment, and Level 1:
Reaction is used to evaluate the extent that institutional leaders and decision makers find the
training favorable, engaging, and relevant.
The knowledge recommendations are meant to address the lack of systemic
understanding of the barriers and biases that affect women of color in their pathways to senior
leadership as well as the institutional access and opportunities that positively contribute to their
professional pathways. The findings collected from the data verify that environmental
expectations, behaviors, professional opportunities, and biases and barriers are all knowledge
influences on the problem of practice. The recommended solution for this influence is to provide
institutional leaders and decision makers information and training about identified behaviors and
environmental influences that have affected the pathways to senior leadership as well as ways to
provide institutional access and opportunities for women of color.
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The motivation recommendations are meant to address the lack of systemic
understanding and opportunities that benefit women of color as senior leaders in these
organizations. The findings collected from the data verify that women of color senior leaders
benefited greatly from mentors in their professional careers and felt value in their work when
they were able to contribute to positively impacting higher education institutions and the student
stakeholders. The findings also verified that the women of color senior leaders who were
interviewed possessed strong expectancy value for the work they did as higher education
professionals and that this was not an identified gap. The recommended solution for this
influence is for institutional leaders and decision makers to formally recognize the benefit of
mentoring programs and provide opportunities within their organizations for women of color
senior leaders to take on complex and meaningful work.
The organizational recommendations are meant to address the need for institutional
strategies that are transformational in addressing racial and gender equity at the top levels at
small, private, selective liberal arts institutions. The findings collected from the data verify that
institutional leaders and decision makers need to include diverse individuals in the culture of
important work and decision-making within the organization by means of policies and practices.
The recommended solution for this influence is to evaluate institutional policies and practices in
order to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion within the hiring practices and general
operations of the organizations.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. Table 6 represents the validated knowledge influences and the priority of
these influences based on the most frequently articulated knowledge influences during the
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qualitative interviews. The findings collected from the data verify that environmental
expectations, behaviors, professional opportunities, and biases and barriers contribute to the
experiences of women of color senior leaders in their professional pathways at small, private,
selective liberal arts institutions. Furthermore, the type of knowledge that is particularly useful
for these organizations is conceptual knowledge which examines the interrelationships among
basic elements that allow them to function together in a larger structure, and procedural
knowledge which focuses on the mechanics, methods, skills, and determination of procedures
when seeking to accomplish a task (Krathwohl, 2002). Based on theoretical principles, Table 6
also shows the recommendations for information and training for institutional leaders and
decision makers based on these highly probable influences.

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Table 6
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Knowledge
Influence
Validated
as a Gap? Priority? Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Women of color
need institutional
leaders and
decision makers to
acknowledge the
barriers and biases
that affect their
pathways to senior
leadership. (C)
Validated Y Identify specific
behavioral objectives
for learning (Daly,
2006).
Identify environmental
influences that affect
behavior (Tuckman,
2009).
Provide institutional
leaders and decision
makers information
and training about
identified behaviors
and environmental
influences that have
affected the pathways
to senior leadership
for women of color.
Women of color
need institutional
leaders and
decision makers to
have knowledge of
how to provide
institutional access
and opportunities
to strengthen skills
that contribute to
their professional
pathways. (P)
Validated Y Materials and
activities should be
relevant and useful to
the learners, connected
to their interests, and
based on real-world
tasks (Pintrich, 2003).
Learning and
motivation are
enhanced if the learner
values the task
(Eccles, 2006).
Provide institutional
leaders and decision
makers with
information and
training about how to
provide women of
color institutional
access and
opportunities to
strengthen skills that
contribute to their
professional pathways.

Women of color need institutional leaders and decision makers to acknowledge the
barriers and biases that affect their pathways to senior leadership. The results and findings
of this study indicated that all of the women of color senior leaders that were interviewed
perceived that biases and barriers based on their intersectional identities were a prominent part of
their professional journeys and shared that their organizations were not always aware of how
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these biases were embedded systemically. A strategy rooted in behavioral theories of learning
assists in closing this knowledge gap. It is important to identify specific behavioral objectives
for learning (Daly, 2006) and it is important to identify environmental influences that affect
behavior (Tuckman, 2009). This suggests that helping leaders identify behavior and
environmental influences that contribute to biases and barriers for women of color in senior
leadership is a beneficial action for organizations. The recommendation then is to provide
institutional leaders and decision makers information and training about identified behaviors and
environmental influences that have affected the pathways to senior leadership for women of
color. An example of this would be a program that provides institutional leaders a lesson on the
interrelationship between self-regulation and biases that helps them assess their own biases.
Rather than examining the assumptions, perspectives, and shared meanings within an
organization that may not be inclusive, it is very common to default to norms and collective
understandings about leadership and what it means to be a leader (Dugan, 2017; Dugan et al.,
2011; Wuetherick, 2018). Training programs in which participants engage in such things as bias
reduction learning, and techniques like structured free recall, source monitoring, and error
management that are designed to highlight biases toward women in leadership have been found
to be effective (Hill et al., 2016). Furthermore, leaders guided by equity-mindedness notice and
question patterns of educational outcomes, and they are also more likely to view inequalities in
the context of a history of exclusion, discrimination, and educational apartheid (Bensimon,
2005). This research supports that institutions and those who lead them should seek to
understand and define the barriers and biases that women of color endure, in order to address
systemic issues that prevent aspiring women of color from attaining leadership positions.
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Women of color need institutional leaders and decision makers to have knowledge of
how to provide institutional access and opportunities to strengthen skills that contribute to
their professional pathways. The results and findings of this study indicated that all of the
participants identified that internal, organization-specific professional development opportunities
were essential to bolster the success of women of color in senior leadership. A strategy rooted in
expectancy-value theory assists in closing this knowledge gap. Learning and motivation are
enhanced if the learner values the task (Eccles, 2006) and activities should be relevant and useful
to the learners, connected to their interests, and based on real-world tasks (Pintrich, 2003). This
suggests that providing women of color with opportunities to develop their professional skills
within organizations may be a way to promote their success. The recommendation then is to
provide institutional leaders and decision makers with information and training about how to
provide women of color institutional access and opportunities to strengthen skills that contribute
to their professional pathways.
When organizations that are historically white and mostly male hire and promote more
diverse leaders, the practices, politics, and cultures do not necessarily diversify. Sanchez-Hucles
and Sanchez (2007) assert that the first dilemma diverse women leaders face is discovering
loosely documented rules in order to make conscious decisions whether to follow the rules or
not. Furthermore, they assert that diverse women leaders must find ways to understand these
rules so that they will be able to minimize the time they spend on this “political” activity and
focus on exceeding the objectives of the organization (Sanchez-Hucles & Sanchez, 2007).
According to Clark and Estes (2008), providing job-related information that is required for
success is most appropriate when such knowledge is easy to incorporate without aid. Women of
color leaders need opportunities to access to the knowledge of top-level leaders within
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organizations as well as knowledge about how to practice leadership within organizations in
meaningful ways (Sanchez-Hucles & Sanchez, 2007). This research supports the
recommendation to provide institutional leaders and decision makers with information and
training about how to provide women of color institutional access and opportunities to strengthen
skills that contribute to their professional pathways.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. The motivation influences in Table 7 represent the assumed motivation
influences, whether or not they were validated as gaps, and the priority of these influences based
on the most frequently articulated knowledge influences during the qualitative interviews. The
findings collected from the data showed that there was no gap in participants’ expectancy value
related to their professional values and motivations. However, the findings did verify that
women of color senior leaders believe that mentoring relationships and professional networks are
transformational for the success of aspiring women of color. Pajares (2006) suggests that
feedback, modeling, and observations of credible models increase self-efficacy. Based on
theoretical principles, Table 7 also shows the recommendations for institutions to provide
institutional resources and support based on this highly probable influence.

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Table 7
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Motivational
Influence
Validated
as a Gap? Priority?
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Women of color
need to feel that
the value of senior
leadership
outweighs the cost
of the effort and
challenges.
(Expectancy-
Value)
No N
Women of color
need to feel
confident in their
abilities to address
the barriers and
biases that affect
them on their
pathways to senior
leadership. (Self-
Efficacy Theory)
Validated Y Feedback and
modeling increases
self-efficacy (Pajares,
2006).
Provide opportunities
to observe a credible,
similar model
engaging in behavior
that has functional
value (Pajares, 2006).
Provide institutional
resources (time,
personnel, professional
development funds,
etc.) for women of
color senior leaders to
engage in mentoring
relationships that
provide modeling,
guided practice, and
immediate feedback.

Women of color need to feel confident in their abilities to address the barriers and
biases that affect them on their pathways to senior leadership. The results and findings of
this study indicated that all of the participants talked about formal and informal access to
mentors and seven of the participants discussed the necessity of professional networks as a
means to promote women of color senior leaders. A recommendation rooted in self efficacy
theory has been selected to illustrate this influence. Pajares (2006) adds that feedback and
modeling increases self-efficacy and recommends that it is important to provide opportunities to
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observe credible, similar models engaging in behavior that has functional value. This suggests
that providing women of color senior leaders with mentors that can provide modeling, guided
practice, and specific feedback would support their belief in their capacity and contribute to
positive perceptions of their work. The recommendation then is to provide institutional
resources (time, personnel, professional development funds, etc.) for women of color senior
leaders to engage in mentoring relationships that provide modeling, guided practice, and
immediate feedback.
Colleges and universities can provide professional development experiences that assist
women of color to overcome challenges of multiple marginality and also provide them with
mentors to support their success (Turner, 2002). In a study conducted by Blackhurst (2000), it
was found that women of color working as student affairs administrators who did not have
mentors reported higher levels of role ambiguity and sex discrimination and reported lower
levels of organizational commitment. Furthermore, it can be difficult for women of color senior
leaders to secure mentors or sponsors (Giscombe & Mattis, 2002). Women are less likely to
receive advice from managers and senior leaders on career advancement, yet employees who do
are more likely to be promoted (Krivkovich et al., 2017). Having a mentor may help to establish
a cultural connection, sense of belonging, and professional development opportunities for
women of color in the academy (Giscombe & Mattis, 2002; Holmes, Land, & Hinton-Hudson,
2007). In the case of faculty, it is important to involve full-time equity-minded faculty mentors
to guide incoming faculty in order to provide them with feedback and help them build social
capital at their institutions (Center for Urban Education, 2017). As such, it appears that the
literature supports connecting women of color senior leaders to mentors who have access to the
resources that can promote career success.
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Organizational Recommendations
Introduction. Table 8 represents the validated organizational influences and the priority
of these influences based on the most frequently articulated organizational influences during the
qualitative interviews. The findings collected from the data verify that creating a culture of
inclusion in decision-making as well as institutional commitment to recruiting, hiring, and
retaining diverse individuals is important for organizational cultures that wish to support the
success of women of color senior leaders. Effective leaders demonstrate a commitment to
valuing diversity at all levels of the organization through inclusive action and promote an
organizational culture that promotes equity and inclusion (Angeline, 2011; DiTomaso, Post &
Parks-Yancy, 2007; Prieto, Phipps & Osiri, 2011; Stevens, Plaut & Sanchez-Burks, 2008).
Based on theoretical principles, Table 8 also shows the recommendations for information and
training for institutional leaders and decision makers and search committees based on these
highly probable influences.

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Table 8
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organizational
Influence
Validated
as a Gap? Priority? Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Model
Influence: Women of
color need to be
included in decision-
making at the top
levels of the
organization.
Validated Y Effective leaders
demonstrate a
commitment to valuing
diversity through inclusive
action. They promote an
organizational culture that
promotes equity and
inclusion and cultivate an
atmosphere where
diversity is viewed as an
asset to the organization
and its stakeholders
(Angeline, 2011; Prieto et
al., 2011).
Effective leaders promote
diversity at the highest
levels of the organization.
(DiTomaso et al., 2007;
Stevens et al., 2008)
Provide information and
training for institutional
leaders and decision
makers in order to help
them create a culture of
inclusion in decision-
making.
Provide information and
training for institutional
leaders to ensure that
women of color feel
comfortable applying
for and working in
high-level positions
within organizations.
Cultural Setting
Influence:
Institutional leaders
and decision makers
need to recognize the
need for policies and
practices that support
women of color
senior leaders.
Validated Y Effective organizations
ensure that organizational
messages, rewards,
policies and procedures
that govern the work of the
organization are aligned
with or are supportive of
organizational goals and
values (Clark & Estes,
2008).
Effective leaders address
institutional policies and
practices that create
barriers for equity
(Bensimon, 2005).
Create hiring policies
and provide extensive
training for search
committees to recruit,
hire, and retain diverse,
qualified professionals.
Provide job aid that
includes criteria matrix
for hiring committees.

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Women of color need to be included in decision-making at the top levels of the
organization. Eighty percent of participants believed that support from top leaders in the
organization communicated value to the women of color senior leaders. Furthermore, eight
participants cited that including women of color leaders in important decisions and functions of
the organization was valuable and important. A principle rooted in organizational change theory
has been selected to close this gap. Effective leaders demonstrate a commitment to valuing
diversity through inclusive action that promotes an organizational culture of equity and inclusion
at the highest levels of the organization (Angeline, 2011; DiTomaso et al., 2007; Prieto et al.,
2011; Stevens et al., 2008). This would suggest that promoting the involvement of women of
color in high-level decision-making to shape a diverse culture would increase inclusion and
equity within an organization. The recommendation then is to provide information and training
for institutional leaders and decision makers in order to help them create a culture of inclusion in
decision-making and ensure that women of color feel comfortable applying for and working in
high-level positions within organizations. As an example, institutional leaders and decision
makers can make a commitment to ensure that high-level positions represent diversity, equity,
and inclusion and that women of color senior leaders can be given access to opportunities such as
chairing high-profile committees within the organization.
Women of color’s sense of belonging and support within an organization may impact
their potential leadership development. Workplaces that foster identity safety may give
individuals a better chance to succeed (Markus, Steele, & Steele, 2000). Furthermore, cultural
stereotypes and mishandling cultural differences can discourage performance (Clark & Estes,
2008; Hoyt & Murphy, 2016) and should be a consideration when seeking to support women of
color senior leaders. Effective leaders are aware of biases and prejudices that occur in the
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organization at the individual and structural levels and address microaggressions and other covert
ways of expressing bias and prejudice (Bensimon, 2005). Truly inclusive climates move beyond
surface level tactics (such as numbers) that merely communicate appreciation of diversity and
focus on the formation of high-quality relationships that build capacity for engagement,
challenge, support, and ongoing learning (Stevens et al., 2008). This research supports the
recommendation to provide information and training for institutional leaders and decision
makers in order to help them create a culture of inclusion in decision-making and ensure that
women of color feel comfortable applying for and working in high-level positions within
organizations.
Institutional leaders and decision makers need to recognize the need for policies and
practices that support women of color senior leaders. The results and findings of this study
indicated that all of the participants were able to identify tangible ways that organizations did, or
potentially could, demonstrate practices that promote inclusion. Additionally, nine participants
were able to speak about tangible ways that organizations did, or potentially could, demonstrate
practices that promote diversity and equity. Participants spoke about hiring and search
committees as the starting point for creating cultures that promoted diversity, equity, and
inclusion. A principle rooted in organizational change theory has been selected to close this gap.
Effective organizations ensure that organizational messages, rewards, policies and procedures
that govern the work of the organization are aligned with or are supportive of organizational
goals and values (Clark & Estes, 2008), and effective leaders address institutional policies and
practices that create barriers for equity (Bensimon, 2005). This would suggest that diversifying
top levels of leadership at organizations will create cultural models that support women of color
in senior leadership roles. The recommendation then is to create hiring policies and provide
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extensive training for search committees to recruit, hire, and retain diverse, qualified
professionals. As an example, search committees for senior leaders should receive
comprehensive training and job aids to help with recruiting, hiring, and retaining a diverse
workforce.
One explanation for the slow progress in diversifying professionals in higher education
may be the inability of higher education institutions to modify recruiting behaviors in response to
modern changes (Tuitt, Sagaria, & Turner, 2007). In the case of higher education, leadership
positions are prestigious and influential and the absence of persons of color in these positions has
major implications for building an equitable campus community (Flowers & Moore, 2008).
Institutional culture cannot evolve from a bare-minimum affirmative action approach to valuing
diversity without comprehensive diversity education for all the people who make up that culture
(Kayes, 2006). Search committees must have comprehensive training and knowledge in
recruiting, hiring, and retaining diverse faculty and staff (Kayes, 2006). Smith, Turner, Osei-
Kofi, and Richards (2004) also suggest that involving administrators in maintaining a stronger
institutional commitment to diversity, urging involvement in programs that address diversity
issues, while also utilizing job descriptions that are relevant to institutional diversity, are
essential elements to hiring a diverse workforce in higher education. Furthermore, equity-
minded hiring processes should ensure that search committees have gender and race diversity in
their compositions, include rubrics and interview questions that are equity-minded, include
language in postings and position descriptions that promotes diversity, equity and inclusion, and
ensure that searches do not move forward if there is not a diverse candidate pool (Center for
Urban Education, 2017). As such, it appears that the literature would support that institutions
should invest in comprehensive training for recruiting, hiring, and retaining a diverse workforce.
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Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) assert that the optimal method for ensuring
effectiveness in training programs is the New World Kirkpatrick Model which is derived from
the original Kirkpatrick Four Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The
original Four Level Model includes: (1) reaction or evaluation of how favorable, engaging, and
relevant participants feel the training is for their jobs; (2) learning or the intended knowledge,
skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment the participants acquire during the training;
(3) behavior or the extent to which participants apply what they learned during training in their
work; and (4) results or the extent to which targeted outcomes occur as a result of the training,
the support, and accountability (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2016) utilized these four levels to craft the New World Kirkpatrick Model which incorporated
additional elements, clarified interpretations, and provided illustration as to how to apply the
model in order to optimize performance.
Along with these additions, Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) revolutionized the
original model by reversing the order for program planning while also suggesting that an
evaluation plan should begin first with the goals of the organization and then work backward.
Therefore, they explain that “leading indicators” that bridge recommended solutions to the
organization’s goals are more easily identified and more closely aligned with organizational
goals. Further, this “reverse order” of the New World Kirkpatrick Model allows for a sequence
of three other actions: (1) the development of solution outcomes that focus on assessing work
behaviors; (2) the identification of indicators that learning occurred during implementation; and
(3) the emergence of indicators that organizational members are satisfied with implementation
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strategies. Therefore, implementing the plan in this manner bridges connections between the
immediate solutions and the larger goal while creating “buy in” to ensure success (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
The lack of women of color in senior leadership roles remains a significant issue across
all industries (Catalyst, 2019; Cook & Glass, 2014; Devillard et al., 2018; Herring, 2009;
Krivkovich et al., 2017). The purpose of this project was to uncover the KMO influences that
have affected women of color in senior leadership as it relates to the larger problem of
advancement and success within their roles at small, private, selective liberal arts institutions.
The analysis focused on identifying the characteristics and lived experiences that have influenced
the areas of knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational resources for the participants.
The proposed solution is to create various training programs and accountability measures which
are suited for preparing the organizations to recruit, retain, and promote women of color in senior
leadership roles.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Results and leading indicators. To ensure that the global goal is met, it is imperative to
define the desired outcomes, determine metrics for achieving outcomes, and identify the
method(s) by which each outcome will be reached. The first external outcome is to increase the
number of women of color senior leaders at small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions.
This outcome will be measured by the resulting percentage of women of color senior leaders at
these institutions. The methods used to measure this outcome are the American Council on
Education (ACE) and College and University Professional Association for Human Resources
(CUPA-HR) statistics. The second external outcome is an increase in the number of women of
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color aspiring to senior leadership at small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions. The
method used to measure this outcome will be the women of color in annual attendance at the
Student Affairs Professionals in Higher Education (NASPA) Aspiring Institutes, the College
Student Educators (ACPA) Aspiring Institutes, and the American Academic Leadership
Institutes.
The first internal outcome is increased recruitment strategies that target women of color
senior leaders. This outcome will be measured by the resulting number of women of color senior
leaders at small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions that are recruited. The method for
measuring this outcome is to solicit hiring demographic data from a sample set of small, private,
selective, liberal arts institutions. The second internal outcome is an increase in the
establishment of mentor programs designed to optimize women of color’s experiences and
performance at these institutions. This outcome will be measured by the number of women of
color senior leaders remaining senior leadership at small, private, selective, liberal arts
institutions and/or advancing to top leadership. The method for measuring this outcome is to
solicit demographic data from the NASPA, ACPA, and American Academic Leadership top
leadership institutes. Table 9 shows the outcomes, metrics, and methods for both internal and
external outcomes that are proposed as Level 4 indicators within the New World Kirkpatrick
Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). If the methods in Table 9 are utilized, then the metrics
should show whether organizations are achieving or not achieving their intended outcomes.

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Table 9
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Increased number of
women of color senior
leaders at small, private,
selective, liberal arts
institutions.
Percentage of women of
color senior leaders at small,
private, selective, liberal arts
institutions.
Gather data from American
Council on Education (ACE), and
College and University
Professional Association for
Human Resources (CUPA-HR).
2. Increased number of
women of color aspiring
to senior leadership at
small, private, selective,
liberal arts institutions.
Percentage of women of
color in mid-level positions
who are engaging in
professional opportunities
that promote pathways to
senior leadership.
Gather data from Student Affairs
Professionals in Higher Education
(NASPA) Aspiring Institute, and
College Student Educators
International (ACPA) Aspiring
Institute, and American Academic
Leadership Institute.
Internal Outcomes
1. Increased recruitment
strategies that target
women of color senior
leaders.
The number of women of
color senior leaders
recruited.
Solicit hiring demographic data
from sample set of small, private,
selective, liberal arts institutions.
2. Increased
establishment of mentor
programs designed to
optimize women of
color’s experiences and
performance.
The number of women of
color senior leaders
remaining senior leadership
at small, private, selective,
liberal arts institutions
and/or advancing to top
leadership.
Solicit demographic data from
Student Affairs Professionals in
Higher Education (NASPA)
Institutes, and College Student
Educators International (ACPA)
Institutes, and American
Academic Leadership Institute.

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Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholder population of focus was women of color senior
leaders at small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions in the United States. In order for these
institutions to improve recruitment, retention, and advancement of women of color senior leaders
they need training and strategic planning, targeted recruiting efforts, and mentor programs
available to women of color senior leaders. The first critical behavior is for top leadership
(trustees, presidents, executive cabinet, etc.) to engage in diversity, equity, and inclusion
trainings and workshops annually. The second critical behavior is for top leadership to engage in
strategic planning, evaluation of efforts, and institutional climate assessments on an ongoing
basis. The third critical behavior is for these institutions to correctly direct search efforts in order
to recruit diverse candidate pools as positions become available. The fourth critical behavior is
for formalized mentoring opportunities to be available to women of color senior leaders as they
are hired into the organizations. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for evaluation for
these critical behaviors are listed in Table 10.

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Table 10
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Institutional leaders and
decision makers at small,
private, selective liberal arts
institutions will engage in
diversity, equity, and inclusion
trainings and workshops
Number of
stakeholders
who attend
trainings and
workshops
The institution will provide opportunities
for stakeholders to participate in
educational opportunities on an annual
basis
Annually
2. Institutional leaders and
decision makers at small,
private, selective liberal arts
institutions will engage in
diversity, equity, and inclusion
strategic planning, evaluation,
and institutional climate
assessment
Annual reports Institutional leaders and decision makers
will engage in an ongoing strategic
planning and evaluation process to
understand the needs of the organization
as well as the assessment of efforts and
campus climate to create a diverse,
inclusive, and equitable institution
Annually
3. Institutional leaders and
decision makers at small,
private, selective liberal arts
institutions will correctly direct
search efforts to recruit diverse
candidate pools
Number of
historically
marginalized
and minoritized
applicants
3a. Train hiring committees on hiring
process that promotes diversity, equity,
and inclusion
3b. Require gender and racial diversity in
hiring committees
3c. Include language in position
descriptions that promotes diverse
applicants
3d. Create rubrics and interview questions
that are equity-minded
3e. Search committee chair shall work
with human resources to track
applications, looking for indicators that
the applicant pool contains qualified,
diverse applicants
3f. Search committee chair shall
determine that the search will be “failed”
if candidate pool is not representative of
diverse candidates
When
positions
become
available
within the
organization
4. Formalized equity-minded
mentoring opportunities will be
available to women of color
senior leaders
Number of
mentoring
opportunities
provided to
women of color
senior leaders at
small, private,
selective liberal
arts institutions
4a. The institution will connect newly
hired women of color senior leaders with
senior leaders within the organization that
will support their successful onboarding
to the institution
4b. Institutions will financially support
professional opportunities for women of
color senior leaders to connect with
mentors in their fields
Upon hire
and annually

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Required drivers. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) consider the processes and
systems serving to establish the training the drivers of critical behaviors, and serve to reinforce,
encourage, reward, and monitor individuals or groups to ensure the sought-after behaviors are
utilized to meet organizational objectives. Institutional leaders and decision makers at small,
private, selective, liberal arts institutions must meet the critical behaviors in order to recruit,
retain, and promote women of color senior leaders. Therefore, certain drivers will be
implemented to reinforce defined behaviors, encourage and reward positive outcomes, and
monitor overall performance. Behaviors will be reinforced through annual mentor and mentee
training and job aids for search committees. Behaviors will be encouraged through the process
of feedback and the rewards will be acknowledged through public visibility of the institution’s
efforts. Behaviors will be monitored through surveys and self-reporting from institutional
stakeholders. Table 11 shows the drivers that are recommended to support the critical behaviors
needed by institutions.

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Table 11
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical
Behaviors
Supported
(1, 2, 3, 4)
Reinforcing
Equity-minded mentorship training for existing senior
level faculty and administrators at small, private, selective,
liberal arts institutions
Annually 1, 4
Mentee training for new senior level women of color at
small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions
Annually 1, 4
Hiring committee job aids outlining methods for
conducting equity-minded searches
Formation of
hiring
committees
2, 3
Encouraging
Feedback and coaching from trustees, presidents, and
other top leaders for incoming/new women of color senior
leaders
Ongoing 1, 2, 4
Feedback from incoming/new women of color senior
leaders to existing senior leader mentors
Ongoing 1, 2, 4
Rewarding
Public acknowledgement of equity-minded initiatives Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 4
Increase in students seeing and interacting with women of
color senior leaders
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Monitoring
Surveys of the number of women of color senior leaders
continued employment and/or advancement within small,
private, selective, liberal arts institutions
Annually 3, 4
Survey self-reporting of mentoring initiatives at small,
private, selective, liberal arts institutions
Annually 4

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Organizational support. Gaining and sustaining organizational support for drivers of
critical behaviors is essential for achieving the sought-after outcomes (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Therefore, various resources are needed in terms of professional and
organizational development opportunities, equity-minded practices and cultural competence
training, and time allocated to personnel to engage in the recommendations. Organizational
space for seminars and mentoring meetings, as well as trained facilitators who can design and
lead mentor/mentee training are also needed. Furthermore, support from the top down at small,
private, selective, liberal arts institutions is critical to ensure the drivers are implemented.
Therefore, three key elements are required for continuous implementation of the concepts
outlined for Level 3: (1) the organizational recognition and willingness to address the lack of
women of color in senior leadership positions; (2) organizational commitment to mitigate
concerns about resource limitations; and (3) the assignment of Level 3 activities as primary
duties and not as collateral or ancillary tasks.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following completion of the recommended solutions, institutional
leaders and decision makers at small, private, selective liberal arts institutions will be able to:
1. Recognize the barriers and biases that affect the recruitment, employment and
retention of women of color in senior leadership roles. (C)
2. Apply knowledge of how to provide women of color institutional access and
opportunities to strengthen skills that contribute to their professional pathways. (P)
3. Apply knowledge of equity-minded hiring practices in the recruitment process for
senior level positions within the institutions. (P)
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4. Integrate diversity, equity, and inclusion training into the professional practice of
institutional leaders and decision makers. (P)
5. Provide mentor/mentee program opportunities for women of color senior leaders
within the organization. (C)
Program. The learning goals listed in the previous section will be achieved with a
training program that explores in-depth barriers and biases that affect the recruitment,
employment and retention of historically minoritized and marginalized individuals, equity-
minded hiring practices, and mentor program designs. The learners, institutional leaders and
decision makers at small, private, selective liberal arts institutions will study a broad range of
topics pertaining to organizational biases and barriers for historically minoritized and
marginalized individuals, equity-minded hiring practices, and equity-minded mentor program
design. The program consists of two types of interventions: (1) three one-hour online learning
modules consisting of education about systemic barriers and biases for historically marginalized
and minoritized populations and equity-minded practices in higher education; and (2) one six-
hour face-to-face application workshop allowing participants to discuss their learning, inventory
institutional practices, and begin creating committees to oversee the implementation of equity-
minded practices. The total time for completion of the program is 9 hours with an expectation
that committees continue to meet to make progress toward established goals after the program is
concluded.
During the asynchronous online learning modules, participants will be provided a job aid
of key terms and definitions pertaining to barriers and biases for historically minoritized and
marginalized individuals in the workplace. Another job aid will contain a decision flow chart for
ethical, identity conscious, mission-based decision making around hiring. A third job aid will
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contain best practices for developing equity-minded mentoring programs. The job aids will be
explained and demonstrated on video using authentic scenarios, and key terms will be defined
with examples. The learning modules will pause from time to time to enable participants to
confirm their understanding. At the end of the modules, the participants will be provided the
opportunity to practice their learning and receive feedback from the learning management system
and instructor.
During the synchronous in-person sessions, the focus will be on application and
implementation for participants. Through the process of discussions, role-playing, and peer
modeling, participants will discuss their learning and practice the content that they learned via
the online modules. Then in small committees, participants will spend time inventorying
institutional practices, and begin to identify equity-minded practices to incorporate in existing
policies and practices. The committees will continue to meet after the program is concluded to
carry out tasks, implement solutions, and memorialize equity-minded practices.
Evaluation of the components of learning. The basis of Level 2 is formed by formative
and summative learning with finite and defined goals of the training (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). Five fundamental components of Level 2 learning include knowledge, skills, attitude,
confidence, and commitment (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Table 12 details the evaluation
of the components of learning for the program that have been previously outlined. The table
displays the five fundamental components of learning transferable throughout the training
interventions along with the declarative knowledge, procedural skills, attitude, confidence, and
commitment of participants.

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Table 12
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge — “I know it.”
Knowledge checks using multiple choice items In the asynchronous portions of the
course
Knowledge checks through reflections and
opportunities to think, pair, share during
individual/group activities
Periodically during the in-person
workshop
Procedural Skills — “I can do it right now.”
Skill checks utilizing scenarios with multiple-choice
items
During the asynchronous portions of
the course
Demonstration in groups during role playing scenarios. During the synchronous workshop
Pre- and post-test assessment survey asking
participants about their level of proficiency
Before and after the asynchronous
modules and the synchronous
workshop
Attitude — “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Institutional leaders and decision makers will sacrifice
their time to attend these trainings
During asynchronous online modules
and synchronous workshop
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment item Thirty days after the entire program
has concluded
Confidence — “I think I can do it on the job.”
Survey items using scales In the asynchronous portions of the
course
Discussions following practice and feedback During the synchronous workshop
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment item Thirty days after the entire program
has concluded
Commitment — “I will do it on the job.”
Institutional leaders and decision makers will create an
individual action plan
During the synchronous workshop
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment item Thirty days after the entire program
has concluded

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Level 1: Reaction
A formative and summative evaluation will assess the reactions of stakeholders as they
relate to the program (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Within the Level 1 stage of learning,
formative reaction is measured by learner approval, engagement, and relevance while the
summative component is established immediately upon completion of the program (Kirkpatrick
& Kirkpatrick, 2016). Table 13 highlights the methods for assessing participants’ reactions as
they relate to engagement, relevancy, and satisfaction during and after the program.

Table 13
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Completion of online modules/lessons/units During asynchronous modules of the program
Observation by instructor/facilitator During the synchronous workshop
Attendance During the synchronous workshop
Course Evaluation Thirty days after the entire program has
concluded
Relevance
Brief pulse-check with participants via
discussion
During the synchronous workshop
Course Evaluation Thirty days after the entire program has
concluded
Customer Satisfaction
Brief pulse-check with participants via
discussion
During the synchronous workshop
Course Evaluation Thirty days after the entire program has
concluded

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Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. Training evaluations should be
purposefully simple, easy to navigate, and strive to gather foundational opinions and are most
effective when conducted immediately after training to capture rapid reactions of and reflective
perceptions of the training participants (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). During the in-person
workshop, the facilitator(s) will conduct periodic brief pulse-checks by asking the participants
about the relevance of the content to their work and the organization, delivery, and learning
environment. Additionally, feedback will be solicited via brief assessments before and after each
online module and in-person workshop requesting the participant to indicate their engagement,
the relevancy of content, and their overall satisfaction with the content and delivery during and
after the program. The assessment contains Likert-scale style questions illustrated in Appendix
A.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Delays in evaluation often
produce more insightful results; understanding the true value obtained from the training requires
time for the effects of the training to manifest (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Thirty days
after the completion of the training, participants will be asked to complete a course evaluation
related to their sustained learning of the concepts taught in the training. The evaluation will be
comprised of declarative and procedural questions and will specifically measure Level 1 or
participants’ satisfaction and program relevance; Level 2 or participants’ confidence in applying
what they have learned; Level 3 or the application of what they have learned; and Level 4 or
their overall performance after having implemented the program’s strategies (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). The assessment contains Likert-scale style questions illustrated in Appendix
B.
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Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal for institutional leaders and decision makers is measured by the
increased programs and interventions that are designed to promote women of color senior
leaders. These programs include bias-reduction and equity-minded practices trainings,
mentoring programs, and altered search committee and hiring practices to promote diversity,
equity, and inclusion within the organizations. The facilitators will track the feedback provided
by participants in order to assess the increase in these solutions at the institutions. A visual
representation (infographic) will be maintained and shared with the organizations that participate
in the training. Similar dashboards will be created for other measures at Levels 4, 3, 2, and 1.
Figure 13 represents the visual representation that will be maintained and shared with
organizations.

Figure 13. Visual representation of initiatives implemented.

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Summary
The recommendations based on the Kirkpatrick Model included in this chapter, at this
stage, are simply recommendations. When properly utilized, training designed with this
framework can provide the desired results when planned and executed in a way that gives value
to the organization. This program was explicitly designed to offer skills needed to create
cultures that promote the goal of recruiting, retaining, and advancing more aspiring women of
color senior leaders at small, private, selective liberal arts institutions. These interventions
included building organizational capacity to recruit and hire diverse candidates, provide
mentoring and support to diverse employees, and to provide education and training around bias-
reduction and equity-minded practices for top level leaders in the organizations.
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) provides a
framework for establishing a proven and effective method for designing and evaluating training
to produce targeted outcomes. By starting with the end state in mind at Level 4, the design and
structure of the training begins with the goal in mind and flows through the critical behaviors to
the elements of learning, and then ultimately to the training itself (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). This approach also provides the means for assessing results, leading indicators, and
summative data. The implementation of the program should lead to organizational cultures that
promote the success of women of color senior leaders. Next, targeting Level 3 behaviors to
measure will allow small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions the ability to observe and
reinforce critical behaviors necessary for achieving results. Reinforcing, encouraging,
rewarding, and monitoring communicates the value the goals and progress toward them. Next,
Level 2 evaluations serve to provide a means of examining learning, and aim to increase skills,
attitude, confidence, and commitment from institutional leaders and decision makers. Finally,
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Level 1 evaluations can give organizations a sense of participants’ engagement in the training by
pulse-checking and surveying participants for their reactions. By collecting these four levels of
data, data-driven decisions govern the program design and implementation and promote the
possibility of achieving goals.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
Clark and Estes (2008) was introduced in Chapter 2 as a conceptual model and
framework for the exploration of this study. Using this model to determine the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences on the global goal to recruit, retain, and advance more
aspiring women of color senior leaders at small, private, selective liberal arts institutions helped
the researcher frame thoughtful recommendations to the organizations. Then, by examining the
interaction between knowledge, motivation, and the cultural models and settings, it was
determined which were the most substantial influences that impacted the global goal. The New
World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) was introduced in Chapter 5 to
develop outcomes and assess effectiveness. This model allowed for careful planning of desired
outcomes, identification of critical behaviors needed, identification of required drivers to support
the critical behaviors, and an evaluation plan. The advantages of combining the Clark and Estes
(2008) gap analysis framework with The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016) were that first there was an investigation of the source of the problem and
then there was the ability to integrate and develop effective solutions for the identified
challenges.
A significant area of weakness for this study is the singular stakeholder approach.
Although the singular stakeholder for this study, women of color senior leaders at small, private,
selective, liberal arts institutions, addressed the most important perspective, the institutional
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leaders and decision makers are the ones responsible for implementing changes to address the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs to support women of color senior leaders. It
was important to the researcher that the voices and experiences of women of color senior leaders
were used to drive the data of this research. This presented a challenge in regard to the Clark and
Estes (2008) framework, as the researcher did not want to imply that women of color had gaps in
their knowledge and motivation surrounding the problem.
Limitations and Delimitations
All studies face limitations that can manifest as challenges with access or resources or
producing inaccurate or unrepresentative data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The limitations and
delimitations of this study were previously discussed in Chapter 3; it is important to re-address
those as well as others that developed throughout the study. First, the researcher focused on a
sample size (10) that was appropriate for this specific qualitative research but was not large
enough to provide a statistically valid cross section of opinions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Second, this qualitative study occurred in the natural settings of participants, making it extremely
difficult to replicate elsewhere (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Simon & Goes, 2013). Third, the
results of the analysis of data does not represent all women of color in senior leadership roles in
the academy. Fourth, as identified earlier in Chapter 5, the singular stakeholder for this study,
women of color senior leaders, addressed the most important perspective, but was not inclusive
of the stakeholders who are responsible for implementing changes to address the problem.
Finally, the researcher herself was a limitation of this study. As a white woman, she did not
share the same background or lived experiences of the stakeholders who were interviewed.
While the participants were very forthcoming and generous with their time and narratives, it
should be noted that interpretations of the researcher come from the lens of an outsider.
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Delimitations result from specific choices made by the researcher and include the
conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions while developing the study plan (Simon &
Goes, 2013). The first delimitation in this study was that the data was limited to women of color
senior leaders in small, private, selective liberal arts institutions. Furthermore, the majority of
participants identified as African American as the researcher was not able to recruit more
participants that represented Asian, Indigenous, or Latina women senior leaders. While the
paucity of Asian, Indigenous, and Latina women represented in the study is reflective of national
employment trends for these populations in higher education, this means that the perspectives
represented in the data were not inclusive of all historically marginalized and minoritized women
in senior leadership roles. The second notable delimitation is that the researcher’s background of
15 years is in the field of student affairs within higher education. In order to mitigate this bias,
the researcher utilized the process of bracketing the researcher’s notions, worldviews, and
assumptions to minimize personal thoughts and opinions when analyzing the data (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
Future Research
This study leaves much room for future research. As noted, one of the major limitations
of this study was the small sample size. Therefore, a future study with a larger sample is highly
recommended. The study design could be adapted and used in other small, private, selective,
liberal arts institutions to expand the body of educators interviewed on the topic. Moreover, the
future study should include more racially diverse participants since the majority of participants in
this study identified as African American. Replicating this research with a larger, more diverse
group may provide participants with varied backgrounds and experience that further contributes
to the understanding of the problem and further inform how to more significantly impact the
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biases and barriers they face. Additionally, future research could develop different conceptual
frameworks to explore similar data sets and elicit different findings and recommendations.
Conclusion
The study attempted to understand and record the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences surrounding the experiences of 10 women of color senior leaders as
they relate to recruitment, retention, and advancement at small, private, selective, liberal arts
institutions. The research questions driving the design, methodology, data analysis, and
recommendations were:
1. What is the perception of women of color in senior leadership of the various
knowledge and motivation influences related to their senior leadership attainment
within their small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions of higher education?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and the knowledge
and motivation influences?
Based on the analysis of the findings, Chapter 5 included recommendations in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizations that will inform the design of a program that is meant
to increase the number of women of color in senior leadership positions within select small,
private, selective, liberal arts institutions.
The participants’ narratives in this study suggest that, although they possessed
persistence, strong belief in their capabilities, and valued their work in higher education, there is
work to be done in order to create equity-minded cultures at small, private, selective, liberal arts
institutions. The data directed the proposed solutions of implementing bias reduction and equity-
mindedness trainings, examining and structuring hiring policies and processes to promote
diversity, equity, and inclusion, and equity-minded mentor programs to support the success of
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women of color senior leaders. As a result of the data collected, a comprehensive improvement
plan was developed utilizing the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) model which specifies how
the global goal can be achieved. The innovated program design outlined in this study seeks to
provide outcomes, metrics, and methods to resolve the problem of a lack of women of color in
senior leadership at small, private, selective, liberal arts institutions. By implementing the
recommendations and solutions outlined in this study, small, private, selective, liberal arts
institutions can begin to change their cultures in order to promote the success of women of color
senior leaders.

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APPENDIX A
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. I believe that your perspective and life
experience will be very useful as I study the intersections of leadership and women of color, with
the intent to promote aspiring women of color senior leaders in higher education. The purpose of
this project is to conduct a needs analysis in the areas of knowledge and skill, motivation, and
organizational resources necessary to help understand the pathways of success for women of
color leaders. Do you have any further questions about this study before we begin?

I want you to know that all data that is gathered will be confidential and kept in a secure place;
your insights will not be shared with any of your colleagues, or anyone else. Is it okay if I use a
recorder to help me reflect on the details of our discussion? I want to remind you that you will
not be identified in any of the written materials. If I do use a quote from our interview, I will use
a pseudonym for you. I would like to ask for your signature on the following forms that request
your permission to record; you may keep the second copy. There is no pressure for you to
complete this interview and you may choose to stop at any point. Do you have any questions
before we get started?
1. O: How long have you worked in your position at your organization?

2. KM: Describe the professional journey that has led you to your position today.
a. How did you end up in the type of work you do?
b. What are some of the primary reasons you were drawn to this work?
c. What relationships do you rely on or invoke to do your work?

3. M: Tell me about your philosophy behind how you do your work.

4. KMO: What does being a woman of color in a senior leadership role look like on a daily
basis for you?
a. Talk about the experience of being a woman of color in a position of power in higher
education.

5. KMO: What do you enjoy most about your position?

6. KMO: What obstacles do you face in your work? What have you struggled with?

7. K: What barriers and biases have you encountered on your leadership journey that you
attribute to your race or gender?

8. K: What has been transformative for your success as a woman of color in your professional
practice?

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147
9. K: Describe an ideal setting for supporting the attainment of women of color in senior
leadership in higher education.
a. What does it look like?
b. What kinds of support is offered?
c. What are the policies?
d. What’s the culture and climate?

10. K: What are the critical factors that have influenced your career?

11. K: What did no one tell you, that you wish you had known, about what it means to be a
woman of color in higher education?

12. M: How would you describe the value you gain from your work as a senior leader?
a. Does this value mitigate the cost? If so, how?

13. M: Talk about your strategies to address barriers and biases in your role as a woman of color
in senior leadership.
a. What things bolster your confidence?
b. What skills do you think you have developed over the years?

14. O: Do you have examples of the ways in which institutions have valued you as a woman of
color in leadership?

15. O: Do you have examples of the ways in which institutions have failed you as a woman of
color in leadership?

16. O: What are some examples of ways that your organization has policies and/or procedures
that support diversity and inclusion for faculty and staff?

17. O: What are some examples of ways that your organization has opportunities for growth to
support diversity and inclusion for faculty and staff?

18. K: What is the biggest lesson you have learned about yourself on your professional journey?

19. Do you have any advice for aspiring leaders that are women of color?

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APPENDIX B
IMMEDIATE FEEDBACK SURVEY
SAMPLE EVALUATION IMMEDIATELY AFTER TRAINING
Thank you for taking the time to complete the following evaluation. Your feedback is
important as we consider the impact of this program.
1
Strongly
Disagree
2
Disagree
3
Agree
4
Strongly
Agree
(L1) The training was relevant to me.
(L1) The content of the training was
interesting to me.

(L1) The training provided value to me.
(L2) I can immediately apply what I
have learned in the training.

(L2) I am confident in applying what I
have learned in the training.

Open ended: What part of the training
was most beneficial?

Open ended: What part of the training
needs modification?

Open ended: List three key takeaways
from the training:

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149
APPENDIX C
DELAYED FEEDBACK SURVEY
SAMPLE EVALUATION DELAYED AFTER TRAINING
Thank you for taking the time to complete the following evaluation. Your feedback is
important as we consider the impact of this program.
1
Strongly
Disagree
2
Disagree
3
Agree
4
Strongly
Agree
(L1) The training continues to be
relevant to me over a period of time

(L1) I would recommend the training
program

(L1) The training continues to be
valuable to me over a period of time

(L3) I continue to consistently apply
what I learned in my training

(L2) I am still confident in applying
what I have learned

(L4) As a result of the training, I
continuously implement suggestions
into my work

(L3) I have been able to demonstrate
what I have learned

Open ended: What part of the training
was most beneficial?

Open ended: What part of the training
needs modification?

Open ended: List three key challenges
you faced when implementing
concepts after the training:

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Asset Metadata

Creator Hughes, Leslie Ann (author)

Core Title Women of color senior leaders: pathways to increasing representation in higher education

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 11/12/2019

Defense Date 09/10/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag diversity,equity,equity-minded hiring,Higher education,inclusion,leadership,mentoring,OAI-PMH Harvest,the academy,women of color

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Robles, Darline (committee chair), Bensimon, Estela (committee member), Malloy, Courtney (committee member)

Creator Email lahughes1425@gmail.com,lesliehu@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-230538

Unique identifier UC11673594

Identifier etd-HughesLesl-7905.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-230538 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-HughesLesl-7905.pdf

Dmrecord 230538

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Hughes, Leslie Ann

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA