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The educational and professional choices of Iranian women in STEM doctoral programs

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The educational and professional choices of Iranian women in STEM doctoral programs

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Content Running head: IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 1

THE EDUCATIONAL AND PROFESSIONAL CHOICES OF IRANIAN WOMEN IN STEM
DOCTORAL PROGRAMS

by
Jennifer Gerson

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2020

Copyright 2020 Jennifer Gerson
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my family, friends, and colleagues for
their support throughout my educational journey. To my husband, Jeremy, and our children,
Aurora and William, thank you for your love and encouragement throughout all of the late
nights, early mornings, and weekends away while I completed the program. To my Wednesday
night cohort, I am grateful for your friendship and support.
Thank you to Dr. Pensavalle and Dr. Hasan for serving as my dissertation co-chairs and
for their guidance and reassurance throughout the process. I could not have gotten through the
writing process without you. Thank you to Dr. Meshkati for serving on my committee.
Finally, I would like to thank my parents for instilling a strong work ethic and optimism.
My mother has been my biggest cheerleader, encouraging me to strive for more and never give
up despite life’s challenges. And while my father has long since passed, I will forever remember
his kind nature and calm demeanor, and hope he is proud of the person I have become.

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ 2
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... 4
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ 5
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ........................................................................ 7
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................ 9
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................... 9
Research Question ..................................................................................................................... 10
Importance of the Study ............................................................................................................ 10
Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................. 11
Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................................... 14
Key Terms ................................................................................................................................. 15
Organization of the Study ......................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................... 18
Characteristics of Successful Women ....................................................................................... 23
Gender Roles and Expectations of Iranian Women .................................................................. 26
Family Viewpoints and Supports .............................................................................................. 29
Obstacles or Barriers Women Had to Overcome ...................................................................... 31
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 40
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 42
Sample and Population .............................................................................................................. 44
Instrumentation .......................................................................................................................... 45
Interview .................................................................................................................................... 45
Observation ............................................................................................................................... 47
Data Collection .......................................................................................................................... 49
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 50
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS .................................................................................................... 51
Characteristics of successful women ......................................................................................... 52
Gender roles and expectations of Iranian women ..................................................................... 61
Family viewpoints and supports ................................................................................................ 68
Obstacles or barriers the women had to overcome ................................................................... 72
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................ 87
Discussion of Findings .............................................................................................................. 87
Implications for Practice ........................................................................................................... 91
Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................................... 93
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 94
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 97
APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL .............................................................................. 107
APPENDIX B: OBSERVATION PROTOCOL ......................................................................... 108
APPENDIX C: INFORMED CONSENT FORM ...................................................................... 114

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 4
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Four Identity Statuses 20
Table 2 Decision-Making Pathways 21
Table 3 Literature Review Table 37
Table 4 Methodology Overview 43
Table 5 Connection Between Instruments, Research Question Components, and the Literature 48
Table 6 Chart Schedule of Data Collection and Analysis 50
Table 7 Research Themes and Instrumentation 85

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 5
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Unemployment rates by gender and region in Iran, 2014-15 (Sarfaraz, 2017;
Statistical Center of Iran, 2014) 34
Figure 2: The ratio of female to male labor force participation rate (% of population 15+)
in Iran and comparative economies (Sarfaraz, 2017). 35

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 6
ABSTRACT
This case study examined the educational and professional decisions of eight
Iranian female students and graduates of doctoral engineering programs at a Tier 1 research
university in Southern California. While more Iranian women have earned doctoral degrees in
recent years, those in STEM fields often choose to do so in the United States. These women
were raised with traditional values and distinct gender roles but were inspired to pursue higher
education in traditionally male-dominated disciplines. They need to respect their cultural values
and simultaneously welcome the educational opportunities available to them. Their families
insist that they stand out in their chosen field of study while they observe the values instilled in
them during their upbringing. The study utilized women’s identity development theory to
evaluate factors which influenced the choices of the research participants.

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 7
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Presently, most students from developed countries can pursue higher education in their
hometown, state, country or around the world. In some countries, men and women can pursue
the same field of study or different disciplines. The various opportunities can provide students
the chance to meet others from different backgrounds and countries. Certain areas of study, like
engineering, as well as institution location, such as a large metropolitan city, may provide more
chances for students to come together from all around the world. Students can learn in a
different education system than the one in which they grew up, experience a different culture,
enhance their language skills, and discover new interests.
The professional engineering school at a Tier 1, research university located in Southern
California aims to innovate, educate, pursue and produce research, focusing on addressing
societal challenges. The school inspires and supports learning, leadership, and determination as
well as qualities that exemplify an authentic academic and professional engineer to impact
California, the Unites States and the world. The engineering school has over 1,000 doctoral
students, three-quarters of whom grew up outside the United States. The majority of
international students pursuing a doctorate in engineering are from China, India, or Iran. Only
one-fifth of the Ph.D. candidate population is comprised of women, which is approximately ten
percent less than the school’s peer institutions’ doctoral engineering programs, despite the fact
that they represent roughly half of the overall population (American Society for Engineering
Education, 2017; United States Census Bureau, 2017). This disparity upsets the school’s mission
to tackle societal challenges, since more men are conducting research in and graduating from the
engineering school despite women being half of the population.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 8
Being female in a male-dominated field is challenging, particularly for students who
come from patriarchal societies and must mediate the customs of their culture while pursuing a
terminal degree in a foreign country. Women also hold an outlook different from that of men,
which can significantly impact engineering research, as they have the potential to solve problems
in ways other than what men might do (Stieff, Ryu, Dixon, & Hegarty, 2012). If there are fewer
women working in engineering, men will continue to decide which scientific studies are
important to pursue, which is quite problematic, as women can make distinctive contributions to
the field by providing a different prospective to benefit society and solve significant problems
throughout the world.
Iranian women in particular have a unique viewpoint, as they were raised with traditional
values and well-defined gender roles, yet many are encouraged to pursue higher education in
conventionally male-dominated fields. They must honor their cultural beliefs and concurrently
embrace the educational opportunities available to them. They have families who expect them to
excel in their chosen field of study while respecting the values in which they were raised.
Since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the education of women in Iran has been complicated,
as opposite priorities compete with one another. In 1980, the Supreme Cultural Revolution
Council was created and closed all Iranian universities for two to three years, all high schools
were changed to single-sex, English was no longer the second language learned by students,
textbooks were altered, and women were banned from studying certain science and engineering
programs (Moghadam, 2013). During this time, Iran was focused on its citizens being good
Muslims. Learning more about female doctoral students of Iranian descent, the decisions and
actions they recognize as shaping their scholastic decisions, and the obstacles they overcame to
get to graduate school will add to the limited research on this topic.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 9
Statement of the Problem
Although more Iranian women have pursued and finished degrees in higher education in
recent years, they are not allowed to learn alongside men except outside of the country, are
required to wear a veil, and are directed towards more traditionally feminine majors, such as
social sciences or education (Mehran, 2003). Iranian women have no choice but to follow
traditional and modern edicts of their culture, even though the views contradict with
conventional American values (Mehran, 2003). In addition, while many Iranian students earn
top grades in their home country, countless of them struggle with English language skills,
including writing, listening, reading, and speaking in graduate school (Pourshahian, Gholami,
Vaseghi, & Rezvani Kalajahi, 2012). There is little research that addresses what leads these
women to choose engineering as a major and career path, and how they balance the traditional
and modern decrees required of them. With more knowledge, this road to higher education
might be made easier for women of Iranian descent and their contributions can have a greater
impact on society. We may be missing out on their knowledge and contributions because of the
difficulty balancing traditional with the modern beliefs. We do not know much about their path
and how some persevere while others abandon their dreams.
Purpose of the Study
Due to the growing interest in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM)
education and research, it is imperative to have women represented in addition to men. There are
few studies examining the reasons Iranian women decide to major in STEM fields, and the
increasing number of Iranian female students in engineering doctoral programs indicates the
necessity of this study. Therefore, this study sought to discover whether parents or others
influenced the educational and professional choices of Iranian women in a STEM doctoral
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 10
program. The study investigated the kinds of formal and informal support they received in
graduate school.
Research Question
The research question guiding this study is:
1. What factors influence the educational and professional choices of
female Iranian graduate students in science, technology, engineering, and math
(STEM)?
Importance of the Study
While the study conducted by Dastjerdi, Mahdian, Dastjerdi, and Namdari (2012)
examined the choices of undergraduate Iranian medical and dental students, it did not
specifically address Iranian graduate students in STEM fields. As previously mentioned, there is
little research on Iranian women in STEM. The researcher intended to discover the influences
affecting Iranian females’ scholastic and career decisions to gain understanding of this
population and make recommendations to improve student affairs practice moving forward.
Recognizing how these students make educational and professional choices could considerably
sway how universities recruit them into graduate school, support their academic progress
throughout their degree programs, and help them find satisfying jobs upon graduation.
Moreover, with the 2017 Executive Order imposing permanent travel restrictions for
Iranians and others from Muslim countries, Iranian students now have to decide whether
pursuing a degree in the United States is worth the effort. Prior to the Executive Order, Iranian
students studying in the United States received single entry visas, allowing them to complete
their degree programs without interruption as long as they remained in the United States. If they
left the country for any reason, they risked not being allowed back in, as they would have to
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 11
apply for and be approved for a new visa. Students from other countries typically receive
multiple entry visas, allowing them to leave the United States and return without needing a new
visa. While this Executive Order allows Iranians to enter the United States to study, the students
undergo heightened screening and inspection (The White House Office of the Press Secretary,
2017). This new policy will certainly impact Iranian students’ educational and professional
choices.
Conceptual Framework
This study utilizes Josselson (1973) women’s identity development theoretical
framework, an extension of Erikson’s (1956) work on identity development. Erikson’s eight
stages of psychosocial development span a person’s lifetime. The first stage, Trust vs. Mistrust,
begins at birth and continues to 18 months old. During this stage, babies seek stability and care
from a primary caregiver. If their needs are met, they will become hopeful and develop trust,
which will apply to other relationships; if not, they will become anxious and not have confidence
in their ability to impact the world around them. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt occurs from 18
months to three years old and involves a child’s development of personal control over physical
skills and a sense of independence. Children who are encouraged to be independent during this
stage will become more confident in their ability to survive, while those who are criticized and
not given the opportunity to assert themselves will lack self-esteem and feel shame or doubt in
their abilities. The third stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is Initiative vs.
Guilt and takes place between three and five years of age. In this stage, children assert
themselves more frequently, often through play activities. If successful, they will develop a
sense of purpose and feel confident to lead others and make decisions. If they are criticized
during this stage, children will develop a sense of guilt. Industry vs. Inferiority occurs from five
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 12
to 12 years old, and involves children believing that they need to gain approval by demonstrating
specific competencies that are valued by society and develop a sense of pride in their
achievements. Children who are encouraged begin to feel competent and confident in their
abilities, while those who are not encouraged may feel inferior and doubt their own abilities.
The fifth stage is Identity vs. Role Confusion and takes place between 12 and 18 years of age.
During this significant developmental stage, adolescents search for a sense of identity while
exploring their personal values and beliefs. They want to fit in with society; failure to do so can
lead to role confusion. Success in this stage leads to fidelity, which involves being able to
commit oneself to others while accepting others’ ideological differences. Intimacy vs. Isolation
takes place between 18 and 40 years of age, and focuses on forming long-lasting loving
relationships with others. Successful completion of this stage results in happy relationships, and
a sense of commitment, safety, and care in relationships. Fearing commitment and relationships
can lead to isolation and loneliness. This stage is most applicable to the research participants, as
during this period they are evolving from children to adults, building relationships, and focusing
on commitment. During this stage, they are making significant life choices, such as deciding
what educational discipline to pursue, where to attend college and graduate school, with whom
they want to build a life, and how they want to contribute to society. Choices made during this
time will significantly impact the remainder of their lives. Generativity vs. Stagnation occurs
from 40 to 65 years of age and include one’s need to create or nurture things that will outlast
oneself. Raising children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in one’s community
are ways in which people can benefit others. Achievement in this area leads to a sense of
usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in superficial involvement in the world.
Erikson’s final stage of identity development is Ego Integrity vs. Despair. This stage takes place
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 13
from age 65 to death, and is a time when people examine their accomplishments over the course
of a lifetime. Success in this stage leads to wisdom, and enables one to look back on their life
with a sense of completeness and accept death without fear. Those who view their lives as
unproductive or feel guilty about the past will become dissatisfied with life and develop
hopelessness.
Josselson focused on women, specifically how and why young women select one path or
another in their lives. Josselson’s theory also builds on the work of Marcia (1966), which
defined four identity statuses. Among these statuses founded by Marcia (1966), Achievements,
the first status, are realized when an individual has considered numerous moral and professional
options and makes a commitment on her own terms. Diffusions, the second status, refers to those
who show a lack of responsibility and lack of concern. Following, Moratoriums are
characterized by being in crisis but actively trying to make commitments, and lastly
Foreclosures make commitments in the absence of other alternatives.
A key principle of Josselson’s theory of women’s identity development is that adult
identity is impacted by the shift in late adolescence to separate from childhood and form one’s
own way of being. Unlike Marcia, Josselson noted four decision-making pathways: guardian,
pathmaker, searcher, and drifter. Guardians grounded in their parents’ values and beliefs or on
those from someone else to whom they latched on. Pathmakers discovered that their parents’
way of life was not the only way to live and decided what worked best for them. Searchers were
often in crisis and were not afraid to try new things but felt guilty afterwards. Lastly, Drifters’
values changed with each new situation and postponed making decisions about the future.
Josselson was most interested in learning whether adult identity was impacted detaching from
childhood and establish one’s sense of self.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 14
Limitations and Delimitations
Because this was a case study, only five Iranian graduate students and three Iranian
graduate alumnae from one engineering school at a particular university in Southern California
were studied. Therefore, the results cannot be generalized to the entire Iranian female scholar
population in the state, in the country, or in the world. The researcher used qualitative research
methods to better understand the research participants. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) assert that
interviews provide a researcher the opportunity to learn about aspects that are not necessarily
observable. Therefore, the researcher conducted interviews, which provided rich information not
likely acquired otherwise. The researcher also used observations, as they provided the ability to
examine subtle distinctions first-hand. Observations are considered a first-hand account of what
is happening, while interviews are a second-hand account, and both are needed for triangulation
of data to ensure the study’s validity and reliability (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Employing interviews and observations presented the researcher with an in-depth
understanding that may not have been uncovered had the researcher chosen to use one method
alone.
Qualitative studies need to be trustworthy and legitimate, or they jeopardize the
credibility of the studies, which involves the truthfulness of an account, justification,
understanding, or decision (Maxwell, 2013). Researcher bias and reactivity may threaten
validity in qualitative studies. Although the researcher knew the study participants beforehand,
she did not allow her relationship to impact the study or the findings. Despite the fact that it is
impossible to detach one’s viewpoints and attitudes from a study, the researcher strived to keep
her opinions to herself and not sway how she conducted the study.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 15
Key Terms
Drifters: The values of the women in this decision-making pathway changed with each
new situation, often “going with the flow” and make decisions about the future when the time
comes (Josselson, 1972).
Glass cliff: Phenomenon of women in leadership roles being likelier than men to achieve
leadership positions during periods of crisis or downturn, when the chance of failure is highest
(Ryan & Haslam, 2007).
Guardians: Women in this decision-making pathway have a well-defined vision about
the future and embraced the beliefs/values from parents or others who decided what was right for
them (Josselson, 1972).
Hijab: Head, face, or body covering worn by Muslim women that conforms to a certain
standard of modesty (Merriam-Webster, 2018).
Honor killing: Honor killings are acts of vengeance, usually death, committed by male
family members against female family members, who are perceived to have brought dishonor
upon the family (Human Rights Watch, 2017).
Identity achievement: Women who have reached this identity status have reflected on
several ideological and occupational decisions and make their own decision (Marcia, 1966).
Identity diffusion: Women who have attained this identity status possess a lack of
commitment and lack of concern (Marcia, 1966).
Identity foreclosure: Women who have achieved this identity status have made
commitments due to the lack of considering other options (Marcia, 1966).
Identity moratorium: Women who have reached this identity status are in crisis and have
vague commitments but are actively striving to make commitments (Marcia, 1966).
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 16
Implicit bias: Term referring to relatively unconscious and automatic features of
prejudiced judgment and social behavior (Brownstein & Saul, 2016).
Multiple entry visa: A multiple entry visa can be used to travel to USA ports of entry as
many times as the visa states. These visas are valid for a certain period of time, which is known
as the visa validity period. During this period, the holders of these visas can travel to the United
States multiple times for the purpose the visas were issued. However, they must not exceed the
number of entries allowed on their visas (U.S. Department of State, 2019).
Pathmakers: Women in this decision-making pathway learned that their parents’ way of
life was not the only way to live and accepted different ways of being, attempted various options,
and chose what worked best for them (Josselson, 1972).
Queen bee syndrome: The tendency of women in high-ranking positions to detach from
other women and block their advancement in organizations (Allen & Flood, 2018; Ellemers,
2014).
Searchers: Women in this decision-making pathway were often confused, in crisis,
struggled with many possibilities available to them, and were not afraid to try new things but felt
guilty afterwards (Josselson, 1972).
Single entry visa: A single entry visa can be used by the visa holders to travel to a USA
port of entry just one time. They can travel to the USA any time before the visa expiry date.
Once they leave the USA, they will not be able to travel again to the USA with the same visa
even if it is still valid (U.S. Department of State, 2019).
STEM: Science, technology, engineering, and math (Merriam-Webster, 2018).
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 17
Women’s identity development: Theoretical framework, an extension of Erikson’s work
on identity development focused on women, specifically on how and why young women select
one path or another in their lives; builds upon the work of Marcia (Josselson, 1973).
Organization of the Study
The paper begins with an introduction to the problem and continues with a review of the
relevant literature. The literature review includes characteristics of women who are successful,
the gender roles and expectations of Iranian women, including a history of Iran and the Islamic
Republic, a discussion of family attitudes and supports as well as obstacles or barriers the women
overcame. Following the review of literature is the methodology, results, and, finally, the
conclusion, which includes findings of the study and implications for future practice.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 18
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
To examine the educational and professional decisions of female Iranian STEM graduate
students, it is essential to review four themes related to Iranian females pursuing engineering
graduate studies. These themes are 1) the characteristics of successful women; 2) the gender
roles and expectations of Iranian women, a history of Iran and the Islamic Republic; 3) family
viewpoints and supports, and 4) the obstacles or barriers women had to overcome. These themes
have evolved from the review of the literature and are significant in trying to understand why
Iranian women in STEM make certain educational and professional choices.
Theoretical Framework
To explore the decisions of female Iranian graduate students in engineering and math,
this study used the conceptual framework of Josselson’s women’s identity development.
Josselson’s theory is that the adult self is influenced by the change in the late teenage years and
early adulthood to break away from the childhood self and develop adult identity. Josselson’s
theory emphasizes four decision-making pathways. Guardians have a strong sense regarding
future plans and assumed their parents’ way of life or cling to another person in late adolescence
who determined what was correct for them. These women are also known as Purveyors of the
Heritage, graduate from college with identity commitment, have not experienced an identity
crisis, and seek security in relationships. Pathmakers found that their parents’ life choices were
not the only options and considered alternative ways to live, experimented with various options,
and decided what was ideal for them. Pathmakers are also known as Pavers of the Way, formed
a separate, distinct identity, and decided how they want to contribute to society. Searchers were
routinely dealing with confusion and chaos and struggled with several options accessible to
them. While searchers are not fearful when seeking new experiences, they often felt guilty
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 19
afterwards. These women are also categorized as Daughters of the Crisis, a suitable label as they
experiment and search for a new identity, believe there is one “right” way, commits to that
decision, and then crisis follows. Lastly, drifters’ viewpoints change with each new situation,
typically “going with the flow” and make choices about the future when the time comes.
Drifters are also termed Lost and Sometimes Found, as they lack crisis and commitment and
withdraw from situations.
Josselson’s work was influenced by Erikson (1956) and Marcia (1966). Erikson argued
that personality developed through a predetermined order of eight stages of psychosocial
development. These stages span one’s entire lifetime and depending on how one is supported or
neglected during each stage, a healthy or unhealthy sense of self will emerge. Basic virtues are
achieved after successful completion of each stage. According to Marcia (1966), identity
achievements occur when one has considered several ideological and occupational choices and
makes a commitment on her own terms. Identity diffusions appear when one does not show
responsibility or concern. Moratoriums are categorized when one is in crisis but vigorously
attempting to make commitments, and foreclosures make decisions when no other options are
available.
Erikson’s (1956) stage five identity vs. role confusion and stage six intimacy vs. isolation
are most influential on Josselson’s (1973) theory on women’s identity development, as these
developmental stages occur during adolescence and young adulthood. Josselson’s guardians are
similar to Marcia’s foreclosures; pathmakers are comparable to identity achievements; searchers
are like moratoriums; and drifters are similar to diffusions. Josselson created four categories of
women’s identity development in order to classify women based on their ability to handle
ambiguity and change. She believed that all women fit into one of the four different paths. This
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 20
study sought to discover whether parents or others influence the educational and professional
choices of Iranian women in STEM doctoral programs and which decision-making pathways
they select.
Although Erikson (1956) was a pioneer of identity development, men were the primary
focus of his work, and women were often considered as an afterthought. As a result, Josselson
(1973, 1987, 1998) conducted research and created a theory based on women’s identity
development, specifically focusing on how and why women choose one path or another in their
lives. Josselson’s theory adds to the work of Marcia (1966), which defined four identity statuses.
The connection amongst these statuses can be found in the table below.
Table 1
Four Identity Statuses
COMMITMENT CRISIS

Present

Absent

Present Achievements Foreclosures
Absent Moratoriums Diffusions
Note. Adapted from “Identity Formation in College Women” dissertation by R. Josselson, 1972,
University of Michigan.

A primary tenet of Josselson’s (1973, 1987, 1998) theory of women’s identity
development is that adult identity is affected by the change in early adulthood to break away
from childhood and establish one’s own life. Josselson reasoned that there are four decision-
making pathways. The first of these, Guardians (Purveyors of the Heritage) had a distinct view
of future intentions and assumed ideals and philosophies from parents or came across another
person who determined what was appropriate for them. Pathmakers (Pavers of the Way) realized
that their parents’ way of living was not the only option and considered alternate ways of being,
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 21
tested different options, and chose what worked best for them. Searchers (Daughters of Crisis)
were typically dealing with some catastrophe, struggled with the many options available to them,
and were willing to new things but were guilt-ridden later. Drifters’ (Lost and Sometimes
Found) beliefs were modified for each new encounter, and they would decide about the future
down the line. Josselson’s four decision-making pathways can be found in the table below.
Table 2
Decision-Making Pathways
COMMITMENT EXPLORATION

Yes

No

Yes Pathmakers Guardians
No Searchers Drifters
Note. Adapted from Revising herself: The story of women’s identity from college to midlife by R.
Josselson, 1998, Oxford University Press.

While conducting her research, Josselson visited four universities, utilized random
sampling by selecting every 50th or 100th name from a roster of female seniors, and invited
them to participate in her study. In her study of 60 women, she utilized Marcia’s (1964) Identity
Status Interview, intelligence tests, and interviewed them. After the initial interviews in the early
1970s, Josselson followed up with the participants 10 years later and was able to locate and
conduct in-depth interviews with 33 women. Another 10 years later (20 years after the initial
study), she located and organized thorough interviews with 30 original participants. Although
her study was ground-breaking for its time, Josselson’s study had several flaws. First, all
research participants were Caucasian except one African American woman who passed away
after the initial study. Second, three of the four colleges where she sought research participants
were located in close proximity to each other while the fourth one was located in a different part
of the country. Third, college attendance was not necessarily the norm for women in the 1970s,
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 22
further emphasizing the lack of diversity in her sample. Nevertheless, building on the work of
Erikson (1956) and Marcia (1966) resulted in an innovative theory of women’s identity
development.
Characteristics of Iranian Culture
Family plays an integral role in Iranian culture. While men and women share the
responsibility of providing for their respective families, the expectations for each are quite
distinct. The primary role of women is motherhood and raising children, whereas men must
contribute financially through work outside the home (Higgins & Shoar-Ghaffari, 1995).
Textbooks used in Iranian schools emphasize the significance of family and the specific roles of
men and women, with women often depicted as mothers, and men typically portrayed as the
providers and protectors of the family (Ferdows, 1995; Mehran, 1991).
Iranian families value education and students must prepare to apply to college while in
high school. Prospective college students rank up to 100 majors after receiving their grade on a
nationwide college entrance examination, known as the Konkoor; the National Organization of
Educational Testing (NOET) then assigns an overall mark for each student and applicants are
offered a space in the highest preference discipline in which they are eligible (Mirashrafi,
Khodaie, & Jamali, 2016). This process can be quite stressful for students, as the scores from
this one examination determine the university and major of study in which they will be accepted
(Reza Ghorbani, 2012). Top scores can bring prestige to families. Moreover, Mirashrafi,
Khodaie, and Jamali (2016) found that family background, such as family income, parental
education, and socioeconomic status affects the educational performance of Iranian students
throughout the college admission process, specifically demonstrating that advanced parental
education and income resulted in higher student grades.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 23
Although education has transformed post-revolutionary Iran, Muslim morals and
ideologies continue to be prominent. Young girls and women must wear a hijab and pray several
times each day (Mehran, 2003). Schools are segregated by gender; students are expected to
devote themselves to G-D, self, society and nature, as well as be courteous and moral (Hedayati,
Kuusisto, Gholami, & Tirri, 2017). These Islamic values and principles have primarily been
disseminated to Iranian youth through education (Hoodfar & Sadr, 2010).
Science has also shaped Iran in recent years. Khosrokhavar, Etemad, and Mehrabi (2004)
assert that the addition of new science doctoral programs in Iranian universities, along with the
creation of scientific research institutes, Iranian scholars now more than ever before are
achievement-oriented and determined to seek scientific excellence while providing opportunities
for young scientists. Alternatively, family relationships may be perceived as helpful or impeding
scientific research, depending on family circumstances; the death of an extended family member
would involve extensive time away from work and could negatively impact work responsibilities
(Khosrokhavar, Etemad, & Mehrabi, 2004).
Characteristics of Successful Women
Successful women believe in themselves and have strong self-efficacy, which is defined
as people’s opinions of their competencies to perform and is the primary tenet of social cognitive
theory (Bandura, 1986). Bandura found that people are more likely to engage in tasks they feel
competent enough to achieve and less likely to carry out tasks of which they believe they are less
capable. In their study of self-efficacy beliefs of successful men and women in math, science
and technology professions, Zeldin, Britner, and Pajares (2008) discovered that the self-efficacy
of thriving women was built on the positive messages they received from family, teachers,
friends, and supervisors. Women in their study even credited others’ beliefs in their ability to
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 24
succeed as crucial to their success. Further, two-thirds of the women in their study had family
members working in STEM or who demonstrated math and/or science abilities regularly, and the
researchers believed this positively influenced the female participants’ success.
However, when focusing specifically on Iranian female students’ achievements and
whether self-efficacy and self-confidence play a role, Rezaei (2012), discovered that, while
Iranian women are more involved in academia than ever before, their achievements cannot
necessarily be attributed mainly to self-efficacy or self-confidence. Instead, he argues that
female Iranian students may actually have lower self-efficacy than their male counterparts due to
fewer job opportunities as well as political and social oppression in their home country. That
being said, he argues that Iranian women can be prosperous in any field in which they are
interested.
Successful women are those who connect with others from similar backgrounds. Studies
have shown that women who are connected with their own ethnic community have stronger
mental health and well-being and are overall more satisfied with their lives (Khanlou, 2015).
Therefore, Iranian women need to come together to support one another. This can be done
informally or in a more organized fashion, such as by participating in Iranian student groups at a
university.
For female students to be successful in higher education, they must have access to
necessary resources. Retention and persistence in a doctoral program, along with obtaining a job
in their chosen field upon completion of the program, can be challenging for students who do not
know where to go for help. One of the most prominent resources for graduate students is their
faculty advisor. Research has shown that the relationship between graduate students and their
advisors is important, especially for women in STEM doctoral programs (Primé, Bernstein,
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 25
Wilkins, & Bekki, 2015). Faculty members’ formal and informal interactions with doctoral
students can help the students’ socialization, which prepares them to be successful students and
future professionals (Gardner, 2010).
While STEM doctoral programs and workplace environments tend to be dominated by
men, more women than ever before are choosing STEM careers. Women who pursue higher
education and careers in STEM fields must possess the necessary skills to thrive and not merely
survive. One way women can flourish in these environments is by making lasting connections
with other women. Davidson (2018) found that woman-to-woman relationships had a significant
impact on the quality of leadership experiences in the workplace and identified 10 benefits of
women’s work-related relationships: mutual reciprocity, fun, continuity, validation, support and
comfort, clarity of ideas, safety to ask for help, problem-solving, opportunity, and benefits to the
organization. Put simply, women who develop positive relationships with other women at work
feel supported and valued, and are more likely to pay it forward to younger generations of
women.
Women in STEM occupations have to compete with men for job opportunities and
promotions. Organizations are often seen as being reasonable, strong-minded, self-confident,
success-oriented, and powerful, which are typically viewed as being more masculine. As a
result, successful women must adopt these characteristics and downplay their more feminine
traits, such as showing concern, empathy, or compassion, and, instead, be more assertive and
results-oriented (Gromkowska-Melosik, 2014). Further, women in male-dominated professions
are more likely to be taken seriously if their outward appearance is less feminine and more
masculine, such as wearing glasses, no makeup, and pants (Chapple & Ziebland, 2018).
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 26
Conversely, Ely, Ibarra, and Kolb (2011) argue that women can be successful if they
have a leader’s identity, which is defined as interpersonal and social processes through which a
person views herself and is observed by others as a leader. They maintain that a leader’s identity
is linked with her sense of purpose and successful leaders can develop in both female-only and
mixed-gender programs. They assert that female leaders do not need to become more masculine
or less feminine to succeed; instead, they can concentrate their efforts on developing and
representing an identity that reflects their values.
In their study of successful female Iranian entrepreneurs, Javadian and Singh (2012)
found that high levels of self-efficacy and risk-taking positively impacted women’s success in
the business world. Believing in themselves and being willing to put themselves out there for
their respective companies made a considerable difference in their personal and professional
lives. Despite being divorced and responsible for her children, one respondent even went so far
as to sell her house and her jewelry to fund her company, and it was ultimately a success
(Javadian & Singh, 2012).
Gender Roles and Expectations of Iranian Women
While the Islamic Revolution of 1979 resulted in social and economic improvements, it
also produced gender inequality (Izadinia, 2015). Although Iranian women may attend school
and pursue higher education, they are required to wear a hijab from six years of age, they are
exposed to gender stereotypes in their textbooks, and they are pushed towards more traditionally
feminine majors (Mehran, 2003). They are not allowed to fully participate and develop
academically like Iranian men, although college is often the first time they are away from their
families and can develop a sense of self (Shavarini, 2006). Women are expected to be traditional
and modern simultaneously, being homemakers who tend to their husbands and children, yet also
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 27
taking an active role in social, financial, cultural, educational, and political domains. Women in
Iran who do not want to wear a hijab, or express interest in studying banned literature, such as
Lolita, must do so privately for fear of the morality police (Nafisi, 2008).
While Iranian women living in the United States do not have to fear the morality police,
they still feel the impact of gender stereotypes. Studies have shown that, when gender
stereotypes are triggered, women who strongly identify with their gender reported a greater
liking for traditionally female occupations. Since stereotypical feminine traits like being
nurturing and warm are not pertinent for traditionally male occupations, women who strongly
identified with their gender did not report a greater liking or perceived ability in those fields
(Oswald, 2008). Women should be proud of their gender and confident in their abilities to
perform any task, regardless of whether it is deemed more masculine or feminine.
In her study of how environment and self impacted identity formation of Iranian women,
Izadinia (2015) discovered that women who do not pursue their goals and simply accepted what
others dictated to them took on a new self and detached themselves from their true identities.
She argued that women should have a confident and positive view about themselves, and cannot
rely on others to believe in them. In Iranian higher education, women struggle to advance due to
gender stereotypes, the “old boys’ network” and difficulty balancing work and family,
specifically when meetings are scheduled late in the evenings or on the weekends and conflict
with their family time (Mohajeri & Mousavi, 2017). Despite an increase in Iranian women in
higher education, research shows that the main goal for some in continuing their education was
to be a better mother (Rezaei, 2012). Hence, they could apply their training to their children’s
development, education, and overall well-being.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 28
Although women in Iran are expected to follow the traditions of their patriarchal culture,
they have made strides in recent years due to economic, political, and educational changes in
their country. The women’s movement in Iran has resulted in more women taking an active role
in public affairs, yet women’s participation in the workforce is severely lacking (Sameh, 2009).
While women’s rights and the democratic movement in Iran are interconnected, human rights are
viewed as more important than women’s rights (Amirpur, 2013). On the other hand, Iranian
women are challenging the status quo by demanding to be viewed and treated differently (Martin
& Ansari, 2014).
Women in Iran who are interested in starting their own companies are forced to deal with
gender stereotypes directly, as there is a common belief that women lack the technical
knowledge and skills (Javadian & Singh, 2012). Some Iranian women have no other choice than
to lie to customers about the identity of the actual business owner. For example, they may state
that the business owner is a man and the women seen in the business represent him while he is
out of the country, so customers will conduct business with them. This often occurs after women
have tried several times to obtain a business license but were turned down due to their gender.
Though the Iranian constitution provides women the right to elect a president, the
parliament, and local councils, laws cannot be passed until a guardian council approves. The
guardian council is only accountable to G-D, and ensures that bills do not contradict Islamic law
(Nouraie-Simone, 2014). When bills are not approved by the guardian council, they are returned
to parliament for further evaluation, and often go back and forth between parliament and the
guardian council without being resolved. This process has negatively impacted Iranian women,
as bills related to women and family have been rejected by the guardian council in the past due to
dissenting from Islamic law.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 29
Iranian women are not the only ones challenged by gender roles and expectations while
trying to succeed. Latina women in particular face a similar challenge. Males are often seen as
superior in the Latino community and women are seen as inferior and lacking power (Avalos &
Salgado, 2016). Women have historically been the caregivers and homemakers, and the
“perfect” Latina was thought to be submissive, selfless, and exceptionally feminine (Bonilla-
Rodriguez, 2016). Families play a significant role in the Iranian and Latino communities but
could help or hinder success.
Family Viewpoints and Supports
Parents often play a significant role in their children’s education from the time they are
born through graduate school. This is especially true with the Millennial generation, defined by
the Census Bureau as those born between 1982 and 2000 (United States Census Bureau, 2015).
When asked about their achievements in a master’s or doctoral program, female students stated
that they believed that their parents’ encouragement led to their success, especially giving advice
and support in career interests (Dabney & Tai, 2013). Female students who have educated
parents, particularly those with backgrounds in science, engineering, or medicine, are even more
likely to persist in STEM areas of study in undergraduate and graduate school (Kong et al.,
2013). Because family approval and support considerably shape the experiences of female
students, it is crucial for Iranian families to support their daughters and sisters while they pursue
higher education in STEM disciplines.
In spite of men taking on more responsibilities around the home, women continue to
devote more time to childcare and housework than men, even if women have full-time jobs
(Hoyt, 2010). Regardless of the multiple roles they are expected to manage, women are more
likely than men to assert that work and family roles were jointly inspiring instead of at odds with
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 30
one another (Ellemers, 2014). Iranian women, as well as others from traditional backgrounds
like Latinas are expected to conform to the traditional and modern responsibilities required of
them, so adding children to the situation would likely cause even more stress, unless they have
family helping with childcare responsibilities.
Family and friends often provide support to those close to them. For Iranian students,
family support can make a difference in their overall success and happiness. In their cross-
cultural examination of social support and subjective well-being of college students, Brannan,
Biswas-Diener, Mohr, Mortazavi and Stein (2013) discovered that, while Iranian students’
perceived encouragement from friends did not considerably predict subjective well-being,
perceived support from family did. A strong subjective well-being results in higher positive
moods, improvement of negative moods, and greater life satisfaction. Brannan et al. (2013)
emphasized the importance of family support for Iranian students, and, although their study
focused on undergraduate students, the impact of family support can be seen at the graduate level
as well. Similarly, Fararouei, Brown, Toori, Haghighi, and Jafari, (2013) explored healthiness
and happiness in Iranian high school students and learned that spending time with family was
positively correlated with their happiness.
Even though family support can also have a positive influence on Iranian women once
they have completed their studies and have entered the workforce, they still have to deal with
challenges from family and society in general. In Iran, husbands are deemed heads of
households, which means they have control over their wives’ financial decisions. Husbands can
prevent their wives from working certain jobs in specific circumstances, and some employers
require husbands and fiancés to provide written consent for women to be allowed to work with
them (Burkova, 2017). One female Iranian entrepreneur in Javadian and Singh’s (2012) study
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 31
stated that, while her father believed in her abilities and helped support her financially in her
business venture, other relatives disapproved of her father providing her with money for her
company. Participants in this study credited family support, especially from their fathers and
husbands, as a defining factor in their entrepreneurial success.
Obstacles or Barriers Women Had to Overcome
A significant obstacle Iranian students must overcome involves language acquisition
skills. Even though Iranian students tend to perform well in school in Iran, numerous students
strive to learn how to write, listen, read, and speak English in graduate school abroad
(Pourshahian et al., 2012). Given that two-thirds of the Iranian student population is comprised
of women, one in three hold doctoral degrees, and women are represented in government,
education, medicine, and police force (Amirpur, 2013), it is more important than ever to ensure
Iranian women succeed.
Though women often engage in and manage multiple interests at the same time, they
often encounter obstacles along the way. In a qualitative study, Brown and Watson (2010)
learned that female doctoral students had to balance motherhood with their pursuit of graduate
education, and the juggling of being a student, wife, and mother triggered significant stress.
Similarly, in Dabney and Tai’s (2013) study of female physics Ph.D. students, the researchers
found that their participants fought to reach a balance between graduate school and their personal
lives, and as a result, an imbalance could negatively impact their future career options.
Research shows that advisors and mentors can significantly impact whether STEM
doctoral students persist to graduation or drop out of their degree programs (Kong et al., 2013).
In most workplaces, men have access to formal or informal mentors, often men of similar
backgrounds. Mentors can be of great benefit, as they can provide advice and networking
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 32
opportunities. In Iran, women advancing in higher education administrative positions do not
typically have mentors, which may negatively impact their career advancement (Mohajeri &
Mousavi, 2017). Similar to the lack of mentors, women do not have role models after whom
they can model leadership behavior, which often negatively impacts their organizational success
(Ely et al., 2011). Since most people learn new job responsibilities and organizational culture by
following role models, it is especially challenging for women leaders to succeed, as they do not
have the resources available to men.
Studies have shown that women in higher education leadership roles exhibit relational
aggression, which involves a female power struggle, hurtful behavior towards other females, and
a “queen bee” syndrome, defined as the seeming inclination of women in high-ranking positions
to separate from other women and block their advancement in organizations (Allen & Flood,
2018; Ellemers, 2014). Women may behave this way due to feeling threatened by other women
or mistakenly believing that they must act this way as it is unfeminine and will increase their
chances of advancement. Ellemers (2014) argued that organizations benefit from gender
diversity, yet women are often unable to succeed in their careers due to implicit bias, glass cliffs,
and work/family issues. Implicit bias is not obvious and typically appears as a seeming lack of
fit with specific job requirements, such as competitiveness (Greenwald & Pettigrew, 2014).
Glass cliffs, defined as the phenomenon of promoting women to leadership positions during a
time of organizational crisis so they can utilize their stereotypical “people skills” to problem
solve, is counter-productive, as research shows they are set up to fail due to the lack of necessary
resources (Ryan & Haslam, 2007). For women to succeed in management roles, organizations
must provide a supportive work environment, acknowledge implicit bias, and promote women
during organizational success as often as in times of crisis.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 33
Chapple and Ziebland (2018) found that women in male-dominated disciplines were seen
as belonging if they appeared more masculine and less feminine. Similarly, Carli, Alawa, Lee,
Zhao, and Kim (2016) discovered that people recognize successful scientists as those who have
more masculine than feminine personality traits. Behaving more masculine can be difficult for
traditional Iranian women, as they observe the modest dress requirements of their culture, which
are typically viewed as more feminine than masculine. Conversely, maintaining the social
construct of femininity can be challenging to uphold for those who tend towards masculine
behavior (Gromkowska-Melosik, 2014).
In her report for Human Rights Watch, Burkova (2017) explained that, while Iranian law
prohibits discrimination against women in the office, the law does not affect hiring or promotion,
resulting in many job announcements stipulating gender preferences based on subjective and
biased criteria, particularly for technical and managerial jobs. Burkova stated that women who
are able to obtain jobs have endured sexual harassment and were unaware of sexual harassment
policies in their workplace. Burkova argued that, despite women comprising over half of
university graduates, only 17% are in the workforce. One out of every three women with a
college degree is unemployed, which is twice as the unemployment rate for men with a college
degree. Figure 1 below displays the unemployment rates by gender.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 34

Figure 1. Unemployment rates by gender and region in Iran, 2014–15 (Sarfaraz, 2017; Statistical
Center of Iran, 2014)

Sarfaraz (2017) asserts that, when comparing female to male workforce participation
rates in 2011, Iran had substantially smaller rates compared to Egypt, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia,
and Turkey, and the difference between Turkey and Iran with regard to the female to male ratio
almost doubled in 2011 when compared to 2005. Further, the female workforce participation
rate in Iran decreased considerably from 2005 to 2008, yet this rate increased in almost all
selected countries with which Iran is compared. Figure 2 shows the ratio of female to male
participation in the workforce.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 35

Figure 2. The ratio of female to male labor force participation rate (% of population 15+) in Iran
and comparative economies (Sarfaraz, 2017).

Moreover, in the World Report 2017 on Iran, Human Rights Watch declared that women
need their male guardian’s permission to get married and are not allowed to procure a passport or
travel out of the country without their husband’s written permission (n.d.). The World Report
also states that, while child marriage is not the standard custom in Iran, it is still allowed, with
girls as young as 13 years of age and boys as young as 15 years of age taking part. Further, men
who had sexual intercourse with girls as young as nine years of age were not prosecuted, and
some men who committed honor killings were not punished. These reports illustrate that women
must rise above gender discrimination and make difficult choices in life to succeed.
Of all the barriers Iranian women must overcome, one of the most controversial involves
the recent Executive Order 13780, titled Protecting the Nation from Foreign Terrorist Entry into
the United States, issued by United States President Donald J. Trump (The White House Office
of the Press Secretary, 2017). Even though this Executive Order supersedes the revoked
Executive Order 13769, often referred to as the Muslim ban, the revised proclamation
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 36
significantly impacts citizens from seven countries, and Iran is one of them. Executive Order
13780 states,
(i) Iran regularly fails to cooperate with the United States Government in identifying
security risks, fails to satisfy at least one key risk criterion, is the source of significant
terrorist threats, and fails to receive its nationals subject to final orders of removal from
the United States. The Department of State has also designated Iran as a state sponsor of
terrorism.
(ii) The entry into the United States of nationals of Iran as immigrants and as
nonimmigrants is hereby suspended, except that entry by such nationals under valid
student (F and M) and exchange visitor (J) visas is not suspended, although such
individuals should be subject to enhanced screening and vetting requirements (The White
House Office of the Press Secretary, 2017).
While Iranians may still enter the United States on a student visa, they will endure more
thorough examinations upon arrival, assuming they can obtain a visa at all. Besides causing
undue stress on the students, their families are negatively impacted as well, as they likely will not
be allowed to visit their children during their degree programs or at the time of graduation.
Before Executive Orders 13769 and 13780 were implemented, Iranian students in the United
States obtained single entry visas, granting them the opportunity to complete their degrees as
long as they remained in the United States. If they left the United States, they jeopardized their
chances of returning to the United States, since they would be required to apply for and be
granted a new visa. As a result, most Iranian students do not see their families for the entirety of
their degree programs, which can last several years. In contrast, students from other parts of the
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 37
world usually obtain multiple entry visas, allowing them to exit the United States to visit family
and friends, and come back without needing a new visa.
Table 3
Literature Review Table
Themes Highlights Author
Characteristics of Successful
Women
Self-efficacy.

Connection w/own ethnic
community.

Positive grad student/advisor
relationship.

Woman-to-woman relationship.

Masculine traits vs. feminine
traits.

Leader’s identity.

Risk-taking.

Bandura (1986); Zeldin, Britner,
& Pajares (2008); Rezaei
(2012); Javadian & Singh
(2012)
Khanlou (2015)

Primé, Bernstein, Wilkins, &
Bekki (2015); Gardner (2010)

Davidson (2018)

Gromkowska-Melosik (2014);
Chapple & Ziebland (2018)

Ely, Ibarra, & Kolb (2011)

Javadian & Singh (2012)

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 38
Table 3, continued
Themes Highlights Author
Gender Roles and Expectations
of Iranian Women

Gender inequality.
Gender stereotypes.
Old boys’ network.

Environment and self impact
identity.

Women want to be better
mothers.

Women more active in public
affairs but not workforce.

Human rights more important
than women’s rights.
Islamic law.

Women demanding to be treated
differently.

Izadinia (2015); Mehran (2003);
Nafisi (2008); Oswald (2008);
Mohajeri & Mousavi (2017);
Javadian & Singh (2012)

Izadinia (2015)

Rezaei (2012)

(Sameh, 2009)

Amirpur (2013); Nouraie-
Simone (2014)

Martin & Ansari (2014)
Family Viewpoints and
Supports
Parental support = success in
graduate school.

Educated parents in STEM.

Women w/full-time jobs handle
more childcare and housework.

Work and family fulfilling.
Family support positively
impacts well-being.
Dabney & Tai (2013)

Kong et al. (2013)

Hoyt (2010)

Ellemers (2014)
Brannan, Biswas-Diener, Mohr,
Mortazavi & Stein (2013);
Fararouei et al. (2013); Burkova
(2017)

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 39
Table 3, continued
Themes Highlights Author
Obstacles or Barriers Women
had to Overcome

English language acquisition.

2/3 Iranian college grads are
women.

Work/Life balance = stress.

Advisors and mentors not
helpful.

Lack of mentors.
Lack of role models.

“Queen Bee” syndrome.

Implicit bias.

Glass cliff.

Appearing more masculine than
feminine.

Maintaining social construct of
femininity is difficult.

Job discrimination.
Sexual harassment.
Lack of participation in
workforce.
Male permission for marriage
and travel.
Child marriage.
Executive Order “Muslim/travel
ban.”

Pourshahian, Gholami, Vaseghi,
& Rezvani Kalajahi (2012)

Amirpur (2013)

Brown & Watson (2010),
Dabney & Tai (2013)

Kong et al. (2013)

Mohajeri & Mousavi (2017);
Ely, Ibarra, & Kolb (2011)

Allen & Flood (2018); Ellemers
(2014)
Ellemers (2014); Greenwald &
Pettigrew (2014)
Ellemers (2014); Ryan &
Haslam (2007)

Chapple and Ziebland (2018);
Carli, Alawa, Lee, Zhao, & Kim
(2016)

Gromkowska-Melosik (2014)

Burkova (2017)

Human Rights Watch (2017)

The White House Office of the
Press Secretary (2017)
Women’s Identity
Development

Four decision-making pathways.

Four identity statuses.
Josselson (1973, 1987, 1998)

Marcia (1966)

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 40
Summary
Several themes, such as characteristics of successful women, gender roles and
expectations of Iranian women, family viewpoints and supports, and obstacles or barriers women
had to overcome emerged from the literature review that have a considerable impact on female
Iranian STEM doctoral students. While studying outside of their home country, they balance the
traditional edicts of their culture. Like women of other backgrounds, Iranian women encounter
gender discrimination, but they have the added challenge of obeying Islamic law, which typically
favors men and does not provide equal rights to women.
Additionally, Iranian women in college or graduate school in the United States have the
added stress of the 2017 Executive Order, which makes it impossible for them to leave the
country or see their families for the entirety of their degree programs. While they are able to
communicate with their families due to advances in modern technology, they cannot visit their
families for several years, and they must develop strategies to deal with the challenges that come
with not seeing their loved ones for long periods of time. Self-efficacy and risk-taking are two
qualities Iranian women can use to persevere; however, without mentors or role models to guide
them, perseverance can be difficult. Iranian women have to decide whether to adopt a more
masculine demeanor to appear more capable or be true to themselves and allow others to
recognize their abilities.
The themes and Josselson’s theory on women’s identity development are directly related
to the research question. In order to answer the research question and determine the factors
influencing the educational and professional choices of Iranian females in STEM doctoral
programs, one must evaluate the themes and pathways highlighted in women’s identity
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 41
development theory. Understanding the key themes and pathways helps shed light on how
Iranian women in STEM make decisions related to their education and career.

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 42
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This qualitative study sought insight into the lives of five female Iranian doctoral students
studying engineering, as well as three female Iranian engineering graduates from a Tier 1
Research university in Southern California. The study examined the influences on their
decisions and how participants consider the customary traditions of their culture and
contemporary society in the choices they make. Specifically, the study aimed to address the
factors that shape female Iranian students’ scholastic and career preferences.
STEM fields are increasingly the most sought-after areas of study in higher education and
research. While men continue to outnumber women in STEM, more women are choosing to
pursue STEM majors. Women from traditional or patriarchal societies, such as Iran, must also
fulfill two roles concurrently: the role of the traditional wife and mother and that of serving
society as a worker and taking an active role in politics (Mehran, 2003). The challenges of being
female in a male-dominated field as well as the burden of being traditional and modern at the
same time significantly impact the lives of Iranian women. Although more Iranian women
choose STEM fields, there are few studies exploring their motivations in pursuing these fields.
The significant number of Iranian female students in engineering doctoral programs necessitates
this study. The researcher explored this topic by answering one research question: What factors
influence the educational and professional choices of female Iranian graduate students studying
science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) in the United States?
This study utilized qualitative methods to collect data related to the research participants.
The methodology included observations and interviews to collect data. After data collection, the
researcher conducted a comprehensive evaluation and interpretation of the information by coding
the interviews and observations adhering to the coding tactics explained by Miles, Huberman,
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 43
and Saldana (2014). The researcher reviewed the data and grouped into sections. Then, the
researcher classified the data into a smaller number of categories, otherwise known as themes.
The researcher reviewed the transcripts several times to ensure all themes were noted.
Maxwell (2013) asserted that qualitative studies are well-suited for understanding the
experiences of research participants, the context within which they act, and for recognizing the
progression of events taking place. Making use of qualitative research methods allowed a focus
on the meaning and significance of a human problem, whereas quantitative research methods are
used to test theories and assess the relationship between variables (Creswell, 2014). This chapter
describes the sample, population, instrumentation, data collection and analysis used.
Understanding the elements that prompt Iranian women in STEM doctoral programs to
make certain scholastic or occupational decisions over others requires empirical inquiry to
investigate a contemporary phenomenon within a real life setting. The researcher employed one
of the most common qualitative research designs, a case study, as it provided a thorough
description and analysis of a single entity, a group of Iranian female scholars pursuing or have
earned a doctorate in STEM, within a specific period of time (Creswell, 2014; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The researcher analyzed the data for emerging themes to describe the student
lived experiences and inform future studies. Table 4 represents an overview of the methodology
used in this study.
Table 4
Methodology Overview
Data Collection
Method
Research
Question
Addressed
Method of
Analysis
Rational Relevant
Literature
Implementation

Observations RQ 1 Constant
Comparative:
Field notes
Qualitative

In-depth

Merriam
& Tisdell
(2016),
Group
observations of
students

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 44

Sample and Population
The researcher used a purposive, convenience sample when selecting the eight female
Iranian research study participants in the engineering school at a Tier 1 research university in
Southern California. This type of sampling was the most effective for this study, as the
participants would know most about the research topic (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
researcher invited female doctoral students in the engineering school to participate, as well as
asked eligible graduates to participate. Eligible research participants were invited to participate
via e-mail. Participation was voluntary. Approximately 40 students would be eligible for this
study, and five were selected. The researcher chose the five student participants as they
identified as female, Iranian, and were currently pursuing a Ph.D. in engineering. Seven students
had indicated interest in participating in the study, but one was not selected as she identified as
multiethnic, and one did not have viable availability to participate. Approximately 20 graduates
would be eligible for this study, and three were chosen as they identified as female, Iranian, and
had earned a doctoral degree in engineering. The three graduates were the only ones who
showed interest in participating in the study. After indicating interest in participating, the
respondents were contacted again via e-mail with additional information regarding the study and
to confirm their availability for an interview. Of the eight research participants, two were
currently pursuing or had earned doctoral degrees in chemical engineering, two in materials
coded by
themes.

pp. 32;
137-150
Implemented
Feb. 2019.
Interviews RQ 1

Narrative
Analysis:
Responses
transcribed
and coded by
themes.
Qualitative

Understand
meaning
Merriam
& Tisdell
(2016),
pp. 107-
136
Purposeful
selection of
participants
One-to-one
interviews;

Implemented
Feb. 2019.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 45
science, two in petroleum engineering, one in computer engineering, and one in industrial and
systems engineering. Three were married and one was engaged. The majority of participants
came from middle-class to upper middle-class backgrounds. A limitation of the sampling type
used is that the participants would not necessarily be representative of the entire Iranian female
doctoral STEM population, meaning that the study is not generalizable. Despite this drawback,
the study provides rich information and add to the limited research on this topic.
Instrumentation
The researcher worked through the lens of a social constructivist worldview, defined as
seeking to determine the meaning of a phenomenon from the perspective of the research
participants, identifying patterns while observing them, and relying on the participants’
interpretations (Creswell, 2014). Interviews and observations offered in-depth understanding not
readily gained through methods such as surveys. Interviews and observations are necessary for
triangulation of data to certify that the study is valid and reliable (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell,
2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Interview
The researcher used an adapted version of a semi-structured interview protocol used by
Marcia (1964), Schenkel and Marcia (1972), which emphasized identity status development and
will provide participants the opportunity to express their perceptions of the factors that have
influenced their educational and occupational choices. The researcher used the semi-structured
interview protocol to remain focused on the information collected from each participant and to
compare the respondents’ answers (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The interview protocol consisted
of 10 questions highlighting how they decided to study in a STEM field. The interview protocol
questions resulted from the research question and Josselson’s women’s identity development
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 46
conceptual framework so that the questions were relevant to the study. The researcher used a
variety of question types, such as opinion, sensory, feeling, ideal position, and devil’s advocate,
as Patton (2002) noted that this is an effective way to gain different types of feedback from
interviewees. The interview protocol was directed by the research question and relevant
literature (Appendix A). Topics surfaced naturally, allowing the opportunity to investigate
further. Interviews allowed the researcher to gain a deeper understanding of the respondents’
experiences and provided rich information not likely acquired otherwise (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
A qualitative interview study can aid in obtaining detailed descriptions, gaining multiple
perspectives, explaining a process, creating a holistic depiction, and understanding how
occurrences are interpreted (Weiss, 1995). The interviews with eight Iranian female doctoral
students and graduates in STEM consisted of 10 open-ended questions. An audio-recording
device and transcription were utilized for enhanced data reporting accuracy. The researcher took
notes in the event the recording device broke, as Creswell (2014) noted the importance of having
a backup plan to ensure data are properly collected. Permission to record was obtained prior to
each interview. The researcher was mindful of the study participants’ time and the location of
the interviews, as Patton (2002) and Weiss (1995) asserted that these practices help the
researcher build rapport. Interviews were one hour in length and were conducted in February
2019. Interviews with students were conducted in a conference room on the university campus.
Interviews with graduates were conducted off-campus; one at a graduate’s home, one at a
restaurant, and one via Skype. The interview protocol was directed by the research question at
the center of this study and relevant literature on the subject matter. The researcher anticipated
that the interviews would yield rich data about the factors impacting the participants’ academic
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 47
and occupational choices. The researcher honed her empathetic listening skills, as Josselson
(2013) asserted this is most effective practice when trying to understand the participant’s point of
view during the interview process. Interviews allowed the researcher to gain a deeper
understanding of the respondents’ experiences and provided rich information not likely acquired
otherwise (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interviews were examined utilizing narrative analysis.
Responses were transcribed and coded by themes.
Observation
Observations with female Iranian STEM doctoral students took place at the university
during doctoral seminars. Observations provided the ability to view subtle distinctions first-
hand. The observations took approximately one hour during February 2019. An observation
protocol was created and includes the features likely to be present in any location according to
Merriam and Tisdell (2016): physical setting, participants, activities and interactions,
conversation, the researcher’s own behavior, subtle elements, and the researcher’s behavior
(Appendix B). Subtle elements refer to informal happenings, symbolic word meanings,
nonverbal communication, and the absence of something occurring that one would expect to
occur. The researcher took on the role of “observer as participant,” as Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) argued this method allows the researcher access to many people and an extensive variety
of information. The researcher observed and interacted closely with those present, taking
descriptive field notes which provided information and allowed the researcher to analyze the data
properly (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Observations were conducted prior to interviews in an effort
to provide context to subsequent meetings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Observations were
analyzed using the constant comparative method, which provided an in-depth explanation of how
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 48
the social world works. Field notes were coded by themes. Table 5 provides a connection
between the instrumentation and the literature, thereby supporting the research question.
Table 5
Connection Between Instruments, Research Question Components, and the Literature
Data Collection
Instruments
Research Question Components Research Literature
Interview and
Observation
Educational choices (RQ 1) Female students with family working in
STEM or who demonstrated math and/or
science abilities credited their success to
family (Zeldin et al., 2008).

Female students who have parents with
backgrounds in STEM are more likely to
choose STEM majors (Kong et al., 2013).

Female students believed parents’
encouragement led to their success in
graduate school (Dabney & Tai, 2013).

Interview and
Observation
Professional choices (RQ 1) Lack of mentors may impact female career
advancement (Mohajeri & Mousavi, 2017).

Benefits of women’s work-related
relationships: mutual reciprocity, fun,
continuity, validation, support and comfort,
clarity of ideas, safety to ask for help,
problem-solving, opportunity, and benefits to
the organization (Davidson, 2018).

Women who do not pursue their goals and
accept what others dictated to them, took on
a new self and detached themselves from
their true identities (Izadinia, 2015).

Qualitative studies must include reliable and valid instruments, or they risk losing
credibility. Maxwell (2013) defined credibility as the accuracy or integrity of a description,
deduction, justification, or interpretation. Additionally, he argued that there are two significant
threats to validity in qualitative studies: researcher bias and reactivity. While it is unreasonable
to remove the researcher’s beliefs and opinions from the study, the researcher tried not to let her
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 49
background or professional knowledge negatively or positively influence how she conducted the
study. Even though the researcher had a relationship with the participants prior to the study,
there was a strong effort made to not let the relationship interfere with the final results. The
researcher explained during the interviews that what was shared would not impact their student-
staff relationship. Further, the researcher audiotaped the interviews and followed the interview
protocol.
Data Collection
The researcher received approval to collect data from the university’s institutional review
board and senior associate dean of graduate programs in the engineering school. Because the
researcher had a prior relationship with the interviewees, she conducted the interviews outside of
her office in a conference room in another building. The researcher wanted the interviewees to
feel comfortable and for respondents to not worry about how their answers would impact their
relationship with her moving forward. She chose a neutral location in a separate building to
allow for privacy and ensure that the respondents understood that the interview was beyond the
scope of the researcher’s typical job duties. The researcher conducted the interviews during
regular business hours and spent approximately 60 minutes on each interview, as it is important
to be respectful of the interviewees’ time (Patton, 2002). She took notes by hand in a journal and
also recorded the session to guarantee that she collected all data and did not miss an important
detail. In her observations of the seminars, the researcher took notes by hand in a journal. The
notes included observer comments, descriptions of the surroundings and participants, and what
was said, as these combined features provide a fruitful description of the setting (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Table 6 shows the structure of data collection.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 50
Table 6
Chart Schedule of Data Collection and Analysis

Data Analysis
The researcher analyzed the data by coding the interviews and observations following the
coding strategies described by Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014). First, the researcher
conducted a preliminary summary of data and clustered the data into segments. Next, the
researcher grouped the data into a smaller number of categories, also known as themes. As
Harding (2013) asserted, a theme is an emerging concept that appears more than once. Because
themes may not have been noticed upon first review of the interview and observation data, the
researcher reviewed the transcripts multiple times until she discovered commonalities.
Throughout her analysis, the researcher tried to connect the research question to the study, as
Maxwell (2013) argued that this is the most important connection in a study.
Summary
The methodology exhibited in this chapter followed a qualitative approach to provide
information on the factors influencing Iranian female doctoral students’ scholastic and
professional choices in STEM. Eight students and graduates were interviewed at a Tier 1
research university in Southern California, and additional students were observed during class
sessions. Using a qualitative format, interviews and observations provided insight into whether
parents, advisors, peers, or others affect the decisions of Iranian women in STEM Ph.D.
programs. Data collected were transcribed, coded, and analyzed by hand to determine themes.
Data
Collection/Review
Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar.
Observations -----
Interviews -----
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 51
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
This study explored the educational and professional choices of female Iranian students
and alumnae from doctoral engineering programs at a Tier 1 research university in Southern
California. More Iranian women have earned Ph.D. degrees previously, and those in STEM
fields frequently select the United States as the country in which to earn their terminal degree.
While women pursuing education and careers in STEM do not allow their culture to dictate their
path in life, they must balance the demands of their traditional culture with a modern way of life.
The study employed women’s identity development theory to evaluate what factors influenced
participants’ choices.
Four themes emerged while studying the scholastic and career preferences of female
Iranian STEM graduate students and alumnae: 1) the characteristics of successful women; 2) the
gender roles and expectations of Iranian women; 3) family viewpoints and supports; and 4) the
obstacles or barriers the women had to overcome. These themes are noteworthy in seeking to
comprehend why Iranian women in STEM make particular educational and professional choices.
In exploring the participants’ decisions, the researcher utilized the conceptual framework of
Josselson’s women’s identity development. Josselson’s theory emphasizes that the adult identity
is inspired by the change in the late teens and early 20’s to separate from the childhood self and
develop an adult self.
Two groups of participants were selected to participate in this study: current doctoral
students and alumnae. The researcher utilized interviews and observations, which are both
required for triangulation of data to the study’s ensure validity and reliability (Creswell, 2014;
Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Using interviews and observations gave the
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 52
researcher a comprehensive interpretation that may not have been found had the researcher used
only one method.
Student and alumnae responses to interviews as well as observed behavior of other
female Iranian Ph.D. students in engineering are depicted within the framework of four themes
that are meaningful to the research question: the characteristics of women who are successful,
the gender roles and expectations of Iranian women, family viewpoints and supports, and the
obstacles or barriers the women had to overcome. Data collected through interviews and
observations were coded according to the four themes (see Table 7).
Research Question 1:
What factors influence the educational and professional choices of female Iranian graduate
students in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM)?

Interviews
Interviews were conducted to gain a deeper understanding of the specific aspects that
affect respondents’ education and professional decisions. The interview questions were adapted
from the work of Marcia (1964) and Schenkel and Marcia (1972) and intended to learn more
about each respondent’s identity status. Five student interviews were conducted on the
university campus in a conference room in a separate building from where the researcher is
employed. One graduate interview took place in her respective home, one took place in a
restaurant, and one was conducted via Skype. Participants gave permission to be recorded
during the interviews.
Characteristics of successful women. Responses to the following interview questions
revealed what students and alumnae thought about the traits of thriving women. These responses
were assessed alongside observation field notes informing how research participants felt about
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 53
the characteristics they possess in which they flourish. Data collected were coded under the
research question theme “Characteristics of Successful Women.”
Interview responses. Interview questions 5, 6 and 7 led to participants’ responding with
how they chose their field of study, their future career plans, how they chose their research area,
and what seemed enticing about their research topic. Interviewee answers demonstrate how their
educational and professional choices reinforce that these women exemplify what it means to be
successful women.
Each participant responded to question 5 regarding what they were studying and what
they planned to do with their Ph.D. within the context of their current educational and careers
intentions.
Student 2 (S2): I’m studying computer engineering, which means more hardware and
architecture. It’s something between electrical and software. I’m working on storage
systems solid state drives and I’m working with Samsung. I was there for two
internships, and I still continue my collaboration with them because we filed many
patents, and I filed three patents last summer, and I want the best IP project that we’re at
Samsung for 2018. So, I think this collaboration is going somewhere, and I’m really
happy about that. I’m excited about this.

Student 3 (S3): So, I did my undergrad in chemical engineering in Shiraz University, my
master’s in petroleum from Texas A&M, and now its chemical engineering again here.
It’s a very hard question to answer: what do I want to do with my Ph.D.? And you know,
I really don’t know. That’s what I’m like really struggling about. I never worked in
industry because I was like the whole migration thing in back to back, studying never led
me to do like an internship just moving. Even the four years we’ve been here, we’ve
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 54
moved a lot. So, I’ve never had a time to like do an internship in industry, but I just
always find it fascinating to like work in industry, but at the same time I always had this
thing in my heart that at the end of the day, I want to be a professor because I just feel
like safer in university and just I think like I’m more connected here and I just feel very
good about the whole university environment that I don’t even want to graduate. … I
want to stay here forever.

Student 5 (S5): [I’m studying] Petroleum engineering. So, it’s really hard to plan what
I’m going to do after at this point. It’s even more complicated than when I started. The
day I entered the US, the visa for Iranian students who are planning to study petroleum
engineering went under sanctions, [on] August 10, 2012. So, for me, that means I can
never be reissued a student visa. That means I cannot go out of the United States. If I get
out, I can’t come back in. So, it puts me obviously under a lot of pressure, and also kind
of prevents me from basically reviewing my plans and all that. Basically, I just have to
continue, there’s no point to stop and contemplate, and not many options available. I’ve
talked to a number of companies to tell them I’m graduating soon. But then a lot of oil
companies, the first question they ask is, where are you from? Iran? They’re like, we’re
not allowed to hire Iranians. I used to have plans. But the important part is, is it feasible
or not? I actually was planning to contribute to the industry of petroleum engineering,
but we’ll see what happens. I mean, I don’t have much chances … I’m kind of lost.

Alumna 1 (A1): When I came from Iran with the bachelor, I only wanted to get a
master’s and to work. What changed my mind was truly how wonderful our faculty were
and it really, really changed my mindset. So, the mindset that I had back in Iran in my
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 55
bachelor when I was getting my bachelor is very different, like professor is a bunch of
older people who you could not really relate to them. And they were not into making any
kind of shows with their students hide those kind of culture that there are there, you’re
here, you go to classes, you get your degree, you really don’t have much connection or
anything. In my master’s, I was so impressed by the faculty that you have, that I thought,
okay, that’s not too bad. And then I was working. But I was in a semiconductor field,
which is very male dominant to the point that … for a very long time, I was the only
female engineer. Six years later, they hired a female engineer. I thought … how about if
I get into a field that is that world basically gives me more opportunities, not because I’m
ambitious person, I’m not really an ambitious person to want to go up the ladder and
become CEO or something, but to be able to participate more to be able to give more to
the site. When I started my Ph.D. program, I knew that I wanted to do my Ph.D. in
industrial systems engineering, you know, you can pick any system. There are many
other industries, again, working I wanted health care because I realized this field that
gives me a lot of opportunity to help people and actually see the fruit of your work, its
industry does almost they give equal chance chances to male [and] female and it has a lot
of room to grow. And also …if we had to move, for example, if [my husband] wants to
go and work in Bay Area, and there are a lot of opportunity for them very anywhere in
United States I can find a hospital to find a job in it anywhere in United States, they say is
something related to health care of people doesn’t matter. So, that was why I knew I want
to focus on healthcare systems for my research.

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 56
The above responses to interview question 5 illustrate how successful women have a
strong self-efficacy and confidence in themselves. Furthermore, Bandura (1986) discovered that
people tend to participate in tasks they feel capable of accomplishing.
Responses to interview question 6 regarding how participants came to decide on their
area of study and whether they considered anything else, indicated that most interviewees were
on an engineering track since high school due to their high math scores on an entrance exam. All
participants revealed that they knew they would pursue engineering from a young age.
S1: I always like chemistry so much. Science is like chemical engineering. They
definitely different, but they are close, and I always like chemistry, and I wanted to
become a doctor, like when I was a kid and then like high school and stuff. I wanted to
become a like surgeon like heart surgeon, something like that. But, then, I figured out it
really doesn’t go well with my personality, and I’m like very sensitive and stuff, so I
decided to go through like engineering because I was good in math, physics and
everything and especially chemistry. So, I decided to go in that area and then get to like
the bio tech industry to that. So, I always wanted to like find a way to help people
through health.

S3: So, we have this entrance exam in Iran that based on or GPA, but mostly like 80%
based of that entrance exam you are decided [it] is something like SATs but it’s way
more important. Based on that exam, you will be ranked and then you can choose which
school you want to go depending on how popular [your] major is and how many people
want to go to that major - you just get chosen. You choose 100 different degrees and
places and then . . . you have to choose based on priority, and if you don’t get matched,
they go to the next one. So, for me personally, I always wanted to do art, architecture,
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 57
and I had this advantage that my father was the dean of [a private branch of] Shiraz
University . . . and it’s known to be among the top three universities in the country and
they decided to have their like private branch in that island. I was 12 to 15 [when] I was
there and they had architecture as one of the majors. And since the classes were mostly
in the weekend I had the opportunity to sit in the class, so, sometimes, I would like ask
the professor if I could join the classes and I really liked architecture, but then I figured
out I love it, but I really don’t want to do it for a living. I knew I wanted to do
engineering because actually I think I would be a way more successful person in business
or like social like human sciences personally because I really love interactions with
people, but the universities there actually they don’t have a very strong background in
social science. Since the professors that teach them are not … well-educated, they teach
you to economics like more domestically and the university is that even law is like
because we have Islamic law. It’s like I really love law here, but it’s a field study law
there. You just have to live in Iran forever because no one will accept your degree so
that’s the reason I didn’t go to these degrees.

S4: It was really difficult for me to choose, actually. But my older sister also did
chemical engineering. My main priority was mechanical engineering, but I didn’t get the
score to start mechanical engineering in Iran. So, I started chemical. It was something
relatively close to mechanical. But then I liked it. And, when I moved here, I decided to
just keep going with chemical. There is an annual test in Iran. First of all, in the high
school, second year of high school, you’re supposed to choose a major, so it’s going to be
math based, or bio based, or literature based. So, I did the math major. So, math, you’re
gonna go for engineering majors, mainly. So, then there’s this annual test that they’re
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 58
going to test you from whatever you’ve learned from the second year of high school to
the fourth year, and so it’s time, then they’re going to rank you in the whole country.
And based on your ranking, you start choosing universities and majors, okay, they’re
going to start filling it up some whatever you get. I wasn’t able to go to mechanical
engineering in the school that I wanted. So, my priority was the school and the major.
But then with chemical, I could go to chemical engineering in that specific school. I
wanted to go to the top university, Sharif University. So, I was like, okay, I’d rather do
chemical engineering, then doing mechanical somewhere else. Then I got the green card.
It was just me, not my family. So, I decided I knew that eventually, I’m going to apply
for grad school later on, so I came out here for community college, then UCLA. I never
considered anything else really. I mean when we were choosing major, always top
students would go either to math or bio major. And, back then, I was thinking if I want to
stay in Iran for a bio major, if you wanted to go to medical school, it was way too
competitive. Compared to engineering, because you had so many options for medical
school, it was just medical school. So, I really liked math. So, I stayed with math major,
but when I moved here, that’s something that to be honest, I regret right now that I didn’t
look at any other major. And I was just focused on chemical engineering. I have already
started it. I knew how it’s going to be. It was the safe option for me.

S5: I’m good at math, and I really liked engineering, but I come from the Middle East.
So, for us, like oil is a big deal. We rely on it economically among, so I was passionate
about learning the science, learning the techniques that are involved in the field. And that
was my passion. And I followed it, and it’s a well-paid major, too. So, that’s also an
incentive. Recently, I began considering other areas. I’m seeking applications of
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 59
computer science in the petroleum sector. It’s a new trend. Everything is getting smart,
automated, intelligent in the oil industries. So, a little bit slow of a transformation in, but
that’s a new trend coming in. So, I’m interested in that, too.

A2: I wanted to go to the best university for engineering so I studied at Sharif and I was
interested in chemistry and physics. So, I did like chemical engineering options, like
material science and industrial engineering. I wanted to be at a good school. So, based
on my score on that entrance exam, I selected [these] options. And I was chosen for
materials engineering. Sometimes I [thought about] going to law school. I’m always
interested in social sciences. So, I thought maybe I would be a good like, I don’t know,
like, doing an education in this area. Maybe it was like a more natural, more fits my
personality, like whatever I’m trying to do, but now it’s too late.

A3: That’s a tough question to answer because I don’t know if you’ve probably heard this
how it goes in my country. Sophomore year that we took that university entrance exam.
That year, I was supposed to go to mechanical engineering. The way things ended up, I
ended up and petroleum engineering, I was not happy with it for a very long time. But
then I made my peace with it. And then, I just kind of like stuck to it. I tried to find the
types of work in the pieces that I like and go after those so when I came here to do my
Ph.D. I was working on simulations [and] there was a lot of coding involved which I
really love. Ever since I can remember so that’s what I did for my PhD and I was happy
with my research and then eventually I got a master’s in computer science as well. I
wouldn’t say that it was an informed choice, right out of high school and I didn’t really
know much, but like this general tendency to go after engineering was because I have, I
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 60
have three older siblings, and they’re all engineers, and so engineering was very
interesting to me and it was just in the family. And I went to this high school called the
National Organization for Development of Exceptional Talents, they had an entrance
exam to go into that like school system and it was really good school. Once you enter
that school like basically the options you have was either to become an engineer or a
doctor. I never considered anything else, not like in a very serious way.

Some respondents indicated that, while engineering was interesting to them, they
did not have the opportunity to choose a different field initially. This would suggest that they
identified with Marcia’s (1966) identity foreclosure, meaning that participants made decisions in
the absence of other alternatives.
Interviewees were also asked what seemed attractive about their particular field of study.
S2: At first, I just choose this path because I was just thinking I can be successful in this,
so I go this way. It’s not like I interested in in these or something like that. But now,
especially in my Ph.D. and in undergrad. This happened again some of some of
undergrads in engineering, then change their majors to like law or other stuff. But I was
ranked as top student. So, I was offered direct master program like scholarship for
master’s programs, and I was like, okay, it seems I’m successful. So, let’s do it.
Although I hated it. I didn’t hate it, but it wasn’t my passion. I was good at it. I liked it
a little bit, but it wasn’t something that I wake up for in the morning and until I came here
and to be more accurate until I went to my first internship and that changes. Most of
things. Now, I sometimes and sometimes thinking maybe I’m built for this because I’m
good at it and I enjoy it. But even now I can’t say for sure this is my passion, but I like it
okay.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 61

S5: I mean, it’s attractive, I think, because, you know, that we all use other applications
in our daily lives do and it makes life a lot easier. I mean, navigate as for places to go,
we talked to our cell phones has questions, it’s like having extra assistance in many of the
situations and it can solve a lot of problems. Why not helping to solve problems of the
oil industry as well? I want to contribute to the industry, help others and get paid.
A1: I wanted to help others. I really wanted to see the result of my work helping people
in a very direct manner.
A3: … like in your junior year in high school, you have a choice. You have a choice
between like several different ways you want to go for the last two years of your high
school. So, you can either go the math and physics route. Which usually like ends in a
STEM major right in college, and you take a different exam to go to college, than the
people who want to go to like medical school. The other part that is like mostly biology
and those are people go to like medical school like everything that is related to that, like
people go that route. There are some other routes like the arts, the fine arts route and all
those different things, but my high school didn’t have those options. My high school was
supposed to be for this like superstar kids that have to turn out to be an engineer or
medical doctor.
The above-mentioned responses show how the characteristics of successful women play a
significant role in the educational and professional choices of female Iranian Ph.D. students in
STEM.
Gender roles and expectations of Iranian women. Respondents’ answers to specific
interview questions suggest that their families influenced their gender roles as well as their
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 62
expectations of themselves. The following data were collected and coded under the theme
“Gender Roles and Expectations of Iranian Women.”
Interview responses. Interview questions two, three, four, and eight revealed that family
members’ level of education and hopes for them prompted the research participants to pursue
engineering. Responses to interview question two regarding how they came to this university
revealed that students were influenced by professors and family members to attend this
university. Primé et al. (2015) asserted that a bond between graduate students and their advisors
is important, particularly for female Ph.D. STEM students. Gardner (2010) found that
professors’ communication with Ph.D. students can prime them to be thriving students and future
professionals.
S1: So, there was a conference in Iran. It was like a joint conference with Iran and
Greece, and that year that I was in my fourth year in undergrad, I had a paper in that
conference and there was a professor [who] was one of the judges over there and I talked
to him and he was like, you should apply to this university. I knew that I was going to
apply to the US anyways. I knew this university was one of the schools that I applied to.
And my goal was to kind of … it was my best choice. Okay, so then I made it to the
masters. I came here as a master’s student and then I transferred it to Ph.D.

S2: I applied to 10 or 11 universities for Ph.D. program since I got my master’s. I knew
which groups I wanted to work with. I know professors and everyone so but at the
beginning I didn’t consider an area. I just applied, I applied to UIUC, many other
universities, many big schools. I got admitted to some of them like UIUC and this
university, and this was the final decision. This university is one of the biggest names in
our field. My professor is going to be a famous person. On the other hand, at this
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 63
university [I was offered] a fellowship, which means I have because at that point I wasn’t
sure what exactly I wanted to do. And at that group, I should work on a specific project,
and there is no other option but here, there are a variety of options. So, I noticed there are
many good faculty members coming to this university and actually all the universities in
California. UC San Diego is growing, UCLA is growing. On the other hand, a few of
my closest friends from undergrad live in LA and the good weather in LA. Also,
everything was on LA side, the good professors who I talked to before I come here, like
my advisor and two other professors, I have more options here and I’m not stressed out
because a Ph.D. itself is a lot of pressure. So, it’s better. You have a freedom to work on
whatever you want.

S3: So, I came to the US in 2014 with my husband. He came in as a student … and then I
started applying. We came to Houston first … he was a student of Rice University in a
PhD program there. So, then I started applying there. I didn’t get admission into any
graduate programs there and then the only program I got accepted [into] was petroleum
engineering in Texas A&M, so I started my master’s in 2015. Then his advisor suddenly
decided to move to UCSD from Rice and we had a challenge. He tried to find some other
professors. He couldn’t, so he decided to go with her, and he really liked the research
that he was doing what her. So, it was very hard for me because although I was a
master’s student, I was funded, and my advisor wanted me to stay there for a Ph.D. So, it
was like the biggest challenge I faced in my life … and then I came here [and] I finished
my master’s in one and a half years. I started 2015 finished March 2017, and then I
started and then I came here in San Diego. I tried to go to UCSD, the school he was and
that was a challenge. I work with a couple of professors, but at the end of the day, they
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 64
told me they don’t have any funding to support my Ph.D., but I contacted the professor
here and he told me that I can join his program for fall 2017. So, I started my Ph.D. then,
here.

A1: Back in 2004, I married, and I came here. My husband also got his master’s from
this university, by the way. So, I got here, and I realized the only school that has
industrial and systems engineering field around us not wanting to move anywhere else is
this university. And I applied and I was lucky for that admission for this start year of
2005 I got admitted. And I started my master’s program August of 2005 and finish the
December of 2007. So, the reason that I selected this university was because, first of all,
it’s a wonderful school. I was really lucky, very happy and grateful that I got admitted.
But, also, that was my only choice, really, because we didn’t want to move anywhere
else.

A2: Actually, I came with my husband. He got the admission to the Ph.D. program at
computer science. So, we came together in 2010. And then, because I already had a
master’s in material science and engineering back home from Sharif University, and I
was interested to continue my study [by] doing a Ph.D. I started my application thing and
[I was] admitted at this university. I started [in] 2011 doing a Ph.D.

Responses to interview questions three and four revealed parents’ level of education.
Kong et al. (2013) affirmed that women with educated parents, especially those with STEM
backgrounds, tend to pursue STEM fields in both undergraduate and graduate school. Dabney
and Tai (2013) found that female students believed that their parents’ encouragement led to their
success in graduate school.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 65
S3: My father did his PhD at McGill University in Canada a long time ago. He’s a
professor at Shiraz University. My mom went to college, Shiraz University, did her
undergrad in mathematics and then she had us, so life got hard. She’s working now as a
graduate officer in Shiraz University. She like works there now like an advisor/graduate
administrator.

S4: My father has his bachelor’s degree in chemistry. He was he was working in a metal
company in Esfahan. So, he was the lab manager, which was the central main lab of the
company. Now he’s retired. My mother, she has AA degree. And she was a stay at
home mom.

S5: [My father] obtained his PhD from France. And he’s a lawyer and a university
professor in Iran. He was a judge initially when he went for his doctorate. And, then, he
came back with a doctorate, switched to be a lawyer and university professor as well. My
mother has a bachelor’s degree, in international business, I believe. She’s retired now,
but she worked for a lamp manufacturing company in Iran.

A1: Both of my parents went to college. My father is a veterinarian. And my mother is a
chemist.

A2: My dad went to college; he has studied finance. Now, he has his own business. My
mom didn’t go to college. She’s a housewife.

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 66
Interview question 8 asked, “Most parents have plans for their children, things that they
would like them to do. Did your parents have any plans like that for you?” Participants’ answers
yielded a wealth of data from the interview respondents.
S1: Oh, they always liked us to be the best. Like we want you to be a doctor or you
wanted to be a like lawyer or engineer like that was, too. I like the decision was on us,
but they’re like whatever you want to do just be the best, no pressure, just be the best.

S2: Yes, to become a doctor and marry a doctor. Oh, and have children.

S3: They wanted me to like to be successful and independent. Yeah, I never had the
luxury to [do what I wanted]. I remember that I once told my dad that I want to be a
makeup artist and he was [said] no, that’s like literally not good work and then my mom
[said] okay let’s like just send her to some classes to just be her second hobby, and then
he was so scared that I would be more successful in that area. I really don’t blame them
because that could have happened, and they wanted me to be independent. I really plan
not to do that to my kids if I’m successful. It was very hard like being raised in a family
that they that they really care about being independent financially, so it’s really hard to
trust your kid to be like successful in those areas. I think that’s a challenge for parents
even here like you really want the kids to do whatever they want. But at the end of the
day, you’re worried about their real life, what’s going to happen for them. If I’m like that
wealthy that I could always support them until they die.

S4: When I moved here, they were really insisting that I should go for medical school, or
maybe pharmaceutical, but it was a big shift for me. So, I just decided not to listen.
They still sometimes refer back to the idea. But, one time, I had just talked to them that I
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 67
don’t want to make such a big change in my career and my life, and I don’t even know if
I’m going to be good at it. Since I never had bio, so I don’t want to risk anything.

S5: My family is a relatively educated family. I mean, my mother is financially
independent. She has worked for many years, and my father has very high level of
education. So, yes, so education is something that was really encouraged in our family.
But, yeah, but I think always liked me to become a doctor, like a real doctor, not like
having a doctor degree, but I didn’t follow like, medical majors.

A1: In Iran, [when] you get to the second year of high school … you have to decide
between four different categories: arts, and I was never an artsy girl so that was out of
question, [and] the other three are science, math and literature. So, my parents plan for
me was to be good at whatever I do. They wanted me to take some challenging tasks, so
I could not go back and say, you know what, I’m really good at something easy. But,
within that framework, I was open to basically pick and choose whatever I wanted, as
long as I could be good at it. Okay, I really liked originally … as a kid to become a
lawyer and I thought I could be a good one. The reason that my family and I collectively
decided that I should not pursue that field was a few major factors, actually, really, in
Iran, they basically teach Islamic law, we always knew that we will be not living there
too long. And I was thinking myself that if I go to college, but we didn’t know when,
basically, we can go out of the country. And so, I thought if I go to college, and study
law for four years, and by the way, in Iran, you applied after you’re 18. If I work at my
law degree for four years, and get a bachelor in law, basically, after my immigration to
anywhere in North America, Europe, Canada, doesn’t matter, it was totally worthless.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 68
So, my parents were thinking that [I] will be a good lawyer, but you I will be losing four
years of very precious life.

A2: You know, they wanted me to have the highest education possible from the first day
I went to the school. So, they always try to put me in a good school [and] have tons of
supplement. I had a private tutor at home. If you’re familiar [with] our culture, recently
it’s changed a lot. Even in my case, for example, in my mother’s day, she was not like
me. So, if you are a girl, if you’re a woman … they don’t care about your education.
Now, it depends on the family. Some families, they put a lot of effort and emphasis on
their girls’ education. But like in my family, especially my mom, she didn’t have a
chance to go to college [or access] a university education. So, she really wanted all of us,
my two younger brothers and me, to be educated. Education was really, really important.

A3: Yeah, my dad really wanted me to be a doctor. We have engineers, we don’t have a
doctor in the family.
All of the respondents shared that their parents had high expectations of them, with many
wanting them to be doctors. This is particularly noteworthy considering that the 1979 Islamic
Revolution led to gender inequality (Izadinia, 2015). The research participants were raised with
the understanding that their culture dictated that they could not have the same pursuits as boys,
yet their parents believed they could accomplish anything.
Family viewpoints and supports. Responses to the following interview questions
revealed what students and alumnae believed regarding their respective family’s opinions and
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 69
encouragement. The following data were collected and coded under the theme “Family
Viewpoints and Supports.”
Interview responses. The following replies to interview questions 9 and 10 reveal how
family can influence students’ decision to pursue higher education. The specific interview
questions were as follows: “How do your parents feel about your plans now? Did anyone
influence your decision to study this subject matter or go into this research area?” The data was
coded under the theme “Family Viewpoints and Supports.”
S1: They’re proud. My sister influenced me to move to the US. [She] is seven years
older than me and she was a computer science student in Iran. Then she applied for grad
school in the US and she went to UC San Diego. And, so, when I was 16 years old, she
moved here. And it was like I knew that this is what I’m going to do. I was so
determined that this is what I want to do, like I knew that especially with what I’m
studying, material science, and it’s something that if you want to do new things to help
like people in health. That’s not going to happen to Iran [since] they don’t have cutting
edge biotech industries. I know that I have to get out of out of Iran for that.

S2: At the beginning, they were sad, not because I chose engineering or because I’m not
successful, but because they can’t see me if I go to some [other] country, especially the
United States. Everything was so good in 2016. I got the multiple entry visa thanks to
Obama and all of us were really happy because I thought, for two years, I can come and
go. And, after that they can apply for the visa. So, it’s not going to be that hard. All of
us were happy, but, then, everything changed and look, for the first two years, it was
good because I can go back there and see them now. It’s a little bit tough right now with
a single entry visa. After two years, it becomes single entry. At that time, one of my
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 70
cousins was a Ph.D. student at Concordia University in Canada and in electrical
engineering and yeah I can say at that time he was influential. Because you know I was
like 18 and or younger 16 maybe and he went to Sharif University, which is the best
engineering school. Then, I saw it wasn’t difficult for him to get admitted to one of the
good schools at that time. And actually, I wanted to get rid of the small town/small city
and everything. … at that time my interest in medical school and engineering school are
at the same level, but I see people in engineering can go out can explore the world and I
wasn’t from a rich family so I didn’t have the opportunity if it wasn’t [for] education. I
didn’t have the opportunity to go outside explore the world, so I saw it as my only chance
because I was really curious about everything in the world. I wanted to travel a river and
it seems to be my only option.

S4: Well, I’m not sure if they’re really happy with it or not. Because every time that I
talked about a friend who’s majoring in something different, like business or dental, or
something like that, they asked me, maybe you should look into that, too. It’s too late to
look into other stuff. My sister influenced my decision to study chemical engineering.
She didn’t like chemical engineering at all. She basically hated it when she started, but
she gave me [an] idea of what she’s studying. And sometimes when she was preparing
for her tests, so she would study out loud, and I would just stick around her room. I
would hear stuff [that] seemed interesting to me. And then she was working when I was
applying for a school. So, I saw what she got to be [and] what I will be basically doing
later on if I do chemical engineering, so it’s quite interesting to me.

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 71
A1: They’re very proud. They are very happy because among the engineering field, I
knew from day one … that I’m going to engineering school. My aunt, my mom’s
younger sister, influenced my decision to study industrial and systems engineering. She’s
also an industrial systems engineer. And she actually influenced the selection because
she explained it to me so well, what is it that you can do as an industrial engineer and
your hands are open, you can get into many different fields, like how I end up in
healthcare, and that was my dream come true. I’m not a doctor but I still deal with
patients in hospital settings and I can help make them have an easier life. I’m sort of
advocate so I’m defending them, maybe not applying what a lawyer does but I’m
advocating [for] the health and safety of patients. And she also helped me with my math
and sciences. [She] helped me from very early on to understand math. And the reason
was that she’s about 12 years younger than my mom. And when I was really little, she
was in high school, she was really, really good at math. And she actually ended up in the
best engineering school in Iran in industrial and systems engineering, and when my mom
was leaving me at my grandma’s to go to work or something, she was doing her math
[homework] and she was giving me a paper with similar stuff on it. She’ll say, okay, you
did the math and I do the math and I was just as a two or three-year-old thinking that I’m
actually doing the math when she was drawing algorithms and things. To me this is how
adults work, this is what adults do actually. I really liked [math]. I truly enjoy doing
math.

A3: Yeah, they’re very proud of me. I’m very happy about it. Not necessarily petroleum
engineering, but engineering in general, and going to graduate school, doing a Ph.D. was
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 72
mostly influenced but my brother, who went the same route. He went to the same high
school that I did, the same college that I did, and then he applied and came to United
States to pursue a Ph.D.

The respondents appear to be pathmakers, defined by Josselson (1972) as those who
learned that their parents’ way of life was not the only way to live and took different ways of
being into account, tried out numerous options, and chose what worked best for them. That
being said, many were influenced by other family members, such as siblings, cousins, and aunts.
Obstacles or barriers the women had to overcome. Responses to the following
interview questions revealed what respondents thought about the impediments they encountered.
Data collected were coded under the research question theme “Obstacles or Barriers the Women
had to Overcome.”
Interview responses. The following responses to interview questions 11, 12, and 13
reveal the challenges the interviewees had to conquer. Participants were asked if they and their
parents had a political preference, and whether there were political issues they felt strongly
about. They were also asked “Did the 2017 Executive Order impact your political views?”
S1: Democracy. … when Obama was the president, I went to Iran. Even [though] I had
a single visa entry, I took that risk [and] I went to Iran. I visit my parents, and I got visa
again and I came back. My mom could get a visa. She came here, visited me and she got
back, but now with everything going on with Trump, my parents are waiting for their visa
for one year and a half right now. Because my sister got her citizenship, she applied for
their green card, and they have done all of their process …like all the medical exams and
everything but the only problem is that they don’t issue immigrant visa [or] any type of
visa, including immigrant visa, so they cannot come to the U.S. and get their green card.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 73
So, it’s [been] four years that I haven’t seen my dad…then my mom for two years. Who
knows when I’m going to see them? I’m on a single entry visa. I cannot risk that
anymore. I cannot put my Ph.D. behind [after] these three years and go to Iran to visit
them and then not get a visa again. [Since] they cannot come here, we were thinking of a
[meeting] at a park, it’s on the border of Seattle and Vancouver. It’s in Vancouver and
it’s a park and … like a free land from like 8 a.m. to 4 p.m., and really, I was thinking of
meeting them there but it’s so sad. It’s like prison. There are visiting hours. So, I talked
to my sister and she was like, ‘I know this is very like hard for you, but I don’t think it’s
fair to put this pressure on our parents.’ And it’s very expensive because they have to go
outside and beyond, get the visa and then all the conversion of dollar to toman or rial.
It’s very hard and we … were thinking that it makes more sense to save all the money for
when their green card comes, and they want to move here. It’s like I’m living in a
beautiful prison and cannot go back. No one can see me, like I’m living in a beautiful
prison with no visitors. Yeah, it’s really frustrating because you think that we’re in the
21st century. It’s like you don’t have your basic rights to see your parents or your parents
that don’t have their basic rights to see their child, even if they have been in the U.S.
before it’s so obvious that they don’t have any harm to the US. My mom got depressed
for sure. My sister is waiting for them to come here to have a baby. For sure, it affects
my life and my sister’s life and everything.

S2: So, in Iran, I entered University in Iran in the middle of the all the protests, and I was
always part of it. I was always active because I came from this family and my father is
was really active. He was part of the Democratic Party. He was one of the people who
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 74
influenced me a lot about the country and although they are religious people and they
think most of the time religious people are conservative in politics, he wasn’t like that. I
felt alive at that time, but I was too young. I thought you’re gonna make a change and
my father told me when I was young, I thought, I’m going to make a change and actually
they did they make the revolution possible. Before the revolution, everything wasn’t fine
in Iran … and it had to be changed to something else. But this thing is not what our
people looking for. The travel ban is definitely the most influenced thing here. It says
everything I can say, and when I first came here, I said, now I can relax for a couple of
years because I know what I want to do and I know what’s going to happen because here
is United States … people said you can do everything you want. You can plan
everything ahead. In Iran, you can’t do that because everything is changing every day
and you can’t even decide for tomorrow. And the same thing happens here for us exactly
the same for several months. The travel ban third version passed and they are going to
change their green card policies and everything. So, now I’m not sure about my
tomorrow here. I feel really bad. I wish I went to Canada or somewhere else at that time,
but I didn’t see this coming. I had no clue. Everything was really good at that time, we
had a moderate government. Obama was here, so I [thought] it’s going to be better than
this. I expected more from American people. I didn’t expect they choose this president
[Trump] at all. I’m sure this is not all the America. I live in California where no one
supports him, but I know people have their own reasons and because we have the same
situation in Iran, someone comes and they use like some more tools … but impress
people and people are emotional [and] need money, people need jobs. I’m not saying
that everyone who supports Trump is racist, sexist because people don’t basically care
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 75
about that when you need a job. You know there is a lot of pressure on us from all the
sides and whenever I want to go back to run. There are many factors. I should consider
what if they don’t let me in? What if they don’t let me out? It’s a lot of pressure all the
time. And interestingly, it’s makes us stronger. We can tolerate and now I see that I was
thinking before that I’m going to die. If this happens, and now I see. They do everything
against us and we’re still surviving. We are trying harder in here for applying [for] jobs
… especially in my field. Not many companies [offer] internships … because they have
to apply for export license and everything, but this makes me … try even harder to get
that because I don’t have many opportunities. I have no other option.

S3: For me like personally, it’s very frustrating. I’ve never guessed that this will happen.
And the first day we came here, we got invited to a friend’s house and they were all
Iranians that had their PhDs and they were already working and were averaging 10 years
older than us. We were [all] 22 when we came here and then they were all telling us
about [how] they haven’t seen their parents for seven years, and another couple eight
years, like nine years and that night when we went home, I just told my husband, they’re
crazy, I’m just going to go back. I’m going to go and see my parents. How could they
do that? They have no feeling, no emotion. How could you just leave a country and
never go back for like nine years? And that’s happening to me. It’s very sad to say but I
had no idea [if] I started studying petroleum, they’re not going to let me go because we
just got sanctioned and then all the lawyers told me you see a change your status and you
studied petroleum here, but if you go back, you’ve crossed some lines and they’re not
going to give you any visa again. So, that was it. I studied petroleum and even for my
husband all this sounds like these new rules and difficulties that we’re seeing. As you go
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 76
ahead, you’re like I’ve came so far, I don’t want to risk everything I had because I
wanted like see my parents and then on the other hand, you always have a dilemma like
what is more important? Is your success more important or you haven’t seen your
parents for five years? And then it’s like a fight, always. And then, since we’re married,
it’s not like you’re only deciding for yourself. Even if I decide I don’t want this
anymore, I just want to go, it’s like you’re saying I don’t even want my marriage
anymore because then your husband has to sacrifice or he will be disappointed and it gets
so complicated. When I came here, I knew that for me as a single, we had single visas.
So, I knew it would be difficult, but I had no idea like to this extent and then after Trump
came it was like even your parents cannot come so you’re prisoners that are not allowed
visitors. I’m very lucky that my dad could come in like a visitor, but still they didn’t give
my mom a visa and I know a lot of friends that they got like parted, their husbands are in
Iran and the wife is here. How could this happen? You … don’t give one party a visa if
you don’t want to give the other one because then they have a life here and then
everything is going to be questioned, you know, and they’re gonna maybe not even be
happy about their marriage because it’s against your success. One of them is, after two
years, she’s thinking about maybe we shouldn’t do this anymore. And then that’s at the
same time so heartbreaking for me because I know they had something, that’s the reason
they got married but now they’re like we never know when is this going to be solved and
how many years you want to make someone wait for you. Maybe they will be more
happy if they find someone else and that’s so heartbreaking. I did not know why my
mom didn’t get a visa. I did everything because I don’t want to be like I didn’t try this. I
contacted Senator Feinstein [and] I contacted Congressman Pittersman. I got in touch,
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 77
we signed a lot of documents. They got in contact with the embassy and stuff. The final
thing we got is that … they didn’t reject her, so she’s in clearance. But this clearance can
take forever. [It] is now more than a year … that she went to the embassy for the visa,
and they cleared my dad after four months, but she’s not clear yet. And I’m like, come
on, my mom is normal staff working in the university, you could check all of her history.
I’m not a political person because I’m not educated about that and whatever I’m seeing is
that my people are not happy now they’re having like a lot of economy crisis specially
left from last year and I just hate to see that. And I really don’t care who rules the
country [I] just don’t want them to face these problems. For me, personally I expected
more from here. I know the rulers they have viewpoints that I don’t think actually
changed with the current political party. There were the one that signed … with Obama
and then Trump just got rid of it. So, that’s the same party that’s still there and I voted
for them to just continue their interaction, but I was just disappointed because it was stuff
from here.

S4: Yes, I’m a Democrat and my parents are too. The travel ban has influenced my life
also, even though that I’m a US citizen right now because at this point, my parents are
not able to visit me. So, the only way of being in touch with them, I mean, seeing them is
for me to go back. And with a tight schedule, it’s going to be very difficult, especially
when there’s the emergency that I will need them here. And then that was the comfort
that before they were able to come and visit me and they did, did it before also for my
graduation, for example, I was really hoping that I can have them here for my undergrad,
and they were not able to come. So, it was quite frustrating. It was in 2017. So, they
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 78
stopped giving any appointments to Iranians and they cancelled all the previous
appointments. They already had an appointment scheduled, so it got canceled, and we
were trying different countries, even in Europe, because you were thinking maybe in
Turkey and or Armenia, they’re more restricted, and it’s going to be easier in Europe, but
they were not able to make any appointment. For my mom, I was able to, there was a gap
that they stopped the ban, I was able to make an appointment for my mom in that period.
Yeah, on that very short period. She got her visa, and she came for my graduation, but
my father wasn’t able to. So, that was, that was a big relief for me that like she got her
visa. So, basically, the moment I heard that the ban is lifted for a specific period of time,
I started for countries around Iran, it was basically impossible to make an appointment.
There was a huge line, but I was able to find an appointment in Frankfurt. And luckily,
she had the visa in her passport being able to travel to Europe at the moment. So, I just
got lucky. I start checking every embassy basically I was trying to figure out what’s the
easiest for my mom to go to. And then checking if there’s any availability. I scheduled
appointment I think then it took place in two weeks’ time I scheduled it. She got the visa
right away because she’s been here twice before, it was easier for her to get the visa. And
then she came here three months after, right in time for my graduation. And she stayed
here for two weeks. I was always Democrat but not really active in politics.

S5: I feel strongly about the travel ban [and] sanctions. I mean, my visa issue is a part of
that. If you want to obtain the H1B visa, which is the dual intention/work visa, then there
is a certain cap for every country. And the reason for that is, if they don’t put that cap,
then everybody will become Indian. All right, what it would become Chinese because
there are thousands of times greater in number. So, the U.S. now has limitations. And
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 79
recently, there has been some lobbies to basically remove that cap. And that practically
eliminates the chance of anyone who is not Indian. And then so that’s one of my
concerns. But the main one is the visa sanction. And also, the other sanctions that has
influenced our country a lot economically. And that directly affects me, because I relied
on the financial support from my parents and due to this new economic situation, which
is directly imposed by the U.S. I lost that support. So, I was okay, I was paying, let’s say,
$2,000 for my rent. And now to us, it’s like $8,000 of rent. It’s the same thing because
we have to pay like four times as much in our own currency. Historically, there has been
always I would say, like hostile behavior. From the U.S. towards Iran. I don’t see that as
political. I think its kind of historical. To me, like, we correlate that historically. And
that doesn’t change with the change of politicians or governments. I don’t have a proper
understanding of politics. I just see the outcome and how it affects us, so the effects are
economic, families being apart.

A3: Yeah, very. Trump becoming President, the travel ban, and even during the Obama
administration. In August of 2012, they passed this law that no more students in
petroleum engineering from Iran are going to get visas anymore. And that was only two
weeks after I started my Ph.D. So, I just got here, and I had hopes to go back and visit
my family [and] I was on the single entry visa. Well, I can go back and try but then at
that moment it was like no you can’t go back home anymore. And then, President Trump
coming, and the travel ban and it’s just, you don’t know how unbelievably hard it is not
to be able to see your parents or have them here. I feel very strongly about every move
that he makes that is always aimed at making my life harder somehow. And it doesn’t
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 80
feel fair, but I know that nothing is fair in this world. And also, within my country I have
a very strong opinion about things that happened there and that that was the reason that I
left. The reason I left was that I was in a country where I was not happy with my life and
there was nothing that you could do to change it. And yeah, everyone’s answer … is if
you’re not happy you can leave. So, yeah, I don’t know in general about the situation in
the world right now. I think like we’re in a position where we’re hated by our own
government back home and we’re hated by the rest of the world because of our
government. And, yeah, it’s a very hard situation to be [in] right now. My mom and dad
came here in 2015, and my mom also came in 2012. So, I saw them twice. Their visa
was rejected four times, they got the visa the fifth time, they went to the embassy. And
that was after my brother called their senators office and was like, ‘Why are my parents
being rejected the visa?’ And so, the senators’ officers contacted that consulate, and I got
it taken care of it. They were trying for two years, I think going to different places.

Executive Order 13780 (The White House Office of the Press Secretary, 2017) has had
an adverse impact on the students and alumnae research study participants, as most of them have
not been able to see their families while pursuing their doctoral degrees. Those who have seen
their families are considered lucky; however, even these research participants have undergone a
significant amount of stress trying to visit their families in Iran or assist with making travel
arrangements for their families to visit them in the United States.
Observations
The researcher observed participants during department seminars. She took descriptive field
notes. The observation protocol unified the key components of observation as defined by
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 81
Merriam and Tisdell (2016), which include physical setting, participants, activities, conversation,
subtle factors, and the researcher’s behavior (Appendix B).
Observation notes. Six categories served as the primary focus of the observation field
notes: physical setting, participants, activities, conversation, subtle factors, and the researcher’s
behavior (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Observation field notes were transcribed from an
observation protocol (Appendix B). Transcriptions from two departmental seminar observations
will be shared in the following section.
Physical setting. Both seminars took place in standard university classrooms. One was a
large classroom with approximately 80 chairs. The other was a small auditorium with a
downward slope and had around 100 seats. All seats had swivel desks attached which students
could utilize to take notes as needed.
Participants. One seminar had one faculty guest speaker, approximately five to 10
professors, and 35 students, of whom eight were women, and three of those women were Iranian.
The other seminar included one faculty guest speaker, approximately five faculty, and 75
students overall. Twenty-three of these students were female, and four were Iranian.
The female students in each seminar sat together. All of the Iranian female students were
active participants, taking notes, and paying particular attention to the speaker. Other students,
in contrast, were on laptops or their phones, and some even had side conversations while the
speaker was presenting.
Activities. Each seminar was centered on a specific topic and included an external faculty
member giving the talk. While doctoral students are encouraged to attend the seminars in one
academic department, they are not required. In another academic department, students must
attend a minimum of four seminars per year; however, attendance is not officially tracked. In
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 82
both seminars, the student attendees sat quietly and took notes while the outside professor
utilized PowerPoint slides for his presentation. Few questions were asked of the presenter, and
only by male students.
Conversation. Some students made comments to one another after a particular piece of
information was presented. However, due to the nature of the seminars, there was little
conversation. The majority of the participants seemed engaged and were active listeners.
Subtle factors. The seminar attendees seemed interested in the talk based on their body
language. They sat upright in their seats, and as already mentioned, took notes. The majority of
participants arrived on-time and prepared to learn more about the topic at hand.
While the observations of students in seminars were informative, they did not yield rich
data like the interviews. The researcher asserts that the lack of abundant data from the
observations may be due to the format of the department seminars. While the students were
expected to be active participants, by doing so they did not engage much with the presenter.
Summary of Data Collected
In Iran, students take a comprehensive exam during their sophomore year of high school,
and their scores determine their field of study in college. All of the respondents scored high on
the math exam and were, therefore, tracked to study engineering. While some of the participants
had other interests, most were excited at the prospect of studying engineering, as they could
utilize their skills internationally upon graduation and make a positive impact on society by
helping others.
There are many factors influencing the academic and occupational choices of female
Iranian STEM doctoral students. Parents play a significant role in the decisions these women
make when it comes to their education and careers. Most of the parents of research participants
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 83
had earned a bachelor’s degree or higher, implying that parents’ educational level inspired their
daughters to strive beyond their parents’ highest level of education. Half of the respondents had
parents who were educated in STEM disciplines, which reinforces the literature that asserts that
women with educated parents, particularly those STEM backgrounds, are inclined to choose
higher education disciplines in STEM (Kong et al., 2013). All research participants revealed
their parents held high expectations of them, with many parents wanting their daughters to be
doctors, and although their daughters chose engineering instead, their parents supported their
decisions. Further, some parents encouraged their daughters to pursue any field of study as long
as they were the best in that subject area. The respondents were raised by their parents with the
notion that they could pursue what they wanted and that their gender did not dictate their future.
This is quite remarkable since the 1979 Islamic Revolution led to gender inequality (Izadinia,
2015), and these women grew up in Iran following the Revolution. Parental encouragement
positively influenced the research participants’ self-efficacy and success in their respective
doctoral programs, which supports the existing research that female students’ belief that their
parents’ support led to their success in graduate school (Dabney & Tai, 2013).
Extended family members were also influential in participants’ scholastic and
occupational decisions. Several research participants shared that they became interested in
engineering due to an aunt, cousin, sibling, or spouse’s inspiration. Oftentimes, these family
members were pursuing a STEM degree while the participants were younger. One respondent
shared that, as a small child, she would complete math problems with her aunt, and doing so
gave her the confidence to believe she could actually solve the problems. This supports the work
of Bandura (1986), who asserted that people are inclined to take part in tasks they believe they
can accomplish, as well as the work of Zeldin et al. (2008), who discerned that the self-efficacy
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 84
of successful women was fostered by the positive feedback they heard from family, teachers,
friends, and supervisors. Participants attributed their ability to succeed to others’ confidence in
them.
Interview data suggests that family members such as parents, siblings, cousins and
spouses have a substantial influence on the educational and professional choices of female
Iranian graduate students in STEM. Encouragement from family to pursue STEM education
made a difference in these research participants’ lives; however, these students were already on
track to pursue engineering due to their strong math scores on the high school placement exams.
While some of their parents had a background in STEM, most came from a variety of
backgrounds including accounting and law. Almost all of the respondents had parents who were
college-educated, and many with graduate degrees. Some respondents were encouraged to
pursue any field of study, as long as they were the best. Professors also positively influenced
their advisees, but families had a more significant impact.
While it is not surprising that Executive Order 13780 (The White House Office of the
Press Secretary, 2017) made getting into the country more challenging for Iranians, all of the
respondents emphasized how the Executive Order negatively impacted their families and even
caused some to postpone major life decisions such as having a baby. Students shared how they
had not seen their parents for years and how hard it was for them and their parents. One
participant revealed how she had married friends, but one lived in the United States and the other
in Iran. Despite several attempts to get a visa, they could not see each other; as a result, they
chose to divorce, since they did not know how many more years it would take for them to be
together. A few respondents compared living in the United States to being in prison. One
participant commented “It’s like I’m living in a beautiful prison and cannot go back. No one can
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 85
see me. I’m living in a beautiful prison with no visitors.” The majority of Iranian students do
not see their families throughout their degree programs, which lasts for five to six years on
average. Since they have a single entry visa, if they leave the United States, there is a strong
possibility that they will not be able to get back into the country. Students from other countries
are typically provided with multiple entry visas, allowing them to leave the United States and
come back without requiring a new visa.
In utilizing women’s identity development as a theoretical framework, some respondents
indicated that while they had an interest in engineering initially, they did not have the option to
choose a different field. These women first identified as guardians, meaning that they took on
their parents’ values and beliefs (Josselson, 1972). These women initially reached identity
foreclosure, as they made decisions in the absence of other alternatives (Marcia, 1966).
However, over time, all of the respondents emerged as pathmakers, meaning they took into
account their parents’ lifestyle, tried different options, and made the best decision for themselves
(Josselson, 1972). These women were also considered to have reached identity achievement,
meaning they have reflected on different ideological and occupational choices, and made their
own decisions (Marcia, 1966). Pathmakers and identity achievers are the most well-adjusted and
independent in women’s identity development theory, so it should come as no surprise that these
successful women identified with these groups.
Table 7
Research Themes and Instrumentation
Themes Interviews Observations
Characteristics of women
who are successful
Revealed self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986) Participants made decisions in the absence
of other alternatives (Marcia, 1966)
Gender roles and
expectations of Iranian
women
Revealed that women with educated
parents, especially with STEM
Professors’ communication with Ph.D.
students can prime them to be thriving
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 86
backgrounds, tend to pursue STEM
education and careers (Kong et al., 2013)
students and future professionals (Gardner,
2010)
Family viewpoints and
supports
Revealed that most, if not all respondents
are Pathmakers (Josselson, 1972)

Parents’ encouragement led to success in
graduate school (Dabney & Tai, 2013)
Obstacles or barriers the
women had to overcome
Revealed that the Executive Order remains
to be the most significant obstacle for
students, alumnae, and their families (The
White House Office of the Press Secretary,
2017)
Single entry visa was an obstacle before
Executive Order but is more of a barrier
now (U.S. Department of State, 2019)

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 87
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS
This chapter completes a qualitative study of the factors that influence the academic and
occupational choices of female Iranian STEM students. The resulting themes emerged from
literature and the research question itself: characteristics of successful women; gender roles and
expectations of Iranian women, including a history of Iran and the Islamic Republic; family
viewpoints and supports; and the obstacles or barriers the women had to overcome. This study
employed Josselson’s (1972) women’s identity development theoretical framework, an extension
of Erikson’s work on identity development but centering on women, particularly how and why
young women decide on one course or another in their lifetime. A synopsis of outcomes
conveys amassed and examined data of what participating students and alumnae believed and
articulated, implications for practice and recommendations for future research.
The education of women in Iran has been complex from the time of the 1979 Islamic
Revolution. While Iranian women have been earning more baccalaureate and post-baccalaureate
degrees in since then, they are not permitted to attend school with men in Iran, must don a veil,
and are often guided to more conventionally feminine majors like education or social sciences
(Mehran, 2003). There has been an increasing number of Iranian women pursuing STEM
doctoral degrees in the United States, yet few studies examine this population, hence
demonstrating the need for this study. Further, since the 2017 Executive Order (The White
House Office of the Press Secretary, 2017), Iranian students have become more stressed at the
prospect of not seeing their families throughout their degree programs.
Discussion of Findings
In evaluating the experiences of the Iranian female students in the study, the researcher
discovered similarities to Josselson’s (1987) work on women’s identity development.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 88
Relationships with others, such as parents, husbands, other relatives, and mentors often play a
substantial role in forming a woman's self-image and influencing her life choices. Four main
themes emerged from the findings linking women’s identity development with the educational
and professional choices of female Iranian graduate students in STEM. They are: 1) Women’s
strong math skills led them to pursue engineering; 2) Parents’ level of education and field of
study influenced the daughters’ choices; 3) Parents had high expectations of their daughters and
encouraged them to be the best; 4) Other relatives’ pursuit of engineering, as well as their
support, positively impacted the women. These findings support the research conducted by
Mirashrafi, Khodaie, and Jamali (2016), which demonstrated that advanced parental education
and higher socioeconomic status resulted in stronger student educational performance, as well as
that of Kao and Tienda (1995), which found that because immigrant parents encourage academic
achievement, their children are best positioned to succeed academically.
Family played a significant role in the participants’ academic and occupational decisions.
Research shows that observed support from family leads to Iranian students’ positive well-being,
including feeling more fulfilled in their overall lives (Brannan, Biswas-Diener, Mohr, Mortazavi
& Stein, 2013). The women felt encouraged by their families, even if they did not pursue their
parents’ preferred field of study. Support from families enhanced the women’s self-efficacy and
success in their respective doctoral programs, which adds to the prevailing research regarding
female students’ belief that their parents’ encouragement resulted in their success in graduate
school (Dabney & Tai, 2013). Iranian students who spend time with family are more likely to be
happy (Fararouei, Brown, Toori, Haghighi, & Jafari, 2013). Even though the women in the
study live a considerable distance from their families, they value the time spent with their
families, whether in-person or via phone. Family, along with friends, teachers, and supervisors
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 89
also inspire women in STEM careers to flourish (Zeldin, Britner, & Pajares, 2008). The women
had positive self-efficacy due in part to family members working in STEM fields or who showed
math skills often. This supports the work of Zeldin et al. (2008), which found that women
believed others’ confidence in their ability to succeed was vital to their success.
Executive Order 13780 (The White House Office of the Press Secretary, 2017) made
getting into the country more challenging for Iranians. Upon being admitted to the Ph.D.
program, students had to travel to Dubai, Turkey, or another country to obtain their visas since
Iran does not have a U.S. Embassy. The application process typically takes several days, and as
a result, students were required to spend money on airfare, lodging, and meals. Students felt
supported by various university departments through the admissions process despite the
challenges. Hefner-Babb and Khoshlessan’s (2018) study on Iranian students pursuing
admission to universities in the United States supports these findings.
All respondents emphasized how the Executive Order negatively impacted their families
and even caused some to postpone major life decisions such as having a baby. Students shared
how they had not seen their parents for years and how hard it was for them and their parents.
One participant revealed how she had married friends, but one lived in the United States and the
other in Iran. Despite several attempts to get a visa, they could not see each other; as a result,
they chose to divorce, since they did not know how many more years it would take for them to
be together. A few respondents compared living in the United States to being in jail. One
participant commented “It’s like I’m living in a beautiful prison and cannot go back. No one can
see me. I’m living in a beautiful prison with no visitors.”
The majority of Iranian students do not see their families throughout their degree
programs, which lasts for five to six years on average. Since they have a single entry visa, if
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 90
they leave the United States, there is a strong possibility that they will not be able to get back
into the country. If they are not able to return to the United States, they would not be able to
complete their Ph.D. and would likely not be eligible to work in the United States immediately
following their degree completion. All of the time and hard work following their educational
and professional dreams would have been for naught. In contrast, students from other countries
are typically provided with multiple entry visas, allowing them to leave the United States and
come back without requiring a new visa. This allows them the flexibility to come and go without
negatively impacting their academic or career goals. Students on multiple entry visas can visit
their families during the holidays or for major life events, such as a family wedding, or spending
time with loved ones before they pass away. Iranian students do not have the luxury of seeing
family or friends at home until they have completed their Ph.D. degrees.
In utilizing women’s identity development as a theoretical framework, some respondents
indicated that while they had an interest in engineering initially, they did not have the option to
choose a different field. These women first identified as guardians, meaning that they took on
their parents’ values and beliefs (Josselson, 1972). These women initially reached identity
foreclosure, as they made decisions in the absence of other alternatives (Marcia, 1966).
However, over time, all of the respondents emerged as pathmakers, meaning they took into
account their parents’ lifestyle, tried different options, and made the best decision for themselves
(Josselson, 1972). These women were also considered to have reached identity achievement,
meaning they have reflected on different ideological and occupational choices, and made their
own decisions (Marcia, 1966). Pathmakers and identity achievers are the most well-adjusted and
independent in women’s identity development theory.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 91
To summarize, four themes appeared from the study that connected women’s identity
development with the academic and occupational decisions of female Iranian graduate students
in STEM: 1) Women’s strong math skills led them to pursue engineering; 2) Parents’ level of
education and field of study influenced the daughters’ choices; 3) Parents had high expectations
of their daughters and encouraged them to be the best; 4) Other relatives’ pursuit of engineering,
as well as their support, positively impacted the women. These themes highlight the substantial
role family plays in the lives of young Iranian women in STEM fields. Further, Executive Order
13780 (The White House Office of the Press Secretary, 2017) and single entry visas made it
more challenging for Iranian students to pursue their dreams of a quality education in the United
States, as they have been limited from visiting their families.
Implications for Practice
The research findings and data analysis add to the literature on women’s identity
development and Iranian women in STEM. The qualitative data provided rich descriptions of
Iranian female students and alumnae in STEM, focusing on the factors that influenced their
educational and professional choices. The body of literature on Iranian women in general is
limited, let alone those in STEM education. This section provides relevant information
regarding the implications of this study and the impact on previous research and enhancements
for student affairs.
Understanding how this marginalized group of students make academic and occupational
decisions could substantially influence how universities recruit them into graduate school,
support them throughout their degree programs (often a minimum of five to six years), and
facilitate their job search upon completion of their doctoral degree. Renn and Patton (2011)
assert “Working in buildings and on campuses designed for homogenous student populations
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 92
(majority White, middle-class, able-bodied, Christian, and male), educators today must address
historical exclusion and contemporary diversity. Campus cultures and climate are shaped by,
and shape in return, psychological and sociocultural environments.” Higher education leaders
need to understand that this population of students is different from other students, including
other international students, and must modify how they handle each step of their academic
journey in their respective doctoral programs. Most of these students are unable to go home to
see their families or have their family visit them during holidays, so universities need to plan
ahead and offer students the opportunity to spend holidays with others at their universities, such
as faculty, staff, or other students.
Furthermore, resources need to be made available for these students during university
breaks, such as winter recess, since the students are unable to leave the country and are often
stuck on or near an empty university campus during this time. Upon arrival to the university,
extra efforts need to be made to reach out to the students so that they know where to go for
additional resources and strategize on how to deal with homesickness. Throughout their
academic journey, these students should be paired with and mentored by an older Iranian
doctoral student, so that they can learn how to cope with the struggles that lie ahead. At
commencement, university officials need to make a strong effort to help the students’ parents
obtain a visa to attend their graduation ceremony. While obtaining a visa for a students’ parents
does not fall under the job responsibilities of most higher education professionals, student affairs
professionals need to do more to help these students, and there has to be a way for their parents
to witness their child crossing the stage at graduation. While students are searching for jobs,
whether in academia or industry, university staff need to help those who are impacted by the
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 93
sanctions, such as those studying petroleum engineering, so that the students do not feel their
educational pursuits have been in vain.
Ultimately, this research study revealed the factors that influenced the educational and
professional choices made by Iranian women in STEM and their relation to women’s identity
development. The findings add to the limited data on Iranian women in engineering and the
sciences. The women’s personal accounts of how they chose engineering as their field of study
and profession will develop the existing research on Iranian women. Moreover, the study calls
attention to the importance of this population and their impact on the world.
Recommendations for Future Research
While some research has previously been conducted on Iranian women in science,
technology, engineering and math, the studies have not analyzed the factors affecting Iranian
women’s decision to pursue STEM and the connection with women’s identity development
(Hefner-Babb & Khoshlessan, 2018; Mohajeri, & Mousavi, 2017; Dastjerdi, Mahdian, Dastjerdi,
& Namdari, 2012; Javadian & Singh, 2012; Pourshahian, Gholami, Vaseghi, & Rezvani
Kalajahi, 2012; Mozaffarian & Jamali; Mehran, 2003). The studies provided insight regarding
the experience of Iranian women when applying to graduate school, working in higher education
and in industry. Although the findings were valuable and relevant to this study, they did not
demonstrate an awareness of women’s identity development and its relationship to women’s
educational and professional choices.
Future research could examine several different domains involving Iranian women in
STEM and relate it to women’s identity development. A longitudinal study could be conducted,
similar to Josselson’s study following female Iranian college seniors for 30 years after
graduating to determine if their identity development had changed over time. This extensive
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 94
study would provide worthwhile data and truly establish whether identity changes over time, if it
is inherent from young adulthood, or if graduate school impacts identity development.
Another area of future research could examine whether Iranian women in STEM
disciplines are more likely to pursue careers in academia or industry. The study could explore
the reasons why women choose one area over another, and the aspects guiding the decisions.
Studying this area could help universities during the recruitment process and throughout
students’ graduate school experience. Student affairs staff would have a better understanding of
the interests of their students and would be able to provide niche programming to meet their
students’ needs, such as resume review, applying for internships, negotiating salary, etc.
All married women in this study had partners who were Iranian men in STEM. Further
research could explore whether Iranian women in STEM were more likely to marry Iranian men
in STEM. This topic seems applicable due to the fact that the married participants in this study
all had husbands who shared the same cultural and educational background.
Conclusion
There are several factors that influence the education and career choices of female Iranian
doctoral students in STEM. While parents are instrumental in their daughters’ life decisions,
they do not have the final say in what they choose to do long-term. Family members besides
parents were highly influential in introducing students to STEM and encouraging them to pursue
those areas of study. Participants’ high test scores in math seemed to be the most significant
factor that caused them to study engineering. They also had a strong self-efficacy, and, since
they believed they could succeed, they did. Professors had a positive impact on the respondents
as well. These women had a strong sense of identity, and, while they wanted to make their
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 95
families proud, they chose to pursue the area of study that interested them most, instead of the
field their parents preferred.
The researcher used a purposive, convenience sample when selecting the research study
participants. This sampling type was the most useful for this study, as the participants would be
the most knowledgeable about the research topic (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Although the study
is not generalizable since the participants were not representative of the entire Iranian female
doctoral STEM population, the study delivers rich data.
The women’s experiences growing up in Iran and moving to the United States for
graduate school revealed their focus and determination. While they were supported by their
families, they had to work diligently to excel in their academics and career aspirations. Being
raised in a patriarchal culture and choosing a male-dominated area of study did not deter them.
The women successfully navigated the edicts of their culture, including distinct gender roles,
even as they followed their dreams. They honored their cultural beliefs while taking on
educational and career opportunities in their chosen subject area.
Now more than ever before, STEM education and research has become an area in which
society is taking notice. Women bring a different perspective than men, which can considerably
influence research, as they are capable of solving problems differently than men do (Stieff, Ryu,
Dixon, & Hegarty, 2012). Due to the growing population of Iranian women in engineering
doctoral programs, this study sought to add to the limited data on this topic.
The women’s experiences shared several similarities with regard to their parents. Most
of their parents were highly educated, many of whom earned graduate degrees in STEM
disciplines. Kong et al. (2013) found that women who had educated parents, especially in
STEM, are predisposed to select higher education majors in STEM. All women in the study
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 96
shared that their parents had high expectations of them. Several of the participants’ parents
desired for their daughters to become doctors. Some parents supported their daughters regardless
of their area of study as long as they were the top of that discipline. Other family members had a
significant impact on these women as well. It is crucial to understand how women’s identity
development is formed through the educational and career choices of Iranian women in STEM
but research must also take into account the actual experiences of the women and how the
political climate can affect their lives and overall wellbeing.
IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 97
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IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 107
APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL

IDENTITY STATUS INTERVIEW QUESTIONS*
Introduction – Probing Questions
• Where are you from? Where are you living now?
• How did you happen to come to this university?
• Did your father go to college and/or graduate school? What does he do now?
• Did your mother go to college and/or graduate school? What does she do now?

Education and Occupation
• What are you studying? What do you plan to do with your Ph.D.?
• When did you come to decide on _________ ? Did you ever consider anything else?
• What seems attractive about _________ ?
• Most parents have plans for their children, things that they would like them to do. Did
your parents have any plans like that for you?
• How do your parents feel about your plans now?
• Did anyone influence your decision to study __________ or go into ___________ field?

Politics
• Do you have a particular political preference? What about your parents?
• Are there any political issues you feel strongly about?
• Did the 2017 Executive Order impact your political views?

Conclusion
• Is there anything else you would like to add?

*Source: Adapted from Marcia (1964) and Schenkel and Marcia (1972).

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 108
APPENDIX B: OBSERVATION PROTOCOL

Observation Protocol Table**

Name of Observer Date Time

Location Study

Brief Summary of Observation

Physical Space
Define the physical
space.
• Geographical
• Temporal
• Physical
• Political

Utility: What is the
purpose of
event/setting?

Participant reactions to
physical setting

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 109
Other

People/Participants
Who are the
participants taking
place in
observation/event?
How many
participated?

Demographical
information:
• Racial
• Ethnic
• Gender
• Class

What are the roles of
those being observed?
How do you know?

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 110
What was each of the
specific participants
doing?
• Group interaction
• Individual actions
• Passive
participants
• Active participants

Purpose of Events/Observation
Why is the event
taking place? Are
there any political
contexts to be
discussed?

Who was invited to
event? Who was not?

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 111
What are the positions
of the various
participants involved?
• Power dynamics
• Roles

What is being
discussed?

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 112
Sequence of Events
Beginning
Middle
End

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 113
Observer Role
What am I doing?
What is my role
throughout the
observation?

Describe some of my
interactions with other
participants
throughout the
observation.

How did my
interaction/presence
affect the observation
participants?

Other

Pictures

**Source: Inquiry Methods II, University of Southern California, Fall 2017.

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 114
APPENDIX C: INFORMED CONSENT FORM

University of Southern California
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board
1640 Marengo Street, Suite 700, Los Angeles, CA 90033-9269.
(323) 223-2340 | irb@usc.edu
INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

THE EDUCATIONAL AND PROFESSIONAL CHOICES OF
IRANIAN WOMEN IN STEM DOCTORAL PROGRAMS

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Jennifer Gerson, doctoral student
in the Rossier School of Education, and Margo Pensavalle, Ed.D., at the University of Southern
California, because you are a female Iranian STEM doctoral student. Your participation is
voluntary. You should read the information below, and ask questions about anything you do not
understand, before deciding whether to participate. Please take as much time as you need to read
the consent form. You may also decide to discuss participation with your family or friends. If you
decide to participate, you will be asked to sign this form. You will be given a copy of this form.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the study is to discover the factors that influence the academic and occupational
choices of female Iranian STEM students.
STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to participate in an in-depth
interview, which will last approximately one hour, and will be audio-recorded. You may be
asked to participate in a follow-up call to discuss your responses further and to clarify findings.
Please note that you may still participate in the research study if you do not wish to be audio-
recorded.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks to participating in this study.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
Participating in this study may provide you with additional insight regarding the academic and
occupational choices you have made. The anticipated benefit to society is that the findings may
inform future research and help administrators support Iranian female students in STEM. Note that
as this is a research study, the benefits are contingent upon the results.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not be paid for participating in this research study.

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 115
POTENTIAL CONFLICTS OF INTEREST OF THE INVESTIGATOR
There is a potential conflict of interest, as the investigator is employed by the school in which the
research participants are students. The investigator will not allow her role as director of doctoral
programs impact the relationship with the research participants during or after the study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
We will keep your records for this study confidential as far as permitted by law. However, if we
are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential information about you. The members
of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection
Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect
the rights and welfare of research subjects.
The data will be stored in a locked desk drawer in the investigator’s office. The audio recordings
will be erased in three years. The informed consent form will be kept separate from the interview
data. The interview data will be labeled with a number code, and your name and other
identifying information will be changed in the write-up of the research results to protect your
identity.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of
benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time and
discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies
because of your participation in this research study.
EMERGENCY CARE AND COMPENSATION FOR INJURY
If you are injured as a direct result of research procedures you will receive medical treatment;
however, you or your insurance will be responsible for the cost. The University of Southern
California does not provide any monetary compensation for injury.

INVESTIGATOR ’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Jennifer
Gerson at (213) 740-6241 and jgerson@usc.edu or Margo Pensavalle at (213) 740‑8845 and
pensaval@usc.edu.
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University of Southern California
Institutional Review Board, 1640 Marengo Street, Suite 700, Los Angeles, CA 90033-9269.
Phone (323) 223-2340 or email irb@usc.edu.

IRANIAN WOMEN STEM STUDENT CHOICES 116
SIGNATURE OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT

I have read the information provided above. I have been given a chance to ask questions. My
questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have
been given a copy of this form.

AUDIO/VIDEO/PHOTOGRAPHS

□ I agree to be audio-recorded

□ I do not want to be audio-recorded

Name of Participant

Signature of Participant Date

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR

I have explained the research to the participant and answered all of his/her questions. I believe
that he/she understands the information described in this document and freely consents to
participate.

Name of Person Obtaining Consent

Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This case study examined the educational and professional decisions of eight Iranian female students and graduates of doctoral engineering programs at a Tier 1 research university in Southern California. While more Iranian women have earned doctoral degrees in recent years, those in STEM fields often choose to do so in the United States. These women were raised with traditional values and distinct gender roles but were inspired to pursue higher education in traditionally male-dominated disciplines. They need to respect their cultural values and simultaneously welcome the educational opportunities available to them. Their families insist that they stand out in their chosen field of study while they observe the values instilled in them during their upbringing. The study utilized women’s identity development theory to evaluate factors which influenced the choices of the research participants.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Gerson, Jennifer (author)

Core Title The educational and professional choices of Iranian women in STEM doctoral programs

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 01/08/2020

Defense Date 01/07/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Choices,doctoral programs,Iranian,OAI-PMH Harvest,STEM,Women

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hasan, Angela (committee chair), Pensavalle, Margo (committee chair), Meshkati, Najmedin (committee member)

Creator Email jenngerson@yahoo.com,jgerson@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-259438

Unique identifier UC11673586

Identifier etd-GersonJenn-8111.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-259438 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-GersonJenn-8111.pdf

Dmrecord 259438

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Gerson, Jennifer

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA