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Bridging the gap of gender equity in entrepreneurship: an evaluation study

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Bridging the gap of gender equity in entrepreneurship: an evaluation study

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Content Running head: GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 1

BRIDGING THE GAP OF GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP: AN
EVALUATION STUDY
by
Georgette K. Fraser-Moore

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2019

Copyright 2019 Georgette K. Fraser-Moore

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 2
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to the five people closest to me that made this doctoral journey
possible for me. First and foremost to my mother Bernice Connell who taught me that there are
no limits to what is possible or what you can achieve when you put your mind to it. To my
husband Ferris Moore who has supported me from the very beginning through every step of this
journey, stayed up late nights, and early mornings, motivating me every step of the way. Last but
definitely not least I dedicate this to my three sons Davon, Jonathan, and Jordan. The three of
you fill my life with so much light and purpose. I learn so much from you all three of you, and I
feel blessed that God chose me to be your mom.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 3
Acknowledgements
I am grateful for my committee chair Dr. Helena Seli, for her guidance, support, and
invaluable insight throughout this program. My committee members Dr. Darline Robles and Dr.
Mark Pearson, I am extremely grateful not only for you taking the time to serve on my
committee, but I am grateful for your valuable feedback throughout the proposal and defense
process.
I am grateful to my family, my friends and my fellow cohort members. We are such a
diverse and unique bunch. It has been an honor getting to know each and every one of you. I
learned so much from my peers and have made friendships that I will hold close forever. Dr.
James McGhee, Dr. Amy Carmack, Dr. Rian Medlin, Dr. Jacqueline Cavalier, and Dr. Heather
Cash, you guys helped me push through some of the toughest times when this felt like an
impossible task. I’m grateful to have people like you to share this achievement with.
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 4
Table of Contents
Dedication ...................................................................................................................................2
Acknowledgements .....................................................................................................................3
Chapter One: Introduction ......................................................................................................... 10
Introduction of the Problem of Practice ................................................................................. 10
Organizational Context and Mission ...................................................................................... 11
Organizational Goal .............................................................................................................. 12
Related Literature .................................................................................................................. 13
Importance of the Evaluation ................................................................................................. 14
Description of Stakeholder Groups ........................................................................................ 14
Stakeholder Group for the Study ........................................................................................... 16
Purpose of the Project and Questions ..................................................................................... 17
Methodological Framework ................................................................................................... 18
Organization of the Project .................................................................................................... 19
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature...................................................................................... 20
Female Entrepreneur Historical Growth and Performance ..................................................... 20
The Imbalance in Gender Ideals for Female Entrepreneurs .................................................... 22
Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Gender Roles .......................................................................... 22
Gender Bias ....................................................................................................................... 23
Female Entrepreneurial Competencies ................................................................................... 24
Core Business Competencies in Entrepreneurship.............................................................. 24
Business Soft Skills ........................................................................................................... 25
The Clark and Estes Gap Analysis Conceptual Framework.................................................... 27
Female Entrepreneur Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ....................... 28
Knowledge and Skill-Related Influences ........................................................................... 28
Motivation-Related Influences ........................................................................................... 33
Organizational Influences .................................................................................................. 35
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Female Entrepreneurs’ Knowledge and Motivation
and the Organizational Context ............................................................................................ 36
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 40
Chapter Three: Methods ............................................................................................................ 41
Participating Stakeholders ..................................................................................................... 41
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale ................................................................................ 42
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale......................................................... 42
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 5
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale ............................................................................ 43
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale ..................................................... 44
Explanation for Choices ........................................................................................................ 44
Data Collection and Instrumentation...................................................................................... 46
Surveys ................................................................................................................................. 47
Interviews ............................................................................................................................. 47
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 49
Credibility and Trustworthiness ............................................................................................. 50
Validity and Reliability ......................................................................................................... 50
Ethics .................................................................................................................................... 51
Limitations and Delimitations ............................................................................................... 53
Chapter Four: Results and Findings ........................................................................................... 54
Participating Stakeholders ..................................................................................................... 54
Surveys ............................................................................................................................. 55
Interviews.......................................................................................................................... 56
Knowledge and Motivation Results and Findings .................................................................. 57
Organizational Results and Findings...................................................................................... 65
Additional Findings ............................................................................................................... 69
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 71
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations ...................................................................... 74
Introduction and Overview .................................................................................................... 74
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences .................................................. 74
Knowledge Recommendations .......................................................................................... 74
Motivation Recommendations ........................................................................................... 79
Organization Recommendations ........................................................................................ 81
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan ..................................................................... 83
Implementation and Evaluation Framework ....................................................................... 83
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations ............................................................... 84
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators ............................................................................ 84
Level 3: Behavior .............................................................................................................. 86
Level 2: Learning .............................................................................................................. 90
Level 1: Reaction .............................................................................................................. 94
Evaluation Tools ............................................................................................................... 95
Data Analysis and Reporting ............................................................................................. 96
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 6
Summary ............................................................................................................................... 97
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 98
References .............................................................................................................................. 100
Appendices ............................................................................................................................. 105
APPENDIX A: Survey Protocol .......................................................................................... 105
APPENDIX B: Interview Protocol ...................................................................................... 111
APPENDIX C: Survey Protocol - Immediate Evaluation Instrument ................................... 113
APPENDIX D: Survey Protocol - Delayed Instrument ........................................................ 115
APPENDIX E: Data Analysis Charts for Evaluation........................................................... 116

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 7
List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals ................. 16
Table 2: Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments for Knowledge Gap Analysis ............ 33
Table 3: Motivational Influences and Assessments for Motivation Gap Analysis....................... 35
Table 4: Organizational Influences and Assessments for Organizational Gap Analysis .............. 36
Table 5: Survey Participants ...................................................................................................... 55
Table 6: Interview Participants .................................................................................................. 56
Table 7: Summary of KMO Findings and Results...................................................................... 72
Table 8: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations ......................................... 76
Table 9: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations.......................................... 80
Table 10: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations ..................................... 82
Table 11: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes ....................... 85
Table 12: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation .............................. 87
Table 13: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors ......................................................... 89
Table 14: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program ....................................... 93
Table 15: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program .................................................... 95

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 8
List of Figures
Figure 1. Interaction of stakeholder knowledge and motivation within organizational cultural
models and settings. .................................................................................................................. 39
Figure 2. Female entrepreneurs’ mixed networking competency................................................ 59
Figure 3. Response to the survey question, I feel confident in my ability to negotiate and attain
contracts. ................................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 4. Female entrepreneur government contracting knowledge............................................ 62
Figure 5. Response to the survey question, thinking back to when you started your business, how
would you rate your knowledge as a “new” business owner to attain contracts? ........................ 63
Figure 6. Response to the survey question, as a member of OFE, I feel comfortable getting
support from my network and mentors. ..................................................................................... 66
Figure 7. Response to the survey question, OFE has provided information and/or resources about
obtaining capital/funding for my business. ................................................................................ 71
Figure 8. Sample dashboard showing female entrepreneurs’ revenues and growth categorized by
certification status. .................................................................................................................... 97

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 9
Abstract
There's a huge gender imbalance in the entrepreneurship world. For all the strides women have
made in launching startups and driving the economy forward, they face persistent obstacles that
hamper their progress. Women lag behind men in areas like access to capital and opportunities to
win bids for government contracting. Over the last two decades, the presence of women in
entrepreneurship has been on the rise. Women are entering the ranks of business ownership at
record rates, and the importance of female small business owners and their impact on economic
growth is being broadly recognized. Women are launching a net of more than 1,100 new
businesses every single day. Over the past 20 years, the number of women-owned firms has
grown 114% compared to a growth rate of 44% for all businesses. That’s 2-1/2 times the national
average. To date, women-owned businesses comprise more than 39% of all of the country’s
businesses. They employ more than 9 million workers and 8 percent of the private-sector
workforce. They generate more than $1.7 trillion in revenues. That may sound like a large
number, but in actuality even though women-owned businesses account for more than 39% of
businesses, they only contribute to a little over 4% of business revenues. This study takes a
mixed methods research approach to address the problem of gender disparity as it pertains to the
imbalance of female entrepreneurs. This study looks at an organization that helps advance
women-owned businesses and a sample group of female entrepreneur members to assess the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that contribute to female entrepreneurial
success factors. The goal is to help analyze and uncover new information to ultimately help in
driving solutions and narrowing the gender gap in entrepreneurship.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 10
Chapter One: Introduction
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
The importance of female small business owners and their impact on economic growth
has been on the rise and is being recognized around the world (Bledsoe & Oatsvall, 2010;
(Ramadani, Dana, Gerguri, & Tašaminova, 2013, Reynolds, Hay, Bygrave, Camp, & Autio,
2001). According to a report from the National Women’s Business Council (NWBC), women-
owned businesses in the United States increased by 26.8% from 2007 to 2012 (7,792,115
businesses to 9,878,397 businesses). Revenues for women-owned businesses have increased by
45% from 2007 through 2016, compared to only 9% of all businesses (American Express, 2016).
Even with this exponential rise in female entrepreneurship, seven out of ten entrepreneurs are
male, and of those represented businesses, women-owned businesses bring in, on average, 27%
of the revenue that male-owned businesses receive (Loscocco & Robinson, 1991). The
entrepreneurial space has been dominated by men, not because women cannot compete or
perform as efficiently as men, but because of societal stigmas and biases that limit the
progression of women as leadership figures in the entrepreneurial business world (Eagly &
Karau, 2002; Hadary, 2010; Powell, 2011). The problem of gender inequity in entrepreneurship
shows in the lack of female entrepreneur representation, visibility and diversity across industries
(Akehurst, Simarro. & Mas - Tur, 2012; Bosse & Taylor, 2012). The lack of female
representation and support would result in hefty ramifications to the Gross Domestic Profit
(GDP) and job creation (Bosse & Taylor, 2012). Even though woman-owned businesses are
growing at a rate across the United States of two and a half times that of all businesses, they are
overrepresented in the bankruptcy population due to lower earnings, lower capitalization, and
lower access to capital that stem from gender biases (Bosse & Taylor, 2012). If the problem
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 11
continues, the impact could result in the loss of the economic contributions of women-owned
businesses, which was estimated at generating over $1.6 trillion ($1,622,763,800,000) in annual
revenues and employs nearly 9 million people (American Express, 2016).
In 1986, the Wall Street Journal coined the term glass ceiling as a metaphor to describe
patterns and barriers that women face in the workplace. The glass ceiling phenomenon impedes
the advancements of qualified and talented women professionals (Stevenson, 2011). In the
entrepreneurial business realm, female business leaders encounter barriers when dealing with
innovation, general business growth, and allowing for a work-life balance (Source here). Women
are also marginalized when they attempt to enter the market as an entrepreneur (Bledsoe &
Oatsvall, 2010; Hadary, 2010; Loscocco & Robinson, 1991). Frustrated by this continued
problem, the Organization for Female Entrepreneurship (OFE) devoted resources to fuel
economic growth by facilitating the development of women-owned businesses across the
country.
Organizational Context and Mission
The Organization for Female Entrepreneurs (OFE) (a pseudonym) is a not-for-profit
organization headquartered in Atlanta Georgia with chapters and members situated across the
United States that educate, build, assist and support women-owned and other small businesses in
creating, developing and positioning them for success as contractors, suppliers and vendors to
corporations, colleges, universities and government agencies. The organization was founded in
2010 and is owned, controlled, and operated by women in the United States. OFE’s mission is to
fuel economic growth globally through access to opportunities by identifying, certifying, and
facilitating the development of women-owned businesses. Using core competencies to facilitate
engagement, the OFE is also a leading advocate for women business owners and entrepreneurs.
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 12
The OFE works to foster diversity in the world of commerce, and promote innovation, open
additional channels of revenue, and create partnerships to provide opportunities that fuel the
economy.
As a diverse coalition, the OFE is governed by a leadership team that consists of
designated experts and chapter leaders. Chapter leaders are female entrepreneurial members that
are established and progressive within their companies. Engagement of the organization’s
constituents is a key goal throughout the OFE network as active involvement strengthens
existing relationships and fosters new ones. Recognition that promotes the success of key
constituents creates an awareness of the leading practices required to create success for women
entrepreneurs and inspire all to reach higher standards of performance.
Organizational Goal
The goal of the Organization for Female Entrepreneurs (OFE) is to increase the
representation of women-owned businesses by 15% by May 2020, as well as increase
opportunities and visibility of women-owned businesses for attaining contracts. The OFE’s goal
is set by the leadership team and based on historical data. The 2017 OFE annual report showed
approximately 400 OFE female entrepreneur members. Another goal that OFE has is to increase
the number of women certified as a Woman-Owned Small Business (WOSB) through the US
Small Business Association (SBA). They have not captured the data to gauge their success or to
achieve their goal of certified members. Based on their focus areas, the OFE leadership team
projected an aspirational goal based on their mission to aid in the continued growth of women-
owned businesses.
To measure current and future progress of the organizational goal OFE generates annual
reports indicating the number of OFE members, the programs they have executed throughout the
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 13
year, as well as tracking the number of contract opportunities pursued and executed for OFE
entrepreneur members. The organizational goal to increase female entrepreneur representation is
benchmarked based on data from the organization’s 2016 annual report and supporting metrics.
OFE gives women-owned businesses hands-on instruction, knowledge, and support to compete
for real-time business opportunities provided by the OFE leadership team through hands-on
workshops. The connections and businesses growth generated through OFE’s partner programs
are measured and will be used to track progress towards increasing opportunities and visibility of
women-owned businesses for attaining contracts.
Related Literature
Since the 1980s, women as small business owners and entrepreneurs have been
recognized as important drivers of economic growth in the United States (American Express,
2016; Bledsoe & Oatsvall, 2010; Hadary, 2010). The National Association of Women Business
Owners (2017) reported that more than 11.6 million firms are owned by women, generating more
than $1.7 trillion in revenue and employing more than nine million people. This is a significant
increase from the 10.4 million firms listed in 2007 across the country (Bledsoe & Oatsvall,
2010). However, despite these impressive statistics, there are significantly fewer women in
entrepreneurship roles compared to men with comparable qualifications due to inequitable
barriers (Akehurst, Simarro, & Mas-Tur, 2012; Castellano, 2015; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Hadary,
2010; Johnson, Stevenson, & Letwin, 2018). Women often have inequitable access to capital and
opportunities needed to start and sustain a business (Hadary, 2010; Roomi, Harrison, &
Beaumont-Kerridge, 2009; Stevenson, 2011). Hadary (2010) found that several barriers stand
between women entrepreneurs, including funding, risk tolerance, and knowledge. Research
suggests that even though female entrepreneurs are making progress, the gender gap in
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 14
entrepreneurship is still a prevalent problem (Akehurst, Simarro, & Mas - Tur, 2012; Bosse &
Taylor, 2012; Hadary, 2010).
Importance of the Evaluation
It is important to evaluate OFE’s performance as it relates to their performance goal to
increase the representation of women-owned businesses by 15% by May 2020, as well as
increase opportunities and visibility of women-owned businesses for attaining contracts for a
variety of reasons. First, as a women-lead business, the OFE is in a position where it can make a
large impact on women’s entrepreneurship and directly address the larger problem of practice of
lack of representation. Additionally, with their hands-on approach to helping in the progress of
its female entrepreneurial members, the OFE has the opportunity to help drive the progress of
female entrepreneurs through a large, highly-engaged constituent group. Finally, evaluating the
organization’s performance will allow stakeholders to obtain formative data that can be used to
drive the organization’s programming decisions which positively impact female entrepreneurs.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
For the OFE to successfully fulfill its mission to fuel economic growth globally through
access to opportunities, by identifying, certifying and facilitating the development of women-
owned businesses, the organization needs to make a conscious effort to leverage the expertise of
their stakeholders. It is important to receive input from and collaborate with stakeholders to
determine organizational growth and progress (Wheeler & Sillanpää, 1998). Wheeler and
Sillanpää (1998) argue that organizational improvement should be linked to stakeholder dialogue
and inclusion, thus allowing for a continuous improvement cycle. Otherwise, the organization
faces the risk of institutional failure.
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 15
There are three primary stakeholder groups within OFE that benefit from and contribute
to the achievement of the organizational goal: 1) female entrepreneur members, 2) the OFE
leadership, and 3) OFE staff. The female entrepreneur members are the key stakeholder group
driving OFE’s mission and organizational goal. To qualify as a woman-owned business,
members must control, operate and manage their businesses with an ownership percentage of at
least 51%. Woman business owners can certify with the Small Business Association as a
certified Woman Owned Small Business (WOSB), which allows the business to qualify for
government set-asides.
The leadership team at OFE consist of a team of women that are experts in small business
establishment and growth as well as established woman business owners. OFE has chapter
leaders that manage the individual chapters’ activities and programming. They provide hands-on,
personalized guidance to local members and assist in providing relevant knowledge and business
services. OFE leadership team are a critical component to the success of OFE’s organizational
goal, as they provide direct opportunities for business growth and contract assistance for female
entrepreneur members.
Finally, the OFE staff manage and operate the daily business of the OFE. OFE staff work
in six different departments within the larger organization: The Office of the President,
marketing and communications, programs, membership and business development, alliance
relationships and certification services, and finance and operations. The OFE staff are key
stakeholders and, as the staff consists of the individuals who work day in and day out to drive the
organizational goal measure progress and facilitate the programs that feed into OFE’s mission
goal.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 16
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of the Organization for Female Entrepreneurs is to fuel economic growth globally by
identifying, certifying, and facilitating the development of women-owned businesses.
Organizational Performance Goal
The goal of the Organization for Female Entrepreneurs (OFE) is to increase the representation of
woman-owned businesses by 15% by May 2020, as well as increase opportunities and visibility of
women-owned businesses for attaining contracts.
Female Entrepreneur Members OFE Leadership Team
Members
OFE Staff

By January 2020, Female
Entrepreneur Members will
obtain OFE certification and
expand their business footprint
by 15% within a year of
certification.
By September 2019, the OFE
Leadership Team will increase
their engagement and
programs for women-owned
businesses by 10%.

By September 2019, OFE Staff
will increase the amount of
OFE Women-owned business
certified with Small Business
Association’s (SBA) Woman-
Owned Small Business
(WOSB) certificate holders by
30%.

Stakeholder Group for the Study
Although a complete analysis would involve all stakeholder groups, for practical
purposes, the selected stakeholder group for this study is the female entrepreneur members of the
Organization for Female Entrepreneurs (OFE). The successful performance of the female
entrepreneur member will directly correlate to the success of the organizational goal more than
any other variable. Their performance will drive the metrics and key performance indicators
(KPIs) of success. Female entrepreneur members will also be the primary recipients and
beneficiaries of a successfully executed organizational goal.
The goal of the female entrepreneur member is to obtain OFE certification and expand
their business footprint by 15% within a year of certification. A company’s business footprint is
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 17
identified by the scope of their operational reach, particularly those driving their revenue
streams, how they earn income, produce profits and generate a higher than average return on
investment. As of 2017 OFE had approximately 400 active members. The proficiencies and
competencies necessary for this stakeholder group to have to achieve the organizational goal are
directly tied to them actively engaging in the services provided by the OFE. If OFE’s female
entrepreneur members obtain their certified women-owned business status with the SBA, attend
the training and programs, and utilize the knowledge and services that OFE offers, they will
move the gauge on their success.
Conversely, if OFE female entrepreneur members use the services of the organization
and are not successful in getting certified and growing their business, it would directly impact the
effectiveness and success of OFE reaching their goals of increasing the representation of women-
owned businesses. OFE’s staff members will monitor the progress of the overall organization
and the progress of the female entrepreneur members. The staff will gather metrics concerning
certifications, contract growth, and partnerships, as well as conduct surveys and internal
evaluations to gauge the progress of programs that impact the organizational mission and goal.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of the study is to understand the female entrepreneurs’ capacity to obtain
certification as a Woman-Owned Small Business (WOSB) and expand their business footprint by
15% within a year of certification. The study culminates in recommendations that address the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences needed for this stakeholder group to be
successful. These findings will allow the Organization of Female Entrepreneurs (OFE) to better
support female entrepreneurs in their efforts to expand their business footprints and address the
problem of gender inequity as it pertains to the imbalance of women entrepreneurs. The literature
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 18
presented explores various factors that point to precursors required for success for female
entrepreneurs. While a complete performance evaluation would focus on all stakeholders, for
practical purposes, the stakeholder group of focus in this analysis is the female entrepreneur
members of OFE. As such, the following questions were used to guide this study:
1. What are the female entrepreneurs’ knowledge and motivation related to getting certified
and increasing the number of contracts attained by 15%?
2. What is the interaction between OFE’s organizational culture and context and female
entrepreneurs’ knowledge and motivation as it relates to getting certified and increasing
the number of contracts attained by 15%?
3. What are the recommendations for OFE’s organizational practice in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources?
Methodological Framework
This study employs a mixed-method data gathering and analysis structure that leverages
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework to identify the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors that influence female entrepreneurs within the Organization for Female
Entrepreneurs (OFE), specifically related to their ability to achieve their goals as business
owners and stakeholders within the organization. The mixed-method case study uses descriptive
statistics. The mixed-methods study integrates both quantitative and qualitative research to
collect and analyze data (McEwan & McEwan, 2003). Quantitative research uses numbers and
statistical methods to analyze data, while qualitative research uses primarily text and images to
make inferences on data (Creswell, 2014; McEwan & McEwan, 2003).
Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework is being used to diagnose the human
factors that cause performance gaps. Three important elements that contribute to performance
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 19
gaps are knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences (Clark & Estes, 2008). Clark and
Estes (2008) gap analysis starts with identifying and analyzing knowledge, motivation, and
organizational barriers. Research methods are used for analyzing the gap between current
performance and desired goals (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Organization of the Project
Five chapters are used to organize this study. The first chapter provides the reader with
key details, concepts, and terminology generally used in a dialogue on aiding in the success of
female entrepreneurs. The organization’s mission, goals, and stakeholders, as well as the
framework for the project, are also introduced in the chapter. Chapter Two provides a review of
literature related to the inequities related to the gender gap in entrepreneurship. The imbalance in
gender ideals that play a part in the inequities that female entrepreneurs face, female
entrepreneur performance and business growth statistics, and competencies associated with
female entrepreneurs are addressed in this chapter. Chapter Two also delves into the Clark and
Estes (2006) analytical gap analytical framework in more detail. Chapter Three details the
methodology used for this study as it pertains to the participant pool, data collection, and
analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are evaluated and analyzed. Chapter Five provides
solutions, leveraging the analysis of the data and literature to close any perceived gaps, as well as
present recommendations for an implementation and evaluation plan for the possible solutions.
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 20
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Chapter Two provides a review of literature related to the inequities associated with the
gender gap in entrepreneurship. There are three major sections covered by this chapter. The first
section focuses on the related literature concerning the equity gap experienced by female
entrepreneurs. Starting with a history of women-owned small businesses, the first section
addresses the imbalance in gender ideals that result in the disparities and inequities of female
entrepreneurs and examine evidence-based competencies that contribute to successful
entrepreneurship. The second section of this chapter provides a review of the Clark and Estes
(2008) gap analysis framework, including a detailed analysis of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences and how they interaction with the related literature on female
entrepreneur’s competencies. Finally, this chapter outlines the conceptual framework used for
this study, specifying how the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences interact with
each other to direct change.
Female Entrepreneur Historical Growth and Performance
Over the years, female entrepreneurs have made strides in launching new businesses and
helping to drive the economy forward, but even with the progress they have made over the years
they still face persistent obstacles that hinder their progress (Akehurst, Simarro, & Mas-Tur,
2012; Bosse & Taylor III, 2012). Female business owners typically encounter forms of systemic
gender bias that have a negative impact on their business performance (Bosse & Taylor III, 2012;
Johnson et al., 2018). Entrepreneurial activity fosters development and growth in the economy,
but there is an evident disparity in the female business ventures that stem from many sources
(Berger & Kuckertz, 2016).
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 21
In spite of the inequities, female entrepreneurs continue to face, women-owned small
businesses have seen exponential growth over the last several decades. Before 1980, gender was
not generally considered because women were not considered subjects in entrepreneurial
research (McGowan, Cooper, & Greenan 2012). However, there has been an influx of women
that have had the desire to create their own opportunities and be in control of their professional
lives (Loscocco & Robinson, 1991). The number of self-employed women rose 68% between
1972 and 1982, compared to only a 24% increase in self-employed men (Loscocco & Robinson,
1991). In 1984, women-owned businesses constituted approximately 9.5% of all firms in the
United States. In 2007, female entrepreneurs made up 29% of all firms in the United States, and
in 2016, that number grew to 38% (American Express, 2016). Despite the growth over the years,
woman-owned businesses lack the financial performance and business success of comparable
male-owned firms.
The overall performance of women-owned businesses tends to be lower than that of
business owned by men (Johnson et al., 2018; Loscocco & Robinson, 1991). Women often enter
the entrepreneurship arena with fewer resources available to them than men, and as a result, they
are more likely to go into industries such as retail or personal services where the cost of entry is
low (Hadary, 2010). Inherently, since women entrepreneurs have still been centralized around
retail and service industries increases their chances for relatively lower performance (Robinson
& Stubberud, 2011). The majority of businesses owned by women continue to be lower in
profitability compared to those owned by men (Loscocco & Robinson, 1991; Johnson et al.,
2018). In 1982, women-owned businesses only comprised 1% of male-dominated industries, like
construction, compared to 12% of male-owned businesses in the same industries (Hadary, 2010).
At that time, 50% of women-owned businesses were in the service industry, and twenty %were
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 22
in retail trades (Hadary, 2010). As of 2013, woman-owned businesses were dominant in only
three industries: 1) health and social care, 2) personal services, and 3) education (Zervant, 2013).
Long-term growth and prosperity require the participation of women in enterprise, where the
potential for business demands an analysis of differences in comparison to men regarding the
way they act and think (Akehurst, Simarro, & Mas-Tur, 2012)
The Imbalance in Gender Ideals for Female Entrepreneurs
Many times, women encounter barriers, both visible and invisible, that hinder the
realization of activities, one of them, would be related to the implementation of entrepreneurial
activities involving the creation and growth of small businesses (Navarro & Jiménez, 2016).
Female entrepreneurs face prejudice and stereotypes derived from perceived gender roles that
impact their business success. They are also faced with biases aligned with gender expectations.
Prejudice, Stereotypes, and Gender Roles
Female entrepreneurs are met with a disadvantage as soon as they enter the
entrepreneurship space (Akehurst et al., 2012; Berger & Kuckertz, 2016). They are subject to
prejudices and gender stereotypes that drive their role as entrepreneurs (Hadary, 2010; Hideg &
Ferris, 2016; Powell, 2011; Robinson & Stubberud, 2011; Roomi, 2009; The Principal Financial
Group [Principal Financial], 2005). Powell (2011) found that women are faced with the
incongruity between the stereotypes of the strong male-driven leadership roles and the
requirements of the female gender role. Stereotypically, women are modeled as exhibiting
weaker attributes, such as using empathy and understanding, versus the demanding and
authoritative stereotypes of men (Hideg & Ferris, 2016). Hadary (2010) suggested that there is a
pervasive stereotype among business and government leaders that women do not have the
capabilities needed to lead substantial, growing businesses. In addition to being considered not
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 23
capable of leading a small business, female entrepreneurs are often driven towards business
structures that are considered more suitable for women.
According to Loscocco and Robinson (1991), to escape inequality women businesses
should fit into specific niches. In the early 1980s, approximately 50% of women-owned
businesses were in the service industry (Loscocco & Robinson, 1991). Over 30 years later,
Robinson and Stubberud (2011) established that women-owned businesses were still
concentrated in the service industry. The businesses were frequently established as retail and
service industries that are more competitive and have historically lower performance (Robinson
& Stubberud, 2011). Women-owned businesses are systematically concentrated within
traditionally female-typed fields with lower average business receipts than male type fields
(Loscocco & Robinson, 1991; Robinson & Stubberud, 2011).
Gender Bias
Gender biases play a large role in the gender discrimination that women face when being
considered as a leader (Bandura, 1999; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Hadary, 2010; Loscocco &
Robinson, 1991; Robinson & Stubberud, 2011; Stevenson, 2011). Typically, this type of
discrimination has been explored in research concerning business financing. Robinson and
Stubberud (2011) found that obtaining financing is more problematic for women than men.
Women are often disadvantaged as they frequently have unequal access to financial resources
and opportunities needed to start a business when compared with their male counterparts
(Stevenson, 2011). Most women start businesses with personal assets and have minimal if any,
external funding (Stevenson, 2011). Some companies and businesses admitted to having no
desire to do business with women business owners (Loscocco & Robinson, 1991).
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 24
Women are not viewed as having the potential to lead, even when they exhibit leadership
traits and behaviors like being assertive, confident, and exhibiting agentic behaviors not usually
expected of women (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Hadary, 2010). These types of prejudices contribute
to the disparities that lead to gender imbalance of entrepreneurs. Females that have proven to be
competent leaders are discriminated against and assumed to not have the confidence, skills, and
competence to lead due to gender bias and prejudice (Hadary, 2010; Powell, 2011).
Female Entrepreneurial Competencies
There are core business competencies aligned with being a successful entrepreneur, such
as having strong business and managerial skills, marketing and finance skills, and contract
negotiation and networking skills (Bledsoe & Oatsvall, 2010; Hadary, 2010; Johnson et al.,
2018; Robinson & Stubberud, 2011). Competencies such as marketing, tend to be lacking across
the board for both male and female entrepreneurs and poses an impediment to selling goods and
services (Robinson & Stubberud 2011). Female entrepreneurs that have similar skill sets and
competencies as their male counterparts tend to not reach the same level of success.
Core Business Competencies in Entrepreneurship
There are significantly fewer women in entrepreneurship roles compared to men with
comparable qualifications (Castellano, 2015; Eagly & Karau, 2002). In 2016, woman-owned
businesses constituted only 38% of entrepreneurs in the United States (American Express, 2016).
Of businesses started by female entrepreneurs, the majority of them fail due to the lack of
managerial skills and experience (Loscocco & Robinson, 1991; Robles & Zárraga-Rodríguez,
2015). Additionally, women small business owners felt that their marketing deficiencies posed
an impediment to success (Loscocco & Robinson, 1991; Robinson & Stubberud, 2011). Lack of
financial expertise in such areas as controlling expenses, cash flow, planning, forecasting and
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 25
raising capital is problematic during the startup phase for many female entrepreneurs (Berger &
Kuckertz, 2016; Loscocco & Robinson, 1991; Robinson & Stubberud, 2011). These
inefficiencies often continue after the business starts to thrive, and female entrepreneurs are not
able to make up for those early disadvantages (Loscocco & Robinson, 1991).
When it comes to formal education, women tend to have higher education levels than
males, but the number one reason for failures of women-owned businesses is connected with a
lack of core business skills (Bosse & Taylor III, 2012; Hadary, 2010; Reynolds et al., 2001). The
lack of core business skills tends to inhibit their success as entrepreneurs (Bosse & Taylor III,
2012). Female entrepreneurs are frequently deficient in essential business skills, and
competencies as their male counterparts developed more professional experiences in corporate
environments (Guerrero & Richards, 2015). Women tend to be more educated than their male
counterparts, but the education that women have inherently does not prepare them for
entrepreneurship (Bosse & Taylor III, 2012; Reynolds et al., 2001). These lack of skills are a
result of biased educational and occupational systems that segregate women into non-technical
and non-managerial jobs (Bosse & Taylor III, 2012; Loscocco & Robinson, 1991). Education at
women-focused business centers that target aspiring female business owners tend to ignore skills
that strengthen sustaining a business, like planning for future growth and focuses instead on
business startup planning and personal budgeting as a new entrepreneur (Hadary, 2010).
Business Soft Skills
Soft skills like negotiating and networking are critical core competencies required to be a
successful entrepreneur (Guerrero & Richards, 2015; Hadary, 2010; Robinson & Stubberud,
2011; Roomi et al., 2009; The Principal Financial Group [Principal Financial], 2005). Soft skills
give female entrepreneurs the edge over men, but many women get intimidated when faced with
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 26
situations that require a specific skill set from a specific soft skill, like negotiating (Guerrero &
Richards, 2015). Another reason for weaker business performance is women business owners
often have weaker network structures and usage patterns (Principal Financial, 2005). Research
on social networks shows that men usually have stronger informal networks that are more useful
for providing help in starting businesses, such as connecting new business owners with sources
of funding and various types of business advice (Robinson & Stubberud, 2011; Roomi et al.,
2009).
Another core soft skill necessary for successful female entrepreneurship is goal setting.
There is a direct correlation between effective goal setting and running a successful business
(Hadary, 2010; Johnson et al., 2018; Robinson & Stubberud, 2011). There is a direct correlation
between goal-setting and attaining expected outcomes; this is tied to the entrepreneur's desire for
growth (Hadary, 2010). Both female and male entrepreneurs set goals, but goal setting has been
found to be inherently different (Hadary, 2010; Robinson & Stubberud, 2011). Female
entrepreneurs have exhibited tendencies to have other goals besides sales, profits, and growth,
and give more weight to nonmonetary issues than men do (Robinson & Stubberud, 2011). Men
tend to start businesses with a goal for the business to grow as big as possible, while women tend
to start businesses for ideals such as being personally challenged and work-family balance. They
are usually comfortable staying at a size that they can personally oversee (Hadary, 2010). When
tying goals to profitability, perceived profitability can be an imperfect measure of performance
because entrepreneurs with lower expectations can be satisfied and feel successful with low
profits, while high expectations may result in dissatisfaction with profit levels that others may
consider excellent (Robinson & Stubberud, 2011).
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 27
There are also core competencies for business success that female entrepreneurs need like
perseverance and the ability to embrace change. Women entrepreneurs need to be trained to
equip them with skills like how to be a trendsetter, embrace change and innovate beyond
expectations (Hadary, 2010). To elevate their businesses to the next level female entrepreneurs
should take the time to listen to what other experienced entrepreneurs have tried (Sherlock,
2013). Finding a mentor to help in understanding business effectiveness is key to business
success (Sherlock, 2013).
The Clark and Estes Gap Analysis Conceptual Framework
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model is used in this study to analyze the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that influence female entrepreneurs within the
Organization for Female Entrepreneurs (OFE), specifically as it relates to their ability to achieve
their goals as business owners and stakeholders within the organization. To successfully
implement change and progressively achieve stakeholder and organizational goals, this study
leverages the gap analysis to uncover potential solutions that can be put into practice and
improve organizational effectiveness. Clark and Estes (2008) maintain that gaps are regularly
apparent due to the lack of skill or knowledge, motivation, and organizational barriers.
Knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences are vital elements that are
pertinent to explore and align to successfully reach targeted goals. Having pertinent knowledge is
essential for people to align conceptual, theoretical, and strategic factors with individual and
organizational goals (Clark & Estes 2008; Rueda, 2011). People need to know what to do, when
to do it, how to do it, who should be doing it, where to do it, and why it needs to be done (Clark
& Estes, 2008). Motivational factors influence behavior and are defined by Clark and Estes
(2008) as what “gets us going, keeps us moving, and tells us how much effort to spend on work
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 28
tasks” (p. 80). Motivational theories, such as self-efficacy, goal orientation, and attributions, are
critical to the motivational processes necessary for efficient performance (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). Organizational influences encompass the processes, material
resources such as tools, facilities, cultural influences and other organizational factors that are
instrumental in shaping the performance and development of individuals (Clark & Estes, 2008)
Female Entrepreneur Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
The knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences associated with reaching the
goal of female entrepreneurs obtaining their certification as woman-owned businesses and
increasing their business footprint by 15% within a year of certification is examined in the next
section. When working towards achieving performance and business goals, it is essential to
identify the gaps between the current state and desired performance (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences are the three core gaps impacting goal
achievement (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Knowledge and Skill-Related Influences
Knowledge and skill enhancement are essential aspects required for the achievement of
personal and organizational goals (Clark & Estes, 2008; Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). Knowledge
can be gained through continuing and advanced education, or it can be in the form of basic
information, job aids, and training (Clark & Estes, 2008). There are four types of cognitive
approaches to learning, including factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural
knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Mayer (2011)
defines learning as “a change in knowledge attributable to experience” that involves a change in
the learner, a change in what is learned, and a change in what causes learning (p. 14). To attain
knowledge, one must directly change the learner’s experience (Mayer, 2011). The use of
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 29
conceptual, theoretical, and strategic knowledge so that one can prepare for future challenges and
problems is one of the primary purposes of knowledge acquisition (Clark & Estes 2008; Rueda,
2011). Related literature maintains that female entrepreneurs often lack critical business skills
and proficiencies that men customarily develop from professional experiences in daily business
(Guerrero, & Richards, 2015). The lack of opportunity for female entrepreneurs to develop this
necessary knowledge shows a significant gap and directly impacts their ability to be successful.
Researchers in the late 1970s began addressing the concerns, differences, knowledge,
motivation, and nuances specific to female entrepreneurship (Akehurst, Simarro, & Mas‐Tur,
2012). This occurred at about the same time that small business owners and entrepreneurs started
to be recognized as major contributors to economic growth, and studies began to show that long-
term growth requires women to be included in the enterprise (Reynolds, Hay, & Camp, 2000).
Even though women are noted as being critical to economic growth, studies show that women
are faced with disadvantages, as women often have inequitable access to resources, experiences
and suffer biases and knowledge gaps that impair their success as business profitability owners
compared to their male counterparts (Akehurst et al., 2012). Knowledge is key to, growth, and
performance. (Barbara, 2008).
Knowledge types. Cognitive approaches to learning highlight four types of
knowledge: factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, and
metacognitive knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Factual knowledge is basic
knowledge related to specific disciplines. For example, female entrepreneurs need to know their
legal business status and whether it is active or inactive. Conceptual knowledge is the knowledge
of principles around a particular domain (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Female entrepreneurs
need to have conceptual knowledge of how to run a business. Procedural knowledge outlines the
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 30
steps necessary to sequentially perform a task. For example, female entrepreneurs must
understand the procedural steps required for getting certified as a woman-owned business.
Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge around your particular cognitive processes (Krathwohl,
2002; Rueda, 2011). Female entrepreneur members should have the knowledge to create
timelines including measurable goals, milestones, and review processes. All four cognitive
approaches to knowledge are important for the enablement of female entrepreneurs to be
successful in establishing and growing their businesses. However, based on the literature and
problem of practice, only procedural knowledge perceived gaps are examined in this study.
Knowledge of effective networking skills. Studies show that both formal business
networks and informal social networks are important for establishing and growing a business
(Kotula & Pohly, 2005; McGowan, Redeker, Cooper, & Greenan, 2012; Sharafizad, & Coetzer,
2017; Sherlock, 2013). One of the major reasons for weaker business performance by women-
owned businesses is weaker network structures and usage patterns (Kotula & Pohly, 2005). It is
important for female entrepreneurs to join professional groups and forge relationships that offer
support (Sherlock, 2013). Small business owners should rely on a stable and broad network to
support them as they start up and establish their businesses, and these networks will afford them
access to information and resources conducive to successful business practice (Sharafizad, &
Coetzer, 2017). These connections should also be mutually beneficial business relationships in
related industries, such as bankers, accountants, lawyers, government agencies, and consultants
(Sharafizad, & Coetzer, 2017). Research guided by social network theory (SNT) suggests that
there is a direct link between networking and success (Sharafizad, & Coetzer, 2017). Increasing
engagement in effective networking corresponds with the procedural knowledge type (Rueda,
2011). In addition to the procedural knowledge needed to increase motivation to network, female
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 31
entrepreneurs also need to acquire skills from other knowledge areas, particularly negotiation
skills.
Knowledge of contract negotiation. The interpersonal skill of negotiation efficacy is one
of the most important skills when launching and maintaining a venture (Davis, 2005; Guerrero &
Richards, 2015; Sing, 2002). Negotiation skills are necessary to secure capital and make pivotal
advancements when establishing a new business (Guerrero & Richards, 2015). Sing (2002)
reported that women were less skillful with different negotiation styles. Guerrero and Richards
(2015) conducted a study of female entrepreneurs in 2015 that uncovered that women tend to
feel intimidated when faced with negotiating. Both formal and informal negotiations are critical
to the success of businesses in today’s market (Davis, 2005). Negotiation skills are key when
seeking private equity, and limited skills in this area could significantly cripple women
entrepreneurs (Sing, 2002). There has been a large amount of research exploring effective
negotiation processes and the role that gender plays in negotiation (Sing, 2002). Without
negotiation skills, female entrepreneurs lack what is necessary to successfully gain access to
resources to support their business (Guerrero & Richards, 2015). As a type of procedural
knowledge, having the knowledge to negotiate is important, but female entrepreneurs should also
understand how to attain government contracts to increase their business footprint (Brandt, 1997;
Calmes, 2016).
Knowledge of how to attain government contracts. Knowing how to attain government
contracts is an important skill that can help to establish and grow business for female
entrepreneurs (Brandt, 1997; Calmes, 2016; The Federal Register, 2015). Studies show that the
chances of female entrepreneurs obtaining federal contracts are drastically lower than other
business types (Brandt, 1997; Calmes, 2016; The Federal Register, 2015). Calmes (2016) found
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 32
that the odds of women winning a bid for a federal contract is 21% lower than for comparable
companies. Acquiring the skills to understand ways to effectively submit bids for contracts and
get favorable terms is important (Davis, 2005). The federal government has programs and laws
in place to stimulate and expand opportunities to award government contracts to businesses
owned and controlled by women (Calmes, 2016; The Federal Register, 2015). Launched in 2014,
one program allows women-owned businesses to qualify for no-bid “sole source” contracts,
which allow the female entrepreneur to gain the experience needed to win other competitive
contracts (Calmes, 2016; The Federal Register, 2015). After the implementation of the program,
contract dollars awarded to women-owned businesses rose 4.7% during the 2014-2015 fiscal
year (Calmes, 2016).
Additionally, there are also opportunities for female entrepreneurs to obtain access to
federal contracts by entering into mentor-protégé relationships that qualify joint venture projects
for women-owned business contracts if the mentee organization is a woman-owned business
(Calmes, 2016; The Federal Register, 2015). This is a mutually beneficial venture as it allows the
mentor organization to access funds set aside for women-owned businesses and gives the mentee
organization opportunities to meet their business goals and get valuable experience needed to
win future contracts on their own (Calmes, 2016; The Federal Register, 2015). This kind of
procedural knowledge is critical for female entrepreneurs to have to be successful.
Table 2 shows the knowledge influences needed for female entrepreneurs, as well as
corresponding knowledge types and assessment options.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 33
Table 2
Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments for Knowledge Gap Analysis
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence
Assessment
Female entrepreneurs need to
know how to engage in
effective networking to
increase opportunities for
new contracts.
Procedural Female entrepreneurs are
asked to increase their
engagement with their
professional and social
networks.
Female entrepreneurs need to
know how to negotiate
contracts.
Procedural Female entrepreneurs are
asked to negotiate a contract
with corporate partners.
Female entrepreneurs need to
know how to attain
government contracts.
Procedural Female entrepreneurs are
asked to find contracts that
are relevant to their business.

Motivation-Related Influences
When evaluating performance, problems of practice, and solutions, there are three areas
used within the approach, knowledge, motivation, and organizational approach (Clarke & Estes,
2008). Understanding the principles behind motivation is important in implementing positive
organizational progression (Clark & Estes, 2008; Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). Clark and Estes
(2008) define motivation as that thing that gets us up drives us to do what we do and helps to
determine how long we do it. Clark and Estes (2008) identify three types of motivational
processes: active choice, persistence, and mental effort. Active choice is choosing (or failing to
choose) to work towards a goal. Persistence is choosing to stay with a goal without being
distracted by less important goals, and mental effort is working smarter by choosing the amount
of mental effort needs to be allocated to a particular goal (Clarke & Estes, 2008).
Within motivational processes, there are four critical segments: personal, activating,
energizing, and directed (Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). There can be a “push” (job frustration) and
“pull” (self-determination, seeking a challenge) of factors that contribute to a woman’s
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 34
motivation to become an entrepreneur (McGowan, Redeker, Cooper, & Greenan, 2012; Mohan-
Neill, 2001). Conversely, multiple motivations need to be explored to address this complex
relationship. Based on the related literature, three motivational theories guide behaviors for
female entrepreneurs: attribution theory, self-efficacy theory, and goal orientation theory.
Self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy is a social learning theory that can be defined as the
confidence an individual has for persevering through specific tasks to achieve desired
performance outcomes (Bandura, 1999). Pajares (2006) explains that motivation increases when
models that heighten self-efficacy are employed. Motivation increases when an environment is
created where individuals can observe credible models similar to themselves engaging in
behavior that has functional value (Pajares, 2006). Having people around that model to-be-
learned strategies or behaviors improves self-efficacy (Denler, Wolters, & Benzon, 2014).
Female entrepreneur self-efficacy. To be successful, female entrepreneurs need to
believe in their abilities to exponentially grow their business. When we engage in activities that
we enjoy and are passionate about we have more self-efficacy, which leads to successful
behavior (Sherlock, 2013). Studies show that women who have successful female entrepreneurs
as mentors to model success do better in business (McGowan, Redeker, Cooper, & Greenan,
2012). When professionals see others in successful positions that they can relate to, they tend to
have a stronger belief in their ability to succeed (Clarke & Estes, 2008). Having “high profile”
and powerful actors in one’s social networks is important and not only grants access to
opportunities and increased knowledge, but it also increases self-efficacy (Kotula, & Pohly
2005). Building strategic professional relationships help to increase motivation and confidence
(Sherlock, 2013). Having successful professional advisors within your network help to increase
self-efficacy and equips the individual with the belief that they too have the ability to grow and
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 35
be successful (Sherlock, 2013). For example, building relationships with people that you can
relate to that are specialists not only gives you knowledge, but it also gives you with confidence
that you can attain a level of specialty as well (Sherlock, 2013). These types of relationships
increase the entrepreneur’s motivation and promote belief in themselves that they can be
successful (Kotula, & Pohly 2005; Sherlock, 2013).
Table 3
Motivational Influences and Assessments for Motivation Gap Analysis
Assumed Motivation Influence Motivational Influence Assessment
Self-Efficacy:
Female Entrepreneurs need to believe in their
ability to exponentially grow their business.
Written survey item:
“I feel confident about my ability to grow my
business.”
Interview item:
“How do you feel about your ability to grow
your business?”

Organizational Influences
Clark and Estes (2008) noted that even when adequate knowledge and motivational
influences are in place, inadequate organizational factors, such as resources and the lack of
efficient processes, can inhibit the attainment of the organization’s goal. Organizational
influences are relevant in the overall state of the organization and the supporting stakeholders.
Knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences all contribute to female entrepreneurs’
ability to combat the potential disparities that they face in establishing and growing their
businesses and contract attainment. Leveraging all three factors are necessary to impact positive
outcomes and goal attainment for both the stakeholder and the broader organization (Rueda,
2011). Organizational culture should support organizational goals and policies. In cases where
they conflict, performance problems are likely to occur (Clark & Estes, 2008).

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 36
Table 4
Organizational Influences and Assessments for Organizational Gap Analysis
Assumed Organizational Influence Organizational Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence:
OFE needs to have a culture where female
entrepreneurs are comfortable providing and
getting support from others within their
network to attain success
Survey or interview questions gauging each
entrepreneur’s belief in oneself to succeed.
Cultural Setting Influence:
OFE needs to provide resources to connect
female entrepreneurs with opportunities for
new business contracts.
Survey or interview questions about resources
provided by OFE that facilitate new
opportunities and business connections for
contract attainment.
Cultural Setting Influence:
OFE needs to help facilitate connections with
successful mentors for female entrepreneurs
in their networks
Survey or interview questions about the
current or prospective mentors in their
network.

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Female Entrepreneurs’ Knowledge and
Motivation and the Organizational Context
Maxwell (2013) explains a conceptual framework as a system that takes into
consideration a variety of factors including concepts, assumptions, beliefs, expectations, and
theories. Within the study, the research process includes a detailed analysis that is used to
uncover gaps, identify presumed relationships, and feed into the study (Maxwell, 2013). A
conceptual framework is also a way to help conceptualize, identify, and document how particular
factors shape the research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This study leverages the Clark and Estes’
(2008) gap analysis as a framework to identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
factors that influence female entrepreneurs within the Organization for Female Entrepreneurs,
specifically related to their ability to achieve their goals as business owners and stakeholders
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 37
within the organization. Clarke and Estes (2008) gap analysis is used in this study to uncover
practical solutions, increase organizational effectiveness, and ultimately attain stakeholder and
organizational goals.
In qualitative research conceptual frameworks help to identify and understand what is
happening with the issues, settings, and people that are being studied (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). A mixed methods study allows for the alignment of the conceptual framework
to blend both quantitative research that draws the statistical relationships between variables and
complement that analysis with qualitative research to enhance and support the findings (McEwan
& McEwan, 2003). In research design, a conceptual framework is an integral component that is
developed in the initial stages of research and should be closely integrated with the research
questions and goals (Maxwell, 2013). The use of purposeful data is helpful in providing a deeper
understanding of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affect the
stakeholder goal (Merriam & Tisdell, 2009).
The presented conceptual framework is a visual representation that outlines the
relationship between the aspects that influence and impact female entrepreneur success in
obtaining certification as a Woman-Owned Small Business and expanding their business
footprint by 15% within a year of certification. The conceptual framework also aligns with the
organization’s global goal concerning the female entrepreneur stakeholder group. Knowledge,
motivational, and organizational influences of female entrepreneurs within OFE are incorporated
to highlight their respective integration with the stakeholder and organizational goal.
In the conceptual framework, the larger blue oval identifies the Organization for Female
Entrepreneurs (OFE) and the encompassing global goal. Within the larger organization, the green
circle represents the identified female entrepreneur stakeholder group. The stakeholder circle has
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 38
three distinct areas that encompass their knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences.
The orange rectangle at the base of the figure represents the stakeholder goal.
For this study, the female entrepreneur stakeholder group needs procedural knowledge.
Female entrepreneurs need to have knowledge and skills about effective networking to increase
opportunities for new contracts, contract negotiation and attaining government contracts (Brandt,
1997; Calmes, 2016; Davis, 2005; Guerrero & Richards, 2015; Sharafizad, & Coetzer, 2017;
Sing, 2002). A major factor that influences female entrepreneur motivation is their self-efficacy.
It is essential for individuals to believe in their ability to be successful (Bandura, 1999), and
believe in their ability to grow their business by increasing the number of contracts that they
attain. Both knowledge and motivation feed into the female entrepreneur experience and flow
that allows them to increase their business footprint and increase the number of contracts.
Organizational influences incorporating cultural model and cultural setting are aspects that
impact the female entrepreneur. OFE needs to have a culture where female entrepreneurs are
comfortable providing and getting support from others within their network to attain success.
The organization also needs to provide resources to connect female entrepreneurs with
opportunities for new business contracts and help to facilitate connections with successful
mentors for Female Entrepreneurs in their networks. Knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences are shown to be directly related to the achievement of female entrepreneurs within the
larger organization, and all aspects related to the stakeholder's success feed directly into the
global goal. Achieving the stakeholder goal of increasing their business footprint and increasing
the number of contracts attained will ultimately feed into OFE’s definition of global success.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 39
Organization for Female Entrepreneurs
Helps to aid in the increased representation of women
owned businesses in entrepreneurship globally States by
15%, as well as increase opportunities and visibility of
women-owned businesses for attaining contracts.
Female Entrepreneur Motivation
• Self-Efficacy: Female Entrepreneurs
need to believe in their ability to
grow their business by increasing the
number of contracts they attain.
Female Entrepreneur Knowledge
• Procedural: Female Entrepreneurs need to
have contract negotiation skills.
• Procedural: Female Entrepreneurs need
knowledge of how to obtain government
contracts.
• Procedural: Female Entrepreneurs need to
know how to engage in effective
networking to increase opportunities for
new contracts.
Organizational Influences

• Cultural Model Influence: OFE needs to have a culture where
female entrepreneurs are comfortable providing and getting
support from others within their network to attain success
• Cultural Setting Influence: OFE needs to provide resources to
connect female entrepreneurs with opportunities for new
business contracts
• Cultural Setting Influence: OFE needs to help facilitate
connections with successful mentors for Female Entrepreneurs
in their networks.

Figure 1. Interaction of stakeholder knowledge and motivation within organizational cultural
models and settings.
Female Entrepreneurs
Key

Organization

Stakeholder

Stakeholder
Influences

Phenomenon

Simultaneous
Interaction

Interaction
leads to

Goal

Stakeholder Goal
Female Entrepreneurs that are OFE Certificate Holders will increase their
business footprint and increase the number of contracts attained by 15%.
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 40
Conclusion
The purpose of the study is to address the problem of gender disparity as it pertains to the
imbalance of women entrepreneurs. The literature presented in this chapter explored various
factors that contribute to precursors required for success for female entrepreneurs and
specifically, their ability to achieve their goal of attaining growth in their businesses through
getting their certification and contract attainment. The knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences identified include areas such as more effective communication and
networking, self-efficacy, accountability, knowledge in contract legalese and negotiation, as well
as the need to have an organizational culture that nurtures relationship building and support
structures. Chapter three presents the methodological approach used in this study. The
conceptual framework is the analytical tool used for presenting the methodological approach in
the next chapter.
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 41
Chapter Three: Methods
This chapter describes the mixed method approach that is used to conduct this study,
including the research design, sampling strategy, data collection, and instrumentation methods.
The purpose of this study is to examine female entrepreneur knowledge, motivation, and
organization influences related to the organization goal of increasing the female entrepreneur
business footprint by 15% within a year of getting certified as a woman-owned business. The
following research questions were used to guide this study:
1. What are the female entrepreneurs’ knowledge and motivation related to increasing the
number of contracts attained by 15%?
2. What is the interaction between OFE’s organizational culture and context and female
entrepreneurs’ knowledge and motivation as it relates to increasing the number of
contracts attained by 15%?
3. What are the recommendations for OFE’s organizational practice in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources?
Participating Stakeholders
The primary stakeholder group for this study is the female entrepreneur members of the
Organization for Female Entrepreneurs. According to the 2017 annual report, OFE has
approximately 400 female entrepreneur members. For the study, the initial phase includes
solicitation of all OFE female entrepreneur members to participate in a survey. Subsequently, in
the next phase, a non-random sample of OFE entrepreneurs was selected for the interview phase.
Using a census sample of the surveys ensured that research and findings gathered would be
comprehensive and encompass the broader population. Survey respondents were also asked to
volunteer for an interview. After completing the primary questions, an optional question was
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 42
presented at the end of the survey giving participants the option to volunteer to be considered for
an interview. The final question was used to collect contact information from those stakeholders
who wish to be interviewed. The interviewees were be chosen to purposefully represent a diverse
grouping of business industries such as technology, sports, and education. The purposeful sample
helped to provide an understanding of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
that impact the stakeholder and global goal (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. The first criterion for the sample was that participants must be active
members of OFE. This criterion aligns with the research questions specific to OFE members.
Survey participants had to acknowledge that they met this criterion before gaining access to and
completing the survey.
Criterion 2. The second criterion for the sample required that participants be female
entrepreneur members. This criterion aligns with the primary stakeholder identified in the
research questions of this study. Survey participants were required to acknowledge that they met
this criterion as the initial qualifying question to and complete the survey.
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
A census sampling method for the survey was used which included OFE members as
potential respondents. Utilizing a census sampling method allowed for equal probability for
individuals in the population to participate (Creswell, 2014). Applying this sampling method
allowed for an equal chance of being selected from the population to take part in the interviews.
Further, this sampling method allowed for the findings of the study to be generalized to the
broader population (Creswell, 2014). Female entrepreneurs were chosen as the focus stakeholder
group for this study because they are aligned co-dependently to the global goal and mission of
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 43
the organization. Their particular knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences affect the
failure or success of the organization. Survey participants received a survey information request
to participate as an inclusion to the OFE online newsletter, as well as an announcement on the
OFE social media groups over an eight-week time frame.
The sampling survey data collection was fulfilled the initial phase of the study. The next
stage included interviews. Survey participants were prompted at the end of the survey of the
option to volunteer for participation in an individual interview if interested. Participants
interested in being interviewed were be able to express interest in being interviewed at the end of
the survey as an optional last survey question.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. The first criterion for the sample was that participants are female
entrepreneurs. This criterion aligns with the primary stakeholder identified in the research
questions of this study. Interview participants had to meet this criterion to be considered for the
interview process.
Criterion 2. The second criterion for the sample of participants was that participants
were required to be current members of OFE. This criterion aligns with the research questions
specific to OFE members. Interview participants had to acknowledge that they met this criterion
before gaining access to advance beyond the qualifying question in the survey.
Criterion 3. The third criterion for the sample was that participants needed to have
completed the survey and volunteered to participate in an interview. Participants were presented
with an optional question at the end of the survey that invited members that completed the survey
to volunteer to participate in the interview process.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 44
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The interview element of the study is designed to understand the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences that contribute to female entrepreneurs being successful and
overcoming inequities. Given the qualitative necessity for this study, the interviews and research
focus on the perspective of the participants and their take on the problem of practice, versus the
researcher’s perspective and existing data (Creswell, 2014). Survey participants who volunteered
for participation in the interviews were categorized by their respective market segments and
placed on a list for outreach. This information was collected as part of the initial survey. The
sample group was purposefully selected from varied market segment areas to include a balanced
variety of areas of practice. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) outline the requirements for purposeful
sampling and the selection of respondents that align with the study purpose and meet particular
criteria. To maintain rigor in qualitative sampling, a review of geographic locations was done to
purposefully include a variety of geographical segments (Maxwell, 2013). Survey respondents
were sorted by size of business, and then further sorted by business sector. A sample was chosen
based on choosing entrepreneurs representing different business sizes and a diverse cross-section
of business sectors. Due to the size of the sample population, the number of female entrepreneurs
was determined by the researcher based on the response rate, but ideally, the researcher aimed to
complete six to 10 total interviews with a minimum of one per market segment.
Explanation for Choices
For this study, the researcher conducted both a census survey and non-random purposeful
interviews. The initial census survey was used to obtain broad saturation and variety of possible
samples. The more refined purposeful interview process was strategically designed to allow for
exploration and understanding of knowledge, motivation and organizational influences,
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 45
respective to the female entrepreneurs and the organization. For this study, participants for the
interviews were chosen to represent across a variety of market segments from various geographic
areas to obtain a snapshot that can be expounded beyond the limited sample.
For the survey, a link was distributed in the organization’s monthly electronic newsletter
distributed to the OFE mailing list. A link was also be placed in the OFE social media groups for
eight consecutive weeks. The survey consisted of 15 questions that addressed various influences
of successful entrepreneurship inspired by identified motivation and organizational barriers. The
survey responses were be based on a five-point Likert-type that prompts for the level of
agreement, including strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, neither agree nor disagree,
somewhat agree, or strongly agree. Aligned with the conceptual framework of the study, the
questions were created to explore the motivational and organizational influences that affect a
female entrepreneurs’ ability to identify and apply evidence-based practices in overcoming
inequities.
Interviewees were identified from the surveys. From a sorted list of volunteers,
participants were be purposefully chosen to be interviewed. The individual interviews were
completed in person, via Zoom, and over the phone based on geographical and time constraints,
and explored the knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences identified for analysis.
The interviews consisted of identified probing questions, open-ended questions, and follow-up
questions (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Using a semi-structured
format provides consistency across participants and interviews, but allows flexibility for the
researcher to probe deeper into related areas (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 46
Data Collection and Instrumentation
A mixed methodology approach was used for this study, utilizing both quantitative and
qualitative data collection. The quantitative data was be collected first, and the qualitative data
collection and analysis followed shortly afterwards. This explanatory sequential mixed methods
design allows the researcher to use qualitative data to further the findings of the quantitative data
(Creswell, 2014). The initial discovery took the form of a quantitative survey that was sent to
potential participants. To expound upon that data, qualitative interviews were used to gather
further understanding and information that was used for analysis.
Through quantitative research, the researcher has the ability study a sample of the
population, and leverage the data to assess trends, numerical consistencies, as well as opinions
and attitudes that can be projected to the broader population (Creswell, 2014). The goal of the
quantitative survey in this study was to collect data on female entrepreneurs’ perceptions of the
motivation and organizational influences that impact their ability to increase the number of
contracts obtained. The quantitative data collected through survey responses was used to
contribute to the qualitative interviews.
An invitation and a link to the survey was sent to female entrepreneurial members of the
Organization for Female Entrepreneurs (OFE) through the newsletter that is e-mailed to
membership and subscribers monthly. Accompanying the request for participation was a brief
overview of the purpose and goal of the research, and a description of the sampling criteria
(Appendix A). The survey opened with an information page that outlined the purpose of the
study and participant involvement, confidentiality clauses, and investigator contact information.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 47
Surveys
The survey for this study was administered online through Qualtrics and distributed to the
membership of OFE. A description of the study, its importance, and pertinent contact
information was included with a link to the survey in OFE’s electronic newsletter as well as in
social media member groups. The electronic newsletter is distributed to the members and
subscribers monthly. As of the 2017 annual report, OFE membership includes approximately 400
members. The study description and survey link were made available on OFE’s website for ease
of access. Survey participants were required to acknowledge that they meet the eligibility
criterion before gaining access to and completing the survey. The survey instrument included 15
questions that address contextual information and influences relevant to the success of female
entrepreneurs specific to the motivation and organizational influences that drive their ability to
grow their businesses by negotiating and obtaining new contracts. The survey was administered
in English as it is the primary language for the organization and the language used in all their
organizational communications.
Interviews
Interview protocol. For the study, the initial phase includes the solicitation of members
to participate in surveys. Subsequently, in the next phase, a non-random sample of OFE
entrepreneurs were selected for the interview phase. Making a survey accessible to all members
allowed for a comprehensive collection of data that encompassed the broader female
entrepreneur population. At the end of the survey, respondents were asked to volunteer to
participate in an interview via a separate link. The interviewees were chosen to purposefully
represent a diverse grouping of business disciplines such as technology, sports, and education.
The purposeful sample was helpful in providing an understanding of the knowledge, motivation,
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 48
and organizational influences that impact the stakeholder and global goal (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
The interview protocol used in this study is highlighted in Appendix B. The interviews
began with a researcher introduction and a brief background on the study. Beginning an
interview with this information helped to frame the conversation and build rapport (Creswell,
2014). Preliminary questions were used to collect additional demographic data. The interview
used open-ended questions to allow participants to share their experiences conversationally.
Using an open-ended framework allows for a positive and flowing conversation that is conducive
to the participant feeling open to sharing (Creswell, 2014). Probing questions were used to
understand how people make sense and gather meaning from the environments and their
experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Moreover, probing questions were used to follow up and
obtain feedback specific to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences specifically
identified in this study).
Interview procedures. Each participant chosen for the qualitative analysis was
interviewed one time for this study. The participant was given the option to be interviewed in-
person. If in-person interviews were not feasible based on geographical location, the interviews
were conducted remotely. Several options were offered to the participant to ensure her comfort
level during the interview. For remote interviews, the interviews were held via video
conferencing using Zoom. Utilizing a video option when available allowed for the researcher to
observe visual and nonverbal cues in the interview process. The interview process allowed for a
personal connection to be established with participants and a deeper dive into the data uncovered
from the quantitative analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The interviews were audio recorded
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 49
with the permission of the participants. Before collecting any data, approval for the study was
obtained through the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB).
Data Analysis
For this study, the data was collected from an online survey and interviews. The survey
consisted of 15 questions including five Likert-type survey items. The data gathered from the
surveys were compiled and cleaned to look for any inconsistencies, missing data, and data entry
errors. Data cleaning improves the quality of the data prior to analysis, by identifying data entry
error and missing data (Salkind, 2016). Only completed responses were included in the data
analysis; non-responses were not included in the evaluation. Frequencies were calculated after all
survey data was collected, and descriptive statistical analysis was conducted once all survey
results were submitted. For questions 1-10, inferential frequencies were analyzed. For items in
which less than 20 participants responded, the percentage of stakeholders who strongly agreed or
somewhat agreed will be presented in relation to those who strongly disagreed or somewhat
disagreed. Means and standards deviation will be presented to identify average levels of
responses.
For interviews, data analysis began during data collection. Analytic memos were written
after each interview to document thoughts, concerns, and initial conclusions about the data in
relation to the conceptual framework and research questions. Interviews were transcribed and
coded within two weeks of the interview. In the first phase of analysis, open coding was used to
identify empirical codes. A priori codes were also applied from the conceptual framework. The
second phase of analysis aggregated the a priori codes into analytic/axial codes. In the third
phase of data analysis, pattern codes were identified, and themes emerged about the conceptual
framework and study questions were recorded.
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 50
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Research studies need to demonstrate a high level of credibility. If the tools used to
gather data prove to be unreliable or invalid, the determination and hypothesis would not be
useful and may be inconclusive (Salkind, 2016). Credibility is established by maintaining
reliability and validity throughout the research process and by exhibiting reliable and valid
management of the data (Salkind, 2016). For research to be reliable, it should be consistent and
repeatable. The credibility of the study is closely aligned with the ethics of the person conducting
the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). It is the responsibility of the researcher to ensure that the
findings presented are both credible and trustworthy (Maxwell, 2013).
The researcher had no affiliation to the organization of study. To increase the credibility
of the research, a mixed methods approach was used for this study. Two separate methods were
used to collect data: surveys and interviews. Using multiple methods of data collection helped to
determine that the study was measuring what it was intended to measure (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Prior to administration, the survey instrument and interview protocol were reviewed and
approved by the dissertation committee.
Validity and Reliability
To improve credibility, research studies should exhibit both validity and reliability
Creswell, 2014). Reliability is defined as the consistency of a test over time and across forms
(Salkind, 2016). The lower the error rate, the higher the reliability. Validity is the quality of a
test, to the extent that the findings accurately measure what it is supposed to be measuring and
has the potential to be generalized to the broader population (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Salkind,
2016). To maintain a high level of validity of the research and the findings, a census sample was
used for the survey data. The triangulation of the data methodologies for this study was used to
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 51
help maintain the reliability and stability of the data. A well-documented audit trail was also used
to help maintain a high level of reliability for the study, it allowed for the ability to follow the
study development and execution (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Non-responses were not contacted
to eliminate any opportunity for bias.
To increase the validity and reliability of this study, the researcher used an analysis plan.
The analysis plan helped to guarantee that the survey and interview questions aligned with key
constructs directly related to the research questions guiding the study (Salkind, 2017). To further
increase validity of the research findings, a purposeful sample of interviews were used from the
participants that volunteered to be interviewed. The six interviewees were chosen from diverse
business sectors which allowed for the data to be generalized to a broader cross-section of the
general population.
Ethics
The goal of a researcher is not only to collect and analyze data but to also focus on
maintaining validity and reliability within the study by maintaining ethical standards. Merriam
and Tisdell (2016) highlight that the integrity, validity, and reliability of the outcomes of
research rely greatly on the ethics of the researcher. A researcher must take into consideration the
study participants as whole people who seek to assist in the further understanding of a unique
research inquiry (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). According to Maxwell (2013), core ethical
principles should guide the researcher’s actions in research. To ensure that participants were
fully informed and aware of the boundaries of the study, detailed information sheets were
provided to all potential participants at the beginning of the study. Informed consent is a
necessary tool to ensure that the participants understand the voluntary and confidential nature of
the study, as well as their rights to choose whether or not to participate, or withdraw without
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 52
penalty (Glesne, 2011). Data collected was stored on a password-protected laptop, and no one
other than researcher and dissertation committee members had access to the data. The data files
will be destroyed five years after the completion of the study. Data should be kept for a
reasonable amount of time and be discarded so the data cannot be misappropriated if it were to
get into the hands of other researchers (Creswell, 2014). The interview transcripts for this study
were stored on a password-protected computer in the secure office of the researcher. Only the
researcher and transcriber has had access to the audio recordings. After they were transcribed,
the audio recordings were destroyed.
This study was submitted to the University of California Institutional Review Board
(IRB) in a further attempt to ensure the safety of all subjects. All rules and guidelines needed to
carry out researcher responsibility was used, and an ethical stance as the researcher was used to
carry out the study with integrity and rigor. All participants acknowledged participation on
Qualtrics, which also reminded them of the confidential and voluntary nature of the study in the
information sheet.
Before the start of interviews, participants were asked if they consented to be audio
recorded during the interviews. To avoid any conception of coercion, participants were reminded
that no incentives will be provided for their participation. However, at the end of the study, a $10
gift card was sent as a token of appreciation for participating in the study. The organization
described in this study has been identified by a pseudonym to ensure their privacy. The
researcher did not hold any affiliation with the identified organization and did not hold any
personal relationships with any potential participants or members of the organization.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 53
Limitations and Delimitations
This research study aligns with a mixed methods research approach and involved the use
of surveys and interviews. The study focused on an examination of the influences that impact
female entrepreneurial members within the Organization for Female Entrepreneurs (OFE),
specifically related to their ability to achieve their goals as business owners and stakeholders
within the organization. However, there are some limitations to this study. One limitation related
to this study is limiting the sample to only female entrepreneurs within OFE. The assumption
that OFE female entrepreneurs are reflective of non-OFE female entrepreneurs may not be
accurate. It is not finite that characteristics of female entrepreneurs within OFE maintain the
same or similar knowledge and motivation as female entrepreneurs not associated with this
particular organization. The limitations of this study also included the uncontrolled responses to
the surveys and the truthfulness of the participants in the surveys and interviews. Even though
the survey was anonymous and no personally identifiable information was used from the
interviews, participants may have had concerns that their responses may be identified and may
answer questions in a way that they felt was professionally expected. This study was also limited
by time and is only representative of a snapshot dependent on the conditions that occur during
that particular timeframe. There could have also been a potential disparity between the number
of survey responses and interviews conducted. Due to the amount of female entrepreneurial
members solicited for surveys, the study could have potentially had a large amount of survey
responses. With the limitation of resources and time constraints, only a select number of
interviews were conducted. This could have resulted in a potentially large gap in how qualitative
interviews can complement the quantitative data. Only very general findings were able to be
attributed.
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 54
Chapter Four: Results and Findings
This chapter presents the results and findings of the research. The purpose of this
research study is to explore and evaluate the performance of the Organization for Female
Entrepreneurs (OFE) as it relates to the larger problem of practice of the inequitable
representation of females in entrepreneurship. The results and findings are organized based on
the conceptual framework and driven by the knowledge and motivation of female entrepreneurs,
as well as the organizational influences of OFE. While a complete evaluation study would
include all stakeholders, for practical purposes, the stakeholder group of focus in this analysis is
the female entrepreneur members of OFE. As such, the following questions guided this study:
1. What are the female entrepreneurs’ knowledge and motivation related to getting
certified and increasing the number of contracts attained by 15%?
2. What is the interaction between OFE’s organizational culture and context and
female entrepreneurs’ knowledge and motivation as it relates to getting certified and increasing
the number of contracts attained by 15%?
3. What are the recommendations for OFE’s organizational practice in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources?
Participating Stakeholders
The primary stakeholder group for this study are the female entrepreneurial members of
OFE. The results and findings from this study are comprised of data from a survey and
interviews with female entrepreneur members of OFE. The research design used for this study is
explanatory sequential, in which data was collected through the administration of surveys prior
to the qualitative phase of the study. The sampling strategy utilized the accessible population as a
subset of the target population, which allows for the ability to maintain validity. The link to the
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 55
survey distributed to the approximately 400 participants of OFE’s community of which 39
participants completed the survey. With a response rate of approximately 10%, the varietal
nature of the responses directly impacted the reflection of the larger population since the
response rate directly affects the generalizability. During the qualitative phase of the study, six
OFE members volunteered to be interviewed individually to share their experiences as a female
entrepreneurial member of OFE.
Surveys
A sample of 39 respondents completed the survey. Of the survey participants,
approximately 64% of respondents indicated that they are current members of OFE while 36%
indicated that they were not currently members of the organization. Participants that indicated
that they were non-members in qualifying question number one were routed directly to the end
of the survey and were not permitted to answer any additional survey questions. Table 5 shows
the dynamics of the survey participants as well as the count of respondents that were certified
with the Small Business Association (SBA) as a Woman-Owned Small Business (WOSB).
Table 5
Survey Participants
Membership Count Percentage # Certified WOSB
Not a member 14 35.90% N/A
< 1 Year 13 33.33% 2
1-2 Years 3 7.69% 3
2-3 Years 2 5.13% 0
3-5 Years 3 7.69% 1
5-7 Years 2 5.13% 0
8-10 Years 2 5.13% 0
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 56
Interviews
OFE Members who completed the survey were prompted in the last question to indicate
their interest in being interviewed as part of this study. There were eight OFE members who
volunteered to be interviewed individually, six of which completed interviews. There were two
female entrepreneurs that indicated interest that were not interviewed. The first volunteer did not
respond to scheduling requests, the second volunteer represented an industry that was already
represented in the interview samples. The interview participants represented diverse industries
and experience levels. There was a mixture of revenue levels represented as well as Woman
Owned Small Business (WOSB) Certified Members. Table 6 shows the interview participants,
their respective industries, annual business revenue range, and WOSB certification status.
Table 6
Interview Participants
Category Industry Revenues Certified WOSB

Participant #1 Maintenance No current revenues Yes
Participant #2 Sports $50,000 to $99,999 No
Participant #3 Construction Less than $10,000 Yes
Participant #4 Healthcare $250,000 to $499,999 No
Participant #5 Education / Technology $50,000 to $99,999 No
Participant #6 Finance $100,000 to $249,000 No

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 57
Knowledge and Motivation Results and Findings
This section will report the knowledge and motivation results and findings for this
research study. This research study examines the female entrepreneurs’ knowledge and
motivation influences that contribute to success in business growth. The survey and interviews
look at the perspective of the female entrepreneur members of OFE as it relates to their specific
knowledge, thoughts, and influences essential to becoming certified as a Woman-Owned Small
Business (WOSB) and growing their businesses by increasing the number of contracts attained.
Increasing critical business skills through professional experience is an important factor for the
success of female entrepreneurs (Guerrero & Richards, 2015). The knowledge influences
identified earlier in this study include knowledge of effective networking skills, contract
negotiation, and knowledge of how to attain government contracts.
Female entrepreneurs’ mixed knowledge of effective networking skills. Having the
skills to effectively network for business is a critical knowledge area for the successful
establishment and growth of a business (McGowan, Redeker, Cooper, & Greenan, 2012;
Sharafizad, & Coetzer, 2017; Sherlock, 2013). Eight percent of female entrepreneur members of
OFE agreed that they felt comfortable getting support from their OFE network, but when asked
about the main obstacles they experienced as new business owners, the second most frequent
obstacle identified by survey respondents was them not knowing how to find the right contacts in
their network to support their businesses. Sharafizad and Coetzer (2017) highlighted the
importance of knowing how to effectively network to establish mutually beneficial relationships.
Effective networking allows business owners to have access to essential information critical for
successful business practice such as financial, legal, and other relevant business knowledge.
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 58
When asked out their knowledge on effective networking and how it could help to grow
their business, all six interviewees indicated that they had moderate to high networking
knowledge and believed that effective networking has been a critical factor for business success
and growth. Participant #6 referred to networking as “the heartbeat of her business,” she stated
that she understands that networking and relationship building has a direct correlation to the
growth of her business and participates in networking specifically to build strategic relationships.
Participant #2 describes herself as an expert level networker and attributes her knowledge in
networking to her business success. She described networking as being the direct catalyst for
over 90% of her business’ success. She explained that she utilizes “targeted networking to
strategically connect with contacts that align with areas beneficial to growing specific aspects of
the business.” Another participant explained that she “still had a lot to learn about networking.”
she indicated that:
It has to be 100% of your business because your business is about relationships. And, you
can't grow if you're on an island…It’s important to network because I can't have all the
resources I need. Someone else has some of the resources I need, but I need that
relationship to get it. Just like they need the relationships. I have things that other people
need.
Another participant responded similarly regarding mutually beneficial networking relationships
stating that networking for her has been very effective and said, “I always try to give resources
and get resources, so any extra knowledge that I can learn, or anything I can expose myself to is
priceless to me.” The data indicated that though all female entrepreneurs’ participants had a high
value of networking to grow their businesses, not all of them had the knowledge to practice
effective networking. Figure 2 shows the data for the networking competency of female
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 59
entrepreneurs. Female entrepreneurs value the power of networking, but often lack the
knowledge to leverage effective networking to grow their businesses.

Figure 2. Female entrepreneurs’ mixed networking competency.
Female entrepreneurs’ knowledge gaps in contract negotiation. In addition to the
knowledge of networking, participants also responded to questions regarding their knowledge as
it relates to contract negotiation. Sing (2002) reported that female business owners are less
skillful with negotiation than their male counterparts. In surveying and interviewing the female
entrepreneur members of OFE on their ability to negotiate, responses varied greatly. When
surveyed, less than half of the survey participants felt that they had the knowledge and ability to
negotiate and attain contracts. As shown in the figure below, 59% of survey respondents
disagreed or neither agreed nor disagreed that they were confident in their ability to negotiate
and attain contracts. The data collected from the interviews were very similar to the results of the
surveys. Figure 3 shows survey results of female entrepreneurs in respect to their confidence
Expert
33%
Moderate
50%
Novice
17%
Female Entrepreneur Networking Knowledge
Expert Moderate Novice
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 60
levels in contract negotiation. Female entrepreneurs have gaps in their knowledge of how to
negotiate contracts.

Figure 3. Response to the survey question, I feel confident in my ability to negotiate and attain
contracts.

The data showed that only 33% of female entrepreneurs had knowledge and confidence
negotiating contracts, while over 66% of the participants had no knowledge and little to no
confidence in their ability to negotiate contracts. Out of the six participants interviewed,
participant #5 was the only one that expressed a high level of knowledge and comfort with the
contract negotiation process. She shared that she had a repeatable process that she used to
negotiate contracts. In contrast, when Participant #1 was asked about which knowledge and skills
she thought she still needed to be successful, she noted that her largest knowledge gap was in
contract negotiation. She indicated that if she had to negotiate that she would “probably feel
overwhelmed,” and unsure of herself because she was aware of several other entrepreneurs that
made mistakes when they had to negotiate their first contract, and she was afraid to make the
same mistakes that they did. When it comes to understanding the process of government
contracting and having the knowledge of how to attain government contracts, the female
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 61
entrepreneurs weighed in at different levels of knowledge on the subject. Female entrepreneurs
have gaps in their knowledge of how to negotiate contracts.
Female entrepreneurs’ mixed knowledge of how to attain government contracts. When
asked about familiarity with government contracting and knowledge about the process of
government contracting, the interviewees were split. One-third of the interviewees were familiar
enough with the process to be able to walk me through the necessary elements of how to attain
government contracts. The other women were split between those who had no knowledge about
government contracting and the process, and the other third who had some familiarity, but
expressed that they were still in the novice stages of learning about it. Participants one and two
were able to describe the steps required to get certified and get contracts with government,
specifically the federal, state, and local municipalities. They were both able to explain several of
the certifications and was able to distinguish between the different certifications that were
recognized by each municipality. They then explained how to register in the respective
databases, the request for proposal (RFP) process, how to search for projects to bid on, as well as
how to get recognized by other firms to subcontract on contracts. Having the skills to accurately
navigate the government contracting process and the knowledge to successfully bid on contracts
increases opportunities of business growth for entrepreneurs (Calmes, 2016; Davis, 2005).
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 62

Figure 4. Female entrepreneur government contracting knowledge.

Over 77% of women surveyed expressed that when they started their business, they had
little to no knowledge about attaining government contracts. Only 5% of women surveyed
indicated that they had expert knowledge in government contracting when they started their
business. The majority of female entrepreneurs do not have the knowledge to compete for federal
contracts. Women have a 21% lower chance to win bids for contracts with the federal
government (Calmes, 2016). Figure 5 below shows the percentages indicating the perceived
knowledge levels of OFE female entrepreneur members in contract attainment when they started
their businesses. There are gaps in female entrepreneurs’ skills to accurately navigate the
government contracting process and the knowledge of how to successfully bid on contracts.
Expert
17%
Moderate
33%
Novice
17%
No Knowledge
33%
Female Entrepreneur Goverment Contracting Knowledge
Expert Moderate Novice No Knowledge
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 63

Figure 5. Response to the survey question, thinking back to when you started your business, how
would you rate your knowledge as a “new” business owner to attain contracts?

Female entrepreneurs’ gaps in self-efficacy. Sherlock (2013) explains that there is a
direct correlation with high self-efficacy and successful behavior. In this study, female
entrepreneurs were asked about some of the reasons that they chose entrepreneurship and
collected data on their confidence in their abilities and performance. The top reason that survey
respondents indicated as their motivation for starting their own business was wanting to have
control and freedom to make their own decisions. This was followed by members having
confidence in the products and services that they offered, and then self-achievement. There are
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 64
many reasons that women may choose to pursue entrepreneurship, but in order to be successful,
self-efficacy, being predictive of choice, persistence, and mental effort are all keys to success.
When asked about the capability of women to be able to grow their businesses as
entrepreneurs, all of the women interviewed agreed resoundingly that women have the ability to
be successful and grow their businesses. Several of the interviewees chose to describe the ability
of female entrepreneurs as “limitless.” One business owner shared the following as it pertains to
the ability of women as entrepreneurs:
When it comes to the ability in growing a business. I don't think there is a difference
between being men or women. I don't think it should be measured by gender. Because I
think the woman's ability is her ability. It’s how much time and effort she puts into it and
what she wants out of it.
Another highlighted the fact that there are some government programs that exist to give set-aside
contract opportunities to female business owners (a "set- aside" is a Federal contract designated
for small business bidding only), as well as government programs created to assist in the success
of women-owned businesses. Participant #6 shared her thoughts on the part that stereotypes play
in business, indicating that she believes that “all women can break the mold of the stereotypes
that society places on them and have limitless potential.” When asked about their personal
ability, the same interviewees did not express the same level of confidence as they did when
asked about capabilities of women to grow their businesses.
When female entrepreneurs were interviewed and asked how they felt about their
personal ability to grow their businesses and increase the number of contracts, only two of the
entrepreneurs interviewed gave a confident, positive answer. Several of the other women
answered the question with a list of things that they either felt they were lacking or areas that
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 65
they felt that they needed to work on. One participant responded, “I'm still a little new and a
little nervous out there about what it takes. You know, in our own minds we're our own worst
critic and it’s like, oh, can you really do it?” When asked about her ability, another participant
responded, “How do I feel about my ability? It's a process that I have to work on.” There was a
clear contrast in the women’s general ability to succeed as entrepreneurs when compared to the
individual self-efficacy of the participants. There are gaps in female entrepreneurs’ self-efficacy
in how they feel about their ability to be successful entrepreneurs.
Organizational Results and Findings
In addition to exploring OFE female entrepreneur members’ knowledge and motivation,
the study sought to assess if OFE has a culture where female entrepreneurs are comfortable
providing and getting support from others within their network to attain success, if OFE is
providing resources to connect female entrepreneurs with opportunities for new business
contracts, and if OFE is effectively helping to facilitate connections with successful mentors for
female entrepreneurs in their networks. Organizational influences are an important component in
the overall state of supporting stakeholders. The data collected in this study helped to assess the
effectiveness of OFE’s ability to support the success of female entrepreneurs in growing their
businesses. The data shows how OFE members perceive and are benefitting from the
organization, the organization’s respective influence on their businesses, and more particularly,
how they feel in respect to being a member of the organization. The data also showed areas
where there is opportunity for organizational improvement,
OFE’s effective culture where female entrepreneurs are comfortable providing and
getting support from others within their network to attain success. When asked about the
support as a member of OFE, the majority of participants strongly agreed that as a member, they
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 66
felt supported. The results in Figure 6 show that 80% of the respondents indicated that they feel
comfortable getting support from their network and mentors as a member of OFE (strongly agree
and somewhat agree). Twenty percent of participants agreed and 6% strongly agreed with the
statement. On the other end of the spectrum, there were no members that strongly disagreed with
the statement and only 5% that somewhat disagreed with the statement. Fifteen percent neither
agreed nor disagreed on the subject. The data demonstrates that eight out of 10 OFE members
feel that OFE has a culture where female entrepreneurs are comfortable providing and getting
support from others within their network. OFE successfully promotes a culture where female
entrepreneurs are comfortable providing and getting support from others within their network to
attain success

Figure 6. Response to the survey question, as a member of OFE, I feel comfortable getting
support from my network and mentors.

OFE’s inconsistent support for providing resources to connect female entrepreneurs
with opportunities for new business contracts. To provide an organizational setting conducive
to the success of female entrepreneurs, it is essential for OFE to provide resources for female
entrepreneurs, as well as to facilitate positive relationships within the organization. One cultural
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 67
setting influence explored in this study is that OFE needs to provide resources to connect female
entrepreneurs with opportunities for new business contracts. An explored influence is that OFE
should help to facilitate connections with successful mentors for female entrepreneurs in their
networks. Another area where female entrepreneurs need support in is getting information and
resources on funding and finding capital for their business.
Female entrepreneur members agree that OFE is providing them opportunities to learn
skills that contribute to business growth, but female entrepreneurs expressed mixed responses
about whether the organization has helped them secure new contracts. All of the interview
participants agreed that OFE provides useful skills that can help educate business owners on
important information necessary for growing a business, particularly around government
contracting. In the survey, when asked if OFE has provided opportunities to learn new skills
required to increase business growth, 50% of participants strongly agreed, 25% somewhat
agreed, 25% neither agreed nor disagreed and somewhat disagreed, but no one strongly
disagreed with the statement. When being interviewed, one participant expressed:
I do see support in that we have events that are geared towards learning and educating
people in areas that we need that education, like contracts, for example. I don't know too
many people who can walk me through the process step-by-step on how to get a
government contract like OFE’s leadership. That's their expertise, so I think it's valuable
that they are even offering this information because there are a lot of people who can
appreciate and benefit from it.
Another interviewee shared that she felt the value of the information, network, and support
within OFE and its return on business growth is priceless. She responded:
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 68
The first support is the founder. She is a just open book of knowledge, and she is willing
to share, the second is the network of women that she has managed to get together, and
she makes the connection. Each of them brings in a level of expertise that can benefit
your business in one way or another. And the fact that they are there to share their
personal businesses... They also come with a wealth of other free resources that can move
you to the next level. So that's, that's just really big for me
Female entrepreneur members were asked how much they agreed with the statement,
“OFE has helped my company secure new contracts.” Forty percent of participants reported that
they either strongly or somewhat agreed that OFE has helped them attain new contracts, while
the majority of respondents (50%) neither agreed nor disagreed with the statement, leaving 10%
that expressed their disagreement with the statement. Four out of six interview participants
indicated that even though they are gaining education, they have not connected with
opportunities for new contracts as of yet. At the time of the interviews, all of the interview
participants had been members of OFE for under a year, but the two participants who were with
the organization the longest said that in that time, their businesses had already been afforded
opportunities for growth through contract attainment. At the time of the interview, one
participant was being walked through her first opportunity and proposal with OFE. Another
interviewee shared that OFE shared resources that was able to fund her contract opportunity to
help her win a contract. There are inconsistencies in the support that entrepreneurs are receiving
from OFE as it pertains to connecting female entrepreneurs with opportunities for new business
contracts. This is an area that OFE must work to improve in order to achieve their goal.
OFE’s gap in facilitating connections with successful mentors for female
entrepreneurs in their network. The data shows that OFE supports an environment conducive to
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 69
effective networking within the organization, but the organization does not facilitate mentorship
relationships within the organization. Previously reported, female entrepreneurs indicated having
a high value for the network that they benefit from as being a member of OFE. Participant #5
indicated that “the network is priceless…” and that “the knowledge shared is beneficial” to her
business and has helped her grow. Several interviewees responded that seeing the success around
them motivates them, improves their self-efficacy, and shows them that they have the ability to
succeed as well. Female entrepreneurs share mutually beneficial network support and generically
build mentor mentee relationships within the organization, despite the fact that OFE does not
have a formal mentorship program. Social interaction, cooperative learning, and cognitive
apprenticeships (such as reciprocal teaching) facilitate the construction of new knowledge (Scott
& Palincsar, 2006). OFE does not proactively facilitate connections with successful mentors for
female entrepreneurs in their networks.
Additional Findings
OFE’s mixed effectiveness in providing support and resources in funding and finding
capital for their business. The data shows that the majority of female entrepreneurs self-fund
their businesses. During interviews, when funding was discussed, all of the participants shared
that they self-funded their businesses. The majority of interviewees said that they were not aware
of funding opportunities and that they were not aware of information being shared by OFE about
funding. In contrast, one participant reported having attended an OFE event where funding
resources to help attain contracts had been shared. She stated:
OFE has provided me with some information and resources, especially financial
resources that are available to businesses like mine. They have really put some resources
out there that I didn't even think I would qualify for because of the size of my company
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 70
or how much money we bring in, or how long we've been in business. They definitely
provide the resources.
She had been affiliated with OFE longer than the other female entrepreneurs interviewed and
participated in this event prior to the other women joining OFE. Another interviewee shared that
OFE taught her about how to acquire resources and funding to help with company growth and
taking on additional employees for support.
When the survey participants were asked about having access to information and
resources to fund their businesses through OFE, 45% of the women surveyed did not agree that
OFE provided information and/or resources about obtaining capital or funding for their
businesses. Even though 55%, the majority of respondents, indicated that they agreed at some
level that information and resources related to obtaining funding is provided, there were 45% of
individuals who did not particularly agree. Thirty percent of people surveyed neither agreed nor
disagreed that this information and resource was available, while 15% disagreed on the
availability of this information. There is an additional gap identified from the data wherein
female entrepreneurs lack knowledge and resources respective to funding options to establish
and grow their businesses. OFE should provide an environment that educates female
entrepreneurs and increases their ability understand and execute diverse funding opportunities.
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 71

Figure 7. Response to the survey question, OFE has provided information and/or resources about
obtaining capital/funding for my business.

Conclusion
Female entrepreneurs consistently confirmed that they have acquired robust knowledge
about attaining contracts through their OFE membership. They have a network that supports their
business and contributes to their growth. They are excited about being part of and being able to
witness the success of the women around them in their networks and are excited about the
opportunity to gain success themselves. When it comes to motivation and self-efficacy, female
entrepreneurs, agree that women are capable of being successful entrepreneurs. Even though they
believe in the general competence of women, as individuals they tend to question their personal
abilities and knowledge.
Female entrepreneur members shared that though they have gained valuable knowledge
and skills, there are still several areas that they are still lacking knowledge. Some of those areas
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 72
in which they are seeking knowledge include learning more about funding and opportunities to
grow their business through access to capital. They are also looking to build strengths in critical
areas such as communication, leadership, and contract negotiation. Several of the women shared
that they would like more structure to the programming and events offered by OFE.
The next chapter will present recommendations categorized under knowledge motivation
and organizational influences. The chapter will discuss how the recommendations will be
implemented as a program. The chapter will go on to describe the program. It will conclude with
describing how the implementation of the program will be evaluated using the Kirkpatrick
model.
Table 7
Summary of KMO Findings and Results
KMO Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Gap Key Finding/Result
Knowledge
Influence
Female Entrepreneurs
need to have contract
negotiation skills. (P)
Y Female entrepreneurs have gaps in their
knowledge of how to negotiate contracts.
Knowledge
Influence
Female Entrepreneurs
need knowledge of
how to obtain
government contracts.
Y There are gaps in female entrepreneurs’
skills to accurately navigate the
government contracting process and the
knowledge of how to successfully bid on
contracts
Knowledge
Influence
Female Entrepreneurs
need to know how to
engage in effective
networking to
increase opportunities
for new contracts.
Y Female entrepreneurs value the power of
networking, but often lack the knowledge
to leverage effective networking to grow
their businesses.
Motivation
Influence
Female Entrepreneurs
need to believe in
their ability to
increase the number
of contracts.
Y There are gaps in female entrepreneurs’
self-efficacy in how they feel about their
ability to be successful entrepreneurs.
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 73
Organizational
Influence
OFE needs to have a
culture where female
entrepreneurs are
comfortable providing
and getting support
from others within
their network to attain
success.
N OFE effectively supports a culture where
female entrepreneurs are comfortable
providing and getting support from others
within their network to attain success.
Organizational
Influence
OFE needs to provide
resources to connect
female entrepreneurs
with opportunities for
new business contracts.
Y There are inconsistencies in the support
that entrepreneurs are receiving from OFE
as it pertains to connecting female
entrepreneurs with opportunities for new
business contracts.
Organizational
Influence
OFE needs to help
facilitate connections
with successful
mentors for female
entrepreneurs in their
networks (Cultural
Setting Influence).
Y OFE supports an effective networking
organizational culture, but OFE does not
proactively facilitate connections with
successful mentors for female
entrepreneurs in their networks.
Additional
Findings
OFE needs to provide
resources and
education for female
entrepreneurs regarding
small business funding.
Y Female entrepreneurs lack knowledge and
opportunities respective to funding
options to establish and grow their
businesses. OFE should provide an
environment that educates female
entrepreneurs and increases their ability
understand and execute diverse funding
opportunities.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 74
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations
Introduction and Overview
In the previous chapter, surveys and interviews were assessed through quantitative and
qualitative data analysis. The data was leveraged to identify both gaps and assets as related to the
research study. Chapter Five integrates the results and findings and presents recommendations
for practice to address the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. Using the New
World Kirkpatrick Model (2016), a recommended training program incorporates the gaps, using
four levels of training and evaluation, including reaction, learning, critical behaviors, and results
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The Kirkpatrick model provides relevant information that
guides the recommendations, providing value and results for the Female Entrepreneur members
of the Organization for Female Entrepreneurs (OFE).
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
Factual, conceptual, and metacognitive knowledge are needed by female entrepreneurial
members in regard to this research study. From the results and findings presented in Chapter
Four, there are gaps in regard to knowledge. Table 8 represents the complete list of assumed
knowledge influences as they have been validated based on the most frequently mentioned
knowledge influences to achieving the stakeholders’ goal during informal interviews and
supported by the literature review and Clark and Estes (2008), who suggest that declarative
knowledge about something is often necessary to know before applying it to classify or identify,
as in the case of reviewing drug applications for accuracy and completeness. As such, as
indicated in Table 8, these influences have been validated and have a high priority for achieving
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 75
the stakeholders’ goal. Table 8 also shows the principle citations as well as recommendations for
these influences based on theoretical principles.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 76
Table 8
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Female Entrepreneurs need to
have contract negotiation
skills. (P)
To develop mastery,
individuals must acquire
component skills, practice
integrating them, and know
when to apply what they have
learned (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
Provide instructor lead
training on the steps of
contract negotiation with
expertise-based
demonstrations and practice
by female entrepreneurs with
feedback from experienced
practitioners (Denler et al.,
2014). Allow opportunities to
model effective strategy use,
including “how” and “when”
to use particular strategies, as
well as provide opportunities
for people to practice skills
and for transfer (APA, 2015,
Schraw & McCrudden, 2006)
Female Entrepreneurs need
knowledge of how to obtain
government contracts. (P)
Procedural knowledge
increases when declarative
knowledge required to
perform the skill is available
or known. (Clark et al.,
2008).
To develop mastery,
individuals must acquire
component skills, practice
integrating them, and know
when to apply what they have
learned (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).
Provide a job aid that
includes clearly outlined
procedures necessary to
obtain government contracts.
Provide training that utilizes
case studies to practice the
procedures required to direct
an entrepreneur to the
appropriate process for
obtaining government
contracts.

Female Entrepreneurs need to
know how to engage in
effective networking to
increase opportunities for
new contracts. (P)
Modeling to-be-learned
strategies or behaviors
improves self-efficacy,
learning, and performance
(Denler, Wolters, & Benzon,
2014).
Provide training where
female entrepreneurs are
taught new networking
behaviors to gain government
contracts through
demonstration and modeling.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 77
Increasing female entrepreneurs’ procedural knowledge and skills in contract
negotiation. The data shows that to increase contract attainment, female entrepreneurs need to
have contract negotiation skills (P). To increase proficiency, female entrepreneurs need training
that walks through the steps of contract negotiation, with expertise-based demonstrations and
practice by female entrepreneurs with feedback from experienced practitioners. Schraw and
McCrudden’s (2006) research highlight the significance of individuals knowing when and how
to apply the information that they have learned and to achieve competency and mastery, and
skills should be practiced and integrated into applicable scenarios. The recommendation is to
provide female entrepreneurs opportunities to model effective strategy use, including “how” and
“when” to use particular strategies, as well as provide opportunities for people to practice skills.
Modeling enhances behavioral knowledge as well as information processing and social
cognitive behavior (Denler et al., 2014; Mayer, 2011; Pajares, 2006; Schraw & McCrudden,
2006). The modeling experience allows for learners to not only retain the information, but it also
aids in a deeper understanding of the information (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). Research
shows that demonstration and modeling help learners adopt new behaviors (Denler et al., 2014).
Providing demonstrative scenarios with more experienced models allow for the learner to
understand the value of the function as well as adopt the behavior (Denler et al., 2014; Pajares,
2006). Effective observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing modeled
behaviors, then enacting them overtly (Mayer, 2011).
Increasing female entrepreneurs’ procedural knowledge on how to obtain
government contracts. Additionally, Female Entrepreneurs need knowledge of how to obtain
government contracts (P). Declarative knowledge is needed to increase this procedural
knowledge, and performance of the skill is also important to attain mastery (Clark et al., 2008).
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 78
Studies show the importance of integrating and practicing these component skills to establish
familiarity (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). The recommendation is to provide female
entrepreneurs a job aid that includes clearly outlined procedures necessary to obtain government
contracts along with training that utilizes case studies to practice the procedures required to
direct an entrepreneur through the appropriate processes for obtaining government contracts.
Studies show that supplementary aids help learners retain and process detailed
information (Anguinis & Kraiger, 2009; Kirshner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2011; Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006; Van Gerven et al., 2002). Integrating concrete examples and case studies,
along with documentation to accompany learning and practice assist in knowledge and retention
(Anguinis & Kraiger, 2009; Kirshner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2011; Van Gerven et al., 2002). By
providing opportunities to apply what they have learned in real-world scenarios help people
make sense of the information (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006), while repetition and continued
practice help to promote automaticity and takes less capacity in working memory (Schraw &
McCrud, 2006). Ultimately this helps them to organize what they are learning and apply what
they know to new use-cases (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006).
Increase female entrepreneurs’ procedural knowledge of effective networking.
Finally, Female Entrepreneurs need to know how to engage in effective networking to increase
opportunities for new contracts. According to Denler, Wolters, and Benzon (2014), modeling
strategies and behaviors helps to improve learning and performance, as well as improving self-
efficacy in the newly learned behavior. The recommendation is to provide training where female
entrepreneurs are taught new networking behaviors to gain government contracts through
demonstration and modeling.
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 79
Demonstration and modeling have been proven to aid in learning and establishing new
behaviors (Denler et al., 2014; Mayer, 2011; Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). Evidence shows that
the practice of demonstration and modeling is beneficial in getting beyond simple memorization
and drives adoption, integration, and practical behavior. (Denler et al., 2014). Interactive training
will provide an opportunity to practice skills and for transfer (APA, 2015). Ultimately,
procedural knowledge will be enhanced through leveraging interactive integration methods and
by providing feedback during learning the process (Mayer, 2011).
Motivation Recommendations
Motivation related influences is an individualized notion. When assessing the data from
the female entrepreneurial study, there are shared concepts on motivation. Table 9 represents the
assumed motivation influences as they were validated through this study based on the most
frequently mentioned motivation influences to achieving the stakeholders’ goal during interviews
and supported by the literature review and the review of motivation theory. Clark and Estes
(2008) suggest that there are three indicators of motivation in task performance – choice,
persistence, and mental effort. Choice is going beyond intention to start something. Persistence is
continuing to pursue a goal in the face of distractions, and mental effort is seeking and applying
new knowledge to solve a novel program or perform a new task. As all new reviewers have
chosen to enter the profession, the assumed causes appear to suggest persistence and mental
effort may be lacking for new reviewers in their review of applications for accuracy and
completeness. Table 9 shows the motivational influence that was identified as a gap, as well as
the principle citation and the motivational influences.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 80
Table 9
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Female Entrepreneurs need to
believe in their ability to
increase the number of
contracts.
(Self-Efficacy)
High self-efficacy can
positively influence
motivation (Pajares, 2006).
Facilitate a mentorship
program that uses models to
build self-efficacy and
enhance motivation. The
program should provide
opportunities to observe and
work with a credible, similar
model engaging in behavior
that provides functional value
with immediate targeted
feedback

Increase the self-efficacy of female entrepreneurs. To positively influence their ability
to increase the number of contracts obtained, female entrepreneurs need to believe in their ability
to increase contract attainment (Self-Efficacy). Pajares (2006) found that high self-efficacy can
positively influence motivation. Pajares (2006) further emphasizes the benefits of using models
to build self-efficacy and to enhance motivation. This would suggest that establishing mentor
relationships that provide opportunities to observe and work with a credible, similar model
engaging in behavior that provides functional value with immediate targeted feedback would be
beneficial in increasing the self-efficacy of female entrepreneurs. The recommendation is for the
organization to facilitate a mentorship program that uses models to build self-efficacy and
enhance motivation for female entrepreneurs.
Research states that motivation, learning, and performance are enhanced when learners
have positive expectations for success (Pajares, 2006; Pintrich, 2003). Pajares (2006) explains
that motivation increases when models that heighten self-efficacy are employed. Motivation
increases when an environment is created where individuals can observe credible models similar
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 81
to themselves engaging in behavior that has functional value (Pajares, 2006). Having the ability
to observe similar models allows for individuals to understand that they are capable of
performing a task and have the ability to be successful (Pajares, 2006). Pintrich (2003) explains
how useful learning from others is and points out the benefits of providing feedback within the
learning process. The feedback that is frequent, accurate, credible, targeted, and private has been
proven to aid the learning process, as well as providing goal orientation (Pajares, 2006).
Organization Recommendations
The organization influences in Table 10 represent the complete list of influences that
support achievement of the stakeholders’ goal and have been validated by the data collected as
part of this study. The data was collected through surveys, informal interviews, and was
supported by the literature review and the review of organization and culture theory. Clark and
Estes (2008) suggest that organization and stakeholder goals are often not achieved due to a lack
of resources, most often time and money, and stakeholder goals that are not aligned with the
organization’s mission and goals. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) propose two constructs
about culture – cultural models or the observable beliefs and values shared by individuals in
groups, and cultural models, or the settings and activities in which performance occurs. Thus,
both resources and processes and cultural models and settings must align throughout the
organization’s structure to achieve the mission and goals. As such, as indicated in Table 10,
some organizational influences have a high probability of being validated and have a high
priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Table 10 also shows the recommendations for these
influences based on theoretical principles.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 82
Table 10
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organizational
Influence
Principle and Citation Organizational Influence
Assessment
OFE needs to have a culture
where female entrepreneurs are
comfortable providing and
getting support from others
within their network to attain
success (Cultural Model
Influence).
Organizational
performance increases
when individuals
communicate constantly
and candidly to others
about plans and
processes (Clark & Estes,
2008)
Create an internal social media
forum and encourage
entrepreneurs to connect,
support, and share experiences.
OFE needs to provide resources
to connect female entrepreneurs
with opportunities for new
business contracts.
Effective leaders promote
an organizational culture
that promotes growth.
(Angeline, 2011; Prieto,
Phipps & Osiri, 2009)
Expand the corporate partner
program to expose new female
entrepreneurs to more contract
attainment opportunities.
OFE needs to help facilitate
connections with successful
mentors for female
entrepreneurs in their networks
(Cultural Setting Influence).
Social interaction,
cooperative learning, and
cognitive apprenticeships
(such as reciprocal
teaching) facilitate the
construction of new
knowledge (Scott &
Palincsar, 2006).
Facilitate a mentorship program
that facilitates connections with
established and successful
female entrepreneurs to
promote cooperative learning.

Promote a culture where female entrepreneurs are comfortable providing and
getting support from others. The Organization for Female Entrepreneurs (OFE) needs to have a
culture where female entrepreneurs are comfortable providing and getting support from others
within their network to attain success (Cultural Model Influence). Clarke and Estes (2008)
suggest that organizational performance increases when individuals communicate constantly and
candidly to others about plans and processes. Based on this principle, the recommendation is that
OFE creates an internal social media forum and encourage entrepreneurs to connect, support, and
share experiences.
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 83
Provide resources to connect female entrepreneurs with opportunities for new
business contracts. Provide resources to connect female entrepreneurs with opportunities for
new business contracts. (Cultural Setting Influence). Promote an organizational culture that
promotes growth. (Angeline, 2011; Prieto, Phipps & Osiri, 2009). The recommendation is to
expand the corporate partner program to expose new female entrepreneurs to more contract
attainment opportunities.
Facilitate connections with successful mentors for female entrepreneurs in their
networks. OFE needs to help facilitate connections with successful mentors for female
entrepreneurs in their networks (Cultural Setting Influence). Social interaction, cooperative
learning, and cognitive apprenticeships (such as reciprocal teaching) facilitate the construction of
new knowledge (Scott & Palincsar, 2006). Facilitate a mentorship program that facilitates
connections with established and successful female entrepreneurs to promote cooperative
learning.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The model that informed this implementation and evaluation plan is the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), based on the original Kirkpatrick Four-
Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). This model suggests that
evaluation plans start with the goals of the organization and work backwards and that, by doing
so, the “leading indicators” that bridge recommended solutions to the organization’s goals are
both easier to identify and more closely aligned with organizational goals. Further, this “reverse
order” of the New World Kirkpatrick Model allows for a sequence of three other actions: a) first,
the development of solution outcomes that focus on assessing work behaviors, b) next, the
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 84
identification of indicators that learning occurred during implementation, and c) finally, the
emergence of indicators that organizational members are satisfied with implementation
strategies. Designing the implementation and evaluation plan in this manner forces connections
between the immediate solutions and the larger goal and solicits proximal “buy-in” to ensure
success (Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
The purpose of the Organization for Female Entrepreneurs (OFE) is to fuel economic
growth globally through access to opportunities, by identifying, certifying, and facilitating the
development of women-owned businesses. OFE’s Goal is to help aid in the increased
representation of women-owned businesses in entrepreneurship within the United States by 15%,
as well as increase opportunities and visibility of women-owned businesses for attaining
contracts. This study examines the knowledge and skills, motivational, and organizational
influences that impact female entrepreneurs’ capacity to increase their business footprint by
increasing the number of contracts obtained. The study will culminate in recommendations for
OFE to more effectively support female entrepreneurs in their efforts to expand their business’
footprint and through that, to address the problem of gender disparity as it pertains to the
imbalance of women entrepreneurs. The literature presented will offer some of the various
factors drawn from the research that point to precursors required for success of female
entrepreneurs.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 11 shows the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of
outcomes, metrics, and methods for both external and internal outcomes for OFE. If the internal
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 85
outcomes are met as expected as a result of the training and organizational support for female
entrepreneur members, then the external outcomes should also be realized.
Table 11
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Increased the equity of
female-owned businesses
across markets.
The number of female-owned
businesses sustaining and
growing their businesses
through contract attainment.
Solicit data and reports from
the Small Business
Association (SBA).
2. Provided more business
contractual options for the
public sector, private sector,
and government
organizations.
The number of organizations
leveraging woman-owned
businesses for products and
services.
Solicit data and reports from
the Small Business
Association (SBA).
3. Increased representation of
women-owned businesses in
entrepreneurship
The number of registered
woman-owned businesses
Solicit data and reports from
the Small Business
Association (SBA).
Internal Outcomes
4. Increased the number of
contracts obtained by OFE
certificate holders.
The number of OFE
certificate holders obtaining
contracts for their business.
Compare monthly and
quarterly reporting data.
5. Increased networking skills
of certificate holders so they
can get contracts through
networking.
The number of contractual
business OFE certificate
holders get as a direct result
of networking.
Aggregate data from the
mentors and self-reported
monthly reports.
6. Create more business
relationships between OFE
Certificate Holders and
Corporate Partners.
The number of contracts
between OFE Certificate
Holders and Corporate
Partners.
Aggregate data collected
from Corporate Partners and
OFE Certificate Holders.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 86
Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are the female business owners who are
members of the Organization for Female Entrepreneurs (OFE). The first critical behavior is that
OFE members must obtain certification as a Woman-Owned Business. The second behavior is
that OFE members must correctly follow the process to apply and qualify as a vendor to obtain
government contracts. The third critical behavior is that they must utilize best practices to
effectively initiate and negotiate contracts with key decision-makers. The fourth critical behavior
is that they must create valuable relationships through networking that results in business growth
through contract attainment. The specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome
behaviors appear in Table 12.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 87
Table 12
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. OFE members
obtain certification as a
Woman-Owned
Business
The number of
Certified Woman-
owned businesses
Data collected from
internal reports.
Assessed within the
first 90 days of joining
OFE
2. OFE members
correctly follow the
process to obtain
government contracts
The number of
OFE members
that are approved,
government
vendors.
1a. OFE will work
with OFE Certificate
holders to review and
spot check application
throughout the
process.
1b. Before submitting
OFE will assign a
reviewer to make sure
that the application is
ready for submittal
Assessed weekly
starting 30 days after
the government
contract training.
Reviewers to report
weekly
3. OFE members
utilize best practices to
effectively initiate and
negotiate contracts
with key decision-
makers.
The number of
contracts initiated
and executed by
OFE members
Mentor and Self-
Assessment reporting
of monthly activities.
Report aggregated
monthly from mentors
and self-assessment
4. OFE members create
relationships through
networking that results
in business growth
through contract
attainment.
The number of
contractual
business OFE
members get as a
direct result of
networking.
Data collected through
self-reporting
Weekly reporting for
the first 90 days - six
months (based on
business maturity and
success assessment).
Reporting Monthly
after that.

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Required drivers. New female entrepreneur members require the support of OFE staff
and partners to reinforce what they learn through training and development as well as encourage
them to apply what they have learned and provided opportunities for applying theory and
practice, so they can get certified and pursue new contracts. Rewards should be established for
achievement of performance goals to enhance the organizational support of new reviewers. Table
13 shows the recommended drivers to support critical behaviors of new reviewers.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 89
Table 13
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing

Provide training in the steps of contract
negotiation, with expertise-based
demonstrations and practice by female
entrepreneurs with feedback from experienced
practitioners.
Monthly 1, 2, 3, 4
Provide a job aid that includes clearly outlined
procedures necessary to obtain government
contracts
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Provide a job aid that includes clearly outlined
procedures necessary to obtain government
contracts
Monthly 1, 2, 3
Provide training where female entrepreneurs
are taught new networking behaviors to gain
government contracts through demonstration
and modeling.
Monthly 1, 2, 3, 4
Encouraging

Facilitate a mentorship program that uses
models to build self-efficacy and enhance
motivation.
Ongoing 1, 2, 3, 4
Rewarding

Public Recognition through website and
newsletter blasts.
Ongoing /
Annual
Conference
1,2,3,4
Monitoring

Mentors can work with participants to create
monthly assessments reporting on self-efficacy,
confidence, and contract attainment.
Monthly 1, 2, 3, 4

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 90
Organizational support. To ensure that female entrepreneurs and other stakeholders
focus on successfully achieving their goals, the leadership team of the OFE will provide
additional services, tools, and reporting to support focus. The chapter leaders will be held
accountable for managing member engagement and promoting an environment that aligns with
the organization's focus points. The organization will employ accountability measures,
recognition, and mentorship pairings to ensure members’ success. In addition to other measures
in place, organization leadership will create adequate metrics and report. These reports will need
to be reviewed on regularly basis to monitor and gauge progression of member programs and
success.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following the completion of the recommended solutions, most notably
the contract training, the stakeholders will be able to:
1. Recognize the regulations and policies that apply to Government Contracts with 100%
accuracy. (Declarative)
2. Identify funding and partnership opportunities. (Declarative)
3. Apply knowledge of database registration, including System for Award Management
(SAM) registration. (Procedural)
4. Access and utilize information and data from OFE. (Procedural)
5. Identify their NAICS Code. (Declarative)
6. Get certified as a specialized business (e.g., Small Business, Small Disadvantaged
Business, Woman-Owned Small Business (WOSB), Economically Disadvantaged
Woman-Owned Small Business (EDWOSB)). (Procedural)
7. Certify with the Small Business Association (SBA). (Procedural)
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 91
8. Apply procedures to detect potential errors in the application process. (Procedural)
9. Create a timeline, including measurable goal, milestones, and review processes.
(Metacognitive)
10. Reflect upon necessary certifications and skills to continually engage in learning.
(Metacognitive)

Program. The learning goals listed in the previous section will be achieved with a
training program that explores in–depth the legislative foundations of woman-owned business
certification, government contractual laws, regulations, and policies, as well as contract
negotiation skills. The learners will study a broad range of topics pertaining to completing
certification, government contract application, approval, and management, as well as contract
initiation, negotiation, review, and management of the contract phases, and execution. The
program is blended, consisting two asynchronous e-learning modules, four face-to-face group
workshops and a mentoring program. The total time for completion is four weeks.
During the asynchronous e-learning modules, learners will be provided a job aid of key
terms and references to the text of rules and regulations pertaining to government contract
Program. The learning goals listed in the previous section will be achieved with a training
program that explores in–depth the legislative foundations of woman-owned business
certification, government contractual laws, regulations, and policies, as well as contract
negotiation skills. The learners will study a broad range of topics pertaining to completing
certification, government contract application, approval, and management, as well as contract
initiation, negotiation, review, and management of the contract phases, and execution. The
program is blended, consisting two asynchronous e-learning modules, four face-to-face group
workshops and a mentoring program. The total time for completion is four weeks.
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 92
During the asynchronous e-learning modules, learners will be provided a job aid of key
terms and references to the text of rules and regulations pertaining to government contract
applications, as well as a chart of different types of contract application processes. Another job
aid will contain a decision flow chart for routing government contract applications to the
appropriate program review. The job aids will be demonstrated on video using authentic
government contract applications as well as process scenarios, and key terms will be defined
with examples and non-examples. The video will pause from time to time to enable the learners
to check their understanding. Following the demonstrations, the learners will be provided the
opportunity to practice using the job aids and receive feedback from the learning management
system, peer review, and review by the instructor. The demonstrations, practice, and feedback
approach will also be used to train strategic planning for time management.
During the synchronous in-person sessions, the focus will be on applying what learners
have learned asynchronously to authentic government contract applications in training groups.
They will be walked through the process of getting certified as a woman-owned business and
participate in contract negotiation role-playing, discussions, peer modeling and teaching back to
each other. More experienced reviewers will also discuss the value and benefits of being accurate
and on time in the review process and will model how to strategically plan their use of time to
complete the government contract application review process within the prescribed time.
Mentors will be assigned to new members and will work independently with paired mentees.
Evaluation of the components of learning Demonstrating declarative knowledge is
often necessary as a precursor to applying the knowledge to solve problems. Thus, it is important
to evaluate learning for both declarative and procedural knowledge being taught. It is also
important that learners value the training as a prerequisite to using their newly learned
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 93
knowledge and skills on the job. However, they must also be confident that they can succeed in
applying their knowledge and skills and be committed to using them on the job. As such, Table
14 lists the evaluation.
Table 14
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”

Knowledge checks throughout training Throughout training
Knowledge checks through discussions, “pair,
think, share” and other individual, mentor,
and/or group activities.
Throughout and after training
Reviews of information and in-course
assessments
Throughout training
Provide training where female entrepreneurs
are taught new networking behaviors to gain
government contracts through demonstration
and modeling.
Monthly
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”

Demonstration in groups and individually of
using the job aids to successfully perform the
skills
During the training
Quality of feedback from peers during group
sharing.
During the training
Individual application of the skills with
government contract applications.
At the end of the training
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment
survey asking participants about their level of
proficiency before and after the training.
Before and after training
Practice during training During the training
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 94
Discussions on how knowledge and skills can
be put to use immediately.
At the beginning and during training
Retrospective pre- and post-training assessment Before and after the training
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”

Discussions following practice and feedback.

Discussions following practice and
feedback.
During the workshop. During the workshop.
Retrospective pre- and post-training assessment Before and after the training
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Discussions following practice and feedback. During and after training
Create an individual action plan. During the training
Retrospective pre- and post-training assessment Before and after training

Level 1: Reaction
According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016), level one focuses on the reaction of the
key program participants. For female entrepreneurs, it will be important to determine and assess
their personal reactions to the member programming at the OFE. Table 15 lists the methods that
will be used to determine how female entrepreneurs react when participating in OFE
programming and events.

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 95
Table 15
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tools Timing
Engagement

Pre and post-training assessments Before and after the training
Observation by instructor/facilitator During the training
Mentor feedback During and after training
Attendance records During the training
Course evaluation surveys Mid-training and one week after the
course
Relevance

Demonstration in groups and individually of
using the job aids to successfully perform the
skills
Weekly/monthly
Quality of the feedback from peers during
group sharing.
Directly after the training and ongoing
monthly
Customer Satisfaction
Discussions on how the knowledge and skills
can be put to use immediately.
One week after the training
Retrospective pre- and post-training assessment Weekly/monthly

Evaluation Tools

Immediately following the program implementation. Before and after the training,
there will be both pre and post-training assessments that will collect data about the current
knowledge and application of the business skills by the participants. The data collected will
indicate the engagement with the course material, the implementation and practical use of the
knowledge. There will also be course evaluation surveys that are administered mid and post-
training. The assessment will request for the participant to indicate the relevance of the material
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 96
to their business performance and their overall satisfaction with the content and delivery of the
training.
For Level 1, During the in-person workshop, the instructor will conduct periodic brief
pulse-checks by asking the participants about the relevance of the content to their work and the
organization, delivery, and learning environment. Level 2 will include checks for understanding
using role-play, application, simulations and group work in responding to questions and
scenarios drawn from the content.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Approximately six weeks
after the implementation of the training, and then again at 15 weeks, OFE will administer a
survey containing open-ended and scaled items using the Blended Evaluation approach to
measure, from the participant’s perspective, satisfaction and relevance of the training (Level 1),
confidence and value of applying their training (Level 2), application of the training to the
government contract application and negotiation processes and the support from mentors and
peers they are receiving (Level 3), and the extent to which their performance of the government
contract application review process has become more accurate and timely (Level 4).
Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal of new OFE members is measured by their ability to get approved as a
certified woman-owned business as well as their success in growing their business through
contract attainment. Each month assigned OFE staff will track the number of OFE members
certified as well as the contract revenue growth of the OFE members. The dashboard below will
report the data on these measures as a monitoring and accountability tool. Similar dashboards
will be created to monitor Levels 1, 2 and 3.
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 97

Figure 8. Sample dashboard showing female entrepreneurs’ revenues and growth categorized by
certification status.
Summary
This study leveraged the New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) to plan, implement, and
evaluate the recommendations for the Organization of Female Entrepreneurs (OFE). The four
levels of training have been used to support the leadership team at OFE when implementing the
above-referenced programs to monitor and guide the stakeholders towards the organizational
goal. The Kirkpatrick model was leveraged to create a training program that started will
identifying and documenting the desired outcomes, metrics, and methods used to assess the
results of the desired outcomes and goals, these will be integrated into the organization's
operational focus and goal mapping.
The expectations for using the framework and the advantages of integrating
implementation and evaluation, ultimately drive measurable value to the organization and allows
for efficient identification of any areas that require intervention as a return on expectations
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 98
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) The four levels of training and evaluation were used,
including reaction (Level 1), learning (Level 2), critical behaviors (Level 3), and results (Level
4). The training programs and results were designed with a focus on the results and measurable
indicators and including both internal and external outcomes. After the establishment of Level 4,
Level 3 was established outlining important behaviors for female entrepreneurs that was
followed by aligning Level 2 learning goals. Level 1 was designed with the purpose of driving
female entrepreneurs’ responses and understanding how they perceive to the programs with
respect to the aligned goals. The training program will be proposed to the leadership of the OFE
to be reviewed and assessed for implementation.
Conclusion
The purpose of the study was to understand the female entrepreneurs’ capacity to obtain
certification as a Woman-Owned Small Business (WOSB) and expand their business footprint by
15% within a year of certification. The study has culminated in recommendations that address
the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences needed for this stakeholder group and
the organization as a whole to be successful. These findings will be shared with the leadership of
the Organization of Female Entrepreneurs (OFE) and they will review it to assess which, if any
of the recommendations that they would like to implement to better support female entrepreneurs
in their efforts to expand their business footprints and address the problem of gender inequity as
it pertains to the imbalance of women entrepreneurs. The literature presented explores various
factors that point to precursors required for success for female entrepreneurs.
Women are launching a net of more than 1,100 new businesses every single day. Over
the past 20 years, the number of women-owned firms has grown 114% compared to a growth
rate of 44% for all businesses. That’s 2-1/2 times the national average. To date, women-owned
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 99
businesses comprise more than 39% of all the country’s businesses. They employ more than 9
million workers and 8 percent of the private-sector workforce. They generate more than $1.7
trillion in revenues. That may sound like a large number, but in actuality, even though women-
owned businesses account for more than 39% of businesses, they only contribute to a little over
4% of business revenues. There's a huge gender imbalance in the entrepreneurship world. For all
the strides women have made in launching startups and driving the economy forward, they face
persistent obstacles that hamper their progress -- Women lag behind men in areas like access to
capital and opportunities to win bids for government contracts.
The lack of female representation in entrepreneurship is a problem that we can see across
the globe. Not addressing it can result in hefty ramifications to the Gross Domestic Profit (GDP)
and job creation (Bosse & Taylor, 2012). The impact of the gender equity gap in
entrepreneurship may not be a number one priority for some right now, but I fit isn’t addressed,
the impact could result in the loss of the economic contributions of women-owned businesses,
which was estimated at generating over $1.6 trillion ($1,622,763,800,000) in annual revenues
and employs nearly 9 million people (American Express, 2016). To address the problem of
gender disparity as it pertains to the imbalance of women entrepreneurs my personal goal is to
help analyze and uncover new information and do my part in helping to drive solutions one step
at a time.
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 100
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Appendices
APPENDIX A: Survey Protocol
Introduction: Thank you for agreeing to take part in this important survey and sharing your
thoughts and experiences as a Woman Owned Small Business. Your input will help contribute to
research to help bridge the gap of gender equity in entrepreneurship. This survey should only
take about 5-7 minutes to complete.
My name is Georgette Fraser-Moore, and I am a Doctoral Candidate at the University of
Southern California. I am collaborating with OFE to conduct a study of female entrepreneurs. I
would like to emphasize the importance of confidentiality in this study. As a researcher, I will
ensure that names and responses will not be disclosed to anyone or anywhere outside the scope
of this study and will only be known to me for purposes of data collection.

Are you a member of OFE?
Yes
No

What industry does your company operate in?
Agriculture
Beauty
Construction
Consumer/Capital Goods
E-Commerce
Education
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 106
Entertainment
Fashion
Finance
Healthcare
Hospitality
Human Resources
Manufacturing
Maintenance
Marketing
Media
Real Estate
Sports
Technology
Telecommunication
Transportation
Wellness
Other _________________________
How much is your business currently making in annual revenues?
Less than $10,000
$10,000 to $24,999
$25,000 to $49,999
$50,000 to $99,999
$100,000 to $249,000
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 107
$250,000 to $499,999
$500,000 to $999,999
$1,000,000+
How long have you been a member of OFE?
<1 year
1-2 years
2-3 years
3-5 years
5-7 years
8-10 years
How long have you been a business owner/entrepreneur?
___ Years ___ Months
Are you currently certified as an SBA Woman-Owned Small Business (WOSB)?
Yes
No
I feel confident in my ability to negotiate and attain contracts.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neither Agree
Nor Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree

Thinking back to when you started your business, how would you rate your knowledge as a
“new” business owner to attain contracts?
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 108
None - I had no
knowledge on
attaining contracts
Novice - I had very
little knowledge on
attaining contracts
Average - I had general
knowledge on how to
attain contracts
Expert - I had expert
knowledge in
attaining contracts

When you started your business, what were some of the main obstacles you faced? (You can
check more than one answer)
No obstacles
I didn’t know what to do to start a business
Self-confidence
Believing in my abilities
Funding/financial questions (raising capital)
Lack of information
Lack of support
Finding the right contacts for your business venture
Combining family and work life
Others (please specify): ____________
What are the main obstacles you are facing now in the running of your business? (you can check
more than one answer)
No obstacles
Combining family and work life
Liquidity and other financial problems
Not enough time for training / upgrading skills
Gaining the acceptance / respect of people internally and externally;
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 109
Others (please specify): _____________
What motivated you start your own business? (You can choose more than one answer)
I inherited the business
I did not want to work for others
I want for control and freedom to make my own decisions
Social status
Self – achievement
Confidence in the products / services offered;
Other reasons (please specify): _______
As a member of OFE, I feel comfortable providing and getting support from my network and
mentors.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neither Agree
Nor Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree

OFE has provided information and/or resources about obtaining capital/funding for my business.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neither Agree
Nor Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree

OFE has directly helped your company secure new contracts:
Strongly
Disagree
(Not at all)
Disagree
(Minimal Help)
N/A Agree
(Some Help)
Strongly Agree
(A lot of help)
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 110

Within the last year, OFE has provided opportunities to learn new skills required to increase
business growth:
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Neither Agree
Nor Disagree
Agree Strongly Agree

What is your highest level of education?
Primary
Education
Secondary (High
School) Education
Collegiate/Tertiary
Education

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 111
APPENDIX B: Interview Protocol
Introduction: Thank you taking the time to meet with me. I appreciate you agreeing to meet
with me. This interview should take approximately an hour or less, although the timeframe can
be extended based on your schedule. I am conducting a study of female entrepreneurs and their
capacity to obtain certification as a woman-owned-business and expand their business footprint.
To get a better understanding, I would like to ask approximately 15 questions as part of this
interview. If at any time during the interview you feel uncomfortable answering questions, you
may elect to stop.
In addition, I would like to emphasize the importance of confidentiality in this study. As a
researcher, I will ensure names and responses will not be disclosed to anyone or anywhere
outside the scope of this study and will only be known to me for purposes of data collection.

1. What are your beliefs around the ability of women in general to be able to grow their
businesses as entrepreneurs?
2. How familiar are you with government contracting? Can you walk me through the
process of how you obtain government contracts?
3. What types of networking, if any, do you engage in to help your business grow?
4. How effective do you think networking has been in helping you grow your business?
5. Do you believe that being a member of OFE has helped to strengthen your business
network? Can you tell me a little about how OFE has helped you in this area?
6. What types of goals do you have for your business over the next 5 years?
7. How do you feel about your ability to grow your business/increase the # of contracts?
Can you explain how (if at all) OFE has helped you in this area of your business?
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 112
8. Is there a process that you use for contract negotiation? Can you walk me through the
process of you negotiating new contracts?
9. What does success for your business look like to you? Has this changed as a result of
being a member of OFE?
10. What kind of support is available for female entrepreneurs in OFE?
11. How do you manage your time as it relates to growing your business? Do you feel like
you have enough time?
12. What type of financial resources did you use to start your business (ex. Personal savings,
private loans, bank loans, venture capital, etc.)? Does OFE offer information and/or resources
related to funding your business?
13. What type of challenges have you faced as a female entrepreneur?
14. What knowledge and skills do you feel like you still need to be successful?
15. Do you believe OFE offers the resources to strengthen these skills? If not, how will you
go about getting that knowledge?

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 113
APPENDIX C: Survey Protocol - Immediate Evaluation Instrument
1. The learning environment helped me to learn.
Yes No

2. My participation was encouraged by the facilitator.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

3. This program held my interest.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

4. Was there anything that interfered with your experience?

5. What I learned from this training will help me in my business.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

6. During the training, we discussed how to apply what we learned.
Yes No

7. What material did you find most relevant to your business?

8. What material was a waste of time?

9. I would recommend this program to other entrepreneurs.
Yes No

10. How could this program be improved?

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 114
11. What are the major concepts that you learned in this training?

12. I believe this training was a productive use of my time.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

13. I feel confident about applying what I learned.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

14. What is the first thing that you plan to apply from what you have learned today?

15. I believe I will see a positive impact in my business if I apply what I learned.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 115
APPENDIX D: Survey Protocol - Delayed Instrument
1. Are you certified as a Woman Owned Business prior to the training?
Yes No

a. If you are certified as a Woman Owned Business, did you use what you learned in the
training to help you get certified?
Yes N/A No

2. The information provided in the training was applicable to my business.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Disagree nor Agree Agree Strongly Agree
3. I have successfully applied what I learned in training.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Disagree nor Agree Agree Strongly Agree

4. Looking back, taking this course was a good use of my time.
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Disagree nor Agree Agree Strongly Agree
5. What information from the training has been most relevant to your business?
6. Was there any information in this course that was NOT relevant to your business? If so
what?

7. Looking back, how could this program be improved?

8. Looking back what would you change about this training?

9. How many years have you been in business?
GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 116
APPENDIX E: Data Analysis Charts for Evaluation

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 117

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 118

GENDER EQUITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP 119

Abstract (if available)

Abstract There's a huge gender imbalance in the entrepreneurship world. For all the strides women have made in launching startups and driving the economy forward, they face persistent obstacles that hamper their progress. Women lag behind men in areas like access to capital and opportunities to win bids for government contracting. Over the last two decades, the presence of women in entrepreneurship has been on the rise. Women are entering the ranks of business ownership at record rates, and the importance of female small business owners and their impact on economic growth is being broadly recognized. Women are launching a net of more than 1,100 new businesses every single day. Over the past 20 years, the number of women-owned firms has grown 114% compared to a growth rate of 44% for all businesses. That’s 2½ times the national average. To date, women-owned businesses comprise more than 39% of all of the country’s businesses. They employ more than 9 million workers and 8 percent of the private-sector workforce. They generate more than $1.7 trillion in revenues. That may sound like a large number, but in actuality even though women-owned businesses account for more than 39% of businesses, they only contribute to a little over 4% of business revenues. This study takes a mixed methods research approach to address the problem of gender disparity as it pertains to the imbalance of female entrepreneurs. This study looks at an organization that helps advance women-owned businesses and a sample group of female entrepreneur members to assess the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that contribute to female entrepreneurial success factors. The goal is to help analyze and uncover new information to ultimately help in driving solutions and narrowing the gender gap in entrepreneurship.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Fraser-Moore, Georgette K. (author)

Core Title Bridging the gap of gender equity in entrepreneurship: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 12/05/2019

Defense Date 09/11/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag bridging the gap,Business,business owner,Economy,entrepreneur,entrepreneurship,equity,gender,gender equity,gender imbalance,government contracting,OAI-PMH Harvest,Small business,Women,women-owned business

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Seli, Helena (committee chair), Pearson, Mark (committee member), Robles, Darline (committee member)

Creator Email georgette.moore@usc.edu,georgettemoore@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-245240

Unique identifier UC11673561

Identifier etd-FraserMoor-7999.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-245240 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-FraserMoor-7999.pdf

Dmrecord 245240

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Fraser-Moore, Georgette K.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA