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Sticks and stones: achieving educational equity for Black students through board advocacy: an innovation study

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Sticks and stones: achieving educational equity for Black students through board advocacy: an innovation study

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Content Running head: STICKS AND STONES 1

STICKS AND STONES: ACHIEVING EDUCATIONAL EQUITY FOR BLACK STUDENTS
THROUGH BOARD ADVOCACY: AN INNOVATION STUDY

by

Melissa R. Franklin

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2020

© Copyright 2020 Melissa R. Franklin
STICKS AND STONES 2

Acknowledgements

The journey through this topic and this process both were difficult. It stretched me
beyond what I thought I could do. The most challenging part was that life did not pause as I
pursued this study. From relaunching a consulting firm to the constant dynamics of raising young
children to facing a health challenge and major surgery, I truly could not have endured were it
not for God’s grace and the village of support. First, thank you to my wonderful dissertation
committee each of whom pushed and stretched me to submit the best work product possible: Drs.
Darin Brawley, Susanne Foulk (Assistant Chair), Artineh Samkian, and Kenneth Yates (Chair).
Dr. Yates, you indeed were an outstanding dissertation doula, coaching and guiding me, and
making the possible seem totally doable. Dr. Brawley, you were a vital part of my process.
Thank you to my husband, John Paul Franklin III and daughters, Hannah and Heaven,
who bore the sacrifice of fewer home cooked meals and a tired wife and mother. They had me
convinced that I could do this and that my work is important. They also reminded me why I
chose this topic. Thank you to my mother Margaret, Aunt Venessa, siblings/like-siblings Ryan,
Adam, Teresa, and Dana whom I am sure wondered why I sought to pursue a doctorate or this
study in the first place, yet encouraged me all the same. Thank you to my Mother-in-Love,
Wanda Franklin, who told me she was proud of me and picked up the kids when I had to be in
three places at one time. Thank you to my grand-parents-in-law who let me sit at their kitchen
table with my laptop tapping away or highlighting copious studies while visiting.
Thank you to Micah Ali and the Board and staff of Compton Unified School District,
especially Tiani and Roger, Chandra, and Casuandra. Thank you to Dr. Thelma Melendez who
inspired me to enter this program and Dr. Erika Torres who encouraged me to finish. Thank you
Dr. Alejandro Alvarez for your help and exemplars and encouragement. Thank you LA County
STICKS AND STONES 3

African American Infant and Maternal Mortality Initiative – my fellow brothers and sisters in the
struggle who were a constant reminder that this study and my finishing the race were important.
Thank you Dr. Allen, who showed enthusiastic interest in my study and my pursuit of a
doctorate. Thank you to my super sister in social justice, Helen “Hellie” O’Connor who became
more than a colleague and friend and who reminded me that this work is no small feat.
Thank you to the outstanding and caring professors in the Rossier program, a few of
whom were a source of great encouragement and support as I worked to remain in the program
despite a serious surgery. Speaking of which, thank you to Dr. Maddox, whose “Failure Resume”
assignment changed my life and whose course caused me to relaunch my communications firm
and name it Growth Mindset. Thank you to the USC DSP staff. Thank you Jennifer Tyler, whose
editing skills saw me through the last lap.
Thank you Pastor Alton Trimble, Dr. Janalyn Glymph, and the Glory Christian
Fellowship International Dance Ministry who have been family to me and prayed me through
this journey. Thank you to Logan “Bro-Lo” and Lisa, who were travelling on their own academic
journeys—it was so great to have you has beacons. Thank you to my BFF, Cat Cube, who
endured my complaints, whines, stresses, and random “I’m going to quit” texts on a regular.
Thank you to ‘ACBS’ for opening your virtual doors to me and allowing me to support your
great work through this study—may you see equity at last. May one day every child that enters
the door of a school be viewed as having the greatest of potential. May one day everything, every
person, every practice, every environment around them signal to them an unquenchable belief
that they can and will achieve—that great things lie ahead for them. Until then, I will gladly
continue to lock arms with fellow agends of transformation, to advance true and lasting change
on their behalf. Let’s do this.
STICKS AND STONES 4

Dedication
This is dedicated to my Mom, who showed me what perseverance, love above all, and
being a strong woman really looks like.
This is dedicated to my Dad. He always wanted to go to USC. An A student as a youth,
he would tell me that he had been actively recruited for the Trojan track team when he was
drafted into Vietnam and spent his early adult years fighting a most horrible war. When he came
back, he married, had me, had my siblings, and went to trade school. He inspired and taught me.
He was a great leader. I made it dad…thank you for getting me here.
This is dedicated to my husband and daughters.
Finally, this is dedicated to all the Black children in schools across this country, sitting in
classrooms and trying their darndest against the odds and against perceptions, to be seen as just
as good. May they one day know that they are remarkable.

STICKS AND STONES 5

Table of Contents
List of Tables 11
List of Figures 13
Abstract 14
Chapter One: Introduction 15
Introduction of the Problem of Practice 15
Organizational Context and Mission 16
Organizational Performance Status/Need 16
Related Literature 17
Importance of the Organizational Innovation 19
Organizational Performance Goal 19
Description of Stakeholder Groups 20
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals 20
Stakeholder Group for the Study 21
Purpose of the Project and Questions 22
Methodological Framework 22
Definitions 23
Organization of the Study 23
Chapter Two: Review Of The Literature 24
Influences on the Problem of Practice 25
Implicit Bias 25
The nature of implicit bias. 25
Implicit bias and stereotypes. 26
Priming of implicit bias and related stereotypes. 27
Impact of Negative Stereotypes on Black People 28
Impact of negative stereotypes on blacks in general. 28
Impact of negative stereotypes on black in k-12 schools. 30
News Media Priming 31
How media coverage primes stereotypes. 31
Stereotyped media coverage of black people. 32
Combating Stereotypes 33
Addressing implicit bias. 33
Counter-stereotype messages. 34
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational 35
Influences Framework
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences 35
Knowledge and Skills 35
Knowledge influence 1. The President and Board of 38
ACBS need knowledge of the relationship between
priming, stereotypes and decisions that negatively
impact black people.
Knowledge influence 2: The President and Board of 39
ACBS need to know how to create an effective advocacy
campaign (e.g., message platform, communication
vehicles—advertisements, website, social media,
billboards, media outreach).
Knowledge Influence 3: The ACBS President and Board 41
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need to reflect on and monitor progress of outcomes for
Black students.
Motivation 43
Motivation influence 1. The President and Board of ACBS 44
need to see the value in investing time and resources in an
advocacy program that promotes a positive view of and counters
negative narratives about Black people.
Expectancy value theory: utility value. 44
President and Board of Governors utility value. 44
Motivation influence 2. The President and Board of ACBS 46
need to believe that they can effectively create and successfully
implement an advocacy campaign that promotes a positive view
of and counters negative narratives about Black people.
Collective self-efficacy. 48
Organization
Organizational influence 1. The organization needs to 48
possess a belief system (cultural model) within ACBS that
values promoting positive views of and countering negative
stereotypes about Black people as a part of the organization’s
responsibilities.
Cultural model. 48
Stakeholder specific factors. 48
Organizational influence 2. The organization needs to possess 49
a belief system that it takes the active and ongoing
contribution of everyone in the organization (inclusive of Board,
staff and broader membership) to advance the mission of ACBS
Organizational Influence 3: The organization needs to commit 49
resources to developing advocacy messages, tools, and channels.
Cultural Setting. 49
Organizational influence 4: The organization needs to provide 50
consistent and ongoing opportunities for ACBS membership and
leadership to engage around the development and implementation
of actions that further the organization’s mission.
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ 52
Knowledge and Motivation and the Organizational Context
Conclusion 57
Chapter Three: Methods 58
Participating Stakeholders 58
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale 58
Criterion 1. Members of the ACBS Board of Governors, inclusive 59
of its President.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 59
Observation Sampling (Access) Strategy and Rationale 59
Data Collection and Instrumentation 59
Surveys 61
Interviews 61
Interview protocol. 61
Participant recruitment. 62
STICKS AND STONES 7

Interview procedures 64
Documents and Artifacts 65
Data Analysis 69
Credibility and Trustworthiness 70
Ethics 73
Limitation and Delimitations 75
Chapter Four: Results And Findings 77
Participating Stakeholders 77
Determination of Assets and Needs 78
General Results and Findings For Knowledge Causes 78
Finding 1. The President and Board of ACBS possess the 79
critical knowledge components in order to launch an
advocacy campaign but need knowledge of how to put those
components together effectively.
Finding 2. The ACBS President and Board need to spend 83
time reflecting on their progress toward the end of advancing
their mission.
Knowledge influence summary 86
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes by Influence 86
Conceptual Knowledge 86
Finding 1. The President and Board of ACBS need 86
knowledge of the relationship between priming,
stereotypes, and decisions that negatively impact
Black people.
Survey results. 86
Interview findings. 86
Observation. 88
Document analysis. 88
Summary. 88
Procedural Knowledge 89
Influence 1. The president and board of ACBS need to know 89
how to create an effective advocacy campaign.
Survey results. 89
Interview findings. 89
Observation. 89
Document analysis. 89
Summary. 90
Metacognitive Knowledge 90
Influence 1. The ACBS president and board need to reflect on 90
and monitor progress of outcomes for Black students.
Survey results. 90
Interview findings. 90
Observation. 91
Document analysis. 91
Summary. 91
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes 92
Finding 1: The Creation of an Advocacy Program is Seen 92
as Valuable, but Poses Practical Challenges
STICKS AND STONES 8

Results and Findings for Motivation Causes by Influence 96
Value 96
Influence 1. The President and Board of ACBS 96
need to see the value in investing time and resources
in an advocacy program.
Survey results. 96
Interview findings. 96
Observation. 97
Document analysis. 97
Summary. 97
Collective Self-Efficacy 98
Influence 1. The President and Board of ACBS need to believe 98
that they can collectively create and successfully implement an
effective advocacy program.
Survey results 98
Interview findings. 98
Observation. 99
Document analysis. 99
Summary. 99
Results and Findings for Organization Causes 99
Finding 1. ACBS Board shares a belief that it must take a 100
stand against negative perceptions of Black and engage its
broader membership in advancing educational equity on
behalf of Black students.
Finding 2. Despite possessing a cultural model that upholds 103
the values of advocacy and member engagement, ACBS needs
to take steps to advocate and engage year round.
Results and Findings for Organizational Causes by Influence 108
Cultural Models 108
Influence 1. The organization needs to possess a 108
belief system within ACBS that values promoting
positive views and countering negative stereotypes
about Black people.
Survey results. 108
Interview findings. 108
Observation. 109
Document analysis. 109
Summary. 109
Influence 2. The organization needs to possess a belief 110
system that it takes the active and ongoing contribution
of everyone in the organization to advance the mission
of ACBS.
Survey results. 110
Interview findings. 110
Observation. 110
Document analysis. 110
Summary. 111
Cultural Settings 111
STICKS AND STONES 9

Influence 1. The organization needs to commit resources to 111
developing advocacy messages, tools, and channels.
Survey results. 111
Interview findings. 111
Observation. 112
Document analysis. 112
Summary. 113
Influence 2. The organization needs to provide consistent and 113
ongoing opportunities for ACBS membership and leadership
to engage around the development and implementation of
actions that further the organization’s mission.
Survey results. 113
Interview findings. 113
Observation. 114
Document analysis. 114
Summary. 115
Summary of Influence Findings 115
Chapter Five: Recommendations 119
Purpose of the Project and Questions 119
“Breakthrough in Educational Equity” Campaign 119
Summary of Findings from Chapter Four 121
Recommendation for Practice to Address KMO Influences 122
Knowledge Recommendation 123
Introduction 123
The president and board of ACBS need to know 125
how to create an effective advocacy campaign.
The ACBS president and board need to reflect on and 126
monitor progress of outcomes for Black students.
Motivation Recommendations 127
Introduction. 127
The president and board of ACBS need to see the 129
value of investing time and resources into an
advocacy program.
Increase the board’s collective belief that they can 130
effectively create and successfully implement an
advocacy program.
Organization Recommendations 131
Introduction. 131
Commit resources to developing advocacy messages, tools,
and channels. 133
The organization needs to provide consistent and ongoing 134
opportunities to engage ACBS membership in advancing the
organization’s mission.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 135
Implementation and Evaluation Framework 135
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations 135
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators 136
Level 3: Behavior 138
STICKS AND STONES 10

Critical behaviors. 138
Required drivers. 140
Organizational support. 142
Level 2: Learning 142
Learning goals. 142
The Program. 143
Evaluation of the components of learning. 144
Level 1: Reaction 146
Evaluation Tools 146
Immediately following the program implementation 146
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. 147
Data Analysis and Reporting 147
Summary 149
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach 150
Limitations and Delimitations 151
Future Research 152
Conclusion 153
References 156
Appendix A 169
Appendix B 173
Appendix C 178
Appendix D 181
Appendix E 182
Appendix F 183
Appendix G 186
Appendix H 187
Appendix I 189

STICKS AND STONES 11

List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Organizational Goal and Shareholder 22
Performance Goals
Table 2: Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Type, and Knowledge Influence 44
Assessment
Table 3: Assumed Motivation Influence and Motivational Influence 48
Assessments
Table 4: Organizational Influence, Cultural Model, and Cultural Setting 55
Assessment
Table 5: Types of Documents Collected and Analyzed 67
Table 6: Document Analysis Checklist 69
Table 7: Summary of Knowledge Influence Findings 87
Table 8: Summary of Motivational Influence Findings 97
Table 9: Number of ACBS Social Media Posts (Tweets and ReTweets) in 105
2019 by Month
Table 10: Summary of Organizational Influence Findings 109
Table 11: Knowledge Findings Summary Table 117
Table 12: Motivation Findings Summary Table 118
Table 13: Organizational Findings Summary Table 119
Table 14: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 125
Table 15: Summary of Motivational Influences and Recommendations 129
Table 16: Summary of Organization Influence and Recommendations 133
Table 17: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal 138
Outcomes
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Table 18: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 140
Table 19: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 142
Table 20: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 146
Table 21: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 147
STICKS AND STONES 13

List of Figures
Figure 1: Interaction of Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation Within 55
Organizational Cultural Models and Settings
Figure 2: Sample Advocacy Dashboard 150
STICKS AND STONES 14

ABSTRACT
This study applies a gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) as well as critical race and
media literacy theories to address the problem of the predominantly negative stereotypes about
Blacks in the United States news coverage, primarily in mainstream print and television
media, and the difficulties it poses to advocacy organizations attempting to disrupt inequities
faced by Black people. The study sought to identify the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources necessary for an advocacy organization to create a campaign that
counters negative narratives about Black people. Data from interviews with the organization’s
leadership were triangulated with document analysis of social media posts, website posts,
promotional emails, promotional materials, and strategic plan documents. The analysis sought
to identify the presence or absence of factors shown in the research literature to be critical to
implement advocacy efforts to address issues of equity. The study’s findings highlighted areas
to address including knowledge of implementing effective advocacy campaigns, practices in
self-reflection and planning, influences of value and collective self-efficacy, and
organizational culture that fosters advocacy and engagement of the organization’s broader
membership. Recommendations were provided including embedded trainings and associated
evaluation instruments. This study has important implications for organizations seeking to
accomplish breakthroughs in their governing boards and membership that move those groups
from simply advising to advocating real and meaningful change for Black people.

STICKS AND STONES 15

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
This study addresses the problem of the predominantly negative stereotypes about Blacks
in United States news coverage, primarily in mainstream print and television media, and the
difficulties it poses to advocacy organizations attempting to disrupt inequity faced by Black
people. It has been found that Blacks are disproportionately portrayed negatively in news media
accounts when compared to other races (Mastro, 2015; Romer, Jamieson, & De Coteau, 1998).
For example, accounts of Blacks in media have been shown to influence attitudes of individuals
towards Blacks (Hurley, Jensen, Weaver, & Dixon, 2015; Holt, 2013). Further, such attitudes
have been linked to policies and decision-making that ultimately result in inequities that
disproportionately impact Blacks: high incarceration rates, low educational achievement rates,
lower salaries, poor health outcomes and poverty (Howard, Flennaugh, & Terry, 2012; Johnson,
2007).
The evidence highlights that organizations engaged in advancing the wellbeing of Blacks,
such as civil rights organizations, advocacy groups, and urban school boards, have not achieved
their goal of ensuring equitable outcomes for Blacks (Bell, 1995; Bush, 1999; Hall, 2005).
School districts in particular have struggled to overcome persistent and pervasive inequities
faced by Black students, such as low achievement rates, over-referral to special education,
inequitable discipline/expulsion rates and lack of access in advanced placement courses
(Blanchett, Mumford, & Beachum, 2005; Darling-Hammond, 2000). This problem is important
to address because, despite being emancipated from slavery over 150 years ago, Blacks have yet
to fully realize the promise of equality as afforded to all Americans by the United States
Declaration of Independence, established in 1776 (Katz, Stern, & Fader, 2005).

STICKS AND STONES 16

Organizational Context and Mission
ACBS (a pseudonym) is a non-partisan organization consisting of primarily Black elected
and appointed school officials, administrators and instructors from across California. Based on
its website, ACBS’ mission is to advance education equity for California students from preschool
to community college, with a particular focus on Black students. ACBS works to achieve this
mission through advocacy, policy initiatives, professional development, and best-practice
sharing. ACBS members represent governmental agencies, charter schools and charter school
organizations, public school districts, traditional public schools, and community colleges.
Formed in 2017, ACBS does not have a brick-and-mortar headquarters location. Rather, ACBS
leverages formal and informal partnerships to achieve its mission through advocacy. According
to insider information, such efforts are primarily focused on improving education practices,
policy innovation, and leadership development in the context of achieving equity in education for
Black students. Led by its President, ACBS endeavors to break down barriers that prevent black
students from being able to access educational achievement.
Organizational Performance Status/Need
In order to fulfill its mission of achieving educational equity and access to opportunity for
Black students, it is imperative that ACBS counters the negative narratives promoted by biased
media accounts as these narratives ultimately impact how Black students are perceived and
treated in the classroom. If this perception remains unchecked, Black students will continue to be
on the receiving end of unfair practices, such as inequitable referral to special education, high
suspension rates, and placements in gifted programs. Thus, the organization determined that it
needs an advocacy campaign that promotes positive views of and counters negative stereotypes
about Black people.

STICKS AND STONES 17

Related Literature
Research has shown that mainstream news media has long contained negative stereotypes
about Blacks, compared to Whites (Dixon & Linz, 2000; Dixon & Williams, 2015; Mastro,
2015; Pérez Huber, & Solorzano, 2015; Sui & Paul, 2017; Wright & Washington, 2018). For
example, in a content analysis of a sampling of news programs at local network television
affiliates in Los Angeles and Orange counties, Dixon, Travis and Linz (2000) found that Blacks
and Latinos were more likely to be shown as breaking the law than Whites; as breaking the law
versus protecting or enforcing it; and as breaking the law versus what was actually shown in
crime reports. Mastro (2015) agrees with the assertion that the majority of news reports about
Blacks have the effect of portraying them as violent criminals to be feared. Wright and
Washington (2018) contend such portrayals can be seen even in news accounts where a Black
person is the victim of a violent crime. The researchers analyzed murders covered in the Orlando
Sentinel Newspaper and police department homicide reports from Seminole County and Sanford,
Florida from 2000 to 2012. The study encompassed 91 articles covering 40 homicides. Findings
indicated that in stories where blame was shared among victim and assailant, Black victims
tended to be portrayed as criminal malintents, in stark contrast to White victims, who were most
often portrayed as engaged in simply poor decision-making, even in articles where it was clear
that the White homicide victim was killed while committing a crime. Such often one-sided
depictions of Blacks in media not only furthers negative stereotypes, it also influences
perceptions and policies that can negatively impact Black people.
News media has been shown to have an impact on how black people are perceived and in
turn on policies that have the potential to negatively affect Black people (Dixon & Azocar, 2007;
Domke, McCoy, & Torres 1999; Hurley, Jensen, Weaver, & Dixon, 2015; Howard, Flennaugh,
& Terry, 2012). In a study in which groups of 180 college students at a large university in the
STICKS AND STONES 18

Midwest were subjected to the same news accounts, with the pictures for one group being all
Black perpetrators and all White for the other, it was found that exposure to news stories in
which Blacks are portrayed as perpetrators had a priming effect on White viewers (Hurley et al.,
2015). That is, the stories prompted viewers to engage in cognitive shortcuts when establishing
opinions on certain policies, in essence priming them to engage previously-adopted stereotyped
perceptions in the formulation of their opinion. Specifically, after groups of White viewers saw
news accounts showing Blacks as criminals, their responses to policy-related questions tended to
be negative regarding the idea of rehabilitation, positive regarding support for law enforcement,
and strong in application of blame. Hurley et al. (2015) suggested that this is an indication that
exposure to crime accounts with Blacks as the perpetrators results in White viewers tapping into
existing prejudices and misperceptions to arrive at supporting harsher punishment of criminals
and greater support for the enforcers of law.
Howard, Flennaugh, and Terry (2012) also made a connection between images of Black
males in the media, among other sources of negative stereotypes, and perpetuating negative
social imagery. The researchers described such stereotypes as a population’s perceptions about
certain groups and the attributions of such characteristics as real, whether they are real or not. In
their analysis of literature, the authors posited that this social imagery has perpetuated
“…widespread disdain for Black men. This disdain, undergirded by an assumption of White
supremacy…” (p.89) has impacted Black men’s achievement in school as boys and in life as
adults.
Further, research has shown that news coverage not only causes individuals to think a
particular way about issues, but also triggers racial, social and ethnic stereotypes that can make
their way into political discourse. (Domke, McCoy, & Torres, 1999; Dixon & Azocar, 2007).
Domke et al. (1999) explored this phenomenon, testing the hypothesis that news media
STICKS AND STONES 19

encourage the use of mental shortcuts by priming viewers to tap into existing bias and
established frames that in turn reinforce stereotypes presented in news accounts--or at least
certain elements emphasized by news accounts--as they form political opinions. These frames
are either material emphasizing pragmatic, economic and self-interests, or ethical, emphasizing
social justice. Domke, et al (1999) tested this hypothesis in a study of 172 undergraduate
students at a large university. Participants were presented with news media accounts on
immigration policy exclusively in either the material or social frame. The study found there to be
a strong link (72%) between news stories with a material (versus ethical) frame and viewers’
perceptions of Hispanics and of U.S. Immigration policy. These studies show that repeated
presentation of certain narratives about certain people, impacts perceptions and policies about
them in potentially damaging ways.
Importance of the Organizational Innovation
It is important for ACBS to implement an advocacy campaign promoting positive views
of and countering negative stereotypes about Black people for a variety of reasons. Negative
stereotypes about Blacks have an impact in the classroom on Black students. Currently, there is
no concerted effort or messaging that opposes the validity of these stereotypes. If the
organization does not find a way to effectively counter the prevalence of these stereotypes in the
media through a program that can be delivered by its broader membership, it will not be able to
dismantle biased treatment of Black students. If Black students continue to experience inequities
in the classroom, ACBS will not be able to advance its mission of creating equitable outcomes
for Black students.
Organizational Performance Goal
The goal of the ACBS is that 100% of its member-represented organizations will
implement by October of 2021 a campaign to promote a positive view of and counter negative
STICKS AND STONES 20

narratives about Black people. This goal was established by the president of the ACBS Board of
Governors (the Board). The achievement of this goal will be measured through demonstration of
accurate implementation of the campaign designed, which will be assessed via the completion of
an implementation rubric report to be submitted on behalf of ACBS-represented school districts,
charter organizations, and community college districts.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
The stakeholder groups who directly contribute to the achievement of ACBS’
organizational goal include the ACBS Board of Governors (inclusive of the board president), the
ACBS membership, and superintendents and chancellors of ACBS represented school districts.
ACBS' board is ultimately responsible for casting the vision of the organization, delivering
trainings, and implementing programs in support of the organizational goal. The ACBS
membership contributes to the achievement of the organizational goal by applying the
knowledge and skills to implement the ACBS-sponsored campaign. Superintendents and
chancellors of ACBS-represented school districts contribute to the achievement of ACBS'
organizational goal by activating organizational resources for the day-to-day implementation of a
ACBS-sponsored program.
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals
Table 1 shows the performance goals for ACBS’ three stakeholder groups, along with the
organization’s mission and organizational goal.
STICKS AND STONES 21

