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Racial disparities in U.S. K-12 suburban schools: an evaluation study
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Racial disparities in U.S. K-12 suburban schools: an evaluation study
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Running head: RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE
1
Racial Disparities in School Discipline in Suburban U.S. K-12 Schools: an Evaluation Model
by
Christine Ruth
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
(Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
December 2019
Copyright 2019 Christine Ruth
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 2
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to the teachers who volunteered to share their thoughts and
their hearts with me for this project. Their vulnerability, and the support of district and school
leaders who graciously shared data and welcomed me into your schools, offer a unique snapshot
of discipline practices in suburban high schools. Thank you.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 3
Acknowledgments
First, I would like to offer my sincere gratitude to my dissertation chair and professor Dr.
Darline Robles, whose combination of candor and encouragement allowed me to reach this
point. Her focus on helping her students create equitable schools and systems is an inspiration.
Thank you to Dr. Adrian Donato, my assistant chair, whose keen eye and thoughtful suggestions
are greatly appreciated. Also thank you to the rest of my dissertation committee, Dr. Alan Green
and Dr. Frank Rudnesky, and to those at USC who lent their talents to this research, with special
mention to Dr. Courtney Malloy.
I would have been lost without my squad of fierce and brilliant classmates, Kelly
Esperias, Chelsea Heyward, Leslie Hughes, and Amanda Vanni. I am so proud of us and can’t
wait to see the mark each of you make on the world. Each member of Cohort 8, especially the
Tuesday/Wednesday crew, taught me something valuable, made me laugh, and helped me
improve my work as a researcher, writer, and creative thinker. You are gold.
To my husband, David, for your unwavering support and love, I am forever grateful. To
my parents, for always believing in me and for changing the course of our family history by
raising us to read, question, and lead, thank you. To my sisters Erin and Kelly and their families,
my Aunt Maureen, and my amazing friends, thank you for your support and for keeping me sane.
I can’t wait to spend time with all of you again.
Finally, to Tara and Ryan, my guts and heart and soul, I love you and am grateful for all I
have learned about life through the gift of being your mother.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 9
Abstract 10
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 11
Introduction to the Problem of Practice 11
Organizational Context and Mission 11
Organizational Performance Goal 12
Related Literature 13
Importance of Addressing the Problem 14
Description of Stakeholder Groups 15
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals 15
Stakeholder Group for the Study 16
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions 17
Methodological Approach and Rationale 18
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 21
Influences on the Racial Disparities in School Discipline 21
Current and Historical Practices in School Discipline 22
Negative Outcomes of Exclusionary Discipline 26
School-to-prison pipeline 26
Link to achievement gap 27
Adverse adult outcomes 28
Racial Discipline Gap 29
Behaviors of Black students compared to behaviors of White students 30
Implicit Bias 31
Systemic Racism 32
Role of Stakeholder Group of Focus 34
Clark and Estes Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Framework 34
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences 35
Knowledge Influences 36
Motivation Influences 42
Organizational Influences 49
Conceptual Framework 56
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS 62
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals 63
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 5
Participating Stakeholders 63
Survey Sampling Strategy and Rationale 64
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale 65
Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale 65
Data Collection and Instrumentation 68
Quantitative Data Collection and Instrumentation 68
Surveys 68
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation 71
Interviews 72
Data Analysis 74
Credibility and Trustworthiness 75
Validity and Reliability 76
Ethics 77
Limitations and Delimitations 80
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND FINDINGS 81
Participating Stakeholders 81
Survey Participants 82
Interview Participants 86
Results and Findings 88
Knowledge Results and Findings 90
Motivation Results and Findings 104
Organizational Results and Findings 115
Summary of Validated Influences 154
CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS 158
Introduction and Overview 162
Recommendations for Practice to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and 164
Organizational Influences
Knowledge Recommendations 164
Motivation Recommendations 169
Organizational Recommendations 173
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 179
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach 198
Limitations and Delimitations 199
Future Research 199
Conclusion 200
References 204
Appendix A: Survey Items 221
Appendix B: Principal Interview Protocol 223
Appendix C: Teacher Interview Protocol 227
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 6
Appendix D: Evaluation Instruments - Levels 1 & 2 231
Appendix E: Blended Evaluation Instrument 232
Appendix F: Data Analysis Chart 234
Appendix G: Checklist of Tasks for All Stakeholders 235
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. State Department of Education School Performance Data, 2017 12
Table 2. Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments for Knowledge 41
Gap Analysis
Table 3. Motivation Influences and Assessments for Motivation Gap 48
Analysis
Table 4. Organizational Influences and Assessments for Organization Gap 55
Analysis
Table 5. Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance 63
Goals
Table 6. Qualitative and Quantitative Methods 67
Table 7. Years of experience, broken down by count and percentage 84
Table 8. Interview Participants 87
Table 9. Enrollment at Trident disaggregated by student race 90
Table 10. Results of Culturally Responsive Classroom Management 105
Self-Efficacy Scale
Table 11. Relative Rate Index of Suspensions by Race - Monroe HS 117
Table 12. Relative Rate Index of Suspensions by Race - Adams HS 118
Table 13. Relative Rate Index of Suspensions by Race - Madison HS 118
Table 14. Relative Rate Index of Suspensions by Race - Trident School District 119
Table 15. Breakdown of Suspensions by Reason for Referral - Monroe HS 120
Table 16. Breakdown of Suspensions by Reason for Referral - Adams HS 121
Table 17. Breakdown of Suspensions by Reason for Referral - Madison HS 122
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 8
Table 18. Violence, Vandalism, Harassment/Intimidation/Bullying (HIB), 123
and Substance Offenses
Table 19. Top 12 Ranking of Reasons for Referral Leading to Suspension, 124
2017-2018 School Year
Table 20. Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 154
Table 21. Triton School District Demographics, State Department of Education, 159
2017-2018 School Year
Table 22. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 164
Table 23. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 170
Table 24. Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations 175
Table 25. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 180
Table 26. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, and Methods for Evaluation and Timing 183
Table 27. Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 184
Table 28. Evaluation of Components of Learning 191
Table 29. Component to Measure Reactions to the Program 193
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 9
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework Figure 58
Figure 2. Survey Responses by School 82
Figure 3. School Roles of Survey Respondents 83
Figure 4. Years of Experience of Survey Respondents 84
Figure 5. Years of Experience in Current School 85
Figure 6. Gender of Respondents 85
Figure 7. Race of Respondents 86
Figure 8. Culturally Responsive Classroom Management Self-Efficacy 107
Scale, Item A
Figure 9. Culturally Responsive Classroom Management Self-Efficacy 108
Scale, Item A
Figure 10. Framework for School Discipline reform for Student Wellbeing and 188
Justice
Figure 11. Total Number of Suspensions, 2017-2018 195
Figure 12. Students Assigned at Least One Suspension, 2017-2018 196
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 10
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate racial disparities in school discipline in a newly
diverse U.S. suburban high school district. Survey and interview participants included staff
members at three mid-Atlantic high schools, in order to examine the knowledge and motivation
of teachers as well as organizational factors that contribute to differential assignment of in- and
out-of-school suspension as a consequence for behavior. Results include validation of influences
such as a lack of knowledge of the negative consequences of suspension on a student’s life; the
significance of teachers’ emotions on the disciplinary choices they make in the classroom; a
culture of control within the disciplinary system that enhances the divide between students and
teachers; and bias and stereotypes toward students and their families exacerbated by cultural
mismatch, or low teacher diversity coupled with high student diversity; and a limited connection
between school and home. Recommendations include a framework for School Discipline
Transformation for Wellbeing and Justice, a comprehensive three-year plan to disrupt and
rebuild inequitable disciplinary systems. Centered on student wellbeing and empowerment,
elements of the framework include learning and reflection, policy review and revision,
establishment of community equity teams, reallocation of resources, courageous communication,
and coaching and support. Continuous drivers include culturally responsive mindsets as well as
monitoring and evaluation.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 11
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction to the Problem of Practice
Inequities in school discipline between Black and White students are a longstanding
problem in U.S. K-12 public schools. A report by the U.S. Department of Education Office for
Civil Rights (2016) indicates that Black K-12 students are 3.8 times as likely to receive one or
more out-of-school suspensions than White students. The disparity in school discipline is not
explained by more frequent or serious misbehavior by Black students (Office for Civil Rights,
2014). The evidence demonstrates that schools are not in compliance with Title VI of the Civil
Rights Act of 1964, which prohibits discrimination based on race, color, or national origin in
programs and activities that receive federal financial assistance, including schools (Determan &
Ware, 1966; Baca, 2004; Hanushek, 2016 ). Exclusionary discipline practices have been linked
to school struggle or failure (Perry & Morris, 2014), student disengagement (Skiba, Horner,
Rausch, May & Tobin, 2011) and increased “likelihood that a student will experience criminal
victimization, criminal involvement, and incarceration years later, as adults” (Wolf & Kupchik,
2017, p. 407).
Organizational Context and Mission
Trident Regional School District, a pseudonym, is a 9th-12th grade diverse and suburban
district that unifies educators, families and community. The mission of the school district is to
ensure students are college and career ready by providing multiple and varied social and
academic opportunities and experiences. Trident is comprised of three 9th-12th grade high
schools with a total enrollment of 3,386 students and 271 teachers (State School Performance
Reports website, 2017). The population at Trident is racially and socioeconomically diverse, as
detailed in the table below.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 12
Table 1
State Department of Education School Performance Data, 2017
Monroe School Adams High School Madison High School
Enrollment 1203 885 977
Economically
Disadvantaged
46% 38% 54%
Students with
Disabilities
19% 15% 21%
White 42.6% 61.9% 40.9%
Hispanic 22.4% 20.1% 19.3%
Black/African-
American
16.3% 13.4% 31.3%
Asian 15.6% 3.1% 6.1%
English as home
language
78.9% 90.4% 91.5%
Graduation rate in 4
years
91.3% 94.4% 91.8%
Graduation rate in 5
years
93.5% 89.9% 89.5%
Number of Teachers 106 74 91
In-School Suspension
Rate
13.1% 9.8% 25.4%
Out-of-School
Suspension Rate
10.1% 6.1% 18.1%
Total Suspension Rate 18.3% 12.3% 31.2%
Organizational Performance Goal
Trident Regional School District is engaged in a strategic planning process, but has not
yet set measurable targets for achievement. Current goals include an increased use of data to
evaluate performance and progress in student achievement and student involvement, and
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 13
implementation of a mental health curriculum and student support. Equity is important to school
leaders, as is reduction in the higher than area schools’ average suspension rates at all three high
schools. The goal of Trident is that by December 2019, there will be an understanding of equity
issues in school discipline as seen by comparing the rate of exclusionary discipline by race to
each race’s percentage of the school population, as well as an understanding of the racial school
climate as experienced by teachers. School district leaders aim to evaluate data on how teachers
are handling and experiencing disciplinary issues as well as look forward to detailed
recommendations for improvement. The need to address suspension rates arose from school data
that demonstrates a pattern of exclusionary discipline at all three high schools, with the highest
rate at the school with the highest percentage of Black students. This goal affects the
organization’s goal to continue to build and implement student experiences that foster a culture
of social and emotional well-being and growth, and is related to the larger problem of the long-
term effects of suspension and other exclusionary discipline, which include incarceration,
criminality, and criminal victimization. The rate of discipline will be measured through
accessing detailed discipline data stored in the school’s student information system.
Related Literature
Over the past twenty years, a number of studies have found that “zero-tolerance”, a no-
nonsense approach to school discipline that has become commonplace in schools across the U.S.,
exhibits little effectiveness in either reducing disruption or improving safety in schools (Skiba,
2014; Mowen & Brent, 2016; Perry & Morris, 2014). Skiba (2014), on behalf of the New York
State Permanent Judicial Commission on Justice for Children, conducted a study reviewing
national suspension data that found zero tolerance exclusionary discipline fails to keep schools
safe due to inconsistency of implementation, poor outcomes on school climate and learning, and
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 14
unfair application of consequences. Recent studies show that Black students are 3-4 times more
likely to be suspended than White students for the same infraction (Hilberth & Slate, 2014;
Carter, Skiba, Arredondo & Pollack, 2017; Morris & Perry, 2016). Hilberth and Slate (2014)
found that Black students received proportionately more in- and out-of-school suspensions,
expulsions, and removal to an alternative program as disciplinary consequences. For example,
7
th
grade Black students were 4.7 times more likely to receive an out-of-school suspension than
7
th
grade White students (Hilberth & Slate, 2014). The racial disparity in suspension data shows
clear bias against Black students, whether intentional or not (Carter, et al., 2017). Several studies
have found serious short- and long-term effects of suspension, including school failure, drop-out,
arrest, and future criminality, creating what is known as a school-to-prison pipeline (Wolf &
Kupchik, 2017; Skiba, Horner, Chung, Rausch, May & Tobin, 2011; Mowen & Brent, 2016).
Regardless of the type of infraction, race makes a significant contribution to the consequence
that is chosen by school staff for a student, even when accounting for socio-economic status.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
The problem of racial inequality in school discipline is important to solve for a variety of
reasons. The American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force (2008), examined
research concerning zero tolerance policies and found an increase in referrals to the juvenile
justice system. The emotional and social implications of suspension may also affect student
achievement, since disconnection and alienation from school may lead to less motivation and
investment in the educational process (Gregory, Skiba, and Noguera, 2010). Furthermore,
according to Wolf and Kupchik (2017), who examined the National Longitudinal Survey of
Adolescent to Adult Health, suspension is correlated with future victimization, criminality, and
incarceration and that the effects of exclusionary school discipline practices are “broader and
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 15
longer lasting” (p. 424) than formerly realized. Additionally, the funnelling of students from
school into the criminal justice system, also known as the school-to-prison pipeline, has broad
social and economic costs; keeping 5% more young men in high school until graduation would
save the country $18.5 billion in crime costs (Redfield & Nance, 2016). This problem cannot be
explained by single factors or characteristics, but should be examined as a large-scale, systemic,
social issue that impacts the opportunities for Black students to become successful adults
(Gregory, Skiba, & Noguera, 2010).
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are several important stakeholder groups that contribute to achieving equity in
discipline. Administrators assign discipline when teachers refer students for violating the student
code of conduct. Administrators determine the consequences that will be given, and while there
is often a guideline to follow, administrators may use their discretion when assigning discipline.
Additionally, administrators interact with both the student and teacher and can utilize
communication skills to foster equitable discipline practices. Teachers are also an important
stakeholder group, as they have the greatest influence on student behavior. Teachers who build
relationships with their students and attempt to understand misbehavior rather than punish it
contribute to the reduction in discipline inequities. A third important stakeholder includes the
3,386 9th through 12th grade students at Trident Regional School District. Students skilled in
conflict resolution, social skills, and emotion management can help to reduce discipline
inequities.
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals
The organizational mission of Trident Regional School District, which is a racially and
socioeconomically diverse suburban district, aims to ensure students are college and career ready
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 16
by providing multiple and varied social and academic opportunities and experiences. Trident
Regional School District’s performance goal is that by December 2019 there will be an
understanding of equity issues in school discipline as seen by comparing the rate of exclusionary
discipline by race to each race’s percentage of the school population, as well as an understanding
of the racial school climate as experienced by teachers. School district leaders aim to evaluate
data on how teachers are handling and experiencing disciplinary issues as well as look forward to
detailed recommendations for reducing the racial disparity in school discipline.
There are a number of important stakeholders that informed the solutions to this problem,
and each set of stakeholders should work toward individualized performance goals. By August
2019, Trident school administrators will begin assessing equity in school discipline on a
quarterly basis. Without this clear data, progress and interventions cannot be evaluated
accurately, and administrators should be focused on providing this information to teachers and
then collectively acting upon it. By May 2020, all teachers will exhibit proficiency in the
implementation of culturally responsive classroom management practices in order to achieve
equity in the rate of exclusionary school discipline. Culturally responsive classroom
management is shown to have results in reducing suspensions and increasing positive
relationships between students and teachers, particularly for students of color (Brendtro &
Mitchell, 2012). The final stakeholder goal is that by May 2020, teachers will receive training
on culturally responsive practices in the classroom and be able to explain the purpose and benefit
of each practice.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
Although a complete analysis would involve all stakeholder groups, for practical
purposes teachers were chosen as the stakeholder group of focus. Teacher interactions and
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 17
relationships with students have a significant impact on student behavior. Teachers who are
trained to utilize culturally responsive discipline practices are better able to handle student
misbehavior before making a referral to an administrator. Demonstrating proficiency in these
practices, evidenced through observation, interview, and review of disciplinary referrals,
involves teachers in the primary role of addressing the racial inequities in school discipline.
School administrators were interviewed to understand practices in school discipline, but focus
centered on teachers since they have the most direct contact with students. The goal of equity in
school discipline cannot be achieved without teachers as active participants in closing the gap
through enhanced culturally relevant practices.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this project was to evaluate the degree to which Trident is meeting its
goal of racial equity in school discipline. The analysis focused on knowledge, motivation and
organizational influences related to achieving the organizational goals. While a complete
performance evaluation would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholders
of focus in this analysis were teachers.
The questions that guided the evaluation study that addressed knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organization influences for teachers were:
1. To what extent is Trident meeting its goal to achieve equity in school discipline?
2. What is teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to effective and culturally relevant
discipline practices?
3. What is the interaction between Trident’s culture and context and teachers’ knowledge
and motivation?
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 18
4. Based on the data analysis, Chapter 5 will provide recommendations for organizational
practice in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources and
solutions.
Methodological Approach and Rationale
The research questions detailed above most align with a mixed methods approach, since
mixed methods research often occurs in a natural setting, appropriate for research conducted in a
school. The design of the study was exploratory in nature, with the intent to build knowledge
over the course of the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This inductive approach allowed for
truths to emerge rather than making a prediction using dependent and independent variables that
can either be proven or disproven (McEwan & McEwan, 2003). The qualitative research utilized
a process approach, based on the questions regarding teachers’ knowledge and motivation related
to achieving equity in school disciplinary practices. Process research questions ask how
something happened, indicating the need to implement a qualitative approach (Maxwell, 2013).
There are many steps involved in school discipline, from the building of a relationship between
teacher and student, to the decision teachers make to refer students to the office, to the practices
in place when a student returns to school or class from exclusionary discipline. Once the
research questions were asked, it was important to closely examine the purpose of the study to
choose the most appropriate design. The purpose of this study, to describe how teacher
knowledge and motivation influences disciplinary practices, best lent itself to a mixed methods
approach that allowed for an understanding of how this relationship between teacher emotion
and disciplinary practices works at Trident.
The worldview of the researcher also lent itself to a mixed methods approach.
Worldview encompasses the researcher’s assumptions, based on experience (Corbin, Strauss, &
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 19
Strauss, 2014). As a former teacher who issued student discipline referrals, the researcher has
also served as a middle school principal and assistant principal, with a primary responsibility of
issuing disciplinary consequences. The researcher is aware of the processes involved in student
behavior and discipline, and how various points in the process can influence the racial disparity
in school discipline. This worldview offered the researcher the opportunity to learn more about a
problem that is not only of interest, but one in which she is an active participant.
The method of qualitative design used was critical research, which critiques and
challenges injustice, and keeps the dynamics of power relations at the forefront of the study
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The nature of this study, which aimed to understand the racial
disparity in school discipline, lent itself to this method, as the researcher hoped to challenge
power dynamics as a result of engaging in and completing the study. Reflexivity, or frequent
reflection, was necessary on the part of the researcher in order to effectively handle
insider/outsider issues and their intersection with positionality issues (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The researcher may have been an insider as a former teacher and school administrator, yet was
an outsider in terms of the critical race issues, as she is a white woman. Positionality was a
factor since teachers may have been more reluctant to be honest with a school administrator,
even one who was not their supervisor. These issues were evaluated frequently and included
both in field notes as well as in the research discussion.
The selection of participants was purposeful, as the researcher chose teachers with varied
worldviews of their own in order to build an accurate cross-section of teacher perceptions and
emotions. After administering a quantitative study to all staff, qualitative techniques included
semi-structured interviews, and documents in the form of discipline data (McEwan & McEwan,
2003).
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 20
Credibility was ensured through the building of rapport and extensive time in the field,
interviewing teachers and observing classrooms and other school settings. Transparency,
including frequent check-ins with participants, allowed the subjects and researcher to build trust.
The primary method of data collection was interview recordings and field notes, which were
detailed and rich in order for the researcher to produce vivid representations of the context of the
problem (Locke, Silverman, & Spirduso, 2010).
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 21
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This literature review examines the root causes in the disparity in school discipline by
race at Trident Regional School District. The review begins with general research on practices in
school discipline as well as the racial disparities within those practices in the U.S. The review
will present an in-depth discussion on best practices in school discipline and the role of teachers,
the stakeholder group of focus, in school discipline incidents. This section includes current
research on exclusionary discipline, its link to academic achievement, the influence of bias and
systemic racism, and the inclusion of restorative and culturally responsive practices in schools as
an alternative to exclusionary discipline. Following the general research literature, the review
turns to the Clark and Estes Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework, and, specifically, knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences on the racial disparity in school discipline. The
chapter will be completed by presenting the conceptual framework.
Influences on the Racial Disparities in School Discipline
Over the past sixty years in the United States, school discipline has been a
polarizing topic among educators, parents, and politicians (Arum, 2005). Punishment sits at one
end of the spectrum, with repair and rehabilitation inhabiting the other end; state and school
policies and practices often reflect the prevailing beliefs of the time. After the Gun-Free Schools
Act of 1995 and the school shooting at Columbine High School in 1999, Zero Tolerance policies
that impose mandatory harsh punishments for school discipline issues became popular (Skiba,
2014). While 85% of school shootings are perpetuated by white males (Katsiyannis, Whitford,
& Ennis, 2018), Zero Tolerance policies disproportionately target black males, often leading to
greater contact with law enforcement, and connecting the criminal justice system to school
discipline, thus contributing to shaping the school-to-prison pipeline (Wolf & Kupchik, 2017;
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 22
Skiba, Arredondo, & Williams, 2014). Zero Tolerance policies’ overuse of exclusionary school
discipline, which includes in- and out-of-school suspension as well as expulsion, is also found to
be ineffective at reducing problem behaviors (Curran, 2016). Restorative discipline, an
alternative to the harsh practices of Zero Tolerance, emerged in popularity during the Obama
presidential years, and encourages schools to utilize peaceful and non-punitive approaches for
addressing problem behavior (Fronius, Persson, Guckenburg, Hurley & Petrosino, 2016). While
research shows that restorative discipline practices can be very effective at reducing the racial
disparity in school discipline as well as making schools safer overall (Brendtro, Brokenleg &
Van Bockern; Gregory, Clawson, Davis, & Gerewitz; Okonofua, Paunesku, & Walton), U.S.
President Donald Trump has blamed recent school shootings on President Obama’s Rethink
School Discipline initiative that advocates for restorative discipline practices (Green, 2018), and
Trump’s administration revoked the recommended changes in 2018. The educational, political,
and ethical aspects of school discipline can make it difficult for teachers and school
administrators to enact practices that address problem behaviors yet are also equitable for all
students.
Current and Historical Practices in School Discipline
School discipline policies and practices are designed to deal with problem student
behavior in the classroom and throughout the school. Disciplinary practices in schools can be
traced back to early colonialism, when severe punishments such as paddling and the dunce cap
(Weaver, 2012) were common responses to student misbehavior. School reformer Horace Mann
reported that he observed 328 floggings in a single school in one week, highlighting the tradition
in U.S. schools of “subservience - of the individual will to the will of the teacher” that in many
ways still exists today, as students are expected to conform or be punished (Adams, 2000). Most
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 23
students with behavior or discipline problems ended up dropping out or being expelled from
school into the 1960s and 1970s, when youthful rebellion increased due to growing school
populations from the baby boom generation, as well as the growth of the civil rights, anti-war,
and women’s movements (Weaver, 2012). Students continued to be removed for misbehavior
until Goss vs. Lopez ruled in 1975 that students were entitled to due process and could not be
expelled or suspended capriciously (Adams, 2000). Since this landmark ruling, problem
behaviors in schools have been addressed primarily through school consequences such as
detention, in-school suspension and out-of-school suspension.
Despite evidence that students who are suspended are likely to become repeat offenders,
suspension is still a highly common consequence for student misbehavior (Allman & Slate,
2011). In-school suspension requires students to miss educational opportunities for learning
because they are removed to an isolated setting within the school, while out-of-school
suspensions require students to be absent for a designated number of days. While school
discipline has evolved in the last 100 years, schools still routinely deny students their civil right
to access to an education through exclusion (Mowen & Brent, 2016). The humiliating and
debasing practices of the past 100 years of schooling in the U.S. have evolved into modern
versions of the dunce cap: the exclusionary practices of out-of-school and in-school suspensions.
While previously thought of as a positive alternative to out-of school suspension, in-
school suspension appears to have similar negative effects as out-of-school suspension due to the
exclusionary nature and denial of educational opportunities (Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). In-school
suspension became a logical solution as detention, paddling, and out-of-school suspension
became difficult or impossible for various reasons (Morris & Howard, 2010). In-school
suspension is based on excluding problem students while continuing to provide some type of
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 24
educational experience for them. The three categories of in-school suspensions are punitive,
academic, and therapeutic: each requires the student to miss their primary academic instruction
to serve their punishment (Morris & Howard, 2010).
“Zero tolerance”, a no-nonsense approach to school discipline, has become commonplace
in schools across the U.S. (American Psychological Association, 2008) in the last twenty years.
Zero tolerance is defined as a policy that results in mandatory punishments for specified
offenses, while also serving as a deterrent to prevent students from misbehaving (Curran, 2016).
Originally developed as an approach to drug enforcement, the term zero tolerance became widely
adopted in schools as a philosophy of mandated punishment, regardless of context or
circumstances. Zero tolerance assumes that removing disruptive students from the learning
environment will deter others from disruption and create an improved climate for the students
that remain (APA, 2008). While suspension rates have doubled since the 1970s, there is no
indication that schools have become more violent; in fact, violence and misbehavior in schools
has decreased as punishments have become more severe (Perry & Morris, 2014; Robers, Kemp,
Rathbun, Morgan, & Snyder, 2014). Additionally, schools often incorrectly use the terms
“discipline” and “school violence” interchangeably; this practice can confuse the issue, as most
incidents of school discipline do not involve violence. In fact, Fabelo, Thompson, Plotkin,
Carmichael, Marchbanks, & Booth (2011) found that only 3% of suspensions required a
student’s removal from the school or classroom environment for safety reasons.
Schools with high rates of exclusionary discipline through zero tolerance report less
satisfactory ratings of school climate, and school suspension predicts higher future rates of
misbehavior among those who are suspended (APA, 2008.) Exclusionary discipline is at odds
with developmental recommendations for adolescent growth, as students do not often respond as
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 25
expected to policies designed for deterrence. Anticipating possible consequences for behavior
can be cognitively challenging for children and young adolescents, since their reasoning ability
and their tendency for risk-taking behavior may negatively impact their decision-making
(Curran, 2016). Additionally, exclusionary practices that serve to isolate individuals can be
particularly devastating to teenagers whose social interactions are crucial for healthy
development (APA, 2008). Zero tolerance policies may “create, enhance, or accelerate negative
mental health outcomes by increasing alienation, anxiety, rejection, and breaking of healthy adult
bonds,” (APA, 2008). Despite the research that details the negative effects of zero tolerance
policies, they remain popular with parents and politicians in the name of school safety.
The effectiveness of zero tolerance policies was examined through a compilation of
surveys conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics and the U.S. Department of
Education’s Office of Civil Rights (OCR) data (Curran, 2016). Suspending students may
actually be reinforcing the undesirable behavior: zero tolerance policies are predictive of a 0.5
percentage point increase in district suspension rates and no consistent decreases in principals’
perception of problem behaviors (Curran, 2016). Additionally, the high rate of inconsistency in
school discipline, within and across schools, makes zero tolerance difficult to measure: the
unique characteristics of each school play a role in determining consequences, meaning that
treatment integrity is absent; this research concludes that, “No data exist to show that out-of-
school suspensions and expulsions reduce disruption or improve school climate (Skiba, 2014).”
Youth are just as likely to respond with anger and aggression to punishment as they are with
behavior change (Adams, 2000). Zero tolerance policies that rely on exclusionary discipline
continue to contribute to the racial disparity in school discipline.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 26
Negative Outcomes of Exclusionary Discipline
School-to-prison pipeline
Zero tolerance policies have increased the relationship between education and the
juvenile justice system, contributing to the formation of a school-to-prison pipeline, since
suspensions present a form of cumulative effect over time (Mowen & Brent 2016). Using four
waves of data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, Skiba (2014) explored how
school suspensions, including both in-school and out-of-school suspension, contribute to the
odds of arrest. Researchers found that youth that are suspended are at an increased risk of future
arrest, even when controlling for delinquency and other factors. These odds increase across
time. Skiba states, “The institutional snares of school discipline can create a snowball effect of
disadvantage.” School suspension seems to serve as a negative turning point for some youth.
(Skiba, 2014).
The link between school suspension and future incarceration is strong, especially for
young men of color (Langberg & Ciolfi, 2017). The U.S rate of incarceration has increased by
four times since the 1970s; the extreme social control in schools advocated through zero
tolerance policies, which mimics the structure of mass incarceration, may be contributing to the
increase of inmates (Perry & Morris, 2014; Irby, 2014). Additionally, the involvement of police
in schools through community policing programs and school resource officers stationed at school
buildings, may increase contact with law enforcement for non-criminal behavior such as talking
back or acting disorderly (Wolf & Kupchik, 2017; Fitzgerald, 2015). Students who have
received any suspensions while in school are 72% more likely to experience incarceration in the
future (Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). The shift in both school systems and the juvenile justice system
toward more punitive and fewer rehabilitative practices have led to the criminalization of
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 27
developmental adolescent behavior and low-level disciplinary infractions, especially for
vulnerable students who are primarily children of color (Mallett, 2015).
The school-to-prison pipeline signifies a reduction of the potential achievement of
individual black males while also imposing the cost of over-imprisonment upon society in the
US. The lack of a common narrative on the strength and potential of young men of color implies
that their higher rate of incarceration is appropriate, even though they are often traumatized by
school discipline and then retraumatized by the absence of a healing response (Rich, 2016). The
tendency to over-incarcerate and under-educate black males has been referred to as the new Jim
Madison, continuing a racial caste system that has existed since slavery, where in this case
schools serve as the creators of the barriers that prevent future success for many black men
(Fitzgerald, 2015). Providing equitable education practices that keep students in school rather
than entering the criminal justice system or dropping out is estimated to create a public benefit of
$209,100 per high school graduate, demonstrating that the financial benefits of closing discipline
and achievement gaps far outweigh the costs (Levin, 2009). White school leaders and teachers
are often unaware of their role in perpetuating systemic racism and the school-to-prison pipeline,
so the development of a counternarrative that disputes biased assumptions is necessary for Black
school leaders and White allies to promote. School leaders’ inability to assess culture and
manage the dynamics of difference leave Black students vulnerable to becoming victims of the
school-to-prison pipeline (Franco, Ott, & Robles, 2011).
Link to achievement gap
Several studies have correlated suspension with drops in school achievement (Gregory,
Skiba, & Noguera, 2010; Morris & Perry, 2006). Black, Latino, and American Indian students
are “overselected and over sanctioned” in the discipline system: Black males are 16 times more
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 28
likely than White females to be suspended (Gregory, Skiba, & Noguera, 2010). Time out of the
classroom contributes to drops in achievement for suspended students and may undermine the
academic environment. Suspension can spur students to disconnect from school norms and
academics, leading to a weakened bond to school overall (Gregory, Skiba, and Noguera, 2010).
Excluding students from class as a form of punishment decreases the likelihood of positive
reintegration when they return to the classroom, and may lead students toward increased
antisocial or delinquent behavior. The ineffectiveness of school suspension is clear, yet it
continues as common practice throughout the U.S. (Gregory, Skiba, & Noguera, 2010).
School suspensions account for approximately one-fifth of black-white differences in
school performance, meaning that 20% of the achievement gap can be attributed to exclusionary
discipline, a significant contribution (Morris & Perry, 2016). Students who have been suspended
score substantially lower on end-of-year academic progress tests than those who have not. The
effects of suspension are long-lasting, starting a trajectory that leads to higher dropout rates and
poor performance in later years, even if a student is not suspended again. Morris and Perry
(2016) state, “Unequal exclusionary discipline severely restricts opportunities for students to
learn and grow.” The racial discipline gap and racial achievement gap are often addressed in
isolation of each other, yet they must be examined side-by-side, as they are likely more
intertwined than generally examined.
Adverse adult outcomes
When students receive exclusionary discipline, their educational progress is interrupted,
and they may become labeled as deviants, which can lead to disengagement from their school
communities, according to Wolf and Kupchik (2017), who analyzed data from the National
Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent to Adult Health. The authors utilized the data to follow
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 29
students into adulthood to assess the relationship between school suspension and multiple
negative outcomes years later. Even just one suspension in grades 7-12 significantly predicts
future victimization (22% greater likelihood), criminal activity (31% greater likelihood), and
incarceration (72% greater likelihood). These results were clear even when controlling for
academic performance and eventual academic achievement (Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). Mowen
and Brent (2016) found that an increase in the number of suspensions is correlated with
increased odds of arrest, and that school-based punishment relates to future arrest. The influence
of suspension on a person’s life is significant, yet this data has not significantly impacted the
examination of school practices, as exclusionary school discipline remains a primary intervention
for student misbehavior or perceived misbehavior. As school discipline practices have become
more punitive and mimic an encounter with the criminal justice system, the first suspension for a
student may be a turning point for students that increases the likelihood of arrest (Mowen &
Brent, 2016), leading to negative adult outcomes.
Racial Discipline Gap
Although the U.S. racial discipline gap was identified more than forty years ago in a
Children’s Defense Fund report as cited in Rocque & Paternoster (2011), and has been examined
in depth since that time, inequitable outcomes for students of color persist and have generally not
improved despite the efforts of individuals and groups to address them. It is important to
examine the reasons for the persistence and pervasiveness of the racial discipline gap before
designing interventions to reduce it. Common explanations for the disparity often link race to
poverty or contend that Black students exhibit more disordered behavior; evidence does not point
to either of these factors as being strong enough to explain the racial gap (Skiba, et.al, 2002).
The racial disparity in school discipline cannot be explained by socio-economic factors; while
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 30
being from a low-income family slightly increases the likelihood of suspension, studies show
that race is a significant predictor of exclusionary discipline even after accounting for poverty
and family structure (Wallace, Goodkind, Wallace, & Bachman, 2008). Additionally,
differences in the rates of misbehavior cannot account for the disparity in discipline referrals
between black and white students (Rocque, 2010). This section will dispel common myths and
examine the factors that may be influencing the persistence of the racial gap in school discipline.
Behaviors of Black students compared to behaviors of White students
There is little support for the hypothesis that a higher rate of externalizing behavior of
Black students determines the likelihood that they will be referred for or will receive
exclusionary discipline. The results of a study by Rocque (2010) indicated that Black students,
specifically young men, have greater odds of receiving an office referral than other racial groups,
holding the variables of externalizing behavior, grades, free lunch, and special education
constant. This offers convincing evidence that racial disparity in school office discipline
referrals is not caused by behavioral or school policy factors. While Black students do have
slightly higher rates of externalizing behavior in school than White students, when this data is
taken into account, they are still 2.27 times as likely to be referred for discipline, indicating clear
bias or over-referral on the part of teachers (Rocque, 2010). The stereotype of Black males being
more prone to disordered behavior or criminality is also unsubstantiated. False and pervasive
ideas still exist regarding who is valued and who is not, and who is safe and who is dangerous
(Carter, Arredondo, & Pollock, 2017). The frequency or intensity of behaviors of Black students
are not shown to be significantly more problematic than the behaviors of White students, even
though Black students are referred for school discipline more often than their White peers
(Skiba, Horner, Chung, Rausch, May, & Tobin, 2011).
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 31
Rather than a difference in behavior between Black and White students, there is a
difference in the pattern of treatment between Black and White students by teachers and school
staff. Cultural mismatch between teachers and students, or incorrect assumptions regarding
students’ communication styles, may lead to the over-referral of Black students; White teachers
may interpret Black students’ expressive or impassioned interactions as confrontational (Skiba,
Horner, Chung, Rausch, May, & Tobin, 2011). Inequities are also created during the assignment
of punishment by school administrators: students of color are more likely to receive more serious
consequences for the same infraction. Black students are referred for more subjective reasons
such as disrespect, loitering, or insubordination (Carter, Skiba, Arredondo & Pollack, 2017);
their referrals are less about serious disruption than of “violations of unspoken rules of linguistic
conduct” (Vavrus & Cole, 2002). Disproportionate representation of Black students can occur at
either the teacher referral level or administrative decision level. Additionally, a substantial
under-referral of White students exists, as compared to their representation in the population,
indicating the possibility of implicit bias on the part of school staff (Carter, Skiba, Arredondo &
Pollack, 2017).
Implicit Bias
The perpetuation of stereotypes such as the “dangerous Black male” may lead to implicit
bias on the part of school staff and result in disciplinary referrals for Black students (Skiba,
Horner, Chung, Rausch, May, & Tobin). In settings where most teachers are White, racial threat
theory could help to explain contributing factors to disproportionate office referrals for Black
students. Racial threat theory proposes that as the dominant race in a society begins to feel
threatened by the non-dominant race, the dominant race increases measures of control over the
non-dominant race (Rocque, 2010). The racial discipline gap may be explained through racial
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 32
threat theory; as the population of Black students increases, so does the increased likelihood of
exclusionary discipline practices and zero-tolerance policies, and decreased likelihood of
restorative practices and mild disciplinary techniques (Welch & Payne, 2010). This cultural
threat of a loss of control may be a powerful, unseen motivator for teachers and school staff in
assigning unequal discipline to Black students (Rocque & Paternoster, 2011). A threat to
dominance may feel like an actual threat to White school staff and make it more difficult to
identify incidents of bias in their own discipline practices.
Additionally, students perceived to undervalue education are disproportionately referred
for school discipline. Consequently, students may perform poorly when they perceive they are
being stereotyped, and academic deficiency can be interpreted as a quality of students who are
troublemakers (Rocque & Paternoster, 2011). In turn, teachers may respond more punitively to
students who struggle academically. This “hidden curriculum” that marginalizes Black students
can be difficult to identify in schools, as teachers do not often acknowledge bias as a possible
influence on the racial disparity in school discipline (Rocque, 2010).
Systemic Racism
The racial disparity in suspension data shows clear bias against Black students, whether
intentional or not. In 2007 only 18% of White high school students had ever been suspended,
but nearly half (49%) of Black students had been (Okonofua, Walton & Eberhardt, 2016),
indicating a clear disparity in school discipline practices. Micro-inequities, often referred to as
micro-aggressions, are subtle biases toward students of color and undermine trust, even when
delivered unintentionally (Rowe, 2008). Examples of micro-aggressions include repeatedly
pronouncing a student’s name incorrectly, using inappropriate humor, or making assumptions
about students because of their race (Carter, Skiba, Arredondo, & Pollock, 2017).
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 33
Microaggressions can serve to confirm for students that they don’t belong at school, exacerbating
frustration and possibly leading to either indifference or acting out in the classroom. Persistent
negative interactions can lead to a spiral effect in school discipline, or, as stated by Okonofua,
Walton & Eberhardt (2016), “Misinterpretations and mistrust build on one another from one
encounter to the next”, so differences in the behavior of Black students may be the result of bias
and negative stereotypes accumulated over time. Blame should not fall completely either on
students or teachers, but attention needs to be paid to where interactions between the two go
wrong. Bias, student misbehavior, and discipline can be a recursive and repetitive cycle that
increases in intensity over time (Okonofua, Walton, & Eberhardt, 2016). After just “two strikes”
teachers are more likely to classify a Black student as a troublemaker, increasing the likelihood
of future suspension.
The inconsistency in discipline between Black and White students is particularly evident
in middle school, where Black students are referred for more minor infractions than white
students as stated by Hilberth & Slate (2014), who obtained discipline data from the Public
Education Information Management System (PEIMS) data base through the Texas Education
Agency. Differences in culture may impact the disparity: 87% of teachers in the nation’s 100
largest school districts are white (Monroe, 2005). Black students are often disciplined for
culturally based behaviors, such as communication style or nonverbal behaviors, that are not
intended to be disruptive or disrespectful (Gordon, Piana, & Keleher, 2000). Teachers observing
an event or behavior that is unclear may fill in the gaps of their knowledge with stereotypical
assumptions, leading to inequitable discipline referrals and disproportionate punishment for
Black students (Okonofua, Walton, & Eberhardt, 2016). When the student notices this
differential discipline, they may act out in protest or frustration, thus confirming the teacher’s
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 34
belief that the student is a “troublemaker.” These issues cumulatively lead to a toxic dynamic
and systemic racism in school discipline that is so ingrained it becomes unidentifiable to school
administrators and staff.
Role of Stakeholder Group of Focus
While the specific knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that influence
teachers’ decisions regarding school discipline will be examined in a later section, it is important
to highlight the role of the teacher in reducing racial disparities in school discipline. As the
primary point person for students at school, teachers’ practices have influence on student
outcomes. Teachers are responsible for not only managing academic needs of their students, but
also for responding to social-emotional issues that may lead to disciplinary issues. Relationships
between teachers and students can be characterized by the way teachers utilize the power they
have over their students (Pane, Rocco, Miller, & Salmon, 2014). Additionally, when asked to
record their thoughts and emotions during student/teacher interactions, teachers felt more
“frustrated and irritated” by Black students exhibiting similar behaviors as White students,
indicating the importance of teacher emotion and decision making during discipline events.
Teachers must play a key role in order for Trident to reduce the racial disparity in school
discipline.
Clark and Estes Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Framework
Clark and Estes (2008) provide a conceptual framework for change by identifying the
human causes of performance gaps. Once an organization sets high-quality goals, the
stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences can be assessed in order to
build understanding of the difference between the actual performance level and the performance
goal. The results of the systematic analysis and identification of these gaps can then be used to
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 35
improve the performance of the organization (Clark & Estes, 2008). Knowledge can be divided
into four types: (a) factual, or declarative; (b) conceptual; (c) procedural; and (d) metacognitive;
these types can be used to assess stakeholders’ ability to close gaps in order to achieve a
performance goal (Krathwohl, 2002). Motivation can be classified by common influences such
as interest, beliefs, attributions, goals, and social partnerships (Mayer, 2011) in order to better
understand performance gaps. Motivational science can assist researchers in understanding why
some people persist toward achieving organizational goals and others do not. Finally,
organizational influences such as culture, resources, and workplace norms can impact
stakeholder performance (Clark & Estes, 2008).
The knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences from Clark and Estes’ (2008)
gap analysis was utilized to determine teachers’ ability to meet Trident’s performance goal of
reducing the racial disparity in exclusionary school discipline by May 2020. The first section
will discuss how teacher knowledge and skills impact the stakeholder performance goal. Next,
motivation factors will be examined to assess their influence on the goal. Finally, an exploration
of organizational influences will complete the gap analysis section. Each of these assumed
stakeholder knowledge, motivation and organizational influences on performance will then be
examined through the methodology discussed in Chapter 3.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
Teachers at Trident Regional School District are responsible for upholding the district’s
mission to provide a safe and challenging learning environment for all students, as well as for
meeting the goal of reducing the disparity between black and white students in school discipline
referrals. The effective implementation of culturally responsive classroom management
practices show promise as a positive intervention for attaining these benchmarks.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 36
Knowledge and Skills
Knowledge and skills regarding effective interactions with students are critical for
teachers as they manage their classrooms and enact school disciplinary procedures (Gregory &
Roberts 2017; Carter, Skiba, Arredondo, & Pollock, 2017; Perry & Morris, 2014). The purpose
of this section of the paper is to review literature that focuses on knowledge-related influences
that are pertinent to the achievement of teachers exhibiting proficiency in the implementation of
culturally responsive disciplinary practices in the classroom. It is important to assess knowledge
issues in order to ensure that teachers can anticipate future challenges with students that may
require problem solving (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Knowledge issues can be categorized as one of four types: factual, conceptual,
procedural, or metacognitive. The categorization of knowledge issues is important because,
when analyzing performance problems, understanding the types of knowledge issues assists with
determining the appropriate interventions and aids in transferring knowledge effectively.
According to Rueda (2011), factual knowledge refers to discrete knowledge that is necessary to
understand a task or job. Factual knowledge can include statistics or studies that are relevant to
teachers’ practices. Conceptual knowledge is more complex than factual knowledge,
encompassing principles, theories, and structures, such as the implications of certain practices on
an organization. Procedural knowledge is knowledge of the steps needed to accomplish a task,
and could also include specific techniques or best practices that teachers use to do their job. The
final type of knowledge, metacognition, refers to a teacher’s reflection on his or her own
thinking and practices, and the ability to assess their own proficiency to effectively complete a
task (Rueda, 2011).
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 37
Based on existing literature, there are two particularly important teacher knowledge
issues that influence teachers’ abilities to reduce the racial disparity in school discipline. Each
knowledge issue that affects teachers will be categorized according to the four knowledge types.
These two knowledge issues include: (a) understanding the racial disparity in school discipline
and its connection to exclusionary practices; (b) knowing how to effectively implement best
practices in the classroom and school.
Racial Disparities and Exclusionary Practices. Exclusionary discipline is the
removal of students from the classroom setting in response to student behavior. In-school
suspension, out-of school suspension, expulsion, and arrest are all considered forms of
exclusionary discipline (Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). Frequent use of exclusionary discipline such
as suspension is harmful and ineffective for students, and toxic to school environments (Perry &
Morris, 2014). Teachers need to know the facts on the effects of exclusionary discipline on
students. Perspective-taking and empathy can help teachers respond to student behavior in
emotionally conscious ways (Immordino-Yang & Gotlieb, 2017), so it is important for teachers
to understand the racial disparity in school discipline. Black students are suspended at a rate
nearly four times that of White students, and are more likely to receive more serious
consequences for the same infraction (Hilberth & Slate, 2014; Morris & Perry, 2016; Skiba,
Horner, Chung, Rausch, May, & Tobin, 2011). This lack of equity has both short and long-term
effects on students and schools. Suspension is associated with lower graduation rates and is said
to contribute to the “school to prison pipeline” and the criminalization of Black men (Skiba,
2014; Hilberth & Slate, 2014). Black students have a higher likelihood of being asked to leave
the classroom for misconduct. Teachers may not be aware that false underlying negative beliefs
about the likelihood of misbehavior from Black students may be driving their decisions around
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 38
classroom discipline. The facts surrounding the detrimental effects of exclusionary discipline are
important for teachers to know, as is the conceptual knowledge regarding the connection
between exclusionary discipline and future negative outcomes, and are not widely known by
teachers (Gregory & Roberts, 2017). A “colorblind” perspective, which is a denial of systemic
racial disparities common in schools, suggests that we should not talk about race and racial
inequities (Carter et al., 2017), but should keep solutions race-neutral. Ongoing silence and lack
of knowledge regarding the racial discipline gap contributes to the continuation of racial
disparities.
Discipline and achievement. Educators who resist traditional discipline and are
committed to dismantling the school-to-prison pipeline often achieve strong academic results for
their students (Hambacher, 2018). Many teachers are not aware of the connection between
discipline and achievement, which creates a conceptual knowledge issue. Much research has
been published on closing the academic achievement gap between Black and White students, but
little attention has been paid to the influence of exclusionary school discipline on student test
scores and achievement rates (Gregory, Skiba, & Noguera, 2010). School discipline accounts for
20% of the difference between black and white students in academic performance, indicating that
students already at risk for school failure are significantly impacted by exclusionary school
discipline (Morris & Perry, 2016). This differential data also indicates that closing the racial
discipline gap could play a significant role in closing the academic achievement gap.
Suspensions result in missed instructional time, up to 10 school days for a single infraction, often
leading to a pattern of disengagement and academic struggle. The gaps caused by missed
instructional time for Black students who are “overselected and over sanctioned” in school
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 39
discipline can become wider over time and impact future outcomes for Black students (Gregory,
Skiba, & Noguera, 2016) .
Perry and Morris (2014) indicate that severe punishment “undermines social
cohesion” in a school (p. 1083). Social cohesion is an important element of a school’s climate.
The authors find that connectedness and a sense of belonging at school are found to positively
impact school culture and social cohesion; these practices are compromised by exclusionary
school discipline. Practices in school discipline, intended to make schools safer, may
unwittingly be doing the opposite by excluding students who return from suspension more
disconnected and disengaged, leading to further misbehavior (Perry & Morris, 2014). The
conceptual knowledge regarding positive school culture can assist teachers in understanding the
importance of keeping students in the classroom learning environment whenever possible.
Culturally Responsive Practices. Culturally responsive practices, which
encourage teachers to remain calm, attuned, present, and predictable in the classroom, are shown
to contribute to a significant reduction in classroom and school discipline referrals (Walkley &
Cox, 2014. Conversely, practices such as Zero Tolerance, which increase punishment and
exclusionary discipline in response to disruption, are shown to exacerbate the discipline gap
(Skiba, 2014). Effective practices include strategies such as recognizing student voice, creating
supportive relationships with students, and implementing engaging and rigorous curriculum
(Langberg & Ciolfi, 2017; Carter, Skiba, Arredondo, & Pollock, 2017; Brendtro & Mitchell,
2012). These strategies also recognize the commonality of children experiencing trauma, since
nearly two-thirds of U.S. students exhibit vulnerability to trauma at any given time (Plumb,
Bush, & Kersevich, 2016), and may contribute to a reduction of the racial discipline gap.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 40
The inclusion of culturally responsive practices in classrooms is both a procedural
knowledge issue and a metacognitive knowledge issue. Procedural issues involve specific skills
or methodologies needed to accomplish a task, while metacognitive issues involve an awareness
of one’s own thinking that impacts the achievement of a goal (Rueda, 2011). Teachers skilled in
implementing the procedures of culturally responsive practices may be able to reduce the racial
disparity in school discipline through strength-based alternatives, replacing coercion with
connections and building a culture of respect within the classroom community (Brendtro,
Brokenleg & Van Bockern, 2012). Additionally, since adverse childhood experiences (ACES)
are common, teachers must assess their own vulnerability to trauma, either from past experiences
or vicarious trauma through the experiences of their students (Plumb, Bush, & Kersevich, 2016).
Adults with a history of trauma move faster along a continuum of emotional arousal when
perceived threats such as classroom misbehavior appear, making teachers who have experienced
trauma more likely to react negatively and triggering a “cascade of mutual misunderstanding”
with their students (Perry, B.D. 2006, p. 25). Teachers who utilize metacognitive strategies to
mitigate their own proclivity to hyperarousal from trauma are better able to actively attend to the
internal state of their students through culturally responsive practices (Perry, B.D. 2006).
Offering belonging, mastery, independence, and generosity as classroom practices creates an
environment where children thrive and exclusionary discipline is reduced (Brendtro, Brokenleg,
& Van Brocken, 2014).
Table 2 provides the organizational mission, organizational goal, and information specific
to knowledge influences, knowledge types, and knowledge influence assessments for teachers at
Trident.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 41
Table 2
Knowledge Influences, Types, and Assessments for Knowledge Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
Trident Regional School District, a diverse and progressive district aims to ensure students are
college and career ready by providing multiple and varied social and academic opportunities
and experiences.
Organizational Global Goal
Trident Regional School District’s goal is that by December 2019 there will be an
understanding of equity issues in school discipline as seen by comparing the rate of
exclusionary discipline by race to each race’s percentage of the school population, as well as
an understanding of the racial school climate as experienced by teachers. School district
leaders aim to evaluate data on how teachers are handling and experiencing disciplinary issues
as well as look forward to detailed recommendations for reducing the racial disparity in school
discipline.
Stakeholder Goal
By May 2020, all teachers will exhibit proficiency in the implementation of culturally
responsive classroom management practices in order to achieve equity in the rate of
exclusionary school discipline.
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence
Assessment
Teachers need to know the facts on
the effects of exclusionary
discipline on students.
factual Interview questions:
● Please name any
negative effects you
have noticed from
suspension.
● Please name any
positive effects you
have noticed from
suspension.
Teachers need to know the steps to
apply derived from best practices
in school discipline.
procedural Interview questions:
● Walk me through the
steps you take during
a discipline incident,
from beginning to
end.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 42
Teachers need to assess their own
practices in classroom and school
discipline situations.
metacognitive Interview questions:
● Tell me about what the
most challenging
aspects are for you as a
teacher when you’re
involved with a school
discipline issue?
Motivation
Motivation is the second dimension that can assist in examining gaps in teacher
performance. The purpose of this section is to review literature that focuses on motivation-
related influences that are pertinent to the achievement of teacher proficiency in the
implementation of culturally responsive practices in the classroom. Motivation is a prerequisite
for meaningful learning, so motivational issues are as important to address, if not more important
than, knowledge issues (Mayer, 2011). Motivation can be broken down into three distinct
components of active choice, persistence, and effort (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2009). Active
choice refers to a person’s decision to favor one activity over another, persistence is sustained
commitment toward completion of a task, and effort is ongoing mental work to acquire
knowledge. These three factors work together and intertwine with knowledge factors to
determine a person’s success at achieving a goal or completing a task (Rueda, 2011).
There are a number of cognitive dimensions of motivation, with conceptions based on
interests, beliefs, attributions, goals, and partnerships (Clark & Estes, 2018). When assessing a
teacher’s motivation, it is important to understand these key dimensions in order to analyze
motivational influences accurately. This paper will discuss four specific dimensions: self-
efficacy, attribution, emotions, and utility value. All four constructs impact teacher
implementation of classroom and school discipline.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 43
Self-Efficacy Theory. Bandura (1986) describes self-efficacy theory as a person’s
judgments of their ability to implement a plan of action in order to achieve a goal. Self-efficacy
is related to all three motivational factors of active choice, persistence, and effort. Based on a
person’s self-efficacy, their subsequent behaviors are related to their confidence in
accomplishing the task. Assessing a person’s self-efficacy can identify their perceived
competence, which is often not the same as their actual competence or self-esteem, which is how
a person feels about themselves in general (Clark & Estes, 2008). High self-efficacy can lead to
higher expectations of positive outcomes which causes greater motivation for individuals to
persist at a task.
Application of self-efficacy theory can assist in examining teachers’ motivation to
implement culturally responsive practices in their classrooms and schools, as shown through a
study of a 2-year program titled My Teaching Partner (Gregory, et al., 2016). It is possible that
once teachers receive knowledge training regarding the disparities in school discipline, they can
begin to develop confidence in this area, thus increasing their motivation to do so (Okonofua,
Paunesku, & Walton, 2016). Teachers who resolve disciplinary issues calmly and remain
focused on maintaining relationships with their students are more likely to have successful
outcomes from their interactions (Gregory, Clawson, Davis, & Gerewitz, 2016; Beaty-O’Ferrall,
Green, & Hanna). Teachers who do not view themselves as being able to implement effective
interventions can affect their persistence and effort toward reducing racial disparities in school
discipline (Gregory, Hafen, Ruzek, Mikami, Allen, & Pianta, 2016). Clear and accurate
feedback that focuses directly on developing the skills needed to implement culturally responsive
practices, along with providing opportunities to be successful while also being challenged, are
effective methods for increasing motivation in this area.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 44
Emotions. Emotions are important to assess when examining teacher motivation, since
according to Pekrun (2011), “settings of learning abound with emotions.” Emotions can affect
effort, motivation, and learning, and are short-lived, intense, and specific, and can be grouped by
object focus, which classifies emotions as either activating or deactivating and positive or
negative (Pekrun, 2011). Sorting emotions by object focus can help explain the functions of
emotion in relation to a task, thus assisting in making a connection to learning and motivation.
Activating positive emotions in teachers may positively impact their motivation, just as reducing
negative emotions can enhance learning (Immordino-Yang & Damasio, 2007). Positive
activating emotions such as hope and pride may assist teachers in dealing with student discipline
in a more positive way (Pekrun, 2011). Teachers’ emotions can impact the choices they make in
a classroom discipline event.
Social emotions are triggered in the school environment. Learning environments that
foster cooperation and promote positive social engagement are often also effective environments
for learning (Pekrun, 2011; Immordino-Yang & Damasio, 2007). When teachers misinterpret
student behavior, react emotionally, and have difficulty recognizing implicit bias, this can result
in differential disciplinary referral for black students (Gregory & Roberts, 2017). Teachers who
understand that a student’s difficulties with impulse-control and self-regulation may be related to
a history of personal trauma may be less likely to mistake these issues for negative character
traits or threats (Plumb, Bush, & Kersevich, 2016). When teachers combat any internalized
negative beliefs regarding their black students, they are better able to empathize with their
students’ experiences (Okonofua, Paunesku, & Walton, 2016). Understanding the power of
positive beliefs in the classroom may assist teachers in monitoring any negative emotions they
may be retaining toward black students.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 45
A strategy that taps into the emotional dimension of motivation and has been effective in
reducing school disciplinary issues is the use of micro-affirmations, or small positive interactions
that let students know they are respected and cared for (Ellis, Powell, Demetriou, Huerta-Bapat
& Panter, 2018). Examples of micro-affirmations include “tiny acts of opening doors to
opportunity, gestures of inclusion and caring, and graceful acts of listening” (Rowe, 2008).
Micro-affirmations are considered to be an opposing force to micro-aggressions, which are brief,
everyday interactions that demean others or reinforce negative stereotypes (Berk, 2017).
Examples of micro-affirmations include greeting students warmly at the door, referring
positively to someone’s work, and giving credit, either public or privately (Rowe, 2008; Ellis,
Powell, Demetriou, Huerta-Bapat & Panter, 2018). The strategy of micro-affirmations
corresponds with research finding that the quality of student-teacher relationships is one of the
strongest predictors of classroom behavior (Okonofua, Paunesku, & Walton, 2016). Building
relationships with students necessitates that teachers have an understanding of their own
emotional attributions.
The social-emotional practices of teachers in relation to reducing school discipline were
also explored in a study by Okonofua, Paunesku, & Walton (2016). Thirty-nine middle school
math teachers were randomly selected to participate in two brief online tutorials during a school
year that reinforced the importance of building relationships with students and maintaining an
“empathic mindset.” The teachers were treated as experts who already knew this information
and practiced it routinely. Teachers were asked to write about how they use these ideas in the
classroom and told that their answers would be integrated into future teacher training programs.
At the end of the year, researchers found that Black students in the classrooms of teachers in the
empathic mindset intervention were half as likely to receive a suspension as their peers in the
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 46
control group. Teachers with the ability to monitor and moderate their own emotions and a
resolve to not take student behavior personally can have a significant positive impact on their
students, even with students that they only teach for one class period each day. Trusting, calm
relationships are key to achieving positive classroom management and to reducing the racial
discipline gap (Okonofua et al., 2016; Beaty-O’Ferrall, Green, & Hanna, 2015).
Emotion and thinking are separate processes, yet are interrelated. The neurobiological
approach can be integrated with a cognitive approach to understand how cultural meaning-
making can influence social relationships and become embedded in brain systems (Hagenaeur,
Hascher, & Volet, 2015; Gregory, et al., 2016; Immordino-Yang, Yang, & Damasio, 2016).
Utilizing a neurobiological model can assist educators in understanding the hidden mechanisms
of the mind that lead to behavior and feelings (Immordino-Yang, & Gotlieb, 2017). Since
emotion can be considered “the rudder that steers thinking” (Immordino-Yang & Damasio, 2007
p. 28), the connection between emotion and decision-making during a discipline event should be
examined, as “hidden emotional processes underlie our apparently rational choices (Immordino-
Yang & Damasio, 2007, p. 32).
Value. Value refers to the importance one assigns to the completion of a task. The four
dimensions of task value include attainment value, intrinsic value, utility value, and cost value,
which work together to determine the overall value a person attaches to a task (Rueda, 2011).
These four areas can be applied dynamically to the opinions of teachers regarding school
discipline and classroom behavior to examine motivational influences.
Teachers who appreciate conformity to school norms as a utility value may be more
likely to refer Black students for disciplinary issues that are actually differences in cultural
interactions (Pane, Rocco, Miller, & Salmon, 2016). The pressures teachers feel to remain in
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 47
control of their classrooms may lead them to adopt a controlling disciplinary style, especially if
they received little formal training on classroom management and student discipline during their
pre-service teacher education program (De Jong,Van Tartwijk, Wubbels, Veldman, & Verloop,
2013). Pane, et. al (2016) conducted a qualitative research study that surveyed four teachers in
the same alternative high school, two with high rates of exclusionary discipline and two teachers
with low rates of exclusionary discipline. The teachers who rarely use exclusionary discipline
believed in their students’ ability to succeed, while teachers who often wrote referrals did not
believe in their students’ ability to change. Teachers who receive ongoing, personalized
coaching and feedback to reduce controlling practices and increase positive interactions with
students are able to close the racial discipline gap within their own classrooms, indicating that
teacher values are malleable and can be modified to benefit both student and teacher (Gregory,
Clawson, Davis, & Gerewitz, 2016).
Identified values can be connected to work goals in order to improve performance and
commitment (Clark & Estes, 2008). A teacher’s preference in school disciplinary practices is
related to what they believe helps them become successful, so educating teachers on practices
that are more effective than exclusionary discipline may encourage them to incorporate culturally
responsive practices more readily. When teachers believe that Black boys are trouble-makers
and dangerous, and maintain their preconceived notions about a student’s identity, they are more
likely to utilize an oppressive use of control and rely on exclusionary discipline (Pane, et. al.,
2014). Fear of losing control, a cost value with high influence on teacher behavior, can lead
teachers to maintain traditional disciplinary procedures and perpetuate the racial gap in school
discipline (Pane, et al., 2014; Welch & Payne, 2010). When teachers are able to see positive
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 48
results in the classroom related to newly learned discipline practices, their value and commitment
to these practices may grow and contribute to a reduction in the racial discipline gap.
There is interplay between the motivational dimensions of self-efficacy, emotions,
and value (Gregory & Roberts, 2017; Eccles, 2006; Immordino-Yang & Gotlieb, 2017). Self-
efficacy and value have emotional aspects, since feelings may be influenced by the confidence
an individual has in a situation or the value teachers place on their disciplinary practices
(Immordino-Yang & Gotlieb, 2017; Okonofua, Paunesku, & Walton, 2016). For example,
teachers may feel hopelessness if they believe they are unable to influence student behavior and
disciplinary issues. Teacher self-efficacy, emotions, and value will be examined hand-in-hand
when assessing motivation toward the stakeholder goal of reducing the racial gap in school
discipline.
Based on the influence of self-efficacy, emotions, and value, teacher motivation will be
assessed through surveys and interviews (Clark & Estes, 2008). Table 3 below illustrates on
overview of how motivational influences impact the stakeholder goal and organizational mission.
Table 3
Motivation Influences and Assessments for Motivation Gap Analysis
Organizational Goal
Trident Regional School District, a racially and socioeconomically diverse suburban district
aims to ensure students are college and career ready by providing multiple and varied social
and academic opportunities and experiences.
Organizational Global Goal
Trident Regional School District’s goal is that by December 2019 there will be an
understanding of equity issues in school discipline as seen by comparing the rate of
exclusionary discipline by race to each race’s percentage of the school population, as well as
an understanding of the racial school climate as experienced by teachers. School district
leaders aim to evaluate data on how teachers are handling and experiencing disciplinary issues
as well as look forward to detailed recommendations for reducing the racial disparity in school
discipline.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 49
Stakeholder Goal
By May 2020, all teachers will exhibit proficiency in the implementation of culturally
responsive classroom management practices in order to achieve equity in the rate of
exclusionary school discipline.
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Expectancy Value (Self-efficacy) – Teachers
need to view themselves as capable of
implementing culturally responsive practices.
Interview questions:
● How equipped do you feel
personally to handle discipline
issues at school?
● Tell me about what the most
challenging aspects are for you as
a teacher when you’re involved
with a school discipline issue.
Survey questions:
● Culturally Responsive Classroom
Management Self-Efficacy Scale
Emotions – Teachers’ positive and negative
emotions connected to race, fear, and control
may have an impact on their choices
regarding classroom and school discipline.
Interview questions:
● Describe how you are feeling
during a classroom conflict.
● What physical and/or emotional
signs do you experience?
● Name any effects you’ve noticed
that your own emotions, positive or
negative, have had on a discipline
event.
Organizational Influences
Organizational processes, resources, and materials
Daily practices and available resources within an organization impact the knowledge and
motivation of stakeholders (Rueda, 2011). Processes and procedures dictate how people work in
order to accomplish their goals, so recognizing and pinpointing barriers in processes can help
leaders identify why goal achievement is prevented or delayed (Clark & Estes, 2008). The
simplicity or complexity of an organizational process involving resources or materials affects
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 50
culture, which is a powerful force that is up to 90% unconscious (Rueda, 2011). Culture reflects
what is valued in the organization.
Cultural settings and cultural models
Cultural models and cultural settings can be used to analyze the culture of an
organization. Cultural models describe shared mental schema, or a normative understanding of
how things work within the organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2011). Behavioral,
cognitive, and affective factors are incorporated into a cultural model, and become so central and
familiar to the organization’s operation that they become nearly invisible. An example of a
cultural model describes the norms of collaboration in a school. Factors such as meeting
requirements, communication habits, accountability tasks, and isolation patterns can contribute
to the model of collaboration in a given school. The model can assist in highlighting the issues
that may be hindering the development of a collaborative culture. Cultural settings are places
where culture exists and people gather to complete tasks that are important to them (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). Settings may include broad categories such as home or school, as well as
specific settings such as the cafeteria, the counseling office, or the in-school suspension
classroom (Rosenholtz, 1989). The absence of settings can also help to define culture; for
example, if a school does not have an in-school suspension classroom, the culture may be
explained differently than a school that does have an in-school suspension setting (Christie,
Nelson & Jolivette, 2004). Context is important when studying change within an organization;
the interaction between the cultural models and cultural settings is a dynamic process that
impacts the behavior of individuals and groups (Rueda, 2011).
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 51
Stakeholder Specific Factors
A culture of control. Zero-tolerance policies that mandate harsh punishments, under the
guise of school safety, for relatively minor disciplinary offenses have created an unhealthy
“culture of control” in many U.S. schools, especially for Black and Latino boys (Perry & Morris,
2014). While various studies have exhibited the ineffectiveness of zero tolerance, schools
continue to frequently utilize suspension as a consequence, which widens the achievement gap
and negatively influences adult outcomes (Skiba, 2014; Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). De Jong, Van
Tartwijk, Wubbels, Veldman, & Verloop (2013) examined sixty-seven teachers, while connected
to fMRI technology, participated in a survey utilizing vignettes about student behavior.
Teachers’ anticipated responses on the vignettes clearly point to submissive behavior, indicating
their expectation for a hierarchical relationship with students and desire for control. According
to Schein (2017), cultural practices that have structural stability won’t be given up easily.
Trident continues to utilize a traditional code-of-conduct matrix that details consequences for
common offenses and disproportionately punishes Black students. This culture of control may
have a negative result on the school climate, as students may perceive the procedures to be
unfair. Excessive exclusionary discipline may actually lead to more frequent student misconduct
rather than acting as a deterrent, since the use of suspension does not decrease future
misbehavior (Curran, 2016; Irby, 2015). Additionally, zero-tolerance policies disproportionately
affect children of color and so contribute to the racial discipline gaps (Skiba, 2014). Schneider
(1996) discusses how leaders must ask themselves, “What do members worship?” in order to
change what members believe about what their organization values so that culture and climate
can change. Supporting teachers to shift from worshiping the culture of control to worshiping
equity, relationships, and interpersonal interactions may reduce the use of exclusionary discipline
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 52
through organizational change. Without changing the psychology of an organization, there can
be no sustained change (Schneider, 1996). Students are more likely to cooperate when they feel
that their teachers treat them fairly and get to know them as people (Gregory & Ripski, 2008;
Beaty-O’Ferrall, Green, & Hanna, 2015). When teachers can see themselves as catalysts for
change, and are committed to helping each student “become more of who he or she is” through
strong relationships and frequent praise, student performance and loyalty to teachers will likely
increase (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999).
Communication practices. Teachers at Trident have little time available during the school day
to communicate with their students about behavior and other social-emotional issues. Classroom
settings where teachers give students a voice and communicate positive beliefs about students’
abilities can be successful at closing the racial achievement gap and may also assist in closing the
racial discipline gap (Kamps et. al, 2015; Peterson, Rubie-Davies, Osborne, & Sibley, 2016).
Additionally, the concept of the Pelz effect, or supervisors’ influence on group members’
attitudes and behaviors, which describes how interacting with employees increases performance,
can be applied to students and teachers in the classroom (Lee, 1997; Anderson & Tolson, 1991).
Genuine emotional connection between teachers, students, and the educational material can help
to create a classroom climate that fosters deep, relevant learning (Immordino-Yang & Faeth,
2010; Pekrun, Elliot, & Maier, 2009; Ablin, 2008). Teachers that express affirmations of worth
and attitudes of caring to their students can reduce exclusionary discipline consequences for
Black students (Gregory & Roberts, 2017; Rowe, 2008). When teachers are not provided with or
do not take the time within their school day to communicate with their students regarding their
behavior, and instead refer students directly to the office for disciplinary consequences or
express conscious or unconscious negative racial beliefs, they undermine their own success in
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 53
building relationships and reducing the discipline gap, and may in fact increase the likelihood of
future misbehavior (Morris, 2016; Kahn, Goff, & Glaser, 2016). Dialogue and two-way
communication are central to the development of organizational culture, and leaders, including
teachers, should continue to promote ways to enrich the culture of communication within their
organization or classroom (Berger, 2014; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009 ). Other ways to support
change through communication include creating hope by talking about the meaning and purpose
of shared work; providing stability by becoming the collector of the organization’s stories; and
building trust by communicating clearly and with integrity (Rath & Conchie, 2009).
A lack of research-proven interventions at Trident. Restorative disciplinary practices (RP),
Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Support (SWPBIS), and empathic discipline have shown
promise at both closing the discipline gap and reducing student misbehavior in general, yet
Trident does not systematically and comprehensively employ these practices (Vincent, Inglish,
Girvan, Sprague, & McCabe, 2016; Okonofua, Walton, & Eberhardt, 2016). Organizations built
on a philosophy of continuous learning and performing learning experiments “in the margins”
can bring out the best in its members, including students (Senge, 1990). The problem solving
approach employed through RP can engage students and their families in discussing student
behavior, highlighting the importance of taking responsibility and repairing harm, and moving
forward positively. The positive relationship building inherent in empathic discipline, and
positive reinforcement that is a hallmark of SWPBIS, can reduce negative student behavior and
discipline referrals (Okonofua, Walton, & Eberhardt, 2016). Teachers at Trident have received
some training on implicit bias and building trusting relationships with students, but signature
practices such as restorative circles, restorative conferences, and Tier 2 and Tier 3 interventions
have not yet been implemented (Bradshaw, Mitchell, & Leaf, 2010).
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 54
Effective implementation of restorative disciplinary practices (RP), Schoolwide Positive
Behavioral Support (SWPBIS), and empathic discipline, through a lens of cultural
responsiveness, can assist students in feeling as if they are respected and an important member of
a school community, which can reduce future misbehavior (Vincent et al., 2016). According to
Moran & Brightmann (2000), implementing these or other innovations should include ways to
integrate new practices with teachers’ purpose, identity, and mastery dimensions. When
members are given time to synthesize and align their practices with what they believe, effective
change is more likely to occur (Dweck, 2014; Gregory & Roberts, 2017). Teachers who are
included in the process of organizational self-discovery to develop interventions will be more
prepared to articulate the chosen core values and mission of Trident to their students (Kezar,
2001).
Based on the influence of cultural models and cultural settings, organizational influences
will be assessed through interviews and discipline records (Clark & Estes, 2008). Table 4 below
illustrates on overview of how organizational influences impact the stakeholder goal and
organizational mission.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 55
Table 4
Organizational Influences and Assessments for Organization Gap Analysis
Organizational Mission
Trident Regional School District, a racially and socioeconomically diverse suburban district
aims to ensure students are college and career ready by providing multiple and varied social
and academic opportunities and experiences.
Organizational Global Goal
Trident Regional School District’s goal is that by December 2019 there will be an
understanding of equity issues in school discipline as seen by comparing the rate of
exclusionary discipline by race to each race’s percentage of the school population, as well as
an understanding of the racial school climate as experienced by teachers. School district
leaders aim to evaluate data on how teachers are handling and experiencing disciplinary issues
as well as look forward to detailed recommendations for reducing the racial disparity in school
discipline.
Stakeholder Goal
By May 2020, all teachers will exhibit proficiency in the implementation of culturally
responsive classroom management practices in order to achieve equity in the rate of
exclusionary school discipline.
Assumed Organizational Influences Organizational Influence Assessment
A “culture of control”, with strict rules and
prescribed disciplinary consequences, creates
an environment where teachers refer students
to administration and suspension is a
common occurrence.
Survey and individual interview questions
that assess teacher and administrator
practices surrounding disciplinary events at
Trident.
Communication protocols do not allow for
much time for discussion between teachers,
administration, and students regarding
behavioral or disciplinary issues.
Survey and individual interview questions
that assess communication practices and
protocols regarding behavioral and
disciplinary issues.
A “cultural mismatch” between students and
teachers, a result of rapid demographic
changes in the community, lead teachers to
adopt biases and stereotypes that attribute
conflicts to deficits within students of color
(Cultural Models).
Survey and interview questions exploring
teacher techniques surrounding disciplinary
events.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 56
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
A conceptual framework can assist in illustrating the underlying structure of the
influences of a problem and how they interact with each other (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A
conceptual framework should be unique to the problem; it should not be found in other literature,
but should be constructed from the key factors, concepts, and variables of the problem (Maxwell,
2013). The format of this conceptual framework is informed by the work of Clark & Estes
(2008), who utilize the practice of gap analysis to assess the gap between desired and actual
performance. The gap analysis process identifies knowledge, motivation, and organization
influences in order to find appropriate solutions for achieving the desired results (Clark & Estes,
2008). While each of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements will be explained
independently, their interaction is what creates the unique context of the problem, as each
influences the other. For example, knowledge and skills may influence the motivation of a
stakeholder, and organizational influences can motivate or demotivate individuals from
achieving their goal. The conceptual framework of a qualitative study, when focused and clearly
articulated, can be considered a story about what you think is happening and why (Maxwell,
2011), that can build and be reworked inductively as concepts develop in order to make sense of
the problem.
As an educator, the conceptual framework created by the researcher relies on
developmentally appropriate practices for young adolescents as well as pedagogically sound
practices for teachers. The lens used to study the problem is that of a school leader, as opposed
to a lawyer, an academic researcher, or a social justice advocate, since each of those
professionals would view the problem of the racial disparity in school discipline from a different
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 57
conceptual framework. Key terms and concepts will be grounded in the frame of education and
used to inform decisions regarding the appropriate methods of the study (Maxwell, 2011) as well
as to critically explore the researcher’s worldview as a middle-school educator for twenty-three
years.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 58
Figure 1
Conceptual Framework Figure
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 59
Explanation of Conceptual Framework Figure
The large blue circle represents the organization of Trident Regional School District. The
cultural setting is described as a large, suburban, 9th-12th grade school district in a mid-Atlantic
state. Trident is racially and culturally diverse, and 46% of the students are considered
economically disadvantaged while 21% of the students receive at least one in- or out-of-school
suspension during a school year. Cultural models include long-held disciplinary practices and
beliefs that include ideas that student behavior should be controlled, and that students who
misbehave should be punished. The inner orange circle represents the chosen stakeholders, who
are the teachers at Trident, and names several key knowledge and motivation factors that
influence teachers. The blue arrow represents the influence the organizational factors as well as
the knowledge and motivation factors the stakeholders have on achieving the goal that by May
2020, all teachers will exhibit proficiency in the implementation of culturally responsive
practices in order to achieve equity in the rate of exclusionary school discipline.
The knowledge gaps of the chosen stakeholder of teachers influence motivation. If
teachers do not know the facts (K-factual) on the effects of exclusionary discipline on students,
they will not see the utility value in employing best practices in school discipline (M-utility
value). If teachers do not understand the connection (K-conceptual) between the racial disparity
in school discipline and the racial disparity in school achievement, they will not see the utility
value (M-utility value) in incorporating culturally responsive practices into the classroom to
reduce exclusionary discipline. If teachers do not know the steps (K-procedural) to apply
derived from best practices in school discipline, they will not view themselves as able to
implement culturally responsive classroom management (M-self-efficacy). Finally, if teachers
do not assess their own practices in classroom and school discipline (K-metacognition), they will
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 60
not be able to notice the impact their own positive and negative emotions (M-emotions)
connected to race, fear, and control may have on their choices regarding classroom and school
discipline when interacting with Black students during an incident of perceived misbehavior.
Organizational culture impacts the knowledge and motivation of teachers, the chosen
stakeholder of this study. Knowledge and motivation influences are examined in conjunction
with organizational factors. Schools that rely heavily on control often utilize exclusionary
disciplinary practices such as in-school and out-of-school suspension, which are shown to have
negative impacts on students (Perry & Morris, 2014). If teachers believe that they must have
total control over their students, they may misinterpret student behavior as being disrespectful,
impacting teacher knowledge (K-procedural) of use of best practices in school discipline as well
as teacher motivation (M-utility value) to utilize effective methods to resolve problems and
conflicts within the classroom. Teachers’ interactions with students are shown to have
significant impact on the results of discipline practices in the classroom (Kamps et. al, 2015), so
teachers with poor or underdeveloped communication about behavior and social-emotional
issues will not understand the reasons behind student behavior or be motivated to see how their
own interactions may impact student behavior (M-attribution) (Morris, 2016). Finally, since
Trident is a culturally and racially diverse setting, teachers need to be able to assess their own
emotion (K-metacognitive) when interacting with students of color during a discipline event,
since negative bias toward students of color can lead to negative emotions on the part of the
teacher, which in turn influence teachers making unfair decisions during a discipline event
(Immordino-Yang & Gotlieb, 2017 ).
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 61
Conclusion
The purpose of this project is to evaluate to what degree Trident Regional School District
is on track to achieve its goal to reduce racial disparities in school discipline by 2020.
Accordingly, Chapter Two presented literature on influences on the racial disparities in school
discipline, contributors to the racial discipline gap, and the role of the teacher in school
discipline. The literature presented supports the critical importance of the active involvement of
teachers in reducing racial disparities in school discipline. Chapter Two also presented a gap
analysis perspective, where the racial disparity in school discipline was considered in relation to
stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences as well as structured within a
conceptual framework. While literature presented addressed various aspects of these influences,
there is no known direct application of the gap analysis framework to the racial disparities in
school discipline or to the organization of study. Therefore, Chapter Three will begin with an
explanation of the methods by which the gap analysis framework was applied to Trident teachers
in order to determine progress toward racial disparity reduction.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 62
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
The purpose of this project was to evaluate to what degree Trident Regional School
District is on track to achieve its goal to reduce racial disparities in school discipline by 2020.
Chapter three details the research design and methods for data collection and analysis for the
study in attempting to answer the following research questions:
1. To what extent is Trident meeting its goal to achieve equity in school discipline?
2. What is teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to effective and culturally
relevant discipline practices?
3. What is the interaction between Trident’s culture and context and teachers’
knowledge and motivation?
4. Based on the data analysis, Chapter 5 will provide recommendations for
organizational practice in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources and solutions..
This chapter will first describe the stakeholders participating in the study, including the
survey and interview sampling criteria and rationale. Next, data collection methods and
instrumentation will be explained, as will data analysis procedures. Strategies to maintain
credibility and trustworthiness as well as validity and reliability will be detailed, and ethical
considerations will be described. Finally, limitations and delimitations of the study will be
explained.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 63
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals
Table 5
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
Trident Regional School District, a racially and socioeconomically diverse suburban district,
aims to ensure students are college and career ready by providing multiple and varied social
and academic opportunities and experiences.
Organizational Performance Goal
Trident Regional School District’s goal is that by December 2019 there will be an
understanding of equity issues in school discipline as seen by comparing the rate of
exclusionary discipline by race to each race’s percentage of the school population, as well as
an understanding of the racial school climate as experienced by teachers. School district
leaders aim to evaluate data on how teachers are handling and experiencing disciplinary
issues as well as look forward to detailed recommendations for reducing the racial disparity in
school discipline.
Stakeholder 1 Goal Stakeholder 2 Goal Stakeholder 3 Goal
By August 2019,
Trident school
administrators will
begin to assess equity
in school discipline on
a quarterly basis.
By May 2020, all
teachers will exhibit
proficiency in the
implementation of
culturally responsive
classroom management
practices in order to
achieve equity in the
rate of exclusionary
school discipline.
By December 2019, students will receive
training on restorative practices in the
classroom and be able to explain the
purpose and benefit of each practice.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder population of focus was teachers at Trident Regional School District. A
total of 271 teachers, which includes all teachers in three high schools, was selected for a survey.
Monroe School employs 106 teachers, Adams School employs 74 teachers, and Madison School
employs 91 teachers. Criteria for selection for interviews included the number of accumulated
years of teaching and number of years working at Trident. Teachers needed to have at least three
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 64
years of experience in the classroom in order to have accumulated experiences with school
discipline and classroom discipline to draw upon when answering interview questions, and at
least two years working at the same school within the Trident district to have experienced the
organizational procedures and attitudes regarding school discipline. Diversity in the sample was
important, although participants represented the typical or average teacher at Trident (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). There are very few teachers of color in the school, so the sample was not racially
diverse, but was composed of men and women with varying years of experience. Teacher
subject area was also diverse, with a mix of academic subjects (Math, English Language Arts,
Science, Social Studies) and elective courses (Music, Physical Education, Theater, for example).
Special education teachers were also included in the sampling. While the method of purposeful
sampling does not allow for the researcher to make generalizations about the population as a
whole, it does contribute to the feasibility of the study (Johnson & Christensen, 2015), and the
number of participants reflects the nature of a phenomenological study (Creswell, 2018).
Survey Sampling Strategy and Rationale
All 271 teachers at the three high schools were invited to participate in the study to
represent the individual perspectives of Trident staff. Surveys took place online, at the location
of teachers’ choice. Permission to survey was obtained from the superintendent of schools and
was discussed with school principals prior to administration. The study was submitted for
approval to the Trident Regional Board of Education, requesting access to the site and to study
participants. The district did not require internal IRB approval if the study had the approval of
the superintendent and Board of Education. The potential impact of the research was shared with
these organizational gatekeepers (Creswell, 2018). The location of the school district near the
researcher’s home as well as the support of the superintendent enabled sufficient access over the
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 65
course of the study, yet the researcher did not have a vested interest in the outcome and
objectively conducted mixed methods research. Surveys took place at the beginning of the
study, before the interviews took place.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Teachers from Trident that had been teaching three or more years were selected,
since experience with a number of school discipline incidents is important to be able to assess the
knowledge and motivation of teachers in regard to school discipline.
Criterion 2. After determining those teachers who have been teaching for more than three years,
teachers from Trident that have worked at the school for two or more years were selected, since
experiencing the culture of school discipline and procedures surrounding it are important to
identify organizational issues.
Interview Sampling Strategy and Rationale
The sampling strategy of the study was non-probability and purposeful, with a diverse
sample of teachers selected, and equal representation from teachers of varied subjects as well as
the same percentage of male and female participants as in the general population to ensure
diversity of demographics. This strategy was appropriate since the qualitative approach was
utilized to gain in-depth information regarding teacher emotion, knowledge, and behavior
(Johnson & Christensen, 2015; Clark & Estes, 2008). This approach assisted in discovering
what occurs in school discipline at Trident, what the implications of those practices are, and the
relationships between the factors (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The number of teachers included
in the study was 8-12 at each school, depending on the point of saturation where no new
information was being obtained (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), in order to obtain a clear
understanding of teacher knowledge and motivation at Trident. Since there are approximately
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 66
271 teachers at Trident, the sample of 33 staff members was representative of the population and
for convenience and feasibility purposes did not include the total population.
Teachers were recruited through an introduction at a staff meeting by the researcher,
followed up by an informational email from the researcher with an offer to receive
recommendations from the study in exchange for participation. A detailed letter identifying the
researcher, the sponsoring institution, the purpose of the study, and the guarantee of
confidentiality was shared with each participant (Creswell, 2018). Administrators were prepared
to arrange for coverage for teachers if interviews took longer than a preparation period, but none
did. Participants were not pressured into participating or into signing forms. All ethical and
cultural norms were considered and respected during the recruitment process.
Determining teacher knowledge and motivation while also exploring the organizational
issue of culture did not require interviews with the entire population, but was understood from
interviews with the two principals and two assistant principals along with a sampling of a
percentage of teachers. The qualitative interview is an information-rich process that allowed the
researcher to learn more about teacher knowledge and motivation as well as organizational
factors (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Principals and teachers were interviewed in the second half
of the data collection process, after the survey took place.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 67
Table 6
Qualitative and Quantitative Methods
Sampling
Strategy (e.g.,
census,
purposeful
with max.
variation)
Number in
Stakeholder
population
Number of
participants
from
stakeholder
population
Start and
End Date
for Data
Collection
Principal Interviews: Interviewed the
principal at two
of the schools,
and the two
assistant
principals at
another school.
2 principals, 2
assistant
principals
4 3/4/19-
3/15/19
Staff Interviews: Purposeful
sampling; Staff
members
volunteered,
and principals
asked others to
participate
271 teachers Of the 271, 29
staff members
were
interviewed
3/4/19-
3/15/19
Observations: N/A N/A N/A N/A
Documents: Review
discipline data
N/A N/A 2/1/19-
5/30/19
Surveys: Census 271 teachers 124 teachers
(33% response
rate)
2/1/19-
3/30/19
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 68
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Quantitative Data Collection and Instrumentation
Surveys are useful to researchers who are looking to answer descriptive questions such as
research question #2 in this study, “What is teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to
effective and culturally relevant discipline practices?”, and questions about relationships between
variables such as research question #3 in this study, “What is the interaction between Trident’s
culture and context and teachers’ knowledge and motivation?” (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Surveys can include a large number of participants in order to understand the problem on a large
scale and to validate the data that is collected throughout the study (Fink, 2013).
Surveys
Survey Instrument. The survey instrument consisted of two different sub-scales that
measured the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that influence the racial
disparity in school discipline. The first sub-scale was the Culturally Responsive Classroom
Management Self-Efficacy Scale (CRCMSE). The CRCMSE (Appendix A) consists of 35 items
that will assist the researcher in understanding teacher motivation by examining teacher self-
efficacy, which is the extent to which a teacher believes he or she has the power to influence
student learning (Guskey & Passaro, 1994), as it is related to cultural responsiveness, which is
the ability of a teacher to meet the needs of students from diverse cultural backgrounds
(Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004). The CRCMSE can be used by school leaders
to inform interventions and innovations based on developing teacher knowledge and motivation
through self-efficacy, since high culturally responsive classroom management is indicative of
teacher use of supportive strategies in the classroom and improved student behavior (Siwatu,
Putman, Starker-Glass, & Lewis, 2017). Teachers are asked to rate their confidence in their
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 69
ability to accomplish each of the tasks listed in the survey, which are all related to classroom
management. They rate their degree of confidence from zero through 100, with zero indicating
no confidence at all, 50 indicating moderate confidence, and 100 indicating complete confidence.
Items include culturally responsive classroom management tasks such as, “I am able to clearly
communicate classroom policies”, “I am able to address inappropriate behavior without relying
on traditional methods of discipline such as office referrals”, and “I am able to communicate
with students’ parents whose primary language is not English.” This survey sub-set indicated to
the researcher which effective classroom management practices are most difficult for teachers at
Trident and assisted in answering research question #4 that aims to provide recommendations for
improving or changing organizational practices. The results of the sub-scale also informed the
researcher of areas that should be explored further in the qualitative interview portion of the
study. Results of the CRCMSE scale can be used to design programs to increase the expertise of
teachers during training or professional development with the goal of reducing exclusionary
discipline in general (McBrien, Wild, & Bachorowski, 2018) as well as closing racial gaps in
school discipline.
The second and final survey sub-set consisted of a single open-ended question that aimed
to assess teachers’ feelings regarding the racial climate of their school. Feelings about race are
complicated and can be better assessed when participants are given a choice in how to respond
rather than a prescribed and limited number of answers from which to choose (Monteith &
Spicer, 1999). This survey aligns with the conceptual framework of the study because it is a
metacognitive knowledge issue for teachers to assess their own feelings regarding the racial
climate of their school as well as to be able to detail the reasons for those feelings (Rueda, 2011).
Additionally, racial climate is an organizational factor that influences the racial disparity in
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 70
school discipline (Byrd & Chavous, 2011). Teachers’ responses to this question can assist
school leaders in understanding the racial climate of their schools by highlighting specific issues
that may need to be addressed in order to effectively address the racial discipline gap. It is
important for all staff to have the opportunity to offer their feedback on this important question,
which is why it is included as a census survey question. The directions read, “Please choose one
sentence stem below and respond in your own words. Your response does not need to be all
positive or all negative in tone.” The two sentence stems read, “I generally feel positive
regarding the racial climate at my school because…” and “I generally feel negative regarding the
racial climate at my school because…”. Responses to the survey were coded by theme in order
to identify knowledge influences such as stereotypes and misconceptions, and motivation
influences such as attributions, beliefs, and emotions (Rueda, 2011). Themes from this open-
ended survey question were then explored in-depth during the interview phase of the research.
Survey Procedures. The surveys and the study were introduced by the superintendent of
schools in an email to all 271 teachers, and followed up in staff meetings at each of the three
schools with the school principal and the researcher, with 33% of teachers completing the survey
(Johnson & Christensen, 2015). Surveys, administered in English through the qualtrics website,
opened online the day of the staff meeting for teachers to complete over the course of 10 days.
This took place at the beginning of February through the beginning of March 2019, soon after
the project was approved by the IRB process. This timeframe overlapped slightly with the
interview portion of the study, which took place from the end of February through mid-March.
This timeline was necessary so that all survey and interview activities were completed before
spring standardized testing began and before the spring break recess, a busy time for teachers
that may lead to frustration that could skew the results of the study. An online survey was most
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 71
appropriate for teachers, since they all have access to a common email system and are available
at varied times during the day. Teachers completed the survey at their convenience during the
15-day window. The survey was sent to teachers soon after the staff meeting with the researcher
so that it would be fresh in their minds. For one of the schools, the staff meeting took place a
week-and-a-half before the survey was sent due to timing constraints. This school had the lowest
response rate. The survey instrument assessed only some of the KMO influences, which include
the knowledge and motivation factors of teachers as well as the organization factor of racial
climate (Clark & Estes, 2008). Other KMO influences were be explored in depth during the
interview portion of the study in order to build rich data to understand the racial disparity in
school discipline (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation
Qualitative data can help researchers identify how people understand and make
meaning of their experiences, allowing for deep inductive knowledge to build throughout the
research process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Interviews were used as the primary qualitative
data collection method in this study. The person-to-person encounter of an interview is
especially useful to find out what is really “in and on someone’s mind” (Patton, 2015, p. 426),
and to enter into someone else’s perspective. Interviews functioned in this study to explore
teachers’ knowledge and motivation factors that influence racial discipline disparities, as well as
organizational factors that affect their disciplinary decisions. Interviews were especially helpful
in answering research question #3, which explores the interaction between Trident’s culture and
context and teachers’ knowledge and motivation.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 72
Interviews
Interview Protocol. An effective interview can be described as a conversation with
structure and purpose (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), so a semi-structured interview protocol was
used to maintain an informal tone that leads to a deeper understanding of the problem. The semi-
structured interview allowed the researcher to use genuinely open-ended questions in order to
effectively explore and answer the research questions (Patton, 2015). The first set of interviews
with two of the principals, and two of the assistant principals (both from the same school),
focused on their perception of teachers’ knowledge and motivation as well as organizational
factors that influence disciplinary practices. The teacher interview protocol included fifteen
questions that centered on teachers’ knowledge and motivation regarding racial discipline
disparities as well as best practices in school discipline. Questions also explored organizational
factors that influence the decisions teachers make regarding school and classroom discipline.
These factors are explained in the conceptual framework of the study as cultural models
upholding ideas that students who misbehave should be punished, and that some students come
to school without the same advantages as other students. Other KMO influences were explored
in the survey portion of the study. Interview questions were open-ended, singular, clear, and
neutral (Patton, 2015). These characteristics ensured that the participant chose how they wanted
to respond and helped build rapport between the respondent and the interviewer.
Interview Procedures. Interviews were conducted toward the end of the survey
administration, slightly overlapping, and were completed by the middle of March in order to
avoid standardized testing season and spring break. Interviews began with the principals or
assistant principals of each school, who were administered an edited version of the teacher
survey (Appendix C). Principals’ views can help to understand the organizational issues of the
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 73
conceptual framework, as their behavior and policy often sets the tone for disciplinary decisions
made by teachers. Interviewing principals also helped to understand how disciplinary
procedures are supposed to be handled in the school and to compare to the information obtained
from interviews with teachers about their actual practices. Principals also shared with the
researcher patterns of racial discipline disparities that they have noticed at their schools, or
indicated if they were aware of gaps in equity; this also informed the answers to the research
questions. The principal was asked to refer teachers at the school who could contribute to the
study in order to determine which teachers would be personally invited to be interviewed. This
purposeful method generated between eight and twelve interviews that were conducted at each
school, depending upon when the information became saturated. Each participant was
interviewed one time, during a preparation period, for approximately 30-40 minutes. Total
interview hours were approximately 15 hours across all participants, which allowed for a deep
understanding of disciplinary practices at each school and within the district as a whole.
Interviews were conducted in a private conference room located in the counseling office of each
school to ensure privacy and quiet. Data was captured through notes and audio recordings, with
permission from each participant. During the interview process, the researcher sought detailed,
holistic descriptions of disciplinary influences at Trident and attempted to obtain each teacher’s
unique interpretation.
Documents and Artifacts
Detailed discipline data was collected using the student information system with the
assistance of each school principal and the district director of special programs. Data was
disaggregated by race and gender in order to establish the state of racial discipline gaps and gain
empirical knowledge of the racial discipline gap at Trident (Bowen, 2009). Since the conceptual
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 74
framework of the study is based upon reducing racial disparities in school discipline, it was
important to establish current statistics in order for the organization to measure growth and
assess future interventions. While the researcher intended to examine this information before
data collection began, data was examined concurrently with interviews and survey administration
due to slight delays in receiving the information from the school district. Since the conceptual
framework asserts the importance of teachers understanding facts regarding racial discipline
disparities, teachers must understand that these disparities exist and how they exist within their
own school, and how they change over time as interventions are implemented. This data
answered a key research question of the study which aimed to find out if Trident is meeting its
goal to achieve equity in school discipline.
Additional documents included a recent strategic planning document created by key
stakeholders within the school district, and the results of a recent school climate survey. These
records were analyzed for themes related to the research questions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Since the intent of the documents was to establish and publicize district vision and goals as well
as evaluate the perceptions of important stakeholders, examining these documents was an
efficient method of analyzing district priorities to determine how they align with the conceptual
framework of the study (Bowen, 2009)
Data Analysis
Frequencies were calculated for the Culturally Responsive Classroom Management Self-
Efficacy scale. Since the stakeholder group was larger than 20, means are presented in Chapter 4
to identify average levels of responses.
Descriptive statistical analysis was conducted once all survey results were submitted. For
interviews and observations, data analysis began during data collection. The researcher
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 75
documented thoughts, concerns, and initial conclusions about the data in relation to the
conceptual framework and research questions. Once the researcher left the field, interviews were
transcribed and coded. In the first phase of analysis, open coding was used, and the researcher
looked for empirical codes and applied a priori codes from the conceptual framework. A second
phase of analysis was conducted where empirical and a priori codes were aggregated into
analytic/axial codes. In the third phase of data analysis, pattern codes and themes that emerged
in relation to the conceptual framework and research questions were identified. Documents and
artifacts were analyzed for evidence consistent with the concepts in the conceptual framework.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Qualitative research aims to capture the holistic, multidimensional, and ever-changing
reality of a situation in order to establish credible findings. Triangulation of methods is one
strategy that was used to build credibility of the research. Interviews, surveys, and document
reviews were built into the design of the study to assist in the crystallization of the data that
determined findings (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Member checks, in which the researcher solicits
feedback on preliminary findings, took place during the interview process. This practice ruled
out the possibility of misinterpretation and assisted in validating responses from the survey and
from earlier interviews (Maxwell, 2013). The researcher also engaged in data collection until the
data was saturated, meaning that no new data was surfacing and similar responses were heard
over and over (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). While the interview protocol called for 8-10
interviews, the researcher continued to interview teachers until there was adequate engagement
of participants (Maxwell, 2013). These strategies increased the likelihood of credible findings in
the research.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 76
To ensure a trustworthy process, the researcher engaged in a consistent and rigorous
methodological approach (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher attempted to reduce her
own negative bias toward teachers who over-rely on exclusionary discipline by understanding
that many teachers have not learned or been exposed to alternative disciplinary practices.
Reflexivity, or frequent reflection throughout the research process, was implemented throughout
all phases of the study, from design to data collection to analysis (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
The researcher maintained a disposition of empathic neutrality, making sure not to react to
participant responses, and remained cognizant of how her interactions may unintentionally
influence the respondents.
Validity and Reliability
The quantitative phase of the study aimed to ensure content validity, which is the ability
to get to the relative truth of the problem (Maxwell, 2013). Using a psychometric survey, the
Culturally Responsive Classroom Management Self-Efficacy Scale (CRCMSE) maximized both
validity and reliability of the survey. The CRCMSE showed evidence of construct validity
through two existing teacher self-efficacy measures as well as highly reliable scores using a one-
factor structure (Siwatu, Putman, Starker-Glass, & Lewis, 2017). Several existing constructs,
both related and convergent, were found to be related and indicate construct validity (McBrien,
Wild, & Bachorowski, 2018). The final open-ended survey question, which asked respondents
to comment upon the racial climate of their school, was based upon an established method for
exploring the sensitive topic of race (Monteith & Spicer, 1999). This item was piloted with
educators from another school for feedback and to see if responses would effectively answer the
research questions and correspond with the conceptual framework. To ensure confidence in the
sample, all teachers received specific in-person and written information on the survey, and all
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 77
teachers were asked to complete the survey online. Offering opportunities for questions and
explaining the benefits to teachers of a large sample assisted in achieving a strong response rate
of approximately 33% of the 271 teachers. All teachers at Adams HS and Madison HS received
the survey via email on the same day the researcher spoke about the study at a staff meeting,
while teachers at Monroe HS received the survey a week after the staff meeting, due to time
constraints. All teachers received a reminder four days later. A second reminder went out on
day 8, and a final invitation from the superintendent was delivered on day 10. Teachers who
were under-confident in their ability to effectively address racial discipline disparities may have
chosen to not respond to the survey, which could bias the results. It was important that teachers
understood and were confident in the anonymity of their responses and knew that their honest
responses would help to determine future training and support for teachers surrounding
disciplinary issues.
Ethics
The integrity and trustworthiness of the researcher are fundamental to the success of any
study, so incorporating ethical practices into the research process was necessary. Furthermore,
involving human subjects in the study of teachers’ ability to reduce the racial gap in school
discipline required ethical safeguards to ensure the physical and emotional safety of participants.
The teachers involved in the study have a right to privacy and protection from harm, and should
sense cooperation and partnership with the researcher rather than feeling controlled (Glesne,
2011). This began with a process of informed consent. The study, including its purpose and
methods, was explained in detail to participants during a group meeting, allowing participants to
ask questions and learn how the research would be used (Patton, 2015). Participants were asked
for their consent to participate in the study and they were reassured that questions asked along
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 78
the way would also be honored. They learned that the study was completely voluntary and they
could elect not to participate if they so choose, that they would be provided with sufficient
information to make this decision, and that they could choose to stop participating at any time
(Glesne, 2011). Participants were told that while their input was valued and appreciated, there
was not a requirement for all teachers to participate. Although the principal, also their direct
supervisor, was supporting the process, administration would not be told which teachers did or
did not participate in the study, ensuring that teachers did not feel pressured to participate.
Additionally, the researcher took care not to attempt to convince the respondents into
participating or continuing with the study if they decided to decline (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
While the respondents were not anonymous to the researcher, their responses were kept
confidential and privacy was respected. The researcher recorded each session, but received
separate permission for recording, and explained that the recordings would only be used as a
memory aide in the study and would not be published or shared publicly. All data, including
recordings, were kept in a locked filing cabinet to ensure privacy and security.
The researcher did not have a previous connection with any staff members at Trident,
except that she formerly served as an assistant principal at a sending middle school district, and
so shared former students in common with the Trident staff. Because the researcher advocates
for alternative disciplinary practices, she was careful not to show any bias against teachers who
support traditional and punitive discipline methods such as suspension. Teachers were more
open and forthcoming because their views were accepted as valid perspectives to inform
solutions to the problem. The researcher considered the concept of relational ethics and
maintained an awareness of her role within the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Participants
were reassured that the project was separate from the administration of the school district and
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 79
their specific responses were not shared with district leadership. Also, there was additional
reassurance that the study was completely voluntary, so that participants did not feel coerced
since the superintendent encouraged teachers to participate. Participants were also reassured that
their comments during the investigation, as well as their choice whether or not to participate,
would not affect their employee evaluation in any way. The researcher was careful not to exploit
the participants, since there may have been questions of power and control based on her former
role as a school administrator (Glesne, 2011).
The researcher examined biases related to assumptions she may have made regarding
each teacher’s approach to discipline and specifically toward students of color, since she was
studying the racial gap in school discipline. Since the researcher is white, she maintained a
deeply reflexive process throughout the study, ensuring that she created a research process that
asked difficult questions and challenged traditional mindsets but did not attempt to represent
people of color (Bergerson, 2003). Any attempt to interpret or appropriate the experiences of
students of other races would have de-legitimized the study: the researcher sought various data
sources to paint a rich and nuanced picture of the impact of race in school (Diamond, 2018).
Understanding that many traditional school practices are rooted in white supremacist traditions,
the researcher also took care that any recommendations she made did not reinforce long-standing
inequities (Bergerson, 2003). Careful reflection and an inductive development of her own racial
consciousness assisted the researcher in analyzing complex issues involving race. Since a
majority of teachers at Trident are white, it was important for the interview process, as well as
the analysis or reporting stages, to be free of judgments of teacher practices, understanding that
many teachers had not received training in culturally responsive practices and were not
knowledgeable regarding racial inequities in school discipline. The researcher resisted making
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 80
statements regarding her beliefs surrounding school discipline and did not come across as a
teacher or lecturer to the respondents (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Teachers were not embarrassed
by questions that judged their classroom management styles or difficulties handling behavioral
incidents in the classroom (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher kept the interviews as
open-ended as possible to encourage teachers to share their perspectives and their detailed
descriptions of classroom disciplinary incidents, as well as analysis of their relationships with
students (Weiss, 1994). Taking the time to build rapport, show respect, look people in the eye,
and meet face to face showed participants they were being treated ethically and inspired their
trust in the research process.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations included the possibility that teachers would choose not to take the survey,
either due to time constraints or due to a lack of confidence regarding their ability to handle
discipline events. It was also possible that teachers who did take the survey or participate in
interviews would not be truthful in their responses. To remedy these limitations, interview
questions were clear and straightforward, aligned with the conceptual framework of the study.
Delimitations are boundaries the researcher has set for the study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
The survey was user-friendly and took 15-20 minutes to complete. The researcher offered a
number of opportunities for participants to ask questions in order to feel reassured that their input
was valuable.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 81
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this research was to evaluate the degree to which Trident Regional High
School District is meeting its goal of racial equity in school discipline. The analysis will focus
on knowledge, motivation and organizational influences related to achieving the organizational
goals, with a focus on teachers as stakeholders. The questions that guided the evaluation study
that address knowledge and skills, motivation, and organization influences for teachers were:
1. To what extent is Trident meeting its goal to achieve equity in school discipline?
2. What is teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to effective and culturally
relevant discipline practices?
3. What is the interaction between Trident’s culture and context and teachers’
knowledge and motivation?
4. Based on the data analysis, Chapter 5 will provide recommendations for
organizational practice in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources and solutions.
Data collection consisted of a 36-question survey offered to all staff members at Trident’s
three schools, interviews with 8-12 staff members from each school, and a review of Trident’s
discipline data from the 2017-2018 school year.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder group of focus for this study was teachers at Trident Regional School
District. This population consisted of 271 full-time teachers in grades 9 through 12, across
disciplines, and approximately 380 staff total at three different high schools, Monroe HS, Adams
HS, and Madison HS. This study sought to develop a sample of staff who represented the entire
population within the district and to quantitatively and qualitatively explore the research
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 82
questions with these staff members. This section reviews the staff who participated in the survey
followed by a description of the interview participants.
Survey Participants
Staff members at all three schools within the Trident school district were invited to
participate in the study. Figure 2 details the response rate by individual school. Madison High
School had the highest number of responses, at 48; Adams High School had 42 responses; and
Monroe High School had 32 responses.
Figure 2
Responses by school
Although the focus of the study is on teachers, all staff were invited to participate in the
study to add to the understanding of organizational culture. Figure 3 shows the breakdown of
respondents by their role in the district. Teachers made up 81% of survey respondents;
Administrators made up 9%; Nurses/Counselors/Child Study Team made up 7%; Office staff
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 83
made up 1% and other staff made up 2% of the sample. The quantitative survey was sent by
email to approximately 380 members of the Trident staff, and there were 124 valid responses, a
33% response rate. There were 271 teachers in the Trident district, and 100 teachers responded,
a 37% response rate for teachers.
Figure 3
School Roles of Survey Respondents
The study also sought to represent a wide variety of staff experience. Figure 4 displays
the number of years of experience of staff members, while Table 7 displays the count and
percentage of respondents by the number of years of experience. It is also important to note the
number of years educators have worked in their particular school. Figure 5 displays the number
of years staff members have spent in their current schools.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 84
Figure 4
Years of experience
Table 7
Years of experience of staff respondents, broken down by count and percentage
Years of experience Count Percentage of sample
0-1 years 2 1.63%
2-5 years 12 9.76%
6-10 years 20 16.26%
11-20 years 66 53.66%
21 or more years 23 18.70%
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 85
Figure 5
Number of years experience in current school
Figure 6 details the gender of respondants, with 79 women, 42 men, and one gender non-
conforming person participating in the survey.
Figure 6
Gender of respondents
Figure 7 details the race of respondents, which is reflective of the race of the population of
educators at Trident. Respondents could choose as many of the categories that they identify as,
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 86
with responses of 114 White, 5 Hispanic/Latino, 3 Black, 2 Native American, 1 Asian/Pacific
Islander, 1 Middle Eastern, and 1 more than one race. Three people responded Other, and 2
preferred not to answer the question.
Figure 7
Race of respondents
Interview Participants
As described in Chapter Three, a total of 32 educators participated in the interviews,
including 9 from Monroe High School, 11 from Adams High School, and 12 from Madison High
School. The researcher invited all staff to participate through an in-person information session
as well as through email reminders. Table 8 shows the breakdown of participants by school,
gender, and role within the school. Twenty-one of the participants were teachers, five were
administrators, five were on the Child Study Team or counselors, and one was a classroom
assistant. Of the 27 non-administrators, 21 of the educators were women and six were men. All
but two of the interview participants were White, so race is not an identifying factor in the table
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 87
to ensure that those educators are not identified. Additionally, all identifying information has
been removed for administrators, since there are so few within the district. The sample was
representative of the demographics of the staff at Trident. All respondents have been given
pseudonyms, and identifying details, such as their exact role in the school, have been generalized
to avoid identification.
Table 8
Interview Participants
Participant Transcript
Number
School School Role Gender Years
Experience
Ms. Adams 4 Adams CST/Counselor F 11-20
Ms. Brady 5 Adams CST/Counselor F 2-5
Ms. Collins 1 Adams Teacher F 11-20
Ms. Davis 2 Adams Teacher F 6-10
Ms. Evans 11 Madison Teacher F 11-20
Mr. Fields 12 Madison Teacher M 2-5
Ms. Grimes 3 Madison Teacher F 11-20
Ms. Hartman 13 Madison Teacher F 11-20
Ms. Ivers 6 Adams Teacher F 11-20
Ms. Jones 7 Adams Teacher F 11-20
Ms. Knight 8 Adams Teacher F 6-10
Administrator A 28 * Administrator * *
Mr. Lare 14 Madison Teacher M 6-10
Ms. Meyers 15 Madison Office Staff F 11-20
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 88
Mr. Newton 16 Madison Teacher M 11-20
Ms. O’Brien 17 Madison Teacher F 11-20
Administrator B 29 * Administrator * *
Ms. Payton 20 Monroe CST/Counselor F 11-20
Ms. Quinn 21 Monroe CST/Counselor F 11-20
Mr. Robinson 23 Monroe Teacher M 21-30
Administrator C 30 * Administrator * *
Ms. Smith 24 Monroe CST/Counselor F 11-20
Administrator D 31 * Administrator * *
Ms. Sears 9 Adams Teacher F 21-30
Mr. Taylor 10 Adams Teacher M 6-10
Administrator E 32 * Administrator * *
Ms. Union 18 Madison Teacher F 11-20
Ms. Vance 19 Madison Teacher F 11-20
Ms. Waters 22 Madison Teacher F 11-20
Ms. Xavier 25 Monroe Teacher F 11-20
Mr. Yates 26 Monroe Teacher M 11-20
Ms. Zanes 27 Monroe Teacher F 11-20
Results and Findings
Results and findings will be listed under the headings of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors, with themes organized in each. The research questions will be answered
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 89
throughout the section and synthesized once all findings have been presented. Each of the
influences studied in this chapter had gaps that were either validated, partially validated, or not at
all validated based on the data analyzed. An influence was considered as validated when survey
responses and interviews concurred 70%-100% of the time to exhibit that the gap in the area was
significant and needed to be addressed. An influence was considered as partially validated when
part of the data showed a significant gap to be addressed, and another part showed no gap in the
influence, and the survey and interview responses concurred 30-70% of the time. An influence
was considered as not validated when the data consistently showed that the survey and interview
responses concurred 0-30% of the time, or was not discussed by participants at all. Since the
theme of racial school climate is woven throughout this chapter, Table 9 displays the breakdown
of students by race in each school for reference.
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Table 9
Enrollment at Trident disaggregated by student race
Monroe School Adams High School Madison High School
Enrollment 1203 885 977
White 42.6% 61.9% 40.9%
Hispanic 22.4% 20.1% 19.3%
Black/African-
American
16.3% 13.4% 31.3%
Asian 15.6% 3.1% 6.1%
English as home
language
78.9% 90.4% 91.5%
English learners 1.9% 1.0% 2.5%
In-School Suspension
Rate
13.1% 9.8% 25.4%
Out-of-School
Suspension Rate
10.1% 6.1% 18.1%
Total Suspension
Rate
18.3% 12.3% 31.2%
Knowledge Results and Findings
Knowledge was measured through several interview questions and coded for themes.
Clark and Estes (2008) explain that it is important to measure knowledge to determine whether
people know how to achieve their performance goals. This section will discuss how teachers’
knowledge and skills impact the stakeholder performance goal of reducing racial disparities in
school discipline.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 91
Knowledge influence 1: Teachers need to know the facts on the effects of suspension
on students.
Finding: The findings from the collected data validate that teachers lack knowledge of
the negative effects of suspension.
While Trident teachers have a general awareness that out-of-school suspension can affect
a student’s academic success, 100% of the teachers interviewed do not know the magnitude to
which school suspension may influence a person’s life and their future; nor do they realize that
in-school suspension carries many of the same negative effects. When asked about the negatives
of suspension, none of the interview respondents named long-term effects on a student’s future,
and 13 named short term effects, such as missing classroom lessons and falling behind on their
school work. In- and out-of school suspension is a commonly used behavioral intervention at
Trident, with over 2,100 in- and out-of school suspensions assigned in the three schools during
the 2017-2018 school year. Only 130 of these suspensions were for very serious offenses such
as violence, vandalism, bullying, or drugs, corresponding with research showing that suspension
is must often handed out for relatively minor forms of misbehavior (Kupchik, 2010). For
example, Mr. Fields shared,
It seems to be along a spectrum, so they're late, then they get a detention, they don't serve
their detention, and they get an in-school suspension, then something happens in the in-
school suspension, and they get an out of school suspension. It's sort of like a domino
effect, starting off with the latenesses and absences.
Mr. Fields detailed how a relatively small incident, being late to school, can escalate into serious
discipline, and initiate a chronic disciplinary pattern that impacts a student’s life and future in a
myriad of ways.
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Teachers are accustomed to suspension practices as normal occurrences, and often
support classroom removal as an appropriate punishment. Ms. Vance explained what she sees as
possible benefits of suspension as a learning experience, “Hopefully they take the time to reflect
and maybe there is something going on that promotes them getting their act together and their
priorities situated and make better decisions and choices.” This teacher’s perception of
suspension as a rehabilitative tool is indicative of the perception of many of Trident’s teachers,
and was mentioned in ten other transcripts. This viewpoint conflicts with other comments in this
study, sometimes within the same transcripts, where teachers indicate that suspension does not
work to change behavior, and express frustration that the interventions in place that form a
punitive discipline system aren’t working. By not examining the practice of suspension as being
ineffective, blame is often instead placed on the students and their families for not responding
positively to suspension, as if they are beyond rehabilitation or incapable of behavior change.
Disengagement from the school community can lead a student to shut down or give up, as well
as interrupt their academic growth and “label them as deviants” within the school community
(Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). Suspension itself can be the cause of a student’s disconnection from
school and perpetuate discipline problems, yet the practice of suspension is not criticized as
freely as the students and their parents.
A common consequence for a fight, drug possession, or chronic misbehavior is a 9-day
out-of-school suspension. Five teachers specifically brought up this lengthy suspension and how
difficult it can be for students to return to school and stay on top of their work after being out of
school for two weeks. While home instruction is offered to students when they are suspended
for five or more days, many students do not receive it, since parents need to call a central office
to arrange it, set up a central location (like the town library) for the student and teacher to meet,
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 93
provide transportation if necessary, and make sure their child attends. This process may be
difficult or confusing for parents, especially given the disconnect between home and school that
will be discussed in the organizational factors section of this chapter. Ms. Xavier talked about a
perspective several teachers shared that justifies the use of suspension since replacement
education is offered, “Home instruction makes it okay. Most of the kids that are chronically
suspended don’t seem to care that much. But one or two suspensions don’t affect them that
much.” This teacher points out one or two suspensions as being manageable, but by the time
students are suspended in high school, they may have experienced a series of suspensions
reaching back to elementary school and may have given up or shut down from the disciplinary
process. While suspension disproportionately affects Black students at Trident, there is not
evidence of major differences in serious behavior by race. These findings, which will be detailed
further in Table 13 in the organizational influences section later in this chapter, indicate that
student characteristics are not to blame for these disparities and schools should examine and
revise punitive policies and practices. Even one suspension can be seen as a turning point in a
child’s life, with students who are suspended just once in their lives more likely to be
incarcerated or drop out of school (Mowen & Brent, 2016). Educators may cling to suspension
and punitive practices because as Ms. Zanes says, there “need to be some sort of consequences”
and later adds, “there’s got to be something but I don’t know what it is.” The lack of knowledge
regarding viable alternatives to punitive and exclusionary discipline perpetuates the use of
suspension as a norm in the school discipline process; teachers see that current practices are
ineffective, but they are accustomed to punishment and consequences.
Teachers are also unaware of the connection between their schools’ disciplinary practices
and the school-to-prison pipeline, which is the funneling of suspended and expelled students
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 94
toward the criminal justice system. Despite the fact that serious crime and discipline have
declined around the U.S., suspension remains an acceptable and common consequence to
relatively harmless behaviors, with a strong correlation to future negative effects for students
(Wolf & Kupchik, 2017). Stakeholders at Trident do not know or understand the harm
suspension causes, although eight teachers brought up that what they’re doing with traditional
discipline isn’t working. If teachers understood that suspension relates to a significantly higher
likelihood that a person will commit criminal acts, become a victim of a crime, or incarcerated in
adulthood, they may be more likely to commit to alternative disciplinary practices. Teachers are
also not aware of the extent that suspension is being utilized in the district, with 2,185 in- and
out-of-school suspensions assigned during the 2017-2018 school year. A total of 2,806 school
days were lost that school year due to out-of-school suspension alone. With approximately 3,000
students within the district, the rate of suspension was a cumulative 21%, meaning 21% of
students in the district received at least one in- or out-of-school suspension in the 2017-18 school
year. The high rate of suspension, along with the adverse outcomes on students who are
suspended, should be shared with teachers who may not understand the magnitude of the
problem at Trident.
Knowledge Influence 2: Teachers need to know the steps to apply derived from best
practices in school discipline.
Finding: The findings from the collected data partially validate that teachers do not
understand the procedures needed to implement best practices in school discipline.
Defusing and de-escalating conflicts with students. According to interview responses,
teachers appear to have difficulty knowing how to defuse and de-escalate conflicts with and
between students rather than engaging in confrontation, and was mentioned 56 times within the
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 95
transcripts. Of these 56 mentions of teachers’ interactions during conflict, 98% of respondents
concur that they see some teachers struggle in this area. While this issue may also cross over
into elements of motivation, seven teachers that were interviewed believe that their colleagues
often do not have the necessary skills and knowledge to resolve conflicts peacefully; and survey
results, as shared in the motivation section of this chapter, show that teachers have relatively low
self-efficacy in using culturally responsive discipline practices to alter the behavior of a student
who is being defiant, as well as implementing an intervention that minimizes a conflict that
occurs when a students’ culturally based behavior is not consistent with school norms. These
findings will be detailed further in the motivation section in this chapter, in Table 9. Chang
(2013), found that increasing teachers’ knowledge and competency in handling behavior
disruptions can help mitigate issues with students. These skills can increase teachers’ ability to
defuse and de-escalate conflict, even as they also manage the complex process of regulating their
own emotions, which will also be discussed further in the motivation results. Teachers shared
how fellow educators can make situations worse, as Mr. Lare details,
It starts with some sort of minor action with a student being off that leads to a teacher
prodding and poking, kind of like, oh look a beehive let me shake you, instead of trying
to calm it down which then turns into, you're blowing my shit [from the student], and
now all of a sudden we crossed the line and now I’ve got to refer you. It didn't need to
lead to that point from the start.
Being able to defuse and de-escalate conflict was mentioned 34 times during the
interviews, indicating that those teachers who struggle with these behaviors influence their
colleagues’ perceptions regarding how school discipline is handled. Additionally, it was
mentioned in the racial climate question of the survey by one respondent who shared, “I feel
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 96
generally negative about our racial school climate because we are reactive, not proactive.” Mr.
Taylor added, “Nine times out of ten it’s how you respond.” In saying this, he is sharing his
beliefs on the teacher’s primary role in either solving a problem or allowing it to escalate.
Teachers at Trident who are skilled in defusing and de-escalating students often keep these tools
to themselves, out of unwritten protocol in respecting other teachers’ disciplinary styles and
choices in their classrooms, as Administrator A shared, “... teachers find their comfort zone and I
think right or wrong we have allowed a lot of teachers to...work with that.” While the district has
promoted teachers observing each other’s teaching and classroom management style,
administrators report difficulty in making this a regular practice. Administrator C explained,
“We tend to stick with the people that we know, so they want to see their friends… it’s a work in
progress.” This uneasiness with openly sharing effective strategies was echoed by Ms. O’Brien
when she shared, “People are using their own style, because they're going to do it to the way they
know how to survive. That upper-level cannot happen if we're just surviving… just getting
through the day.”
Interview participants did not have a common language to describe skills or difficulties in
defusing and de-escalating conflict for themselves or their colleagues, exhibiting that there is not
a shared protocol on handling conflict. For example, Ms. Ivers described it as, “giving kids an
escape route,” Mr. Fields talked about “throwing them a lifeline,” and Ms. Meyers shared how
important it is to “give them a little bit of space.” Teachers do not often have the opportunity or
time to talk and learn from each other, and there are teachers within the organization who are
skilled at defusing and de-escalating conflicts with students who may be willing to support their
colleagues in becoming more proficient in this area. Teachers discussed their skills, and their
ability not to take student behavior personally, often while also sharing that they have observed
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 97
their colleagues struggle, and feeling strongly that teachers could do more to solve problems and
resolve situations. Mr. Taylor shares this uncertainty when describing what happens during a
discipline situation,
I'm sure there are things to learn about ways to de-escalate situations, I mean I know
there are, but some people even if they learn those things I think in the moment they may
not use them. I have felt myself, like your heart starts beating really fast and it's like a
fight or flight response system takes over, so I don't know if there's a lot that can be done.
I think what we talked about earlier, teachers being aware of cultural differences between
themselves and the students, I think that's a huge thing.
Mr Taylor’s thought speaks to the complexity of learning how to effectively handle
conflict in the classroom. This teacher speaks to dealing with the physical reaction of the
nervous system, remembering effective strategies, being motivated to use them, and
incorporating knowledge of the individual student and his or her unique background. This quote
leads to the question, is the defusion and de-escalation of conflict a knowledge issue or a
motivation issue? Based on the transcript above and others throughout this study, at Trident, it is
both. Teacher emotion and emotional regulation will be considered a motivation issue and
explored more deeply in a later section, but should be kept in mind during the discussion of
knowledge issues as an influence on the decisions teachers make during conflict. Several
teachers spoke of colleagues who frequently engage students in negative interactions. Ms. Evans
shared her own reflection process after watching her colleagues, “You always walk away going,
did I do the right thing, or did I feed into the problem? Because I definitely see educators who
get students riled up and actually challenge them and do all the things you're not supposed to
do.”
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 98
This teacher’s ability to metacognitively reflect on her own role in a discipline event, and
the skills that she used, may help her improve upon the effectiveness for the next time.
Individuals who engage in self-monitoring and self-assessment can increase their learning
(Baker, 2006), indicating that knowledge of the skills needed to defuse and de-escalate conflict
may in turn lead to fewer discipline referrals. Ms. Evans was also able to analyze which
techniques do not work for her colleagues and may serve to make situations worse, which is also
detailed in a response from Mr. Newton who said:
I have 16 years experience, I know how to get under a kid’s skin and bait him into an
argument. I really think that falls on the adult. You can either escalate or de-escalate,
that’s on you. If the kid blows up, they blow up, don’t make it worse. A teacher
shouldn’t be a catalyst to escalate a situation.
This teacher and six others mention colleagues who struggle to defuse and de-escalate conflict,
leading to student discipline referrals, yet there does not seem to be a mechanism in place for
teachers to discuss this with each other and offer either support or feedback to each other. It is
something that is noticed among the staff, but not directly addressed. Ms. Evans shared that,
“There are definitely teachers who have a reputation of being not very reasonable.” Teachers
may hear stories from their students, but these incidents may not be directly discussed between
staff members, possibly due to a protocol of respecting each others’ choices in the classroom.
Ms. Union shares:
It's about being an interpreter and figuring out what the best thing is for the individual
student. I don't know that the majority of the teachers here do that. It's hard to know,
because I'm in my room all day and I don't see exactly what goes on, but I hear from kids
if they complain that this teacher wrote me up for this. Of course I only hear their
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 99
version, I don't hear the teachers’ version but sometimes the same teachers’ names get
brought up so you can kind of get an idea of where they stand without actually being in
there.
This practice of silence between colleagues, however, may be detrimental both to the growth and
learning of teachers as well as having an effect on differential disciplinary referrals. Social
interaction can facilitate the construction of new knowledge (Scott & Palincsar, 2006), and the
lack of collegial learning and discussion at Trident regarding conflict resolution with their
students contributes to the continuation of the problem.
Teachers are more likely to refer students to the office for discipline than they were in
the past. Ms. Payton pointed out these changes when she shared, “Years ago I used to see more
teacher detentions, teachers saying you're going to come serve time with me or things that they
worked out. I don't see a whole lot of that anymore.” Administrator A shared, “Some of them
will tell you oh, well that's what the student coordinator said assistant principals are for,” and Mr.
Lare added, “A lot of teachers have the mindset of, listen I'm here to teach math, I shouldn't have
to be a therapist, disciplinarian, and all that stuff.” Teachers report that an increase in students
with disabilities or home difficulties has led to increased discipline referrals. Ms. Hartman
shared, “I might have had 3 IEPs now I have a class of 20 kids and I have eleven IEPs. And I
have four kids, their parents were drug addicts or alcoholics versus a whole class where I didn't
have any of those issues.” Balancing the needs of students with the demands of teaching is
difficult, and teachers sometimes write students up for discipline as a means of accessing
support. Ms. Payton added to this when she shared, “Sometimes I feel like the teachers end up
being more disciplinarians than teachers because the behaviors and mental health issues and
things kids are coming in with, they have so much baggage.”
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 100
Additionally, teachers sometimes doubt their own judgment when handling conflict and
stick to following formal discipline policies. Ms. Union shared how she uses her judgment based
on individual situations, but does not always see her colleagues doing the same,
I've had two students who were having a verbal altercation and I didn't know if it was
going to turn into a fight, and one of them walked out of class to calm himself down.
Then he came back in and both kids were completely fine. Am I going to write him up
because he left class because he was trying to do the right thing and avoid an altercation?
It's different than somebody saying, ‘I just don't want to work today, I'm leaving’.
While this teacher is comfortable using her judgment and interpreting situations on an individual
basis, the relatively low self-efficacy reported by teachers on the survey in handling situations
when a student is being defiant indicates that not all teachers feel confident using their own
judgment during difficult classroom situations. Teachers that know strategies to defuse and de-
escalate conflict, and use these strategies along with their best judgment, contribute to reducing
racial disparities in school discipline as well as the rate of suspension overall.
Implementing culturally responsive practices into the classroom. According to
interview transcripts and survey responses, 100% of teachers at Trident do not have deep
knowledge of culturally responsive classroom practices. While 15 of the teacher respondents
discussed incorporating different teaching methods to meet the needs of their students, none have
received training in culturally responsive teaching through the school district, and their practices
and language is highly varied. Teachers at Trident often rely on traditional teaching methods that
center the adult rather than the students in the instructional process. A lack of knowledge of
culturally responsive teaching methods can lead to low student engagement and ownership,
initiating discipline problems. It is important to look closely at pedagogy and the environment
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 101
for learning when examining disciplinary methods, and its impact on student behavior and
engagement, since they have a significant impact on school discipline (Gregory, Skiba, &
Noguera, 2010). While none of the Trident teachers specifically used the term “culturally
responsive”, some of the practices they described align with key practices in culturally
responsive teaching. Ms. Union, who has revised her teaching practices in recent years due to
changes in curriculum, discusses the importance of focusing on learning through student-
centered teaching, “They may be quiet and well-behaved and sitting in the back of class if you
come down hard on them, but if they’re not getting anything out of the class then I don’t know if
it’s necessarily worth it.” This teacher indicates that a quiet class is not necessarily the sign of a
healthy learning environment, and that she sees some teachers place more emphasis on the
compliance of the class than on the quality of learning. Culturally responsive teaching can
include such practices developing a sociopolitical lens, building trust and authentic connections
with students, using brain-based information processing strategies, and creating a socially and
intellectually safe classroom environment (Hammond, 2015). Ms. Union goes on to share more
details about how she runs her collaborative and responsive classroom:
They should be working together. It's a little more noisy, more collaboration. My room
doesn't work as ducks in a row, everyone sitting there quietly so maybe I don't have as
many issues [with discipline] because of that. Today the kids were doing a project where
they walk around the rim [of the classroom]. They're supposed to do 12 out of 16
problems and most of them got it, some of them were a little bit off task and completed a
few less than that. To me, the collaboration of working together is more important than
being on task every second.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 102
This teacher’s description of how she has changed her teaching style and classroom to meet the
needs of her learners was discussed by five other teachers, but even those teachers that
mentioned the importance of modifying their teaching to support learning did not exhibit deep
knowledge or mastery of culturally responsive pedagogy. Culturally responsive practices
generally exist in isolation at Trident, within individual classrooms where teachers have adapted
their practices or received training to develop student-centered classrooms, as one teacher shared
in the survey, “We’ve attended conferences and met with colleagues to share best practices”.
While these few teachers shared a willingness to learn different methods, none of the teachers
exhibited that they have integrated culturally responsive pedagogy into their daily practices. The
lower end of knowledge in these practices is detailed by Ms. Ivers, who shared, “I’m not sure
what the culturally responsive things are. When I was reading to myself about being
knowledgeable about them, I guess not at all. I don't know how to do that.” Practices that could
be considered culturally responsive teaching practices, but were not named as such, were
mentioned eight times in the open-ended question about racial school climate, with practices
including providing students with supplies, being flexible with teaching methods, greeting
students at the door, and adapting lessons toward the success of the students. Ms. Xavier adds
her thoughts on high expectations, an important element of culturally responsive practices, “They
know I have an expectation for them. If they break it, I'll say, ‘It's okay, no I'm not mad, I'm just
disappointed.’ They'll say, no Ms. X, don't say that!” Ms. Xavier’s expectations for her students
help create a sense of worth and belonging that are hallmarks of culturally responsive
classrooms. Another teacher adds, “I strive to create an environment where all of my students
feel important, equal, and loved.” These practices, while important, represent surface level
applications of culturally responsive teaching. This mixed level of knowledge levels exhibits an
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 103
unpredictability and lack of fidelity in the use of culturally responsive practices throughout the
organization.
One teacher mentioned offering voice and choice within the classroom for students to
take ownership of their learning, another important element of culturally responsive teaching
practices. Mr. Lare had not written any discipline referrals in the school year, and shared what
works in his classroom during co-teaching opportunities, but generally finds that his colleagues
are not as interested in changing their methods to become more culturally responsive. He shared,
“It's that resistance to change that to me feels so daunting,” exhibing that he would like to
support his colleagues in learning new instructional methods, but can be overwhelmed by the
task. Mr. Fields supports this when he shares how surprised students are when he allows
students to take ownership in the classroom, “There's this one kid who lives in ISS [in-school
suspension], but I put him in charge of a program, and he did real well. He took a little bit of
pride in that and a little bit of shock.” Another teacher shared in the survey how she personalizes
her instruction to respond to her diverse learners, “I do not feel negatively about it, but rather see
it as an aspect of our school that allows me to utilize my strength of developing positive personal
relationships with students to help increase engagement, motivation, and achievement.”
Teachers who adjust their pedagogy to be more culturally responsive will also have positive
results regarding student behavior and classroom discipline.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Knowledge Needs
The findings from the collected data confirm that there is a knowledge gap that exists in
order to reduce racial disparities in school discipline at Trident. Teachers’ lack of declarative,
procedural, and metacognitive knowledge are barriers to achieving the organizational goal. This
study indicates a need for improvement in teachers’ factual knowledge of the negative effects of
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 104
suspension, teachers’ procedural knowledge of the steps needed to incorporate culturally
responsive teaching practices, and metacognitive knowledge to reflect on their interactions with
students to be able to defuse and de-escalate conflict situations that occur at school.
Motivation Results and Findings
Motivation was measured through the Culturally Responsive Classroom Management
Self-Efficacy survey and several interview questions, which were coded for themes. Clark and
Estes (2008) explain that it is important to measure motivation to determine whether people
choose to work toward a goal, persist at it until it is achieved, and invest mental effort in getting
the job done. This section will discuss how teacher motivation impacts the stakeholder
performance goal of reducing racial disparities in school discipline.
Motivation Influence 1: Teachers need to view themselves as capable of
implementing culturally responsive practices.
Finding: The findings from the collected data partially validate that teachers do not feel
capable in implementing culturally responsive classroom management practices.
Teachers at Trident generally feel confident when implementing procedures and routines
in the classroom, but do not feel as able to implement practices specifically meeting the needs of
students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Survey responses show that
teachers feel they are able to implement culturally responsive practices 76% of the time, yet 98%
of teachers indicate that they observe other teachers struggle in this area, partially validating the
influence. The Culturally Responsive Classroom Management Self-Efficacy Scale measured
teachers’ confidence in regard to individual beliefs about their ability to implement culturally
responsive practices in the classroom. Teachers assessed how able they felt to implement 35
different tasks, on a scale of zero to one hundred. Table 10 presents the results of the mean
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 105
scores of all teachers on each of the 35 questions, ranked from those areas that teachers have the
lowest self-efficacy, or confidence that they can implement the task, to the areas of highest self-
efficacy.
Table 10
Results of Culturally Responsive Classroom Management Self-Efficacy Scale
Percentage CRCMSE Scale Item
44.86% Communicate with students’ parents whose primary language is not English.
46.45% Establish two-way communication with non-English speaking parents.
52.70%
Use culturally appropriate methods to relate to parents from culturally and
linguistically diverse backgrounds.
53.33%
Modify aspects of the classroom so that it matches aspects of students’ home
culture.
56.44%
Develop a partnership with parents from diverse cultural and linguistic
backgrounds.
66.82%
Use culturally responsive discipline practices to alter the behavior of a student who
is being defiant.
67.05%
Implement an intervention that minimizes a conflict that occurs when a students’
culturally based behavior is not consistent with school norms.
69.68%
Develop an effective classroom management plan based on my understanding of
students’ family background.
69.90% Model classroom routines for English Language Learners.
70.31%
Personalize the classroom so that it is reflective of the cultural background of my
students.
72.15%
Explain classroom rules so that they are easily understood by English Language
Learners.
72.57% Critically analyze students’ classroom behavior from a cross-cultural perspective.
74.91%
Teach children self-management strategies that will assist them in regulating their
classroom behavior.
77.64%
Restructure the curriculum so that every child can succeed, regardless of their
academic history.
77.73%
Use my knowledge of students’ cultural backgrounds to create a culturally
compatible learning environment.
78.32%
Use what I know about my students’ cultural background to develop an effective
learning environment.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 106
80.72%
Redirect students’ behavior without the use of coercive means (i.e., consequences
or verbal reprimand).
81.06% Manage situations in which students are defiant.
81.54% Teach students how to work together.
82.03%
Modify lesson plans so that students remain actively engaged throughout the entire
class period or lesson.
82.32%
Design activities that require students to work together toward a common academic
goal.
83.02%
Assess students’ behaviors with the knowledge that acceptable school behaviors
may not match those that are acceptable within a student’s home culture.
83.31% Critically assess whether a particular behavior constitutes misbehavior.
83.39% Modify the curriculum to allow students to work in groups.
83.86% Communicate with students using expressions that are familiar to them.
84.09% Use strategies that will hold students accountable for producing high quality work.
84.69%
Address inappropriate behavior without relying on traditional methods of
discipline such as office referrals.
85.02% Prevent disruptions by recognizing potential causes for misbehavior.
85.03%
Establish high behavioral expectations that encourage students to produce high
quality work.
85.79% Design the classroom in a way that communicates respect for diversity.
87.21%
Create a learning environment that conveys respect for the cultures of all students
in my classroom.
88.74%
Structure the learning environment so that all students feel like a valued member of
the learning community.
89.09% Encourage students to work together on classroom tasks, when appropriate.
89.90% Establish routines for carrying out specific classroom tasks.
91.02% Clearly communicate classroom policies.
Teachers exhibit the greatest difficulty in communicating with students and their families
whose primary language is not English. While these skills are important for teachers to develop
in order to become culturally competent, the primary discipline disparities at Trident do not often
involve students with limited English proficiency, since only 1.8% of all students are English
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 107
learners, so the focus will be on factors that influence classroom discipline. Teachers have low-
moderate confidence in using culturally responsive discipline practices to alter the behavior of a
student who is being defiant, which corresponds with the knowledge finding that teachers have
limited skills in defusing and de-escalating conflicts with students. Figure 8 represents an item
in which teachers rated themselves as least able to implement.
Figure 8
Culturally Responsive Classroom Management Self-Efficacy Scale Item A
While this mean score of 66.1 out of 100 appears to be above average, it was one of the
lowest scoring items on the scale, indicating that teachers find this practice difficult relative to
the other items on the scale. Ms. Davis shared her struggle to choose a response during a student
conflict, “I think about how it's a power struggle; I have to deal with this now; I have to stand my
ground because now there's an audience, and I have to put on a stronger front.” The decision to
put on a stronger, or more controlling front, can escalate situations unnecessarily, as seven
teachers shared that they could remember times that their emotions negatively impacted conflict
with students. Ms. Jones’ discussion of her confidence corresponds to a lack of training when
she shares, “I was in college for it [teaching]- and they didn't talk about alternatives, or being
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 108
culturally aware. You really kind of learn it while you're here.” Figure 9 exhibits another task
with which teachers expressed relative difficulty.
Figure 9
Culturally Responsive Classroom Management Self-Efficacy Scale Item B
Teachers rated themselves as having relatively low confidence in implementing
interventions when students’ behavior is not consistent with school norms, corresponding with
six interview responses that characterized differences in behavior in students. Ms. Evans shared
that there is, “less respect for female roles from African-Americans, particularly males,” and Ms.
Union detailed behavior in a lower-level academic class comprised of a high percentage of
students of color, stating, “They don't come in and sit right down and pay attention and take out
their notebook but that's part of the reason why they didn't pass their test to begin with.” This
teacher, like seven others, stated that they do not see any differences in student behavior based
on race, but attributed the differences in behavior to other reasons: academic levels, like Ms.
Union detailed above, socioeconomic level, home life, and personality or as Ms. Adams shared
when asked about handling differences in behavior based on race, “They’re all little individuals.
I don’t see them like that.” This inconsistency in responses aligns with the relatively low
confidence score in handling culturally based behaviors.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 109
While overall, the CRCMSE scale showed that teachers expressed low confidence
handling discipline issues relative to other culturally based classroom issues, others, like this
response from the survey question on racial school climate, expresses positivity and growth,
“while not everyone understands how to respond to culturally diverse students, many teachers
are reflecting on how they can improve their own practices to make their classroom more
inclusive...I am hopeful that our school is moving in the right direction.” This teacher’s
openness to learn culturally responsive practices in order to improve her interactions with
students appears to empower her to improve the climate of her classroom. Ms. Zanes also shares
her confidence in implementing alternative practices when she shares, “I enjoy teaching kids
who are maybe more challenging. I'd rather teach the more challenging kids who need to learn
and be understood than the honors kids.” These teachers understand that a student-centered
approach can increase engagement and belonging in the classroom, and that they may also
experience fewer behavior problems and make fewer disciplinary referrals, even though their
responses did not exhibit deep understanding of cultural responsiveness.
Several teachers expressed their frustration at not feeling very effective, even if they
follow school protocol. Ms. Quinn shares how her attempts to meet student needs can become
frustrating when she shares, “I can be creative, but I got to the point where I just can’t anymore,”
And Ms. Ivers shares that she generally feels able to handle disciplinary situations but then
corrects herself by saying:
Well, I guess, although would I say I am as effective as I'd like to be? No, so I guess that
brings up, well then how well-equipped are you, if all of the problems you see aren't
getting resolved? Do I feel like if a situation were to come at me, would I know what to
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 110
do right now, this second, yes I do. But would I change the course of what might happen
the next day, I don't think so. Is that an answer?
Teachers know what they are supposed to do according to school policy, but when they look at
the overall results of behavior change, their self-efficacy in attaining this change wavers.
Teachers’ confidence in implementing culturally responsive classroom management has an effect
on how often they rely on disciplinary referrals that lead to suspension.
Motivation Influence 2: Teachers’ positive and negative emotions connected to race,
fear, and control may have an impact on their choices regarding classroom and school
discipline.
Finding: The findings from the collected data validate that teachers’ emotions and
emotional regulation influence discipline decisions.
When evaluating teachers’ motivation related to effective and culturally relevant discipline
practices, it is important to examine the role that teachers’ emotions play in influencing the
decisions they make during a disciplinary event. The teachers in this study explained ways in
which their emotions impacted their decisions both positively and negatively, and the theme of
emotional influence is presented 42 times within the 32 transcripts. When asked about the role
of emotion during a conflict, 100% of survey respondents described ways that emotion
influenced their decisions, either in positive or negative ways, validating this influence. Nine
teachers expressed that they feel frustration when students are not following rules, and four
shared how this emotion is heightened when other students are watching and they feel pressure
to resolve the issue on the spot. Ms. Davis, a 10-year teaching veteran, expresses her need to
exhibit self-control during a pressure situation in the following way, “I have to control myself to
make sure I'm not cursing at them or wanting to throw something. I would never do that but
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 111
sometimes you just want to and you can't.” This response reflects that while the teacher controls
her outward responses and behavior toward students, her inner anger and frustration remain
highly elevated, which has an effect on the choices she makes in the classroom.
Teachers who can take self-control a step further to regulate and change their emotions
also express greater self-efficacy to resolve discipline issues. For example, Mr. Lare states that
he is better able to regulate his emotions as a veteran teacher than he did as a new teacher
responding and reacting to student behavior when he states,
When I would get worked up, whether it was physically or emotionally, the students start
matching that or start competing with that and then it just escalates. Being more aware of
that now has helped me suppress that and start de-escalating by not matching their tone or
competing in a tone battle or physical posture battle.
Mr. Lare exhibits both the knowledge and motivation to regulate his emotions in order to
defuse and de-escalate conflict. He knows how to monitor and calm both his inner and outer
feelings in order to calm his students. The self-reported low rate of discipline referrals from Mr.
Lare indicates this practice may be effective at reducing discipline. Patterns of emotional
response are both neurobiological and social, indicating that while people have individual
emotional styles, they are influenced by the culture and relationships of the environment
(Immordino-Yang & Gotlieb, 2017). Mr. Lare believes his ability to stay calm helps his students
self-regulate their own behavior. Ms. Hartman expressed high frustration over student behavior
and also expressed low self-regulation when she stated,
I’ve mellowed out more but I still do get very heated and very frustrated when it is the
same kid being disrespectful. One of the worst things for me, it makes my blood boil, is
profanity… I mean if you could rip your hair out and regrow it, I would do that.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 112
This teacher struggles to self-regulate both internally and externally. Later in the transcript she
stated that she sometimes says things to students that she regrets, and shared that she can at times
make students feel belittled. Her regret signals that she would like to better regulate her
emotions to defuse conflicts with students, but she has difficulty doing so due to her strong
emotional reactions, and does not know how to successfully co-regulate emotions with her
students.
Teacher responses in this study indicate three types of teacher emotional styles: nine
teachers who regulate their behavior but struggle to regulate internal emotional turmoil, like Ms.
Davis; thirteen teachers that exhibit strong confidence and ability to stay calm both internally and
externally to co-regulate emotions with their students, like Mr. Lare, and three teachers who have
difficulty regulating both their internal emotions and their external responses, like Ms. Hartman.
There is likely a fourth type of teacher emotional style, one who shuts down their emotions in the
classroom, but that teacher may be unlikely to volunteer to participate in this type of study.
Additionally, seven of the teachers with strong co-regulation spoke of noticing colleagues
struggle with this skill. The evidence from these three teachers highlights a continuum of
emotional self-regulation that is reflected in the remainder of the teachers in the study.
Emotional regulation is linked to the decisions teachers make during a discipline event, with
strong teacher self-regulation relating to defusing behavior before it leads to a disciplinary
referral.
When asked about alternative methods to discipline, Ms. Hartman replied, “Adapting is
hard when you feel so frustrated all the time, because you really do care and you really do try.”
While cognitively this teacher may be aware of best practices to use during a discipline event,
she has difficulty implementing these strategies when emotions rise and she becomes frustrated.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 113
Teachers and students who experiencing stress or trauma have more difficulty regulating
emotion. Mr. Taylor shares his thoughts on the cumulative effects of stress and conflict in the
classroom, “There are very few other jobs...where you feel like every single day you're getting
attacked. Every single day...it's like a traumatic feeling when you're dealing with that every
single day.” Decision making is difficult for Mr. Taylor when a trauma response is triggered. It
is also important to consider the secondary trauma teachers experience through working with
students in trauma, and how teachers often do not feel equipped or supported in handling these
issues (Alisic, 2012). Mr. Taylor continues by sharing how his students’ behavior is
understandable given their traumatic situations, but that knowledge does not always make it
easier to deal with negative behaviors,
This one kid, he came home and found his brother had killed himself; another girl's
mother had her prostituting when she was a kid… you do your best to think about that as
whatever is happening is happening. But just the nature of seeing that person every
single day and you get the same kind of behavior every single day - it's really hard. I
don't want to feel angry at that kid. I don't like not feeling empathy toward that kid.
Mr. Taylor cares about his students and their difficult experiences, but has trouble tapping into
this empathy when the student misbehaves in class. Teachers who pride themselves on being
caring and empathetic toward their students, like Mr. Taylor, may feel guilt when their own
emotions become difficult to manage, either internally or externally, further adding to teachers’
feelings of stress and burnout.
This cumulative effect of stress on teachers is important. Sixteen teachers shared how
trauma and stress make the job difficult, and how classroom management has become more
difficult as students come to school with more trauma and fewer coping skills, and as community
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 114
demographics change. Mr. Taylor discussed how he was considering a move into administration
because of his concern that he wouldn’t be able to do the job of teaching for his entire career
when he stated, “I guess you hear about how hard it is, because I feel like people know, but
unless you are actually doing it you don't really know.” The day-in and day-out of teaching the
same students, and not always having the skills or the support to effectively work through
conflict can be exhausting, which may lead to a discipline referral out of class as relief for the
teacher. Ms. Hartman shared how she believes these changes have negatively affected the
profession over the years:
I should not be talking about retirement in my 40s, I have another 20 years but I'm like,
oh gosh, when is the countdown coming? When can I get out? I mean you love it, you
wake up everyday, you're passionate, you love being here, you love teaching, you just
hate all that other stuff because it's so exhausting. I can have a great day and then that
one thing erases the whole day. Everything I did all day was pointless because that kid
just told me to f off and he's going to have his aunt come beat me up, and he’s back in
my class 10 minutes later.
This teacher details the exhaustion of working hard and feeling defeated. Twelve other teachers
shared how suspension can be positive when teachers and students have a break from each other,
but Trident teachers do not realize that the excessive use of punitive discipline within the district
is one of the primary factors that is making teachers’ jobs more difficult and exhausting. Every
time a student is referred outside of the classroom, teachers may have temporary relief when an
administrator assigns an in-school suspension or the student leaves class for discipline, but the
punitive discipline process rarely gives teachers the opportunity to solve the problem and restore
the relationship with the student themselves. Ms. Meyers, who works in a support role in the
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 115
district shared, “It’s hard for the teachers because there’s more on them and it’s hard for them to
even focus on the basic teaching or helping that student. It’s hard all the way around. What is the
best solution, who knows?”
This process of trial and error to find what works impacts the emotional strength of
teachers over time because of the excessive cognitive overload (Friedman, 1996). Based on the
prevalence in the transcripts, teacher emotion and the regulation of those emotions play a
significant role in the decisions teachers make during a disciplinary event, and appear to play a
role in the racial disparities in school discipline due to the frustration and stress over cultural
differences that have not been resolved proactively.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Motivational Needs
The findings from the collected data confirm that there is a motivation gap that exists in
order to reduce racial disparities in school discipline at Trident. Teachers’ self-efficacy and
negative emotion are barriers to achieving the organizational goal. This study indicates a need
for improvement in teachers’ confidence in incorporating culturally responsive classroom
management practices, as well as incorporation of self-regulation techniques to minimize the
effect of negative emotions on school discipline events.
Organizational Results and Findings
Organizational barriers were measured through analysis of detailed discipline data from
the 2017-18 school year at Trident that was provided via email to the researcher by a district
administrator, as well as through several interview questions, which were coded for themes.
Racial school climate was measured through an open-ended survey question asking teachers if
they felt relatively positive or relatively negative regarding the racial climate in their schools.
These responses were coded for themes and are presented below by frequency within the
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 116
transcripts. Clark and Estes (2008) explain that it is important to examine organizational
processes, procedures, and culture to determine whether there are barriers to the organization
achieving their goal. This section will discuss how organizational barriers impact the
stakeholder performance goal of reducing racial disparities in school discipline.
Cultural Models: A culture of control, with strict rules and prescribed disciplinary
consequences, creates an environment where teachers frequently refer students to
administration, and suspension is a common occurrence.
Finding: The findings from the collected data validate that cultural models at Trident
lead to frequent suspensions and a culture and climate of control.
Racial disparities in school discipline at Trident School District. To understand if
racial disparities exist in school discipline at Trident, the researcher examined discipline data that
included all in- and out-of-school suspensions during the 2017-18 school year. The data was
analyzed for overall rates of discipline, and disaggregated to examine discipline data by race,
grade, and referral reason. In all three schools, racial disparities in school discipline were
discovered, validating this influence. The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
(OJJDP) recommends documenting the presence of disproportionality using the Relative Rate
Index (RRI) Method. This involves comparing the rate of activity for students of color with the
rate of that activity for White students (Porowski, O’Conner, & Passa, 2014). RRI was
calculated by dividing the number of students of each race who were suspended by the total
number of students to find the rate of suspension. Then, the rate of suspension for Black,
HIspanic, and Asian students was divided by the rate of suspension for White students to find the
RRI, or how many times more likely students from each race are likely to be suspended as
compared to White students. Only White, Black, and Hispanic and Asian students were included
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 117
for all three schools, and Native American students were also included for Monroe High School,
since the population and suspension rates of other races are too low to determine reliable data.
Table 11 illustrates this data. At Monroe High School, Black students were 2.21 times more
likely to be suspended than White students. Hispanic, Asian and Native American students were
suspended at a lower rate than White students, as shown in the bottom row displaying the
Relative Rate Index.
Table 11
Relative Rate Index of Suspension by Race - Monroe High School
White Black Hispanic Asian Native Amer.
Total
population
513 197 270 188 3
Total
suspensions
235 198 92 11 1
Rate 45.8 101.0 34.0 5.90 33.0
Relative rate
index (RRI)
compared to
White
students
x 2.21 .74 .13 .72
At Adams High School, Black students were 4.53 times more likely to be suspended than White
students; Hispanic students were 2.73 times more likely to be suspended than White students,
and Asian students were 2.93 times more likely to be suspended as White students. Table 12
illustrates this information.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 118
Table 12
Relative Rate Index of Suspension by Race - Adams High School
White Black Hispanic Asian
Total population 548 118 177 27
Total
suspensions
118 115 104 17
Rate 21.5 97.5 58.8 63.0
Relative rate
index (RRI)
compared to
White students
x 4.53 2.73 2.93
At Madison High School, Black students were 2.75 more likely to be suspended as White
students, Hispanic students were 1.54 times more likely to be suspended as White students, and
Asian students were .09 times less likely to be suspended as White students. This information is
illustrated in Table 13.
Table 13
Relative Rate Index of Suspension by Race - Madison High School
White Black Hispanic Asian
Total population 400 306 189 60
Total
suspensions
341 717 247 5
Rate 85.0 234.0 131.0 8.30
Relative rate
index (RRI)
compared to
White students
x 2.75 1.54 .09
The data from all three schools in Trident school district was combined to determine that within
the district, Black students are 3.49 times more likely to be suspended as White students,
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 119
Hispanic students are 1.47 times more likely to be suspended, and Asian students were .253
times as likely to be suspended as White students. Table 14 illustrates this information.
Table 14
Relative Rate Index of Suspension by Race Trident School District
White Black Hispanic Asian
Total population 1,461 621 636 275
Total
suspensions
694 1,030 443 33
Rate 47.5 165.9 69.7 12.0
Relative rate
index (RRI)
compared to
White students
x 3.49 1.47 .253
It is also important to break down the reasons students were referred for discipline by
race, since research indicates that White students are referred for more objective offenses, like
smoking, and Black students are referred for more subjective offenses, such as disrespect.
Several objective offenses and several subjective offenses were chosen from each school to
examine racial disparities by the reason for referral. While Monroe High School appears to have
the lowest RRI, with Black students suspended 2.21 times as often as White students, the
breakdown of disparities gives a stronger picture of where disparities exist. Table 15 below
details several offenses at Monroe High School and the RRI for each. While Black students are
less likely to be suspended for smoking, and at similar rates for theft and being late to school, all
objective offenses, they are 2.6 times more likely to be suspended for a negative situation, 5.35
times more likely than White students to be referred for dangerous or unsafe behavior, and 6.25
times more likely to be referred for disruptive behavior, all more subjective offenses.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 120
Table 15
Monroe High School breakdown of suspensions by reason for referral
Black
students/relative to
White students
Hispanic
students/relative to
White students
Asian
students/relative to
White students
Smoking .35 .34 .12
Theft 1.3 .38 .27
Late to School 1.5 .37 .09
Failure to Obey ISS
Rules *
1.8 2.14 n/a
Fighting * 1.95 2.4 n/a
Negative Situation 2.6 .76 .55
Dangerous/ Unsafe
Behavior
5.35 1.19 .68
Disruptive Behavior 6.25 .76 n/a
Unserved Detention n/a - this reason for referral does not exist at Monroe HS
*10 or fewer total suspensions for this reason in 2017-2018
At Adams High School, Black and Hispanic students are less likely to be suspended for smoking,
but more likely to be suspended for a negative situation or unserved detention. This data does
not include which offenses students are assigned detention for, and if those referrals also
disproportionately affect Black students. Only suspension data was available for this study.
Table 16 below illustrates this data.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 121
Table 16
Adams High School breakdown of suspensions by reason for referral
Black students/relative to
White students
Hispanic students/relative to
White students
Smoking .53 .733
Late to School 1.76 1.17
Negative Situation 1.91 2.32
Dangerous/Unsafe Behavior 2.49 1.66
Fighting 5.0 4.17
Unserved Detention 5.5 3.3
Disrespect 10.0 5.83
Disruptive Behavior 18.75 22.5
Failure to Obey ISS Rules * 37.5 10.0
Theft n/a [only 2 total referrals for
this offense in 2017-2018]
n/a [only 2 total referrals for
this offense in 2017-2018]
*10 or fewer total suspensions for this reason in 2017-2018
Madison High School, which has the highest total number of suspensions, also exhibits racial
disparities in the number of suspensions assigned when broken down by the reason for referral.
Madison HS does not utilize the referral reason of negative situation. Table 17 shows that Black
students are 3.2 times more likely than White students to be suspended for disrespect and 3.36
times more likely to be suspended for disruptive behavior. Interestingly, the highest disparities
at Madison HS involve two relatively objective offenses, failure to obey rules in in-school
suspension, and fighting. These factors will be explored further in the organizational finding that
discusses racial school climate.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 122
Table 17
Madison High School breakdown of suspensions by reason for referral
Black students/relative to
White students
Hispanic students/relative to
White students
Smoking .98 n/a
Late to School 1.47 2.01
Dangerous/ Unsafe Behavior 2.18 1.59
Unserved Detention 2.79 1.37
Disrespect 3.2 1.15
Disruptive Behavior 3.36 1.81
Failure to Obey ISS Rules 3.61 2.71
Theft 3.87 1.41
Fighting 7.19 4.76
Negative Situation n/a [only 2 total referrals for
this offense in 2017-2018]
n/a [only 2 total referrals for
this offense in 2017-2018]
It is also important to compare serious disciplinary offenses, such as violence (which includes
fighting), vandalism, bullying, weapons, and substances, with other offenses that lead to
suspension that may not necessitate removal from the classroom setting. Table 18, below,
displays that classroom removal may not have been necessary for all of the assigned suspensions,
as there were a total of only 112 very serious incidents at Trident during the 2017-18 school year.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 123
Table 18
Violence, Vandalism, HIB, and Substance Offenses - Source: State Department of Education
Monroe HS Adams HS Madison HS
Violence 16 15 25
Vandalism 0 0 6
Weapons 1 0 3
Harassment,
Intimidation,
Bullying
6 0 4
Substances 17 4 15
Total unique very
serious incidents,
2017-18
40 19 53
Total Suspensions,
2017-18
537 337 1,310
It is also important to understand the primary reasons of referrals leading to suspension by the
number of incidents. Table 19 displays a breakdown of suspension data from all three Trident
schools.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 124
Table 19
Top 12 ranking of reasons for referral leading to suspension, 2017-2018 school year
Rank Monroe HS # of
susp.
Adams HS # of
susp.
Madison HS # of
susp.
1 Insubordination 89 Unserved
detention
107 Unserved detention 535
2 Late to school 56 Late to school 28 Late to school 126
3 Negative
situation
40 Negative
situation
27 Failure to obey rules
in ISS
126
4 Disruptive
behavior
38 Disrespect 21 Insubordination 96
5 Dangerous/
unsafe behavior
32 Disruptive
behavior
16 Dangerous/unsafe
behavior
82
6 Smoking 30 Dangerous/
unsafe behavior
15 Disrespect 44
7 Failure to obey
rules in ISS
27 Fight 15 Fight 35
8 Accumulation
of discipline
referrals
19 Insubordination 11 Disruptive behavior 31
9 Cutting class 19 Smoking/
possession
11 Cutting class 30
10 Theft/
Possession of
property
18 Physical
altercation
10 Accumulation of
discipline referrals
23
11 Verbal
altercation
17 Failure to obey
ISS rules
8 Disorderly conduct 19
12 Electronic
device
15 Threat/simple 8 Unauthorized part of
the building
15
Racial school climate. Racial school climate is important to examine since an
environment where all races are valued, and students experience teacher support and acceptance,
increases the sense of belonging and commitment to school for students of color (Byrd &
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 125
Chavous, 2011), contributing to a pattern of fewer disciplinary referrals. Although questions
about the influence race has on school discipline and student behavior at Trident were asked
during the interview phase of the project, and classroom practices that indicate a positive racial
school climate are indicated on the Culturally Responsive Classroom Management Self-Efficacy
scale, the researcher believed it important to offer respondents an anonymous, open-ended
opportunity to share their thoughts on the racial climate at their schools, as encouraged by
Monteith and Spicer (2000). Question #36 of the survey asked respondents to complete one of
the following sentences, “The racial school climate at my school is generally positive because…”
or “The racial school climate at my school is generally negative because…”. Seventy-four
respondents chose to answer the questions, with 45 indicating a positive racial school climate, 10
indicating a negative school climate, and 19 choosing not to state whether they felt the climate
was positive or negative, but adding to the narrative. Responses from the survey question
concurred only 61% of the time, indicating that the influence is partially validated and that there
was high variability in teachers’ responses to the question of racial school climate.
Quotations were coded for themes and calculated for frequency. Generally, the themes
correspond with the themes that were discovered in the interviews and have been interwoven into
the results and findings section; however, there were several distinct findings from the open-
ended question that will be discussed here: (a) high student diversity; (b) teachers’ perceptions
of how they create a welcoming culture; (c) what teachers need to better support students of
color; and (d) a pattern of racial tensions that are real but rarely discussed.
The most significant finding is that 44 of the respondents discussed high student
diversity, and the richness of cultures present within their classrooms, with 23 of these responses
expressing a positive racial climate for the reason of diversity. Only two teachers, who work at
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Adams High School, the least diverse of the three, shared that the lack of diversity leads to
students not having an understanding of other races or cultures, with one teacher stating, “They
often stereotype and are quick to judge.” The 26 teachers that shared comments on the diversity
of the student body and how well the students get along, said things such as, “I teach in a district
that has a wonderful mix of ethnic backgrounds”, “students have been able to navigate the racial
issues with stunning rewards”, and “what amazes me is how open the students are to students of
different faiths and cultures”. Many of the students have attended school together since grade
school or middle school, and other teachers mentioned how students of different races
intermingle socially, sit together at lunch, date each other, and interact positively in the
classroom. Eighteen teachers mentioned racial tension between students, such as, “I wouldn’t go
so far as to say that the racial climate is perfectly tolerant. There are groups within the larger
group who have expressed intolerance, but those voices are drowned out by the others.” Others
stated, “there is less diversity farther up the academic totem pole you go. For instance, AP
[Advanced Placement] classes mainly consist of white students” and that “there are a few
students who harbor racial tension.” One teacher wrote about a class discussion about white
privilege, stating, “Several white students were arguing rather aggressively how that it is not
actually a thing/problem, despite all of the students of color in the class, attempting to tell them
otherwise.”
This teacher found the experience upsetting for her students of color who felt as if their
experiences and realities were being denied by their White classmates. This comment was one
of only two that shared specifically talking about race in the classroom. Generally, it appears as
if there are positive feelings on whether students get along well with each other in a diverse
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environment, although it is not without difficulties. It is important to note however, that
diversity, while “laudable, is not the same thing as equity” (Bensimon, 2004, p. 50).
Two teachers contrasted the students’ integration of diversity with less acceptance of
diversity from teachers, with one stating, “We have a diverse student population but a mostly
white teacher/staff population... I think that the perception amongst many non-white students is
that there is a bias towards them from white teachers.” Several teachers shared negative
mindsets about students, whether they saw the racial school climate as positive or negative. For
example, one teacher feels positive because, “The teachers are fair and understanding. The
students who receive office referrals get them because they are extremely disrespectful and
display behaviors that are inappropriate for any culture”. Another teacher feels negative
because, “I often observe different behavioral patterns among different races.” A third shares
they feel negative because, “some groups are not held to the same discipline standards as others
are.” While these teachers do not come out and specifically discuss race, they imply that
students of color are a problem and not behaving as expected.
Teachers shared a number of practices that they perceive to create a welcoming culture
for students from all backgrounds. Many of the comments indicate positive classroom practices,
such as providing students with supplies, greeting students at the door, creating positive rapport,
sharing personal information, and trying to address individual student needs. One teacher
shared, “[I] conduct my classroom in a way that (I hope) that students can feel that they can
share and be themselves”. None expressed a deep understanding of culturally responsive
practices that build learning partnerships and intellective capacity for all students, or of
restorative practices and other discipline practices shown to improve school climate.
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Next, a number of suggestions were made for the types of resources teachers need to
improve the racial climate at their schools: these will be considered for the recommendations
made in the next chapter, but will also be shared in part here to consider these recommendations
in the context of the racial school climate. One teacher shared how they had made mistakes and
learned how much they didn’t know about other cultures and religions, and requested, “I wish we
had more culture/race sensitivity training.” Another teacher was more focused on staffing and
said that, “we don’t give the kids what they need because money is always used as an excuse.”
Three other teachers indicated enjoying learning new strategies from their colleagues or through
professional development. One of these teachers talked about being more inclusive and
culturally responsive by engaging in difficult conversations, and suggested, “I think we could do
a better job at mitigating these tense situations and forge some real understanding.”
The final common theme regarding racial school climate is that “unspoken racial unrest”,
as one teacher called it, is real at Trident, but is rarely discussed. Individual teachers shared that
students sometimes refuse to provide their names when asked, that one of the sending towns is
perceived by students to be discriminatory, and that “it is all Black males that are causing the
majority of discipline problems”. Additionally, a number of interview respondents seemed
reluctant to discuss race in depth. Colorblind perspectives that deny race as a factor in school
discipline were expressed by many teachers in the open-ended survey question, and define the
district’s practices around race. Administrator B dismissed the idea of differential discipline by
race and shared, “A lot of poverty is caused by bad decision making,” and joked that they may
need to start suspending White students to make sure the school was meeting “mandates based
on what they call ‘equity’”. Mr. Robinson shared his discomfort answering questions about race
because, “Everybody says they don't see color but I don't really, because I've played with them,
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coached with them, been around groups of people.” Mr. Robinson was not the only teacher who
was not sure what terms to use to talk about race, or to claim not to see color. For example, one
teacher shared that they feel positive about the racial climate because, “so often my interactions
and the interactions I observe have literally nothing to do with race. I am heartened that I rarely
see or feel any effect of ‘the race card.’” Three teachers said they believed discipline differences
could be attributed to socioeconomics rather than race, and only two of the 74 respondents to the
open-ended question brought up concerns regarding racial differences in disciplinary practices.
One teacher shared, “...some of our building’s top performing students are students of color.
Students and staff are welcoming to all. It is behavior that is responded to, not race. Positive for
certain.” This unwillingness to examine issues of race in relation to school discipline, and use of
Black exceptionalism (Alexander, 2013) as evidence, even when there are clear disparities for
students of color, is an important element of the culture and climate at Trident.
It is also important to examine what was not said about race during these interviews, and
whose voices were not represented. While this was discussed in the limitations section of
Chapter 3, it should be recognized that of the few teachers of color in the district (approximately
8 teachers out of 298), two participated in the interview portion of the research, although several
contributed their thoughts regarding racial school climate to the open-ended question in the
survey. Anonymity in the survey appeared to be more comfortable for people of color who
possibly did not want to be tokenized by the interview process, even though several options for
interviews outside of the school setting were offered. This was also the case for teachers who
expressed that they believed students of color were responsible for problems at the school, who
chose anonymity perhaps because they believed their views would not be accepted.
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Negative biases and stereotypes influence discipline disparities. While only 1.5% of teachers
believe that Black students are being purposefully targeted for suspension, 14 teachers mention
biases and stereotypes that may lead to differential referral and/or suspension for Black students.
A “cultural mismatch” between students and teachers can lead to bias and stereotypes that may
result in differential disciplinary referrals for Black students. Cultural mismatch is defined as the
unfamiliarity of White teachers with the interactional patterns of students of color that may lead
to misinterpretation (Townsend, 2000). Teachers may attribute certain behaviors to disrespect on
the part of the student. While 97.4% of teachers at Trident are White, only 48% of students are
White. Teachers make assumptions about what is normal and respond with discipline when
students act outside of that scope. Demographics have changed dramatically at Trident over the
past five years. Administrator A shared details of how the district has changed, “...teachers that
have been here for 15 years, which is the majority of the teachers in this building, have seen a
tremendous change in the population.” This administrator believes it is important for the staff to
understand the changes in the district in order to better meet the needs of the students. They are
aware that many of the teachers feel unprepared and stressed regarding demographic changes.
This mismatch in culture can be difficult for staff who are juggling various responsibilities and
re-learning how to do their jobs. Mr. Taylor discussed the cultural differences due to a diverse
student population and White teaching force when he shared, “The standards some of the
teachers have aren't the same, so they probably don’t understand if a kid in class is talking at a
different volume but at home that's what they do all the time.” Teachers often are not prepared
to navigate the challenges that accompany cultural differences in appropriate behavior.
Another difficulty for teachers is that they are often not aware of a student’s home or
cultural background because Trident is so diverse racially and socioeconomically. Ms. Zanes
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discussed a helpful meeting teachers had with their local police chief, who clearly described the
demographic changes in the community to the staff in order to help them understand their
students’ experiences. Ms. Zanes shared, “Here you have people, and she said it straight up, ‘I
have people literally living in houses that don't have floors and then I have million-dollar
mansions on Park Place.” Teachers and administrators can struggle to bridge this divide in
culture, even when they notice it and attempt to meet families where they are. Administrator C
talked about understanding the differences in what is appropriate between school and home, but
also upholding the discipline code when they shared that they tell parents:
We don't condone fighting but we understand that when push comes to shove it is
culturally acceptable by your family to stand up for yourself and to confront. So it's very
difficult [for parents] to understand that there are repercussions for these actions. If we
look at our school as a whole and the community in and of itself, it's different that it isn't
acceptable here but we know that outside of school, it is acceptable, and warranted, and
encouraged.
While some teachers discuss cultural differences between families, they have difficulty
naming these differences, and may resort to stereotypes that further disconnect them from their
students. Ms. Ivers shared her perspective on being late to class,
For us, being on time to class is a big deal, but I feel there are many people [for whom]
being on time is just not a thing. They get there when they get there, and everyone else
can just wait. So, on one hand it's culture I guess but on the other hand, how does that
translate to the working world? You can't just roll in at 9:30 if your job starts at 8. You
can't do it.
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This teacher sees a difference in values when in actuality it may be a difference in defining the
task. Her subtle use of “us” when speaking to a White researcher indicates a divide, or
“othering” of students who are not White, and the use of a stereotype that people of color do not
value being on time.
Several teachers shared differences between their students’ home lives and their own.
Ms. Evans contrasted her own “nuclear” or “traditional” home with her students who may live
with one parent, grandparent, or a friend’s parent, “The adults are never home because the adults
are working unfortunately multiple jobs to try to make ends meet. They don't have a lot of
structure in the home because they just can't.” Ms. Evans attempts to avoid making assumptions
about what is normal for her students, but in the process she shares several assumptions that she
has already made: that the students’ homes are unstructured or less desirable than her own. Bias
can occur when teachers view the differences in students’ lives and their own not simply as
cultural differences, but as deficiencies that make students more likely to misbehave or perform
poorly in school. While this teacher may appear to be empathetic toward her students, she also
relies on stereotypes that may communicate low expectations or judgment that maintain
traditional power structures. This cultural mismatch may lead to discipline referrals based on
misunderstandings, unclear expectations, or rebellion against controlling policies. Ms. Evans
continued by sharing her culture shock and naivete about other cultures and home lives,
I always refer to my home life as Wonder Bread ...so when I see these kids who have
nobody at home or their parent’s a stripper for crying out loud, I sometimes don't know
how to relate to that, and I recognize that and I wish I had more tools for that.
Ms. Evans shares common stereotypes but also reflects on her need to incorporate new strategies
and tools to support her students coming from different cultural backgrounds. It is important to
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note that none of the teachers, throughout all 32 interviews, discussed any strengths of their
students’ families, only difficulties or limitations. Ms. Hartman continues to discuss cultural
differences from a deficiency perspective,
I asked my kids [students], ‘Do you sit down and do you have dinner at night with your
family?’ ‘No.’ Most of them will have cereal for dinner or they’ll make ramen noodles
and they’ll eat by themselves. Not like mom and dad are there. In my growing up, 5 on
the dot, everyday, we had dinner. Everybody, same seats, dinner, same chores, clean the
table, no dessert until you eat everything on your plate. We didn't speak unless spoken
to. ‘How's your day today? What did you guys learn?’ No cursing. We never cursed
around anybody. So I'm adapting to that difference like when I say to a parent, or email a
parent, ‘Your child today told another student that he could suck his blank’. And the
response back to me is not like, ‘Oh my God that's so vulgar’, or ‘I'll handle it’, or, ‘Write
him up’. The response is, ‘What did that kid say to my kid to make him say that?’
This teacher’s shock at the difference in cultural norms can be seen as decontextualization, the
practice of viewing a situation without looking at it within the context of the student’s and
parent’s histories, experiences, and culture. This leads to continued conflict between teachers
and students, and negative assumptions about who they are as people and as students. This also
leads to higher referrals for students of color for offenses that are subjective in nature, such as
disrespect, insubordination, or verbal altercations. While Black students at Trident are 3.16
times as likely to be suspended for any offense than White students, they are 5.8 times as likely
to be suspended for Disruptive Behavior, indicating that cultural misunderstandings can lead to
disciplinary referrals for Black students.
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A counter-theme to bias and stereotypes comes from teachers who are inclined to modify
traditional expectations based on cultural norms. They may often feel pressure from other
teachers to conform to the system or status quo. Mr. Lare talks about the difficulty he has
running his classroom in a culturally responsive manner, because of the contrast it creates
between his classroom and those of his colleagues. He shares,
When kids go to a different classroom and they're not provided with that choice or
autonomy or freedom that keeps them from getting referred in my room, they act out.
They're no longer comfortable and if they're comfortable in my room for 15 minutes but
then uncomfortable [there], all that energy comes out in behaviors.
The mismatch in expectations from classroom to classroom is confusing for students and
teachers, leading to conflict and confrontation within the classroom or school.
Four teachers mentioned how the current political climate has increased racial tensions in
the building. Ms. O’Brien mentioned how the building is “stirred up”, and that in the current
racial and political climate, she hears more students calling teachers racist than she did in the
past. She shares how she feels judged by students when she says, “I often feel like the ‘white
woman’ with the kids that aren’t mine...last year in my junior class, man it was hard to get my
foot in there and be seen as one of them.” While this teacher notices how race plays a role in
how she is perceived by students, she does not appear to be aware of how race shapes students’
experiences in important ways. Teachers are in a position of power, while students of color lack
both positional power as well as racial power, and have much more to lose during a conflict than
a teacher. Collectively, the staff has not deeply engaged in dialogue about race, or explored how
White supremacy and racism are manifested in schools, and the possible consequences to
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students. Throughout the study, teachers often appeared uncomfortable discussing race, and this
reluctance and hesitancy to talk about race contributes to issues in the racial school climate.
One administrator discussed how he chooses to face bias head-on, sharing that he knows
a Black boy walking in the hallway is treated differently than a White honor-student girl, stating
that, “Our conditioned responses are different to similar stimuli,” and the Black student is more
likely to be questioned for a pass or treated with suspicion than the White student. Ms. Hartman
also speaks to this bias when she shares,
White kids, if they're in the hallway and they're good kids, and they're honor students,
people won't ask them for a pass. But if it's a black kid, and he's a troublemaker, and he's
always getting in trouble, it’s where's your pass? So I've seen that, and I don't know if
people are even thinking about it or if it's just happening naturally because that person is
always in trouble and they think, alright let me ask, do you have a pass, are you cutting?
You're assuming.
Student reputation and racial stigma are factors in the discipline process, as shared by several
respondents, and these issues should be considered as a contribution to the racial disparities in
discipline. Mr. Lare discusses the biases he sometimes hears teachers voice at school when they
say:
‘Oh I got a transfer student from Monroe High School. He got 30 referrals from cutting
class.’ Okay, so you're writing him off? That doesn't mean he's going to cut your class.
Maybe what that teacher did to him caused him to cut class. Don't be that person. Or,
‘Oh I just got another student I heard he's got an ankle bracelet on’. Okay, he's still a
person, man.
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Unseen and unexplored bias can lead to differential outcomes for students of color. The bias and
stereotyping that results from excessive discipline affects the entire school community and
culture. Mr. Newton shared, “Even though students of color get in trouble more, I think there are
also negative consequences toward the white students. I think it lends to a racial bias where they
see their friends that are in trouble more. It feeds a negative stereotype.”
Teachers may maintain unconscious biases that unfairly target students of color. Ms.
Xavier, a white teacher with 17 years experience, shares the advice she gave a student who had
been in trouble several times during the school year and was feeling targeted:
“You've been in trouble a few times this year. Now, they're going to watch you. Don't do
anything wrong. Don't put yourself in a bad situation.’ It bothers me because I know how great
some of my kids are, and sometimes it escalates unnecessarily.” Differential observation of
students by race is more prominent when students of color are in groups, which can be broken up
by administrators or teachers wishing to maintain control and result in discipline referrals. Ms.
Xavier explains:
If I see a group of African-American boys, and I see a certain administrator going
towards them, I will go over, and say something nice to one of them. Or I'll say, how's
my boy doing? Just to make them realize, you're not going to yell at them in front of me.
And just because they're Black and in a group doesn't mean they're bad. Okay, maybe
they're yelling and clapping each other up and cursing a little because that's what
teenagers do, but it doesn't make them bad. Just because they congregate doesn’t mean
something bad is going to happen.
This is upsetting to Ms. Xavier, who believes that when a student reacts negatively to control, the
administrator may believe that their bias has proven to be correct. Profiling students based on
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race may lead to confrontation in the hallways or during a discipline event. Ms. Xavier
completes her explanation of the steps that lead to discipline referral based on a teacher or
administrator’s bias when she discusses what she believes happens during a tense confrontation
between a student and teacher or administrator, “The unconscious hope [of the
teacher/administrator], is like, I know them, I'm going to get them. I'm going to push their
buttons to escalate. I'm going to make them say something to me, so I can suspend them…”
This teacher sees how bias and stereotypes play out in school discipline in her school, but she
works within the system to offer her students resources and support to navigate the system, as
she often feels powerless to change it.
It is important to note that very few staff members observed differential discipline based
on a student’s race, meaning that they did not think that Black students were intentionally
referred for or assigned more severe discipline because of their race. Three teachers saw that
students may be more likely to receive discipline based on their family situations; but the same
number of teachers believed that the same students are less likely to be suspended because of
their race or difficult family situations, as one teacher wrote, “I would say that I feel that from
what I've observed that it seems that we have higher expectations for White kids.” Eighteen
teachers believed there was no difference in discipline based on student race, as one teacher
shared, “I think it's more of a cultural issue, an economic issue, an expectation issue, not so much
because of their race, if that makes sense.” Eight teachers said that they didn’t know if there was
a difference in discipline based on student race. “I don't think so, but I'm not the disciplinarian
so I don't know. Now, I don't know if they're warning and counseling more White kids and
giving more Black kids detentions, I don't know.” Six teachers noticed a difference in discipline
based on student race, as Ms Hartman mentioned, “ I've actually physically seen drugs involved
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with students, Black and White, and the White kid didn't get disciplined and the Black kid did. I
feel like some kids are assumed to be wrong more often than not.” A number of teachers
mentioned that they saw more students of color getting in trouble, even if they didn’t believe
they were being unfairly suspended. One teacher shared in the survey:
It's noticeable, because I have ISS duty this year, that more kids of color are in ISS. it
would be hard for me to say if a White kid and a Black kid, if the same thing happens,
how administration handles both of them.
The systemic nature of stereotypes and school discipline practices can be invisible to educators
who continue practices they experienced as students and learned as young educators. Disruption
of long-held beliefs about school and punishment is difficult to initiate and even more
challenging to sustain.
An over-commitment to rules, order and control. The theme of control and order
appears 25 times within the transcripts, sometimes discussed explicitly and often detected in the
language and phrasing used by the respondents. This includes some military/criminal justice
phrases such as, “they [teachers] are on the front lines so to speak,” “I’m going to sentence you,”
“they thought this kid should’ve been strung up,” “I run a pretty tight ship,” and “I’m the one
that breaks them [freshmen] in.” This language is often unconscious and points toward the
system of control that positions teachers against students. Mr. Newton shared:
Some people have the inherent personality that if a kid doesn't follow the rules, they're
going to play police officer and just discipline them no matter what. This is the rule, you
broke it. Then you have faculty members that are, oh, you broke the rules so let me yell
at you for 10 minutes and then punish you on top of that, making the situation worse.
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The culture of control allows these practices to continue, and teachers are empowered to use
them because they are built into the system. Administrator B added, “There are teachers that are
very black and white. They want the maximum punishment - and whatever that is, double it,”
illustrating that punishment and power are prevalent, and that administrators and teachers
sometimes feel pressured to follow the letter of the policy.
Many teachers and administrators who participated in this study do not agree with this
punitive approach, and run their classrooms in a different manner. This mismatch in practices
can be confusing and draining for teachers on either end of the spectrum: those who approach
their jobs as rule-followers, upholding the system as they are supposed to, and those who work
around the system to meet the needs of their students. The system itself is creating this difficult
choice for teachers to make: do their job by following the requirements in the discipline
handbook, or rebel from the requirements to uphold their own beliefs about what is appropriate
for their students. This daily choice contributes to the exhaustion and burnout teachers
experience.
It is important to look at the system of control rather than placing blame for the problem
on individual teachers: the system exists whether or not any teacher retires, moves, or leaves the
profession. Several teachers shared their perspective on upholding the discipline code. Ms.
O’Brien shared:
My father is a marine and my mom is a nurse so I grew up in a family where there's a
right way to do things and a wrong way to do things. If my mom would go to work and
she had to do a report, she counted up the medicine, and there's X number of pills and
there are protocols and procedures.
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Teachers like Ms. O’Brien looking for protocols and procedures find them in the discipline code,
and may not see or value the unwritten codes that some teachers use to be more flexible with
their students. Ms. Waters adds to this perspective when she says, “Rules are rules, and if a
school puts a rule in place - everybody has a boss. I've been asked to comply with that rule.
Hats don't bother me, but it's a school rule.” These teachers adhering to the established system
accurately see themselves as doing their jobs as they are prescribed.
Other teachers take this to a more extreme level, and when there are demographic
changes within the school, some educators call for even more control and punishment. Ms.
Meyers shares:
There’s just been so much that I’ve seen that they should have 3-4 days [suspension] for
what they did. If we set a standard in the beginning of school and say this is what we do
to everybody. This is our rules. This is the way we’re going to do it. Set something in
stone so that people know it’s not because Johnny is whatever, whatever [a person of
color]. This is what happens if your child does this. Don’t back down. Set an example.
Frequently people who feel this way are vocal at school and in the community, leaving teachers
who disagree not many options but to close their doors and quietly adopt alternative methods.
When teachers who are strictly following the rules see that not everyone is adhering to the
discipline code as precisely as they are, this can create some tension, as they call for more
consistency among the staff. Ms. Hartman illustrates this point, sharing how she wishes
administrators and other teachers would draw the line with parents,
I don't know if it's, well your kid had their cell phone out in class again we are taking the
kid’s cell phone you have to come and pick the cell phone up. Until you come and pick
that cell phone up that cell phone will sit here in this lock box. Your kid was just in a
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fight, we are calling the police department, they are coming, they're taking them to the
police department. You will pick them up at the police department.
“Tightening up” discipline disproportionately targets students of color when the focus is on
control and compliance rather than on community building or positive behavior supports.
Other teachers shared how rigidity and control can backfire, and practices they employ to
avoid it or work around it. Administrator A shared, “I believe, philosophically, gray can be our
friend in discipline. Sometimes I think it is easier for people to... [indicates looking at the
discipline code] let me find the column, let me find the row, here's where it is...” This
administrator’s practice of contextualizing the problem, or seeing it within the lens of the student
as a whole person, and what brought that student to the point of a misbehavior, contrasts with the
views presented above when educators look at a behavior and where it fits on the matrix of
consequences and punishment. Administrator D adds more to this thought of meeting students
where they are in order to start to see little wins when you work with them, “it’s not just you did
this, you’re out, goodbye, I don’t want to hear it. There are times for that, maybe there are certain
things that it is what it is. But I think spending time with the kids and explaining it to them [is
important].” Looking at discipline as an opportunity for learning and behavior change is not
how the discipline system is designed at Trident, so it may be difficult for teachers to look for the
context of what occurred when there is a discipline issue if they have not been explicitly taught
how to do that. Ms. Vance adds her perspective,
I handle a lot of my issues in the classroom myself. I kind of take on not only the
facilitator of the material they have to know within the classroom but I also try to keep an
open mind because you really don't know what you're getting with what happened prior
to them coming into the room. Being nurturing, firm, caring and providing the education
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that they're there to receive all has to mesh together to be what the teacher's role is.
Because you don't know.
Teachers who understand that there may be unknown factors in their student’s lives, and to take
these things into consideration when navigating conflicts in the classroom, feel as if their
relationships with students are stronger and discipline problems are fewer. These teachers have
found a way around the culture of control to incorporate culturally responsive practices.
Many resources at Trident are allocated toward practices upholding the punitive system
of discipline. At Trident, each school has a principal and two assistant principals who share
disciplinary responsibilities. They also utilize teachers with half-time responsibilities as “student
coordinators” to assign discipline (between one and three coordinators at each school); assign
two teachers per class period to staff the in-school suspension room; and assign several teachers
at each school with daily discipline duties such as running attendance/tardy data, monitoring
social probation/lunch detention and assigning discipline or handing out detention/suspension
slips to students. Each school employs security guards and the district recently advertised to hire
an armed police officer/attendance officer. Staff members are utilized to work after-school
detentions and Saturday detentions. Secretarial support is necessary to handle the paperwork
involved in handling the thousands of discipline referrals each year. These human labor costs
can become invisible as traditional disciplinary practices are accepted as appropriate and
necessary. One teacher summed up the beliefs behind the current system when he shared,
This is a privilege to be here not a right. I mean you have to be here by law but you're
going to obey by the rules and if you're not, you're going to go. So you've given up your
right to be here.
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While there is much evidence in the transcripts and data of the culture of control, a strong
counter-theme also exists in the transcripts. A number of respondents shared how important
flexibility is for teachers to be successful in relating to their students, an approach that defies the
official rigid system of control. Several teachers expressed how being flexible has helped them
build relationships and trust with their students, and feel they are also more successful in
handling conflict or discipline issues with their students, as Ms. Adams shared when she said,
“Teachers that are a little more flexible, not as rigid, tend to do better with a lot of kids”.
Examples given included allowing students to listen to music on their phones as they work,
allowing wave caps and hats in the classroom, and most frequently, talking with students about a
situation rather than writing them up for discipline. Ms. Union shared how she incorporates
flexibility in her classroom, giving the example of a student who has his hood up but is also
paying attention to the lesson.
I know I am supposed to be reinforcing the school rule but if it isn't one that makes sense
to me then I have a hard time. I feel like it's a pick my battles kind of thing. If the kid
feels attacked, thinking every time I walk in that room she's going to say something to me
about my hat or my clothes or my pants or something, I think it starts to build that kind of
a relationship with the student instead of, oh she's okay with that and I can be more
comfortable and participate and still answer questions even though I'm not following the
dress code.
Ms. Union makes a conscious choice to prioritize her classroom according to learning goals
versus according to discipline and control mandates. Mr. Lare concurs when he shares, “The 50-
minute block I have them in my class they're not going all of a sudden conform to my policies
and procedures and totally become a robot.” Seeing his students as whole people who enter his
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classroom with lives and stories and difficulties enables Mr. Lare to restructure the classroom
environment to be more welcoming, encouraging autonomy and independence. The
juxtaposition of these practices with the overuse of suspension and punishment creates a
misalignment in culture and climate that affects all of the Trident stakeholders.
Cultural Settings: Communication protocols and practices do not allow for much
time for connection or discussion between teachers, families, administration, and students
regarding behavioral or disciplinary issues.
Finding: The findings from the collected data validate that communication practices
between and among teachers, families, students and administration contribute to the overuse of
punitive discipline.
Limited connection between school and home. Significant disconnection between
school and home is an organizational factor that influences Trident teachers’ knowledge and
motivation regarding effective school discipline practices, as 100% of respondents mentioned
aspects of this disconnection during interviews. A lack of meaningful communication, few
opportunities to build partnerships with parents, and a cultural mismatch between school and
home contribute to the high rate of suspension as well as the racial disparity in school discipline
at Trident. A working relationship with students’ families is important. When forging
connections between school and home, it is necessary for educators to focus on the assets that are
present within communities and “to honor and value the rich and varied practices of communities
of color” (Paris & Alim, 2014). These practices, as evidenced by the 84 times parent
involvement is mentioned in the thirty-two interviews, are unfamiliar to many of the Trident
staff, resulting in deep misunderstandings between school and home. For example, Ms. Davis,
who earlier discussed her emotional state during a discipline event, shared her perspective on
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parent support regarding student behavior when she said, “I think also if there aren't people
telling them that it's unacceptable, then it doesn't really matter. They get to stay home and sleep
all day or play video games or do whatever.” The tendency to blame parents for student
behavior or for a lack of behavior change is evident in this response and 37 others.
Related to the lack of meaningful communication between school and home, teachers at
Trident also tend to view cultural differences in the community as deficits, and by doing so may
be further alienating parents and guardians. Ms. Brady talked about her belief that differences in
behavior based on race are due to factors in the home such as leniency, structure, consistency and
repercussions. She shares:
When you go from a place where you have no structure at all to a place that has
expectations and structure it's probably a culture shock. When it's like, okay you're going
to sit here for 50 minutes and do this, they may say no.
This response centers on the student conforming to structural expectations, framed as a deficit
within students’ families that prevents them from being successful in school. A traditional view
of schooling, with emphasis on compliance and “sit here and do this”, is embedded into this
professional’s perspective on how misbehavior is defined, and aligns with a traditional
framework for education rather than a culturally responsive one. The organizational culture at
Trident, including its communication practices, does little to bridge the divide between school
and home. One administrator expressed his frustration with teachers’ reluctance to engage with
families when he said, “Just make a phone call to say, ‘Hey, I have a concern about your son or
daughter.’ I mean, that’s why we’re here.” Communication procedures and protocols, along with
other organizational and developmental factors that can make engaging with high school parents
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difficult, contribute to chronic discipline referrals that lead to suspension, especially for students
whose cultural norms do not match with the traditional structure of school.
Teachers’ comments regarding parents and families focus on getting students and parents
to comply with the school’s wishes, rather than trying to adapt practices to meet the needs and
values of the students. Ms. Hartman shares:
If you could you somehow make a parent inconvenienced eventually they’ll say, I'm tired
of having to leave work to deal with your BS at school, get it together. So either that will
happen or, I don't know, maybe the parents will transfer the kids somewhere else.
Ms. Hartman shares a view that appeared a number of times in the transcripts: if students can’t
comply to the expectations, then they don’t belong in the classroom. This belief contributes to
the chasm between school and home and to the acceptance of the overuse of suspension by many
of the staff.
When teachers and parents blame each other for disciplinary issues, focus is diverted
from where it should be to create change: on the organizational culture that limits positive and
strength-based engagement between school and home. There is also a lack of knowledge of
alternative practices from both teachers and parents that could initiate greater collaboration and
communication. This was exhibited when teachers were asked what practices they believed
would be helpful for their schools to implement, and only two teachers could name and describe
restorative discipline practice. None of the teachers named any specific culturally responsive
pedagogy or practice. Teachers say they are receptive to ideas and help, and report that parents
sometimes request their help, but when either group does not receive the resources and
systematic support that they need, frustration sets in and parents and teachers can blame each
other, as shown by all but three of the teachers expressing some frustration with parents, rather
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than uniting to affect real change in the system. As Ms. Ivers, shares about reaching out to
parents:
No, not a lot of backup. Sometimes if I do get an email back, it's ‘thanks for letting me
know’. Or it's, ‘what else are you going to do to solve this problem’? That kind of thing.
Maybe they don't know what to do. And are looking for guidance about how to do it,
which there's only so much I can say from a classroom standpoint. I can't really speak to
what I think could be occurring outside of school.
While many participants reference parents who “don’t care” about their child’s education, this
response clearly indicates parents asking for help, and not receiving it. The lack of response or
support from parents is shared by many teachers in this study, such as when Mr. Taylor shared
that he will leave messages from parents and not hear back from them, “That's another eye-
opening thing, you realize some of these kids’ home lives, some parents won't ever respond to
you. They might not be able to or they just might not care to....”
These views point toward a frustration and disconnection from families toward school
and teachers for not offering solutions, support, or a team approach to meeting their child’s
needs. By the time students reach high school, families may conclude, based on disconnection as
well as discipline referrals, that their child is not being treated fairly by schools. Race-neutral
policies and practices at Trident, such as claiming to be colorblind or not engaging in race-
related inquiry, are likely adding to this disconnection. Acknowledgment of demographic
changes and willingness to engage in conversations around race and oppressive structures are
important for increasing family engagement.
When teachers and parents both feel as if they do not have the tools necessary to solve
problems at school, and are dissatisfied with the answers they receive from each other, the divide
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between home and school widens further. Teachers may adopt a deficit view as Ms. Brady does
when she shares, “Then again most of our parents are doing the best with what they have and
what they know. A lot of times on the other hand the parents feel that their kids aren't doing
anything wrong.” These beliefs, that parents can’t do anything more to help, and that they might
not be supportive anyway, further damage the relationship between school and home. The
organizational issue of limited authentic communication and collaboration between school and
home, as well as a lack of authentic power and agency for families within the school district,
deeply influences Trident teachers’ knowledge and motivation regarding school discipline. The
cultural divide that exists between the community and the schools is apparent in dozens of
comments made by the teachers in this study, and should be examined thoroughly to determine
its influence on the racial disparity in school discipline at Trident. More of these comments will
be shared in the final organizational finding, which discusses communication protocols at
Trident. Ms. Ivers shared her frustration with this disconnection as she shares, “We need to find
a way to help and not berate, to inspire and not say your kid’s always in trouble.” Creating
authentic connections with families is key to addressing behavior and discipline concerns.
Communication protocols and procedures. Connecting stakeholders throughout the
school community through effective communication practices is an important factor in creating a
positive school climate (Howard, 2007). This is especially important in suburban districts like
Trident that are becoming more diverse and wish to make all families feel welcome in the
school. While a number of teachers and administrators have established positive rapport and
relationships with parents, there are few structural supports in place to create a rich partnership
between school and home. Additionally, systems of communication between staff and
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administration regarding disciplinary events can be automated and impersonal, perhaps
increasing the use of disciplinary referrals rather than other methods of problem-solving.
Communication between teachers and parents can be difficult for both sets of
stakeholders. A number of teachers expressed their preference to using email rather than phone
calls to communicate with families, as Ms. Jones shared that while a conversation may take 15 or
20 minutes, an email is much quicker. She also seems to struggle with the skills needed to make
an effective yet time-efficient phone call, :
I tend to not be able to stop talking and then I can't tell somebody to stop talking. I feel
like I'm being rude if I say I have to go now. I had three classes of math lab when I first
got here. For those kids I was calling home a lot. It was crazy amounts of prep time that
you're spending just on the phone.
While electronic communication has made communication easier in some ways, it can also be
impersonal and not necessarily assist in solving the problem, especially if rapport has not already
been established between the teacher and parent. Ms. Grimes shared that she doesn’t understand
why some teachers seem “terrified” to call parents and prefer to use email,
“Why didn't you just call, why did you email, why is that scary? If you call for a good
thing, that second phone call is not so bad.” Ms. Ivers expanded upon this fear when she
explained her reluctance to call home:
I feel like things could easily spiral out of control on the phone call. You’re kind of
taking a parent aback with something their kid has done and so I feel much more like a
parent is likely to come back to me with, how dare you, my kid’s just fine, what are you
thinking, versus if I email them, they maybe have a chance to process, maybe have a
chance to talk with your kid, and then generally there's a response headed my way.
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Several teachers spoke of preferring email as a record of communication, as Ms. Ivers shared, “I
want a record of what I said when I said it, how many times I said it, I want to record if the
parent has responded at all, and if they have, what was the interaction?” Teachers consistently
referred to parent contact and communication similarly, as a transactional process, rather than an
authentic connection between school and home. Part of this issue is that teachers do not appear
to have the technical support they need to know how to interact effectively with families. Mr.
Taylor shared, “It's just an awkward interaction. I feel like I've gotten pretty good at it now and I
feel more comfortable doing that.” Teachers need support and /or protocols to communicate
with families more effectively.
Several teachers spoke of their success in building relationships with parents through
strong communication, as Ms. Ivers shared, “I'm much more likely to get any kind of
improvement if the parent is on-board with what I have seen and what I'm trying to recommend.”
Ms. Sears shared her success in getting parents on-board as partners:
I express to the parent, ‘Look this is the behavior I'm seeing, I need your help. Because
it's your child, you know your child best, how can you help me be a better teacher? How
can you help me better assist your child so I can teach and not have this behavior in this
classroom and disrupt everybody else? If you can help me do that I would really
appreciate it.’
Parents may be more receptive to the direct yet non-threatening approach shared by Ms. Sears.
When parents feel as if their child is cared for and valued, they can be more receptive to teacher
feedback. Ms. Sears continues,
You have these long extensive conversations and you get deeper into finding out what's
going on at home, and what's going on with the kid, and then you talk to the kid again
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and they're like wow, the teacher really does care because she took the time to call my
mom and find out what was going on.
Teachers’ perception is that administrators have limited communication with families,
and that communication to parents regarding behavior issues is generally reactive versus
proactive. When asked about any positives of suspension, Ms. Ivers replied, “I guess it makes
parents aware that this is something serious. I guess it would force the parents to handle a little
bit more, to have to provide care for their son or daughter for 5 days and put them [parents] in
the driver's seat.” Using suspension as a tool to inform parents of problems is extreme, but early
signs of issues, like tardiness, are often addressed through auto-generated referrals and
consequences rather than through a conversation with students, parents, or other school
professionals that could offer support to change the behavior. Ms. Ivers shared, “And I don't
know, does there exist a time after your third or fourth referral that there's a conference with the
parents? It's not like you can have a parent night for all the kids who get in trouble,” and Ms.
Quinn added, “When the parents come in and yell at us just like the kids did, okay, well we start
making that connection.” The high volume of discipline referrals make it difficult for teachers to
see reasonable solutions to the communication issue. When asked about working with parents,
Administrator B shared, “As far as interacting with the family I think it's a great idea. Can you
require families to do that? No. If you ask them to come will they? Maybe.” The general
sentiment regarding communication is one of hopelessness, that the divide is too wide too bridge
and keeps getting wider.
Teachers expressed appreciation for their principals, and described mixed levels of
effectiveness in communication. Ms.Adams shared, “Our principal is amazing and he has a very
open door policy, he really does. You can go talk to him and say this is going on with this kid, he
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knows all the kids, so that's really nice,” and another teacher added, “Our administration is open,
receptive, in general they hop right on it.” If there are serious incidents, or a teacher feels
something needs to be explained, teachers expressed comfort in having face-to-face
conversations with their administrators and knowing that they would be there quickly to help in
an emergency. For lower-level referrals, however, communication is generally through Genesis,
the student information system. Ms. Ivers describes this process, “If it's not immediate we just
put the note into Genesis and I think it pops right through to one of our student disciplinarians,
and it pops up on their radar and they deal with it,” generally within 24 hours. Several teachers
expressed concern about the limited amount of time administrators spend with parents after a
discipline issue, as Mr. Newton discussed, “Parents are brought in if the students are suspended,
they have a five-minute meeting, and then the parent allows the student to continue the negative
behavior.” The volume of disciplinary referrals make it difficult for teachers and administrators
to communicate on every issue, which may lead to an accumulation of punitive consequences for
a student before other interventions are considered.
A difficulty in communication between and among teachers, administrators, and families
is the lack of phones in classrooms in two of the schools. To contact the office, teachers push a
button connected to their public announcement system and wait for a secretary in the office to
answer the phone. They then communicate through the public address system. This limitation
prohibits brief phone calls between teachers and to the office to share information that may help
solve problems proactively. Additionally, a lack of a phone in the classroom means a teacher
must wait until their prep or lunch time, or after school hours, to find a phone that is free to reach
out to parents. These phones may not be in private spaces, and if teachers do not feel confident
in their ability to handle difficult conversations with parents, they may be reluctant to have those
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conversations where they could be overheard by colleagues. Mr. Taylor shares his difficulties
with this, “It’s usually hard to find a moment to use a phone in a private area. And enough time.
Also, you don't want to call too early so I try not to call before 9, so if I have prep before 9, I
can't really do that.” Personal communication is made more difficult through the absence of
classroom phones. Another communication challenge for Trident is that it is a high-school
district only, meaning there is not a pattern of communication that has been established since
students were younger, when parents tend to be more involved in their child’s life at school.
While there are technical challenges to communication, the greater issue is a lack of
meaningful goal-setting, dialogue, voice, and agency to create a team approach between school
and home to solve discipline issues before they become suspensions. As Ms. Ivers shared, “I
feel like we need more communication, more identifying things that are what we all want to
accomplish and maybe there would be more buy-in with how to help get the kids to do it”.
Strong partnerships with parents and the community can increase Trident’s capacity to achieve
real change.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Organization Needs
The findings from the collected data confirm that there is an organization gap that exists
in order to reduce racial disparities in school discipline at Trident. Cultural models and settings,
along with policies and processes, are barriers to achieving the organizational goal. This study
indicates a need for improvement of the racial school climate, reduction of bias and stereotypes,
a revised discipline code, authentic engagement with students in decision-making processes,
enhanced partnerships between school and home, and improved communication among all
stakeholders.
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Summary of Validated Influences
The findings presented in this chapter, summarized in Table 20, enabled the researcher to
validate, partially validate, or not validate the Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational
influences established in Chapter 2.
Table 20
Summary of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
KMO Influence Finding
Knowledge influence 1: Teachers need to know the facts on the
effects of suspension on students.
Validated
Knowledge Influence 2: Teachers need to know the steps to apply
derived from best practices in school discipline.
Partially validated
Motivation Influence 1: Teachers need to view themselves as
capable of implementing culturally responsive practices.
Partially validated
Motivation Influence 2: Teachers’ positive and negative emotions
connected to race, fear, and control may have an impact on their
choices regarding classroom and school discipline.
Partially validated
Organizational Influence 1: Cultural Models - A culture of control,
with strict rules and prescribed disciplinary consequences, creates an
environment where teachers frequently refer students to
administration, and suspension is a common occurrence.
Validated
Organizational Influence 2: Cultural Settings - Communication
protocols and practices do not allow for much time for connection or
discussion between teachers, families, administration, and students
regarding behavioral or disciplinary issues.
Validated
The research questions originally presented in Chapter 1 can be answered utilizing these
findings. Research question 1 attempted to establish to what extent Trident was meeting its goal
to achieve equity in school discipline. While the disparity in suspensions between Black
students and White students is similar to the national average and below the state average, there
are still areas of improvement needed to achieve equity. Overall, Black students are 3.49 times
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 155
more likely to be suspended than White students at Trident, indicating that equity has not been
achieved. Additionally, disaggregating the discipline data by individual offenses exhibits that
Black students are referred more frequently for subjective offenses such as “disruptive behavior”
or “negative situation”, White students are referred more frequently for objective behaviors, like
smoking. Only 5% of all of the suspensions assigned at Trident during the 2017-2018 school
year were for very serious offenses (violence, vandalism, bullying, substances, or weapons), and
there is little disparity in White and Black suspensions for these offenses, indicating that there is
not more serious disordered behavior on the part of Black students. One exception to this is the
high rate of suspension for fighting for Black students at Madison High School, who are 7.19
times more likely than White students to be suspended for fighting, and for Hispanic students at
Madison High School, who are 4.76 times more likely than White students to be suspended for
fighting. Given that Madison HS has the highest percentage of students of color, and a
significantly higher overall number of suspensions (1,310), the racial school climate should be
explored more thoroughly at Madison HS to determine the cause of this high racial disparity in
fighting, since stressful social environments can lead to higher levels of aggression (Creel,
Dantzer, Goymann, & Rubenstein, 2013). School leaders should continue to monitor this data
as they implement changes to ensure that they move toward achieving their goal of equity in
school discipline.
Research question 2 asks what teachers’ knowledge and motivation is related to effective
and culturally relevant discipline practices. While there are highly passionate, skilled, and
responsive teachers at each of the schools, there are gaps in teachers’ knowledge and motivation
that have prevented Trident from achieving its organizational goals. Teachers do not have an
understanding of the negative effects of suspension on student outcomes, and they have mixed
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 156
knowledge on the strategies that would help them defuse and de-escalate conflicts with students
or implement culturally responsive classroom management and teaching practices in their
classrooms. Additionally, there are gaps in teachers’ self-efficacy in implementing these
strategies, and the impact of emotion affects teachers’ their ability to utilize strategies
effectively. Recommendations for these knowledge and motivation gaps will be provided in the
next chapter. Teachers at Trident are lacking both knowledge and motivation to implement
culturally responsive practices effectively in order to reduce racial disparities in school
discipline.
The third research question asks about the interaction between Trident’s culture and
context with teachers’ knowledge and motivation. Results of the study showed that
organizational cultural settings and cultural models have a significant impact on teachers, who
have an effect on the racial disparities in school discipline. The organization is generally
reactive rather than proactive when approaching school discipline issues, which has an effect on
the racial school climate and on the culture of control that characterizes the official disciplinary
procedures. Evaluating school norms, discipline procedures, and communication protocols,
while also introducing conversations around race and equity will be detailed in the
recommendations.
Finally, the fourth research question asks for the recommendations that would assist in
closing these gaps. The findings presented of the Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational
influences guide the recommendations for solutions that will be presented in Chapter 5. The
recommendations will be presented using empirical evidence to ensure that the solutions will be
effective for closing the gaps in performance.
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While it is important to summarize these influences individually in order to design
effective solutions, it is also important to examine them collectively, as a system with
interrelated influences that acts to create and sustain disparate outcomes for Black students. The
data presented exhibits that Trident has relatively few serious disciplinary incidents. Overall, the
schools appear safe, orderly, and well-run, but the high rates of suspension indicate otherwise.
Incorporating the social, political, and racial context of these gaps will be both important and
difficult when designing interventions to address them.
Based on the data analysis, Chapter 5 will provide recommendations for organizational
practice in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources and solutions. A
comprehensive implementation and evaluation plan intended to close the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational gaps that were discussed in this chapter will be presented. While
interventions will focus on teachers, the stakeholder group of focus, they will also incorporate
the organizational supports necessary for teachers to implement culturally responsive practices in
order to reduce racial disparities in school discipline at Trident.
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CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS
In Chapter 4, the assumed influences affecting the stakeholder goal of reducing racial
disparities in school discipline were validated or partially validated and were categorized as
knowledge, motivation, and organizational challenges. Data was analyzed and findings were
presented and organized into knowledge, motivation and organizational themes to understand
how racial disparities in discipline are manifested at the Trident School District.
Chapter 5 addresses the final research question by making recommendations for closing
the gaps in the validated and partially validated influences between present performance and
desired performance. Similar to Chapter 4, recommendations will be organized by knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences. Recommendations will be based on research of best
practices in school discipline and integrated into the culture of the school over the course of three
years in order to successfully ensure a successful transformation of school discipline at Trident.
Organizational Context and Mission
Trident Regional School District, a pseudonym, is a 9th-12th grade diverse and
progressive district that unifies educators, families and community. The mission of the school
district is to ensure students are college and career ready by providing multiple and varied social
and academic opportunities and experiences. Trident is comprised of three 9th-12th grade high
schools with a total enrollment of 3,386 students and 289 teachers (State School Performance
Reports website, 2017). The population at Trident is diverse, as detailed in the table below.
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Table 21
Trident School District Demographics, State Department of Education, 2017-2018
Monroe High School Adams High School Madison High School
Enrollment 1280 876 988
Economically
Disadvantaged
44% 36% 55%
Special Education 17% 14% 20%
White 44.5% 66.2% 41.2%
Hispanic 20.9% 16.4% 18.3%
Black/African-
American
17.2% 13.2% 32.8%
Asian 15.3% 2.6% 6.1%
Speak English at
home
78.8% 92.5% 92.2%
Graduation rate in 4
years
91.8% 89.9% 87.9%
Graduation rate in 5
years
92.5% 94.7% 91.4%
Number of Teachers 114 75 100
In-School Suspension
Rate
16.3% 12.9% 24.6%
Out-of-School
Suspension Rate
12.4% 7.4% 17.4%
Total Suspension
Rate
22% 16.7% 29.4%
Organizational Performance Goal
Trident Regional School District is engaged in a strategic planning process, but has not
yet set measurable targets for achievement. Goals include an increased use of data to evaluate
performance and progress in student achievement and student involvement, and implementation
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 160
of a mental health curriculum and student support. Equity is important to school leaders, as is
reduction in the high suspension rates at all three high schools. The goal of Trident is that by
May 2019, there will be an understanding of equity issues in school discipline as seen by
comparing the rate of exclusionary discipline by race to each race’s percentage of the school
population, as well as an understanding of the racial school climate as experienced by teachers.
School district leaders aim to evaluate data on how teachers are handling and experiencing
disciplinary issues as well as look forward to detailed recommendations for improvement. The
need to address suspension rates arose from school data that demonstrates a pattern of
exclusionary discipline at all three high schools, with the highest rate at the school with the
highest percentage of Black students. This goal affects the organization’s strategic goal to
continue to build and implement student experiences that foster a culture of social and emotional
well-being and growth, and is related to the larger problem of the long-term effects of suspension
and other exclusionary discipline, which include incarceration, criminality, and criminal
victimization. The rate of discipline will be measured through accessing detailed discipline data
stored in the school’s student information system.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are several important stakeholder groups that contribute to achieving equity in
discipline. Administrators assign discipline when teachers refer students for violating the student
code of conduct. They determine the consequences that will be given, and while there is often a
guideline to follow, administrators may use their discretion when assigning discipline.
Additionally, administrators interact with both the student and teacher and can utilize
communication skills to foster equitable discipline practices. Teachers are also an important
stakeholder group, as they have the greatest influence on student behavior. Teachers who build
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 161
relationships with their students and attempt to understand misbehavior rather than punish it
contribute to the reduction in discipline inequities. A third important stakeholder includes the
3,386 9th through 12th grade students at Trident Regional School District. Students skilled in
conflict resolution, social skills, and emotion management can help to reduce discipline
inequities.
Goal of the Stakeholder Group for the Study
Although a complete analysis would involve all stakeholder groups, for practical
purposes teachers were chosen as the stakeholder group of focus. Teacher interactions and
relationships with students have a significant impact on student behavior. Teachers who are
trained to utilize culturally responsive restorative classroom practices are better able to handle
student misbehavior before making a referral to an administrator. Demonstrating proficiency in
these practices, evidenced through observation, interview, and review of disciplinary referrals,
will involve teachers in the primary role of addressing the racial inequities in school discipline.
School administrators will be interviewed to understand practices in school discipline, but focus
will center on teachers since they have the most direct contact with students. The goal of equity
in school discipline cannot be achieved without teachers as active participants in closing the gap
through enhanced culturally relevant practices.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to evaluate the degree to which Trident is meeting its goal
of racial equity in school discipline. The analysis will focus on knowledge, motivation and
organizational influences related to achieving the organizational goals. While a complete
performance evaluation would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholders
to be focused on in this analysis are teachers.
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The questions that will guide the evaluation study that address knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organization influences for teachers are:
1. To what extent is Trident meeting its goal to achieve equity in school discipline?
2. What is teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to effective and culturally relevant
discipline practices?
3. What is the interaction between Trident’s culture and context and teachers’ knowledge
and motivation?
4. Based on the data analysis, Chapter 5 will provide recommendations for organizational
practice in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources and
solutions.
Introduction and Overview
The previous chapter provided answers to the first three research questions of the study
which determined that Trident was not meeting its goal to achieve equity in school discipline,
and examined teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to effective and culturally relevant
discipline practices and the interaction of that knowledge and motivation with Trident’s culture
and context. This chapter will answer the final research question, which asks for
recommendations for solutions that address the gaps in knowledge, motivation, and
organizational practice. These recommendations are organized into a program titled School
Discipline Transformation for Wellbeing and Justice, which was designed by the researcher to
address Trident’s specific gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational practice. The
program details specific instructions in six areas identified as gaps at Trident combined with
evidence-based interventions, including the establishment of community equity teams and
training in restorative practices, to fill these gaps. The interventions are informed by promising
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 163
or best practices in the literature on school discipline, but combined into a comprehensive and
transformative program to meet Trident’s needs toward lasting change. A checklist and timeline
for the program can be found in Appendix G and a visual representation of the components, also
designed by the researcher, can be found in Figure 10. The six elements of the program are
learning and reflection, policy and procedure review and revision, the establishment of
community equity teams, reallocating resources, courageous communication, and coaching and
support. Each of these elements require action for lasting change to occur at Trident.
Additionally, student wellbeing and empowerment are centered in the model, which also
includes the continuous drivers of culturally responsive mindsets and monitoring and evaluation.
Due to the comprehensive nature of the program, the program will be implemented over the
course of three years to ensure time for learning, reflection, evaluation of early results, and buy-
in from all stakeholders. Trident’s implementation of School Discipline for Wellbeing and
Justice will be evaluated using the New World Kirkpatrick Model for Evaluation (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016), which examines reactions, learning, behavior, and results as four distinct
levels of evaluation. Level 1: reaction measures look at the degree to which teachers find the
training engaging and relevant; Level 2: learning measures the establishment of knowledge,
skills, confidence and commitment based on their participation in the training; Level 3: behavior
measures application of training once teachers are back on the job; and Level 4: results examines
the achievement of target outcomes for success. Finally, this chapter and dissertation will end
with a discussion of the study’s limitations and possible areas for future research.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 164
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. As data analysis has been completed for this project, the knowledge
influences in Table 21 represent the complete list of assumed knowledge influences based on the
most frequently mentioned knowledge influences to achieving the stakeholders’ goal during
informal interviews, surveys, and document analysis and supported by the literature review,
including Clark and Estes (2008), who suggest that declarative knowledge about something is
often necessary to know before applying it to classify or identify, as in the case of reviewing the
short- and long-term outcomes of suspension. As indicated in Table 22, these influences have
been validated and have a high priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Table 22 also
shows the recommendations for these validated influences based on theoretical principles.
Table 22
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Validated
as a Gap?
Yes, High
Probability
or No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Teachers are unaware of
the negative effects, short-
and long-term, of the
frequent use of suspension
on both the students who
are suspended and those
who remain in school (D).
V Y
Help individuals
meaningfully
organize and
connect new
knowledge to
prior knowledge
to construct
meaning
(McCrudden &
Schraw, 2007).
Include
rationales about
the importance
and utility value
of the work or
Provide teachers
meaningfully
organized
information in the
form of a pamphlet
that identifies the
negative effects,
short- and long-term,
of the frequent use of
suspension on both
the students who are
suspended and those
who remain in
school.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 165
learning (Eccles,
2006; Pintrich,
2003).
Teachers with high
discipline referrals often
do not skillfully defuse or
de-escalate conflicts with
students, leading to a
“snowball” effect of
suspension for relatively
minor behaviors (M).
V Y
Provide time for
employees to
observe models,
then organize
and rehearse the
what they
learned, and
finally practice
what they have
learned (Mayer,
2011).
Create a
community of
learners where
everyone
supports
everyone else’s
attempts to learn
(Yough &
Anderman,
2006).
Plan training sessions
led by Trident
teachers who are
skilled and confident
in defusing and de-
escalating conflicts
with students.
Teachers do not
understand the steps
needed to implement
culturally responsive
classroom management or
teaching practices (P).
V Y
Design and
create materials
and activities
that are relevant
and useful to the
learners,
connected to
their interests,
and based on
real-world tasks
(Pintrich, 2003).
Provide a job aid to
help teachers
understand the steps
needed to implement
culturally responsive
classroom
management and
teaching practices.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 166
Increasing teachers’ knowledge about the short- and long-term effects of
suspension.
The results and findings of this study indicated that 75% of teachers need more in-depth
declarative knowledge about the negative effects of suspension. A recommendation rooted in
utility value theory and information process theory has been selected to close this declarative
knowledge gap. Eccles (2006) found that people need to understand the importance and utility
value of their work or learning. Shraw and McCrudden (2006) found that how individuals
organize knowledge influences how they learn and apply what they know. These theories
suggest that providing learners with a pamphlet or similar visual organizer would support their
learning. The recommendation then is to provide teachers with a job aid in the form of a
pamphlet that would illustrate the negative effects of suspension on students who are suspended,
on students who remain in school, on the culture and climate of the school, and how race has an
influence on these effects.
Long-standing practices can become embedded in a school’s culture and stubbornly resist
change. When teachers know that schools have the power to change their rates of suspension,
they are more likely to implement practices that support change (Skiba, Arredondo, & Rausch,
2014). Increased knowledge of the damage and preventability of suspension can lead teachers to
shift to a preventative mindset, establish consistent expectations, and institute more proactive
supports. Teachers that understand the racial and cultural factors in school discipline can help to
adjust school norms from punishment to prevention (Wiley, Anyon, Yang, Pauline, Rosch,
Valladares, Downing, & Pisciotta, 2018). Understanding that a shift in attitude regarding
punishment may take one to three years (Karp & Breslin, 2001), and a deep shift to more
proactive practices could take three to five years (Anfara, Evans & Lester, 2013), may help
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 167
schools continue to reinforce the recommended practices even when progress is slow. The
evidence supports the idea of providing a job aid in the form of a pamphlet detailing the negative
effects of suspension on the school community.
Increasing teachers’ skills in defusing and de-escalating conflicts with students.
The results and findings of this study indicated that 75% of teachers need more training and
practice in defusing and de-escalating conflicts with students. A recommendation rooted in
social cognitive theory and goal orientation theory has been selected to close this declarative
knowledge gap. Mayer (2011) found that learning increases when employees are provided time
to observe models, organize and rehearse what they learned, and finally practice what they have
learned. Yough & Anderman (2006) found that creating a community of learners influences how
individuals learn and apply what they know. These theories suggest that providing teachers with
a learning experience led by relatable models would support their learning. The recommendation
then is to provide teachers with training sessions led by Trident teachers who are skilled and
confident in defusing and de-escalating conflicts with students.
Intentional time that includes community building to scaffold new knowledge among
teachers is correlated with lower suspension rates in schools (Wiley, et al., 2018). Adults learn
best from relevant and relatable models (Mayer, 2011), and teachers are especially likely to learn
from peers who can support and coach them as they learn and practice new skills (Riveros,
Newton, & Bergess, 2012). A well-designed professional learning practice can help teachers
develop the normative belief that they are responsible for creating positive relationships,
establishing respect, and preventing or resolving conflict with their students and take blame away
from struggling students and their families (Wiley, et al., 2018). This evidence supports the idea
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 168
of providing information in the form of a training where teachers learn and practice effective de-
escalation techniques, which can lead to a reduction in discipline referrals.
Increasing teachers’ knowledge of the steps needed to implement culturally
responsive classroom management and teaching procedures.
The results and findings of this study indicated that 75% of teachers need more in-depth
declarative knowledge about culturally responsive classroom management and teaching
procedures. Culturally responsive practices make the learning experiences of diverse students
more relevant and effective (Gay, 2000). A recommendation rooted in expectancy value theory
has been selected to close this declarative knowledge gap. Pintrich (2003) found that people
learn best when the material is relevant and real-world. This theory suggests that providing
learners with a job aid that is relevant and useful would support their learning. The
recommendation then is to provide teachers with a job aid in the form of a checklist that would
illustrate the steps involved in implementing culturally responsive classroom management and
teaching strategies in order to proactively and positively engage students in the learning process
and resolve conflicts collaboratively.
A study conducted by Griner & Stewart (2012) found that a practical tool could assist
teachers in implementing culturally responsive practices in their classrooms. The researchers
first built upon a model by Fiedler et al. (2008) by adding family and community voice to create
a tool that could be used by teachers as a checklist of effective practices. They then conducted a
mixed methods study to measure the effectiveness of the checklist with both parents and
teachers. The results found that parents reported more effective classroom management and
family support from their child’s teachers after using the Culturally Responsive Teaching Tool.
Teachers also reported that they were implementing new practices, such as involving parents in a
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 169
more meaningful way, building relationships with their students, and modifying the classroom
environment to honor the prior experiences, performance styles, and cultural knowledge of their
students (Griner & Stewart, 2012). Providing teachers with a procedural resource to implement
culturally responsive practices in order to meet the academic and social-emotional needs of all
students may contribute to a reduction in the racial disparities in school discipline.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. As data collection has been completed for this project, the
motivation influences in Table 22 represent the complete list of validated motivation influences
based on the most frequently mentioned motivation influences to achieving the stakeholders’
goal during informal interviews and supported by the literature review and the review of
motivation theory. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that there are three indicators of motivation in
task performance – choice, persistence and mental effort. Choice is going beyond intention to
start something. Persistence is continuing to pursue a goal in the face of distractions, and mental
effort is seeking and applying new knowledge to solve a novel program or perform a new task.
The causes appear to suggest emotional self-regulation and self-efficacy may be lacking in
choice, persistence, and mental effort for teachers when handling school discipline incidents or
conflicts, especially in regard to students of culturally diverse backgrounds. As such, as
indicated in Table 23, these motivational influences of emotion and self-efficacy have a high
priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal. Table 23 also shows the recommendations for
these influences based on theoretical principles.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 170
Table 23
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Motivation
Influence
Validated as a Gap
Yes, High
Probability, No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Teachers
experience
negative
emotions during
a classroom or
school discipline
event.
V Y Negative mood
states reduce an
individual’s
value for their
learning goals
(Clark, Howard,
& Early, 2006).
Self-regulatory
strategies,
including goal
setting, enhance
learning and
performance
(APA, 2015;
Dembo & Eaton,
2000; Denler, et
al., 2009)
Provide teachers
self-regulatory
strategies,
including goal
setting and self-
evaluation, to
enhance learning
and
performance.
Provide teachers
with a positive
emotional
environment that
is enthusiastic
and supportive.
Teachers need to
increase self-
efficacy in
incorporating
culturally
responsive
teaching and
classroom
management
practices in
order to reduce
the use of
suspension.
V Y Modeling to-be-
learned
strategies or
behaviors
improves self-
efficacy,
learning, and
performance
(Denler,
Wolters, &
Benzon (2009).
Provide teachers
with
instructional
models and
positive, specific
feedback while
also providing
practice on
relevant, real-
world examples
of culturally
responsive
practices in
order to increase
their self-
efficacy.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 171
Increasing self-efficacy in teachers’ implementation of culturally responsive
classroom management strategies.
Teachers report low to moderate confidence in implementing culturally responsive
classroom management practices with an average score of 76 out of 100 on the Culturally
Responsive Classroom Management Self-Efficacy Scale, which may influence their use of
discipline referrals leading to suspension. A recommendation rooted in self-efficacy theory has
been selected to close this motivational gap. Denler, Wolters, & Benzon (2009) found that
modeling to-be-learned strategies or behaviors improves self-efficacy, learning, and
performance. This theory suggests that modeling and feedback can increase learning. The
recommendation then is to provide teachers with models and practice on relevant, real-world
examples of culturally responsive practices in order to increase their self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy in the classroom is the extent to which a teacher believes they have the
power to influence student learning (Guskey & Passaro, 1994). Siwatu, Putman, Starker-Glass,
and Lewis (2017) posit that teachers’ self-efficacy in implementing culturally responsive
classroom management practices indicates the use of supportive strategies in the classroom and
improved student behavior. The authors go on to state that self-efficacy beliefs reflect a
teacher’s mindset, which influences their behavior. If self-efficacy is high, teachers are more
likely to choose behaviors that limit the use of traditional power structures and maximize their
effort to build relationships and resolve conflict in culturally responsive ways. Brouwers and
Tomic (2000) further note that teacher self-efficacy determines whether or not teachers seek help
from colleagues or supervisors with difficult issues such as student behavior and discipline; help-
seeking indicates a desire for mastery and is related to a decrease in teachers’ emotional
exhaustion. From a theoretical perspective, then, it would appear that increasing teacher self-
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 172
efficacy in implementing culturally responsive classroom management practices would increase
performance and decrease the use of suspension through disciplinary referrals.
Increasing emotional regulation in teachers.
Approximately 80% of teachers report through the study’s interview process that they or
their colleagues do not effectively regulate their negative emotions during a classroom or school
discipline event. A recommendation rooted in emotion theory has been selected to close this
motivational gap. Clark, Howard, and Early (2006) reported that negative mood states reduce an
individual’s value for their learning goals. Additionally, self-regulatory strategies, including
goal setting, enhance learning and performance (Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Denler, et al., 2009).
This would suggest that helping learners acquire new behaviors through demonstration and
modeling, along with creating a positive and encouraging work environment, would increase an
individual’s value for their learning goals. The recommendation then is to provide teachers with
self-regulatory strategies, including goal setting and self-evaluation, to enhance learning and
performance, as well as to provide teachers with a positive emotional environment that is
enthusiastic and supportive, in order to increase their emotional regulation.
Immordino-Yang and Damasio (2007) found that emotion influences decision-making,
thinking, memory, and learning. During social emotional situations, which involve people of
different backgrounds feeling and interacting in the same spaces, social emotions are added to
individual emotions, and there is evidence that people are influenced by each others’ emotions
on a neurobiological level. Thus, teachers should be aware of how their emotions in the
classroom may change their thoughts and behaviors toward their students. Chang (2013) further
posits that even just one disciplinary episode in the classroom may lead teachers to be drained
and negatively impacted: emotional labor is a common, yet rarely discussed, challenge for
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 173
teachers, and the regulation of teacher emotion is complex, since teachers’ emotional regulation
during a challenging classroom event is often misaligned with how they habitually behave.
Hagenauer, Hascher, and Volet further go on to say that teacher-student relationships, or how
close teachers perceive they are with their students, are predictors of teachers’ emotional self-
regulation. Positive teacher emotion and regulation may lead to “emotional contagion” that
positively affects both wellbeing and learning for students. From a theoretical perspective, then,
it would appear that increasing teachers’ motivation to emotionally self-regulate during a
classroom conflict or discipline event would contribute to a reduction in discipline referrals; and
because conflict is more likely to occur between students and teachers from different cultural
backgrounds (Immordino-Yang, Yang, & Damasio, 2016), it may also reduce racial disparities in
school discipline referrals.
Organization Recommendations
Introduction. The organization influences in Table 23 represent the complete list of
validated organization influences based on the most frequently mentioned organization
influences to achieving the stakeholders’ goal through a survey, interviews and a review of
documents, supported by the literature review and the review of organization and culture theory.
Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that organization and stakeholder goals are often not achieved
due to a lack of resources, most often time and money, and stakeholder goals that are not aligned
with the organization’s mission and goals. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) propose two
constructs about culture – cultural models or the observable beliefs and values shared by
individuals in groups, and cultural models, or the settings and activities in which performance
occurs. Thus, both resources and processes and cultural models and settings must align
throughout the organization’s structure to achieve the mission and goals. As such, as indicated in
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 174
Table 24, organizational influences have been validated and have a high priority for achieving
the stakeholders’ goal. Table 24 also shows the recommendations for these influences based on
theoretical principles.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 175
Table 24
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organization
Influence
Validated as a Gap
Yes, High
Probability, No
(V, HP, N)
Priority
Yes, No
(Y, N)
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Racial
disparities in
school discipline
exist at Trident,
and are
reinforced by
policies and
procedures that
emphasize rules,
order, and
punishment.
(Cultural
Settings)
V Y
Effective
organizations
insure that
organizational
messages,
rewards, policies
and procedures
that govern the
work of the
organization are
aligned with or
are supportive of
organizational
goals and values
(Clark & Estes,
2008).
Revise policies
and procedures
to align with
organizational
goals and
values.
A “cultural
mismatch”
between
students and
teachers, a result
of rapid
demographic
changes in the
community, lead
teachers to adopt
biases and
stereotypes that
attribute
conflicts to
deficits within
students of color
(Cultural
Models).
V Y Racism and
privilege must
be addressed on
both systemic
and personal
levels within an
organization to
ensure that
power
imbalances do
not exist and
that all
perspectives are
valued and given
voice (Chavez,
Duran, Baker,
Avila &
Wallerstein,
2008).
Provide
opportunity to
reflect upon and
discuss
culturally
responsive
policies and
practices that
alleviate
"cultural
mismatch”.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 176
Communication
procedures and
processes
contribute to
racial disparities
in school
discipline
(Cultural
Settings).
V Y
Effective leaders
have the skills
and strategies
needed to
redesign their
organization for
effective
communication
(Lewis, 2011;
Hattaway &
Henson, 2013;
Denning, 2005)
Clearly
communicate
the
organization’s
mission and
values to its
stakeholders.
Use effective
communication
strategies to
frame the
benefits of
culturally
responsive
practices for all
stakeholders
Revising policies and practices that influence discipline disparities. The results and findings
of this study indicated that Black students are 3.49 times more likely to be suspended than White
students, a disparity that is reinforced by policies and procedures that emphasize rules, order, and
control. A principle rooted in organizational change theory has been selected to close this gap in
cultural settings. Effective organizations insure that organizational policies and procedures that
govern the work of the organization are aligned with or are supportive of organizational goals
and values (Clark & Estes, 2008). This would suggest that examining and revising policies and
procedures would enable the organization to achieve its goal of racial equity in school discipline.
The recommendation then is to revise policies and procedures in collaboration with all
stakeholders to align with this goal.
Gregory, Skiba, and Mediratta (2017) advocate for schools to revise their discipline
policies and procedures to explicitly address issues of power and privilege, acknowledging how
inequities have impacted students’ lives and outcomes, and consciously implement practices that
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 177
address these issues. The authors also suggest integrating student voice and family perspectives
into the design and implementation of policies and practices. Okonofua, Walton, and Eberhardt
(2016) take this one step further by sharing the need for policy revision that eliminates
suspension for minor or ambiguous behaviors, while also supporting teachers in maintaining
relationships with their students. Anyon et al. (2018) also find that formalizing policies and
procedures that are focused on relationships can prevent suspensions and close racial discipline
gaps. Procedures such as morning meetings, staff presence during transitions, advisory time, and
home-visits were all found to build relationships with students and minimize disparate outcomes
(Anyon, et al., 2018). As such, it appears that the literature would support the necessity for
revising discipline policies and procedures in a culturally conscious way in order to reduce racial
disparities in school discipline.
Reflecting on race and racism to reduce bias and stereotypes of students. The results and
findings of this study indicated that bias and stereotypes of students contribute to racial
disparities in school discipline. A principle rooted in organizational change theory has been
selected to close this cultural models gap. Racism and privilege must be addressed on both
systemic and personal levels within an organization to ensure that power imbalances do not exist
and that all perspectives are valued and given voice (Chavez, et al., 2008). This would suggest
that reflecting on the impact of race and racism would enable the organization to reduce the use
of bias and stereotypes that influence discipline disparities. The recommendation then is to
provide opportunities for stakeholders to reflect upon and discuss the impact of race and racism
in order to implement culturally responsive discipline practices within the school district.
Carter et al. (2017) find that it is important for teachers, along with all school staff, to
discuss the discipline disparities from their own schools, since explicitly acknowledging race and
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 178
racism is linked to improved outcomes for students. Further, Gorski (2013) states that teachers
must develop a reflective practice of equity literacy in order to have the ability to recognize
biases and inequities, and view each of their students as capable of success, behaviorally and
academically. Finally, Taylor (2016) found that teachers’ colorblind and deficit discourses were
inaccurate and damaging to students of color, and that teachers should engage in challenging
their own assumptions through long-term, comprehensive professional development. Critical
self-reflection is key to examining inequities at school and in the community, and is a
foundational step toward reducing disparities. As such, it appears that the literature would
support the necessity for teachers to reflect upon the role of race and racism in order to reduce
bias and stereotypes in school discipline.
Using effective communication strategies to frame the benefits of culturally responsive
practices for all stakeholders. The results and findings of this study indicated that unclear
communication practices contribute to racial disparities in school discipline. A principle rooted
in organizational change theory has been selected to close this cultural settings gap. Effective
leaders must utilize the skills and strategies needed to redesign their organization for effective
communication (Lewis, 2011; Hattaway & Henson, 2013; Denning, 2005). This would suggest
that examining and revising communication procedures would assist to enable the organization
to achieve its goal of racial equity in school discipline. The recommendation then is to revise
communication policies and procedures in collaboration with all stakeholders to align with this
goal.
Ayscue (2016) studied suburban schools’ responses to racial change, finding that
practices that develop an inclusive school climate by nurturing partnerships with students and
parents can support schools’ ability to positively adapt to the changes. Seattle Public Schools
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 179
implemented Racial Equity Teams composed of students, parents, teachers, and administrators to
extend decision-making power to all stakeholders as they worked together to transform school
climate and instructional practices. Teams significantly helped reduce both discipline incidents
and suspensions (Seattle Public Schools, 2017). Finally, Sheridan et al. (2012) found that a
practice of engaging family perspectives can build trust and increase the likelihood of
partnerships between school and home. As such, the literature would support the necessity for
improving communication between all stakeholders to reduce disparities in school discipline.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The model that informed this implementation and evaluation plan is the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), based on the original Kirkpatrick Four
Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). This model suggests that
evaluation plans start with the goals of the organization and work backwards and that, by doing
so, the “leading indicators” that bridge recommended solutions to the organization’s goals are
both easier to identify and more closely aligned with organizational goals. Further, this “reverse
order” of the New World Kirkpatrick Model allows for a sequence of three other actions: a) first,
the development of solution outcomes that focus on assessing work behaviors, b) next, the
identification of indicators that learning occurred during implementation, and c) finally, the
emergence of indicators that organizational members are satisfied with implementation
strategies. Designing the implementation and evaluation plan in this manner forces connections
between the immediate solutions and the larger goal and solicits proximal “buy in” to ensure
success (Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, 2016).
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 180
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
The strategic goal of Trident School District is to build and implement student
experiences that foster a culture of social and emotional well-being and growth, with a mission
of equity in outcomes for all students. The mission and goal are impeded by the problem of
racial disparities in school discipline that create long-term negative effects, hindering the
achievement of equity in student outcomes. This project examined the knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organizational barriers that prevent Trident from achieving equity in school
discipline. The proposed solution, a comprehensive training program, related on-the-job
supports, and a shift in procedures and policies that reinforce a culture of control, should produce
the desired outcome - a reduction in the racial disparities in school discipline.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 25 shows the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators in the form of outcomes,
metrics and methods for both external and internal outcomes for Trident. If the internal
outcomes are met as expected as a result of the training and organizational support for teachers,
and for the shifts in policies and procedures, then the external outcomes should also be realized.
Table 25
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Increased student
satisfaction with school
climate.
Number of students who
indicate satisfied or highly
satisfied on yearly school
climate survey.
Generate formative feedback
through community forum.
Increased parent
satisfaction with school
climate.
Number of parents who indicate
satisfied or highly satisfied on
yearly school climate survey.
Generate formative feedback
through student leadership
committee.
Recognition Recognized by Department of Track annual rankings,
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 181
among educational circles
of providing inclusive,
equitable education.
Education and related
organizations. Accepted to
present at conferences and
workshops.
recognitions, and results data.
Increased number of
students remaining in-
district for high school.
Number and percentage of
students staying in-district for
high school.
Track the total number and
percentage of students annually.
Increased graduation
rates.
Percentage of students
graduating in 4 years and 5
years, overall and by sub-
groups.
Track graduation rates annually
through school performance
report data. Monthly evaluate
warning indicators that prompt
intervention.
Reduced chronic
absenteeism.
Percentage of students
chronically absent (missing 10%
or more school days) and
excessively tardy (to be defined
by school district in revision of
attendance consequences).
Track attendance rates annually
through school performance
report data. Weekly and
monthly evaluate warning
indicators that prompt
intervention.
Annual increase in
students accessing post-
secondary education (4-
year college, 2-year
college, trade school,
military)
Percentage of students with
post-secondary plans.
Track student plans annually.
Internal Outcomes
Reduction in overall racial
disparity in school
discipline
Relative rate index comparing
how often students of color are
suspended in comparison to
White students
Track discipline data monthly to
evaluate warning indicators that
prompt intervention.
Reduction in racial
disparities in school
discipline, disaggregated
by offense
Relative rate index comparing
how often students of color are
suspended in comparison to
White students
Track discipline data monthly to
evaluate warning indicators that
prompt intervention.
Increased use of culturally
responsive practices.
Comments in teacher
observations of culturally
responsive practices.
Supervisors capture and record
feedback in post-observation
reflections.
Reduction in discipline
incidents.
Number of overall discipline
incidents
Track discipline data monthly to
evaluate warning indicators that
prompt intervention.
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Increased quality in
interactions between
school and families.
Number of 3s and 4s in brief
satisfaction survey.
Send out Google form after
meetings / interactions with
families. Review monthly with
administrative team and share
results with staff.
Increased teacher
satisfaction with school
climate.
Number of teachers who
indicate satisfied or highly
satisfied on yearly school
climate survey.
Generate formative feedback
through post-observation
reflections.
Increased frequency and
duration
of interactions between
teachers regarding
culturally responsive
practices.
Number and duration of
weekly / monthly
interactions.
Teachers record a log of
their interactions to be kept in a
Google Drive folder.
Increased number of
proactive warnings,
meetings, and
interventions before
discipline is assigned.
Number and duration of weekly
/ monthly interactions.
School staff record a log of
their interactions to be kept in a
Google Drive folder.
Increased teacher
consideration of
culturally responsive
practices in professional
growth.
Include at least one goal
regarding culturally responsive
practices in yearly professional
development plan.
Capture and record teachers’
goals at department levels.
Improved relationships
between students and
teachers.
Improved scores on key
questions related to engagement
and student/teacher
relationships.
Track data on annual student
and staff surveys and compare
student engagement and
satisfaction scores.
Published changes to
revised discipline and
attendance policies
Monthly committee meetings
with progress benchmarks
Record of meeting agendas,
meeting minutes, calendars, and
policy drafts
Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are teachers at Trident School District.
The first critical behavior is that teachers incorporate culturally responsive practices learned
during training sessions for staff members that focuses on learning and reflection. Second,
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teachers should model and coach best practice for their colleagues, resulting in increased
professional capacity and teacher buy-in. Third, teachers should engage in a system of
courageous communication that reaches all stakeholders. Finally, Trident must engage in
maintaining a system for continuous tracking of goals, measuring results, and publishing
outcomes. Specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome behaviors appear in
Table 26.
Table 26
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Teachers
incorporate culturally
responsive teaching
and discipline
practices in their
classrooms through
participation in a
comprehensive
training program that
emphasizes learning
and reflection.
The frequency of
teachers’
opportunities to
participate in training
and reflection
activities.
Administrators and CET
will create a
comprehensive plan for
training and reflection.
After each
professional
development
opportunity.
2. Teachers model
and coach
best practice for their
colleagues.
The number of
teachers who benefit
from coaching
support to create their
goals.
Teachers will work
collaboratively in
Professional Learning
Communities and
administrators will
support teachers in
observing each other
and engaging in
reflective conversation.
Monthly review of
log of coaching
activities.
3. Teachers engage in
a system of
courageous
communication that
reaches and engages
all stakeholders.
The frequency of
opportunities to
engage positively
with stakeholders.
Teachers, students,
administrators, and
parents will engage in
frequent and varied
conversations regarding
race, school discipline,
and student
achievement.
Monthly review of
communication
logs.
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4. Teachers engage in
a system for
continuous tracking of
goals, measuring
results,
and publishing
outcomes.
The number of goals
attained.
The frequency of
communication of
outcomes.
Teachers, with
administrative support,
will continually and
frequently monitor and
evaluate progress
toward goals.
Monthly evaluation
of data and goals.
Required drivers. In order to successfully implement the recommendations in this plan,
Trident teachers will need the support of their school administration to reinforce the importance
of developing and achieving goals as a team. They will also need the support and recognition
from other leaders in the district in order to build self-efficacy and confidence in their
contributions to the school. Rewards should be provided based on the needs of the individual
stakeholders as goals are achieved. Table 27 will further describe the recommended drivers for
supporting the teachers’ critical behaviors.
Table 27
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behaviors Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Job aid on culturally
responsive practices
Provide school staff monthly
job aids on culturally
responsive practices.
3
Job aid on the negative
consequences of suspension.
Provide school staff job aid at
the beginning of the school
year on suspension.
3
Team meetings to discuss
progress against the plan and
review expectations.
Monthly team meetings. 4
Follow up messages after
meetings and trainings.
Emails summarizing training
messages and expectations.
5
Encouraging
Coaching for school staff on
strategies to defuse and de-
Monthly professional learning
communities (PLC)
4
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escalate conflicts with
students.
New teachers receive
feedback and coaching from a
mentor teacher trained in
culturally responsive
teaching.
Monthly mentor meetings. 4
Collaboration and peer
modeling during team
meetings.
Monthly team meetings. 4
Supervisors and
administrators encourage
teachers during meetings,
trainings, and classroom
observations.
Frequent meetings, trainings,
and observations.
4
Rewarding
Departmental or team small
prizes or rewards for engaging
and innovating to solve
discipline problems
proactively.
Monthly staff meetings. 2
Recognition of school staff
that are demonstrating success
with building relationships
and solving problems
proactively.
Monthly staff meetings. 6
Monitoring
Supervisors ask teachers to
self-report their
confidence and self-efficacy
in implementing culturally
responsive practices.
2-3 times yearly post-
observation conference and
end-of-year evaluation
conference.
3
Team members share success
stories at team meetings.
Monthly 3
Supervisors observe teachers’
interactions with students.
2-3 times yearly, formally;
quarterly informal walk-
throughs
4
Teachers complete self-
monitoring reflection
checklists
1-2 weeks after each training
event
3
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Organizational support. The aforementioned critical behaviors and required drivers
monitored for performance improvement are premised upon implementation of
recommendations at the organizational level. In this case, for the stakeholder to achieve their
goals the organization would need to reallocate resources to reflect a proactive, restorative
approach. Administrators will examine current resources allocated to punitive school discipline
practices, and reallocate those resources to proactive and restorative practices, reviewing the
budget on a quarterly basis. District and school leaders would also build a Community Equity
Team to plan, make decisions, and evaluate progress. They will develop and schedule monthly
CET meetings. CET will create a timeline of goals toward reforming school discipline. Progress
against plan will be tracked and published quarterly. Trident’s administrators would also need to
implement a comprehensive and inclusive review and revision of discipline policies. To do this,
the CET will gather input from other stakeholders and from best practices to revise policies to be
more equitable. They will hold monthly committee meetings to conduct the revisions, along
with 3 community forums to share progress with stakeholders and solicit feedback. Finally, the
district leaders need to Build and maintain a system for continuous tracking of goals, measuring
results, and publishing outcomes. Administrators and CET will continually and frequently
monitor and evaluate progress toward goals, with updates on a monthly basis.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following completion of the recommended solutions, teachers will be
able to:
A. Analyze school and district discipline data to understand the purpose and need for
alternative practices.
B. Recognize the negative outcomes associated with suspension.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 187
C. Carry out the procedures necessary to build a culturally responsive teaching practice.
D. Build authentic relationships with students.
E. Implement steps to regulate emotion in order to defuse and de-escalate conflicts with
students.
F. Reflect on individual teaching, communication, and emotion management practices in
order to examine areas of strength and areas in need of improvement.
G. Deconstruct personal biases, stereotypes, and issues of race, power, and privilege at
school.
H. Carry out effective and culturally responsive phone calls and meetings with families.
I. Communicate clearly with colleagues and supervisors to implement proactive
interventions for students.
J. Execute restorative circles and restorative conversations in the classroom.
K. Recognize the importance of students remaining in the classroom for instruction as often
as possible.
L. Provide high expectations and access to advanced curriculum for all students.
Program. The learning goals listed in the previous section will be achieved with a
comprehensive discipline reform framework that spans three years in order to ensure teacher and
community support and buy-in. Figure 10, designed by the researcher, illustrates the
components of the training program, which is based on the literature surrounding school
discipline reform and equitable school practices. School Discipline Transformation for
Wellbeing and Justice, a program created by the researcher of this study to fill Trident’s gaps in
knowledge, motivation, and organizational practice, is centered on students’ wellbeing and
opportunities for success and surrounded by the components of: 1. Learning and reflection; 2.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 188
Policy and procedure review and revision; 3. Community Equity Teams; 4. Reallocating
resources; 5. Courageous communication; and 6. Coaching and support. Continuous drivers of
the program include: 1. Monitoring and evaluation; and 2. Culturally responsive mindsets. Each
of these components is necessary for true change to an entrenched system; any one of the
components applied in isolation would likely perpetuate traditional mindsets and do little to
reduce racial disparities in school discipline. Additionally, although the components of the
model involve training and policy implementations, continual reminders that students are the
center and focus of the model are important to sustain common purpose and urgency.
Figure 10
Framework for School Discipline Reform for Student Wellbeing and Justice
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 189
The learning and reflection component will consist of a training program that explores
in–depth the negative consequences of suspension, the procedures to implement culturally
responsive teaching practices, conversations exploring race and privilege, and restorative
alternatives to classroom and school discipline. The learners, who are the teachers in the Trident
School District, will study these topics over the course of three years to limit cognitive overload
and ensure not only shifts in practice, but shifts in mindset. The program is blended, consisting
of two e-learning modules, one face-to-face information session, three face-to-face application
trainings, an ongoing Professional Learning Community, and continuous coaching and support.
During the first asynchronous e-learning module, learners will be provided a job aid of
key behaviors and procedures for culturally responsive teaching practices, as well as a
framework for culturally responsive teaching. During the second asynchronous e-learning
module, learners will be provided with a copy of the slide presentation as a job aid. Learners
will work through the presentation at their own pace, moving the presentation forward when they
have completed reading each slide, reflecting, or responding in writing. Another job aid,
distributed after the information session on the negative effects of suspension, will contain an
infographic illustrating these effects. Following the asynchronous modules and information
session, the learners will be encouraged to reflect and practice using the job aids and receive
feedback from their supervisors and peer review.
During the synchronous Professional Learning Community (PLC) and department
meeting sessions, the focus will be on applying what teachers have learned asynchronously to
authentic applications in the classroom, role-playing, discussions and peer modeling and
teaching back to each other in order to become more student centered and culturally responsive.
During the PLC sessions, colleagues will also introduce teachers to techniques that will improve
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their ability to defuse and de-escalate conflicts with students. During department meetings,
supervisors will share culturally responsive methods and together with teachers, will determine
ways to incorporate these strategies into their teaching practices for their specific subject.
Teachers with more experience and confidence in these areas will discuss the value and benefits
of utilizing culturally responsive classroom practices and will model how to incorporate these
practices both into their teaching and into their classroom management.
Two training sessions will be offered to teachers from outside presenters. The first will
discuss the need for discussing race and the dangers of colorblindness, setting a clear
commitment on the part of the district to engage in courageous conversations around race and
equity. The second will be offered on a cohort basis each of the three years to teachers who
would like to learn more advanced techniques on incorporating restorative discipline practices
within their classrooms. These teachers will be provided with handouts as job aids in order to
successfully replicate restorative practices in the classroom.
Evaluation of the components of learning. Demonstrating declarative knowledge is
often necessary as a precursor to applying the knowledge to solve problems. Thus, it is
important to evaluate learning for both declarative and procedural knowledge being taught. It is
also important that learners value the training as a prerequisite to using their newly learned
knowledge and skills on the job. However, they must also be confident that they can succeed in
applying their knowledge and skills and be committed to using them on the job. As such, Table
28 lists the evaluation methods and timing for these components of learning.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 191
Table 28
Evaluation of Components of Learning
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks using open-ended questions. In the asynchronous portions of the course
during and after video demonstrations.
Knowledge checks through discussions, “pair,
think, share” and other individual/group
activities.
Periodically during the in person workshops and
documented via PLC and department meeting
notes.
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Demonstration in groups and individually using
the job aids to successfully perform the skills.
During the workshops. .
Quality of the feedback from peers during
group sharing.
During the workshops, PLC, and department
meetings.
Individual application of the skills with
authentic classroom applications.
At the end of each workshop.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment
survey asking participants about their level of
proficiency before and after the training.
At the end of each workshop.
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Instructor’s observation of participants’
statements and actions demonstrating that they
see the benefit of what they are being asked to
do on the job.
During the workshops.
Discussions of the value of what they are being
asked to do on the job.
During the workshops.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment
item.
After the workshops.
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Discussions following practice and feedback.
During the workshops.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 192
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment
item.
After the workshops.
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Create individual goals.
During yearly Professional Development Plan
meeting with supervisor.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment
item.
After the course.
Level 1: Reaction
An effective implementation plan must measure how participants react to the learning
program. Level 1 is defined as the degree to which participants find the training favorable,
engaging, and relevant to their jobs (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Table 29 lists the
components to measure reactions to the program in the following order: engagement, which
measures whether teachers are involved in the learning experience; relevance, which measures
whether teachers believe the learning is relevant to their professional practice; and finally,
customer satisfaction, which measures the overall feelings teachers have toward the professional
learning opportunity. Methods of evaluation are simple and formative in nature, meaning they
take place during the training itself. These methods consist of observation by the instructor as
well as pulse checks to ask learners how things are going throughout the training.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 193
Table 29
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Presenter/Instructors (consultant, supervisor,
colleague, etc.) observations of
participant statements and actions
demonstrating that they see the benefit of what
they are being asked to learn about and apply
in real life.
During the workshops and
department/PLC sessions.
Discussions and exit ticket reflections of the
value of what they are being asked to do with
culturally responsive practices.
During the workshops and
department/PLC sessions.
Retrospective pre- and post-test assessment
item.
At the end of each school year (June 2020,
June 2021, June 2023) following the final
workshop.
Relevance
Brief pulse-check with participants via survey
(online) and discussion (ongoing)
After every module/lesson/unit and the
workshops
Workshop evaluation Two weeks after each workshop
Customer Satisfaction
One-on-one conversation between supervisor
and teacher.
Just after each workshop.
Workshop evaluation Just after each workshop.
Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. After teachers participate
in one of the workshops, the administration will implement a survey (see Appendix D for survey
questions). The survey will help assess the relevance of the training and materials to the work,
participant satisfaction, and teachers’ commitment, attitude, and confidence in applying what
was learned. For level 1, pulse-checks will be implemented by asking the participants about the
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 194
relevance of the content to their work and the organization, delivery, and learning environment.
For level 2, feedback from peers and supervisors during observations happening briefly after the
training, as well as one-on-one exchanges and conversations between teachers and their
supervisors, will also allow school leaders to measure attitude, commitment, and confidence.
Level 2 will include checks for understanding using scenarios drawn from the content.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Approximately six
weeks after the implementation of the training or education opportunity, and then again at 18
weeks, leadership will administer a survey to measure satisfaction and relevance of the training
(level 1), the confidence and value of applying the training to the workplace (level 2), the actual
application of knowledge and skills acquired through the training to the classroom (level 3), and
finally the extent to which this application helped improve outcomes for students (level 4) (see
Appendix E for survey questions).
Data Analysis and Reporting
The level 4 goal for teachers is measured by the reduced number of suspensions and
reduced racial disparities in school suspensions. Each month, administration will track the
number of referrals processed and review a report detailing suspensions and disaggregated by
race. A visual representation, or dashboard, found in Appendix F, will be maintained and shared
within the leadership team and with the superintendent to report the data as a monitoring and
accountability tool. Similar dashboards will be created for other measures at levels 4, 3, 2, and 1.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 195
Figure 11
Total Number of Suspensions by School, 2017-2018
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 196
Figure 12
Students assigned at least one suspension, 2017-2018
Summary
Use of the New World Kirkpatrick Model to plan, implement, and evaluate training will
allow Trident to measure the success of the program they will carry out to reduce racial
disparities in school discipline. It is crucial to evaluate training programs in order to: (a)
improve upon training practices; (b) maximize transfer of learning to behavior and results; and
(c) demonstrate the value of training to the organization (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Trident’s organizational goal, to foster a culture of social and emotional well-being and growth
for students, and stakeholder goal, to reduce racial disparities in school discipline, require the
implementation of a comprehensive multi-year program that systemically reforms mindsets and
practices related to school discipline and school climate. This multi-pronged approach, managed
and implemented by a number of people within and outside the district, could easily become
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 197
disorganized or difficult to manage without a clear plan for success. For this reason, the New
World Kirkpatrick Model has been utilized to bring structure, accountability, and long-term
success to the organization’s change process.
First, it is important to begin with the end outcomes in mind using Level 4 of the model,
which focuses on results and ensures stakeholders are focused on closing gaps and not simply on
initiating programs. Those programs must lead to targeted outcomes or they are a waste of time
and resources for the organization. Periodically measuring the number of in- and out-of-school
suspensions, disaggregated by race, will allow school staff to see (or not see) progress on their
goal of reducing racial disparities, but also on other important indicators. The implementation of
the program should also lead to fewer drop-outs and better attendance at school due to
improvements in overall school climate. Next, targeting Level 3 behaviors to measure will allow
Trident to observe and reinforce critical actions necessary for achieving results. Reinforcing,
encouraging, and rewarding teachers for increased skills and effort show teachers that school
leaders and colleagues value the goals and the progress toward them. It is also important to
monitor behaviors so that teachers do not believe they are optional. Next, Level 2 evaluations
examine learning, since there are a number of knowledge issues that cannot be solved without
increased skills, attitude, confidence, and commitment from teachers. Finally, Level 1
evaluations can give leaders a sense of teachers’ engagement in the training by taking simple
pulse-checks that gauge teachers reactions. Methodically utilizing The New World Kirkpatrick
Model reminds leaders to make data-based decisions throughout the implementation of the
program. Collecting the four levels of data, and then taking the time to reflect upon it and make
necessary adjustments to the implementation, will offer Trident an excellent chance at achieving
their organizational and stakeholder goals.
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Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
The study utilized a mixed methods data-gathering and analysis approach. Trident
teachers’ knowledge and motivation related to implementing culturally responsive practices in
order to reduce disparities in school discipline was assessed using a 36-question self-rating along
with an open-ended write-in question on racial school climate, interviews with 8-11 staff
members from each school, and a comprehensive document review of discipline records from the
2017-2018 school year. This mixed methods approach allowed for the researcher to gather both
qualitative and quantitative data, integrate the two, and then interpret the data based on the
combined strengths of each (Creswell, 2015, p.2). The use of this approach supported the
researcher’s ability to build a comprehensive view of teachers’ knowledge and motivation related
to the problem, along with organization factors that affect it.
The framework utilized to design, implement, and evaluate this study, the Clark and Estes
gap analysis framework (2008) has both strengths and weaknesses as a research tool. Strengths
included methods for identifying specific gaps in performance and then making targeted
recommendations to close those gaps. This study lent very well to the gap analysis approach,
since documents were used to identify the extent of the problem, surveys were used to pinpoint
gaps, and interviews were utilized to describe and deeply understand the nature of the problem
from the perspective of teachers. A weakness of the approach is that the abundance of data
broadened the study and made it difficult to analyze all of the contributing factors. In the end,
however, this comprehensive examination of the data allows for recommendations that likely to
solve this complex problem of racial disparities in school discipline.
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Limitations and Delimitations
Aspects of this study could be improved should someone choose to replicate the methods.
While all staff members were invited to participate in both the survey and interview portions of
the study, utilizing volunteers could produce a selection bias, in which the study participants
share characteristics that are not shared with the stakeholders who did not choose to participate.
This is likely a factor in this study, since nearly all of the interview participants, although they
maintained varied disciplinary and teaching styles, cared deeply about improving the current
systems for both students and teachers. It is not likely that those satisfied with the current system
participated in this study. Additionally, very few teachers of color participated in the study.
Since 97.4% of teachers at Trident are white, meaning there are fewer than a dozen teachers of
color in the entire district, teachers of color may not have felt that their anonymity was safe
enough for them to participate in the study.
There were also limitations found in one of the instruments used in the study, the
Culturally Responsive Classroom Management Self-Efficacy scale. It is likely that teachers
rated themselves higher than their actual proficiency in this area, since very few teachers were
able to name and discuss research-based culturally responsive practices. Additionally, interview
questions were written by the researcher and not standardized by a previous study, although they
appeared to be effective in obtaining honest and open answers from respondents. A final
limitation is the fact that only one stakeholder group, teachers, was the focus of this study, and
the lack of student and parent voices in this research limits a full understanding of the problem.
Future Research
As outcomes for students of color continue to lag behind those of White students, it is
important to understand the most effective strategies for reducing racial disparities in school
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 200
discipline. The first recommendation for future research is to conduct further research to
examine the experiences of intersectional groups within the school district. For example, the
experiences of Black girls, English learners, and Black boys with Disabilities were not examined
in-depth here in the interest of time. While teachers were the stakeholder group of focus in this
study, to deeply understand the experiences of students, it is important to talk with them and
listen to their stories. Interviewing adults whose lives were negatively affected by suspension
would also allow for a deep, qualitative understanding of the negative impact of suspension on
life outcomes.
A second recommendation is to follow a school throughout the 3-year transformation of
school discipline practices. Researchers (either independent or in-house) would monitor the
implementation of recommendations to ensure fidelity of the program, periodically review the
results and adjust practices as needed. Most of the literature surrounding school discipline
reform looks at the efficacy of individual programs, such as Positive Behavior Intervention and
Supports (PBIS) or restorative practices, and does not examine comprehensive transformation of
intersecting school factors as described in the recommendations earlier in this chapter.
Conclusion
The overuse of suspension in schools is tied to negative outcomes for students, especially
for Black students, who are 3.8 times as likely to be suspended as White students, without
significant differences in misbehavior. Trident School District’s mission to ensure that all
students are college and career ready is therefore compromised by the schools’ high rate of
suspension, so it was important to explore this problem in order to generate effective solutions.
Suburban school districts like Trident are often unprepared for rapid demographic changes, and
so choose to increase punitive practices in order to maintain control and order. The practice of
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 201
punishment is deeply entrenched in the policies and procedures at Trident, as well as in the
mindset of many stakeholders, including teachers, who were the stakeholder group of focus for
this study. Disrupting entrenched systems requires comprehensive, purposeful intervention.
Choosing teachers as the stakeholder group of selection recognizes the power that
teachers have over student outcomes and that the choices they make during conflict can predict
whether or not a student will be suspended. Knowing how to defuse and de-escalate situations is
not something teachers commonly learn in teacher education programs or in professional
development workshops. Teachers often learn on the job and then stick by the strategies they
developed, even if those strategies are not the most effective and often lead to a disciplinary
referral. Being able to proactively and skillfully guide student behavior is important to creating a
healthy classroom community that avoids punitive discipline when possible (Hagenauer,
Hascher, & Volet, 2014). The role of teachers in reducing racial disparities in school discipline
should not be underestimated.
While teachers are the primary stakeholders tasked with reducing racial disparities in
school discipline, teachers at Trident need more support, resources, clear procedures and
policies, and effective training in order to have an influence in reducing racial disparities and the
suspension rate in general. Additional state and national accountability measures placed on
teachers in the past few years may have left them without adequate time to address discipline
issues, and it is important that they understand the consequences to the student-teacher
relationship when they give conflicts away to administrators as discipline referrals.
Relationships should be prioritized over mandates and accountability measures, and school
leaders must make this clear to their teachers and offer what teachers need to keep relationships
as their first priority. It is necessary to create a sense of urgency within the district for teachers
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 202
to gain the skills, desire, and support needed to reduce suspensions overall and to reduce or erase
racial disparities in disciplinary practices. Mindsets must be changed alongside revisions to
policy and procedures, or transformation efforts will fail.
Trident teachers detailed their exhaustion and burnout related to upholding or evading the
punitive discipline system at Trident. Emotions can be considered the “the rudder that steers
thinking” (Immordino-Yang & Damasio, 2007 p. 28), and so are often important yet invisible
forces that drive behavior. Teachers that are working in survival mode, from an emotional
standpoint, are not able to implement best practices in school discipline. The researcher of this
study comes away with a deep empathy for teachers who are called upon to continually do more
without the support and resources they need to be successful. We can infer from this research
that a teacher’s emotional state influences the emotional states of her students, and teachers who
remain calm, attuned, present and predictable can prevent emotional escalation in students,
especially those who have experienced difficult problems or trauma in their lives (Walkley &
Cox, 2013). Teachers’ emotional states must be considered as critical factors during the
implementation of change.
The data from this study revealed colorblind practices at Trident that exacerbate racial
tension and conflicts over culturally-based behaviors. Racial factors must be discussed,
analyzed, and acted upon in order for progress to occur, and the voices of students and families
must be central to the discussions. The implications from these findings identify six areas that
need to be reformed to change the culture of control, in addition to two continuous driving
factors of culturally responsive mindsets and monitoring/evaluation, and a center focus on
student wellbeing and empowerment. This model of School Discipline Transformation for
Wellbeing and Justice offers specific research-based interventions spread out over three years to
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ensure deep and lasting change. While the model is based on gaps in knowledge, motivation,
and organizational practice at Trident, it was designed using researched best practices and may
therefore prove useful to other U.S. schools systems committed to transforming their disciplinary
practices in order to increase equity.
Efforts at systemic change that challenge deeply held beliefs are difficult to achieve, and
are a primary reason that racial disparities continue to exist around the U.S., where racist
ideologies are embedded into systems, often unseen by those who benefit from them. Success
has been achieved, however, in schools that are dedicated to their goal of equity and undeterred
by those who protest change or attempt to slow it down. Trident’s leaders should be encouraged
and empowered to avoid common “equity detours” (Gorski, 2016) that slow down progress and
mask continuing inequities, while also taking enough time for teachers to own the process and
experience deep change in their mindsets and practices. Given that Trident’s staff is over 97%
White, leaders should expect resistance from some staff, but should also understand that racial
equity cannot be achieved with a commitment to “‘meeting people where they are’ when ‘where
they are’ is fraught with racial bias and privilege (Gorski, 2016). Students at Trident are
counting on the school district to tackle inequities head-on in order to improve student
opportunities and outcomes for future success.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 204
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classroom learning : an encyclopedia(001 ed.). Detroit, Michigan: Macmillan
Reference USA.
Zwart, R. C., Korthagen, F. A., & Attema-Noordewier, S. (2015). A strength-based approach to
teacher professional development. Professional development in education, 41(3), 579-
596.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 221
APPENDIX A
Survey Items
The Culturally Responsive Classroom Management Self-Efficacy Scale
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
No Moderately Completely
Confidence Confident Confident
At all
I am able to:
1. Assess students’ behaviors with the knowledge that acceptable school behaviors may not
match those that are acceptable within a student’s home culture. (M-EV)
2. Use culturally responsive discipline practices to alter the behavior of a student who is
being defiant. (M-EV)
3. Create a learning environment that conveys respect for the cultures of all students in my
classroom. (M-EV)
4. Use my knowledge of students’ cultural backgrounds to create a culturally compatible
learning environment. (M-EV)
5. Establish high behavioral expectations that encourage students to produce high quality
work. (M-EV)
6. Clearly communicate classroom policies. (M-EV)
7. Structure the learning environment so that all students feel like a valued member of the
learning community. (M-EV)
8. Use what I know about my students’ cultural background to develop an effective learning
environment. (M-EV)
9. Encourage students to work together on classroom tasks, when appropriate. (M-EV)
10. Design the classroom in a way that communicates respect for diversity. (M-EV)
11. Use strategies that will hold students accountable for producing high quality work. (M-
EV)
12. Address inappropriate behavior without relying on traditional methods of discipline such
as office referrals. (M-EV)
13. Critically analyze students’ classroom behavior from a cross-cultural perspective. (M-
EV)
14. Modify lesson plans so that students remain actively engaged throughout the entire class
period or lesson. (M-EV)
15. Redirect students’ behavior without the use of coercive means (i.e., consequences or
verbal reprimand). (M-EV)
16. Restructure the curriculum so that every child can succeed, regardless of their academic
history. (M-EV)
17. Communicate with students using expressions that are familiar to them. (M-EV)
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 222
18. Personalize the classroom so that it is reflective of the cultural background of my
students. (M-EV)
19. Establish routines for carrying out specific classroom tasks. (M-EV)
20. Design activities that require students to work together toward a common academic goal.
(M-EV)
21. Modify the curriculum to allow students to work in groups. (M-EV)
22. Teach students how to work together. (M-EV)
23. Critically assess whether a particular behavior constitutes misbehavior. (M-EV)
24. Teach children self-management strategies that will assist them in regulating their
classroom behavior. (M-EV)
25. Develop a partnership with parents from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds. (M-
EV)
26. Communicate with students’ parents whose primary language is not English. (M-EV)
27. Establish two-way communication with non-English speaking parents. (M-EV)
28. Use culturally appropriate methods to relate to parents from culturally and linguistically
diverse backgrounds. (M-EV)
29. Model classroom routines for English Language Learners. (M-EV)
30. Explain classroom rules so that they are easily understood by English Language Learners.
(M-EV)
31. Modify aspects of the classroom so that it matches aspects of students’ home culture. (M-
EV)
32. Implement an intervention that minimizes a conflict that occurs when a students’
culturally based behavior is not consistent with school norms. (M-EV)
33. Develop an effective classroom management plan based on my understanding of
students’ family background. (M-EV)
34. Manage situations in which students are defiant. (M-EV)
35. Prevent disruptions by recognizing potential causes for misbehavior. (M-EV)
(M-EV - Motivation - Expectancy Value (self-efficacy)
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 223
APPENDIX B
Principal Interview Protocol
Thanks so much for meeting with me today – your perspective will be very useful as I study
school discipline practices, with the goal of reducing racial disparities in exclusionary discipline
– which is when students are suspended, either in or out of school. The purpose of the study is to
understand the factors that influence teachers’ decision-making during school disciplinary events
– or what teachers think, feel, and do when student behavior is not going the way you expect it
to. Your perspective as a principal will help me understand how discipline occurs at your school
and administrators’ expectations of teachers in regards to classroom management and
disciplinary procedures. Is there anything else you’d like me to tell you about the study itself
before we begin? Even though I have the approval of your superintendent and general findings
will be shared with school leadership, this project is separate from school and is related to my
doctoral studies at the University of Southern California. All data that we create will be kept in a
secure place and also kept confidential; I won’t share what you say with any of your supervisors
or colleagues, or anyone else.
Is it okay to use a tape recorder? The recording will only be used so that I can reflect on the
details of our discussion; you will not be identified in any of the written materials, and if I do use
a quote of yours, I will attribute it to a pseudonym. There are two copies of this form that
requests your permission to record [offer form to sign]. If it’s okay, could you please sign one of
them for me and then hang onto the other one. If it any point you decide you no longer want to
participate in the study, just let me know, there’s no pressure, or if there are any questions you
don’t feel comfortable answering, that is fine too. Do you have any questions before we get
started?
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 224
1. Let’s start with you telling me a little bit about your current disciplinary procedures. (K-
P)
2. Tell me about a common discipline issue at your school that may lead to a student
getting suspended, either in or out of school? (K-P)
1. That is a helpful example of an event that happens around school – can you tell
me about one that might happen in the classroom?
2. That is a helpful example of an event that happens in the classroom – can you tell
me about one that might happen around school?
3. Tell me about what the most challenging aspects are for you as a principal when you’re
involved with a school discipline issue? (M-EV)
1. That’s helpful to know what you find challenging when you refer a student to
administration. How about when you’re interacting with the student?
2. That’s helpful to know what you find challenging when you’re interacting with a
student. How about when you refer a student to administration?
4. Walk me through the steps you take during a discipline incident, from beginning to end.
(K-P)
1. What happens after that?
2. Can you go back a step and tell me more about the office referral?
3. How about parents? Are they involved in the process?
4. How do you proceed once the student returns to class?
5. How equipped do you believe teachers feel that they are to handle discipline issues at
school? (M-EV)
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 225
6. What additional support/training/resources would help you and your staff handle
discipline issues at school? (K-P)
7. Tell me your thoughts about how teachers perceive that you handle a typical situation
when a student is referred for discipline. (O-CM)
8. Imagine you’re in the middle of a particularly difficult interaction with a student in the
discipline process. Can you describe for me some things you might be thinking about at
that time? (M-EV)
1. That helps me understand how you are feeling at the time, how about any
thoughts that you may have?
9. How about how you’re feeling during a discipline incident; can you describe what
physical and emotional signs you experience? (M-E)
10. Share a time when a discipline incident did not go well and describe what you wish you
had done differently. (M-E)
11. Share a time when a discipline incident ended well and describe what you did that made
it a success. (K-P)
12. What are your thoughts on using restorative practices to address school discipline issues?
(O-CS)
13. Can you tell me about any differences you’ve noticed in discipline practices at your
school based on race? (O-CM)
1. How about any differences in student behavior based on race?
14. Can you tell me anything you’ve noticed regarding the academic progress of students
who have been suspended, either in or out of school? (K-F)
15. Is there anything that you would like to add or clarify before we finish up for today?
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 226
M-EV (Motivation - Expectancy Value (self-efficacy); M-E (Motivation - Emotion); K-F
(Knowledge - Factual); K-P (Knowledge - Procedural); O-CS (Organization - Cultural Settings);
O-CM (Organization - Cultural Models)
Thank you so much for speaking with me about your experiences with school discipline – it is so
helpful to hear from people who do this work every day. I will be sharing recommendations with
you once the study is complete, if you are interested in the findings, and here is my card if you
need to be in touch for any reason. Enjoy the rest of your day.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 227
APPENDIX C
Teacher Interview Protocol
Thanks so much for meeting with me today – your perspective will be very useful as I study
school discipline practices, with the goal of reducing racial disparities in exclusionary discipline
– which is when students are suspended, either in or out of school. The purpose of the study is to
understand the factors that influence teachers’ decision-making during school disciplinary events
– or what teachers think, feel, and do when student behavior is not going the way you expect it
to. Is there anything else you’d like me to tell you about the study itself before we begin? Even
though I have the approval of your superintendent and general findings will be shared with
school leadership, this project is separate from school and is related to my doctoral studies at the
University of Southern California. All data that we create will be kept in a secure place and also
kept confidential; I won’t share what you say with any of your supervisors or colleagues, or
anyone else.
Is it okay to use a tape recorder? The recording will only be used so that I can reflect on the
details of our discussion; you will not be identified in any of the written materials, and if I do use
a quote of yours, I will attribute it to a pseudonym. There are two copies of this form that
requests your permission to record [offer form to sign]. If it’s okay, could you please sign one of
them for me and then hang onto the other one. If it any point you decide you no longer want to
participate in the study, just let me know, there’s no pressure, or if there are any questions you
don’t feel comfortable answering, that is fine too. Do you have any questions before we get
started?
1. Let’s start with you telling me a little bit about your current teaching assignment.
2. What motivated you to become a teacher in the first place?
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 228
3. Tell me about a common discipline issue at your school that may lead to a student
getting suspended, either in or out of school? (K-P)
1. That is a helpful example of an event that happens around school – can you tell
me about one that might happen in your classroom?
2. That is a helpful example of an event that happens in your classroom – can you
tell me about one that might happen around school?
4. What do you believe a teacher’s role should be in regards to classroom discipline? (K-P)
1. How about school-wide discipline?
5. Tell me about what the most challenging aspects are for you as a teacher when you’re
involved with a school discipline issue? (M-EV)
1. That’s helpful to know what you find challenging when you refer a student to
administration. How about when you’re interacting with the student?
2. That’s helpful to know what you find challenging when you’re interacting with a
student. How about when you refer a student to administration?
6. Walk me through the steps you take during a discipline incident, from beginning to end.
(K-P)
1. What happens after that?
2. Go back a step and tell me more about the office referral?
3. How about parents? Are they involved in the process?
4. How do you proceed once the student returns to class?
7. What are some methods teachers and administrators use to communicate about discipline
issues at your school? (O-CS)
8. How equipped do you feel personally to handle discipline issues at school? (M-EV)
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 229
9. What additional support/training/resources would help you handle discipline issues at
school? (K-P)
10. Imagine you’re in the middle of a particularly difficult interaction with a student in the
middle of class. Describe for me some things you might be thinking about at that time?
(M-EV)
1. That helps me understand how you are feeling at the time, how about any
thoughts that you may have?
11. How about how you’re feeling during a discipline incident; describe what physical and
emotional signs you experience? (M-E)
12. Name any effects you’ve noticed that your own emotions, positive or negative, have had
on a discipline event? (M-E)
13. Share a time when a discipline incident did not go well and describe what you wish you
had done differently. (M-EV)
14. Share a time when a discipline incident ended well and describe what you did that made
it a success. (M-EV)
15. What are your thoughts on using restorative practices to address school discipline issues?
How about culturally responsive practices? Can you name any other methods you that
you would consider useful for your school to incorporate into its discipline practices?
(O-CS)
16. What are the effects of suspension that you have noticed, either positive or negative?
1. Tell me about any long-term effects of suspension that you are aware of, either
positive or negative. (K-F)
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 230
17. Tell me about any differences you’ve noticed in discipline practices at your school based
on race? (O-CM)
1. How about any differences in student behavior based on race? (O-CM)
18. Can you tell me anything you’ve noticed regarding the academic progress of students
who have been suspended, either in or out of school? (K-F)
19. Is there anything that you would like to add or clarify before we finish up for today?
M-EV (Motivation - Expectancy Value (self-efficacy); M-E (Motivation - Emotion) K-F
(Knowledge - Factual); K-P (Knowledge - Procedural);
O-CS (Organization - Cultural Settings); O-CM (Organization - Cultural Models)
Thank you so much for speaking with me about your experiences with school discipline – it is so
helpful to hear from people who do this work every day. I will be sharing recommendations with
your principal once the study is complete, if you are interested in the findings, and here is my
card if you need to be in touch for any reason. Enjoy the rest of your day.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 231
Appendix D
Evaluation Instrument - Levels 1&2
Workshop Date: Workshop Topic:
Thank you for attending today’s workshop. We appreciate your feedback so that we can
evaluate the quality of instruction and continue to improve for future sessions.
Strongly
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
I was satisfied with the pacing and timing of
today’s workshop.
❂ 1 ❂ 2 ❂ 3 ❂ 4
I found the content presented valuable and relevant
for my job.
❂ 1 ❂ 2 ❂ 3 ❂ 4
The information learned in this workshop has
increased my confidence in implementing
culturally responsive practices.
❂ 1 ❂ 2 ❂ 3 ❂ 4
The handouts provided during this workshop
helped me understand the information shared.
❂ 1 ❂ 2 ❂ 3 ❂ 4
I would be able to accurately share the information
presented today with a spouse, colleague, or
friend.
❂ 1 ❂ 2 ❂ 3 ❂ 4
I am interested in attending similar workshops in
the future.
❂ 1 ❂ 2 ❂ 3 ❂ 4
Additional Feedback: Are there any questions that you have from today’s workshop that you
would like answered? What topics would you like to see covered at future workshops?
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 232
Appendix E
Blended Instrument - Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4
End-of-Year Evaluation Form
Name: Date:
Thank you for taking the time to complete the following evaluation of culturally responsive
training sessions. Your feedback is important as we consider the impact of this year’s
programs and look ahead to opportunities in the coming school year.
Strongly
disagree
Strongly
Agree
(L1) Overall, I found the information provided at
workshops, meetings, and PLCs to be engaging.
(L1) Overall, I believe the information provided at
workshops, meetings, and PLCs was relevant to my
role at the school.
(L2) The information provided in handouts,
brochures and diagrams helped me learn new
things about the negative outcomes of suspension,
defusing and de-escalating conflict, and culturally
responsive classroom practices.
(L2) The goals of the district, including goals stated
at specific workshops, align with my goals as an
educator.
(L3) My level of confidence in implementing
culturally responsive classroom practices increased
as a result of the workshops and events I attended
this year.
(L4) I have noticed improvements in school
climate.
(L4) I have made fewer discipline referrals as a
result of what I have learned in training this year.
(L4) In the space below, please describe your plans for implementing culturally responsive
classroom practices in the upcoming school year.
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 233
In the space below please provide any additional feedback about discipline reform and
culturally responsive classroom practices that you took part in this year. What would you like
to see more of next year? What additional topics would you like to discuss?
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 234
Appendix F
Data Analysis Chart
EQUITY SNAPSHOT
School: Month: Year:
Percent of
population
Number of OSS Percent of OSS Number of ISS Percent of ISS Measure
White boys
White girls
Black boys
Black girls
Hispanic
boys
Hispanic
girls
Asian boys
Asian girls
Multi-race
boys
Multi-race
girls
ELL boys
ELL girls
IEP boys
IEP girls
Econ. dis.
boys
Econ. disa.
girls
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 235
Appendix G
Checklist of Tasks for All Stakeholders
School Discipline Transformation for Wellbeing and Justice
Component Year Task Person
responsible
Complete
Policy &
procedure review
and revision
Year 1 Review & revise diversity,
equity, and inclusion policy to
reflect vision and mission
Superintendent,
with
Community
Equity Team &
board approval
Year 1 Review & revise discipline
policy and procedures, including
dress code
Superintendent,
with
Community
Equity Team &
board approval
Year 1 Review & revise attendance
policy & procedures
Leadership
team & board
approval
Year 1 Clearly define role of School
Resource Officer
Superintendent
& board
Year 2 Review & revise I&RS
procedures to ensure early
intervention and proactive
support
Counseling
supervisors &
Child Study
Teams
Year 2 Review & revise hiring &
retention efforts for teachers of
color
Human
Resources
Year 3 Revision of curriculum and
materials to reflect culturally
responsive teaching practices
Curriculum
Directors,
supervisors
Community Equity
Teams
Year 1 Invite all stakeholders to join
monthly Community Equity
Team meetings for shared
leadership and decision-making.
Ensure all stakeholder groups are
well-represented.
Superintendent
& Leadership
Team
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 236
Year 1,
2, 3
Welcome families to the school
community in a way that is
empowering and inclusive.
Community
Equity Team,
led by chair
Year 1 Hold two community forums to
encourage voice and agency for
families. Share progress and
solicit input.
Community
Equity Team,
led by chair
Year 1 Agree on core beliefs that drive
decision-making.
Community
Equity Team,
led by chair
Year
2,3
Offer workshops and outreach to
families based on data gathered
in Year 1, integrating ongoing
feedback
Community
Equity Team,
led by chair
Learning and
Reflection
Year 1 Administrative training -
understanding results of the
school discipline study and the
negative effects of suspension;
courageous conversations on
race and equity
Researcher -
summer
Year 1 Staff meeting - understanding
results of the school discipline
study and the negative effects of
suspension (infographic provided
by researcher)
Leadership
Team &
researcher-
beginning of
school
Year 1 Staff training - defusing and de-
escalating conflict with students
(includes ongoing practice,
support, and peer observations)
Teacher teams -
in PLC, with
planning
support from
supervisors
Year 1 Supervisor training - culturally
responsive teaching practices
(may include outside trainer,
webinars, book club)
Supervisors
Year 1 Cohort 1 of teacher volunteers -
training in restorative practices
Outside trainer,
scheduling
support from
principals
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 237
Year 1 Pilot empathic discipline module
with one department, district-
wide
Supervisors
Year 1 All staff training - courageous
communication around race and
equity (steps toward culturally
responsive practices job aid
provided by researcher)
Outside trainer
with
Leadership
Team
Year 2 Cohort 2 of teacher volunteers -
training in restorative practices
Outside trainer,
teachers
Year 2 Implement empathic discipline
module with two departments,
district-wide
Supervisors
Year 2 Teacher training - culturally
responsive teaching practices
(may include outside trainer,
webinars, book club) with PLC
Supervisors
Year 3 Implement empathic discipline
module with two departments,
district-wide
Supervisors
Year 3 Cohort 3 of teacher volunteers -
training in restorative practices
Teachers
Year 3 Continued teacher training -
culturally responsive teaching
practices (may include outside
trainer, webinars, book club)
with PLC
Supervisors
Coaching and
Support
Year 1,
2, 3
Enthusiasm, support and buy-in
on goals from administrators
toward teachers
Principals,
supervisors
Year
1,2,3
Walkthroughs, conversations and
informal observations regarding
culturally responsive practices
Principals,
supervisors
Year 3 Support, feedback, and resources
as teachers include culturally
responsive practices in their
yearly professional development
plans, lesson plans, and
Principals,
supervisors
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 238
observations
Year
1,2,3
Peer observation and support Teachers
Courageous
Communication
Year
1,2,3
Courageous communication
about issues of race and equity
that affect the school community
Leadership
Team,
Community
Equity Team
Year
1,2,3
Courageous communication of
goals, sense of urgency, and core
beliefs to all stakeholders
Superintendent,
board,
Community
Equity Team
Year 1 Share protocol with teachers for
effective communication with
families
Researcher
Year
1,2,3
Practice building coalitions and
partnerships between school and
home.
Leadership
team, teachers,
Community
Equity Team
Year
1,2,3
Monthly email or newsletter
updates to all stakeholders on
progress, including reminders of
beliefs and goals
Superintendent,
Community
Equity Team
Year
1,2,3
Include translations of messages
when available for families
whose home language is not
English
Year
2,3
Provide translators for families at
school events, providing a
mechanism to request language
services.
Community
Equity Teams
Reallocating
Resources
Year
1,2,3
Restructure responsibilities of
student coordinators to offer
more support to teachers as they
implement culturally responsive
practices. This may include:
conversation coverage, proactive
warnings for students
approaching a disciplinary
Leadership
Teams
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 239
consequence, arranging proactive
meetings between families and
teachers, making proactive
phone calls home to parents
regarding discipline and/or
attendance issues, offering ideas
and solutions to teachers,
planning positive assemblies,
rewards, reminders, and teaching
routines and procedures to
students. Change title to reflect
new responsibilities, such as
Teacher Coach.
Year
1,2,3
Redesign duties of teachers
printing / distributing / recording
attendance violations as
community liaisons, reaching out
to families with information on
attendance and support.
Year
2,3
Redesign in-school suspension to
offer learning opportunities, self-
regulation strategies, restoration,
and support.
Leadership
Team, ISS
teachers, CET
Year
2,3
Assess curriculum budget and
materials to ensure the reflection
of culturally diverse
perspectives.
Curriculum
Directors,
Leadership
Team
Culturally
Responsive
Mindsets
Year
1,2,3
Consistent high expectations for
all students
All staff
Year
1,2,3
Positive perspectives on parents
and families
All staff
Year
1,2,3
Responsiveness to the needs and
interests of students
All staff
Year
2,3
Reshaping the curriculum for
learning in the context of culture
Supervisors,
teachers
Continuous
Monitoring and
Evaluation
Year
1,2,3
Evaluation of all training
programs at conclusion, 6 weeks
after, and 18 weeks after
Principals
RACIAL DISPARITIES IN SCHOOL DISCIPLINE 240
Year
1,2,3
Monthly equity snapshots to
monitor suspension rates
Principals
Year
1,2,3
End-of-year evaluations of
growth and progress
Community
Equity Team,
Principals
Year
1,2,3
Continuous formative evaluation
through conversations and data
review
Community
Equity Team,
Principals
Year 3 Inclusion of culturally responsive
teaching practices in yearly
professional development plans,
classroom observations, and
summative evaluations.
Supervisors
Student wellbeing
and empowerment
Year
1,2,3
Continued conversations
regarding trauma and mental
health first aid.
Counseling
supervisors,
Child Study
Team
supervisors
Year
2,3
Ensure establishment of GSA
club at each campus
Superintendent/
Leadership
Team
Year
1,2,3
Support student conversations
around issues of race, class,
gender and other ideas for
empowerment that come from
Community Equity Team and
student groups
Principals/
Community
Equity Team
Year
2,3
Offer opportunities to learn self-
regulation techniques proactively
(yoga, meditation, for example)
Counseling
department,
Community
Equity Team
Key: Key Components
Continuous Drivers
Central Focus
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate racial disparities in school discipline in a newly diverse U.S. suburban high school district. Survey and interview participants included staff members at three mid-Atlantic high schools, in order to examine the knowledge and motivation of teachers as well as organizational factors that contribute to differential assignment of in- and out-of-school suspension as a consequence for behavior. Results include validation of influences such as a lack of knowledge of the negative consequences of suspension on a student’s life
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Ruth, Christine
(author)
Core Title
Racial disparities in U.S. K-12 suburban schools: an evaluation study
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Publication Date
11/25/2019
Defense Date
08/26/2019
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
adolescence,adverse adult outcomes,belonging,bias,Civil rights,college and career readiness,colorblind,Communication,criminalization,cultural mismatch,culturally responsive,culture of control,Empathy,equity,exclusionary discipline,future incarceration,gap analysis,hidden curriculum,High School,inequities,in-school suspension,knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors,low teacher diversity,microaggressions,mixed-methods study,OAI-PMH Harvest,out-of-school suspension,over-referral,punishment,racial disparities,restorative practices,school and home connection,school climate,School Discipline Reform for Wellbeing and Justice,school discipline transformation,school-to-prison pipeline,social connectedness,social-emotional needs,stereotype,suspension,systemic racism,teacher coaching,teacher self-efficacy,wellbeing,zero tolerance
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Robles, Darline (
committee chair
), Green, Alan (
committee member
), Rudnesky, Frank (
committee member
)
Creator Email
chrisruth31@comcast.net,cruth@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-237804
Unique identifier
UC11673854
Identifier
etd-RuthChrist-7953.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-237804 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-RuthChrist-7953.pdf
Dmrecord
237804
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Ruth, Christine
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Tags
adverse adult outcomes
belonging
bias
college and career readiness
colorblind
criminalization
cultural mismatch
culturally responsive
culture of control
equity
exclusionary discipline
future incarceration
gap analysis
hidden curriculum
inequities
in-school suspension
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors
low teacher diversity
microaggressions
mixed-methods study
out-of-school suspension
over-referral
racial disparities
restorative practices
school and home connection
school climate
School Discipline Reform for Wellbeing and Justice
school discipline transformation
school-to-prison pipeline
social connectedness
social-emotional needs
stereotype
suspension
systemic racism
teacher coaching
teacher self-efficacy
wellbeing
zero tolerance