Stakeholder Group for the Study
Although achievement of the ACBS’ organizational goal of 100% its membership
districts implementing a campaign to promote a positive view of and counter negative narratives
about Black people will require the efforts of all ACBS stakeholders, such a program did not
exist and would require the ACBS board to develop and ensure its implementation. For this
reason, the president and board of ACBS are the stakeholders of focus for this study. The
stakeholder goal is to create a program to promote a positive view of and counter negative
narratives about Black people. The president of ACBS, who supports this goal, had indicated that
negative perceptions of Blacks is a barrier to the organization advancing its mission of achieving
equity in education and opportunities for Black students. If ACBS does not create a program to
counter these perceptions, it will fail to achieve equity for Black students. Measures that will be
used to track progress of the goal include: evidence of program creation by the board, assessment
STICKS AND STONES 22

of knowledge and skill transfer from trainings on the program provided to ACBS members, and
review of program implementation rubrics for each phase of the program to be submitted by the
school districts that ACBS represents.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a needs’ analysis in the areas of knowledge
and skill, motivation, and organizational resources necessary for ACBS’ President and Board to
create a campaign by January of 2020, to promote a positive view of and to counter negative
narratives about Black people. The analysis will begin by generating a list of possible needs and
assets and will then move to examining these systematically to focus on actual or validated needs
and assets.
As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What is ACBS President and Board knowledge and motivation related to creating a
campaign by January of 2020, to promote a positive view of counter negative
narratives about Black people.
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and stakeholder
knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions?
Methodological Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis, a systematic, analytical method that helps to clarify
organizational goals and identify the gap between the actual performance level and the preferred
performance level within an organization, will be adapted for needs’ analysis. Assumed
knowledge, motivation and organizational needs will be generated based on personal knowledge
and related literature. These needs will be identified by using s interviews, literature review, and
STICKS AND STONES 23

content analysis. Research-based solutions will be recommended and evaluated in a
comprehensive manner.
Definitions
Black: A person of African American descent or who identifies as “Black” and as being a
part of the Black diaspora (Chen & Morley, 2006).
Counter-narrative: Messages and stories that oppose a particular message or story,
presenting an alternative side or view commonly held by the majority in a society (Solórzano &
Yosso, 2001).
Priming: Term used to refer to the phenomenon caused by media portrayals in which
narratives cause an individual(s) to tap into existing biases and stereotypes held, resulting in
reinforcing those biases and stereotypes (Abraham & Appiah, 2006).
Board: ACBS Board of Governors, inclusive of its president, unless otherwise stipulated.
Organization of the Study
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with the
key concepts and terminology, the organization’s mission, goals and stakeholders, as well as the
initial concepts of gap analysis adapted to needs analysis were introduced. Chapter Two provides
a review of current literature surrounding the scope of the study. Topics of priming, stereotypes
and their impact, along with best practices in advocacy campaign development. Chapter Three
details the assumed needs for this study as well as methodology, including choice of participants,
data collection and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are assessed and analyzed.
Chapter Five provides solutions, based on data and literature, for addressing the needs and
closing the performance gap as well as recommendations for an implementation and evaluation
plan for the solutions.
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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Chapter Two provides a review of the literature related to the stakeholders and influences
that will be used to address the assumed causes of the knowledge/skills, motivation, and
organizational performance gaps preventing ACBS from effectively countering negative
perceptions about Black people that are presented in mainstream news media accounts. To help
inform the problem of practice, this chapter first reviews literature on stereotypes, including the
nature of automated knowledge in their creation; how news media coverage activates stereotypes
(priming); the negative impact of stereotypes on Blacks; and the effectiveness of
counternarratives in mitigating negative perceptions.
Following the review of general literature, the chapter provides an explanation of the
Clark and Estes (2008) knowledge, motivation and organizational influences’ framework used in
this study and discusses the specific influences assumed to impact the ACBS Board of
Governors’ ability to achieve the stakeholder goal. The chapter ends with a presentation of the
conceptual framework guiding this study. Research has shown that, compared to other races,
Blacks tend to be portrayed more negatively in news media (Dixon & Linz, 2000; Dixon &
Williams, 2015; Mastro, 2015; Pérez Huber, & Solorzano, 2015; Sui & Paul, 2017; Wright &
Washington, 2018). Such stereotyped coverage has been shown to influence attitudes about
Black people and in turn decisions that impact them (Hurley, Jensen, Weaver, & Dixon, 2015;
Holt, 2013). This is an important problem to address because such stereotypes ultimately make
their way into the classroom, in the form of inequitable treatment of Black students (Blanchett,
Mumford, & Beachum, 2005; Darling-Hammond, 2000). If left unchecked, this problem
threatens ACBS’ work in pursuit of educational equity and opportunity for Black students.

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Influences on the Problem of Practice
Implicit Bias
The nature of implicit bias. Implicit bias is automated and unconscious in nature
(Holroyd, 2012; Rudman, 2004; Russell-Brown, 2018; Sullivan-Bissett, 2015; Vendantam,
2010). Holroyd, encapsulating over twenty years of empirical studies, defines implicit as an
automatic cognitive “association” a person has of a negative characteristic with an outgroup.,
that influences the decisions and actions of the holder of the implicit bias without awareness of it
being activated (p. 275). Russell-Brown, in a 2018 essay on the surge of academic and social
justice interest in implicit bias, concurs, speaking to these associations as unconscious attitudes
that assign particular characteristics to individuals based on race or other categories. Though not
deeming the characteristics held by an individual as negative or positive, Russell-Brown does
refer to them as causing inaccurate assessments and actions rooted in false beliefs. Rudman
(2004) takes the definition further, positing that an individual’s implicit bias is influenced by
earlier experiences and activated in response to an event or object. It should be noted that the
automated and unconscious nature of implicit bias makes it difficult to measure the extent that
certain implicit biases operate outside of conscious awareness and control.
In a study grounded in Holroyd’s (2012) definition of implicit bias, Sullivan-Bissett
(2015) too cautions a blanket attribution of unconsciousness to implicit bias. Sullivan-Bissett
suggests that impact awareness, or bias in action, is the only area in which a bias can be
effectively measured and deemed unconscious versus simply the existence of a bias. Despite this
distinction, the researcher does agree that implicit bias can be possessed and acted upon even by
those who endeavor to behave without prejudice, as the thousands of results of the online
Implicit Aptitude Test have demonstrated (Sullivan-Bissett, 2015). Vendantam (2010), confirms
researchers’ position that often people do not know when their implicit bias is activated, offering
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an explanation that when humans experience high cognitive load, such as in high pressure
situations, implicit bias becomes more pronounced and more likely to be triggered and acted
upon.
Implicit bias and stereotypes. Implicit bias, though automated and unconscious in
nature, can be a shared experience, as when it fosters and reinforces stereotypes (Brownstein &
Saul, 2016; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Lippman, 1922; Payne, Vuletich, & Lundberg, 2017;
McGarty, Yzerbyt, & Spears, 2002). Implicit bias researchers Greenwald & Banaji (1995)
defined stereotype as a belief or the ascribing of certain characteristics of certain groups that are
shared among members of a group or society. The authors analyzed experiments that aimed to
measure the unconscious activation of stereotypes and found that the presence of implicit bias
influences the stereotypes activated among experiment participants, even within individuals who
claim to not be prejudiced. Walter Lippmann, one of the earlier writers on stereotypes, spoke to
the influence of past experience and context on stereotype formation. In the political
commentary, Public Opinion, Lippmann (1922) contended that stereotypes form from a
combination of experience, gaps in information, second-hand data, supposition, and opinion. The
result of which, as Lippmann titled his first chapter, is dissonance between “The world outside
and the picture in our heads.” (p. 1).
In a meta-analysis of thousands of results from the online Implicit Association Tests and
longitudinal studies on bias and stereotypes, Payne, et al. (2017) clearly call out implicit bias and
stereotypes as a shared phenomenon. The researchers present the Bias of Crowds theory as a way
of better understanding the intersection of implicit bias on the individual and aggregate level.
They contend that implicit bias can be experienced at the aggregate level, such as in a
community, country, or social context), and that people who share a particular context, such as
geographical location, are typically exposed to the same stereotypes and therefore experience
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implicit bias similarly. In alignment with the Bias of Crowds theory, Brownstein and Saul (2016)
conducted a review of empirical studies on stereotypes and prejudices that found that both stem
from features of individuals’ general cognitive makeup that enables them to function in a socially
complex world.
McGarty, Yzerbyt, and Spears (2002) offer a similar explanation for why stereotypes are
so pervasive in societies, despite their often being mischaracterizations, suggesting that people
use stereotypes to cope with a complex world, creating cognitive schemas that can be
automatically accessed to enable them to quickly make sense of the events and people around
them. Given the interaction between implicit biases and stereotypes and their prevalence on both
individual and aggregate levels, it is not surprising that their activation can also be automated
and pervasive.
Priming of implicit bias and related stereotypes. Implicit bias and related stereotypes
can be activated through priming, a phenomenon of the human memory system that operates at
an unconscious level in which certain stimuli influence memory in procedural and cognitive
tasks (Brown Givens & Monahan, 2005; Judd, Blair, & Chapleau, 2004; Tulving & Schacter,
1990). In their seminal work, researchers Tulving and Schacter (1990) call out the unconscious
and implicit nature of priming as well as the role of both words and objects in triggering it. Judd,
Blair, and Champleau (2004) confirm that stereotypes can be primed by external stimuli
consistent with commonly held stereotypes. In a randomized study intended to examine the role
of shooter bias in law enforcement shootings of unarmed Black men 59 participants were asked
to identify objects after being shown a picture of either a Black or White male. Participants
produced more categorization errors when sports objects and guns (objects that conform to
stereotypes commonly held about Blacks) were followed by White male faces and response time
was faster when these same categories were followed by faces of Black males ( Judd, Blair, &
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Champleau, 2004). The study also suggests that the greater the cognitive load on a particular
task—such as needing to make a quick decision or a decision under pressure—the greater the
priming effect on activating implicit bias.
Brown Givens and Monahan (2005) also explored the priming of stereotypes under
pressure situations, but in the context of Black women. In a 182 participant study of the effects
of stereotypes about Black women on decisions to hire, the researchers found that stereotyped
associations were unconsciously activated (primed) when a person is exposed to the target of the
stereotype, despite that person’s intentions. Further, it was found that priming of these
stereotypes were particularly pronounced when decisions followed a near-term exposure to a
stereotype related to Black women, such as via media (Brown Givens & Monahan, 2005). It is
widely accepted that unconscious, automated and society-wide presence of implicit bias and the
stereotypes it fuels is created and reinforced through priming with particularly harmful impact on
groups that tend to be oppressed, with Black people being among those groups severely affected.
Impact of Negative Stereotypes on Black People
Impact of negative stereotypes on blacks in general. It has been widely demonstrated
that Black people are impacted by negative stereotypes, which have been shown to influence the
behavior and decisions of individuals and groups in a way that not only causes inequity, but
endangers the lives of Blacks (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Payne, Vuletich, & Lundberg, 2017;
van Ryn, Burgess, Dovidio, Phelan, Saha, Malat, Griffin, Perry, 2011; Correll, Wittenbrink,
Park, Judd, & Goyle, 2011). According to Greenwald and Banaji (1995), socio-cognitive
research on implicit bias has consistently found that White race subjects more often associate
positive traits to White versus Black individuals. Payne, et al (2017) makes clear that such
stereotypes are at the core of prejudice, which is the expression of implicit or explicit attitudes in
favor of or against a particular group or category of people—this is where stereotypes become
STICKS AND STONES 29

harmful. Such harm can range from impacting a person’s self-esteem to even graver
consequences (Payne, et al., 2017). van Ryn, et al. 's 2011 meta analysis of over 300 studies
confirms this assertion. The researchers concluded that at the heart of vast inequities that exist in
the health status of Blacks in the United States are explicit bias and stereotypes held by medical
care professionals that impact the quality of care they provide. Specifically, studies have
revealed that stereotypes have been shown to influence the way providers think about, treat, and
interact with patients, even when the provider does not profess a biased view (van Ryn, et al.,
2011). In fact, in the area of health disparities, research has emerged over the last decade
highlighting the role of racial prejudice in disparately high rates of maternal and infant mortality
among Blacks (Dominguez, Strong, Krieger, Gillman, & Rich-Edwards, 2009; Geronimus,
Hicken, Keene, & Bound, 2006). Further, this field of research has called out the stress of
prejudiced and racist treatment as damaging a woman’s body through toxic stress.
Correll, et al. (2011) explored the dangerous impact of negative racial stereotypes in the
context of officer-involved shootings. The researchers utilized a First Person Shooter Task
(FPST) test to examine shoot/do-not-shoot decisions of 55 non-Black participants of varying
genders and races in both threat-neutral and threatening contexts. The racial bias against Blacks
that was evident in the decisions of participants in safe contexts indicated that simply being
Black made the subject threatening to the participants. Correll, et al. (2011) concluded that
primed stereotypes of Blacks as being dangerous are at the heart of “shooter bias,” in which both
police officers and community members display a bias toward deciding to shoot both armed and
unarmed Black men at a rate higher than White men. The physical and psychological health of
Blacks are but one arena in which negative stereotypes can be found at the center, as its
devastating and life-changing impact have been shown to take root in the education system.
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Impact of stereotypes on blacks in k-12 schools. The impact of negative stereotypes
about Blacks can be seen in the classroom and are implicated in many of the inequities that exist
in school systems (Blanchett, 2016; Ford, 2014; Jacoby-Senghor Sinclair, & Shelton, 2016;
Morris, 2016; Peguero, Popp, & Shekarkhar, 2015). In a study of 210 participants replicating
classroom interactions, Jacoby-Senghor, Sinclair, & Shelton (2016) found that White individuals
who operated as teachers in the study (developing and delivering curriculum) demonstrated that
they possess low expectations of the ability of Black students to perform effectively,
academically. The researchers contend that these low expectations are consistent with the field of
study on the topic and that these low expectations can shape the instructor’s approach to
pedagogy or shape how they assess student performance (Jacoby-Senghor, et al., 2016). Implicit
bias among teachers was also called out as an issue, citing research supporting a correlation
between implicit bias of teachers and low student scores, as well as other inequities.
Ford (2014) also draws attention to implicit bias and deficit thinking among teachers as it
relates to educational inequities impacting Black students. In an analysis of student data in 2009
and 2011, the researcher found that Blacks are recruited and retained in gifted educational
programs at inequitable rates, 43% and 47% respectively when compared to white students.
Exposing implicit bias as a factor in the disparity, Ford (2014) shares that narrative accounts
from fellow researchers and educators revealed biased views and stereotypes held by teachers
and administrators about black students. As with gifted programs, disparity also exists in special
education. Decades of data have repeatedly shown that Black students make up a
disproportionately high number of students referred to special education (Blanchett, 2006). The
same study found that Black students are unable to matriculate out of special education programs
at disproportionately higher levels than White students. Blachett (2006) posits that stereotyped
views held by a primarily White teacher force, tests and processes for referral that are biased
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against Blacks, and underfunding of predominantly Black schools have contributed to
segregation of Black students into special education programs. Disparate educational practices
not only show up in educational programs themselves, they can also be seen in how students are
treated and supported.
Contending that behavioral norms in school settings are influenced by social stereotypes,
Peguero, et al. (2015) conducted a longitudinal study of 11,320 students at 580 schools to
examine the reason behind the disproportionate disciplinary practices of Black students versus
their White counterparts in the US public schools. The researchers found that Black students who
did not conform to stereotypes (did well academically, were from middle to upper class families,
and participated in extracurricular activities) were punished at higher rates than white students,
though they participated in activities or fell into categories normally associated with lower rates
of punishment. Morris (2016) concurs with Peguero et al.’s (2015) assertions in an examination
of disparate high rates of Black female students being suspended or expelled from schools versus
White female students, with Black girls making up more than one-third of all girls with a school-
related arrest. Morris (2016) suggests that school systems tend to to more harshly judge or apply
stereotypical views in judgement of Black girls. Whether in the form of low expectations that
reduce teaching quality, barriers to access to educational advancement, or treating Black students
more harsh than students of other ethnicities, negative stereotypes are harmful and this harm is
perpetuated in part by the accessibility of stereotypes in mainstream news media accounts.
News Media Priming
How media coverage primes stereotypes. News media, with its use of images and
messages to convey stories, can not only foster the creation and adoption of stereotypes about
social groups, but also reactivate those stereotypes through priming (Abraham & Appiah, 2006;
Arendt, 2013). News media coverage has been shown to suggest certain negative stereotypes
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about racial groups through what Abraham & Appiah (2006) refer to as implicit visual
propositioning, which is using visuals in tandem with verbal messages to create meaning beyond
what may have been extrapolated through written text. The researchers explain that implicit
visual propositioning can stimulate (prime) implicit and socialized stereotypical views about
certain groups, in particular Blacks, even in stories that are considered race-neutral. Arendt
(2013) agrees with this assertion, suggesting that implicit social cognition can be used to explain
how media coverage can activate previously held stereotypes within individuals regardless of
whether those individuals consciously agree with said stereotypes and citing research that has
shown that stereotyped depictions of certain social groups by media influence the beliefs and
behaviors of people. Blacks have largely been on the receiving end of negative portrayals.
Stereotyped media coverage of Black people. It is widely contended that Blacks are
portrayed more negatively in news media, compared to other racial groups (Dixon & Linz, 2000;
Domke, McCoy, & Torres, 1999; Hurley, Jensen, Weaver, & Dixon, 2015; Wright &
Washington, 2018). In an analysis of random samples of television news, Dixon & Linz (2000)
found that Blacks and Latinos tend to be portrayed more as criminals on television news than as
police, judges or other defenders of the law, compared to whites. The researchers content that a
combination of factors may be at work when it comes to stereotypes in news media coverage,
such as the implicit bias of news reporters and editors, and the interest of news media to present
stories that grab attention (Dixon & Linz, 2000). Bias has also been found when looking at how
news media reports on victims, which Wright & Washington discovered in a 2018 study. The
researchers found that news stories where blame was shared among victim and assailant, Black
victims tended to be portrayed as criminal malintents, in stark contrast to White victims, who
were most often portrayed as simply engaged in poor decision-making, even in articles where it
was clear that the White homicide victim was killed while committing a crime.
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Negative media images of Blacks have a priming effect on viewers and readers,
activating stereotypes these individuals hold against the group that can influence decision-
making (Domke et al., 1999; Hurley et al., 2015). Specifically, research has shown that news
coverage not only causes individuals to think about issues a certain way, but also primes racial,
social and ethnic stereotypes that can in turn impact political discourse (Domke et al., 1999).
Related to priming of stereotypes, Hurley et al. (2015) contend that news coverage primes
stereotypes, and exposure to news stories in which blacks are portrayed as perpetrators can have
a priming effect on White viewers, suggesting that such stories prompt cognitive shortcuts in
decision-makers’ views on certain policies. In a study of 180 White participants, the researchers
found that exposure to crime accounts of Blacks as the perpetrators can result in White viewers
supporting harsher punishment of criminals and greater support for the enforcers of law. As
disturbing as the presence and reinforcement of harmful negative stereotypes in the media is, and
as pervasive implicit bias is, combatting stereotypes is possible.
Combating Stereotypes
Addressing implicit bias. It is possible to address the impact of automated responses that
reflect implicit bias through intentional and habitual effort (Blair & Banaji, 1996; Devine, 1989;
Ford, 2014; van Ryn et al., 2011). In the researcher’s much-referenced seminal work on priming
of stereotypes, Devine (1989) contends that it is possible to change the influence of primed,
automated stereotypes on behavior by fostering the monitor and control of prejudiced actions.
This can be accomplished by a multi-step process in which a person must decide to stop
prejudiced behavior, recognize it when they are led to engage in it, and work continuously to
eliminate it, like eliminating a bad habit (1989). Blair & Banaji (1996) agree, offering as a
solution promoting an individual’s attention to processing non-stereotypical information may
mitigate the activation of stereotypes. Those wishing to counter the automatic activation of
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stereotypes within individuals may be able to do so through counter-stereotyping strategies that
promote individuals intentionally countering operating within stereotypes (Blair & Banaji, 1996).
Just as research has pointed to promising practices aimed at addressing implicit bias and the
automated activation of stereotypes, there is also hope for countering the stereotyped messages
themselves.
Counter-stereotype messages. Turning individuals’ attentions toward counter-
stereotypes through narratives offer a promising tactic for combating negative media messages
(Holt, 2013; Ramasubramanian, 2007). In fact, changes in perceptions of outgroups by an
individual have been seen with increased daily life exposure of the individual to members of the
outgroup (Holt, 2013), suggesting that employing the exact opposite of media’s negative priming
of damaging stereotypes—positive priming and presenting blacks in a positive light—can be
effective. However, this assertion is not without debate, as some scholars suggest that presenting
narrative exemplars of Black individuals may backfire as a counter-narrative device, causing
those who hold stereotypes to blame effort for a Black person who is not high-achieving versus
potential other factors. It has also been suggested that counter-narratives alone are not enough.
Ramasubramanian (2007) offers that fostering media literacy coupled with the
presentation of counter-stereotype messages affords greater promise for mitigating the effects of
stereotyped views primed through media. Critical media theory fosters observing media from a
lens of analysis and critique so that individuals are reflective viewers, readers, and listeners of
media (Kellner & Share, 2007; Ramasubramanian, 2007). In a study of 158 White persons,
Ramasubramanian found that exposing individuals to critical media theory techniques followed
by explicitly counter-stereotypical messages reduces the level of implicit bias primed by
negative-stereotype media messages.
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In summary, implicit bias is an automatically activated and mostly unconscious cognitive
phenomenon that causes individuals to form judgements about certain groups of people. Because
of its automaticity, implicit bias is tied to the formation and activation of stereotypes, socially-
held views that apply certain characteristics to groups. In the case of Black people, stereotypes
are predominantly negative and tend to characterize the racial group as dangerous, engaging in
criminal and other socially unacceptable behavior, and non-achieving. Such stereotypes can be
stimulated--or primed--through news media accounts whose visuals and messages have been
shown to be more negatively balanced against Blacks versus other races. The influence of news
media stories on people’s decision-making coupled with largely negative narratives about Blacks
have been shown to influence decisions that harm Black people physically, mentally, and
economically, such as in hiring decisions, decisions to shoot or not shoot a suspect, provision of
healthcare quality, voting, and discipline in a school environment. There is hope for
organizations such as ACBS who are engaged in advancing equity for Blacks, to counter
negative, media primed stereotypes. Fostering among people intentional self-reflection and
resistance to making decisions based on negative stereotypes has been shown to diminish their
influence, as well as promoting counternarratives that present Black people in a positive light.
Employing such strategies will require that the organization is positioned to do so, beginning
with assessing the knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences needed for ACBS to
effectively combat negative perceptions that stand as barriers to achieving their mission.
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) framework offers an effective method for crystallizing
organizational and stakeholder performance goals as well as identifying important gaps that
hinder performance goal achievement. The framework is used to analyze the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences of stakeholders underlying such performance issues
STICKS AND STONES 36

(Clark & Estes, 2008). Knowledge and skills influences fall into the categories of factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive and speak to whether stakeholders know how to
achieve a performance goal. Motivational influences include the active choice to pursue a goal,
maintaining work towards the goal, and the amount of mental effort applied toward
accomplishing the goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Self-efficacy, attributions, values
and goals are all types of motivational influences that can be considered when analyzing the
performance gap (Rueda, 2011). Finally, organizational influences on stakeholder performance
for analysis may include work processes, resources and workplace culture (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Each element of Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis will be discussed insofar as the
knowledge, motivation and organizational needs of the Board of Governors and President of
ACBS in meeting their performance goal of creating an advocacy campaign that will promote a
positive view of and counter negative stereotypes about Black people by January of 2020. The
first section will be a discussion of assumed influences on the stakeholder performance goal in
the context of knowledge and skills, followed by a discussion of assumed motivational
influences and finally organizational influences. Each of these assumed stakeholder knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences on performance will then be examined through the
methodology discussed in Chapter Three.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
The following is a review of the literature on knowledge-related influences that are
important in ACBS Board of Governors and President achieving the goal of creating an
advocacy campaign that will promote a positive view of and counter negative stereotypes about
Black people. The discussion will begin with a brief overview of knowledge gaps and the
importance of identifying such influences, followed by a brief overview of the specific
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influences identified and how they are categorized insofar as knowledge types. The section will
then conclude with addressing what these knowledge gaps mean in the context of the president
and board of ACBS stakeholder goal.
Knowledge gaps reflect what people within an organization do not know in the context of
accomplishing a particular goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Research on knowledge and
knowledge gaps within organizations point to four distinct categories: factual, conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002; Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). Factual
knowledge, as the term implies, consists of facts, such as terms, details, and definitions.
Conceptual knowledge consists of clusters of connected factual knowledge in a particular
domain, such as models, categories, and principles. Procedural knowledge refers to knowing how
to accomplish a specific task or activity. Metacognitive knowledge is knowing how one’s self
and others think, including when to do a particular activity and why it should be done.
Addressing knowledge gaps within an organization is valuable in solving organizational
problems and supporting goal attainment, but this value can be difficult to realize without taking
the important first step of understanding what type of knowledge is missing (Clark & Estes,
2008). In other words, it is in knowing what is not known that strategies can be developed to
address performance problems, and problem-solvers can avoid applying solutions that do not
result in solving a problem, therefore limiting their ability to impact goal attainment. In the case
of ACBS, identifying and closing knowledge gaps will be key in ensuring the successful
attainment of its organizational goal of creating an advocacy program that promotes a positive
view of and counters negative narratives about Black people, beginning with understanding what
is needed to support the president and members of ACBS’ board of governors to advance the
organization’s mission to address a problem so stubborn that Bensimon and Kezar (2005)
described it as “irretractable” (p. 99): inequality in educational outcomes. These knowledge gaps
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include knowledge about the relationship between priming, stereotypes, and decision-making
that negatively impacts Black people, knowledge about how to create an advocacy campaign,
and self-reflection.
Knowledge influence 1. The President and Board of ACBS need knowledge of the
relationship between priming, stereotypes and decisions that negatively impact black
people.
The president and board of governors of ACBS need conceptual knowledge about the
relationship between media priming, stereotypes and decision-making that negatively impact
Black people. Priming is a cognitive theory suggesting that media stories that feature stereotypes
about certain groups of people prompt individuals to engage in cognitive shortcuts in social
decision-making that take the form of activated stereotypes (Blair & Banaji, 1996; Domke,
McCoy, & Torres, 1999; Hurley, Jensen, Weaver, & Dixon, 2015). Hurley et al. (2015) found,
through media exposure experiments, that negative narratives about Blacks can adversely impact
Black people in very tangible ways. The researchers contend that those engaged in leading social
change around issues of racial inequity and social justice would benefit from knowledge about
media depictions and how they influence public policy and individual, social decision making.
Studies such as Hurley et al.’s have demonstrated the relationship between priming, stereotypes,
and inequity problems across multiple domains, from criminal justice legislation, to career
advancement practices, to educational outcomes (Bensimon & Kezar, 2005; Domke, McCoy, &
Torres, 1999; Howard, Flennaugh & Terry, 2012; Glymph & Brown, 1994; Hurley et al., 2015;
Johnson, O. C., 2007).
In the case of ACBS, having this knowledge is needed to effectively achieve its
organizational mission through an advocacy campaign, for understanding how stereotypes are
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primed and perpetuated is foundational to understanding how to counter them (Blair & Banaji,
1996; Holt, 2013; Oliver, Kim, Hoewe, Chung, Ash, Woolley, & Shade, 2015).
Through a series of quantitative experiments, Blair and Banaji (1996) looked at whether
and how counternarratives are effective in counter-stereotyping by examining the relationship
between an individual’s intentions, cognitive load experienced, and the role of automatic and
controlled processes in activating stereotypes. The results of the experiments suggested that there
is hope for countering the automatic activation of stereotypes within individuals through counter-
stereotyping strategies. The researchers also suggested that knowledge of these connections is
important in ongoing work to address stereotypes in society. Though Oliver et al. (2015) contest
the assertion that counter-stereotyping of messages is the best strategy for addressing negative
narratives, they agree that understanding the connection between exposure to media content and
the activation or mitigating of stereotyped views is important to addressing their negative
impacts.
Knowledge about the relationships between priming, stereotyping and decisions that
impact Black people is complex in nature and characterized by a collection of facts brought
together into a cognitive frame. It therefore can be categorized as conceptual knowledge,
according to Krathwohl’s (2002) revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy, which defines
conceptual knowledge as “The interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger
structure that enable them to function together,” (p. 214). Equipped with such knowledge, ACBS
can move a step closer to goal attainment and bring this knowledge to bear on creating an
effective advocacy campaign.
Knowledge influence 2: The President and Board of ACBS need to know how to
create an effective advocacy campaign (e.g., message platform, communication vehicles—
advertisements, website, social media, billboards, media outreach). The president and board
STICKS AND STONES 40

of governors of ACBS need the procedural knowledge of how to create an advocacy campaign to
promote positive views of and counter negative narratives about Black people. Such knowledge
is procedural because it is knowledge of how to do something, moving an organization from
simply possessing knowledge to using and acting on it in such a way that it leads to goal
attainment (Clark & Estes, 2008; Krathwohl, 2002). Procedural knowledge has critical
ramifications for the board and president of ACBS in reaching their organizational goal and
advancing their mission of educational equity and attainment for Black students. Further, it must
be directed toward influencing how Blacks are perceived and countering negative stereotypes, as
the performance task must be aligned with the organizational goal to be effective (Clark & Estes,
2008).
Ryan, Carragee and Meinhofer (2001) in their discussion of framing—creating certain
meanings and values in messaging on a particular issue—contend that social movement
organizations can counteract media messaging that is harmful through a thoughtful approach to
cultivating and developing their own counter-messages and the skills to promote them. Such
advocacy efforts require marshalling organizational resources and attention toward the end of
influencing an outcome (Gibelman & Kraft, 1996; McConnell, 2004). It also requires having the
right messages, or narratives, and the right mechanisms for delivering those messages to mitigate
the impact of negative stereotypes presented by other sources, such as the media (Blair & Banaji,
1995; Holt, 2013; Oliver, Kim, Hoewe, Chung, Ash, Woolley, & Shade, 2015). Related to
advocacy mechanisms and knowledge required, Kirk (2012) contends that it is important for
organizations to employ traditional marketing and understanding of social cognitive frames to
guide public outreach and advocacy efforts, but that often such organizations do not possess the
know-how, or procedural knowledge needed to actualize goals. Gibelman and Kraft (1996) call
this knowledge of how, “influence in the desired direction” (p. 47). From a critical race theory
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(CRT) frame, effective advocacy requires activating these practices through the use of story-
telling and messages, and issuing a call to action to disrupt racial injustice and present a counter
to the views of oppressive systems against people who are of a particular race (Bell, 1999;
Griffin, Ward, & Phillips, 2014). It also requires having knowledge about how such messages can best be
delivered so that the desired perspective is adopted and call to action adopted.
Knowledge Influence 3: The ACBS President and Board need to reflect on and
monitor progress of outcomes for Black students. The ACBS Board needs to engage in
reflecting upon its goals, progress toward its goals, and strategies for moving the organization
forward. This type of knowledge is metacognitive in that it is thinking about how one thinks and
makes decisions (Rueda, 2011). Both seminal and current literature on organizational learning
and reflection contend that engaging in reflection before, during, and after implementation of an
endeavor can assist organizations in addressing persistent problems innovatively (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001; Barley, 2012; Edmonson & Moingeon, 1988; Park, Daly, & Guerra, 2013;
Schon, 1983).
Stoker and Evans (2016) posit that reflection on evidence is an important ingredient for
advocacy organizations in policy-making. Reilly (2000) takes this assertion further in a critical
examination of education reform efforts in the US since 1986, contending that metacognition
around approaches to reform in education is vital to the sector finally achieving breakthroughs in
persistent challenges. Also reflecting on reflective practices among educational leaders, Park,
Daly, & Guerra (2013) looked at the value of engaging in metacognition as it relates to data
based decision making. In a mixed-methods study analyzing data-based decision making at a
high-performing high school in the US, the researchers found that leaders played an important
role in fostering metacognition around data by not only engaging in sensemaking with data but
also by providing staff with the frames through which the sensemaking would take place.
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Marsh, Payne, and Hamilton (2006) also examined data-grounded metacognition by educational
leaders. In an analysis of four empirical studies conducted by Rand, the researchers offer a
perspective on the use of data in reflection and decision making that is both caution and
encouragement. The study findings suggest that, though relying on high-stakes data to drive
decisions in the education sector can be problematic, it is valuable for leaders in education from
draw upon multiple data sources that analyze both the inputs and outcomes impacting student
achievement. Bensimone, Dowd, and Witham (2016) posited that critical to overcoming
persistent racial inequity in educational outcomes is for organizations to apply a racial lens to the
analysis of student outcome data, in essence using disaggregated data to identify “patterns of
educational outcomes that reveal unexplainable differences in outcomes for minoritized
students” (p. 3).
Table 2 shows three of the knowledge influences of ACBS’ president and board that
impact the stakeholder and organizational goals, along with corresponding knowledge types,
methods to assess the knowledge gaps, as well as the organizational mission.
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Motivation
The following is a review of literature that focuses on motivation-related influences that
are pertinent to ACBS’ Board of Governors and President achieving the goal of creating an
advocacy campaign that will promote a positive view of and counter negative narratives about
Black people. Motivation is the get-up-and-go, keep it going, and give-it-all-you-got of effort
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Pintrich, 2003; Rueda, 2011). Mayer (2011) concurs, emphasizing that
motivation, to be motivation, must be directed at “accomplishing a goal” (p. 39). Three aspects
of motivation are: active choice, which is taking an action in pursuit of a goal; persistence, which
is remaining in pursuit; and mental effort, which is figuring out how to pursue more effectively
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so that the goal is attained (Clark & Estes, 2008). Five categorizations have emerged in research
related to motivation, namely: self-efficacy beliefs, attribution beliefs, interest, expectancy-value,
and goal direction (Pintrich, 2003; Rueda, 2011). Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s own ability
to achieve a goal (Bandura, 2000). Attribution speaks to where a person places the source of
ability or inability to accomplish a goal (internal or external) (Pekrun, 2011). Interest is the
enjoyment one has in a task. Wigfield and Eccles’ (2000) expectancy value theory speaks to task
motivation along the domains of intrinsic interest, which is similar to personal interest previously
discussed; utility, which is how an individual views a particular task’s usefulness; importance,
which is how an individual views the value of the task in relation to the person’s sense of self;
and cost, which has to do with an individual’s perceptions of what must be given up (or a
consequence) if a task is to be pursued (Pintrich, 2003; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). These factors
contribute to an individual or group’s expectation that engagement in a task will or will not have
a positive outcome. Research has shown that the environmental factors influencing these
motivational factors are malleable, meaning motivation can be influenced and fostered, making it
an important consideration in addressing organizational performance (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Pintrich, 2003) In the case of ACBS’s organizational performance, two motivational areas will
be explored: utility value and self-efficacy, specifically collective self-efficacy.
Motivation influence 1. The President and Board of ACBS need to see the value in
investing time and resources in an advocacy program that promotes a positive view of and
counters negative narratives about Black people.
Expectancy value theory: utility value. The President and Board of ACBS need to see
the value in investing time and resources in an advocacy program that promotes a positive view
of and counters negative narratives about Black people if they are going to attain the goal of
creating it. This type of motivation is called the utility value dimension of the expectancy value
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theory and speaks to an individual or group’s perception of a particular task as being useful in
achieving a positive outcome (Clark & Estes, 2008; Horvath, 1999; Pintrich, 2003; Rueda, 2014;
Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Clark and Estes (2008) make the connection of this type of
motivating factor to the assertion that, at the core, human beings are motivated by a “desire to be
effective” (p. 83).
President and Board of Governors utility value. In the case of ACBS, the president and
board need to perceive the creation of an advocacy campaign as useful in achieving its
organizational mission of fostering equitable educational outcomes for Black students before it
makes an active choice. Horvath (1999) in a review of a comprehensive framework for social
action, locked in on the importance and interconnection between utility value, motivation, and
active choice in organizations working toward social good, stating that “A situation which we
evaluate as relevant to our well-being, activates problem solving” (p. 223). Horvath goes on to
suggest that if organizations deem particular activities as useful in achieving an outcome of
social change, they will find value in it and be motivated to engage in it.
The creation of an advocacy program that promotes a positive view of and counters
negative narratives about Black people would be a bold and entirely new endeavor for ACBS
and henceforth brings with it risks to the president and board in the form of rejection by the
broader membership who may not see the value in adopting it. This risk makes utility value an
important motivational factor to address. Baer (2012), in an examination of the relationship
between creative ideas and their implementation, found that the motivating factor of expectancy
value has a direct correlation to a creative idea being successfully implemented. Further,
perceiving a task as useful in achieving a positive outcome was a focus area in Hernandez’
(2008) discussion of motivational behaviors of leaders that foster a sense of stewardship (and in
turn collective action) within organizations. The researcher posited that a leader must be
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motivated by a perception that fostering stewardship among followers will be good for the
organization. In other words, the president and board of ACBS must deem that starting,
persisting in, and applying mental effort to an advocacy program is worth their time, resources,
and energy. They also need to believe that they can pull it off successfully, suggesting another
motivational factor at play: self-efficacy.
Motivation influence 2. The President and Board of ACBS need to believe that they
can effectively create and successfully implement an advocacy campaign that promotes a
positive view of and counters negative narratives about Black people.
Collective self-efficacy. In the case of ACBS, the president and board need to perceive
the creation of an advocacy campaign as useful in achieving its organizational mission of
fostering equitable educational outcomes for Black students before it makes an active choice.
Referencing again Bensimon and Kezar’s (2005) statement that the problem of inequality in
educational outcomes is irretractable, the president and board of ACBS will need to believe as a
group that they can create an advocacy campaign that will in essence be a form of protest against
these outcomes and the factors that contribute to them. Lefebvre and Armstrong (2018)
examined the role of protest motivators and accelerators in social movements. In their review of
literature, the researchers called attention to five factors influencing protest participation and
acceleration: grievances, identity, resources, efficacy, and individual traits. As it relates to
efficacy, Lefebvre and Armstrong posited that it is important that groups engaged in prompting
protest believe that it is possible to affect change through protest. Horvath (1999) also contends
that collective self-belief is important in social change efforts because it motivates individuals
and groups toward social action.
Believing as a group that the group can create an effective advocacy program and
expecting that those efforts will result in a positive outcome is a winning combination when it
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comes to motivation among groups engaged in social change (Bandura, 2000; Hernandez, 2008;
Horvath, 1999; LeFebvre & Armstrong, 2018). Table 2 shows these two motivational influences,
indicates which type they are and provides recommended methods for assessing them. Also
listed, for context, are ACBS’ organizational mission, organizational global goal, and the goal
for the stakeholder of focus (president and board). Table 3 shows two of the motivation
influences of ACBS’ president and board that impact the stakeholder and organizational goals.

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Organization
An organization’s cultural settings and cultural models are valuable elements upon which
an organization’s culture can be analyzed (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Cultural settings are
tangible elements found within an organization that are what, how, and why staff do what they
do and includes the ecosystem in which the work is performed, while cultural models are the
shared beliefs, practices and ways of being within an organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001; Schein, 2017).
Organizational influence 1. The organization needs to possess a belief system
(cultural model) within ACBS that values promoting positive views of and countering
negative stereotypes about Black people as a part of the organization’s responsibilities.
Cultural model. Before it can actually do so, the ACBS Board must actually believe that
it should be engaged in advocacy activities (Bandura, 2000). Further, focusing on both
organizational culture (what people experience) and organizational climate (what people believe
are organizational values), is key to ensuring sustainable organizational change (Clark & Estes,
2009; Kezar, 2001; Schneider & Guzzo, 1996). Jaskyte and Renz’s (2012) board effectiveness
model aligns with this assertion in its identification of board culture, inclusive of cohesiveness
and shared mission, as an important ingredient in organizational innovation. In an analysis drawn
from data collected from the National Nonprofit Organizational Studies Project, Langer and
LeRoux (2017) contend that possessing a culture that adopts igniting change as a part of how its
mission is directly linked to the organization actually effectively engaging in change activities.
Stakeholder specific factors. The cultural settings within professional organizations often
are characterized by informal structures, including accountability structures, which can present
challenges engaging the broader membership of such organizations around key actions to
advance the organization’s mission (Firestone & Shipps, 2005).
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Organizational Influence 2. The organization needs to possess a belief system that it
takes the active and ongoing contribution of everyone in the organization (inclusive of
Board, staff and broader membership) to advance the mission of ACBS.
Possessing an organizational culture that embraces engaging staff/members to action is critical in
advancing organizational mission in professional organizations, especially those advancing
positive change. (Gruen, Summers, & Acito, 2000; Jaskyte, 2004; Kezar, 2001; Moran &
Brightman, 2000; Mosley, 2000) In a quantitative study of 247 employees of nineteen nonprofit
human service organizations, Jaskyte (2004) found that there is a link between an organizational
culture that values employee involvement and the ability of organizations to effectively engage
in innovation. Further, related to professional organizations, findings from a mixed methods
study of 900 professional organizations suggest that a culture that values engagement of staff
(members) in activities of the organization deepens both effectiveness and commitment among
those members. Also emphasizing the connection between cultural models possessed by the
organization and staff, Mosley (2013) in an organizational culture that supports staff engaging in
advocacy efforts of the organization fosters more effective and proactive advocacy efforts on
behalf of the organization.
Organizational Influence 3: The organization needs to commit resources to
developing advocacy messages, tools, and channels.
Cultural Setting. From a cultural setting perspective, the ACBS board needs to invest
time, staff and other resources in activities that promote its mission and call to action with
internal and external stakeholders. Professional and advocacy organizations can benefit from
engaging in advocacy communications and activities as a part of its operations (McConnell,
2004; Child & Grønbjerg, 2007). In a mixed method study of advocacy behaviors within 43
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human services organizations in Washington, DC, Donaldson (2008) found that organizational
investment of time and resources in advocacy structures had a positive impact on the amount of
advocacy activities the organization engaged in as well as the perceived effectiveness of those
activities. Donaldson (2008) also posits the direct connection between organizations investing in
advocacy-abling supports and effectively engaging in them, but notes that non profit entities find
it difficult to prioritize doing so. In a survey of 129 human service non profit organizations, the
researcher found that government funding and commitment of stakeholders had a direct
correlation to increased advocacy participation, but also found that overall such organizations
spent little time on advocacy activities due to limited time and resources.
Organizational influence 4: The organization needs to provide consistent and ongoing
opportunities for ACBS membership and leadership to engage around the development and
implementation of actions that further the organization’s mission. The ACBS Board faces
challenges in this regard that are distinct from advocacy organizations that are full-fledged
nonprofits with staff. This is because the cultural settings within professional organizations often
are characterized by informal structures, including accountability structures, which can present
challenges engaging the broader membership of such organizations around key actions
(Firestone & Shipps, 2005). As such, organizational communication is important to have in place
between leadership and constituents, in order to engage and galvanize membership (Clark &
Estes, 2003; Gruen, Summers, & Acito, 2000; Waters, Marzano & McNulty, 2003) as well as
leverage information-sharing tools for accountability purposes (Saxton & Guo, 2011). For
example, in a survey of 229 participants who were members of a Greek union, Panagiotopoulos,
Brooks, Elliman, & Dasuki (2011) found that members demonstrated commitment behaviors as a
result of being engaged through social media on behalf of the organization.
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Table 4 shows these four organizational influences of ACBS’ president and board in the
context of organizational and stakeholder goals and organizational mission. The four influences
are listed as two cultural models and two cultural settings.

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Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
A conceptual framework bridges the various ideas and influences that have emerged
through literature review (theoretical and empirical), personal experience, and thought
experiments to the actual research study (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam and Tisdell, 2016). It does
this by serving as a type of theory of how the various influences interact and their relevance
ultimately to the research question. In essence a conceptual framework brings definitions, ideas,
themes and experiences together to demonstrate why a particular topic should be researched as
well as present a path to follow for further exploration (Maxwell, 2013).
Grounded in this understanding, the conceptual framework described herein builds upon
research on important enabling influences within organizations needed to engage in activities to
counteract negative stereotypes about Blacks in news media coverage. As such, the framework
bridges the existing, previous research to the actual study and eventually to the innovation of an
advocacy program that promotes a positive view of Black people and supports ACBS achieving
its stakeholder goal. The conceptual framework, it should be noted, is being applied through a
lens of a transformative worldview, critical race theory and critical media literacy theory.
According to Creswell and Creswell (2018) a transformative worldview tends to
focus on oppressed and marginalized groups and seeks to address social ills and inequities
experienced by these groups. Further, a transformative worldview seeks to understand why such
problems exist and how power dynamics can be shifted so that they are overcome, in this case
negative and harmful stereotypes put forth in news media coverage. This transformative
worldview is complemented by the lenses of critical race theory and media literacy theory.
Critical race theory looks at problems and solutions in the context of solving racial
prejudice and structural racism (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; Harris, 2012; Solorzano & Yosso,
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2001; Willis, 2008). In the case of ACBS, adopting a critical race theory as a lens enables the
exploration of the organizational, knowledge, and motivational influences in the context of
addressing persistent racism (Willis, 2008). Media literacy theory looks at media in light of
media messages, messengers, intended recipient of messages and how those messages are
perceived (Carvalho, A. 2008; Kellner & Share, 2007). Media literacy as a lens allows for
examination of the knowledge within ACBS about the influences of media on the persistence of
negative stereotypes about Blacks, as well as understanding whether the organization values the
impact of media messages and has a cultural context supportive of leveraging media as a tool
(Carvalho, A. 2008; Kellner & Share, 2007).
While each of the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences are
presented previously as separate elements affecting ACBS, they are very much interconnected,
operate simultaneously and must be addressed simultaneously for the stakeholder group to
achieve its goal (Clark & Estes, 2008). The conceptual framework presented here introduces the
ways in which knowledge and motivation must work together, in a supportive organizational
context at ACBS to achieve the goal of President and Board to create a program by January of
2020, to promote a positive view of and counter negative narratives about Black people. Figure 1
below illustrates this conceptual framework.
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This figure outlines the relationship between the factors influencing the President and
Board of Governors of ACBS creating an effective advocacy campaign that will counter negative
stereotypes about Blacks presented in the news media, and therefore assist them in achieving
their global organizational goal. Specifically, the larger blue interlocking/overlapping circles in
the figure represent two theoretical frames that provide a lens in this study for viewing the
organization’s culture, knowledge and motivational influences: critical race theory and media
literacy theory. Critical race theory looks at problems and solutions in the context of solving
racial prejudice and structural racism (Bell, 1995; Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; Howard &
Navarro, 2016; ). In the case of ACBS, adopting a critical race theory enables the exploration of
the organizational, knowledge, and motivational influences from a lens of addressing persistent
racism. Media literacy theory looks at media in light of media messages, messengers, intended
STICKS AND STONES 55

recipient of messages and how those messages and tools are perceived and leveraged (Kellner &
Share, 2007; Livingstone, 2004; Semali, 2003). As demonstrated in the figure, media literacy as
a lens allows for examination of the knowledge within ACBS about the influences of media on
the persistence of negative stereotypes about Blacks, as well as understanding whether the
organization values the impact of media messages and has a cultural context supportive of
leveraging media as a tool. Because this study will consider media messages as well as how they
relate to promoting racist views, the circles representing critical media theory and critical race
theory overlap.
Further, as the figure shows, ACBS as an organization sits in settings and models, shown
within the black circle. These cultural influences should include an organizational culture that
values advocacy communications related to its organizational mission and vision (Gruen,
Summers, & Acito, 2000; Clark & Estes, 2008; Kimberlin, 2010; Van Knippenberg & Hogg,
2003; Waters, Marzano & McNulty, 2003), and access to tools and resources most effective for
advocacy communications (Child & Grønbjerg, 2007; Donaldson, 2007; Saxton & Guo, 2011), a
belief system that values collective participation in advocacy and that will inspire the
organization to move toward proactively addressing social justice issues (Gruen, Summers, &
Acito, 2000; Jaskyte, 2004; McConnell, 2004).
Also within the organization are the knowledge and motivation influences (green circles)
that affect the President and Board’s ability to successfully create an advocacy program that will
counter negative stereotypes and promote a positive view of black students. This stakeholder
goal is represented by the red box and the global goal it contributes toward is represented by the
red box. The knowledge influences include conceptual in relation to the Board and President
understanding the relationships between priming, stereotyping and decisions that impact Black
people, and procedural related to these same stakeholders knowing how to develop and
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implement an effective advocacy program. Motivation influences include utility value in relation
to the President and Board seeing the value in investing time and resources in an advocacy
program that promotes a positive view of and counters negative narratives about Black people,
and collective self-efficacy related to the President and Board believing that they can effectively
create and successfully implement an advocacy program that promotes a positive view of and
counters negative narratives about Black people. The knowledge and motivation influences must
also interact with one another to for goal achievement to be realized (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Mayer, 2011). Interacting with each other and within the larger organizational context, and as
seen through the lenses of both critical race and media literacy theories, these influences are
represented in parallel green circles in the figure, with their interaction called out by way of a
bidirectional green arrows.
This study also seeks to understand the ways in which ACBS knowledge, motivation, and
organization influences interact with each other to best support the organization countering
negative stereotypes and promoting a positive view of Black people through an advocacy
program. Having knowledge of how stereotypes are primed by news media coverage and how
those stereotypes harm Blacks, creating barriers for ACBS to achieve its goals (Blair & Banaji,
1996; Gibelman and Kraft, 1996; Holt, 2013; Kirk, 2012; Krathwohl, 2002; Oliver, Kim, Hoewe,
Chung, Ash, Woolley, & Shade, 2015) and the board believing that taking steps to address the
problem is not only worth engaging in, but can actually be accomplished (Bandura, 2000; Baer,
2012; Hernandez, 2008; Horvath, 1999; LeFebvre & Armstrong, 2018) are important in reaching
their stakeholder goal. When these elements interact with one another, they then lead to the
achievement of the stakeholder goal, shown by a red rectangle with the relationship shown by a
downward facing green arrow. Therefore, this conceptual framework offers the tentative theory
that if knowledge and motivation among the President and Board of ACBS and issues of
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organizational culture are addressed simultaneously from the lenses of critical race and media
literacy theories, then achievement of the stakeholder goal will be more likely.
Conclusion
This innovation study seeks to identify factors important in enabling ACBS to reach its
goal of implementing an advocacy program that will counter negative views and promote
positive views about Black people. This chapter reviewed literature on implicit bias, news media
priming of stereotypes, the negative impact of stereotypes on Black people, and combating
stereotypes. The literature review informed the identification of the assumed knowledge,
motivation, and organizations influences related to the achievement of the stakeholder goal, in
alignment with Clarke and Estes’ (2008) conceptual framework for addressing organizational
problems. The knowledge influences include conceptual knowledge of the relationship between
priming, stereotypes and decisions that negatively impact black people, and procedural
knowledge of how to create an effective advocacy campaign. Motivational influences include
utility value about investing time and resources in creating an advocacy program and self-
efficacy (collective) about the ability of the organization to do so successfully. Finally, the
organizational influences include an organizational culture that not only values advocacy efforts
and the involvement of the broader membership in those efforts, but also commits resources and
time toward the tools and engagement strategies necessary to further advocacy program
implementation. Chapter 3 will describe the methodological approach for the study.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
The purpose of this project was to conduct a needs’ analysis in the areas of knowledge
and skill, motivation, and organizational resources necessary for ACBS’ President and Board to
create a program by January of 2020, to promote a positive view of and to counter negative
narratives about Black people. The analysis began by generating a list of possible needs and
assets as identified by the review of literature on what groups like the ACBS President and Board
require in order to engage in advocacy activities. The analysis then consisted of examining each
of these influences systematically with a focus on actual or validated needs and assets.
As such, the questions that guided this study were the following:
1. What is ACBS President and Board knowledge and motivation related to creating a
program by January of 2020, to promote a positive view of counter negative
narratives about Black people?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and stakeholder
knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions?
This chapter details the assumed needs for this study as well as methodology when it
comes to choice of participants, data collection and analysis.
Participating Stakeholders
This study explored the knowledge, motivational, and organizational factors that
influence the ability of the nine members of the President and Board ofACBS to achieve its
stakeholder goal of implementing an advocacy program to counter negative stereotypes about
Black people.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Members of the ACBS Board of Governors, inclusive of its President.
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Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The conceptual framework for this study identified specific research questions related to
the stakeholder group’s knowledge, motivation and organizational influences that call for rich
information and a deep understanding of the these influences as well as the problem. The only
individuals who could provide this insight were the board of Governors (including the President)
for the organization, who were the only individuals formally part of the organization who
possessed decision-making power. As such, a purposeful census sample was used consisting of
the entirety of the board (inclusive of the President). A purposeful sample is commonly used in
qualitative data collection and entails the selection of individuals best suited to enable the
researcher to arrive at a robust understanding of the problem/research question (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In such data collection processes, it
is important to be mindful of data saturation—when no new themes, ideas, or concepts emerge
from the collection of data from a sample population—and to stop collecting data should this
begin to occur (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Maxwell, 2013).
However, due to the relatively small participant group, effort was made to interview each of the
nine members and no saturation point was determined.
Observation Sampling (Access) Strategy and Rationale
No observations were conducted for this study because the board was geographically
dispersed and did not meet formally as a group on a regular basis. The group did informally
come together at sector events and networking during its annual convening, but this has been
primarily celebratory in nature.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
This study collected qualitative data through interviews of teight of the nine members of
its board, and analysis of documents and digital materials produced by the organization between
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January 1, 2018 through October of 2018. Qualitative research is typically used for exploration
and gaining insight into the meaning-making of individuals and groups related to a particular
problem in society or phenomenon (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; McEwan & McEwan, 2003;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In the case of ACBS, this problem was the preponderance of negative
stereotypes about Blacks in mainstream news media coverage and its negative impact on Black
students.With that said, key to achieving the stakeholder performance objective was
understanding the meaning the ACBS president and board ascribed to this problem as well as the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that were either supporting or impeding
the organization’s ability to implement an advocacy program to counter this problem.
Additionally, the goal of the research was to arrive at an understanding of the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that would inform the creation of a campaign to enable
the Board to address the stated problem. Because of the relatively small number of individuals in
the stakeholder group (nine), interviews were conducted to arrive at a deep understanding of the
research questions (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; McEwan & McEwan, 2003; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Further, the interview results were triangulated by document analysis in the form of a
review of ACBS’ social media messages and digital communications. The goal of triangulation
is to check emergent findings through multiple data sources (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Creswell
& Creswell, 2018). Henceforth, the document analysis was conducted after the interviews to
confirm interview analysis findings. The inductive approach described here aligned with the
characteristics of effective qualitative research (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016) and informed the creation of the instruments used in the study.
The instruments used to conduct the interviews and document analysis in this study were
constructed based on the knowledge, motivational and organizational influences identified in the
conceptual framework as seen through two theoretical lenses: critical race theory and critical
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media literacy theory. Both the influences and the theories emerged through a review of
literature on addressing implicit bias, negative stereotypes, inequities impacting Black students,
and advocacy efforts that promote social change. Interview questions and a document analysis
checklist were drafted and then tested with individuals representative of the stakeholder group
who provided input on their relevance, clarity, and objectivity. In addition to honing in on the
study participants’ meanings and attempting to gain a 360-degree view of the many factors and
perspectives, upon beginning the study it was anticipated that the design of the research itself
would evolve as questions are asked and issues are explored deeper. These are all hallmarks of
qualitative research (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; McEwan & McEwan, 2003; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Such was the case in this study. As Bogdan and Bilken (1997) recommends, early
data collection helped refine subsequent data collection, as feedback from the interview
participants resulted in additional follow up questions being asked as well as expanded the time-
frame during which documents were pulled for analysis.
Surveys
No surveys were conducted for this study as there were only nine members of the
stakeholder group.
Interviews
Interview protocol. Each member of ACBS’ Board of Governors was interviewed once
utilizing a semi-structured interview approach in which a defined set of initial and follow up
questions were asked as well as additional questions as topics and themes emerged. This was
done in order to afford the ability to address each knowledge, motivational, and organizational
influence while having the flexibility to explore these influences in deeper ways as themes
emerged (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002). The interviews were the
primary tool used to understand each influence and as such the questions were framed in
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alignment with the study’s conceptual framework, which also incorporated a critical race theory
and a critical media literacy frame and a transformative worldview. These frames played an
important role in guiding the types of questions asked and how responses were interpreted
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As recommended by Weiss (1994), the order of the
questions were structured with a natural progression that began with relationship-building and
comfort-establishing questions and then moved on to meatier, more potentially charged questions
about the organization and its operations, and then questions focused on issues of racism, bias
and negative stereotypes.
The questions were probing in nature and focused on garnering experience, behavior,
opinions and values through open-ended questions, as recommended by Patton (2002). An
interview protocol (Appendix A) was used that detailed important administrative tasks, such as
obtaining participant approval to be recorded, to be interviewed, a preview of the questions to be
asked, use of the information collected, and statements that made it clear that the interviewee’s
participation was voluntary and their statements will not be attributed to them by name. The
guide also detailed the verbatim interview questions and follow-up questions asked.
Questions that addressed ACBS’ knowledge influences included those that asked
participants to state their understanding of the connection between priming, stereotypes, and
decision-making that impact black people as well as those that asked about the current activities
that communicate advocacy messages, and finally questions about the president and board’s
activities related to reflecting on the organization’s progress toward achieving its mission. The
questions that were designed to collect responses related to the motivational influences of utility
value and collective self-efficacy asked whether and to what extent did participants believe it
was valuable for the organization to invest time and resources in an advocacy program that
promotes a positive view of and counters negative narratives about Black people. These
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questions asked whether participants believed that the board and board president were able to
effectively create and successfully implement such a program. Finally, organizational influences
were explored through questions that asked whether the organization possessed a belief that it
should invest time and resources in advocacy efforts and whether it has actually done that.
Similarly, questions were asked about the participant’s views on engaging its broader
membership and what it has actually implemented to do so. Both sets of questions were designed
to gain an understanding of the cultural models present in the organization supporting both
creation of an advocacy program and the role of the broader membership in its implementation.
Participant recruitment. Each interview participant was recruited via email
communication that introduced the researcher, described the purpose of the study, approximate
anticipated length of the interview, confidentiality, and the options for participation (web link or
phone call). Prior to the initial, introductory email communication, the President of the
organization had informed each member of the organization of his approval of the organization’s
participation in the study and its relationship to the organization’s future plans. The President
also made clear that participation was both confidential and voluntary. Eight of the nine Board
members (inclusive of the President) responded affirmatively and utilized either direct email
response or a survey tool that was provided by the researcher to schedule a time. Once a time
was scheduled, the researcher contacted the participant to provide either web video and phone
conference line details and a study information sheet. Four of the participants required only one
attempt to garner a response and a specific date and time for the interview, two of the
participants required two attempts, and two of the respondents required three attempts. One
board member never responded despite multiple attempts to contact him. Each of the eight
participants determined that they would be interviewed via web call-in line with no video.
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Interview procedures. One formal interview each was conducted with eight of the nine
members of the ACBS board between May and July of 2018 via web call-in line with no video,
in consideration of the fact that the individuals were geographically dispersed across California
Further, because it is important to accurately capture interview responses (Creswell & Creswell,
2018; Maxwell, 2013; McEwan & McEwan, 2003; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2009;
Weiss, 1994), the interviews were recorded by way of a feature associated with the web call-in
service. Prior to each interview the researcher followed the same procedure, which consisted of:
emailing the study information sheet to the participant, along with dial-in information and a
reminder that their participation is voluntary and their interview will be recorded only upon their
approval; the creation of an interview question notes sheet (Appendix B) which was used to
write notes, observations, and recommended follow up questions or question adjustments that
should be considered for the next interview participants; a review of notes from the prior
interview (except the first interview); and review of a self-reflection memo created by the
researcher to call out potential biases and strategies for mitigating their impact on objectivity.
During the actual interview, the researcher read the study information sheet to each
participant prior to recording. The study information sheet outlined the purpose of the study as
well as indicated that the study was voluntary, confidential, and will be recorded only upon the
participant’s approval. It should be noted that all eight participants agreed to continue to
participate and to be recorded. A total of 350 minutes and 20 seconds in interviews were
conducted and recorded in English, the preferred language of the participants. The interviews
averaged 43 minutes in length, ranging from 24 minutes to 57 minutes. After each interview, the
researcher reviewed the notes and observations, including any additional questions asked, and
then briefly reflected on any emotions or biases that were triggered by the discussion. Finally,
the interviews were conducted prior to document analysis in order to allow for the identification
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of any potential artifacts that may be of value in addressing the research questions that were not
previously anticipated. In fact, as a result of feedback garnered during the interviews and the
time-frames in which the majority of ACBS’ communications take place, it was determined that
the period of time from which to draw documents would be expanded to include two additional
months (January and February and 2018).
Documents and Artifacts
Though interviews provide valuable information as to the knowledge, motivational and
organizational influences impacting a stakeholder group’s ability to achieve its goal, actually
observing knowledge influences in action through document analysis can deepen this
understanding (Bowen, 2009; Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Krippendorff, 2018; Maxwell, 2013;
McEwan & McEwan, 2003; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Four categories of electronic documents
were collected and analyzed in this study which were the primary communications tools ACBS
used for engaging and sharing information with its membership and stakeholders: social media
posts, email newsletters, website postings and collateral (inclusive of brochures). In addition, a
strategic plan outlining budget areas and elements of the organization’s annual equity conference
was analyzed. Informed by interview participant input and organizational communications
patterns, a purposeful sample was collected of the four types of external communications sent or
posted between January 2018 and October 2018. Krippendorff (1980) has posited that such an
approach enables the researcher to select documents specifically relevant to their research
question. The documents were requested from and provided by the President of ACBS’ Board of
Governors, as this person was the individual who oversees and directs its creation. Additionally,
the researcher is a volunteer in the organization who supports the review and development of
such communications, which made their access relatively easy to obtain, along with the approval
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of the President. Table 5 shows the types of documents collected, their intended audience, and
number of these items by document category.

The conceptual framework and study research questions served as a guide for the
document analysis conducted in this study. The researcher drew from Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) and Schreier’s (2014) guidance on qualitative document analysis to conduct an initial
cursory review of the document samples. This was done to determine an analysis protocol that
best aligned with the conceptual framework with the goal of assessing the “nature of the data”
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 179). A review of documents from all four categories were
therefore conducted with those influences where they were most relevant: procedural knowledge
of advocacy program implementation, conceptual knowledge of negative news media accounts,
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priming and negative stereotypes about Blacks and Black students; valuing the investment of
time and resources in advocacy activities; and a belief system and cultural settings that support
advocacy activities and the engagement of the broader membership of ACBS in advancing the
organization’s mission. With that said, the frequency, context, and the meaning of the content
were analyzed to determine if these various influences were present. Table 6 is the list of
relevant KMO influences, documents analyzed, and checklist questions used to conduct the
document analysis.
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Data Analysis
All eight Interviews (totaling 350 minutes and 20 seconds) were transcribed using a third
party service. The researcher then reviewed each transcript along with notes that were taken
during the interview, in order to identify any areas lacking clarity or errors in transcribing. The
transcripts were then coded using the interview protocol aligned with the KMO influences such
that the influences themselves were the identified codes used to examine common responses
among the participants. Particular attention was paid to responses aligning with the critical race
theory and critical media literacy components of the conceptual framework, such as calling out
issues of racism and oppression, and noting media use in delivering messages. In addition to
direct, affirmative responses to questions specific to the KMO influences in the conceptual
framework, characteristics identified in review of literature related to the problem of practice
guided the researcher’s assessment of whether participant responses indicated whether a
particular influence was an asset or a need. Finally, codes that fell outside of those aligned with
the conceptual framework were noted. During the coding process, the researcher identified
quotes from the transcripts that exemplified common themes found. Quotes, codes, and themes
were compiled into an interview analysis chart for easy cross-reference and enable the tabulation
of the number of interviews in which certain influences were present as either assets or needs.
Because of the relatively small number of study participants, an influence was determined to be a
need if less than seven participant responses indicated it was an asset. Even then, a final
determination of whether a particular influence was an asset or a need was not done until
documents were analyzed and such determinations were confirmed.
Four categories of documents were analyzed in this study: emails to ACBS’ mailing list,
brochures, website posts, and social media (Twitter) posts. Multiple electronic documents were
sourced for the study, based on availability and as identified through the interviews of the study
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participants. Additionally, the researcher is a volunteer with the organization and familiar with
its communications vehicles and patterns. The total number of units analyzed equalled 215. A
three-phase process was used to analyze the documents, informed by qualitative data analysis
(QDA) methods (Althiede & Schneider, 2008; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In line with QDA,
during the first phase, the researcher analyzed all documents for content, purpose, tone, and
frequency of the documents for evidence of the presence or absence of the KMO influences as
identified in the literature. The results of this phase were recorded as yes or no answers on the
document checklist before moving on to phase two.
In phase two, only Tweets were analyzed for the prevalence of five key words related to
the advocacy program ACBS intends to implement: equity, Black/African American, equality,
outcomes, racism. This too drew upon research by Rojas and Davis (2017) as well as Ceron,
Curini, Iacas, and Porro’s (2014) study on Twitter sentiment analysis and the role of tweet
lexicon in social and political movements. With this in mind, the researcher analyzed 201 Twitter
posts made by ACBS from January 2018 through October 2018 for the key words in posts
related to and outside of the context of its annual convening. The goal was to be able to identify
the presence of not only the content of advocacy, but the consistency of advocacy messages and
the organization’s outreach to its broader membership. The appearance of the key words were
tabulated, noted in a table, and added to the data set utilized to triangulate data collected from the
interviews of the president and board of ACBS.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Credibility and trustworthiness are important concepts in addressing whether qualitative
research is of quality and can be relied upon (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Maxwell, 2013). Threats
to both primarily arise out of issues related to the fact that in qualitative research, the primary
instrument is the researcher, who is subject to bias and error (Maxwell, 2013). In the context of
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qualitative research, credibility is whether the data obtained from research actually reflects
reality though researchers admit it is nearly impossible to get to the objective truth (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016; Maxwell, 2013). Threats to credibility include researcher bias (or subjectivity) and
researcher reactivity, or the influence of the researcher on the participant or the participant’s
responses (Maxwell, 2013). Trustworthiness refers to whether the data collected and the
outcomes of the analysis of that data are consistent, or make sense (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Again, the bias of the researcher can be a problem here, with there being a risk of the researcher
misinterpreting or inappropriately interpreting data.
Threats to credibility and trustworthiness can be addressed, not by disregarding the bias
or the influence of the researcher, but rather by acknowledging and putting in place measures to
ensure integrity in the research process (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
conceptual framework for this study incorporated both critical race and media literacy theories
and was constructed with a transformative worldview. Further, some of the interview questions
in the study focused on issues of race and power. As a person of Black race greatly concerned
with the plight of Black people, who has experienced interpersonal racism herself, and who cares
deeply about addressing social injustice, the researcher immediately identified that her very
world frame posed a potential source of bias in the study. For these reasons, effort was made to
ensure the researcher did not lead or influence the participant nor misinterpret or exaggerate
race-related themes in the analysis of responses. As such, four methods to ensure credibility and
trustworthiness in this study, among those strategies recommended by both Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) and Maxwell (2013), included: triangulation, peer examination, audit trail, member
checks, and self-reflection.
As previously noted, the data from the document analysis were compared to the findings
of the participant interviews as a method of triangulation, in order to confirm participant’s
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answers to the knowledge and organizational influences-related questions. Before the interviews
took place, the interview questions and the document analysis checklist was peer reviewed by
two individuals of similar type to the participants, namely board members of another
professional organization engaged in education issues. Further, a transcription of the audio from
each interview was created from a third-party transcription service to ensure accuracy. These, in
addition to the records of hand -written notes the researcher made during each interview, and
copies of all documents reviewed, their source and analysis were maintained in secure, online
storage as an audit trail for both the interviews and document analysis. This audit trail will also
include careful documenting of the data collection process, thematic coding, and decisions made
in the analysis process. Together, these two audit trail steps tell the story of how the researcher
arrived from the research to the conclusions (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Finally, after the
interviews were completed, transcribed, and analyzed, she reached out to the interview
participants and offered to provide a summary of findings and their transcripts to those
interested. Two individuals indicated their interest. Electronic documents were sent to them with
all identifying information removed. Finally, the researcher checked in on initial and final
findings with the president and one board member with the greatest familiarity with the
organization’s operations via one-on-one discussions. She also presented the high-level findings
and recommendations to a meeting attended by six of the board members (inclusive of the
president). In both instances participants indicated that the findings were reasonable. Finally, in
order to mitigate the impact of bias related to issues of race and racism related to the data
collection and analysis, the researcher employed the use of reflexive practices before each
interview, including journaling my feelings related to the topic and setting as goals actions to
adopt whenever she reached the point in the conversation in which the discussion of race and
racism were up front and center.
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Ethics
Researchers have a responsibility to protect—and not to harm—the participants in their
research studies (Glesne, 2011; Krueger & Casey, 2009; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Rubin &
Rubin, 2012). According to Glesne (2011), central to ensuring that participants in research
studies are protected is embodied in the concept of informed consent. This concept prompts the
researcher to ensure that potential human subjects of research studies have all the information
that is needed to freely make a decision whether to participate. Important actions to ensure
informed consent include making sure participants understand that their role is voluntary and that
they can leave a study at any time, as well as providing participants with honest information
about the study and how it may impact them (Glesne, 2011; Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
In the case of the research questions this study endeavored to address, semi-structured
interviews were conducted with the President and members of the board of ACBS to identify the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to the organization developing an
advocacy program to counter negative stereotypes about Blacks. Although the members of the
Board are elected officials and the researcher has no authority or power relative to the group, it
was still important for the researcher to identify any ethical risk areas to address in advance. For
example, because the individuals were elected officials who may feel concerned about sharing
their sentiments in an interview, much care was taken in the approach to informed consent. The
researcher carefully articulated in communications before, during, and after the actual interviews
that participation was voluntary and confidential. Krueger & Krueger (2009) emphasize making
sure participants have a solid understanding of their involvement in a study and even suggest
testing out protocols and approaches, which the researcher did with individuals of similar
background to the board. Further, before interviews were scheduled, each potential participant
was invited to be a part of the study via written communication in which it was made clear that
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their participation was voluntary, that their responses would be kept confidential and not directly
attributed to any named participant, and that the interviews would be recorded for transcription
purposes only and kept in a secure location. Additionally, the participants were asked to indicate
their understanding of the nature of their involvement and agreement to being recorded. This was
done in alignment with measures Glesne (2011) recommends to assure informed consent. These
same points were shared verbally on the day of each participant’s interview immediately
preceding it, and they were read a statement of these details asking for their agreement, via
signature, to be recorded. Finally, the participants were reminded of how their input would be
used as well as how it would be kept confidential, including the fact that a third-party
transcription service would be employed to develop the written transcripts in which no one
participant would be connected to any particular feedback. The participants were also informed
that the voice recording of their interview would be destroyed upon completion of the
documentation of the findings, and that they would be informed once this had taken place.
Though care was taken to ensure the study meets the standards of informed consent, it is
important to call out challenges any potential power relationships between interviewer and
interviewee may present (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As noted previously, the researcher was a
volunteer for ACBS at the time of this study and provided communications advisement for the
organization. To avoid any potential confusion the researchers’ role in the study was
distinguished in writing to participants before the interview as a part of the process of inviting
them to participate, and statements about this distinction developed as a part of the interview
protocol was read at the beginning of each interview. Despite the fact that interviewer had no
power in relation to the study participants and therefore little possibility of coercing them into
being interviewed, there are still important steps that should be taken to avoid other issues that
may impact the study.
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Merriam & Tisdell (2016) highlight the importance of acknowledging the influence of the
relationship between the researcher and participants and the researcher’s own world view, as
they may result in bias in the data collection, analysis, and reporting. The researcher’s role as a
volunteer in the organization and transformative worldview had the potential to be important
sources of bias and therefore points of self-reflection and management on the part of the
researcher. In particular, questions asked of participants sometimes were emotionally charged for
both interviewer and interviewee because they caused the participants to discuss and recall
personal experiences of social injustice racism, implicit bias and negative stereotypes. As such,
prior to each interview, the researcher endeavored set aside any assumptions about the
participant’s own world view and whether those views should be congruent with her own.
Specifically, the interviewer spent time reflecting upon personal assumptions about each
interviewer before the individual was interviewed, and after the interview is complete and
analysis conducted.
Limitations and Delimitations
There were limitations and delimitations associated with this study that should be noted.
Limitations included the time availability of interview participants, the truthfulness of their
responses as well as the limited timeframe in which the study is being conducted. The fact that
the study was conducted with a stakeholder group with limited time availability could have
caused the one participant who did not participate to not participate. Another limitation
associated with the participant group being a group of individuals extremely pressed for time was
that it could have had an impact on their state of mind while they were providing responses,
possibly causing them to answer not as completely or honestly as they may have had otherwise.
Finally, another limitation was that, because the interviews took place over the course of three
months, the responses of participants who were interviewed later could have possibly been
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influenced by discussions with participants who were interviewed early on (though there were no
indications that such conversations took place).
Delimitations include the worldview influencing the conceptual framework; the interview
questions selected by the researcher, the fact that the researcher interviewed only the President
and Board of Governors of the organization and not the broader membership base, and the fact
that the researcher interviewed participants before, and not after, a program was developed in
order to inform the creation of an innovation.
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to apply the gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008)
to conduct a needs’ analysis in the areas of knowledge and skill, motivation, and organizational
resources necessary for ACBS to create a program by January of 2020, to promote a positive
view of and to counter negative narratives about Black students. Chapter Three of this study
discussed the possible needs and assets of the organization that fall into each of these categories,
namely procedural, conceptual, and metacognitive knowledge, motivational influences of utility
value and collective self-efficacy, and organizational culture and settings.
Multiple sources of qualitative data were collected to validate the assumed influences.
Specifically, data was collected through interviews of ACBS’ Board of Governors, and through
analyzing artifacts, including social media posts, email blasts, website information, and
promotional materials created and distributed from January 2018 through October 2018.
Interview data was collected first as a primary source of validation of assets and needs, followed
by document analysis to confirm interview findings.
The questions that guided this study were:
1. What is the ACBS president and board knowledge and motivation related to creating
a program by January of 2020, to promote a positive view of counter negative
narratives about Black people?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and stakeholder
knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions?
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders of focus for this study were members of the board of governors for
ACBS. The group includes the board president and a legislative advisor. The remaining seven
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members are all engaged in educational leadership positions throughout the state. Eight out of
the nine members participated in the interview process. They ranged from ages 30 to 70 and
seven out of eight are Black.
Determination of Assets and Needs
The sources of data for this study were interviews of ACBS’ president and board,
triangulated by analysis of social media posts, email blasts, website information and promotional
materials created and distributed from January 2018 through October 2018. The artifact analysis
was conducted to triangulate interview findings. A total of 201 social media posts, three email
blasts, one conference program, one conference solicitation letter, one conference sponsorship
brochure and the organization’s 2018 budget and high-level plan of activities was analyzed.
Eight of the nine members of the board were interviewed because one board member was not
available. Because of the relatively small interview participant group, no saturation point was
established and it was determined that all available participants were to be interviewed.
The criteria used to determine whether a particular influence was an asset or need was as
follows: if at least seven out of the eight participant statements indicated that a particular
influence was present, then it was determined to be an asset; otherwise, it was determined to be a
need. Further, if a particular influence was found to be present in each of the documents analyzed
for that particular influence,it was determined to be an asset. Otherwise, that particular influence
was determined to be a need. A document analysis influence assessment template was created
and used for this purpose (Appendix C).
General Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
The following are results and findings of this study presented by the knowledge
categories identified as important influences for achieving the organizational goal of creating and
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implementing an advocacy campaign to counter negative stereotypes about Black students. For
this study, the specific knowledge influences were conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive.
Finding 1. The President and Board of ACBS possess the critical knowledge
components in order to launch an advocacy campaign but need knowledge of how to put
those components together effectively. Each member of the ACBS Board of Governors clearly
has a keen understanding of the negative stereotypes that impact Black students, how they are
triggered and how they impact decision-making that ultimately affects the lives of Black
individuals. Such knowledge is important for advocacy organizations to have if they intend to
advance positive social change (Blair & Banaji, 1996; Holt, 2013; Oliver, Kim, Hoewe, Chung,
Ash, Woolley, & Shade, 2015). Such “woke”ness was apparent and quite personal to the
president and members of the board. Specifically, seven of the eight participants shared personal
stories about their own experiences of being impacted by stereotypes and bias, and this sentiment
came through clear in how they included themselves in sharing about the experiences of Blacks.
Participant 1 stated:
I definitely notice the way I'm treated at a school site when I'm in sweats and a tee-shirt
versus how I'm treated in a suit and tie, and I'm the board president, and I can only
assume that that's something that students and parents also go through as well, and I think
that is tied to perception of folk that don't really understand Black people, don't
understand some of our vernacular, what it means, and mannerisms we use, for lack of a
better term, how we conduct ourselves in public.
Participant 5, also expressed sentiments that the experiences tied to negative perceptions
about Black people is a personal one, expressing that in general people think “that we're
ignorant, intimidating, disconnected, not relevant.” Participant 6 shared this belief, while making
a direct connection to the role of media in promulgating such negative stereotypes, saying that
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society feels “That we're stupid, we have no focus and our abilities are always questioned.”
Participant 6 went further to state that Black students often fall under the weight of “unconscious
bias” that manifests itself in “low expectations that are generally what is portrayed by the
media.” This understanding of the link between perception of Black people and media coverage
of them was echoed by each participant, as Participant 2 shared when asked about the impact of
media coverage on the organization’s work to achieve education equity for Black students, “It's
all about the negative, the negative, the negative...there is not the willingness to promote or to
make people aware of the good stuff that's going on as far as the media is concerned, whether it
be the newspaper or the television.”
As it relates specifically to the impact of bias on Black student’s experiences in school,
again there was agreement among the group that the impact is largely negative, with academic
and socio-emotional implications. For example, Participant 1 said, “It places Black children in a
very perilous situation” related to academic achievement as teachers and administrators have
“low expectations” of Black students that causes them to not provide academic rigor, suggesting
that Black students are often automatically “not provided rigorous classes” and instruction.
Participant 5 vividly described what he believed to be the impact of negative stereotypes and bias
on Black students, comparing it to a “mountain” that Black students “must climb” that students
of other races do not, and that having to do so “is a discouragement” to Black students.
Participant 7 concurred, and said that Black students as a result “feel like no matter what they do,
they'll be perceived in a negative light” and as a result “feel like they have to perform ten times
better than everybody else in order to be considered good, just good.”
ACBS’ documents also told the story of this impassioned fuel as being a part of the very
core of the organization’s purpose and interest, as topics of equity, implicit bias, and negative
impacts on Black people were consistently present in session topics for its annual convening,
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promotional materials, as well as retweeted posts about educational equity. The organization’s
mission, found on its website, was clear about advancing equity for Black students, for example.
The conference topics found in its 2018 conference program guide featured sessions in which the
burden of negative stereotypes about Black students were up front and center. For example, one
conference workshop description indicated attendees would learn how to avoid “missed
opportunities that occur when educators underestimate the value of individualizing their
approach to meeting the diverse needs of Black boys and young men.” The session promised to
help attendees to “examine their expectations of this student group,” referencing biases
commonly held about Black male students by educators. ACBS’ social media posts were less up
front in the discussion about negative stereotypes, bias, and their impact on black student
outcomes, with only 15 out of the 201 tweets or retweets (sharing of another organization or
individual’s post) posted by the organization explicitly mentioning the words “equity,” “black,”
or “equality” outside of the name of the conference. There were posts, though, that spoke broadly
about equitable outcomes for students, such as in the form of posts that share the organization’s
mission verbatim and posts inviting readers to register to attend the annual conference. The
conference sponsor or attendee solicitation letters, though they also do not speak directly to
negative perceptions of Black students, did invite the reader to join “a dynamic group of
educators, leaders and advocates in pursuit of equity for Black students.” Nonetheless, the sum
total of documents put forth by the organization does possess strong sentiments of desire to
address inequities faced by Black students and lead positive change.
To see their level of passion, personal connection, and awareness of the inequity faced by
Black students result in positive social change, the ACBS Board must effectively marshall.
communications tools and advocacy messages (Gibelman & Kraft, 1996; Holt, 2013; Kirk,
2012), including maximizing reach and frequency of such tools (Guo & Saxton, 2014; Lorenzon
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& Pilotti, 2008; Maibach, Abroms, & Marosits, 2007). Though interviews with the president and
board and document analysis revealed a cursory understanding of the elements of effective
advocacy campaign, evidence of bringing-it-all-together know-how-in-action was a gap. In fact,
all eight interview participants were able to articulate that the organization used communications
tools such as a website and social media. Further, they shared stories of how communications
and advocacy tools are used within their respective organizations (outside of ACBS), with
Participant 1 sharing that his school district implemented a robust campaign to “foster district
pride” that included “lawn signs, t-shirts, and social media posts” to promote the district.
Participant 7 shared how communications efforts in her school district resulted in heightened
awareness about “the good that is happening,” attributing such awareness to both the content of
positive stories and to “always being out there,” regarding the consistency and variety of
communications mechanisms.
However, related to their work as president and board of ACBS, their responses about
communications activities were limited to the context of the organization’s annual conference,
versus overall advocacy on behalf of Black students. This suggests that ongoing, meaningful
communication with stakeholders takes place only related to the event. For example, Participant
5 acknowledged that he “was a participant in the development of a marketing communications
piece” for the organization’s annual conference. Participant 4 also indicated that members of the
organization’s volunteer staff were “actually in the process of doing one [a communications
campaign] now for the upcoming conference.” The remaining seven participants shared that they
either did not participate nor were aware of how the organization communicates externally other
than to promote the convening, as Participant 2 shared, “I'm not aware of how we participate [in
communications] because I generally just have one-on-one conversations with [the president] or
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in the group.” ACBS’ various stakeholder communications also told the story of a story not yet
told.
Analysis of ACBS’ communications artifacts-- social media posts, email blasts, website
information and promotional materials created and distributed from January 2018 through
October 2018--suggested that the organization understood the elements of an advocacy
campaign, but had not yet capitalized on that knowledge to implement one. To be effective,
advocacy or change campaigns should consist of communications that are ongoing, directly
promote the organizations’ mission, and utilize a multitude of communications channels and
messages (Henderson, 2005; Hetherington, Ekachai, & Parkinson, 2001). The relatively
infrequent cadence of social media posts and the narrow focus of the organization’s external
communications on the topic of its annual convening alone, therefore, confirms procedural
knowledge as an area of needed growth for the organization. Indeed, an audit of the
organization’s various communications tools shows that there were no en mass external email
communications other than those related to its annual convening. The website during the
timeframe in question consisted solely of posts related to the organization’s convening and exists
to communicate about the conference alone. One change to note, was the addition of two pages
to the site: one with the organization’s mission and the other with a list of the members of the
Board of Governors. An almost exclusive focus on the organization’s annual conference could be
seen on social media as well. Of the 201 tweets and retweets posted by ACBS, 123 (61.11%) of
them were about the annual conference and only two promoting the organization and its overall
mission and initiatives.
Finding 2. The ACBS President and Board need to spend time reflecting on their
progress toward the end of advancing their mission. Although two out of the eight board
members interviewed indicated some reflection on the progress of the organization, seven out of
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eight of them shared that taking time to reflect on how the organization is doing in achieving its
mission was an area of needed growth. They also agreed that the only measurement of success
generally held was tied to attendance at the annual conference. Researchers posit that
organizations seeking to achieve transformation within the education sector need to spend time
reflecting on their progress toward achieving the very outcomes they wish to advance (Stoker &
Evans, 2016; Reilly, 2000). When asked whether the board spent time reflecting on the
organization’s progress toward achieving its mission, Participant 1 indicated that “I think a lot of
times they gauge it by how many people attend the conference. And you know, like I say, it
doesn't [measure success].” Participant 3 also shared that reflection on progress is solely in the
context of tracking “the number of attendees at our conferences,” versus assessing the
organization’s overall contribution toward improving educational outcomes for Black students.
Specifically related to time spent together as a Board reflecting on the organization’s
progress, it seems that has yet to take place but something that is desired. Referencing coming
together as a board to assess progress, Participant 2 agreed this is “an area that we really have to
focus on.” Participant 8 shared that he believed that reflecting on and monitoring progress as a
group will come from ACBS’ continued evolution and will grow out of establishing a more
formalized “governance structure” in which reflection on the organization’s work in the context
of improving outcomes for Black students, confirming such practice as another area of growth
because that hasn't necessarily been done.”
Two Board members called out the contrary, and said that the organization does engage
in self-reflection as it relates to goal achievement. Participant 4 said “we talk routinely about
how to improve .” Participant 6 also shared a specific instance where reflection on the
organization’s progress in which the organization “had a retreat” where those present “discussed
our progress and where we wanted to go and created a strategic plan.” The plan Participant 6
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referenced was a budget of projected activities developed upon the launch of the organization
and was focused on planning and implementing the first conference. Despite varying input as to
self-reflection taking place, 100% of the participants made clear that a barrier to engaging in
reflection on the organization’s effectiveness and that of the efforts of each Board member is a
lack of confidence in data currently used to track progress state-wide (referred to as “The
Dashboard”). As Participant 5 noted:
The dashboard is giving us an overview based upon an entire school's measurement, but
it's not talking about the other mitigating factors that tie into how are students impacted?
Do they have access to a computer? Are they one to one? There are other pieces that are
handled by district, but that are not governed by the Dashboard.
Participant 1’s sentiments related to the dashboard corroborates Participant 5’s
perspective. He stated that the dashboard was “flawed, because it's not quite perfected yet.” He
also offered a work-around from his experience within his own district in which “there's been
times where we had to reach out to correct the data or make sure that the data is actually
reflecting the reality, which isn't always the case.” He indicated that the dashboard should be
taken with “a grain of salt and [an] understanding that it can't be the only metric you use to
measure your students' success...you have to be looking at other ways to think about how you
can identify progress and success.” Again, here in the ACBS board and president’s sentiments
there can be found the practice of self-reflection in their endeavors outside of the organization,
but not necessarily within. This demonstrates that there is a need to support engaging in self-
reflection and monitoring of progress among board members toward the end of advancing its
mission of achieving equity for Black students, along with the identification of metrics (beyond
attendance at the annual conference) that would guide planning and assessment.
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Knowledge influence summary. Insofar as identified knowledge influences that can
either support or impede the ACBS President and Board in implementing an advocacy campaign,
The conceptual knowledge they possess of the relationship between negative stereotypes, bias,
and inequities faced by Black students serves as an asset upon which to bridge the gaps in
procedural knowledge and metacognitive habits revealed through interview data and document
analysis. Table 7 provides a summary of knowledge influences and asset or need determination
based on analysis method.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes by Influence
Conceptual Knowledge
Finding 1. The President and Board of ACBS need knowledge of the relationship
between priming, stereotypes, and decisions that negatively impact Black people.
Survey results. No surveys were conducted for this influence.
Interview findings. Each member of the ACBS board clearly has a keen understanding of
the negative stereotypes that impact Black students, how they are triggered, and how they impact
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decision-making that ultimately affects the lives of Black individuals. Specifically, seven of the
eight participants shared personal stories about their own experiences of being impacted by
stereotypes and bias, and this sentiment came through clearly in how they included themselves in
sharing about the experiences of Blacks. Participant 1 stated:
I definitely notice the way I'm treated at a school site when I'm in sweats and a tee shirt
versus how I'm treated in a suit and tie, and I'm the board president, and I can only
assume that that's something that students and parents also go through as well, and I think
that is tied to perception of folk that don't really understand Black people, don't
understand some of our vernacular, what it means, and mannerisms we use, for lack of a
better term, how we conduct ourselves in public.
Participant 5 also expressed sentiments that the experiences tied to negative perceptions
about Black people was a personal one, expressing that in general people think “that we're
ignorant, intimidating, disconnected, not relevant.” Participant 6 shared this belief, while making
a direct connection to the role of media in promulgating such negative stereotypes, saying that
society feels “That we're stupid, we have no focus and our abilities are always questioned.”
Participant 6 went further to state that Black students often fall under the weight of “unconscious
bias” that manifests itself in low expectations that are generally “what is portrayed by the
media.” This understanding of the link between perception of Blacks and media coverage of
them was echoed by each participant, as Participant 2 shared when asked about the impact of
media coverage on the organization’s work to achieve education equity for Black students, “It's
all about the negative, the negative, the negative...there is not the willingness to promote or to
make people aware of the good stuff that's going on as far as the media is concerned, whether it
be the newspaper or the television.”
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As it relates specifically to the impact of bias on Black student’s experiences in school,
again there was agreement among the group that the impact was largely negative, with academic
and socio-emotional implications. For example, Participant 1 said, “It places Black children in a
very perilous situation” related to academic achievement as teachers and administrators have
“low expectations” of Black students that causes them to not provide academic rigor, suggesting
that Black students are often automatically “not provided rigorous classes” and instruction.
Participant 5 vividly described what he believed to be the impact of negative stereotypes and bias
on Black students, comparing it to a “mountain” that Black students “must climb,” that students
of other races do not, and that having to do so “is a discouragement” to Black students.
Participant 7 concurred, and said that Black students as a result “feel like no matter what they do,
they'll be perceived in a negative light” and as a result “feel like they have to perform ten times
better than everybody else in order to be considered good, just good.”
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this study.
Document analysis. Topics of equity, implicit bias, and negative impacts on Black
people were consistently present in session topics for its annual convening, promotional
materials, as well as retweeted posts about educational equity.
Summary. The assumed influence that the president and board of ACBS need knowledge
of the relationship between priming, stereotypes and decisions that negatively impact Black
people was determined to not be a need by both the interviews and document analysis. 100% of
the ACBS Board of Governors provided evidence and examples of a clear understanding of this
connection. The presence of this knowledge influence was confirmed by the document analysis
which suggested conceptual knowledge was present. Thus, conceptual knowledge was
determined to be an asset.

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Procedural Knowledge
Influence 1. The president and board of ACBS need to know how to create an
effective advocacy campaign.
Survey results. No Survey was conducted for this influence.
Interview findings. Though it was clear that participants had knowledge of some of the
elements of an effective advocacy campaign in that 100% of the participants who responded to
the question were able to articulate that the organization uses communications tools, their
responses were limited to the context of the organization’s annual conference, suggesting that
ongoing, meaningful communication with stakeholders takes place only related to the event. For
example, Participant 5 acknowledged that he “was a participant in the development of a
marketing communications piece” for the organization’s annual conference. Participant 4 also
indicated that members of the organization’s volunteer staff “are actually in the process of doing
one [a communications campaign] now for the upcoming conference.” The remaining seven
participants shared that they either did not participate nor were aware of how the organization
communicates externally other than to promote the convening, as Participant 2 shared, “I'm not
aware of how we participate [in communications] because I generally just have one on one
conversations with [the president] or in the group.”
Observation. Observations were not conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. Analysis of ACBS’ communications artifacts-- social media posts,
email blasts, website information and promotional materials created and distributed from January
2018 through October 2018--suggest that the organization understands the elements of an
advocacy campaign. However, the relatively infrequent cadence of social media posts and the
narrow focus of such communications on the topic of its annual convening alone, confirmed
procedural knowledge as a need.
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Summary. The assumed influence that president and board of ACBS need to know how
to create an effective advocacy campaign was confirmed as a need. Seven out of the eight
interview respondents indicated that they had not participated in communications activities for
the organization and 100% of the respondents limited references to organizational
communications to the annual conference, indicating that the organization does not engage in
ongoing, robust communications activities. Such findings were corroborated by the document
analysis, which demonstrated that the organization used communications tools but did not
employ them consistently and toward the end of advocacy. As such, it has been determined that
this procedural knowledge influence is a need.
Metacognitive Knowledge
Influence 1. The ACBS president and board need to reflect on and monitor progress
of outcomes for Black students.
Survey results. No Survey was conducted for this influence.
Interview findings. Although two out of the eight board members interviewed indicated
some reflection on the progress of the organization, 100% of the participants indicated that this
was an area of need for the organization and that the only measurement of success generally held
was tied to attendance at the annual conference. When asked whether the board spent time
reflecting on the organization’s progress, Participant 1indicated that “I think a lot of times they
gauge it by how many people attend the conference. And you know, like I say, it doesn't
[measure success].” Participant 3 also shared that one way the organization measures success is
“the number of attendees at our conferences.” Specifically related to time spent together as a
Board reflecting on the organization’s progress, Participant 2 shared “That's an area that we
really have to focus on.” Participant 8 also indicated that reflection is an area of growth for the
organization. The Board member shared that “I think that's a better area of, I think, formalizing
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the advisory or governance piece as another area of growth because that hasn't necessarily been
done.”
Two Board members called out the contrary, and said that the organization does engage
in self-reflection as it relates to goal achievement. Participant 4 said “we talk routinely about
how to improve .” Participant 6 also shared a specific instance where reflection on the
organization’s progress in which the organization “had a retreat” where those present “discussed
our progress and where we wanted to go and created a strategic plan.” Despite varying input as
to self-reflection taking place, 100% of the participants made clear that a barrier to engaging in
reflection on the organization’s effectiveness and that of the efforts of each Board member is a
lack of confidence in data currently used to track progress state-wide (referred to as “The
Dashboard”). As Participant 5 noted:
The dashboard is giving us an overview based upon an attire school's measurement, but it's
not talking about the other mitigating factors that tie into how are students impacted? Do
they have access to a computer? Are they one to one? There are other pieces that are
handled by district, but that are not governed by the Dashboard.
Observation. There were no observations conducted for this influence.
Document analysis. There was no document analysis conducted for this influence.
Summary. The assumed influence that president and board of ACBS need to reflect on
and monitor progress of outcomes for Black students was confirmed as a need. Seven out of the
eight interview respondents indicated that they either did not know whether or that they had not
participated in self-reflection and monitoring of the organization’s progress in achieving
outcomes for Black students. Further, 100% of the participants indicated that the primary source
of outcome monitoring--the California Dashboard--needs to incorporate data and measures that
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are more meaningful in the context of advancing equity for Black students. As such, it has been
determined that this metacognitive knowledge influence is a need.
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
The following are results and findings of this study presented by the motivational
categories identified as important influences for achieving the organizational goal of creating and
implementing an advocacy program to counter negative stereotypes about Black students. These
specific influences are utility value and collective self-efficacy.
Finding 1: The Creation of an Advocacy Program is Seen as Valuable, but Poses Practical
Challenges
All eight ACBS Board members interviewed shared that the creation of an advocacy campaign to
counter negative views about Black students would be valuable for the organization to engage in,
but expressed concerns as to whether they could make that happen effectively in light of
resources, demonstrating the presence of strong utility value but not strong collective self-
efficacy. Research calls out the importance of advocacy organizations valuing engaging its
broader constituency in activities for social good as well as possessing a collective self-belief
that they can actually accomplish the work of doing good (Horvath, 2008). The desire to engage
in the development of an advocacy campaign came through clearly with each participant
responding positively to the question of whether they would find such an activity valuable, yet
each participant expressed concerns, primarily in the area of resources. In fact, some participants
were emphatic about the importance of doing such, as Participant 7 shared, “I'm thinking it's
definitely worth the time and resources because if we don't do it, nobody else is. If we don't
project positive energy and positive means to provide equity, well we won't demand equity. If we
don't do it, nobody else will.” Participant 6 echoed Participant 7’s empassioned sentiment in
relation to the value of engaging in an advocacy campaign, and posited that the “benefits were
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obvious,” and that the future wellbeing of students are at stake, for “They don't feel empowered
now. They don't need another meeting for us to have another meeting. They need us to act.” The
document analysis revealed hints of the organization valuing advocating on behalf of Black
students. For example, the ACBS’ 2018 conference program, in which the President, in a letter to
participants featured in the program, submitted a rallying call to action for all readers to draw
from the conference workshops for “advancing your work as leaders and advocates in education”
and to “look at persistent challenges in a new light” in order to “lead change.” However, on the
platform ACBS used most consistently throughout the year--Twitter--such advocacy messages
were present, but were more subtle, mentioning advancing equity to “all students” versus
specifically for Black students and as a counter to negative views about them. This suggests a
gap may exist in how the organization invests in ongoing advocacy efforts beyond its annual
convening.
Despite participants valuing the idea of engaging in an advocacy campaign, barriers exist
related to cost value that in turn may be impacting collective self-efficacy. Rueda (p. 43, 2011)
posited that motivational problems can interact, such as when one motivational factor, like the
financial resources, time, and effort required to engage in an endeavor (cost value) “overshadow”
another, such as the utility of engaging in an advocacy campaign or the belief that a group can
effectuate it (collective self-efficacy). Participant 1, in fact, specifically stated “I think it's an
issue of resources,” when reflecting on the ability to engage in such programming. Participant 3
indicated that the leaders and stakeholders in the organization would first have to come together
and “be on the same page” before moving forward with such an endeavor, meaning the board of
Governors would need to agree to move beyond the annual conference as a platform for
advocacy to it being integrated into its ongoing efforts. Participant 2 (pseudonym) shared
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concerns about the organization’s ability to effectively implement an advocacy program to
counter negative views of Black students:
I'm fairly confident. I think there's the willpower, there's the attitude and the kind of
reality that we understand that things have to be done. I definitely think, going back to
what I've said a few times now, it comes down to do I think that the organization can do
it right now on its current staff and on a volunteer basis? I think that would be more
challenging. I think that with professional help, not even like a consultant or anything like
that, but someone whose job is at least 20 hours a week working at ACBS and only
ACBS. I think that would be a good first step to making sure that there's that higher level
of quality and professionalism that could produce something like that.
In fact, though participants clearly and confidently indicated the steps they would take as
individuals to create an advocacy program, this confidence did not emerge related to questions
around group capability. For example, Participant 2 stated that a first step to taking such a
program would be “identifying key leaders and stakeholders to really invite them to the table to
begin the discussion on how we can change this, the perceptions.” However, the same participant
answered “That's an area of growth…” when asked about the group’s collective ability to
implement an advocacy endeavor. Participant 3 concurred stating that “I definitely think, going
back to what I've said a few times now, it comes down to, do I think that the organization can do
it right now on its current staff and on a volunteer basis? I think that would be more
challenging.” Here the participant is calling out organizational concerns impacting collective
self-efficacy. Participant 8, also said that “this [ACBS] is volunteer...and driven by folks who
have a full time gig.” Participant 1 referenced organizational concerns as well, stating “I think it
is an issue of resources.” Even participant 4, who expressed a belief that the organization can
obtain such a goal collectively, referenced the organization in the third person, suggesting that
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the individual did not see his/her self as a part of the collective group to take on the task, saying
“I'm confident they could definitely pull it off. I think they'd have to have a strategy, put
together an advisory group to do so.”
As the statement suggests, resource constraints lay at the heart of any barriers the
organization possesses in moving forward with an advocacy program. Participant 3 alluded to the
fact that ACBS is a primarily volunteer-run organization, even at its most senior levels. “I
definitely think, going back to what I've said a few times now, it comes down to do I think that
the organization can do it right now on its current staff and on a volunteer basis? I think that
would be more challenging.” The participant intimates, with this statement, that ACBS would
need to invest in a staff resource to implement it in such a way that it actually has an impact, yet
there are questions as to the feasibility of doing so. Participant 1 also recommended that the
organization engage a dedicated staff person to manage such an effort. This was a repeated
theme raised by the participant throughout the course of the interview and definitely came
through here. The analysis of ACBS’ documents also revealed an investment in advocacy
campaign tools that was narrow in scope and almost exclusively focused on its annual
conference. Other than social media posts, the organization’s web posts, email list
communications, and brochures were solely regarding its annual conference. Of the social media
posts, 61.11% of them were regarding the conference. Finally, a review of its annual budget
revealed that 100% of expenses for 2018 were conference related and any communications
activities outside of the conference are purely volunteer managed. Together, interview data and
document analysis suggest that, insofar as motivational influences impacting the organization’s
ability to implement an advocacy program, conflicting motivational influences at play: strong
utility value but a possible challenge with the organization’s belief that it can actually pull the
program off effectively (collective self-efficacy) due to resource constraints (high cost value).
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Table 8 summarizes the motivational influence findings insofar as determination of asset versus
need.

Results and Findings for Motivation Causes by Influence
Value
Influence 1. The President and Board of ACBS need to see the value in investing
time and resources in an advocacy program.
Survey results. There was no survey data collected for this influence.
Interview findings. All eight study participants indicated that the organization values
investing time and resources in an advocacy program that promotes a positive view of and
counters negative narratives about Black people, but only four indicate the organization actually
can do so Though this represents half of the group, it was clear that this is a motivational gap, as
Participant 1 shared, regarding barriers preventing the organization from engaging in ongoing
communications efforts in which the organization finds itself in the position of asking “Which
fire gets the water, which squeaky wheel gets the oil, so who is deciding on what issue to attack
first, while balancing the need to raise funds, to gain access to resources and grow at the same
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time.” Participant 3 concurred, stating that “Something like that's going to get easier once you
have the resources to do so.” Again, the participant pointed to barriers that prevent the
organization from spending time and resources on advocacy messages. This is despite the fact
that across the board, each participant expressed that they valued such activities. For example,
Participant 6 said “the benefit is kind of obvious, at least to me, that not only would we increase
our presence, our national presence, and our local presence.” This tension between seeing
engaging in advocacy communications as valuable and actually investing resources was a
prevalent theme.
Observation. No observation data was collected for this influence.
Document analysis. An analysis of ACBS’ communications artifacts-- social media
posts, email blasts, website information and promotional materials created and distributed from
March 2018 through October 2018 confirmed the need to foster the Board valuing investment of
resources in advocacy efforts. Specifically, 100% of all email blasts and collateral materials
created were related to the annual ACBS conference. Further, of the 202 tweets that were posted
during this time frame, text analysis revealed that the word “conference” or “conf” (and
abbreviation for “conference”) appeared 57 times in posts where there was text, and the word
“equity” appeared only 15 times outsided the context of a post about the Conference theme,
which was ‘Achieving Education Equity.’
Summary. The assumed influence that the president and board of ACBS need to see the
value in investing time and resources in an advocacy program was confirmed as a need. Though
all eight of the ACBS Board expressed viewpoints that suggested the has high utility value
related to values investing in advocacy efforts in relation to its other endeavors, it faces cost
value constraints. Further, document analysis of promotional email blasts, collateral materials,
and social media posts show that ACBS’ endeavors were focused primarily on the conference
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versus ongoing, broad-based advocacy in support of its mission. It has therefore been determined
that this motivational influence is a need.
Collective Self-Efficacy
Influence 1. The President and Board of ACBS need to believe that they can
collectively create and successfully implement an effective advocacy program.
Survey results. Survey data was not collected for this influence.
Interview findings. Although 100% of the ACBS board members possess high individual
self efficacy related to the personal belief that the individual participant can create and
implement an effective advocacy program, as a group, only three out of the eight participants
indicated confidence in the group’s collective ability to do as such. In fact, though participants
clearly and confidently indicated the steps they would take as individuals to create an advocacy
program, this confidence did not emerge related to questions around group capability. For
example, Participant 2 stated that a first step to taking such a program would be “identifying key
leaders and stakeholders to really invite them to the table to begin the discussion on how we can
change this, the perceptions.” However, the same participant answered “That's an area of
growth…” when asked about the organization’s ability to implement an advocacy endeavor
collectively. Participant 3 concurred stating that “I definitely think, going back to what I've said a
few times now, it comes down to do I think that the organization can do it right now on its
current staff and on a volunteer basis? I think that would be more challenging.” Here the
participant is calling out organizational concerns impacting collective self-efficacy. Participant 1
referenced organizational concerns as well, stating “I think it is an issue of resources.” Even
participant 4, who expressed a belief that the organization can obtain such a goal collectively,
referenced the organization in the third person, suggesting that the individual did not see his/her
self as a part of the collective group to take on the task, saying “I'm confident they could
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definitely pull it off. I think they'd have to have a strategy, put together an advisory group to do
it.”
Observation. Observation data was not collected for this study.
Document analysis. An analysis of ACBS’ communications artifacts-- social media
posts, email blasts, website information and promotional materials created and distributed from
March 2018 through October 2018 confirmed that the Board needs to build collective self
efficacy around developing an advocacy campaign. In particular, social media posts and
interactions with those posts primarily originated from one Board member, suggesting that
external messaging around the organization’s mission takes place on the individual level and not
as a collective.
Summary. The assumed influence that the President and Board of ACBS need to believe
that they can collectively create and successfully implement an effective advocacy program was
confirmed as a need. Analysis of interview data revealed that the majority of ACBS Board
members do not have confidence in their collective ability to create and advocacy program
collectively, even though all of the respondents individually demonstrated high individual self
efficacy. This suggests that supporting Board members in developing a strong belief that they
can reach the organizational goal together and that each person can effectively contribute to goal
achievement will close this motivational gap.
Results and Findings for Organization Causes
The following are results and findings of this study presented by the organizational
culture models and organizational culture settings identified as important influences for
achieving the stakeholder goal. Two cultural models and two cultural setting influences are
addressed in this study.
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Finding 1. ACBS Board shares a belief that it must take a stand against negative
perceptions of Black and engage its broader membership in advancing educational equity
on behalf of Black students. When it comes to possessing a cultural model that embraces a
shared belief in advocating on behalf of Black students through a campaign and through broad
stakeholder engagement, the ACBS president and board are all in. In fact, all eight of the ACBS
Board members interviewed expressed that they believe it to be of utmost importance for the
organization to promote positive views (and counter negative ones) about Black students as a
part of its mission. Both Jaskyte and Renz (2012) and LeRoux (2017) contend that to be
effective, boards of advocacy organizations need to adopt a cultural model that embraces igniting
change. Both this study’s interview findings and document analysis revealed that igniting change
was at the very core of what the organization existed accomplish. When asked to state in his own
words the mission of the organization, Participant 1 expressed this desire as endeavoring “to tell
the stories of our black students in schools,” laying out tenor of those stories as those of Black
student triumphs and trials,” in the hope of “bringing to light” issues that directly impact their
achievement. 100% of participants expressed concerns about how Black students are perceived
in the context of wanting to change that perception, demonstrating a belief that doing so is an
organizational commitment and the very thing that brought them to the table. Participant 3
emphasized the importance of promoting positive views of Black students by “finding a
methodology to “push back” against such perceptions. Participant 7 offered a solution how the
organization can do this by focusing on promoting positive views, stating that “the way to stop
those perceptions is to celebrate all of the great things, all of the accomplishments, that the
achievement of our students, well, yeah, every aspect of what they do, the art, the academia...”
An analysis of ACBS’ communications artifacts--social media posts, email blasts,
website information and promotional materials created and distributed from January 2018
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through October 2018--confirmed signs of a belief system among the ACBS board that valued
promoting a positive view of and countering negative stereotypes about Black students. Rueda
(2011) points out that often evidence of cultural models held by organizations can be found in
the artifacts of an organization, such as in its documentation. In the ACBS documents analyzed
in this study, the organization made clear that advancing equity for Black students is something
places a priority on and values as a part of its mission. For example, the attendee solicitation
letters, sponsor solicitation letter, and the program book for its 2018 convening, all contained
phrases that describe ACBS as “leading change” in “educational outcomes” for Black students
and “creating pathways” for “vulnerable students.” In addition, the visuals utilized in ACBS’
social media posts, flyer and program booklet showed Black students in a positive light: smiling,
in classroom settings, exploring technology, raising their hands in class, speaking to a cultural
model that holds as values presenting Black students in a positive light. Such shared sentiments
among the Board and the very materials disseminated by the organization revealed a value
system and shared mental model that: negative perceptions about Black students exist in society,
ACBS exists to counter those perceptions, and doing so requires presenting a counter to societal
stereotypes and narratives that are negative in nature. Additionally, interview findings and
document analysis showed a belief system that also places a value on engaging the broader
membership in advocacy actions as fundamental in the organization being able to achieve the
very change it wishes to see on behalf of Black students.
Each interview participant made it clear that they strongly believed that the
organization’s broader membership and stakeholders all have an important role in its work to
achieve educational equity for Black students. Participant 4 called out that specific value in the
context of members being a source of information on what works and what does not, stating that
ACBS’ core strategy is to convene “practitioners, policy makers, and leaders,” in a forum that
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enables the organization to “engage them so that they can be able to provide whatever they're
doing by way of best practices and solutions.” Again calling out the annual conference that
ACBS hosts as a mechanism for member involvement, Participant 7 noted that “coming together
has been a great opportunity for all of the members to learn from each other and their
experiences,” for the purpose of improving educational outcomes for Black students. This
acknowledgement also came with a caution that the organization needs to branch out further and
reach a broader group of stakeholders than those who are among its membership, and noted that
the organization should endeavor to reach out to “not just target African American school board
members” in order to be more “global” in its reach and not in essence be in the position of
“preaching to the choir.” Preaching to the choir was meant here to reflect advocacy efforts
directed toward those who are already supportive of ACBS’ mission. Participants also expressed
a sentiment that members too believed they had a part to play in the overall mission, Participant
8 referred to them as “ allies and stewards” who leverage the annual convening as a “primary
vehicle” that brought to the forefront “the issue of Black equity as the prism by which they do
their work, and equity overall.”
An analysis of ACBS’ communications artifacts--social media posts, email blasts,
website information and promotional materials created and distributed from January 2018
through October 2018--also revealed that the core ritual for the organization and the impetus for
its formation (its annual convening) is framed around the belief that it takes the contributions of
the broader membership to advance ACBS’ mission. In particular, the organization’s call for
presentations was an artifact of this very belief, inviting stakeholders to present on topics of
equity and educational advancement. Further, the annual convening materials demonstrated
multiple venues for members to come together and celebrate by way of receptions at breakfast,
lunch, and dinner, as well as ample opportunities to network. Finally, the workshop presenters
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spanned fifteen public school districts, three offices of education, 20 businesses, and twenty
community colleges and universities, evidence of a commitment to engaging the broader ACBS
membership by way of sharing the deius, so to speak, at the organization’s flagship event. Such
artifacts confirm what came through in interviews with the president and board: the organization
possesses the belief that its work of addressing Black student equity requires engagement of its
supports in affecting change.
Finding 2. Despite possessing a cultural model that upholds the values of advocacy
and member engagement, ACBS needs to take steps to advocate and engage year round.
All eight interview participants from a cultural setting perspective, noted that ACBS’ primary
vehicle for communicating and engaging with stakeholders is its annual convening, despite
believing that both ongoing communications and broader membership engagement are important
to achieving its mission. This suggested a need to build upon its current marketing tools to
broaden and deepen communications in order to advance the organization’s mission.
Child and Grønbjerg (2007) as well as McConnell (2004) assert the importance of professional
advocacy organizations committing resources to advocacy messages, tools, and channels. ACBS
employs tools, messages and channels to support its primary advocacy platform—the annual
convening—but ongoing, specific advocacy communications are an area where growth is
needed. Participant 3 alluded to this, stating that the organization engages in robust marketing of
its conference but “could do a better job of making that [marketing in general] a more consistent
pace.” ACBS currently disseminates communications in the few months prior to its annual
conference. Outside of that, communications to its larger membership and external stakeholders
is sporadic and not occurring at regular intervals. The document analysis conducted in this study
confirmed this assertion, with most of all external communications outside of social media posts
being disseminated in the months leading up to the annual convening (October 2018). A review
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of frequency of social media posts revealed similar, as Table 9 shows that the number of monthly
posts are markedly higher (five times on average) in August, September, and October of 2018
than in January through July of the same year.

Participant 2 referenced marketing activities as something the organization “has yet to
fully engage in,” and is the reason why stakeholders outside of its community of members are
not aware of the organization’s mission. By “fully” Participant 2 meant the frequency and variety
of communications and promotions from and about the organization, and was using the terms
communications and marketing interchangeably. She commented that therefore “People are not
really informed as it relates to this new organization and what our mission and goals are.
Marketing our organization is really going to be a key piece of moving forward, I think.” This
suggests that Participant 2 felt that lack of marketing was hampering awareness about the
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organization. The participant’s statements seem to support those of the other two board
members. He called out a need to communicate more frequently:
I definitely think it could be better. Frequency is important to ensure relevance. So if
you're not as actively engaged in the conversation, if you're not speaking out as much as
you should, then your voice isn't one that's sought after. And I think that's where we have
to improve, just making sure that we are the sought-after voice in the field on this issue.
And how little we communicate can be a challenge, understanding that folks have a lot on
their plate and that it could reach the frequency and engagement, but in this area we can
definitely increase and get better one.
As a Board member, this participant was concerned with advancing the overall presence
and reputation of the organization as reflected in the statement “Frequency is important to ensure
relevance.” The theme of relevance as a way of having an impact in the work of advancing
educational equity came out repeatedly in the participant’s comments, as with the statement “if
you’re not speaking out as much as you should, then your voice isn’t one that’s sought after.”
Being a sought-after voice is key, according to the participant, to the organization’s efforts, and
in order to be sought-after, the organization needs to engage frequently. The participant
contended that ACBS needs to figure out how to accomplish and benefit from communications
in light of its current resource constraints, because “how little we communicate can be a
challenge.” Active engagement, through communications, was also referenced as important by
Participant 2, but not yet a part of the organization’s cultural setting.
As with the issue of collective self-efficacy, participant interviews revealed that a lack of
dedicated staffing was a contributing factor in creating a gap in policies, practices, and resources
that enable effective, on-going advocacy and engagement of the broader membership. Participant
3 stated that lack of consistent staffing “impact the overall consistency of the quality of the
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output that ACBS is producing,” which he credited as being the “biggest obstacle” impacting
achieving its mission, which for him should include “leveraging prior successes” experienced by
ACBS in order to “make it a year-round organization.” Participant 8 also noted a challenge
before ACBS is moving to operating beyond the annual conference, sharing that “there's still
work to be done” in terms of moving to a year-round basis. She emphasized that “figuring out
how they program throughout the year is going to be key, [including] how they use their social
media and voice in a particular way.” Again, participants called out resource allocation as a root
cause of what may have prevented the organization from communicating with stakeholders and
engaging membership year-round. Participant 1 called it “an issue of resources.”
Regarding providing ACBS members with ongoing opportunities to develop and
implement activities to advance the organization’s mission, though each interview participant
noted that the organization does engage its broader membership and leadership, it was clear from
their responses that there still was a need to do so in a more active and consistent manner.
Specifically, all eight ACBS board members interviewed noted that membership and other
stakeholder engagement activities were primarily limited to the organization’s annual convening,
and more could be done to engage them year-round. Ongoing communication, information
sharing, and involvement of constituents are valuable ways professional organizations can create
cultural settings that promote forward momentum in support of their mission (Clark & Estes,
2003; Gruen, Summers, & Acito, 2000; Saxton & Guo, 2011; Waters, Marzano & McNulty,
2003). As described by Participant 4 here: “The organization convenes once a year, thought
leaders, policy makers, as well as practitioners for a two and a half to three day conference via
submitted proposals.” It was apparent that the Participants greatly value this coming together, in
that it “brings like minded people together, that their goal is to advance education and
opportunity for African American students,” according to Participant 7.
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Seven out of eight interview participants actually called out that what was missing and
what was desired is to engage stakeholders year round and had specific ideas as how. In self-
reflection, Participant 3 noted that important questions for the organization are “How do you
really leverage the prior successes and make it more of a year-round thing, a year-round
organization? How do you make sure you're putting pressure across the state on the state,
regional, and local levels as opposed to just the state level? Participant 8, commenting that
“there's still work to be done on a year-round basis,” starting with “figuring out how they
program throughout the year,” also asked a self-reflective question: “we can bring them together,
but can they get them to act?” The participant then went on to provide ongoing social media
posts as an example of one tactic. Participant 4 also offered specific, desired actions, stating “I'd
love to see ACBS employ professional experts to go out and assist school districts who are
having challenges throughout the states.” This suggested that though there was a belief (as noted
in the cultural model discussion) that ACBS needed to engage members to do more than just
participate. They needed to engage members to act.
An analysis of ACBS’ communications artifacts--social media posts, email blasts,
website information and promotional materials created and distributed from January 2018
through October 2018--confirmed that the organization did not have mechanisms in place to
engage membership beyond the annual conference in developing and implementing activities on
behalf of the organization outside of its annual conference, as these communications were almost
solely focused on soliciting conference presentations and promoting conference attendance.
Indeed, the board members noted it in their interview responses and the documents corroborated:
through the organization embraces advocacy and membership engagement as a value, it needs to
operationalize these values into a cultural setting that transforms the organization from being one
who convenes once a year around issues of advocacy, equity, and educational transformation to
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one that engages in advocacy, advances equity, and is transforming outcomes for Black students
year-round. Table 10 summarizes the organizational influence findings insofar as determination
of asset versus need.

Results and Findings for Organizational Causes by Influence
Cultural Models
Influence 1. The organization needs to possess a belief system within ACBS that
values promoting positive views and countering negative stereotypes about Black people.
Survey results. There was no survey data collected for this influence
Interview findings. 100% of the ACBS Board expressed that they believe it to be of
utmost importance for the organization to promote positive views (and counter negative ones)
about Black students as a part of its mission. In fact, many directly linked such a desire to the
very core of what the organization exists to accomplish. Participant 1 expressed this desire as
endeavoring “to tell the stories of our black students in schools,” laying out the tenor of those
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stories as those of Black student triumphs and trials,” in the hope of “bringing to light” issues
that directly impact their achievement. 100% of participants expressed concerns about how
Black students are perceived in the context of wanting to change that perception. Participant 3
emphasizes the importance of promoting positive views of Black students by “finding a
methodology to “push back” against such perceptions. Participant 7 offered a solution how the
organization can do this by focusing on promoting positive views, stating that “the way to stop
those perceptions is to celebrate all of the great things, all of the accomplishments, that the
achievement of our students, well, yeah, every aspect of what they do, the art, the academia,”
Observation. There was no observation data collected for this influence.
Document analysis. An analysis of ACBS’ communications artifacts--social media posts,
email blasts, website information and promotional materials created and distributed from January
2018 through October 2018--confirmed that there is a belief system among the ACBS Board that
values promoting a positive view of and countering negative stereotypes about Black students.
Specifically, in these documents, it was clear that advancing equity for Black students is
something the organization places a priority on and values as a part of its mission. Further, the
visuals utilized in posts show Black students in a positive light: smiling, in classroom settings,
exploring technology, raising their hands in class.
Summary. The assumed influence that the organization needs to possess a belief system
that values promoting positive views and countering negative stereotypes about Black people
was determined to not be a need. Analysis of interview data revealed that the board reflects this
belief system in comments about the organization’s mission and what personally brought them to
the work of advancing equity for Black students. Further an analysis of documents revealed
language around issues of equity and the importance of addressing negative views of Black
students.
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Influence 2. The organization needs to possess a belief system that it takes the active
and ongoing contribution of everyone in the organization to advance the mission of ACBS.
Survey results. No survey data was collected for this study.
Interview findings. Each interview participants made it clear that they strongly believed
that the organization’s broader membership and stakeholders all have an important role in its
work to achieve educational equity for Black students. Participant 4 called out that specific value
in the context of members being a source of information on what works and what does not,
stating that ACBS’ core strategy is to convene “practitioners, policy makers, and leaders,” in a
forum that enables the organization to “engage them so that they can be able to provide whatever
they're doing by way of best practices and solutions.” Again referencing the annual convening
that ACBS hosts and the value of best practice sharing it affords, Participant 7 noted that
“coming together has been a great opportunity for all of the members to learn from each other
and their experiences.” This acknowledgement also came with a caution that the organization
needs to branch out further and reach a broader group of stakeholders, and noted that the
organization should endeavor to reach out to “not just target African American school board
members” in order to be more “global” in its reach and not in essence be in the position of
“preaching to the choir.” In addition to the feelings of the board, participants also expressed a
sense that members also believed they had a part to play in the overall mission, Participant 8
referred to them as “ allies and stewards” who leverage the annual convening as a “primary
vehicle” that brought to the forefront “the issue of Black equity as the prism by which they do
their work, and equity overall.”
Observation. No observational data was collected for this study
Document analysis. An analysis of ACBS’ communications artifacts--social media posts,
email blasts, website information and promotional materials created and distributed from January
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2018 through October 2018--revealed that the core ritual for the organization and the impetus for
its formation--its annual convening--was framed around the belief that it takes the contributions
of the broader membership to advance ACBS’ mission. In particular, the organization’s call for
presentations was an artifact of this very belief, inviting stakeholders to present on topics of
equity and educational advancement. Further, the annual convening materials demonstrated
multiple venues for members to come together and celebrate by way of receptions at breakfast,
lunch, and dinner, as well as ample opportunities to network. Finally, the workshops all
highlighted interaction and engagement and engage in interactive conversation
Summary. The assumed influence that the organization needs to possess a belief system
that it takes the active and ongoing contribution of everyone in the organization to advance the
mission of ACBS was determined to not be a need. An analysis of interview data showed that
each ACBS board member made clear that the organization is built around engaging its
membership in best practice sharing and that belief is what has been at the core of its primary
engagement tool: the annual conference. Further, document analysis confirmed this belief
system, presenting artifacts in the form of conference presentation abstracts and calls for
presentations that make clear that participation was being sought from members. This
organizational influence was therefore determined to be an asset.
Cultural Settings
Influence 1. The organization needs to commit resources to developing advocacy
messages, tools, and channels.
Survey results. No survey data was collected for this influence.
Interview findings. 100% of ACBS Board members interviewed indicated that the
organization has a need of committing resources to developing advocacy messages, tools, and
channels. Specifically, the interview participants shared a desire to engage in such activities with
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greater frequency and consistency, as Participant 1 expressed the opinion that “how little
[ACBS] communicate[s] can be a challenge” noting that “if you're not as actively engaged in the
conversation, if you're not speaking out as much as you should, then your voice isn't one that's
sought after.” It should be noted that each interview participant agreed that the organization does
engage in communication, but as Participant 2 noted, there has not been “consistent
communication other than as we approach the conference.” The participant added that if ACBS
“could communicate on a consistent basis with our participants, that would grow this
organization in a phenomenal manner!” The desire to establish such consistency and belief in its
value was echoed across the board by participants. Participant 3 offered an example of wanting
to see the organization “provide ongoing staff training and informational webinars throughout
the year.”
Participants also noted that hampering consistent communication by the organization was
limited resources being able to be applied to it. For example, Participant 3 said that “the
organization's hampered by not having a full-time staffer,” which prevents the organization from
“having a consistent posting” of communications and “quality content.” Additionally, five out of
the eight participants admitted that on an individual level they needed to participate more in the
organization’s external communications efforts, in particular around social media. Participant 3
noted that though he knows that “we have social media accounts,. I don't participate too much
with them, but I also don't really participate too much on social media in general.” Participant 6
indicated that “I'm not aware of how we participate because I generally just have one on one
conversations with [president] or in the group.”
Observation. No observational data was collected for this influence.
Document analysis. An analysis of ACBS’ communications artifacts--social media posts,
email blasts, website information and promotional materials created and distributed from January
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2018 through October 2018--confirmed that the organization needs to invest in increasing the
consistency of communications efforts, in particular those that fall outside of the context of
promoting its annual convening. Specifically, there were social media messages posted on
average a total of seven times per month during the months that fall outside of the two months
prior to the conference. Additionally, there were no communications developed or delivered
through methods other than social media that were focused on topics other than the conference
itself. Finally, only two out of the eight board members participated in sharing, posting about, or
commenting on ACBS’ work, suggesting that a gap exists in the investment of Board members’
time in engaging in advocacy communications on behalf of the organization.
Summary. The assumed influence that the organization needs to commit resources to
developing advocacy messages, tools, and channels was confirmed as a need. An analysis of
interview data revealed that the majority of communications efforts were focused on the annual
convening and were distributed with relative infrequency. Interview data also revealed a need for
the Board to invest more of their own time to engaging in promoting the organization and its
mission. Further, document analysis confirmed this gap in cultural setting system, also revealing
a need for more time, staff, and financial resources to ensure greater consistency, depth, and
participation from the Board. It is therefore determined that a gap exists in this organizational
cultural setting influence.
Influence 2. The organization needs to provide consistent and ongoing opportunities
for ACBS membership and leadership to engage around the development and
implementation of actions that further the organization’s mission.
Survey results. No survey data was collected for this influence.
Interview findings. Though each interview participant noted that the organization does
engage its broader membership and leadership, it was clear from their responses that there still is
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a need to do so in a more active and consistent manner. Specifically, 100% of the ACBS board
noted that membership and other stakeholder engagement activities are primarily centered on the
organization’s annual convening, described by Participant 4 here: “The organization convenes
once a year, thought leaders, policy makers, as well as practitioners for a two and a half to three
day conference via submitted proposals.” It was apparent that the Participants greatly value this
coming together, in that it “brings like minded people together, that their goal is to advance
education and opportunity for African American students,” according to Participant 7.
Seven out of eight interview participants actually called out that what is missing and what
is desired is to engage stakeholders year round and had specific ideas as how. In self-reflection,
Participant 3 noted that important questions for the organization are “How do you really leverage
the prior successes and make it more of a year-round thing, a year-round organization? How do
you make sure you're putting pressure across the state on the state, regional, and local levels as
opposed to just the state level?” Participant 8, commenting that “there's still work to be done on a
year-round basis,” starting with “figuring out how they program throughout the year,” also asked
a self-reflective question: “we can bring them together, but can they get them to act?” The
participant then went on to provide ongoing social media posts as an example of one tactic.
Participant 4 also offered specific, desired actions, stating “I'd love to see ACBS employ
professional experts to go out and assist school districts who are having challenges throughout
the states.” This suggested that there is a belief (as noted in the cultural model discussion) that
ACBS needs to engage members to do more than just participate. They need to engage members
to act.
Observation. No observational data was collected for this influence.
Document analysis. An analysis of ACBS’ communications artifacts--social media posts,
email blasts, website information and promotional materials created and distributed from January
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2018 through October 2018--confirmed that the organization did not engage membership beyond
the annual conference, as these communications were almost solely focused on soliciting
conference presentations and promoting conference attendance.
Summary. The assumed influence that the organization needs to provide consistent and
ongoing opportunities for ACBS membership and leadership to engage around the development
and implementation of actions that further the organization’s missions was confirmed as a need.
Interview data showed that the only opportunity ACBS stakeholders at large were engaged to
participate in was the annual conference, though there was a desire to move beyond that.
Document analysis confirmed this gap in cultural setting, showing that the majority of the
organization’s efforts and invitations to participate in advancing its mission was in the context of
attending its annual conference or presenting in it. This organizational influence is therefore a
need.
Summary of Influence Findings
Table 11, 12, and 13 show the knowledge, motivation and organization influences for this
study and their determination as an asset or a need.
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Chapter 5 will present recommended solutions to address the gaps in knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences identified here. These recommendations are rooted in
empirical evidence and theoretical research.
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CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS
This innovation study analyzed the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
impacting the ability of the president and board of ACBS to achieve its stakeholder goal of
implementing an advocacy campaign that counters the impact of negative stereotypes on Black
students. Chapters One, Two, and Three presented the problem of negative stereotypes about
Black individuals promulgated in mainstream news media, as well as literature of studies
shedding light on the problem of negative stereotypes, how they are triggered, how they impact
Black students, and how they can be addressed; and finally, the methodology of qualitative study
itself was presented.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a needs’ analysis in the areas of knowledge
and skills, motivation, and organizational resources necessary for ACBS’ President and Board to
create an advocacy campaign by January of 2020, to promote a positive view of and to counter
negative narratives about Black people.
As such, the questions that guide this study are the following:
1. What is ACBS president and board knowledge and motivation related to creating a
program by January of 2020, to promote a positive view of counter negative
narratives about Black people?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and stakeholder
knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions?
“Breakthrough in Educational Equity” Campaign
ACBS recommendations for closing the gaps in knowledge, motivation, and
organizational recommendations are presented here in the context of supporting the organization
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in developing the very advocacy program that is its stakeholder goal. This “Breakthrough in
Educational Equity” advocacy campaign would consist of 1) passing a resolution (that would be
promoted to ACBS membership districts for adoption) expressing support of educational best
practices that have been shown to promote improved educational equity for all students, 2) co-
authoring a bill requiring school districts to conduct anti-implicit bias training at least annually
and to incorporate questions of acceptance and fair treatment into their school climate surveys
that are reported to the state of California; and 3) launch year-round communications efforts that
would promote positive views of Black students, engage its broader membership, and foster
advocacy around the importance of the organization’s collective work in advancing equity on
behalf of Black students.
The goal of the campaign, grounded in research around advocacy and counteracting
negative stereotypes and the impact of implicit bias, would be to engage the ACBS membership
in taking tangible actions within their districts that are designed to support them in advancing the
organization’s mission. Gruen, et al (2000) referenced such activity as co-production, indicating
that it is an activity that professional organizations can engage in that effectively fosters
membership commitment toward achieving the organization’s vision. In this case, ACBS would
be providing its membership with tools to foster positive school climate—resolutions of
commitments to support equity and accountability tools to assess and measure supportive
climates--which have been shown to have an impact on equitable academic outcomes in schools,
including those schools that have traditionally been plagued by low achievement scores (Voight,
Austin, & Hanson, 2012). The provision of such tools to membership as implements of advocacy
are a valuable way of equipping individuals with tactics to enact on behalf of a movement or
initiative (LeFebvre & Armstrong, 2018). As it relates to addressing negative stereotypes that are
promulgated in the media and ultimately make their way into the classroom, Gibelman and Kraft
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(1996), suggest that advocacy organizations take control of their own narratives by promoting
them. McConnell (2004) and Gruen, Summers, & Acito (2000) concur, calling out the potency of
individuals advocating on behalf of an organization . Finally, anti-bias trainings, exposing
individuals to counter-stereotyped, positive messages about Black individuals, and fostering
habits of self-reflection among staff are all strategies shown to be promising in reducing biased
decision-making based on triggered stereotypes (Blair & Banaji, 1996; Devine, 1989; Ford,
2014; Holt, 2013; Ramasubramanian, 2007; van Ryn et al., 2011). As bold an endeavor such a
campaign is intended to be, it would be to no avail unless the ACBS president and board possess
the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences necessary to bridge its current state as
an organization that convenes a highly successful equity conference once a year, to becoming an
organization that engages its entire membership year round to collectively transform educational
opportunities for Black students.
Summary of Findings from Chapter Four
Chapter Four presented the resultant data of the qualitative study: interviews of eight of
the nine members of the ACBS Board of Governors, triangulated by document analysis of ten
months of social media posts, email blasts, digital and printed promotional materials, and web
blog posts. Of the nine KMO influences identified through the literature review as impacting
ACBS’s ability to implement an advocacy campaign, six of them were determined to be a need
and three determined to be in fact assets possessed by the organization. This data analysis served
as the catalyst for recommendations presented here in Chapter Five. Utilizing the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) as a frame, this chapter outlines
recommendations addressing knowledge gaps related to ACBS Board members’ ability to
implement an advocacy campaign as well as engage in metacognitive practices;
recommendations addressing motivational gaps focus on collective self-efficacy and valuing
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investing in advocacy efforts; and recommendations addressing organizational gaps focused on
the actual time and resources spent on engaging the broader membership as well as
communicating with stakeholders on an ongoing basis. The solutions presented here, in most
instances, are transferable to professional organizations with a focus on issues of social justice
who seek to engage in advocacy through communications and who seek to achieve
transformative work through their boards.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
The recommended program is presented and organized by the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational gaps identified through analysis of qualitative data. The tables in each section
serve as an organizer and summarizer of the specific influence, principles from the literature
supporting the proposed solution, and a description of the recommended action. For each
recommendation, expected results (indicators and outcomes), behaviors, learning, and reactions
are described.
Collectively, the recommendations comprise: the establishment of regular meetings of the
ACBS President and Board, the extension of the organization’s communications activities from
once a year to year-round, and a series of informal trainings embedded in ACBS Board meetings
and socialized through one-on-one conversations and emails. The recommendation is that these
activities are integrated with the organization’s efforts to create an advocacy campaign, which
will serve as the context for the Board meetings and ground the organization’s work beyond the
annual conference. Following an overview of recommendations will be a discussion of an
implementation and evaluation plan, informed by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) New
World Evaluation Model, beginning with program outcomes (Level 4), demonstration of
adoption of critical behaviors (Level 3), skill (Level 2) and engagement (Level 1). Specifically,
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the program evaluation plan will utilize a Blended Evaluation approach to capture all Four
evaluation levels with a single instrument.
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. The knowledge influences in Table 14 represent the complete list of assumed
knowledge influences and whether they were determined to be an asset or a need; whether the
influence is a priority to address in order to achieve the stakeholders’ goal. Table 14 also shows
the recommendations for those validated influences based on theoretical principles. Knowledge
types are indicated by the following abbreviations: (D)eclarative; (P)rocedural; (M)etacognitive.
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The president and board of ACBS need to know how to create an effective advocacy
campaign. This study’s findings indicated that the president and board of ACBS, though they
understand elements of an effective advocacy campaign, needed to gain procedural knowledge
on how to bring these elements together to create one. Specifically, the analysis showed that
100% of the Board needed to have this procedural knowledge. A recommendation was selected
to address this procedural knowledge gap that was informed by information processing and
sociocultural theory. Specifically, Scott and Palincsar (2006) recommend social interaction in
cooperative contexts and training that moves from high to low assistance in a process called
scaffolding. Such an approach can facilitate knowledge transfer by meeting the learner where
the learner is, all while still challenging the individual (Rueda, 2011; Scott & Palinscar, 2006).
Further, employing the use of a trusted peer as a model can enhance learning (Denler, Wolters, &
Benzon, 2009), as it can assist learners in understanding how and when to use new information
and reinforcing that knowledge with opportunities to practice and apply that it (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006). The recommendation then is to provide the ACBS president and board with
a training that incorporates a peer model who guides participants through the development and
implementation of an advocacy campaign using communications tools, allowing for practice and
feedback and supported by a job aid of key steps in the process.
In their seminal work, Gibelman and Kraft (1996) posited that advocacy organizations
need to master traditional communications tools in a social justice context in order to implement
effective advocacy efforts. In fact, it has been found that countering stereotypes with positive
messages about an outgroup fosters a change in perception, and therefore advocacy
organizations, in order to advance their mission and address the harmful impact of negative
stereotypes on mission achievement, need to master the process of using effective tools to
counter them (Blair & Banaji,1995; Holt, 2013; Oliver, Kim, Hoewe, Chung, Ash, Woolley, &
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Shade, 2015). Further, this “how to” knowledge is important in ensuring the ACBS board knows
both what to do, how to do it, and when as it relates to achieving its goal (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Ryan, Carragee and Meinhofer (2001) concur, addressing this concept in an advocacy context.
The researchers found, in an analysis of case studies of over 200 social movement organizations
that advancing social justice can build their ability to counteract media messaging by
understanding how to use communications tools. Donaldson (2007) found in a mixed methods
study of nonprofits that organizations who commit resources (including training) to advocacy
efforts can result in the organization being more effective at advocacy efforts. This confirms that
providing a training that walks the board through the creation of an advocacy campaign,
inclusive of effective message development and communications tool deployment, would help
close the current procedural knowledge gap.
The ACBS president and board need to reflect on and monitor progress of outcomes
for Black students. The study’s findings demonstrated that 100% ACBS president and Board of
Governors need to engage in self-reflection and progress monitoring related to the organization’s
achievement of outcomes for Black students, as well as their own contribution to those
outcomes. A recommendation grounded in information processing systems theory and social
cognitive theory has been selected to address this gap. Baker (2006) found that employing
metacognitive strategies, such as self-reflection and self-assessment, fosters learning. Sawyer
(2012) suggests that individuals can learn to become creative problem solvers by being taught to
think creatively and practice thinking about solving problems. Sawyer draws attention to a 1996
Sternberg and Williams study in which 96 students were taught to practice thinking insightfully
and increased their creative thinking skills as a result.
In a discussion of strategies that promote adopting behaviors. Denler, et al. (2009) draws
attention to modeling as beneficial, as long as the learner finds the model credible, similar, and
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engaging in behavior that has value. Therefore, it is reasonable to ascertain that engaging in
metacognition while being exposed to credible models also engaging in metacognition, begets
metacognition by learners (Baker, 2006; Rueda, 2011; Denler et al., 2009). The recommendation
therefore is to provide training in which a peer model (ACBS’ president) helps fellow Board
members learn new behaviors related to reflecting on their progress and their own contribution to
progress, engage in practice related to self-reflection, and receive the support of a job aid with
self-monitoring questions and tips the Board can use to self-reflect and assess progress toward
achieving ACBS’ mission.
Park, Daly, and Guerra (2013), in an exploratory case study that looked at how school
leaders foster sensemaking as it relates to data, found that organizations advocating on behalf of
more equitable educational outcomes benefit from engaging in self-reflection before jumping
into implementation processes. The study further found that leaders influence how sensemaking
processes around data take place and are embraced. Finally, the researchers arrived at the
assertion that shared ownership of data and outcomes along with reflection on one’s contribution
to those outcomes fostered data-based decision-making as a norm. Edmonson and Moingeon
(1998) concur, contending that self-reflection is an important part of problem-solving and
solution development. This confirms that establishing a venue for reflection (regular meetings)
utilizing a peer model to assist the board in learning how to self- reflect and self assess, engaging
them in practicing self-reflection, and supporting them with a tool that reminds and guides them
on how to self-reflect, will assist them in building metacognitive skills.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. The motivation influences in Table 15 represent the complete list of
assumed motivation influences and whether they were validated as a gap (Y) or not (N), and
whether the influence is a priority to address in order to achieve the stakeholders’ goal. Table
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15 also shows the recommendations for those validated influences based on theoretical
principles. Motivation types are also noted.

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The president and board of ACBS need to see the value of investing time and
resources into an advocacy program. Approximately 50% of the ABCS board indicated that
they need to see the value of investing time and resources in an advocacy program that counters
negative stereotypes about Black students. A recommendation informed by utility value theory is
being proposed to close this motivation gap. Eccles (2006) posits that individuals can develop
positive values regarding a particular activity if presented with rationales that speak to their
importance and usefulness. Pintrich (2003) concurs, and further contends that providing
individuals with opportunities to exercise choice and control can increase motivation by
activating their personal interests. The recommendation therefore is for the organization to utilize
literature to communicate with the Board the value to be realized (achieving organizational
goals) by their engagement in advocacy program development activities. This recommendation
also includes supporting such discussions with opportunities for them to engage in building upon
their personal experiences and passion to design an advocacy program. Such a combination of
presentation of research about the value of engaging in advocacy program development and
actual participation in activities strengthens utility value.
Horvath (1999), in a comprehensive review of social, organizational psychological
behavior, contended that to persist in social movements, individuals engaged in them must
perceive that the activities contained therein are useful in advancing the cause at hand. This
perception of usefulness in achieving an outcome is prevalent in literature on motivational theory
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Horvath, 1999; Pintrich, 2003; Rueda, 2014; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000).
Hernandez (2008) concurs with this contention in his discussion of motivational aspects of
leaders as stewards. He further asserts that leaders are most effective at influencing followers to
action if they are motivated by the belief that doing so is a valuable activity in which to engage.
This suggests that organizations can be motivated to invest time and resources in advocacy
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activities by being convinced that it is useful and feasible, and when to do so are provided the
opportunity to determine or design how such activities come to life.
Increase the board’s collective belief that they can effectively create and successfully
implement an advocacy program. Approximately 80% of the board believe they are not yet
able to effectively create and implement an advocacy campaign that would counter negative
narratives about Black students. A recommendation that draws upon self-efficacy and collective
self-efficacy theory has been selected to close this motivation gap. Pajares (2006) found that an
individuals’ belief that they can accomplish a goal can have a positive impact on their motivation
and that such a motivation gap can therefore be addressed by making it clear to individuals they
are capable of learning or accomplishing the task in question. Bandura (1998, 2000) concurs and
suggest that such an impact can be translated to a group’s collective beliefs, with the added
dimension being the group’s belief in accomplishing a task together as a team . The
recommendation then is to provide Board members the opportunity to participate together in
advocacy program development tasks that are broken down into small, short-term tasks,
communicate to them that they each have demonstrated the ability to complete such tasks in
other settings, and allow them the opportunity to experience accomplishing those tasks together.
Such a combination of practice, encouragement and opportunities to enjoy success improves
self-efficacy and close this motivation gap.
It is critical for individuals and groups leading social change to possess a belief in their
own ability to successfully advance that change (Bandura, 2000; Hernandez, 2008; Horvath,
1999; LeFebvre & Armstrong, 2018). In an analysis of over 6 million tweets with the #ferguson
hashtag in the aftermath of a police killing of an unarmed Black teenager, LeFebvre and
Armstrong (2018) found that a key motivator in the online protest was self-efficacy. Specifically,
the authors found that messages that foster self-efficacy were key in influencing advocacy
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participation and collective belief that change is indeed possible as a movement. This suggests
that individuals and groups can be motivated to participate in social movements through
messages that build their belief in their own ability as well as the ability of the group to enact
change, while providing them the opportunity to engage in fostering that change as well.
Organization Recommendations
Introduction. The organizational influences in Table 16 represent the complete list of
assumed organizational influences and whether they were validated as a gap (Y) or not (N), and
whether the influence is a priority to address in order to achieve the stakeholders’ goal. Table 16
also shows the recommendations for those validated influences based on theoretical principles.
Organizational influence types are also noted.
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Commit resources to developing advocacy messages, tools, and channels. The study
revealed that 100% of the ACBS board found a need for investment of resources in advocacy
messages, tools and channels and that current investments are limited. As a result, though there
was a desire to engage more regularly in communicating with stakeholders and move to being a
year-round organization, such activity was not taking place. Recommendations grounded in
organizational leadership and organizational change theory has been selected to close this gap.
Knowles (1980), in a seminal work on leadership, posited that leaders can advance an
organization’s effectiveness by making clear the connection between the call to action the staff
are to adopt and the organization’s vision. Clark and Estes (2009) contend that organizational
policies and practices must align with its goals. This suggests that the board not only needs to see
clearly how engaging in consistent communication around advocacy would directly impact the
organization’s efforts to advance educational equity, but also put in place practices that will
support it communicating and engaging year-round related to its advocacy efforts.. The
recommendation, therefore, is to conduct regular meetings with the board to review Black
student outcome disparity data in the context of the organization’s vision, in order to demonstrate
the importance of an advocacy campaign, prioritize it, and foster the investment of resources,
such as time, budget, and staff.
Research has shown that engaging leaders and followers in ongoing communications is
important in launching and maintaining organizational initiatives (Clark & Estes, 2003; Gruen,
Summers, & Acito, 2000; Waters, Marzano & McNulty, 2003). Specifically, Gruen, Summers,
and Acito (2000) found, in a mixed methods involving 900 organizations belonging to a
professional organization, that investment of time, effort, and resources in communications
activities that are designed to engage the membership of professional organizations is vital in
activating such stakeholders in support of the organization’s mission. McConnell (2004) and
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Child and Grønbjerg (2007) concur, asserting that ongoing communication galvanizes followers
and encourages them to take collective action, and henceforth organizations should invest
resources in such efforts.
The organization needs to provide consistent and ongoing opportunities to engage
ACBS membership in advancing the organization’s mission. Each member of the ACBS
Board indicated that the organization does not currently actively engage the broader membership
in actions that assist the organization in accomplishing its goals. A recommendation that draws
upon change theory has been selected to close this organizational gap. According to Clark and
Estes (2008), change efforts are more likely to be successful when they are designed and
informed by the perspectives of stakeholders, suggesting that involving the Board in providing
feedback as well as soliciting feedback will foster greater support and momentum for change.
The recommendation is therefore to engage the Board of Governors in reaching out to the
broader membership through formal channels, such as questionnaires and workshops, and
informal channels, such as one-off conversations, for input into the design and implementation of
an advocacy program.
In an analysis of qualitative data from interviews and focus groups conducted with 32
nonprofit membership associations, Knoke (1981) found that providing members opportunities
to participate in furthering the organization’s mission begets commitment and membership
support. Additionally, in an analysis of commitment behaviors within professional membership
organizations, Gruen, Summers, and Acito (2000) also found that engaging broader
organizational membership in the creation and implementation of key actions fosters deepened
commitment toward achieving goals and objectives. Therefore, based on the research, there is
reason to conclude that supporting the Board in engaging the broader membership will foster
greater support and movement toward achieving the organization’s stakeholder goal.
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Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016), which was built
on the original Kirkpatrick Four Level Model of Evaluation of training programs (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2006), informed this implementation plan. This model recommends beginning with
the end in mind--Level 4 results--and then moves through the original model’s remaining three
levels in reverse: critical behaviors (Level 3), learning (Level 2) and reaction (Level 1). Using
Level 4 “leading indicators” as a guidepost of movement in the direction of goal attainment, the
new model calls for a sequencing that answers the questions: are participants adopting critical
behaviors demonstrating that foster the targeted outcomes measured by leading indicators; did
training participants acquire the knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence and commitment as a
result of the training; and did participants find the training a positive and meaningful experience
in the context of their day to day work. The implementation and evaluation plan has been
created that is grounded in a direct relationship with the organizational goal in order to foster a
sense of value and buy-in among training participants (Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
ACBS brings together educational leaders from across California to advance positive
educational outcomes for Black students and other students of color. The problem of practice
being addressed in this study is countering the impact of negative stereotypes about Black
individuals (as perpetuated by mainstream media) on educational outcomes for Black students.
To address this problem, the organization has adopted a goal of developing and implementing an
advocacy campaign designed to counter the harmful impact of negative stereotypes of Black
students. This study examined the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs among the
ACBS board required to effectively meet the organization’s goal. The recommendations put
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forth in the project consist of a comprehensive training program and associated supports
designed to close any gaps and enable ACBS to activate its leadership and membership in
support of its mission.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 17 shows the external and internal outcomes, metrics and methods for the proposed
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators for ACBS. If the training and organizational supports
result in the expected internal outcomes, then the expected external outcomes should also result.
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Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are the members of the ACBS board. The
first critical behavior is that board members will provide input on the organization’s advocacy
framework. The second critical behavior is that they must visibly endorse advocacy efforts. The
third critical behavior is that they must meet regularly to reflect on their progress. The fourth
critical behavior is that they promote the organization’s efforts. The fifth critical behavior is that
they jointly develop and submit proposals to fund communications activities. Finally, the sixth
critical behavior is that they invite membership to participate in advocacy activities.
The specific metrics, methods, and timing for each of these outcome behaviors appears in
Table 18.
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Required drivers. The board requires the support of the communications consultant and
the board president to reinforce and apply what they learn in the training in order to effectively
create and implement an advocacy campaign. Rewards should be established and focused on
approval and relationship building, since the board members are not (nor can they be ) paid
employees of the organization. Table 19 shows the recommended drivers to support critical
behaviors of new reviewers.
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Organizational support. As noted above in Table 18The organization will support the
Board’s critical behaviors by hosting bi-monthly touch-base meetings to discuss progress and
engaging its communications consultant to monitor the frequency and content of
communications and advocacy activities. Board members will also be supported with job aids,
feedback, and coaching. Both Clark and Estes (2009) and Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016)
emphasize the importance of various methods of reporting progress and demonstrating program
value as a method of both accountability and support for training participants. Various activities
designed to accomplish this are also noted in the table, including sharing of progress publicly
through various internal and external-facing communications.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following completion of the recommended solutions, stakeholders will be
able to:
1. Explain the key components of the advocacy communications plan and areas of expected
contributions to the organization’s mission (Conceptual Knowledge)
2. Design an advocacy plan of action that engages the broader membership and other
stakeholders (Procedural Knowledge))
3. Integrate advocacy actions on behalf of the organization into their ongoing routines and
that of the organization (Procedural Knowledge)
4. Plan and monitor how they implement their plan of action (Metacognitive Knowledge)
5. Reflect on the organization's progress and their contributions toward it (Metacognitive
Knowledge)
6. Develop a personal improvement plan of action (Metacognitive Knowledge)
7. Value investing resources into advocacy efforts (Value)
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8. Be confident that they can collectively implement an advocacy program well (Collective
Self Efficacy)
9. Value the planning and monitoring of their work. (Value)
The Program. Based on interviews with the president of ACBS’ board and other
members of the board, it was determined that the best approach to closing the knowledge,
motivational, and organizational gaps identified should consist of 1) introducing regularly
scheduled meetings of the board as well as regularly occurring stakeholder communications to
move the organization from once-a year activities to year-round advocacy, starting with the
development and launch of an advocacy campaign; and 2) embedding training into meetings of
the president and board (and other staff support) as they create, implement, and monitor progress
of the advocacy program. Therefore, the embedded training component of the program will be
delivered via three mechanisms: an email briefing from the board president; two meetings with
the Board; and one-on-one informal discussions and follow up email briefings with board
members. The president will serve as a respected and trusted peer model to deliver the majority
of Board communications, supported by the training consultant.
The email briefing from the board president will take place one month out from the first
meeting where training will be embedded and will serve to introduce the creation of the
advocacy program and set the expectation for more discussions and actions from the board.
Appendix D contains a sample email from the ACBS resident to the board. One month later, a
one hour teleconference meeting will be conducted by the President who will guide participants
through the development and implementation of an advocacy campaign framework using
communications tools. Participants will be supported with a job aid consisting of an advocacy
framework/checklist outlining key steps in the plan development process and suggested timeline,
tools, objectives, and tasks. Another job aid will be provided that assists participants in reflecting
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upon and monitoring progress. The value and importance of the organization investing time and
resources into ongoing communications and advocacy activities will also be discussed and the
efforts of peer organizations highlighted as examples.
The second one-hour meeting will build upon the first. The President will lead the Board
members through the reflection on progress to date, sharing out of successes and impact of
efforts so far, and engage the group in a feedback session. Additionally, Black student outcome
disparity data in the context of the organization’s vision, in order to demonstrate the importance
of an advocacy campaign, prioritize it, and foster the continued investment of resources. The
president o will also engage the board in reaching out to the broader membership through formal
channels such as questionnaires and workshops, and informal channels, such as one-off
conversations, for input into the design and implementation of an advocacy program. The final
training component will be embedded in email and one-on-one conversations with Board
members and the President and consultant staff to provide feedback, coaching, and reminders of
key activities called out in the job aids. A round of email and one-on-one interview briefings will
take place between the two meetings.
Evaluation of the components of learning. Not only is it important to evaluate whether
participants are able to apply the skills they are being taught, it is also important to evaluate
whether they have grown in both the confidence in doing so (in this case collectively), as well as
their value of it as being important as it relates to their role in the organization. As such, Table 20
lists the evaluation methods and timing for these components of learning.
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Level 1: Reaction
Table 21 lists the methods that will be used to determine how the participants react to the
learning events, as well as the timing of when those methods would be delivered.

Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. A formal evaluation of Level 2
Learning will be conducted during the meetings portion of the training program. A consultant
team member will be observing participant reactions and taking notes during discussions about
what steps they plan to take and the value and rational of investing time and resources in
advocacy activities, and as they reflect and verbalize their individual action plans. For Level 1,
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during the meeting, the president will do brief pulse-checks by asking the participants about the
relevance of the content to their work and the organization, delivery, and learning environment.
Immediately following each meeting, questions will be asked of the group for both Level
1 Learning (to assess engagement) and Level 2 Learning (to assess skill). Questions will be
delivered in an open forum and comments noted through a consensus conversation. A summary
of the blended observation and interview question tool is included in Appendix E. Appendix F
Appendix G contains the actual immediate blended evaluation instruments.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Approximately six weeks
after the implementation of the training, and then again at 15 weeks, the organization’s
consulting team will conduct a brief pulse check of learning by way of interview questions
delivered through email, phone and text conversations as well as observations of participant
actions in alignment with critical behaviors (signed resolution, social media posts, and media
coverage). This Blended Evaluation approach will measure participant’s satisfaction and
perception of relevance of the training (Level 1), confidence, and value of applying their training
(Level 2), application of the training to the organization’s goal of implementing an advocacy
program (Level 3), and achievement of desired outcomes (Level 4). Appendix H contains a
summary of the delayed evaluation tools and Appendix I contains the actual delayed blended
evaluation instrument.
Data Analysis and Reporting
The Level 4 goal of the ACBS Board of Governors is measured by the implementation of
an advocacy program. Each month guidance will be provided on external communications, the
implementation of which will be tracked and monitored insofar as frequency, reach, content and
engagement of the broader membership of ACBS. Findings will be delivered by way of monthly
impact reports, which will serve as an accountability tool. Appendix H contains a recommended
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tool to provide guidance to the board on advocacy activities that they can adopt and leverage.
The results of tracking activities will be reflected in an organizational advocacy communications
dashboard, a sample of which is shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2. Sample Advocacy Dashboard
Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model was used to design this implementation and
evaluation plan, which begins with the end in mind–organizational goals—and then works its
way through the critical behaviors and drivers that lead to those end goals. This approach seeks
to foster a breakthrough in creating a board dynamic that can effectively advocate against
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persistent inequity. The recommendations therefore are designed to make clear to stakeholders
the impact of a transformed way of approaching an old problem. The co-creation of
implementation and evaluation ensures that the solution not only fits the problem, but also builds
engagement and support while building a readiness to lead change (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2019).
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
The methodological approach for this study brought with it certain strengths and
weaknesses. The Clark and Estes (2008) KMO framework and the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
New World Kirkpatrick (2016) model as tools for approaching the identification of gaps,
recommendations, and evaluative measures were a strength. The two frames work seamlessly
together, as evidenced by Clark and Estes (2008) calling out the original Four Levels Model
articulated by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006) as a tool for evaluating gap-reducing
strategies. Specifically, the organization of the New World Model and its levels does not conflict
with the knowledge, motivational, and organizational influence of the Clark and Estes
framework. Further, the Clark and Estes KMO framework presents a strong benefit of providing
a frame (a place to start) when looking at an organization and how best to support its work in
achieving its ultimate organizational goal--both in terms of identifying a stakeholder and the
various influences that are either assets or needs among that stakeholder group.
A weakness in the study is the focus on a single stakeholder group. The focus on one
stakeholder group at a time means that a truly comprehensive, all-stakeholders study would
require time and resources that exceed the scope of the feasible time frame of this particular
study. As such, this paper does not include findings among stakeholder groups that could
influence in goal achievement.

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Limitations and Delimitations
A study’s conceptual framework, the research questions, a researcher’s world view and
the selection of methodology impose both limitations and delimitations (Cresswell & Cresswell,
2016; Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Simon, 2011). Limitations of the study include
inability to control the accuracy of statements from interview participants, the number of
participants interviewed, and time. These are also connected to the delimitations of the study
insofar as the researcher’s choice of stakeholder group and study questions as a foundation of
opportunities for future research.
The focus on the Board of Governors for ACBS brings with it a limitation of garnering
data on the perspectives of only one stakeholder group responsible for achieving the
organization’s mission, leaving out the broader membership as an important stakeholder to
address. Schein (2017) too calls out that though the “founders” of an organization are absolutely
vital in its growth and evolution, understanding the perceptions of employees (in this case
members) can be an important ingredient in successful organizational change.
In addition to stakeholder of focus, the conceptual frame of knowledge, motivational,
organizational influences, along with the researcher’s transformational world view and use of
critical race and media frames (called out in the discussion of limitations of the study in Chapter
Three), delimit this study. Such delimiters, though they do not negate the value of the insight
and recommendations of this study, were considered by the researcher when making decisions
that framed the boundaries of this study.
Delimitations of note for this study also include the decision to focus on the board, to
utilize interviews as the primary study method, and to ask specific questions in a semi-structured
format. The decision to focus on the board was determined because they comprise the
stakeholder group most influential in advancing the organization’s mission and are the group
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most consistently acting on behalf of this primarily volunteer and membership driven
organization. Focusing on such a stakeholder helps ensure the implementation of strategies and
accountability for them, because they are ultimately in charge of them as leaders in the
organization (Clark & Estes, 2014; Schein, 2017). It was determined that understanding the
experiences and perspectives of ACBS board was important in getting to the heart of the KMO
influence gaps in the organization. Such an inductive approach plus the relatively small size of
the participant population is best supported by qualitative research, such as interviews (Maxwell,
2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
As a case study, the focus was on one organization: ACBS. This may call into question
the generalizability of the findings to other organizations and domains. However, generalizability
may extend to other organizations similar to ACBS in their pursuit of equity. Merriam (2009)
suggests that generalizability of case studies lies in other readers perceptions of similarity to their
own organization. The specific questions asked were those designed to get to the heart of the
KMO influences identified in literature as having an impact on any organization’s ability to
effectively implement advocacy efforts. Again, the limitations and delimitations of the study are
fertile ground for areas of potential future research.
Future Research
Two areas of future research are (a) studying the KMO influences vital in the
membership of the organization to move the needle on the organization wide goal and 2(b)
examining what strategies should comprise an advocacy program that counters negative views
about Black students. The broader membership of ACBS, as is the case with most professional
organizations and organizations coming together for social justice, can play a vital role in
moving forward the cause of equity if activated effectively, which can be a challenge (Firestone
& Shipps, 2005; Henschke & Wohlstetter, 2004; Gruen, Summers & Acito, 2000). The literature
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review, interviews, and document analysis conducted highlighted the need for and importance of
engaging ACBS’ broader membership in adopting actions in support of the organization’s
mission. As such, exploration of the knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences
among this stakeholder group by way of survey of the approximately 300-members would assist
in addressing gaps in the context of leveraging membership for effective implementation of an
advocacy program.
An interesting theme emerged in the interview process--that of a personal connection
among those Board members who were Black with the experiences of Black students and of
Black people in general with negative stereotypes about the race. This may warrant further
investigation insofar as to what extent does such an identification with the experiences of Black
students exist among Black administrators and whether that influences their efforts to advance
educational equity within their direct sphere of influence. Finally, the other area of future
research is in uncovering what combination of activities should be adopted by an organization,
once primed for action by addressing KMO gaps, as its advocacy program and how can it be
disseminated and adopted network-wide.
Conclusion
“Sticks and stones may break my bones, but words will never hurt me” (Author
Unknown), is catchy but misleading. This age-old childhood chant encourages the listener to
ignore criticisms and harsh words and suggest that they are but sounds and letters with no
tangible impact. Unfortunately, when it comes to the state of Black people in the United States,
especially in the education sector, negative stereotypes and attitudes promulgated in society by
the words put forth in mainstream news media coverage hurt Black students. These words
influence the perceptions and biases among educators and school systems that disproportionately
harm Black students, creating opportunity gaps that are burdens they must unduly carry. Similar
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challenges can be found in other domains, such as health and access to job advancement
opportunities, when it comes to Black individuals in the country. Despite decades of advocacy
for equity on the part of organizations like ACBS, the problem remains.
The question is, how can organizations become ready, willing, and able to advance
meaningful change and achieve equity at last? Or in this case, how can they become able,
willing, and ready? Utilizing Clark and Estes’ KMO Framework and applying a critical race and
media literacy theory lens, this dissertation examined the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences impacting ACBS’ goal of implementing an advocacy campaign that
will counter the impact of negative stereotypes and promote positive views of Black students.
Breaking down barriers in advocacy know-how, solidarity, and in how the organization
communicates with and engages stakeholders will take a finessed approach of embedding
trainings and supports in the context of Board meetings, emails, and discussions that provide the
opportunity for the group to stretch past its annual convening as its singular advocacy and
communications platform into a more robust and very present thought and action leader in the
educational equity space. These are the very recommendations outlined, along with evaluative
measures, to foster critical behaviors that move forward key drivers to closing identified
performance gaps. The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016) was used to frame these recommendations with the goal of achieving a
breakthrough in the organization’s approach to its work so that it can be positioned to lead
transformative change across the state.
This is no small feat and the stakes are high. A recent report by the California
Department of Education highlighted the grim statistics pointing to outcomes for Black Students
in math, graduation, and English Language Arts achievements (CDE, 2018). The CDE’s
California Dashboard showed that Black students are the ethnic group with the least progress
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versus the prior year. What often feels like a constant pounding of negative news that places
Black individuals at the center as both the victim and the culprit is not the only root cause, but is
definitely a root cause. This very difficult, persistent, and savage predator seems to consume the
hearts and minds of even the most well-meaning of individuals in school systems and society at
large. It is often said that perception is reality--what ACBS is endeavoring to do is in essence
change reality by fighting false perceptions. A daunting task indeed. Hope lies in the possibility
for change, and taking steps to bridge the chasm between able, willing, and ready to change and
the change itself.

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Appendix A
Interview Protocol
Introduction
“Good (morning/afternoon/evening), thank you for taking time to speak with me today.
As I mentioned to you when we first talked, I am a doctoral student at USC and am examining
how organizations that advance equity for Black students use communications as a tool for
positive change. I chose your organization because it is relatively new, I am familiar with the
organization, and it has made great strides in establishing itself among peers. As it relates to
ACBS, the purpose of my study is to understand your organization’s efforts around
communication and advocacy in support of your mission. As I stated when we first connected,
your organization’s name will not be shared. Rather, I will use ‘ACBS’ as a pseudonym. In
addition, the data will be kept confidential and your comments will not be attributed to you. I
will be recording this conversation in order to ensure that I accurately capture your responses.
The interview will be transcribed by a third party service and those transcripts stored in a secure
online account, then deleted once the analysis of all input is completed. With that said, do you
still agree to the session being recorded?”
AWAIT RESPONSE REGARDING PERMISSION TO RECORD
Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. Therefore, you can decide to not
answer whatever question you wish, you can stop participating in the interview at any time, and
you can completely withdraw from the study at any time, in which case your interview responses
provided up until that point will not be included in the analysis. I will begin by asking you
questions about topics related to how your organization achieves its mission, then move on to
questions related to your organization’s activities related to communications, and then finally
end with questions related to equity and stereotypes. Do you have any questions?”
STICKS AND STONES 170

HAND THE PARTICIPANT THE CONSENT FORM
“I have brought two copies of the consent form I sent to you and that you signed when we
first discussed your being interviewed. I would like to take this time to confirm your consent by
reading through the form and asking you to confirm your consent. (READ THROUGH THE
FORM). Thank you for allowing me to do that. Can you confirm your consent by stating your
name and that you consent to participating in the interview and as well as being recorded?”
Interview Questions
“I’d like to begin by asking questions about ACBS and how it achieves its mission.
1. In your opinion, what is the mission and goals of the organization?
a. In your opinion, how has the organization done in achieving its mission
and goals?
2. How does the organization accomplish its mission?
a. Can you provide specific examples?
3. What are those things that get in the way of achieving its mission?
a. Can you provide specific examples?
4. How do you assess your progress toward achievement of your mission?
a. Can you share with me a time when the Board spent time to reflect on its
progress?
5. How does the organization utilize data about Black student educational outcomes,
such as the California Dashboard?
6. What are the benefits and drawbacks of using the California Dashboard as a tool
for assessing your organization’s progress toward achieving its mission?
STICKS AND STONES 171

7. Speaking of accomplishing its mission, what would you say is ACBS’ philosophy
regarding the role of its broader membership in advancing the mission of the
organization?
We are going to zoom in for a minute specifically on communications, or what some may
call marketing.
8. Please walk me through how ACBS uses communications as a tool within your
organization.
9. Tell me about the last time you participated in developing a communications
campaign for the organization.
10. How do you see the role of the news media in helping move forward your mission of
achieving educational equity for black students?
a. How do you see its role in creating challenges for you?
Since we’ve talked about your mission and how you communicate that mission. in light
of the fact that your mission is equity focused and pertains specifically to Black students, I’d like
to focus the topic in another direction and ask a few questions related to the perception of Black
people and students.
8. What are some common perceptions you feel the public have about Black people
in general?
a. Where do you feel these perceptions come from?
9. How do you feel these perceptions impact Black students?
a. What are some examples from your own experiences or stories from the
field?
10. Speaking of negative perceptions, implicit bias has been a topic of great
discussion as of late related to equity. How would you describe implicit bias?
STICKS AND STONES 172

a. What impact do you believe it has on your work?
These last questions connect both the line of questioning about your
organization’s communications practices, and the topic of negative perceptions about
Black students.
11. If today you had to create and implement an advocacy campaign to address negative
perceptions about Black students, what would be the first steps you would take?
12. What is your confidence that the organization is able to accomplish creating and
implementing an organization-wide campaign to address negative perceptions about
Black students?
a. What do you believe it needs to do more of?
b. What do you believe it needs to do better?
13. As it relates to all the other activities and programs of the organization, what would
be the benefits and costs of the organization investing time and resources in an
advocacy program that promotes a positive view of Black students and counters
negative perceptions about them?
CLOSE: Thank you again for your time. As I mentioned, your responses will be kept
confidential and not attributed to you. The session is being recorded and that recording will only
be used to ensure that I do not miss any feedback and that participants’ responses are reflected
accurately. Transcripts will be destroyed after the report is generated. I look forward to sharing
the final findings and recommendations with you!”

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Appendix B
Interview Questions Note Sheet
Interview Questions (additional questions) Observations, new questions, edited questions
“I’d like to begin by asking questions about ACBS and
how it achieves its mission.

1. In your own words, what are the mission and goals of
the organization?

a. In your opinion, how has the organization done in
achieving its mission and goals?

2.How does the organization accomplish its mission
a. Can you provide specific examples?
3. What are those things that get in the way of
achieving its mission? (Barriers)

a. Can you provide specific examples?
4. How do you assess your progress toward
achievement of your mission?

STICKS AND STONES 174

a. Can you share with me a time when the Board spent
time (not geographically) to reflect on its progress?

5. How does the organization utilize data about Black
student educational outcomes, such as the California
Dashboard?

6. What are the benefits and drawbacks of using the
California Dashboard as a tool for assessing your
organization’s progress toward achieving its mission?

7. Speaking of accomplishing its mission, what would
you say is ACBS’ philosophy regarding the role of its
broader membership in advancing the mission of the
organization?

We are going to zoom in for a minute specifically on
communications, or what some may call marketing.

8. Please walk me through how ACBS uses
communications as a tool within your organization.
a. Frequency
b. Content

STICKS AND STONES 175

9. Tell me about the last time you participated in
developing a communications campaign for the
organization.

10. How do you see the role of the news media in
helping move forward your mission of achieving
educational equity for black students?

a. How do you see the media creating challenges for
you?

Since we’ve talked about your mission and how you
communicate that mission. in light of the fact that your
mission is equity focused and pertains specifically to
Black students, I’d like to focus the topic in another
direction and ask a few questions related to the
perception of Black people and students.

11. What are some common perceptions you feel the
public have about Black people in general?

a. Where do you feel these perceptions come from?
STICKS AND STONES 176

12. How do you feel these perceptions impact Black
students?

a. What are some examples from your own experiences
or stories from the field?

13. Speaking of negative perceptions, implicit bias has
been a topic of great discussion as of late related to
equity. How would you describe implicit bias?

a. What impact do you believe it has on your work?
These last questions connect both the line of
questioning about your organization’s communications
practices, and the topic of negative perceptions about
Black students.

11. If today you had to create and implement an
advocacy campaign to address negative perceptions
about Black students, what would be the first steps you
would take?

12. What is your confidence that the organization is
able to accomplish creating and implementing an
organization-wide campaign to address negative
perceptions about Black students?

STICKS AND STONES 177

a. What do you believe it needs to do more of?
b. What do you believe it needs to do better?
13. As it relates to all the other activities and programs
of the organization, what would be the benefits and
costs of the organization investing time and resources in
an advocacy program that promotes a positive view of
Black students and counters negative perceptions about
them?

STICKS AND STONES 178

Appendix C
Document Analysis Influence Assessment Template
Assumed Knowledge Influence Assessments
Knowledge Influence Document Analysis Present
Y/N
Comments
Conceptual - The
president and board of
ACBS need knowledge of
the relationship between
priming, stereotypes and
decisions that negatively
impact black people.
Conceptual
Brochure content
Email/mail
communications
Social media posts
Website posts

Procedural - The president
and board of ACBS need
to know how to create an
effective advocacy
campaign (e.g., message
platform, communication
vehicles—advertisements,
website, social media,
billboards, media
outreach). Procedural
Brochure content
Email/maile
communications
Social media posts
Website posts

Metacognitive - The
president and board of
ACBS need to reflect on
and monitor progress of
outcomes for Black
students.
Conference budget and
plan

Assumed Motivation Influence Assessments
Assumed Motivation
Influences
Document Analysis Present
Y/N
Comments
Utility Value - The
President and Board of
ACBS need to see the
value in investing time
and resources in an
advocacy program that
promotes a positive view
Brochure content
Email/maile
communications
Social media posts
Website posts

STICKS AND STONES 179

of and counters negative
narratives about Black
people.
Self-efficacy (collective) -
The President and Board
of ACBS need to believe
that they can effectively
create and successfully
implement an advocacy
program that promotes a
positive view of and
counters negative
narratives about Black
people.
NA

Assumed Organizational Influence and Motivational Influence Assessments
Assumed
Organizational
Influences
Document Analysis Present
Y/N
Comments
Cultural Models - The
organization needs to
possess a belief system
that it takes the active and
ongoing contribution of
everyone in the
organization (inclusive of
Board, staff and broader
membership) to advance
the mission of ACBS.
Brochure content
Email/mail
communications
Social media posts
Website posts

Cultural Models - The
organization needs to
possess a belief system
within ACBS that it takes
the ongoing contribution
of everyone in the
organization to advance
the mission.
Brochure content
Email/mail
communications
Social media posts
Website posts

Cultural Settings - The
organization needs to
commit resources to
developing advocacy
messages, tools, and
channels.
Brochure content
Email/mail
communications
Social media posts
Website posts

Cultural Settings -The
organization needs to
Brochure content
STICKS AND STONES 180

provide consistent and
ongoing opportunities for
ACBS membership and
leadership to engage
around the development
and implementation of
actions that further the
organization’s mission
Email/mail
communications
Social media posts
Website posts

STICKS AND STONES 181

Appendix D
Draft Letter to Board

STICKS AND STONES 182

Appendix E
Immediate Blended Evaluation Instrument Summary
Evaluation Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
Interview questionnaire delivered
immediately following each meeting
where training is imbedded
✔
Was this
discussion worth
your time?

Did this
discussion make
clear the
information
covered and
expectations
moving forward?

✔
What are some
steps you will
take to support
the framework?

How can the
framework be
improved and
promoted to the
broader
membership?

Observations during each meeting
where training is embedded

✔

Attendance

Active
Participation

Constructive
ideas and
critique provided

✔
Affirmation of
intent to engage
in advocacy
efforts

Articulation of
elements of
advocacy
program

STICKS AND STONES 183

Appendix F
Immediate Blended Evaluation Instrument Summary Sheet

STICKS AND STONES 184

STICKS AND STONES 185

STICKS AND STONES 186

Appendix G
Blended Evaluation Summary - Delayed
Evaluation Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
Interview questionnaire delivered six
and fifteen weeks after training via
one-on-one discussions.
✔
Was this
discussion worth
your time?

Looking back,
was the
discussion
helpful and
relevant?

✔
How have you
used what was
shared in your
work on behalf of
the organization?

✔

Observations and monitoring of
activity six and fifteen weeks after
training

✔
Monitor and
track media posts

Submitted self-
reflection tool on
organizational
progress
✔
Communications
staff
monitors/collects
information on the
number of external
meetings attended
by board members
Communications
staff
monitors/collects
feedback report
Social media
reports tracked by
Communications
staff
monitors/collect

STICKS AND STONES 187

Appendix H
Blended Evaluation Instrument - Delayed

STICKS AND STONES 188

STICKS AND STONES 189

Appendix I
Monthly Advocacy Communications Calendar
Week Advocacy Message Advocacy Tool(s) Board Member Action Required Board
Participation
#
Ex: Wk
1
Black Student
Success Story ABC
School District
Social Media Post
Web Blog
Share via social media channels 6/8
Week 1

Week 2

Week 3

Week 4

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study applies a gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) as well as critical race and media literacy theories to address the problem of the predominantly negative stereotypes about Blacks in the United States news coverage, primarily in mainstream print and television media, and the difficulties it poses to advocacy organizations attempting to disrupt inequities faced by Black people. The study sought to identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources necessary for an advocacy organization to create a campaign that counters negative narratives about Black people. Data from interviews with the organization’s leadership were triangulated with document analysis of social media posts, website posts, promotional emails, promotional materials, and strategic plan documents. The analysis sought to identify the presence or absence of factors shown in the research literature to be critical to implement advocacy efforts to address issues of equity. The study’s findings highlighted areas to address including knowledge of implementing effective advocacy campaigns, practices in self-reflection and planning, influences of value and collective self-efficacy, and organizational culture that fosters advocacy and engagement of the organization’s broader membership. Recommendations were provided including embedded trainings and associated evaluation instruments. This study has important implications for organizations seeking to accomplish breakthroughs in their governing boards and membership that move those groups from simply advising to advocating real and meaningful change for Black people.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Franklin, Melissa Rayna (author)

Core Title Sticks and stones: achieving educational equity for Black students through board advocacy: an innovation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 02/19/2020

Defense Date 12/18/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag advocacy,African American,bias,Black,collective self-efficacy,conceptual knowledge,counter-narrative,critical media literacy,critical race theory,cultural model,cultural setting,Education,embedded training,equity,gap analysis,implicit bias,innovation,Kirkpatrick new world model,KMO,knowledge influence,media,metacognitive knowledge,motivational influence,negative stereotypes,OAI-PMH Harvest,organizational influence,priming,procedural knowledge,professional organizations,Racism,School boards,self efficacy,Social Justice,stereotypes,utility value,Value

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Yates, Kenneth (committee chair), Brawley, Darin (committee member), Foulk, Susanne (committee member), Samkian, Artineh (committee member)

Creator Email mfranklin@growthmindsetcomms.com,mrfrankl@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-274726

Unique identifier UC11673845

Identifier etd-FranklinMe-8195.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-274726 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-FranklinMe-8195.pdf

Dmrecord 274726

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Franklin, Melissa Rayna

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA