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Mentorship challenges for occupational therapy clinicians transitioning into academia: an innovation study

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Mentorship challenges for occupational therapy clinicians transitioning into academia: an innovation study

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MENTORSHIP CHALLENGES FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY CLINICIANS
TRANSITIONING INTO ACADEMIA: AN INNOVATION STUDY

By

Sharon Pavlovich

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2020

Copyright 2020 Sharon Pavlovich

ii
Acknowledgements

To my amazing dissertation committee, Dr. Kenneth Yates, Dr. Darline Robles, and Dr.
Susanne Foulk, for everything that you do, for all that you are, and for all that you help us
become, I am grateful. This could not have been achieved without your support, guidance, and
feedback. I am humbled to have learned from the best and hope to do you proud moving
forward. To USC Rossier School of Education, thank you for taking a chance on me and
believing that I had something of value to contribute to your program.
To my friends, colleagues, and students in the department of occupational therapy, thank
you for your endless support, for covering classes, for your texts, phone calls, check ins, high
fives, you name it, you were my rocks. I feel privileged to work among greatness. Now let’s get
to creating something fabulous. To Whitby University, thank you for investing in me. Your
support has been instrumental in being able to reach goals that were once unattainable.
To mom, dad, because when everyone else said no, faith opened doors. I carry you in my
heart and hope that I have made you proud. Your light shines bright from heaven.
To my beautiful son Justin, because at the end of the day all we have are moments, so we
better live them with all that we have, in hopes of becoming all we could be. I love you to the
moon and back.

iii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ii
List of Tables vi
List of Figures vii
Abstract viii
Chapter One: Introduction 1
Problem of Practice 1
Organizational Context and Mission 2
Organizational Performance Status 5
Related Literature 5
Importance of the Organizational Innovation 9
Organizational Performance Goal 9
Description of Stakeholder Groups 10
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals 11
Stakeholder Group for the Study 11
Purpose of the Project and Questions 12
Methodological Framework 13
Definitions 13
Organization of the Study 13
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 15
Mentorship as a Working Concept 15
Mentoring as a Process in Higher Education and Healthcare 17
Mentorship Relationships in Higher Education 17
Mentorship Models in Higher Education 18
Mentorship in Health Care 20
Mentorship: The Missing Link During Transitions 22
The Clinician Turned Educator 22
Mentorship and Occupational Therapy 24
Practitioners, Clinicians, and Academia 24
The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework 25
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences 26
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders KMO Context 44
Conclusion 47
Chapter Three: Methods 49
Research Questions 49
Participating Stakeholders 49
Interview Criteria and Rationale 50

iv
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 51
Observation Sampling Criteria and Rationale 52
Observation Sampling Strategy and Rationale 53
Documents and Artifacts 54
Data Collection and Instrumentation 55
Interviews 55
Observations 55
Document and Artifact Analysis 56
Alignment of Influences of Data Collection Methods 57
Data Management 63
Data Analysis 64
Credibility and Trustworthiness 65
Validity and Reliability 65
Ethics 66
Relationship to Organization 68
Assumptions/Biases 69
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 70
Participating Stakeholders 70
Determination of Assets and Needs 71
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes 72
Factual Knowledge 72
Conceptual Knowledge 77
Procedural Knowledge 77
Metacognitive Knowledge 79
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes 80
Value 80
Self-Efficacy 82
Attribution 84
Emotion 85
Interest 86
Results and Findings for Organization Causes 88
Cultural Models 88
Cultural Settings 91
Summary of Validated Influences 94
Chapter Five: Recommendations and Evaluation 97
Purpose of the Project and Questions 97
Recommendations to Address KMO Influences 98
Knowledge Recommendations 98

v
Motivation Recommendations 105
Organization Recommendations 112
Summary of KMO Recommendations 120
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 121
Implementation and Evaluation Framework 121
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations 122
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators 123
Level 3: Behaviors 124
Level 2: Learning 127
Level 1: Reaction 129
Evaluation Tools 130
Data Analysis and Reporting 131
Summary of the Implementation and Evaluation 131
Strength and Weaknesses of the Approach 132
Limitations and Delimitations 133
Recommendations for Future Research 134
Conclusion 135

References 138
Appendix A 152
Appendix B 163
Appendix C 165
Appendix D 168

vi
List of Tables
Table 1: Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Groups
Performance Goals 11
Table 2: Knowledge Influences 31
Table 3: Motivation Influences 38
Table 4: Organizational Influences and Assessments 43
Table 5: Data Collection Methods for Assumed KMO Influences 58
Table 6: Knowledge Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 94
Table 7: Motivation Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 95
Table 8: Organization Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data 95
Table 9: Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 99
Table 10: Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 106
Table 11: Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 114
Table 12: Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 124
Table 13: Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 125
Table 14: Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 126
Table 15: Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 129
Table 16: Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 130

vii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Undergraduate Ethnic Diversity Breakdown of Whitby University 4
Figure 2: Faculty Ethnic Diversity of Whitby University 4
Figure 3: Conceptual Framework: KMO Influences Impacting the
Stakeholder Goal for Whitby University 46

viii
ABSTRACT
The analytical framework utilized for this research was Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis.
The purpose of this research was to conduct a needs assessment in the areas of knowledge and
skills, motivation, and organizational (KMO) resources necessary for occupational therapy (OT)
faculty to reach the organization performance goal of creating and implementing a mentorship
program for new clinical faculty through an introductory program aimed at fostering growth and
development in teaching. A qualitative bounded case study approach was used to collect data via
interviews, observations, and document analysis for 11 occupational therapy faculty’s KMO
needs for creating a mentorship program. Data analysis consisted of a priori coding for
interviews, content analysis via an observation and document analysis checklist, and field notes
for observations. Findings for this study revealed considerable gaps in mentorship knowledge
and process, motivational ownership and buy-in, and organizational support and collaboration.
Implications for future use in occupational therapy academic practice include providing: (a) open
forum discussions for mentorship challenges, (b) planning for curriculum development, (c) goals
for teacher support, and (d) aspirations for cultivating organizational performance in alignment
with teacher growth and mentorship. This study begins to highlight the wider problem of
practice of mentorship difficulties for schools in the Allied Health Professions in higher
education.

1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Introduction of the Problem of Practice
This case study addresses the challenges with implementing formal mentorship
opportunities for occupational therapy (OT) clinicians transitioning into academia. Clinicians in
the occupational therapy profession are practicing therapists. It is from this talent pool that
individuals are recruited to teach, many times without any formal mentorship to help in their
transition from clinician to teacher. A study by van der Weijden, Belder, Van Arensbergen, and
Van Den Besselaar (2015) describes mentorship as a process where a person with increased skill
sets and experience helps someone with less experience and skills grow and develop both
personally and/or professionally. Reports of new faculty burnout and low workplace morale have
been shown to occur when mentorship opportunities are limited or not available (van der
Weijden et al., 2015). Moreover, according to Lord et al. (2012), 43% of new faculty leave their
positions citing lack of mentorship as the leading reason. This problem of practice has been
noticed at various call to action forums and most recently at the October 2017 California Board
of Occupational Therapy (CBOT) meeting (California Board of Occupational Therapy, 2017a).
The profession of occupational therapy is expected to grow 21 percent from 2016 to 2026
(Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017). In October of 2017, the Accreditation Council for
Occupational Therapy Education (ACOTE) mandated that the entry-level degree requirement for
occupational therapists’ transition from a master’s degree to a doctoral degree by July 1, 2027
(American Occupational Therapy Association, 2017). Thus, in less than 10 years, all OT faculty
will be required to have a doctoral degree. The enormity of meeting this need has many OT
schools wondering how they will find doctoral faculty and more importantly, how they will
mentor OT clinicians into these faculty roles (California Board Occupational Therapy, 2017b).

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Articulating this problem of practice to stakeholders continues to be an ongoing conversation at
both the national and state level.
As the researcher for the study and as the current Vice President for the California
Board of Occupational Therapy, the researcher has a unique opportunity to identify problems
that affect professional practice. The board is comprised of seven individuals who are charged
with ensuring consumer protection first and foremost, and second, occupational therapy
practitioner best practice. To date, communication between the board and its stakeholders
(consumers, national and state associations, occupational therapy practitioners, and the
accrediting body) have recognized the urgency in meeting the mandate for transitioning to the
terminal degree of a clinical doctorate for the profession. The problem is twofold: there are not
enough doctoral faculty, nor is there a system in place to mentor clinicians into these faculty
roles. This continues to be a focus for discourse, planning, and problem solving in the
occupational therapy profession. Concerns and issues are being addressed at national and state
conferences, continuing education courses, and at ad hoc committee meetings in OT professional
organizations.
Organizational Context and Mission
Whitby University (a pseudonym) is an educational institution that is part of the Seventh-
Day-Adventist higher education system. The following schools comprise this organization:
Medicine, Nursing, Religion, Pharmacy, Public Health, Dentistry, Behavioral Health, and Allied
Health (Whitby University, 2017-2018a, paragraphs 1-2). The university motto is one that
respects the mind, body, and spirit of each individual and is the foundational thread that frames
how students, teachers, staff, and administration work: to serve God and to continue his ministry
through all work and actions (Whitby University, 2017-2018c, para. 1).

3
The following information is paraphrased from the “Whitby University” catalog and is cited
below:
Mission
Whitby University—a Christian health sciences institution—seeks to:
● Educate health professionals and scholars through the sharing of knowledge and
practice of skills.
● Expand knowledge through research
● Provide whole person care through faculty, students, and alumni
In alignment with our values and global mission:
● We honor and encourage growth personally and professionally.
● We practice diversity by promoting an environment of respect.
● We serve a global community by living the word of God to help heal, care and
serve one another (Whitby University, 2017-2018b, paragraphs 1-2).
Whitby Demographics
As shown in Figure 1, the undergraduate ethnic diversity breakdown consists of 34.3%
White; 30.1% Hispanic/Latino; 4.4% Black or African American; 2.2 % Non-Resident Alien;
0.6% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander; 0.1% American Indian or Alaska Native; and 5.4%
Ethnicity unknown (College Factual, 2017).

4
Figure 1
Undergraduate Ethnic Diversity Breakdown of Whitby University

As shown in Figure 2, the Faculty ethnic diversity breakdown consists of 51.9% White,
21.6% Hispanic or Latino 16.9% Asian, 6.2% Black or African American, 1.8% Non-Resident
Alien, 0.4% American Indian or Alaska Native, 0.4% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, and
0.8% Ethnicity unknown (College Factual, 2017, graphic 2).
Figure 2
Faculty Ethnic Diversity of Whitby University

5

Undergraduate student breakdown reveals a campus with 28.8% males and 71.2%
females, whereas among faculty, there are 58.1% females and 41.9 males (College Factual, 2017,
graphic 3-4). There are no numbers to correspond to geographic diversity at Whitby University
and it ranks 2,318 out of 3,012 for student age diversity.
Organizational Performance Status
In hopes of aligning the strategic initiative with its mission to educate healthcare
professionals and scholars through the sharing of knowledge and practicing of skill sets, Whitby
University must foster the growth and development of new teachers by offering avenues for
formal mentorship. Failure to provide these opportunities may result in faculty being unprepared
for the rigors of teaching in higher education. This may exacerbate feelings of inadequacy,
stress, and burnout among clinicians transitioning into academia and exponentially create
problems with teacher retention. To date, no such program exists at Whitby University.
Related Literature
A search of the literature reveals scant information regarding mentorship for the
clinician-educator in occupational therapy. There are however, closely associated health
programs that have documented how mentorship has affected their practice. The following
related literature will highlight information gathered on mentorship in health care and
occupational therapy, as well as cover the concept of mentorship and the clinician-educator.
Clinicians in the health professions enter the teaching profession facing many barriers.
Clinicians transitioning into teaching are called clinician-educators. A clinician-educator is a
person that is both a clinician and a teacher, one who works with patients and then teaches what
they do to students (Heflin, Pinheiro, Kaminetzky, & Mcneill, 2009). According to Farrell,
Digioia, Broderick, and Coates (2004), clinician-educators are at a distinct disadvantage for

6
mentorship opportunities because there are no formal criteria to assess what they do as they
function in dual roles. In their study, Farrell et al. (2004) identified that in the absence of
mentorship opportunities, clinician-educators had to create and find their own form of support.
In their study on full-time physical therapy faculty on a tenure track, Zipp, Maher, and Falzarano
(2015) found that only one participant from n=66 attested to having a formal mentorship process
in their workplace. For mentorship not described as formal in nature, n=15 participants reported
having a faculty mentor, while only n=10 of participants reported having mentors from within
their own physical therapy department. Interestingly, 19.7% of respondents reported that
mentees chose their mentors informally, in contrast to the 9.1% of mentors reporting choosing
their mentees informally. Globally, the department chair assigned mentors 12.1% of the time.
Moreover, the authors found that for 60.6% of their participants, the transition from clinician to
faculty was moderately to extremely stressful. Colvin and Ashman (2010) identified resistance
as a barrier to creating formal mentorship opportunities. Their study revealed that without a
clear delineation for mentorship expectations, opportunities for support wavered. Without
having some semblance of a mentorship system in place to support clinicians transitioning into
academia, new teachers attempt to find their way through more informal means (Mirick & Davis,
2015). When this occurs, clinicians in the health professions experience vast discrepancies in
their role.
Clinician-educators’ roles in academia are complex and are often misconstrued because
they appear all encompassing. In their study of internal medicine residents, Heflin et al. (2009)
found that clinician-educators encompassed four distinct roles: “clinical teacher, curriculum
developer, administrator, and education scholar” (p. 236). Each distinct role had specific criteria
outlined for work expectations and function. The authors noted that mentorship was only

7
prioritized for the clinical teacher interested in scholarly work (Heflin et al., 2009). In their
study of health professions education pathway, Chen et al. (2017) found that the career paths for
health education teachers were not developed enough for junior faculty members to understand
their roles and responsibilities. Although the pathways included common core competencies that
were familiar to junior faculty as clinicians, they were not always as clear when framed for their
teaching role (Chen et al., 2017). In the context of the history of clinical education, Higgs and
McAllister (2007) emphasized that the clinician-educator role was complex and demanding
because of its multifaceted nature. The authors noted that the teaching contexts and
environments for clinician-educators continued to evolve to include interactions beyond the
classroom which included: communities, the workplace, and peer to peer collaborations. The
context of environment, namely, work culture and the values and belief systems in an
organization, were where most occupational therapy practitioners (OTPs) found difficulty
acclimating when transitioning from clinician to educator (Otty & Wrightsman, 2013).
The transition to academia represents a new paradigm shift for new occupational therapy
faculty. The roles, habits, and routines that function well in the clinic often need to be
reformulated for the classroom (Otty & Wrightsman, 2013). Fluctuations in mentorship support
vary from institution to institution (Otty & Wrightsman, 2013). Foy (2017) reported findings that
revealed 62% of participants felt unprepared for teaching in the classroom, especially when it
came to understanding technology, classroom procedures, and the assessment of students. Foy
(2017) also found that 22% of participants intentionally sought out additional training outside of
their institutions to help them prepare for their work as a teacher. Compounding both of these
findings are the limitations found in the American Occupational Therapy Association’s Blueprint
for Entry-Level Education. This document provides a detailed synopsis of what occupational

8
therapy students should expect in their education programs that will help prepare them to be
clinicians (American Occupational Therapy Association, 2010a). Nowhere in this document,
however, is a summation of what to rely on if one plans on being an educator for the profession.
The development of one’s professional knowledge and skill sets are thus available for the
occupational therapy clinician and are limited to non-existent for the occupational therapy
educator.
Very little is known about how occupational therapy practitioners (OTPs) experience
mentorship opportunities during their transition from clinician to educator. In a seminal work by
Christ (1999), she acknowledged that few OTPs receive help when preparing to be teachers.
False assumptions that equate clinical practice to teaching practice (the way one teaches patients
is the way one teaches students) are faulty notions that do not help the clinician learn how to
teach (Christ, 1999). The frequency to which OTPs receive mentorship has also been questioned
(Scheerer, 2007). When commencing his study, Scheerer (2007) discovered only two reports in
the literature that addressed the topic of mentorship for the clinician-educator in occupational
therapy. Moreover, in his Ohio study, the researcher found that teachers in the profession of
occupational therapy comprised only 21% of available mentors compared to 69% of clinicians.
More surprising, the overall findings revealed that only 38% of mentorship occurred in
occupational therapy despite 62% of participants identifying wanting to be a mentor and 30% a
mentee. An overarching problem worthy of examination was suggested by Sangole, Abreu, and
Stein (2006) that proposed that mentoring relationships in the occupational therapy profession
required more investigation. Clarifying the definition and scope of mentorship, they argued, was
of utmost importance for the profession (Sangole et al., 2006). As Papadimos, Manos and
Murray (2013) argued, there is no learning when one does not understand their craft.

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Importance of the Organizational Innovation

It is important for formal mentorship to be part of the onboarding process for new
teachers so that Whitby University can help faculty acclimate to the role of teacher. As
practitioners, clinicians teach using the skill sets common to their practice setting; in academia,
there are no skill sets to reflect foundational knowledge. Learning how to reframe teaching from
a clinical to an academic mindset requires mentorship. As institutions of higher education
require more from their new teachers, it will be imperative that skills sets are diversified so as to
support teachers during different teaching and learning processes (Foster & Laurent, 2013).
Some of the consequences for not attempting to implement formal mentorship opportunities for
new occupational therapy teachers affect best practice. By not delineating what mentorship
looks like during this transition phase, academia risks hiring teachers that are stuck in the
clinician mindset (Scheerer, 2007). Moreover, the student-teacher relationship will continue to
mirror the clinician-patient teaching model (Preissner, Cahill, & Peterson, 2007).
Organizational Performance Goal
In the strategic plan for Whitby University, administration has created a goal to achieve
excellence in teaching. The goal was established by the strategic planning committee in hopes of
achieving academic excellence in faculty development and recruitment and states, “There will be
an enhanced process for onboarding new clinical faculty through teacher development.” In
alignment with this strategic initiative, the following organizational performance goal was
created: By December of 2021 the School of Allied Health Profession at Whitby University will
onboard 100% of new clinical faculty through an introductory mentorship program aimed at
fostering growth and development in teaching. The strategic plan connects the relevancy of
student success and excellence to that of teacher success and excellence through mission focused

10
learning and is benchmarked through this standard. Measures used to track progress towards the
goal will include interviews, observations, and document analysis.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are several distinct groups of individuals that could directly contribute to and
benefit from Whitby University’s goal to onboard and mentor new clinical faculty into academia.
The administration of Whitby University could benefit from having exemplary clinicians become
exemplary teachers. By creating an infrastructure that supports the need of a mentoring program,
administration can contribute to Whitby’s organizational performance goal. The occupational
therapy (OT) faculty at Whitby University would be another key stakeholder in this process;
their collective expertise, knowledge, and skill sets in program development could help create a
model mentorship program. Lastly, the contributions of Whitby university students can help
shape the structure of the faculty mentorship program by sharing collective needs, expectations,
and aspirations.

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Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
Whitby University—a Christian, health sciences institution—seeks to:
● Educate health professionals and scholars through the sharing of knowledge and practice
of skills.
● Expand knowledge through research Provide whole person care through faculty, students,
and alumni.
● In alignment with our values and global mission:
○ We honor and encourage growth personally and professionally.
○ We practice diversity by promoting an environment of respect.
○ We serve a global community by living the word of God to help heal, care, and
serve one another. (Whitby University, 2017-2018b, paragraphs 1-2).
Organizational Performance Goal
By December of 2021 The School of Allied Health Profession at Whitby University will onboard
100% new clinical faculty through an introductory mentorship program aimed at fostering growth
and development in teaching.
Whitby OT Faculty Whitby Administration Whitby Students
By May of 2021 occupational
therapy faculty at Whitby
University will create and
implement a mentorship
program for new clinical
faculty transiting into
academia by readying them for
roles in teaching.
By December of 2021
administration in the school of
allied health professions
(SAHP) will have 100% of the
resources and infrastructure in
place to support successful
completion of the mentorship
program.
By December of 2020 100% of
students in the SAHP at
Whitby University will be
invited to contribute their
thoughts to an online needs
assessment.

Stakeholder Group for the Study
While understanding the importance of all stakeholder contributions to the successful
achievement of the organizational goal, it is important to start with a needs assessment in hopes
of gleaning information that will help create structure and content for the mentorship program.
As experts in program development, research, and needs assessments, the stakeholder focus for

12
this study will be occupational therapy faculty at Whitby University. The stakeholders’ goal,
supported by the Program Director, is that by May of 2021, occupational therapy faculty at
Whitby University will create and implement a mentorship program for new clinical faculty
transiting into academia by readying them for their roles in teaching. This preparation will
include introduction into the learning management and grading systems, orientation to
departmental policies and procedures, micro teaching, assignment and project creation and
development, and resource navigation. Failure to accomplish this goal will result in clinicians’
unpreparedness for their teaching roles which could adversely affect faculty retention and
recruitment and the student learning experience.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a needs analysis in the areas of knowledge and
skills, motivation, and organizational resources necessary for Whitby OT faculty to reach the
organizational performance goal of creating and implementing a mentorship program for new
clinical faculty through an introductory program aimed at fostering growth and development in
teaching. The analysis will begin by generating a list of possible needs and will then move to
examining these systematically to focus on actual or validated needs. While a complete needs
analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholder of focus for this
analysis is occupational therapy faculty at Whitby University. The following questions will
guide the needs analysis that address knowledge and skills, motivation, and organization
resources and solutions for occupational therapy faculty at Whitby University.
1. What is the stakeholder knowledge and motivation needs for Whitby OT faculty to create
and implement a program to mentor 100% of new clinical faculty transiting into
academia by preparing them for roles in teaching?

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2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and OT faculty
knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions for
faculty?
Methodological Framework
An analytical method that helps identify gaps between an organization’s goal and its
actual performance is known as a gap analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008). This methodology, with
an accompanying view of related literature, will be utilized to assess organizational needs in the
areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational functioning. The use of interviews,
observations, and document analysis will be used to validate these needs. In alignment with
findings, research-based solutions will be recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive
manner.
Definitions
Clinician-educator: An individual that is both a clinician and a teacher.
Mentorship: A process where an individual with advanced skill sets and experience helps
someone with less experience develop their skill sets (van der Weijden, Belder, Van
Arensbergen, & Van Den Besselaar, 2015).
Occupational Therapy: The skilled practice of addressing an individual’s meaningful roles,
habits, and routines.
Organization of the Study
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provides the reader with the
key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about mentorship for the
clinician-educator. The organization’s mission, goals, and stakeholders as well as the initial

14
concept of gap analysis in the form of a needs analysis, were introduced in Chapter One.
Chapter Two provides a review of current literature surrounding the scope of the study. Topics
of mentorship, the clinician-educator, and occupational therapy will also be addressed in Chapter
Two. Chapter Three details the assumed needs for this study as well as methodology including
choice of participants, data collection and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are
assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five provides solutions based on data and literature for
addressing the needs and closing the performance gap, as well as recommendations for an
implementation and evaluation plan for the solutions.

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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This literature review will examine the challenges with implementing formal mentorship
opportunities for occupational therapy (OT) clinicians transitioning into academia. The review
begins with general research on the concept of mentorship. This is followed by an overview of
literature regarding clinicians transitioning from practice to the classroom. This review will
present a thorough discussion on the difficulties of role transition for the clinician turned
educator. Subsequently, there will be a summary on the mentorship of occupational therapy
faculty. This section will include a detailed discussion of the difficulties of incorporating
mentorship for occupational therapy practitioners. Following the general literature, the review
introduces the Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Conceptual Framework and concludes with
the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences affecting formal mentorship
opportunities for OT clinicians transitioning to academia.
Mentorship as a Working Concept
The concept of mentorship is complex and difficult to operationalize in a context that is
generalizable. Berk, Berg, Mortimer, Walton-Moss, and Yeo (2005) view mentorship in two
ways: (a) as an act of being a mentor, or as a process that involves being in a mentoring
relationship. Wakemen (2012) highlights mentoring as part of being entrusted to someone with
experience. Dominguez and Hager (2013) utilize developmental theories to describe the
evolution of a mentor through the progression of being: (a) a guide, (b) an exemplary individual,
(c) a confidante, and/or (d) a tutor. Mentorship is also paired in the literature with topics such as
mentoring behaviors (Allen, Eby, & Lentz, 2006), attachment insecurity (Banerjee-Batist, 2014),
humanistic mentoring (Varney, 2009), e-mentoring (Doyle, Jacobs, & Ryan, 2015), and capacity
building in helping others grow and develop (Finney, MacDougall, O’Neill, 2012).

16
Another reason mentorship concepts are difficult to establish is because they are often
confused with models for coaching and apprenticeship. Shanks and Robson (2012) view an
apprentice as: (a) someone who looks to experienced colleagues for advice, (b) someone who
observes others and is observed and (c) someone who receives feedback on their performance.
Evans, Hodkinson, Rainbird, and Unwin (2007) view apprenticeship as a type of learning that
occurs through active participation while Lave (2011) believes that everyone in a learning
environment is learning from one another regardless of experience and, as such, is an apprentice.
According to Grosseck (2014), coaching, although associated mainly with sports, means
supporting someone through specific training to achieve a personal or professional result.
McDowell, Bedford, and Downs (2014) surmise faculty coaching as specific to teaching/learning
skills in the classroom. Koch (2008), however, conceptualizes coaching as facilitating
individualized learning, while Stover, Kissel, Haag, and Shoniker (2011) see coaching as an
alternative to generic approaches of professional development.
Sociocultural elements in mentorship as a workable concept are equally difficult to
navigate. Mentoring relationships in this frame often focus on gender and ethnicity as difficult
concepts to traverse during the beginning stages of mentorship (Banerjee-Batist, Reio, and
Rocco, 2019). These authors posit that minorities often look to other minorities for mentorship
opportunities as a way to connect through the learning process. Additionally, Banerjee-Batist et
al. (2019) found that gender-based barriers, especially for women, exist at the beginning stages
of mentoring relationships as individuals often look first for social and psychosocial support
within their own gender. The authors also found, however, that when mentorship relationships
were established, women benefited equally from male mentors.

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For the purposes of this literature review, mentorship will be framed through a
relationship construct and thus described as a process where an individual with advanced skill
sets and experiences helps someone with less experience and skills develop on a personal and
professional level (van der Weijden, Belder, Van Arensbergen, & Van Den Besselaar, 2015).
Mentoring as a Process in Higher Education and Healthcare
Mentorship Relationships in Higher Education
When mentorship has been studied in the areas of higher education, the relationships that
form because of it are often unique to the organizational environment. In a 2013 study by Tareef
(2013), mentoring relationships in higher education helped faculty shape the trajectory of their
career development. Of all respondents, 92% professed that their careers were positively
influenced through mentorship. According to Tareef (2013), specific examples of mentoring
influence were in the areas of advising students, setting appropriate performance goals, career
advancement, research, and managing the classroom.
Mentoring relationships also came up as a point for discussion in other research. In their
study of mentoring in higher education, Bean, Lucas, and Hyers (2014) noted that respondents
emphasized the importance of having a structured mentoring relationship. Mentees noted that
having dedicated one-to-one time with their mentors afforded them multiple areas of support.
The areas most commonly reported to have the most value for the mentees was having someone
that would offer consistent encouragement and emotional support. Other benefits included
learning how to plan and prioritize goals and learning new skills. Bean et al. (2014) also noted
that some of the mentoring relationships were cross-disciplinary or cross-departmental which
afforded unique networking opportunities. By having mentors outside of their department,
mentees reported decreased levels of stress by being able to speak freely, without fear of

18
repercussion. Important to keep in mind however, is that although this study found mentoring
relationships beneficial, it also noted that some of the biggest challenges in the mentoring
relationships had to do with difficulties in scheduling and time constraints.
In a theoretical paper intended to create testable propositions for future research in the
area of mentorship in higher education, Lunsford, Baker, Griffin, and Johnson (2013) utilized
Social Exchange Theory to examine the possible costs of mentoring relationships. In their paper,
the authors identified two primary areas of cost groupings that were problematic: psychosocial
and career. The researchers surmised the following conceivable threats to a mentoring
relationship: dysfunctional mentoring relationships when they are rife with conflict and
unproductive; burnout when the element of reciprocity is lost and when the mentor overexerts
himself; anger when feedback is not received constructively; grief and loss after the culmination
of the mentoring experience; and struggle and misunderstanding secondary to conflicting
mentoring roles.
An informed discourse of mentoring relationships pair literature from all perspectives.
Understanding the benefits and the possible drawbacks of the mentored relationship is important
when an organization is seeking to implement mentoring as part of faculty development. To
further understand how mentorship in higher education could work, mentorship models need to
be explored.
Mentorship Models in Higher Education
Different types of mentorship models have emerged in an attempt to meet diverse faculty
needs. In their collective case study, Carr, Pastor, and Levesque (2015) utilized the concept of
self-mentorship to learn how new faculty transition into their role as teacher and acclimate into
the academic setting. Self-mentoring was described as the action of leading oneself in a new

19
environment in hopes of learning by doing. The findings revealed that in spite of mutual
struggles, new faculty members adapted to their organizational environment and roles in unique
ways. Carr et al. (2015) found that self-mentoring helped new faculty members acclimate to
their new roles, adapt to new challenges, and become aware of their preferred style of learning.
The major critique of self-mentoring that Carr et al. (2015) found was that the method was
dependent upon how much individuals pushed themselves to grow. Distinct variations in the
knowledge and skills sets of faculty members kept some individuals in a growth pattern while
others felt stuck. In the self-mentoring model, self-assessments, self-reflection, and access to
both internal and external resources were believed to be the most impactful tools utilized by new
faculty members transitioning into academia. All three individuals in the Carr et al. (2015) case
study reported they believe self-mentoring was beneficial to their academic transition and their
professional development.
A more collaborative model for mentoring was researched in a study done by Darwin and
Palmer (2009) on mentoring circles. Through an approach that moved away from the traditional
mentorship binary, mentoring circles utilized a collaborative approach to mentorship. In this
model, one mentor or facilitator works with a group of mentees or a group of individuals who
help mentor one another. The mentor/facilitator is charged with keeping the learning focused.
The main idea in mentoring circles is that mentees benefit from having an array of experiences
from which to learn. The findings in Darwin and Palmer’s (2009) study were mixed; mentoring
circles worked for two groups who benefited from the collaborative mentorship model, while one
group found it difficult to bond with others who had different values, personalities, and skill sets
from their own. Mentoring circles in higher education worked best for those individuals who
enjoyed a more collaborative work environment in academia.

20
The work by Beane-Katner (2014) also moved away from the traditional one-to-one
mentoring model often found in academia. The authors introduced the idea of a mentoring
network that was both supportive and collegial. Through this model, building a network of
faculty mentors and mentees took on a learning community approach to connecting to what
Beane-Katner (2014) calls “next-generation faculty” (p. 92), otherwise known as Generation Y
or Millennials. Through this type of format, new faculty members formed a group that regularly
met to learn the culture of the institution, attend professional development trainings together, and
develop teaching skill sets together. The advantage of mentoring networks according to Beane-
Katner (2014) included having multiple levels of support for both the mentees and mentors. The
noted weaknesses identified by the authors was that mentoring networks were often hard to start
up and hard to keep active secondary to the diverse and spread nature of the groups. This study
showed that meeting the needs of faculty in higher education institutions was a challenging
process as needs were many and expectations diverse. Similar challenges occur when examining
mentorship in health care organizations.
Mentorship in Health Care
Mentorship models in healthcare suffer most from mentors who are unable to implement
evidence-based practice models because their skill sets in knowledge-sharing are lacking. Some
mentorship in healthcare models pair experienced clinicians with student clinicians in an attempt
to share knowledge and skill sets. In a study by Jack, Harris, and Barrett (2017), 59% percent of
students agreed that their mentors did not have the time to teach them. The same percentage of
students felt that they were being used as free labor. The findings by Jack et al. (2017) revealed
that mentors were not always the best role models especially when there was a lack of

21
collaboration between all the entities responsible for creating the knowledge sharing experience:
the university and the clinical site.
In their study about designing a mentorship program based on knowledge translation,
Gagliardi, Webster, and Strauss (2015) found that although healthcare professionals were aware
of innovative practice ideas for patient care, they did not know how to implement them. The
study identified knowledge translations as a method for improving patient care, either through
evidenced based practice, or through identifying innovating organizations in health care.
Although the participants in the Gagliardi et al. (2015) study were aware of knowledge
translations, it was found that they did not have the knowledge and skills to practice it or
believed that it was not part of their job responsibility. Mentorship was shown to be the
preferred method of choice for learning about how to implement knowledge translations,
however, the study found that it was difficult to assemble the right team of people as mentors
were few and far in-between.
Black, Bunday, and MacKay (2016) discovered similar findings when pairings for a
mentor-team relationship were found to have both pros and cons: people worked well together,
but the level of mentor expertise did not match with the mentorship needed. The pairings for a
point-of-care research mentor for nurses was both a strength and a weakness secondary to the
diverse experience in research knowledge which sometimes helped, and other times hurt.
Almost all participants in the Black et al. (2016) study expressed they valued having a mentor,
however, participants requested that expectations be clearer in hopes of helping with future
alignment of mentee goals, planning, and connecting research in a way that mattered for the
nursing clinic setting. Evidence-based practice models in healthcare are often deemed as sources
to consult with to help ensure best practice. The discrepancy in knowledge acquisition to that of

22
knowledge sharing, however, appears to be one of the biggest gaps between teaching in clinical
practice and teaching in academia.
Mentorship: The Missing Link During Transitions
The Clinician Turned Educator
The transition from clinical practice to teaching in academia is fraught with mixed
expectations and assumptions that often leave new clinicians feeling overwhelmed. Brown and
Sorrell (2017) found that participants believed that there was not enough time or resources
allocated in supporting new faculty in their transition from clinician to educator. The study
surmised through participant feedback that practice in the clinical setting was different from
teaching in the classroom, new faculty felt unprepared for their new teaching role and wanted
more structure during the transition process, mentorship support was made available upon
request, but clearer expectations about mentoring was needed, and teaching classroom content
was different from teaching from one’s area of clinical expertise. In this particular study, clinical
practice did not translate to academic practice.
Additionally, not understanding the culture and organizational expectations of academia
leave many new transitioning clinicians in a state of confusion. Kahanov, Eberman, Yoder, and
Kahanov (2012) confirmed that clinicians compromise most of the faculty members found in
academic health professions. In their study, Kahanov et al. (2012) found that transitioning junior
faculty experienced challenges from several factors, including not understanding the
expectations of the organization, fostering new relationships, and time management. In light of
their findings, the researchers recommended support for clinicians transitioning into academia in
the areas of education, guidance, and knowledge sharing to help them transition to an educator
mindset.

23
Understanding the various roles one has to contend with during the transition from
clinician to educator is often an impetus for shaping and adapting new identities. Murray,
Stanley, and Wright (2014a) identified a theme that emerged in their research that found an
identity shift occurring from clinician to academic. The researchers found phases of transition to
include feeling vulnerable in the new role of teaching, performing differently, planning for the
unexpected, and allowing time to grow into an academic. Ultimately, the study found that
offering organizational and collegial support helped clinicians transition into their new academic
roles.
Similarities in characteristics and skill sets between the clinician and the educator
requires collegial support for successful role transition. Christ (1999) found that learning to be
an occupational therapy faculty member occurred through practice and immersion. Christ (1999)
acknowledged that clinical management roles provided a general overview to instructional
methodology; however, she also noted that teaching a patient was different from teaching a
student. Christ (1999) suggested co-teaching and mentoring as a way to facilitate faculty
transitions and initiate one’s academic identity.
Clinicians in the profession of occupational therapy need to work hard at establishing
their academic identities. In a study about scholarly identity and practice, Carra, Fortune, Ennals,
D’Cruz, and Kohn (2017) found that strong clinical identities accompanied OTs transitioning
into academia. Utilizing blogging as a tool to help create and re-construct one’s academic
identity, the study found that multiple roles and responsibilities increased the difficulty of
assimilating into teaching. This was further compounded when practitioners had the added
pressure of assessing their academic potential. Carra et al. (2017) surmised that becoming more

24
scholarly required multiple sources of support and collaboration when creating an academic
identity in the profession of occupational therapy.
The clinical educator in OT has to commit to learning their new roles within a system that
lacks support for knowledge sharing. Transitioning from a clinical to academic role requires
multiple adjustments in identity formation and in one’s belief and value system (Murray,
Stanley, & Wright, 2014b). The main struggle identified by Murray et al. (2014b) was
acclimating to an academic culture from a clinical one. New faculty in this study found
themselves having to learn new skill sets without the benefit of collegial support.
Mentorship and Occupational Therapy
Practitioners, Clinicians, and Academia
Most of the literature on mentorship in occupational therapy is generalized for
occupational therapy practitioners. A majority of the studies found are about OTs in clinical
practice and OTs who work with students. Few, if any, are found for the OT transitioning to
academia. In an important mentorship study conducted by Scheerer (2007) on OTs in clinical
practice, eighty-two percent of occupational therapy practitioners (OTPs), (n=106) reported
having been a mentor an average of 12.8 times. Ninety-four percent of OTPs (n=123) reported
having been a mentee an average of 4.6 times. Supportive measures for mentoring were found in
OTs characteristics, networking, and resources. This study was one of a select few that
addressed mentorship occurrences in clinical practice. Scheerer (2007) recommended exploring
mentoring needs in the area of OT education. This area of the literature is notably scant.
When information regarding mentoring in occupational therapy academia is found, it
often reflects perceptions of mentoring in general teaching practice. In a study by Falzarano and
Zipp (2012) on OTPs on a tenure track or re-appointment schedule, a majority of participants

25
perceived mentoring as important during their transitions. The participants also noted that
mentoring positively impacted research productivity, organizational loyalty, personal value, and
attainment of grant funding. Falzarano and Zipp (2012) recommended the need for longitudinal
studies comparing OT faculty who are mentored to those that are not, as well as investigating
options that would help develop mentoring programs in occupational therapy academia.
Curricular development in occupational therapy rarely embeds formal mentorship opportunities.
When formal mentorship opportunities are described in the occupational therapy
literature, it usually references student mentorship. In a study conducted by Milner and Bossers
(2005), occupational therapy mentorship referenced programmatic assessments for students. In
their study, a mentoring program for OT students was beneficial but not without problems.
Mentees in the study reported finding mentors supportive and a valuable resource while mentors
appreciated the ability to establish connections early in the curriculum. The areas that were
problematic for both parties, according to Milner and Bossers (2005), had to do with time,
support, and training during the mentorship process.
The topic of mentorship in occupational therapy literature is limited to areas of
generalized practice, clinical practice, or practice with students. Information for the OT clinician
transitioning into academia is mostly absent. A useful gap analysis framework will help in
assessing a unique problem of practice in the profession of occupational therapy. Of particular
interest are occupational therapy clinicians transitioning into occupational therapy education.
The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework
The analytical framework utilized for this research is Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap
Analysis. In this conceptual frame the performance goals from the organization and the
stakeholder are identified, noting the gap between current performance level and the goals. Once

26
a gap is identified, this conceptual framework examines in detail the stakeholder knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences that may impact performance gaps (Clark & Estes,
2008). Knowledge and skills as identified by Krathwohl (2002) consist of four types: (a) factual;
(b) conceptual; (c) procedural; and (d) metacognitive. These particular influences are used to
determine if stakeholders know how to reach a performance goal. Motivational influences
consider factors such as goal achievement, the perseverance to work towards a goal, and the
mental effort needed to accomplish a goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). The motivational
principles of self-efficacy, attributions, and values and goals can be considered when analyzing
the performance gap (Rueda, 2011). Lastly, organizational influences on stakeholder
performance may include the impact of work processes, resources, and workplace culture (Clark
& Estes, 2008).
Each of these elements of the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis will be addressed in
terms of teacher’s knowledge, motivation and organizational needs to meet their performance
goal. In the sections to follow there will be a discussion of assumed influences on the
stakeholder performance goal framed within the contexts of knowledge and skills, motivation,
and the organization. Each of these assumed influences will then be examined in the
methodology section of Chapter Three.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
Knowledge and Skills
When institutional goals are aligned with the larger mission and vision of an
organization, there is an increased chance that gains will be made in performance improvement
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Clearly articulated goals that reflect input from multiple organizational
stakeholders increase accountability (Conner & Rabovsky, 2011; Hentschke & Wohlstetter,

27
2004). It is important, however, to keep in mind the knowledge and motivation needed for
successful goal attainment. Assessing what knowledge and motivation is present is vital for
understanding the areas in need of improvement, action, support, or follow through (Clark &
Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). When there is clarity about what needs to be examined and why,
gaps in performance can be addressed.
Learning requires a change in the knowledge process for growth to occur. There are
various dimensions of knowledge that influence organizational and stakeholder performance.
Rueda (2011) and Krathwohl (2002) explain and categorize these knowledge types as factual,
conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. Factual knowledge is comprised of information that
can be common knowledge or include the basic facts about something. Knowledge that
categorizes or classifies basic pieces of information and shows the relationships between them is
conceptual knowledge. Understanding techniques, methods, processes, or how something works
is procedural knowledge. Metacognition is the culmination of knowing, doing, and
understanding information: self-knowledge.
The following section will focus on knowledge-related influences that are relevant to the
achievement of the stakeholder goal for Whitby University to help new clinical faculty transition
into academia by preparing them for roles in teaching. The goal is in alignment with the
organizational mission in “Educating ethical and proficient Christian health professionals and
scholars through instruction, example, and the pursuit of truth” (Whitby University, 2017-
2018b). The stakeholder goal also supports the following strategic initiative: “There will be an
enhanced process for onboarding new clinical faculty through teacher development” (Whitby
University, 2016-2020).

28
Factual Influence: What is Mentorship. Occupational Therapy Faculty Need to Know What
the Components of a Mentorship Program Are
According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), factual knowledge is the basic and most
elemental information that people need in order to work through a problem. The ambiguity
present in Whitby’s mission statement and strategic initiative does not explain the process for
onboarding new clinical faculty nor does it explain what it means to educate ethical and
proficient Christian health professionals in the pursuit of truth. In a seminal article by Mitcham
and Gillette (1999), the authors emphasize that knowing what is needed to develop the
instructional skills of new OT faculty helps plan for their recruitment. Factual knowledge of
mentorship components would provide definitions, glean context specific relevance to OT
practice, and provide details in terms of what mentoring elements are needed for OT teacher
training. Being able to differentiate mentorship from coaching, modeling, training, and
professional growth and development would demonstrate knowledge of basic terminology.
Understanding the basic tools needed for mentoring clinicians into academia is demonstrating
knowledge in practice. Recognizing the characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of
various types of instructional methods would provide the knowledge needed for developing a
mentorship program.
Metacognitive Influence: Workload Agreements, Productivity, and Mentorship
Metacognitive knowledge is a type of omni-awareness of one’s way of thinking; it is a
type of knowledge influence that allows an individual to consider the context and conditions
present in a situation, problem or task (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Rueda, 2011). OT faculty
need to review current workload agreements and faculty development plans to see how
mentorship can be implemented within current productivity standards. Document analysis of

29
current workload agreements can increase awareness of what cognitive process is currently in
place for determining work requirements for OT teachers. This knowledge informs the type of
methods used for establishing workloads that reflect the uniqueness of each teaching expert. A
meta-cognitive component is additionally recognized in establishing workload agreements that
take into consideration clinicians’ self-reported strengths and weaknesses. From this information
departments can plan how to differentiate between the type of personal and professional
mentorship needed for onboarding new teachers.
Procedural Influence: Instructional Mentorship Model
Knowing how something is done is procedural knowledge (Anderson & Krathwohl,
2001; Rueda, 2011). This influence references techniques, methodology, and the way particular
skill sets are used to finish something (Rueda, 2011). OTF need to know how to design and
implement a mentorship program. Acquiring information on how other institutions are
implementing best practice allows the occupational therapy department at Whitby University the
opportunity to view the procedural process from the lens of colleagues and competitors. Milner
and Bossers (2005) found that the creation of a formal mentorship program promoted
professionalism while Falzarano and Zipp (2012) found the socialization influences from
mentorship help build loyalty and commitment to the department. Becoming better acquainted
with others’ methodologies for mentorship affords OTF the chance to problem solve through a
comparison and contrast approach to best practice. Additionally, implementation of a trial
mentorship program from the OT program can be initiated by observing the current teaching
practice of faculty and comparing this information to what is being utilized by colleagues.
Occupational therapy could benefit from inquiring how other OT schools implement mentorship
models and then adapt the process for outcomes that are unique to its program.

30
In hopes of differentiating between a promising practice model and one of innovation,
occupational therapy faculty would need to examine the culture of Whitby University to assess
what procedural knowledge would best fit its climate if it were to compare instructional
mentorship models from other institutions to itself. The Christian values that comprise Whitby
University are embedded in a long history of compassion, ethics, and moral based healthcare.
Any methodology for mentorship would have to honor and embed these ideals into an
instructional design in an effort to maintain institutional integrity. Recommendations made for
procedural knowledge would have to honor the culture at Whitby University.
Factual Influence: Characteristics That Mentees Need and Want
The occupational therapy department needs to be able to know the types of characteristics
and behaviors that mentees need and want. Declarative factual knowledge provides the details of
what is being explored (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Rueda, 2011). Factual knowledge is
warranted when information is shared that describes specific characteristics that are needed by
mentees in the mentoring relationship. Sangole, Abreu, and Stein (2006) found that OT clinical
educators were sought-after for their skill sets in critical thinking and clinical reasoning. The
authors noted that the personal and professional characteristics between the mentor and mentee
helped shape how the mentoring relationship evolved. Sangole et al. (2006) found importance
between personal and professional mentorship behaviors as well as characterizing if the
relationship was formal or informal. Declarative factual knowledge can provide information
regarding what characteristics mentees need and want.
Table 2 provides a knowledge worksheet for Whitby University including its
organizational mission, global goal, stakeholder goal, and accompanying knowledge influences.

31
Table 2
Knowledge Influences
Organizational Mission
Educating ethical and proficient Christian health professionals and scholars through
instruction, example, and the pursuit of truth (Part 1 of 6 of mission statement).
Organizational Global Goal
By December of 2021 The School of Allied Health Profession at Whitby University will
onboard 100% new clinical faculty through an introductory mentorship program aimed at
fostering growth and development in teaching.
Stakeholder Goal
By May of 2021 occupational therapy (OT) faculty at Whitby University will mentor
100% of new clinical faculty transiting into academia by preparing them for roles in
teaching.
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence Assessment
Occupational therapy
faculty (OTF) need to
know what the components
of a mentorship program
are.
Declarative
(Factual)
Interview: What do you believe are the
components of a good mentorship
program?

Observation
Document Analysis
OTF need to reflect on
their current workload
agreements and faculty
development plans to see
how mentorship can be
implemented within current
productivity standards.
Metacognitive Document analysis: Faculty workload
agreements & faculty development plans
OTF need to know how to
design and implement a
mentorship program.

Procedural Interview: If you were in charge of
designing a mentorship program for the
OT department, what would that look
like?
Now let’s say you’ve shared your ideas
for the design of this mentorship
program, so how would you implement
it? Where would you start?

Observation
Document Analysis

32
OT department needs to be
able to know the types of
characteristics and
behaviors that mentees
need and want.

Declarative
(Factual)
Interview: What would you need from a
mentoring relationship?

Observation
Document Analysis

Motivation
When reviewing the literature on motivation it becomes evident that the topic is not
constrained to a singular theory, but rather that it is comprised of multiple philosophies that are
focused on particular aspects of motivation (Clark & Estes, 2008). Human beings are comprised
of two reciprocal systems, knowledge and motivation, that are psychological in nature, and that
become noticeable in the context of work (Rueda, 2011). Knowledge is comprised of one’s
experiential information while motivation guides how much effort expenditure one needs to keep
moving forward during work and tasks. There are three motivational indexes identified by
Rueda (2011) that are common to the work environment: active choice, persistence, and mental
effort. Active choice involves the intention to work towards the pursuit of a goal, persistence is
the tenacity invested in that pursuit, and mental effort culminates in working efficiently and
smartly towards the work goal. According to Rueda (2011), if these three facets of motivational
performance are incorporated mindfully, goal achievement may result.
The following literature review section will focus on motivation-related influences that
are relevant to the achievement of the following stakeholder goal for Whitby University of
helping new clinical faculty transition into academia by preparing them for roles in teaching.
Studying motivation-related influences is important for the occupational therapy department at
Whitby University. This group of individuals is responsible for implementing the stakeholder
goal and thus needs to understand the various ways to ensure buy-in and follow-through from

33
faculty. For the purpose of this paper, the construct of interest, self-efficacy, value, attribution,
and emotion will be the motivational concepts discussed as they pertain to Whitby University
and the department of occupational therapy.
Interest
Two types of interest, situational and personal, are highlighted by Schraw and Lehman
(2009) as particular ways individuals learn, engage, and acquire knowledge. Situational interest
is sparked quickly, ever-changing, and activated through interactions with the environment.
Personal interest is sustained for longer periods of time and is internally activated. Both types of
interest are needed for knowledge acquisition: one to pique interest, and the other to sustain it.
Situational interest piques curiosity when tasks are novel, so there is pre-investment in wanting
to know more about something. Personal interest is intrinsically motivating and as such enables
engagement with information so that individuals develop conceptual knowledge and distinct
procedural skill sets (Schraw & Lehman, 2009). OTF need to find creating a mentorship
program interesting. To be effective and successful in implementing a mentorship program, the
OT department at Whitby University will require the involvement of both personal and
situational interest.
Whitby’s occupational therapy department, like most departments in higher education, is
burdened with high work and productivity requirements. Faculty are overworked, stressed, and
burnt out. Trying to motivate faculty to buy into a mentorship program will be difficult to do as
it will most likely be viewed as extraneous work. Framing will be important to spark interest.
Situational interest might pique initial curiosity as the notion of mentorship will be something
novel to the department. Working through conversations regarding the benefits and challenges
of mentorship may help transition individuals from situational to sustained interest. Sustained

34
interest could be further fostered by creating opportunities for faculty to engage with the
planning of a mentorship model. Personal interest on the other hand, may be facilitated when
working with a mentee. Varney (2009) describes the motivation to nurture the growth and
development of a working professional as part of humanistic mentoring. From within the
professional accountability model that Whitby functions, shared values, morals, and ethics might
help solidify mentoring interest as one of best practice for the university.
Self-Efficacy Theory
Defined by Albert Bandura (1986) as “People’s judgements of their capabilities to
organize and execute the course of action required to attain designated levels of performances”
(p. 391), self-efficacy is a performance variable in motivational literature. When individuals
question their ability to perform a task, according to self-efficacy beliefs, they wonder if they
have enough prior knowledge or competency skill sets to successfully complete it (Rueda, 2011).
When framed through a social cognitive theory perspective, self-efficacy beliefs are some of the
most profound motivational beliefs that individuals carry with them (Pajares, 2006). These types
of beliefs often determine if individuals will engage with activities or tasks based solely on either
mastery experience, or how well they performed in the past; vicarious experiences, or
observations of others’ successes or failures; social persuasions, or verbal messages or feedback;
and or physiological reactions, or emotional states and mood (Bandura, 1997; Pajares, 2006). For
this research study, OTF have to be confident that they can create a new mentorship program.
Most importantly, however, they need to feel that it can be accomplished by them and
believe that they have the skill sets to be able to put a mentorship plan into action. Trying to get
an entire department to feel confident enough to create the infrastructure for a mentorship
program that will be the first-of-its-kind will require a copious amount of collective efficacy.

35
Motivation, therefore, could be inspired by contributing to the mission and well-being of Whitby
University in spite of perceived barriers. Stoffel (2014) suggests that capacity building in
organizations comes from attitude, authenticity, and action. If this were the guiding framework
for building the self-efficacy skill sets and behaviors needed for implementing the mentorship
program, the OT program could very well reach its goal.
Value
OTF need to see the value in creating a mentorship program. A unique type of
motivational influence, value, helps gauge the level of importance placed on a task. (Eccles,
2006; Rueda, 2011). Two types of value can assess the level of commitment OTF would need in
creating a mentorship program. Utility value adds a more pragmatic approach to achieving goals
by emphasizing the importance of achieving an end result by sharing realistic expectations and
task benefits while simultaneously being truthful about the risks involved in not completing it
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Individuals, therefore, get to work through a process that might not be
high on their lists of things to do, but then have the opportunity to grow this into a working
concept. Utility value allows an individual the space to question why they are doing a task.
Ultimately, this allows a person to work through the pros and cons of performing a task without
overthinking any associated risks or benefits (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). As individuals
who are accustomed to assessing a variety of student and client needs, Whitby occupational
therapy faculty are likely to utilize a pragmatic approach to reach mentorship goals. For some
faculty members, a mentorship program would sustain interest in the form of personal growth
and development. For others, however, working through a mentorship program could very well
be seen as another thing to add on a very long to-do-list. For faculty members who might find it

36
inconvenient to create and participate in a mentorship program, addressing motivational needs
from a different perspective might help with securing buy-in.
Cost value is a motivational theory that weighs the cost of partaking in an activity
(Eccles, 2006). Pitching the perspective of a mentorship model in terms of supplying support,
feedback, ideas, and resources to help with productivity, burnout, and stress might help these
individuals assess value from a more pragmatic work perspective. The mental health perspective
is inherent in all of the clinical training that occupational therapy practitioners who
transition into academia carry with them. It would not therefore, be a far stretch to assess what
factors contribute to buy in versus those that act as barriers in implementing a mentorship
program for OTF.
Attribution
OTF will attribute the success (or failure) of the mentorship program to their own efforts.
Factors such as locus, stability, and controllability are important factors to consider when
assessing how behavior influences motivation (Anderman & Anderman, 2009; Weiner, 1985).
In his seminal work, Weiner (1985) posited, through attribution theory, internal and external
causes for task success or failure. Internal controllable elements like ability and effort are
considered alongside the external uncontrollable elements like task difficulty and luck. Using
attribution theory to assess the success or failure of the mentorship program will require that
OTF take ownership of the type of individual and departmental investments they make from
inception to completion of the program.
Emotions
OTF need to feel positive about creating the mentorship program. Emotions have a
profound effect on motivation and how one engages in tasks (Pekrun, 2011). Moreover, positive

37
emotions engage the mind and help learning occur. According to Lord and Kanfer (2002),
positive emotions encourage a range of organizational behaviors such as skill refinement,
creativity, social interaction, commitment to the organization, and increased social behaviors.
Framing the mentorship program as the first-of-its-kind can help create a supportive environment
that encourages positivity, teamwork, and buy-in. In order for OTF to feel positive about
creating the mentorship program, emotions need to be worked through while encouraging
communication and motivation. Since emotions are easily perceived, behaviors that support
organizational innovation might create the type of positive emotions that can see the creation of
the program through.
Table 3 provides a motivation worksheet for Whitby University including its:
organizational mission, global goal, stakeholder goal, and accompanying motivational indicators.

38
Table 3
Motivation Influences
Organizational Mission
Educating ethical and proficient Christian health professionals and scholars through
instruction, example, and the pursuit of truth (Part 1 of 6 of the mission statement).
Organizational Global Goal
By December of 2021 The School of Allied Health Profession at Whitby University will
onboard 100% new clinical faculty through an introductory mentorship program aimed at
fostering growth and development in teaching.
Stakeholder Goal
By May of 2021 occupational therapy (OT) faculty at Whitby University will mentor
100% of new clinical faculty transiting into academia by readying them for roles in
teaching.
Assumed Motivation
Influences
Motivational Influence Assessment
Interest:
OTF need to find creating a
mentorship program
interesting.

Interview: Does creating a mentorship program for the OT
department interest you? Why? How would you feel about
creating the first-of-its-kind mentorship program for OT
clinicians transitioning into teaching in the OT department?

Observation

Document Analysis
Self-efficacy: OTF have to
be confident that they can
create a new mentorship
program.

Interview: How confident are you that you could help create
a mentorship program right now?

Observation

Document Analysis
Value: OTF need to see the
value in creating a
mentorship program.

Interview: Tell me, where would you find value in creating
this mentorship program?

Observation

Document Analysis

39
Attribution:
OTF need to attribute the
success (or failure) of the
mentorship program to their
own efforts.

Interview: What do you think your role might be in making
this program a success?

Observation

Document Analysis
Emotions:
OTF need to feel positive
about creating the
mentorship program.
Interview: How positive do you feel that the OT department
can create this mentorship program?

Observation

Document Analysis

Organization
General Theory
Organizations are complex systems that work in accordance with their function and
purpose. They are uniquely comprised through their practice of policies and procedures,
governing structure, and culture (Rueda, 2011). When organizations experience problems in
performance, one can look to the culture for gaps as to what might be going wrong. According
to Clark and Estes (2008), culture can be defined as the foundational beliefs, values, processes,
emotions, and goals that govern how we work in our organizational environment.
Culture is a fluid concept that changes through time and affects roles, routines, and
habits. Schein (2004) suggests examining the concept of culture as an accumulation of shared
learning. He goes on to say that culture contains multiple facets of behavior, cognition, and
emotions that make up the psychosocial well-being of a group. Organizational behavior is thus
aligned with work culture. Cultural models and cultural settings comprise organizational culture
and are prevalent when individuals attempt to assimilate into their work environment (Rueda,
2011). Cultural models refer to practices that have evolved from a collective history of shared
values and beliefs about how the world should work. Cultural settings involve the intricacies and

40
specifics of the day-to-day that highlight the social context in which things occur (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). It is important to study the culture of an organization in hopes of
understanding the value and meaning people attribute to it.
Whitby University Faculty Member-Specific Factors
Several organizational factors impact how Whitby University views the concept of
mentorship. This study will focus on two cultural models and one cultural setting influence. For
Whitby University, the two cultural models include a lack of organizational trust and siloed
departments. The cultural setting includes lack of dedicated time on workload agreements for
mentorship activities.
Increased workloads in higher education leave little time for mentoring opportunities
between teachers. The autonomy of higher education culture encourages teachers to work alone.
At Whitby University, it is not uncommon to see a wide variation in teaching schedules based on
the full-time, part-time, and adjunct status of teachers. In team-taught classes a seasoned teacher
is almost always paired with a new teacher. The nature of this relationship is to help mentor in
the more inexperienced teacher; however, this rarely happens. At Whitby, the seasoned teacher
is usually full-time, and the novice teacher is either an adjunct or part-time faculty member that
is often a practicing clinician. The actual teachable moments occur mainly through observation
or role modeling. It is assumed that teaching partnerships are by proxy mentoring relationships.
Although role modeling and observation are found in the literature as part of mentorship
processes, they are often embedded in formal mentorship programs (Beane-Katner, 2014). This
is not the case at Whitby and may be part of the reason why no formal programs exist. This
global assumption has been embedded in Whitby’s culture since its inception and it is one of the
biggest contributors to its organizational indifference for creating mentorship programs.

41
As an institution that is tuition-driven and service-minded, Whitby University utilizes
most of its revenue to pay salaries and to provide resources for mission trips abroad. The
servant-leadership model of the university will always put service before teaching and
scholarship; it is part of the mission and vision of the organization. When financial resources are
in surplus they will be dedicated to all things service-related. Whitby University, however,
struggles with inconsistencies with fiscal management. Currently, the organization is under a
three-year fiscal freeze where all departments are mandated to plan for a scaffolded budget cut of
15% over the next three years. One comes to understand that the economic resources needed for
teaching are budgeted with caution. There are no assurances that what is needed for the
development of faculty will come via money, time, or support. A majority of mentorship
programs fail to succeed because they are not appropriately nested within a supportive
organizational culture (Bean, Lucas, and Hyers, 2014). The end result is that teachers at Whitby
University are somewhat guarded in trusting that their organization will supply the support
needed for the program development needs of teachers.
From a cultural setting perspective, departmental support is deficient in committing time
to mentorship opportunities on faculty workload agreements. Productivity and accreditation
standards drive the major learning outcomes for all departments at Whitby University. Within
the servant leadership culture, it is expected that workloads prioritize teaching, service, and
research according to the needs of the department. When team-teaching approaches are applied,
it is assumed that mentorship occurs in the process, so there is no time dedicated for it on faculty
workloads. The mentorship landscape in higher education has changed from valuing the formal
mentorship programs found long ago (Darwin & Palmer, 2009).

42
Not having an interested cadre of seasoned teachers wanting to be mentors is part of
Whitby’s siloed effect. The majority of Whitby faculty members with experience are full-time
teachers with an already full workload. Most of these teachers are also researchers and program
developers at service learning and community-based practice sites. With no process in place to
recognize mentorship on current workload agreements and no support from administration, there
is little to offer these faculty members in terms of motivation to be mentors. Transitioning OT
clinicians find themselves transitioning into a system where there is little to no support among
peers and colleagues. Moreover, literature in higher education highlights mentorship as a source
of faculty burnout when support is absent (Lunsford, Baker, Griffin, and Johnson, 2013).
Addressing cultural models and setting influences requires that Whitby University takes a
proactive stance in fostering a culture where mentorship is seen as equally important as service,
teaching, and research for faculty growth and development.
Table 4 shows the assumed organizational cultural model and cultural setting influences
needed to support Whitby University’s onboarding of 100% of new clinical faculty through an
introductory mentorship program.

43
Table 4
Organizational Influences and Assessments
Organizational Mission
Educating ethical and proficient Christian health professionals and scholars through
instruction, example, and the pursuit of truth (Part 1 of 6 of mission statement).
Organizational Global Goal
By December of 2021 The School of Allied Health Profession at Whitby University will
onboard 100% new clinical faculty through an introductory mentorship program aimed at
fostering growth and development in teaching.
Stakeholder Goal
By May of 2021 occupational therapy (OT) faculty at Whitby University will mentor
100% of new clinical faculty transiting into academia by readying them for roles in
teaching.
Assumed Organizational Influences Organization Influence Assessment
Cultural Setting Influence 1: The
organization needs to support a
structured mentorship program.

Interview: When considering Whitby’s mission
to onboard and train new faculty for excellence
in teaching, what types of organizational support
do you believe will be needed to start a
mentorship program?
What type of organizational support do you think
we already have?

Observation

Document Analysis
Cultural Model Influence 1:
OTF need to perceive that there is a
culture of trust between the OT
department and administration to
supply the resources needed for a
mentorship program.

Interview: In what ways do you think
organizational trust would help the OT
department receive the resources needed to
implement a mentorship program?

Observation

Document Analysis

44
Cultural Model Influence 2:
There is a culture of fight or flight in
the organization OT about creating a
unified mentorship program.

Interview: Some people might say that Whitby
University suffers from being siloed; do you
think creating a mentorship program that all
departments could benefit from would help that?

Observation

Document Analysis

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
This section provides an overview of the interconnected nature of the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences related to Whitby’s stakeholder goal of mentoring
100% of new clinical faculty transitioning into academia by preparing them for roles in teaching.
The purpose of a conceptual framework, also known as a theoretical framework, is to guide and
align one’s research study. A conceptual framework provides the structure for a research project
through the construction of information, theories, assumptions, and literature on the phenomena
being studied (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). When information and ideas from
outside one’s area of study help inform new ideas, the conceptual framework provides the lens
through which to connect the information (Maxwell, 2013). Though the potential influences of
knowledge, motivation, and organization stand alone in some respects, they are simultaneously
interconnected. This study will show that Whitby’s organizational culture affects the knowledge
and motivation of new clinicians transitioning into teaching. Having no process in place to help
mentor individuals during this transition at Whitby affects multiple institutional layers, teaching,
program development, and administrative functioning.
Literature in the area of mentorship highlights the importance of having administrative
support when creating mentorship programs (Strauss, Johnson, Marquez, & Feldman, 2013;

45
Zeind et al., 2005; Zipp, Maher, & Falzarano, 2015). When institutional goals are aligned with
the larger mission and vision of an organization, there is an increased chance that gains will be
made in performance improvement (Clark & Estes, 2008). It is therefore of utmost importance
to gauge the knowledge and motivation that faculty members have in the area of mentorship in
order to meet Whitby’s goal of mentoring in 100% of all new clinical faculty. Findings show
that increased preparation in both informal and formal mentorship processes help new faculty
acclimate into their new teaching environments (Bean, Lucas, & Hyers, 2014; Beane-Katner,
2014; Fuentes, Alvarado, Berdan, & DeAngelo, 2014).
According to Clark and Estes (2008), culture can be defined as the foundational beliefs,
values, processes, emotions, and goals that govern how we work in our organizational
environment. When individuals make attempts at integrating into their work culture, Rueda
(2011) notes that cultural models and cultural settings dictate much of the behaviors seen in the
workplace. Thus, the connectedness between faculty knowledge and motivation in the area of
mentorship will be directly related to the extent of institutional support Whitby offers this
program development endeavor. There are several distinct groups of individuals that could
directly contribute and benefit from Whitby University’s goal to onboard and mentor new
clinical faculty into academia. The occupational therapy (OT) faculty at Whitby University,
however, is the key stakeholder in this process; their collective expertise, knowledge, and skill
sets in program development will help create this model mentorship program. Figure 3 of the
conceptual framework highlights the connections between the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that will be impacting how the occupational therapy (OT) department
at Whitby University implements the performance goal.

46
Figure 3
Conceptual Framework: KMO Influences Impacting Stakeholder Goal for Whitby University

Note. SAHP = School of Allied Health Professions, OT = Occupational Therapy.
The relationships between the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences are
represented in Figure 3. The blue oval represents Whitby University as an organization driven
by its unique set of cultural influences that model organizational support in a setting of
accountability. Nested within the organization are the primary stakeholders responsible for
implementing the performance goal: occupational therapy faculty, represented by the orange

47
circle. As experts in program development, OT faculty comprise a subculture of Whitby
University that exists to honor the mission of the organization while simultaneously building
relationships outside of it for potential partnerships. Accountability is represented by the blue
arrow that charges OT faculty with meeting the goal. The yellow rectangle is the benchmark that
will guide OT faculty’s objective, the performance goal.
Figure 3 represents Whitby University supporting its occupational therapy department in
meeting the performance goal. By delegating time and resources for the task at hand, Whitby is
supporting its mission statement to educate ethical and proficient Christian health professionals
and scholars through instruction, example, and the pursuit of truth. This is part of the
organizational influence that will support OT faculty’s motivation in creating the first mentorship
program of its kind on campus. Understanding the value of such a program paired with teacher
interest and self-efficacy allows OT faculty to create a foundation for building knowledge in the
area of mentorship. Reciprocity in the accountability process holds both the organization and
stakeholders responsible for seeing the project through to fruition. Implementation of the
mentorship goal assures that 100% of new clinical faculty will transition into academia with
support. The knowledge, motivation, and organizational influencers co-exist as both process and
structure.
Conclusion
The purpose of this research will be to conduct a needs assessment in the areas of
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational resources necessary for Whitby
occupational therapy (OT) faculty to reach the organization performance goal of creating and
implementing a mentorship program for new clinical faculty through an introductory program
aimed at fostering growth and development in teaching. This literature review examined the

48
challenges with implementing formal mentorship opportunities for occupational therapy (OT)
clinicians transitioning into academia; provided an overview on the concept of mentorship; and
examined the difficulties of the role transition from clinician to educator. This review introduced
the Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Conceptual Framework and concluded with the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences affecting formal mentorship opportunities
for OT clinicians transitioning to academia. In the following section of Chapter Three, this
study’s methodological approach including research design and the chosen methods for data
collection and analysis will be presented.

49
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
The purpose of this research was to conduct a needs assessment in the areas of
knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational resources necessary for Whitby
occupational therapy (OT) faculty to reach the organization performance goal of creating and
implementing a mentorship program for new clinical faculty through an introductory program
aimed at fostering growth and development in teaching. This chapter opens by presenting the
research questions followed by a description of the design and methodology for data collection
and analysis. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the data analysis applied and utilized in
the study.
Research Questions
1. What is the stakeholder knowledge and motivation needs for Whitby OT faculty to create
and implement a program to mentor 100% of new clinical faculty transitioning into
academia by preparing them for roles in teaching?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and OT faculty’s
knowledge and motivation to mentor 100% of new clinical faculty transitioning into
academia by preparing them for roles in teaching?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions for
faculty?
Participating Stakeholders
While understanding the importance of all stakeholder contributions to the successful
achievement of the organizational goal, it is important to start with a needs assessment in hopes
of gleaning information that would help create structure and content for the mentorship program.
As experts in program development, research, and needs assessments, the stakeholder focus for

50
this study was occupational therapy faculty at Whitby University. The stakeholders’ goal,
supported by the Program Director, is that by May of 2021, occupational therapy faculty at
Whitby University will mentor 100% of new clinical faculty transiting into academia by
readying them for their roles in teaching. This preparation will include introduction into the
learning management and grading systems, orientation to departmental policies and procedures,
microteaching, assignment and project creation and development, and resource navigation.
Failure to accomplish this goal will result in clinicians’ unpreparedness for their teaching roles
which adversely affects faculty retention and recruitment and the student learning experience.
Interview Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1
Full-time, part-time, and adjunct faculty members, between 9-13 individuals in the OT
department at Whitby University comprised the first criteria for this convenience sample. The
teaching status was determined by employment designation on workload agreements. The
knowledge and motivational influences of these faculty members contributed to the information
needed to support the development of a mentorship model.
Criterion 2
Full-time, part-time, and adjunct faculty members with at least two years of experience in
teaching comprised the second criteria for this convenience sample. This status was determined
by renewal of faculty contracts. The years of faculty experience reflect a time to glean familiarity
with the organizational culture that is unique to Whitby University and thus facilitated an
understanding of the knowledge and organizational influencers within context.

51
Criterion 3
The final criteria for this convenience sample recognized OT faculty that were one-year post
transition from clinician to educator. This distinct delineation allowed for the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences affecting the role in transition, from clinician to
teacher, to be reflected in comprising the prospective needs of mentors and a mentorship model.
Individuals with less than one-year post transition experience might not have been able to
provide the rich and detailed responses needed for this study. This information was determined
from initial hire date documents.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
A convenience sample is a strategy employed when accessibility to resources are
immediate and geographically opportune (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014). Working
through this researcher’s problem of practice, the OT department was the place of employment
recognized as the convenience parallel. More importantly, however, the OT department was a
representative sample from the nine School of Allied Health Profession (SAHP) programs on the
Whitby campus. It was also the only department in SAHP to have received awards recognizing
excellence in program development, service, and commitment to community partners that made
them an ideal choice for implementing a mentorship program.
Thirteen faculty members comprised the population of teachers in the OT department at
Whitby University, and all 13 were solicited to participate in an interview. According to the
literature, this was an adequate amount of people to study in a qualitative research project (Stake,
2010; Yin, 2011). In the event that only a small number of individuals, in this case less than
half, chose to partake in the study, the unit of analysis could have been changed to reflect
individual case studies. Based on the K, M, O, influences identified by applying the Clark and

52
Estes (2008) framework, semi-structured interviews were conducted as this allowed for
flexibility in the questioning process. Semi-structured interviews also allowed for rich and
detailed narratives to evolve as the questioning process did (Patton, 2002; Stake, 2010; Yin,
2011). Open-ended questions were used to glean information regarding the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences impacting or missing from the faculty perspective that
would help inform an innovation model for a faculty mentorship program.
Observation Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1
Full-time, part-time, and adjunct faculty members in the OT department at Whitby
University that co-taught comprised the first criteria for observations. The knowledge and
motivational influences they demonstrated in the classroom aided in grounding how much
informal mentorship occurs during team teaching.
Criterion 2
Full-time, part-time, and adjunct faculty members in the OT department at Whitby
University that functioned as student advisors for SOTA (student occupational therapy
association), FW education (fieldwork education), student research, and service learning
comprised the second criteria for observations. Being able to witness firsthand the types of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences faculty utilized to mentor students
provided a baseline of skill sets needed to start a formal mentorship program for faculty. It
should be noted that the only observations that were able to be observed under criteria two were
for SOTA and FW education secondary to summer break occurring during data collection.

53
Criterion 3
Observing faculty meetings comprised the third criteria for observations. Noting faculty
dynamics amongst colleagues provided rich details on how organizational context influenced the
knowledge that was shared and how it was presented.
Observation Sampling Strategy and Rationale
Thirteen faculty members comprised the population of teachers in the OT department at
Whitby University and all 13 were solicited to participate in the observation methodology
through one or more of the following means: in a co-taught class, in faculty meetings, or as a
student advisor for either SOTA, FW education, student research, or service learning. The focus
of all observations were to gather the perceptions of the researcher regarding the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences impacting how faculty fostered informal types of
mentorship, growth and development, and teaching and learning within the organizational
culture of Whitby University. Observation is a way to collect information first-hand, and when
paired with interviewing and document analysis, provides a comprehensive view of the
phenomena being explored (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
By employing observations as a data collection technique, the researcher is able to
selectively hone in on the interplay between environment, participants, and behaviors. Patton
(2002) shares that by having two types of selective data, the interview and observation, the
research study has a more comprehensive view of the organization. Through the interview the
researcher gleans information from the perceptions of participants; through observations, the
researcher gleans information through their behaviors.
In the department of occupational therapy at Whitby University, observations of team
teaching were primarily used to examine how organizational culture impacted the teaching and

54
learning process between faculty members. Through this type of observation any semblance of
mentoring behaviors might be seen. Patton (2002) states that some of the advantages of
observation are being able to experience firsthand what is occurring while also being able to see
things that might go unnoticed. Attending meetings where faculty served as student advisors
gleaned information on skill sets and behaviors that faculty utilized in the development of
students. This was helpful to consider when creating an innovative model of mentorship for
faculty. Observing faculty meetings revealed the internal dynamics of how knowledge is shared
and what knowledge is deemed as important. Extensive and detailed field notes recorded the
observations made directly after they had occurred. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) state that field
notes are to observation what transcripts are to the interview, data collection.
Documents and Artifacts
To collect data that had the potential to reveal additional descriptive information,
document and artifact data was collected. Content analysis was utilized to analyze and interpret
the information. The technique of content analysis is primarily used when there is a need to find
meaning in unstructured data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Documents and artifacts that were
collected at the discretion and according to the protocol of the OT department at Whitby
University included professional development and training and continuing education coursework
reflected in curriculum vitaes, workload agreements, faculty development plans, and faculty
meeting minutes. In order to ensure confidentiality, all documents and artifacts were de-
identified by the program or department chair prior to sharing with the researcher.

55
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Interviews
Interviews were conducted as the first method utilized in this study to gather information
that addressed the K, M, and O influences of the Clark & Estes (2008) gap analysis framework.
Participants were recruited through email and through an announcement at a faculty meeting.
Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval was sought from both USC and Whitby University.
The interview protocol utilized a semi-structured format. The strength of utilizing a semi-
structured format allowed for the process to unfold naturally and for amendments to be made as
needed (Patton, 2002; Stake, 2010; Yin, 2011). Interview data helped inform what to observe
and what to look for in the document analysis process.
Thirteen one-time formal interviews were solicited for face-to-face or Zoom capacity for
faculty. Of the thirteen participants solicited, eleven chose to partake in the study. Two faculty
members partook in a Zoom interview and nine chose the face-to-face option. The interviews
were audio recorded, ranged from 22 to 59 minutes, and none took more than one hour to
complete per individual. Interviews were conducted at a place of participant choosing to help
ensure their comfort during the interview. Transcription and field notes helped capture and
identify the data necessary to answer the research questions. Upon completion of each interview
a thank you card was placed in the mailboxes of faculty members as recognition for participation
in the study.
Observations
Observations commenced concurrent to the interview process. Timing was crucial in
terms of honoring participant’s workload, productivity, and upcoming summer quarter recess.
This researcher’s role was observer as participant so as not to disturb workflow and energy and

56
to be able to witness an accurate portrayal of the events playing out in real time. According to
Merriam and Tisdell (2016), the observer as participant role is known to the group and
participation is secondary to observer role. Participants were recruited through email and
through an announcement at a faculty meeting. Three types of observations were utilized in this
study: three 1-hour observations in co-taught classrooms, two 1-hour observations where faculty
served as student advisors, and four 1-hour faculty meetings. An approximate total of nine hours
of observation was performed. Extensive and detailed observation notes accompanied an
observation checklist. After an observation session, the notes the researcher wrote are what
Bogdan and Biklen (2007) describe as field notes: rich text entry of all that the researcher sees,
hears, and experiences.
Document and Artifact Analysis
To collect information that had the potential to reveal additional descriptive information,
document and artifact data was collected. Bowen (2009) suggests that document analysis, when
cross-referenced with the research problem, helps the researcher develop deeper insights and a
better understanding of the phenomena being observed. A document checklist aided in providing
the structure for attaining documents that would help answer the K, M, and O influences from
the Clark and Estes (2008) framework. Documents and artifacts that were collected at the
discretion of the OT department chair or program chair included professional development and
training and continuing education via curriculum vitaes, workload agreements, faculty
development plans and faculty meeting minutes. In order to ensure confidentiality, all
documents and artifacts were de-identified by the department or program chair prior to sharing
with the researcher. Content analysis was utilized with a document analysis checklist to analyze

57
and interpret the information. The technique of content analysis is primarily used when there is a
need to find meaning in unstructured data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Stemler, 2000).
Alignment of Influences and Data Collection Methods
Table 5 provides a summary of the data collection methods that were used to assess the
assumed knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences affecting Whitby University’s
ability to develop and implement an introductory mentorship program for new clinical faculty
transitioning into academia. This table demonstrates the alignment between the assumed
influences and the data collection methods.

58
Table 5
Data Collection Methods for Assumed KMO Influences
Organizational Global Goal
By December of 2021 The School of Allied Health Profession at Whitby University will
onboard 100% new clinical faculty through an introductory mentorship program aimed at
fostering growth and development in teaching.
Stakeholder Goal
By May of 2021 occupational therapy (OT) faculty at Whitby University will mentor 100% of
new clinical faculty transiting into academia by preparing them for roles in teaching.
Knowledge
Knowledge Influence Knowledge
Influence
Assessment
Interview Item Observation Document
Analysis
Declarative (Factual)
Occupational therapy
faculty (OTF) need to
know what the
components of a
mentorship program
are.

Interviews

Observation

Document
Analysis
Q5: What do you
believe are the
components of a
good mentorship
program?

Co-taught
classroom

Student
advising

Faculty
meetings
Faculty workload
agreements

Continuing
education

Faculty
development
plans

Professional
development and
training

Faculty meeting
minutes
Metacognitive
OT faculty need to
reflect on their current
workload agreements
and faculty
development plans to
see how mentorship
can be implemented
within current
productivity standards.
Document
analysis
N/A N/A Faculty workload
agreements

Faculty
development
plans

59
Procedural
OTF need to know
how to design and
implement a
mentorship program.

Interviews

Observation

Document
Analysis
Q7: If you were in
charge of
designing a
mentorship
program for the
OT department,
what would that
look like?

Q8: Now let’s say
you’ve shared your
ideas for the
design of this
mentorship
program, so how
would you
implement it?
Where would you
start?
Co-taught
classroom

Student
advising

Faculty
meetings
Faculty workload
agreements

Continuing
education

Faculty
development
plans

Professional
development and
training

Faculty meeting
minutes
Declarative (Factual)
The OT department
needs to know the
types of characteristics
and behaviors that
mentees need and
want.

Interviews

Observation

Document
Analysis
Q6: What would
you need from a
mentoring
relationship?

Co-taught
classroom

Student
advising

Faculty
meetings
Faculty workload
agreements

Continuing
education

Faculty
development
plans

Professional
development and
training

Faculty meeting
minutes
Motivation
Motivation Influence Motivation
Influence
Assessment
Interview Item Observation Document
Analysis

60
Interest
OTF need to find
creating a mentorship
program interesting.

Interviews

Observation

Document
Analysis
Q1: Does creating
a mentorship
program for the
OT department
interest you? Why?

Q2: How would
you feel about
creating the first-
of-its-kind
mentorship
program for OT
clinicians
transitioning into
teaching in the OT
department?

Co-taught
classroom

Student
advising

Faculty
meetings
Faculty workload
agreements

Continuing
education

Faculty
development
plans

Professional
development and
training

Faculty meeting
minutes
Value
OTF need to see the
value in creating a
mentorship program.

Interviews

Observation

Document
Analysis
Q3: Tell me, where
would you find
value in creating
this mentorship
program?

Co-taught
classroom

Student
advising

Faculty
meetings

Faculty workload
agreements

Continuing
education

Faculty
development
plans

Professional
development and
training

Faculty meeting
minutes

61
Self-efficacy
OTF have to be
confident that they can
create a new
mentorship program.

Interviews

Observation

Document
Analysis
Q9: How confident
are you that you
could help create a
mentorship
program right
now?

Co-taught
classroom

Student
advising

Faculty
meetings
Faculty workload
agreements

Continuing
education

Faculty
development
plans

Professional
development and
training

Faculty meeting
minutes
Attribution Theory
OTF attribute the
success (or failure) of
the mentorship
program to their own
efforts.
Interviews

Observation

Document
Analysis
Q4: What do you
think your role
might be in
making this
program a success?

Co-taught
classroom

Student
advising

Faculty
meetings
Faculty workload
agreements

Continuing
education

Faculty
development
plans

Professional
development and
training

Faculty meeting
minutes

62
Emotions
OTF need to feel
positive about creating
the mentorship
program.
Interviews

Observation

Document
Analysis
Q14: How positive
do you feel that the
OT department can
create this
mentorship
program?

Co-taught
classroom

Student
advising

Faculty
meetings

Faculty workload
agreements

Continuing
education

Faculty
development
plans

Professional
development and
training

Faculty meeting
minutes
Organization
Organizational
Influence
Organizational
Influence
Assessment
Interview Item Observation Document
Analysis
Cultural Setting
Influence 1
The organization
needs to support a
structured mentorship
program.
Interviews

Observation

Document
Analysis
Q10: When
considering
Whitby’s
mission to
onboard and
train new faculty
for excellence in
teaching, what
types of
organizational
support do you
believe will be
needed to start a
mentorship
program?

Q 11: What type
of organizational
support do you
think we already
have?
Co-taught
classroom

Student
advising

Faculty
meetings
Faculty workload
agreements

Continuing
education

Faculty
development
plans

Professional
development and
training

Faculty meeting
minutes

63
Cultural Model
Influence 1
OTF need to perceive
that there is a culture
of trust between the
OT department and
administration to
supply the resources
needed for a
mentorship program.

Interviews

Observation

Document
Analysis
Q12: In what
ways do you
think
organizational
trust would help
the OT
department
receive the
resources needed
to implement a
mentorship
program?
Faculty
meetings
Faculty workload
agreements

Continuing
education

Faculty
development
plans

Professional
development and
training

Faculty meeting
minutes
Cultural Model
Influence 2
There is a culture of
fight or flight in the
organization about
creating a unified
mentorship program.
Interviews

Observation

Document
Analysis
Q13: Some
people might say
that Whitby
University
suffers from
being siloed; do
you think
creating a
mentorship
program that all
departments
could benefit
from would help
that?
Faculty
meetings
Faculty workload
agreements

Continuing
education

Faculty
development
plans

Professional
development and
training

Faculty meeting
minutes

Data Management
Data collected from the interview process was stored electronically and in hard copy.
Electronic data was stored with password-protected security on the personal laptop of the
researcher. Hard copy data was stored in a locked file in a locked office at the researcher’s place
of employment. In order to ensure confidentiality and privacy, pseudonyms were issued to all

64
interviews and transcriptions. A participant log was utilized to track participant data which
contained information such as participant name, pseudonym ascribed, and contact information.
Once the interviews were transcribed, categorized, and thematically ordered, they were
documented into an online codebook that was kept under a locked file. Field notes from
document analysis and observations were de-identified per session and entered into one journal
which was locked in a cabinet nightly. Upon successful completion of the research project, all
interview transcriptions, audio-recordings, document analysis, and field notes will be destroyed.
Data Analysis
Otter transcription service was utilized as the source for preliminary transcriptions with
extensive follow through by the researcher to amend and/or correct any errors found in the audio
recording transcriptions. Field notes were completed after each interview. A priori coding was
utilized for interviews and field note data analysis, as the KMO gap-analysis framework was the
conceptual model guiding the research. In a priori coding, the categories are created before data
analysis, grounded in a particular theory (Stemler, 2000). This type of coding helped the
researcher hone information that aligned with the research questions, conceptual framework, and
participants’ voices. As an added measure, any codes falling outside of a priori coding were also
categorized under open and or axial coding. Content analysis through the use of checklists were
used for observation and document analysis in alignment with the KMO conceptual framework.
According to Patton (2002), content analysis allows the researcher a way to analyze unstructured
data and make meaning of it.

65
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The researcher must acknowledge her role as a co-constructor of knowledge. In a sound
qualitative research process, the researcher reflects on her part of the constructed narrative
through addressing biases, preconceptions, influences, and assumptions (Finlay, 2002; Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). A reflection journal was utilized for this researcher to process through her role
as primary investigator, a check and balances tool for self-auditing and self-monitoring
throughout the research process. Transparency was ensured through descriptive documentation
of the research process, especially in methodology, data collection, and data analysis. Cross-
checking was enforced through alignment in the research design, conceptual framework,
research questions, and interview protocol. Consulting and cross-referencing data from
interviews, observations, document and artifact analysis, field notes, and journaling offered
multiple ways in which to increase credibility in this research study.
Validity and Reliability
In a qualitative study, validity and reliability ensure that a distinct process has been
followed to substantiate research findings. In this study, triangulation was used to ensure
validity. Patton (2002) states that triangulation strengthens research by combining multiple
sources of data. Data triangulation in this study was used by combining interviewing,
observation, and document analysis. Through triangulation, it is the intent to minimize the
intrinsic bias that is often found in research that uses single methods, one observer, or one
particular framework (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002). It must be emphasized however,
that it is not the point of triangulation to produce results that are the same. Variances in data
sources may collect information that show different results. This is important to work through in
a qualitative study because of the unique nature of how people experience things in their life.

66
Triangulation in this study helped address validity in the research by allowing the
researcher to compare observations with interviews, interviews with document analysis, and
observations with document analysis. The ultimate goal was to work through inconsistencies in
the data and find out why this information was equally important to consider. This was the
power of incorporating triangulation as a measure of validity.
Ethics
As a researcher involving human research subjects in a study, responsibilities lie in
ensuring that the guidelines outlined in the Belmont Report are followed in that the researcher
shall do no harm; honor the principles of beneficence, have respect for persons, and ensure
justice. The relationship between the researcher and participant is where ethical considerations
are paramount (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). According to Glesne (2011) there are five basic
principles that guide how the institutional review board (IRB) view ethics in human research
application. They are as follows:
● Human research subjects must have enough information to make an informed
decision about whether or not to participate in a study.
● Research subjects must understand that they can withdraw from the study at any
time without fear of penalty.
● All unwarranted risks to a research subject must be removed from the study.
● Potential benefits to the subjects and or society must outweigh any risks.
● Any study considered an experiment must be performed by a qualified
investigator.
In order to address principle one, as the principal investigator of this study, there was
ample information provided to potential participants to ensure they could make an informed

67
decision as to whether to participate in the study or not. For this particular research, individuals
needed to understand that the study format was innovative which meant that the information
gathered would be used to inform what best practice could look like for the organization.
Additionally, there were explanations on the main topic of study, mentorship, the data collection
process, interviews and document analysis, the purpose of the study, possible risks and benefits,
and what consenting would mean in terms of the research project.
When addressing principle two, there was an explanation highlighting the research study
as voluntary with emphasis that the participant could withdraw from the study at any time,
without fear of penalty. This process was done in stages: first upon verbal consent and during
data gathering per interview protocol.
In order of addressing principle three, removing unnecessary risks to human research
subjects, the interview protocol ensured confidentiality and anonymity. This was done by de-
identifying data and by providing a pseudonym to each research subject. A verbal and written
notation was shared that explained that all verbal transcripts would be destroyed/erased once data
analysis was complete. These steps helped ensure that there were safeguards in place for human
subjects so that they felt they could speak freely, lessening the fear that their identity or narrative
could be identified.
Highlighting the perceived benefits of the study; (a) creating the first-of-its-kind
mentorship program and (b) offering support for faculty development hopefully negated any
perceived risks such as uncovering information that painted the organization or persons in an
unsightly light. These risks were further lessened by creating interview questions that aligned
with the research questions, purpose statement, and innovation design of the study which all
sought to generate more helpful than harmful information.

68
Although the study is not an experiment, as the primary investigator of this research
study, personal credibility was ensured through up to date CITI training, IStar approved
application from the IRB, and by having a check and balance system in place for data gathering
and analysis that demonstrated triangulation, pilot testing of questions, a priori coding, and
confirmation of transcript narrative by multiple reviews of audio recordings. Ultimately it was
the job of the principal investigator to ensure the methods had worked through every conceivable
problem, risk, barrier, and obstacle that might be present for the research participants. In the
end, it is the researcher who has to demonstrate to their IRB members that they understand their
qualitative methodology (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
Relationship to Organization
As a faculty member in the department of occupational therapy where the study will be
conducted, this researcher held no outright positional power through the supervision of peers.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) emphasize painting a clear picture of the researcher-participant
relationship. With this in mind, this researcher held no supervisory or leadership position, but
did have a vested interest in the research study in so far as contributing to the growth and
development of fellow practitioners transitioning into academia. This researcher’s job
description was parallel to other teaching peers in holding multiple roles in teaching, service, and
research, so an outright display of role confusion was not likely to create conflict. Research
participants understood that participation in the study was voluntary and by no means expected.
This hopefully eliminated the potential of peers feeling pressured to participate in the study.
There were also assurances to colleagues that participation in the study would not affect their
performance evaluations, job placement, career advancement, or position in the department.

69
Continued emphasis on full confidentiality and anonymity were in place to ensure best research
practice.
Assumptions/Biases
As the principal investigator of this study, it was beneficial to acknowledge all biases and
assumptions up front, in a way that would help manage bias during data analysis. One way this
was addressed was by writing field notes after every interview. Being able to review the field
notes created an awareness of potential biases and served as a reminder to practice objectivity
during data analysis. Fact checking during the interview process helped ensure that both parties
were on the same page when clarification was needed. Analyzing data may present ethical
problems for the researcher as hers was the primary lens through which all data is viewed
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The assumed causes which were aligned through the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
framework utilized for this study were delineated by the a priori coding process. The results are
thus organized by their respective knowledge, motivation, and organization (KMO) causes.
Multiple sources of qualitative data, namely interviews, observations, and document analysis,
were collected to validate the assumed causes affecting the KMO challenges for occupational
therapy (OT) faculty in creating a mentorship program for new clinical faculty transitioning into
academia. Observations and interviews were conducted first, followed by document analysis. It
was important to collect observation data first as IRB approval neared the end of the academic
year and important meetings were needed to be observed for data collection. Interviews were
scheduled as observations were occurring. As the summer quarter was approaching, the tail end
of observations overlapped with the beginning of the interview process in an attempt to solicit
data prior to personnel leaving for vacation. Documents were obtained from the department and
program chair in the midst of observation and interviews; however, the documents were analyzed
last as they were the one piece of data that were not hindered by a time constraint.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholders utilized for this study were faculty in the department of occupational
therapy at Whitby University. Thirteen faculty members that met the inclusion criteria were
solicited for this research study. From this pool of full-time, part-time, and adjunct faculty,
eleven stakeholders agreed to participate in the study. Four 1-hour faculty meetings, three 1-
hour co-taught classes, and two 1-hour faculty-student advising sessions were observed.
Document analysis was comprised of de-identified faculty development plans (FDP), workload
agreements (WA), faculty meeting minutes, and 11 curriculum vitaes (CV). Secondary to the

71
small convenience sample, demographic data that was descriptive in nature was omitted from the
findings to preserve confidentiality amongst participants. Although the department is comprised
of both men and women, the pronoun “they” was utilized in an effort to honor confidentiality.
Each individual in the OT department has a unique skill set that could be easily identifiable in
the data, so measures were also taken to report findings without highlighting specific roles or
duties.
Determination of Assets and Needs
Interviews, observations, and document analysis comprised the data for this research
study. Triangulation between these sources of data occurred by allowing the researcher to
compare observations with interviews, interviews with document analysis, and observations with
document analysis. The primary goal in triangulating these sources was to work through any
inconsistencies found in the data and speak to why this information was important to consider.
Eleven interviews were conducted with rich detailed responses emerging from each participant.
Saturation per se did not occur for the narrative portions of the interviews.
The criteria for determining an influence as a need or an asset was based on the concept
of pragmatism. Clark and Estes (2008) describe pragmatism as a way to interpret outcomes that
are focused on the problem being studied and the questions asked because of it. As an
innovative research design, it was determined that a majority of OT faculty, in this case at least
10/11, would have to demonstrate a collective majority in order to identify an influence as a need
or an asset for interview data. In other words, as a team we are either aware or not aware of the
influences affecting our knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps when it comes to
creating a mentorship program. For observation and document analysis, a checklist was utilized
to determine if an influence was a need or an asset. Specifically for observations, it was noted if

72
specific mentorship concepts were discussed (i.e., need, creation, implementation) while for
document analysis, it was noted if mentorship concepts were interwoven into workload
agreements or faculty development plans, or reflected in continuing education or curriculum
vitaes.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
Results and findings are reported using the knowledge categories and the assumed causes
for each category.
Factual Knowledge
Influence 1. Occupational Therapy Faculty Need to Know the Components of a Mentorship
Program
Survey Results. No survey was conducted for this study.
Interview Findings. This influence was assessed using two questions. For the first
question, participants were asked, “What do you believe are the components of a good
mentorship program?” All occupational therapy faculty members had conflicting beliefs on what
constituted a good mentorship program. Participant 3 shared that “the expectations of the
program have to be clear cut and defined,” while Participant 4 posited “I think maybe
observation, feedback.” The disparities in thought continued through Participant 5’s views
which included “Positive leadership. I think enough structure to know, you know, what is
happening, and then [an] innovation piece.” Participant 7 stated, “I think, I think a fit, a good fit
between two people,” while Participant 9 concluded, “I think the person has to be a networker
too, to kind of know where to give some information, point in this direction, connect them to
others.” Three participants stated, “I don’t know.”

73
Observation. One observation during a curricular development meeting revealed some
evidence of planning for mentorship for new hires for the future transition of the program from a
masters to an entry-level doctoral degree.
Document Analysis. Four out of the eight faculty development plans received reported
some type of mentorship component. Minutes for the curricular development meeting showed
some evidence of planning for mentorship for new hires for the future transition of the program
from a masters to an entry-level doctoral degree.
Summary. The assumed influence that faculty know what the components are for a
good mentorship program was assessed as a need for interviews, observations, and document
analysis. Eight faculty interviews expressed different components of what a good mentorship
program would include, while three participants expressly stated that they didn’t know what
constituted a good mentorship program. Only one of four observations expressed some notion of
mentorship components while only four of eight faculty development plans contained this, and
one of four meeting minutes showed evidence of mentorship topics. Therefore, there is a need
for faculty to know this factual knowledge.
Influence 1. Occupational Therapy Faculty Need to Know the Components of a Mentorship
Program
Survey Results. No survey was conducted for this study.
Interview Findings. As previously noted, this influence was assessed using two
questions. For the second question, participants were asked, “Tell me, what do you think is the
difference between mentorship, apprenticeship, and coaching?” All occupational therapy faculty
expressed unique thoughts about the concepts of mentorship, apprenticeship, and coaching, but
none had a clear understanding of them. The majority of ideas presented were individualized

74
with the exception of some foundational commonalities. In regards to the concept of
apprenticeship, three out of eleven individuals, Participants 5, 7, and 10, believed apprenticeship
to be “like fieldwork” while Participants 2 and 3 thought it was about being “hands on.”
Participant 9 shared, “I'm going to learn from you; you know, watch you, work with you,” while
Participant 8 stated, “[...] if I'm looking at my development, still very much in the apprenticeship
phase, I'm still learning skills, still learning strategies to be successful as an educator, because
that's my role. My role is not to be a clinician here.” Participant 4 summed up their response in
the following way:
Um, well, I see apprenticeship as if you just wanted to train somebody how to do this job.
So more like mechanical. I would almost see that as, like a training of an aide or
somebody who you just need, okay, here, these are the skills and this is what you need to
do.
In regard to the concept of mentorship, notions were posited by Participant 10 as, “So I
see that as a structured conversation, possibly where there's more collaboration about where that
person wants to grow, and then requesting resources or feedback or just requesting the mentor to
be a sounding board[...]” Participant 9 shared, “So I would see mentorship, as in a professional
role, and really focused on growth, you know, and it's a connected relationship.” Participant 7
said the following about mentorship: “I see my mentorship as a colleague, as a peer, and we're
interdependent; we’re equals. And I feel like there's this very unique relationship where, where
we can have a disagreement, and it's okay.” Participant 4 shared, “I see as more of this dynamic
and intersectional relationship between two people where you have a mentor who helps support
you and teaches you and guides you and can give you honest feedback,” while Participant 2
shared, “...mentorship is about a little bit of both, apprenticeship and the coaching.”

75
Coaching was thought of by Participant 1 as, “It’s like more of a cheerleader,” while
Participant 2 shared, “Okay, coaching, coaching I see as one who is, you're there, you tell them
your opinion, or you tell them what they need to do.” Participant 3 stated, “When I think of
coaching, I think of being coached up and you kind of are almost on your own,” while
Participant 11 stated, “Coaching would be I'll tell you what to do and you do it,” and went on to
say, “It’s like a typical coach, athletic coaches, I think that’s how I see it.” Participant 4 shared
the following thoughts: “It's like a hierarchy in my mind, a hierarchy of that interactional
relationship of apprenticeship, coaching, and then mentorship would be the most interactional
versus you go to a coach at the gym.” Participant 5 shared these thoughts about coaching: “I
think they can do a lot of different things. And similarly with a coach to really be the most
effective, just like for playing sports or anything else has to be relationship, right?”
Observation. No observation component was utilized for this question.
Document Analysis. No document analysis component was utilized for this question.
Summary. The assumed influence that faculty know the difference between mentorship,
apprenticeship, and coaching was assessed as a need for interviews. All 11 faculty shared
thoughts that had more differences than similarities in them. Although some common ground
was noted in foundational elements for these concepts, there was no overwhelming evidence that
faculty clearly understood the differences between apprenticeship, coaching and mentorship and
because of this, there is a need for faculty to know this factual knowledge.
Influence 2. OT Department Needs to Be Able to Know the Types of Characteristics and
Behaviors that Mentees Need and Want
Survey Results. No survey was conducted for this study.

76
Interview Findings. Participants were asked, “What would you need from a mentoring
relationship?” All occupational therapy faculty were able to express their needs from a
mentoring relationship; however, only half of them knew the types of characteristics or behaviors
that mentees in general would need or want. Participant 11 wanted a mentor who could
understand what they valued and the types of things they believed in, in hopes of fostering their
growth and development as a teacher. Participant 10 wanted someone who could help them find
resources and someone who was willing to give them feedback on their teaching style.
Participants 9, 3, and 7 shared the following thoughts: “I need connection,” “clear defined
boundaries and expectations,” and a “good communications line” respectively. Other thoughts
shared by participants included needing feedback, emotional support, accountability, and
strategies for working with and motivating students.
Observation. One observation during curricular development meeting revealed some
evidence of discussion for what would be needed for future mentorship relationships for
transition to the entry-level doctoral program.
Document Analysis. Meeting minutes for curricular development were the only
document that reflected discussion points for what would be needed for future mentorship
relationships for transition to the entry-level doctoral program.
Summary. The assumed influence that faculty know the characteristics and behaviors
that faculty need and want was assessed as a need for interviews. Despite all 11 faculty being
able to articulate their needs, they were distinctly unique per individual. Although it might
appear that there was data that could be initially viewed as common ground, there were still
differences in the commonalities. The theme of feedback for instance, meant different things to
participants. Some individuals wanted feedback on teaching, others on how to grade, and still

77
others on how to communicate professionally. The various iterations shared by participants in
this study qualify this factual influencer as a knowledge need.
Conceptual Knowledge
There were no conceptual knowledge influences assessed in this study.
Procedural Knowledge
Influence 1. OTF Need to Know How to Design and Implement a Mentorship Program
This influence was assessed with two questions.
Survey Results. No survey was conducted for this study.
Interview Findings. For the first question, participants were asked, “If you were in
charge of designing a mentorship program for the OT department, what would that look like?”
All occupational therapy faculty had a unique idea or ideas as to how they would help design a
mentorship program, but none were inclusive for an entire program, and thus this influence was
determined as a need. Some of the contexts mentioned included: (a) utilizing faculty develop
plans and formative dialogues, (b) incorporating time and resources, (c) performing a needs
assessment and mentorship training, and (d) individualizing mentorship plans. Participant 1
shared the following: “Probably starting off with co-teaching and then giving them more
responsibilities as they’re developing their strategy.” Participant 8 shared, “[...] it has to be
sustainable, not just for current faculty, but incoming faculty […]” while participant 5 stated, “So
I think it's definitely multi-tiered .”
For the second question, participants were asked, “Now let’s say you’ve shared your
ideas for the design of this mentorship program, so how would you implement it? Where would
you start?” All OT faculty had differing opinions on how they would implement a mentorship
program for the OT department, although some generalized thoughts were similar. Some of the

78
ideas posited for implementing the program included: (a) piloting the program, (b) utilizing
students, (c) having voluntary sign ups, (d) performing a needs assessment, and (e) creating a
curriculum. Participant 2 shared, “I would pilot components of it then, along the way, with
faculty we already have here,” while Participant 7 stated, “I feel like it's better if we at least get a
preliminary training of the mentorship.” Other thoughts posited included targeting specific
populations of faculty as shared by Participant 9 when they said, “[...] I'd want to target all
contract faculty who teach one class.”
Observation. One observation during curricular development meeting revealed some
evidence of discussion for implementation planning for the mentorship program when
transitioning to the entry-level doctoral program.
Document Analysis. One out of eight faculty development plans reflected some
evidence of individuals reporting some type of mentorship design planned for the curriculum.
Summary. The assumed influence that faculty know how to design and implement a
mentorship program was assessed as a need for interviews. Some commonalities were threaded
throughout discussions such as: (a) utilizing resources already present in the department and
building off those, (b) performing a needs assessment of some sort, and (c) securing faculty buy
in through making the process voluntary. A strong uniting thread amongst participant responses
was that this process needed to be developed with what worked for each individual. This is
where the majority of the differences lay in the data: faculty needs were unique to their context,
environment, employment status, and experience. Despite noting that this mentorship program
was targeted for new clinicians transitioning into academia, most of the participants reflected on
wanting to have an equal if not similar mentorship experience for themselves.

79
It is important to also consider some of the problematic areas that came up during these
conversations which included notions such as: (a) how do we match people, (b) concerns about
having only a few faculty members taking on this workload, (c) not knowing where to start, and
(d) not knowing how to design this program to meet both individual and department needs. The
concept of creating something organic that just evolved was posited by some faculty as favorable
while others wanted something more formal and structured in nature. Taking all of this into
consideration, this procedural influence was acknowledged as a need for faculty.
Metacognitive Knowledge
Influence 1. OTF Need to Reflect on their Current Workload Agreements and Faculty
Development Plans to Know How Mentorship Can Be Implemented Within Current
Productivity Standards
Survey Results. No survey was conducted for this study.
Interview Findings. No interview was conducted for this influence.
Observation. No observation was conducted for this influence.
Document Analysis. Four of eight individuals identified some type of mentorship
implementation planned for the curriculum on their faculty development plans. For workload
agreements, four of nine documents showed evidence of mentorship implementation in the
current OT curriculum. Meeting minutes during faculty retreat showed some evidence of the
discussion of mentorship for curriculum development for the entry-level doctoral program.
Summary. The assumed influence that faculty need to reflect on their current workload
agreements and faculty development plans to know how mentorship can be implemented within
current productivity standards was assessed as a metacognitive need as faculty need to be
strategic with available resources while being mindful of their time. Currently, the discussion of

80
a mentorship program is in the pre-planning and discussion stages of curriculum development for
the transition to the entry-level doctoral program (EOTD). Documents available and reviewed
for this study were examined to see if mentorship of some sort was already occurring, if it was
planned for future contexts, and if it was identified as goals in workload agreements or faculty
development plans. With the university in a current hiring freeze, remaining faculty in the OT
department must absorb departing members’ workloads, which makes this metacognitive
influence a distinct need.
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
Value
Influence 1. OTF Need to See the Value in Creating a Mentorship Program
Survey Results. No survey was conducted for this study.
Interview Findings. Participants were asked, “Tell me, what would you value in
creating this mentorship program?” One hundred percent of faculty found value in creating this
mentorship program during the interview portion of data collection. Some of the foundational
themes of value were found in the contexts of accountability, feedback, support, open dialogue,
being recognized, and creating a more unified department. Participant 10 shared, “So, I do think
if we had a structured mentorship program, it would help to create a more unified department,
because we could have more clear expectations and we can already have kind of a working
framework for collaboration.” Participant 9 shared the following thought about valuing the
university’s culture: “[...] really mentoring them, welcome them to the culture of Whitby
University, what it stands for, what's important.” Participant 4 would value learning others’
teaching skill sets when they shared, “I think for me, what would be helpful is getting more
support for dealing with different students’ situations, classroom dynamics, even learning more

81
about grading [...]” Upon reflection, Participant 6 shared, “I think the most value would have
been or would be in being able to understand or know what kind of things to do, to best prepare
myself [...] it's a very different mindset, going from clinic to clinic, to whatever it is you're doing
to teaching.” In their summation, Participant 7 shared:
I think basic human needs. I think what I’d value most in a mentorship program would
be is, I'm being heard, recognized, I'm being understood. There's someone that's hearing
me. I'm receiving feedback. I feel like the best way to learn about yourself, your goal on
a human level, is to be in relationships. So having a mentor giving you feedback is the
best way to learn about your skill.
Observation. Observations during curricular development meetings at a faculty retreat
revealed some evidence of discussion about the value a mentorship program could bring for new
faculty being on-boarded and for mentorship and leadership positions.
Document Analysis. Curricular development meeting minutes corroborated observation
findings valuing components of what a mentorship program could offer incoming faculty and
what a potential program could offer in terms of developing leadership skills.
Summary. The assumed influence that faculty need to see the value in creating a
mentorship program was assessed as a motivation asset. All faculty expressed the value of what
having a mentorship program could bring to the OT department. Faculty members addressed the
value question in many ways; sometimes they answered from the perspective of a mentor, while
other times from the perspective of a mentee, and often times from both perspectives. Some
faculty addressed the potential value for new hires, while others stressed the value for current
faculty. A common thread of connecting with others was prevalent in the data for this influence
and this took many forms: (a) connecting personally, (b) connecting professionally, (c) having a

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sounding board to run ideas past, (d) having accountability, (e) having someone to help you grow
and develop, (f) being heard, getting feedback on teaching performance, and (g) being connected
to the culture of the university. Secondary to these findings the motivational influence of value
was assessed as an asset for this study.
Self-Efficacy
Influence 1. OT Faculty Have to Be Confident that they Can Help Create a New Mentorship
Program
Survey Results. No survey was conducted for this study.
Interview Findings. Participants were asked, “How confident are you that you could
help create a mentorship program right now?” The data revealed varying degrees of confidence
levels among OT faculty from not confident at all to pretty confident and thus this influence was
determined to be a need. Participants 11, 8, and 6 shared that they were not confident that they
could help create a mentorship program. Participant 11 shared, “Not the creating it but maybe
provide feedback and suggestions.” Participant 8 stated, “[...] I wouldn't feel comfortable
because I'm still, I'm still developing; not confident in my own skills,” and further added, “[...]
not confident I couldn't do it, but not confident of what my role would be, what I would add to
that, what I would bring to the table.” Participant 6 posited, “No, I’m not confident that I could
do that at all. I could help participate. I feel very confident in participating.” Participants 1, 5,
and 7 rated their confidence level numerically with Participant 1 sharing, “I’d probably be a six,”
while Participant 2 shared, “I'm like an eight, I think anybody can help. I don't feel like an
expert. I don't feel like this is my baby in any shape or form. But I feel like anyone can help.”
Participant 7 stated, “I would say, I would pick about 8. I'd be confident in helping out
developing that program.” Participant 9 was the most confident but attributed the level of

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confidence outside themselves when they mentioned, “I’m pretty confident because I think we've
got a champion.” Participant 2 surmised the following:
Me personally, I try not to do things by myself when it has to do with impacting other
people, especially this team here. But do I have confidence that we can do it as a team?
Oh, yeah, in a heartbeat.
Observation. There was some evidence of faculty feeling confident about creating and
implementing a mentorship program noted during the curriculum development meeting, mainly
attributed to the idea that someone else would lead the charge.
Document Analysis. There was no direct mention of confidence levels reflected in any
documents.
Summary. The assumed motivation influence that OT faculty have to be confident that
they can create a new mentorship program was assessed as a need. The particular question
utilized to assess this motivation influence needed clarification or prompts for most participants
to answer the question. It was a common occurrence among participants to not register the
words “help create” and instead hear “create” which could possibly skew an individual’s
perception of their self-efficacy. Most participants would ask clarifying questions such as “me
alone?” or “me as a team?” When clarifications or prompts were given, most individuals felt
that being part of a team was something in which they could successfully participate. There
were some individuals, however, who did not feel confident at all about helping create a
mentorship program either based on their self-perceived inexperience, self-reported limited
knowledge, or not having the confidence to do so. Based on these findings, the motivational
influence of self-efficacy was assessed as a need for this study.

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Attribution
Influence 1. OTF Attribute the Success (or Failure) of the Mentorship Program to their Own
Efforts
Survey Results. No survey was conducted for this study.
Interview Findings. Participants were asked, “What do you think your role might be in
making this program a success?” This influence was assessed as a need as the data showed that
approximately half of the 11 participants were unsure of what their role would be. The
remaining participants shared generalized ideas of being a support, being a participant, and/or
committing to being in a mentoring relationship. Participant 1 and 11 stated “I don’t know”
while Participant 4 shared, “So [I] would be happy to provide mentorship with the online pieces.
I don't know, beyond that, I'm not sure.” Participants 2 and 10 shared that they could offer
support while Participant 5 thought they had little to offer because they felt they still needed
mentoring. Participant 7 stated, “[...] so I think my role would be, is to commit, commitment to
my mentorship relationship.”
Observation. There was some evidence of faculty speaking to measures that might help
create successful outcomes for the successful implementation of the mentorship program by
attempting to secure buy-in during the curriculum development meeting. In terms of attributing
individual efforts to the success or failure of the program, thoughts were global and spoken more
in terms of what the department could do as a whole.
Document Analysis. In the meeting minutes for the curriculum development meeting,
the only source of data for this influence came from documentation reflecting being a support
system for one another in finding support systems outside of the department that could help
ensure successful outcomes for the mentorship program.

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Summary. The assumed motivation influence that OT faculty need to attribute the
success (or failure) of the mentorship program to their own efforts was assessed as a need. The
participant data showed that most individuals were not sure what their role would be in making
the mentorship program a success. Individual attributions centered more around being supporter,
participant, or cheerleader of sorts. Some participants interpreted the verbiage of “role” as one
of identifying strengths, hence the nature of answers that iterated being a support of some sort.
This notion of being a support was differentiated by participants in terms of offering resources,
insight, enthusiasm, or collaboration. The motivation influence of attribution is needed by OT
faculty.
Emotion
Influence 1. OTF Need to Feel Positive About Creating the Mentorship Program
Survey Results. No survey was conducted for this study.
Interview Findings. Participants in this study were asked, “How positive do you feel
that the OT department can create this mentorship program?” This influence was determined to
be a need, as seven out of the eleven participants for this study felt somewhat positive about
creating the mentorship program, while four individuals had doubts. Only Participants 1, 2, and
3 were 100% positive about the mentorship program. Participant 6 stated they were 80%
positive, while Participant 4 said they were only 80-90% positive because “there’s only so much
of everyone to go around.” Regarding their level of positivity about creating the mentorship
program, Participant 8 stated, “80% percent. 90% if we’re given the time to do that,” while
Participant 7 expressed their thoughts in the following way: “I just feel like that so much time is
gonna be spent there. And to be honest with you, I am kind of worried about it.”
Observation. There was some evidence during curriculum planning meetings that OT

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faculty felt positive about creating the mentorship program as evidenced through the discussion
about what it could look like when the department transitioned to the EOTD program.
Document Analysis. No documents reflected this motivational influence.
Summary. The assumed motivation influence that OT faculty need to feel positive
about creating the mentorship program was assessed as a need for this study. The participants
that felt positive about the department creating a mentorship program were steadfast in their
responses. For those faculty that had doubts, they were collectively worried about the
department running thin on resources, mostly human, financial, and time. It appeared evident
that participants were positive about the department’s ability to make things happen but, were
concerned about not having the support needed to make the mentorship program happen amongst
other departmental responsibilities.
Interest
Influence 1. OTF Need to Find Creating a Mentorship Program Interesting
Survey Results. No survey was conducted for this study.
Interview Findings. Two questions were asked to assess this influence. In the first,
participants were asked, “Does creating a mentorship program for the OT department interest
you? Can you explain your answer?” Nine of the eleven participants responded positively about
their interest, however, Participant 3 stated “[...] depends on what the workload would be, what
the expectations would be.” Participant 8 summed up their thoughts by saying, “There’s
expectations of faculty and then there’s interest.” Question 1 for this influence was thus
determined to be a need.

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Observation. There was some evidence during curriculum planning meetings that
OT faculty were interested in creating the mentorship program as evidenced through curricular
planning discussions.
Document Analysis. No documents reflected this motivational influence.
Summary. The assumed motivation influence that OT faculty need to find
interest in creating the mentorship program was assessed as a need for this study. Although a
majority of faculty (nine of eleven) answered yes to this influence question, it was short of the
ten of eleven required to qualify this influence as an asset. Some participants mentioned that
creating a mentorship program would be helpful and a good idea. However, for the two
participants with alternative viewpoints, it appeared that more context in terms of defining what
mentorship is as well outlining expectations and workloads were needed to secure their buy-in.
Interview Findings. For the second question for this influence participants were asked,
“How would you feel about creating the first-of-its-kind mentorship program for OT clinicians
transitioning into teaching in the OT department?” Eight out of eleven participants had favorable
responses such as, “I’d love it” (Participant 2), “I think that it’s necessary” (Participant 11), “I
think that’s a needed element” (Participant 5), “I think that would be good” (Participant 6), and
“I think it would be positive” (Participant 10). Three of the eleven participants posited other
opinions such as, “I wouldn’t want to do it. I want someone else to do it” (Participant 9), “I
mean, I’d help be part of it, but I don’t, I don’t really know what, what, role” (Participant 8), and
“So I think I could probably help, but in terms of me creating something individually, launching
something individually, I don’t have the experience to do that” (Participant 3).
Observation. There was no observation component for question number 2 of this
interest influence.

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Document Analysis. There was no document analysis for question number 2 of this
interest influence.
Summary. The assumed motivation influence that OT faculty need to find interest in
creating the first-of-its-kind mentorship program for OT clinicians transitioning into teaching
was assessed as a need for this influence. There was clear interest for 8/11 faculty, no interest
for one participant, and two participants could see being part of something that would help create
the mentorship program but were clear that they had no interest in taking this on as an individual
endeavor.
Results and Findings for Organization Causes
Cultural Models
Influence 1. OTF Need to Feel that There Is a Culture of Trust Between the OT Department
and Administration to Supply the Resources Needed for a Mentorship Program
Survey Results. No survey was conducted for this study.
Interview Findings. Participants were asked, “In what ways do you think
organizational trust would help the OT department receive the resources needed to implement a
mentorship program?” This question was difficult for some participants to answer because the
context of trust between organizational layers was not a familiar space, and consequently this
influence was assessed as a need. For four participants, trust as an issue was expressed in the
following ways: “I’ve never had to go outside our department in order for me to fulfill my duties
[...] so I'm not really sure if I can, it’s sort of a neutral answer, I don't know” (Participant 7); “ I
don’t think we always trust what the, what’s going to happen is really what should happen”
(Participant 6); ” I don’t know how much that comes into play” (Participant 4); and “I feel like
trust in general, at the entire university system, I'll just go big, at the entire system is on the

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rocks” (Participant 5). For Participants 2 and 8, organizational trust was acknowledged as
important, but was also highlighted as a process of accountability as summed up by Participant 2:
It's tough. It doesn't say that, that the department can go in and just that it will slide
through without any thinking of it or anything like that. That's not the case. We would
still have to be able to provide good solid information, a well thought out proposal, and
all of that stuff.
Observation. There was no evidence during faculty meetings, faculty-student
advisement sessions, or curriculum development meetings that spoke to organizational trust.
Document Analysis. There was no document analysis for this cultural model influence.
Summary. All eleven participants were able to articulate their feelings about
organizational trust, but there were no clear-cut answers that specifically alluded to having it in
the organization. The assumed cultural model influence that OT faculty need to feel that there is
a culture of trust between the OT department and administration to supply the resources needed
for a mentorship program was assessed as a need for this influence. Although the question
paired the concept of trust with the supplying of resources needed for a mentorship program, it
was not always answered in this context. Systemic organizational issues from both a macro and
micro perspective were often highlighted as were concerns about organizational transparency
and accountability.
Influence 2. There Is a Culture of Fight or Flight in the Organization About Creating a
Unified Mentorship Program
For this influence the culture of fight or flight is represented as silos within the
organization in which individuals must choose to either fight for their program or refuse to

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collaborate with others’ program. This concept is also reflected in not having an organization-
wide cadre of seasoned teachers wanting to be mentors in general.
Survey Results. No survey was conducted for this study.
Interview Findings. Participants were asked, “Some people might say that Whitby
University suffers from being siloed; do you think creating a mentorship program that all
departments could benefit from would help that?” This influence was assessed as a need as the
majority of OT faculty didn’t understand the concept of what being siloed meant. From what
could be gleaned after clarifications and explanations from the researcher, the results from the
findings were mixed with some participants not understanding the connection, some believing it
would help, and others unsure if it would make a difference. Some thoughts on this question
included the following: “I don't know. I don't see that. I don't see how that works” (Participant
3); “Absolutely” (Participant 11); “So I don't see as much of the siloing” (Participant 4);
“There’s nothing wrong with being siloed” (Participant 8); “Yes, but it has to be well thought
out, well-structured, evidence-based” (Participant 2); “And so I think having a mix and a variety
of people would be excellent and extending the mentorship program to other departments would
be great. Will it fix the silo problem? Not sure, but it's a start” (Participant 5). Participant 7
succinctly answered “No” and Participant 9, “Oh, absolutely.” Closing thoughts from
Participant 10 posited the following: “If we were to share some of that collective knowledge,
think about how much stronger we would be […].”
Observation. One observation during curricular development meeting revealed
participants speaking proactively about a unified mentorship program when engaging in scenario
development.

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Document Analysis. There was no document analysis for this cultural model influence.
Summary. The assumed cultural model influence that there is a culture of fight or flight
in the organization about creating a unified mentorship program was assessed as a need because
results were mixed. This question required clarifying prompts for some individuals in defining
what being siloed meant. Some participants did not see the organization as siloed, while others
did. The influence was intended to portray an organizational culture that would either work well
together in creating a unified mentorship program or would not. Findings revealed that
participants were not entirely sure of what types of collaborations would work for the
organization internally or externally. Others thought that having a good mix of people in any
one area would help the organization support a unified mentorship program. The findings for
this influence also suggest that there are different levels of knowledge as to how the organization
functions. Full-time OT faculty appeared to understand more of the internal dynamics of
organizational culture and saw the need for increased collaboration to ensure a unified
mentorship program would work (fight). Newer faculty or those with part-time or adjunct status,
however, were less aware of organizational inner workings and thus had limited understanding as
to how a unified mentorship program would be best supported (flight). As such, there is a need
for a culture of collaboration within the organization.
Cultural Settings
Influence 1. The Organization Needs to Support a Structured Mentorship Program
Survey Results. No survey was conducted for this study.
Interview Findings. This influence was assessed using two questions. Participants were
first asked, “When considering Whitby’s mission to onboard and train new faculty for excellence
in teaching, what types of organizational support do you believe will be needed to start a

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mentorship program?” Part one of this influence was assessed as a need secondary to two
participants having no idea about the organizational support needed as evidenced by their replies
of, “I don’t know” (Participants 4 & 8). Some of the common ideas among other participants for
organizational support needed included (a) funding, (b) resources, (c) training, (d) support, and
(e) time. Participant 1 shared, “Yeah, once a month, I think we’ve dedicated one of our faculty
meetings to further our learning, so that creates already, a culture.” Participant 3 stated, “You’d
probably have to have some sort of committee or something of that nature.” Thoughts from
other participants included, “I think you have to have support, multi-tiered, because we know
budget is an issue and you do have to have funding to make that work” (Participant 5), and
“Yeah. I think right off the bat; I think admin” (Participant 7). In regard to socialization and
support, Participant 9 shared, “It can be a lonely life as a faculty member, you know, different
than the clinic. Take them down to the counselors’ pavilion. I definitely am big on the whole
social part.”
The second question for this influence asked, “What types of organizational support do
you think we already have?” The second question for this influence was also assessed as a need
based on mixed findings. Six participants expressed the following ideas in terms of
organizational support currently present: (a) faculty forums, (b) chat & chews, (c) continuing
education, (d) orientation, and (e) micro-teaching. Five participants, however, struggled with
identifying specific support systems as evidenced by some of the following statements: “I don't
know, because I don't feel it. I do see the department of support, but I don't feel the university
support” (Participant 11); “I haven't seeked out any resource because I don't know what's out
there. I don't even know how you look out there” (Participant 8); and “I don’t know what
support is really available...” (Participant 4). In regard to new person orientation, Participant 5

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stated, “I think you have organization supports that I didn't realize, but I don't think they come
soon enough.” In contrast to this, Participant 2 stated, “We have the desire,” while Participant
10 summed up their thoughts by adding:
In place, I think we do have as far as looking at mentorship, I think we have a lot of
faculty with a lot of strengths who would be willing to step forward and share and who
also want to grow.
Observation. There was no observation component for this cultural setting influence.
Document Analysis. Curricular development meeting minutes had some documented
information about mentorship support systems both in and outside of the OT department. Only
one of eight faculty development plans showed evidence of needing to allocate resources for
mentorship of several types, collegial, student/teacher, and student advising.
Summary. The assumed cultural setting influence that OT faculty need to support a
structured mentorship program was identified as a need as mixed findings were reported for
both. The employment status (full-time, part-time, and/or adjunct positions) made a distinct
difference in how participants understood the resources available to them. Full-time faculty had
more knowledge about the resources made available to them than part-time or adjunct faculty.
Hierarchy, or one’s position in the department, also made a clear distinction on what knowledge
was made available to participants; the higher the position, the more knowledge about resources
one had. Experience, or one’s time working in the department, was the one context that didn’t
seem to affect knowledge about resources: an equal amount of faculty with years of experience
had the same level of difficulty identifying resources for question number two as did faculty with
a few years of experience. A majority of faculty also expressed thoughts about not knowing
where to look, search, or find resources that are made available to them.

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Summary of Validated Influences
Table 6, 7, and 8 show the knowledge, motivation and organization influences for this
study and their determination as an asset or a need.
Knowledge
Table 6
Knowledge Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed Knowledge Influence Asset or Need?
Factual
Occupational therapy faculty (OTF) need to know what the components
of a mentorship program are.
Need
Occupational therapy faculty need to know the difference between
mentorship, apprenticeship, and coaching.
Need
OT department needs to know the types of characteristics and behaviors
that mentees need and want.
Need
Conceptual
N/A
Procedural
OTF need to know how to design and implement a mentorship program. Need
Metacognitive
OTF need to reflect on their current workload agreements and faculty
development plans to know how mentorship can be implemented within
current productivity standards.
Need

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Motivation
Table 7
Motivation Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed Motivation Influence Asset or
Need?
Value
OTF need to see the value in creating a mentorship program. Asset
Self-efficacy
OTF have to be confident that they can help create a new mentorship program. Need
Attribution
OTF attribute the success (or failure) of the mentorship program to their own
efforts.
Need
Emotion
OTF need to feel positive about creating the mentorship program. Need
Interest
OTF need to find creating a mentorship program interesting. Need

Organization
Table 8
Organization Assets or Needs as Determined by the Data
Assumed Organization Influence Asset or
Need?
Cultural Model
OTF need to perceive that there is a culture of trust between the OT department
and administration to supply the resources needed for a mentorship program.
Need
There is a culture of fight or flight in the organization about creating a unified
mentorship program.
Need
Cultural Setting
The organization needs to support a structured mentorship program. Need

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Chapter Five will detail recommendations for the solutions for these influencers based on
empirical evidence.

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CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS AND EVALUATION
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to conduct a needs analysis in the areas of knowledge and
skills, motivation, and organizational resources necessary for Whitby OT faculty to reach the
organizational performance goal of creating and implementing a mentorship program for new
clinical faculty through an introductory program aimed at fostering growth and development in
teaching. The analysis began by generating a list of possible needs and then moved to examining
these systematically to focus on actual or validated needs. While a complete needs’ analysis
would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholder of focus for this analysis
was occupational therapy faculty at Whitby University. The following questions guided the
needs analysis that addressed knowledge and skills, motivation, and organization resources and
solutions for occupational therapy faculty at Whitby University.
1. What is the stakeholder knowledge and motivation needs for Whitby OT faculty to create
and implement a program to mentor 100% of new clinical faculty transiting into
academia by preparing them for roles in teaching?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and OT faculty
knowledge and motivation?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions for
faculty?

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Recommendations to Address Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction
The knowledge influences in Table 9 are representative of the assumed list of knowledge
influences being assessed as needs based on their frequency of mention during semi-structured
interviews, document analysis, and observation in meeting the stakeholders’ goal. There were
four knowledge needs that were validated as a result of data collection: two for declarative, one
for procedural, and one for metacognition. All of these knowledge causes were assessed as high
priority. These particular knowledge influences are supported in the literature review and in
Clark and Estes (2008) who posit that declarative knowledge is often a precursor to procedural
knowledge and in Schraw and McCrudden (2006) who suggest that when information is learned
in a meaningful context and paired with prior knowledge, it is stored more quickly and recalled
with more accuracy. Table 9 highlights the knowledge influences identified as needs and shows
the context-specific recommendations needed for implementation to ensure success at meeting
the stakeholders’ goals.

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Table 9
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Priority
Needs
High
Low
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Factual
Occupational therapy
faculty (OTF) need to
know the components
of a mentorship
program.
H
How individuals
organize knowledge
influences how they
learn and apply what
they know. (Schraw
& McCrudden, 2006)
Provide OTF with a visual
organizer of the components of a
mentoring program.
OT department needs
to be able to know the
types of characteristics
and behaviors that
mentees need and
want.

H
Increasing germane
cognitive load by
engaging the learner in
meaningful learning
and schema
construction facilitates
effective learning.
(Kirschner, 2002)
To increase germane load,
provide worked examples of
characteristics and behaviors that
mentees need and want.
Conceptual
There were no
conceptual influences
assessed.

Procedural
OTF need to know
how to design and
implement a
mentorship program.
H
To develop mastery,
individuals must
acquire component
skills, practice
integrating them, and
know when to apply
what they have
learned. (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006)
Provide training in the form of
demonstration, practice, and
feedback to design a mentorship
program.

Utilize factual knowledge from
evidence-based research to
conduct training sessions for
designing a mentorship program.

Provide job aides to pull in
transfer of knowledge from other
areas faculty have used for
program development.

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Metacognitive
OTF need to reflect on
their current workload
agreements and
faculty development
plans to see how
mentorship can be
implemented within
current productivity
standards.

H
The use of
metacognitive
strategies assists in
becoming self-
regulated.
(Baker, 2010).

Provide OTF with opportunities
to identify specific strategies that
they know or don’t know about
how other innovating universities
use to plan and manage time for
mentorship duties and use this as
a springboard for guided self-
monitoring and for curriculum
planning.

Invite discourse, share thoughts
in open forum discussions, and
negotiate workable strategies that
align with Whitby culture.

Declarative Knowledge Solutions
Of the two declarative knowledge influencers examined for this study, the most
foundational influence “What are the components of a good mentorship program?” was
highlighted for the results section, as it was the most foundational question and one that was the
springboard for all other knowledge questions. The results and findings of this study indicated
that all occupational therapy faculty are in need of specific declarative knowledge in regard to
what components comprise a good mentorship program.
Five out of eleven occupational therapy faculty had minimal knowledge of the types of
components that made up a good mentorship program; however, not one individual had inclusive
knowledge. A recommendation rooted in information processing theory has been chosen to help
close this declarative knowledge gap. Schraw and McCrudden (2006) found that the way in
which an individual organized knowledge affected how they learned and applied what they
knew. This would suggest that providing occupational therapy (OT) faculty with education on
what constitutes components of a good mentorship program would support their learning. The

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recommendation is thus to provide OT faculty with a visual organizer (i.e.., concept map, mind
map) of the components of a mentorship program.
According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), factual knowledge is the basic and most
elemental information that people need in order to work through a problem. Ellingsen and
Monterio (2018) posit that knowledge representation is driven by how work is organized while
Clark and Estes (2008) share that translating research for the development and growth of
individual performance is one of the most effective ways to help employees make sense of
education. In his discussion of knowledge management as a tool for organizational management,
Omotayo (2015) emphasized that knowledge becomes embedded in institutional culture through
the organization of information, and through habits and routines. By utilizing the learning
strategies of rehearsal, chunking, and elaboration (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006), education on
the components of a good mentorship program can be organized to provide the much-needed
declarative knowledge to process, learn, and recall information.
Procedural Knowledge Solutions
Of the two procedural knowledge influencers examined for this study, the question that
asked, “If you were in charge of designing a mentorship program for the occupational therapy
department, what would it look like?” is the procedural influencer being reported for the results
section. This item was prioritized secondary to understanding that the concept of design is
important to consider prior to implementation discussions. The results and findings of this study
indicated that all occupational therapy faculty are in need of specific procedural knowledge in
regard to how to design a mentorship program. Five out of eleven occupational therapy faculty
had minimal procedural knowledge when it came to designing a mentorship program for the OT
department. Although various ideas were shared, they were similar in description to the

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knowledge influencer question that asked to describe the components of a good mentorship
program. A recommendation rooted in information processing theory has been chosen to help
close this procedural knowledge gap. Schraw and McCrudden (2006) emphasized that mastery
develops through the acquisition and practice of skills. This would suggest that providing
occupational therapy (OT) faculty with training and job aides would help support their learning.
The recommendation is thus to provide factual knowledge from evidence-based research to
conduct training sessions for designing a mentorship program and job aides to pull in the transfer
of knowledge from other areas faculty have used for program development.
Clark and Estes (2008) highlight that all training must have clear objectives, expectations,
and descriptions of what the participants will learn and what they should be able to do once the
training is done. Schraw and McCrudden (2006) suggest providing experiences that help
individuals process and understand material while Mayer (2011) emphasizes the importance of
providing feedback throughout the learning process. Huan and Brusilovsky (2016) found that
mastery can be increased by pairing skill combinations in chunks while Charles, Johnson, and
Fletcher (2015) discovered that job aids must be structured well, relevant to the task at hand, and
written in a way that is understandable if individuals are to use them. Keeping the
aforementioned in mind, the use of training and job aides could amplify the amount of learning
that is operationalized in context and thus made useful during mentorship training.
Conceptual Knowledge Solutions
There were no conceptual knowledge influences assessed.
Metacognitive Knowledge Solutions
Document analysis comprised the data for the metacognitive influence. The results and
findings indicated that there was some evidence of mentorship implementation on faculty

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development plans for 50% of OT faculty and some evidence of mentorship implementation on
workload agreements for 44% of OT faculty. All faculty, however, need to be able to reflect on
their current workload agreements and faculty development plans to see how mentorship can be
implemented within current productivity standards. A recommendation rooted in social
cognitive theory has been chosen to help close this metacognitive knowledge gap. Baker (2010)
suggests that metacognition plays a key role in how learning is applied from one context to the
next. He goes on to suggest that having increased awareness of how one learns best allows
individuals to make the most of their learning resources and strategies. OTF can build upon
their metacognitive skills by inviting discourse, sharing their thoughts in open forum discussions,
and negotiating solutions on workable strategies that fit the culture of Whitby University. This
would suggest that providing occupational therapy (OT) faculty with opportunities to discuss
specific strategies would help support their learning. The recommendation is thus to provide
OTF with opportunities to identify specific strategies that they know or don’t know about how
other innovating universities plan and manage time for mentorship duties and use this for guided
self-monitoring. These efforts can be used as a springboard for curriculum planning where
transfer of learning would need to strategically take place between workload agreements and
faculty development plans.
One principle of social cognitive theory identifies self-regulatory strategies that include
goal setting as a way to enhance learning and performance (Denler et al., 2009). Rueda (2011)
posits that the cognitive components involved with self-regulated learning allows the learner to
see where information might be useful in the real world. Metacognitive knowledge allows
individuals to become more aware of the learning process as they navigate through their critical
thinking, problem solving, and reasoning. (Baker, 2010).

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Portugal (2018) discusses in detail the gains she experienced as a seasoned faculty
member immersed in a community of practice mentorship intensive. From her experience she
describes the significant growth that occurred in her teaching and learning skills through what
she attributes in part to “self-regulated learning techniques and metacognitive processes” (p.
141). In their discussion about metacognitive abilities and leadership, Black, Soto, and Spurlin
(2016) suggest that debriefing, thinking out loud, and formal training are some of the more
important skills to hone when nurturing metacognitive skills. By providing education on specific
strategies that other universities use to innovatively plan and manage time for mentorship duties,
OTF can reflect and problem solve through the areas that can be modified for use in the
curriculum in a way that is relevant and in a way that contributes to faculty growth and
development. Additionally, OTF can build upon their metacognitive skills by inviting discourse,
sharing their thoughts in open forum discussions, and negotiating solutions on workable
strategies that fit the culture of Whitby University.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction
The motivation influences in Table 10 are representative of the assumed list of
motivation influences being assessed as needs based on their frequency of mention during semi-
structured interviews, document analysis, and observations in meeting the stakeholders’ goal.
There were five motivation causes that were validated as a result of data collection in the
influence areas of value, self-efficacy, interest, attributions, and emotion. Four of five of these
motivation causes were assessed as high priority with the influence of value being the exception.
These particular motivation influencers are supported in the literature review and in Clark and
Estes (2008) who shared that motivation is in large part a cultural phenomenon. The authors also

105
surmised that motivation is made up of three distinct processes that include active choice,
persistence, and mental effort. Table 10 highlights the motivation influencers identified as needs
and shows the context specific recommendations needed for implementation to ensure success at
meeting the stakeholders’ goals.

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Table 10
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Motivation
Influence
Priority
Needs
High
Low
Principle and
Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Value
OTF need to see
the value in
creating a
mentorship
program.
L
The motivational influencer
of value was not found as a
need in this study.
Self-Efficacy
OT faculty have
to be confident
that they can
help create a
new mentorship
program.

H
Learning and
motivation are
enhanced when
learners have
positive
expectancies for
success. (Pajares,
2006)

Self-regulatory
strategies, including
goal setting, enhance
learning and
performance
(Dembo & Eaton,
2000)
Set concrete and challenging
goals that allow OTF to
experience success when
creating the mentorship
program.
Interest
OTF need to
find creating a
mentorship
program
interesting.
H
Activating and
building upon
personal interest can
increase learning and
motivation. (Schraw
& Lehman, 2009)

Activate personal interest by
providing choices and
control when
creating/designing and
implementing the mentorship
program, subsequently
building upon personal
interests and prior
knowledge.

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Attribution
H

OTF need to
attribute the
success (or
failure) of the
mentorship
program to their
own efforts.
Learning and
motivation are
enhanced when
individuals attribute
success of failure to
effort rather than
ability. (Anderman
& Anderman, 2009).
Provide opportunities for
open forum discussions that
allow for feedback stressing
the importance of effort,
goals, and strategies.

Emotion
OTF need to
feel positive
about creating
the mentorship
program.
H
Positive emotional
environments
support motivation
(Clark & Estes,
2008).
Support OTF’s need for
autonomy and choice in the
mentorship decision making
process by honoring
feedback and facilitating
reflection during open forum
discussions.

Value Solutions
Value was an asset for 100% of all faculty and thus not needed to address as a need for
this study.
Self-Efficacy Solutions to Increase Self-Efficacy for All Occupational Therapy Faculty
Ten out of eleven occupational therapy faculty members were not 100% confident they
could help create a mentorship program right now. A recommendation based on self-efficacy
theory has been selected to close this motivation gap. Pajares (2006) emphasized that learning
and motivation become enhanced when individuals have positive expectations for success. He
also posits that at its core, self-efficacy is about the beliefs individuals have about their
capabilities. Dembo and Eaton (2000) found that goal setting is one of the most successful ways
to enhance motivation. This would suggest having positive expectations in the ability for OTF to
create the mentorship program will be paramount. The recommendation is thus to set concrete
and challenging goals that allow OTF to experience success when creating the mentorship

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program. By providing these elements, self-efficacy will be increased because learning and
motivation will be fostered from successful goal completion.
Bandura (1986) defines self-efficacy as “People’s judgments of their capabilities to
organize and execute a course of action required to attain designated levels of performance” (p.
391). When framed through a social cognitive theory perspective, self-efficacy beliefs are some
of the most profound motivational beliefs that individuals carry with them (Pajares, 2006). Self-
efficacy is tied closely with all three motivational indicators, (choice, persistence, and mental
effort) and is an important factor to consider when task engagement becomes difficult (Rueda,
2011). In his meta-analysis between achievement goals and self-efficacy, Huang (2016) found
“[...] mean relations between mastery goals and self-efficacy […]” (p. 132) to be moderate to
strong but found the correlation between performance goals and self-efficacy to be low, although
positive. In their study regarding medical students, Babenko and Oswald (2019) found that by
creating environments that supported medical students’ needs to establish competence, they
simultaneously developed in achieving mastery goals. By increasing self-efficacy via the
creation of concrete and challenging goals that allow OTF to experience success, the department
will feel more confident in creating the first-of-its-kind mentorship program for new clinicians
transitioning into academia.
Interest Solutions to Increase Interest for All Occupational Therapy Faculty
Two motivational interest questions were embedded in this study. The following
question “Does creating a mentorship program for the OT department interest you” was utilized
for this analysis as it was a foundational question that gauged level of interest. Nine of eleven
faculty members found creating a mentorship program for the occupational therapy department
interesting and two of the nine stated that it would be helpful and or a good idea. There were two

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faculty members, however, that had reservations either because mentorship as a process had not
been defined or because it was not clear if the effort was to be team or individually based.
In the observation findings only one occurrence of noted interest was documented during
a curricular development meeting. For document analysis data, there was no evidence of interest
noted in faculty development plans or faculty workload agreements; however, one instance was
noted in the minutes for a curricular development meeting.
A recommendation based on interest theory has been selected to close this motivation
gap. Schraw and Lehman (2009) found that activating personal interest can help increase
motivation and learning. They also suggest that addressing context-relevant problems and
offering meaningful choices are some of the ways to increase interest. This would suggest that
providing OT faculty with choices and control when creating the mentorship program may
increase their interest. Thus the recommendation is for the OT department to provide ample
opportunities for faculty members to contribute their thoughts and to participate in the decision-
making process when creating the mentorship program. This combination of providing choices
and an element of control will subsequently allow OT faculty to build upon personal interests
and prior knowledge which is foundational for sustained motivation.
Creating the first-of-its-kind mentorship program for the OT department will initially
spark situational interest. According to Schraw and Lehman (2009), situational interest is
triggered quickly through interactions with one’s environment. This type of peak interest will be
important in capturing the attention of OT faculty. In order to sustain their interest, however,
personal interest will have to be cultivated. Personal interest is intrinsically motivating and as
such enables engagement with information so that individuals develop conceptual knowledge
and distinct procedural skill sets (Schraw & Lehman, 2009). Rueda (2011) suggests that higher

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levels of interest help increase intrinsic motivation while Rotgans and Schmidt (2017) conclude
that it is individual (personal) interest that is the main driver for increasing knowledge
acquisition. From a theoretical perspective, piquing situational interest while cultivating
personal interest will help occupational therapy sustain their interest in the creation of the
mentorship program.
Attribution Solutions to Assist Occupational Therapy Faculty Attributing the Success or
Failure of the Mentorship Program to Their Own Efforts
The results and findings of this study revealed that no faculty were able to attribute the
potential success or failure of this mentorship program to their own efforts. Generalized ideas
were posited by some faculty that they could offer support or be a participant; however, no one
was able explicitly identify what role they would play in the success or failure of creating the
mentorship program. A recommendation rooted in attribution theory has been selected to close
this resource gap. Learning and motivation are enhanced when individuals attribute their
successes or failures to effort rather than ability (Anderman & Anderman, 2009). This suggests
that occupational therapy faculty who recognize their efforts in the creation of this mentorship
program will enhance both their learning and motivation. Consequently, the recommendation is
to provide opportunities for open forum discussions that allow for feedback, stressing the
importance of effort, goals, and strategies. This will allow for personal reflection, accountability,
and collective self-efficacy to function as the feedback loops needed for faculty attributions to
occur.
Beliefs and emotions are tied into attribution. According to Anderman and Anderman
(2009), the emotions and beliefs that individuals experience through an attribution process are a
good indicator of future behavior. Faculty who attribute their lack of experience to a lack of

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ability will shy away from taking the lead in the creation and design of this mentorship program.
Nearly all faculty reported that they could back a champion or be a supporter of this program, but
none wanted to lead it, mostly because of already burdened workloads and or self-perceived
inexperience. In his seminal work on attribution theory, Weiner (1985) believed that an
individual’s attributions were affected by environmental and personal contexts. Nob (2015)
found that lack of effort and lack of ability were the two attributional factors understood by the
participants in their study about feedback, while greater difficulty occurred in having to
comprehend lack of self-confidence, self-regulation, and values. By supporting open forum
discussions that allow for feedback and that stress the importance of effort, goals, and strategies,
OT faculty can share their thoughts in an environment that is safe but yet holds people
accountable. In this way, individuals can support one another's efforts and corporately problem
solve a communal action plan.
Emotion Solutions to Increase Positive Emotions for all Occupational Therapy Faculty
All faculty need to feel positive that the OT department can create this mentorship
program. The results and findings of this study indicate that only 63% of all faculty feel
somewhat positive that the OT department can create this mentorship program. A
recommendation based on emotion theory has been selected to close this motivation gap. Clark
& Estes (2008) shared that positive emotional environments support motivation. Honoring the
faculty’s need for autonomy and choice in the decision-making process would help them feel
more positive when creating, designing, and implementing the mentorship program. The
recommendation is to create spaces for feedback and reflection throughout the design and
creation process so that all OT faculty feel that their voices are heard. By ensuring that faculty

112
feel supported and their thoughts valued, a positive emotional environment will provide the type
of sustained motivation needed for mentorship program development.
Emotions known to most as positive, such as happiness and joy, support work
commitment (Clark & Estes, 2008). Emotions are an integral part of motivation that can affect
persistence during a task especially when obstacles arise (Lord, 2002). According to Pekrun
(2011), emotions are a distinct part of how individuals learn. Lord and Kanfer (2002) conclude
that positive emotions encourage a range of organizational behaviors such as skill refinement,
creativity, social interaction, commitment to the organization, and increased social behaviors. In
addition, Rogala and Cieslak (2019) found that experiencing positive emotions at work allowed
individuals to explore work challenges optimistically and, moreover, when individuals worked as
a team, they were more likely to share their positive emotions at work, thus increasing their
social resources. Framing the mentorship program as the first-of-its-kind can help create a
supportive environment that encourages positivity, teamwork, and buy-in. Occupational therapy
faculty need to feel positive about creating the mentorship program which means as a department
we will have to work through many emotions, keep the lines of communication open, and find
motivation in supporting others. From a theoretical perspective, it would suffice to say that
increasing positive emotions would increase faculty motivation for the creation of this
mentorship program.
Organization Recommendations
Introduction
Table 11 represents the organizational influences assessed as needs during semi-
structured interviews, observation, and document analysis in meeting the stakeholders’ goal.
There were three organizational causes that were validated as a result of data collection: two

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under the influence area of cultural models, and one under the influence area of cultural setting.
All three organizational causes were assessed as high priority.
Two cultural ideas posited by Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001), cultural models and
cultural settings, help explain in more detail the process of organizational functioning and
change. Cultural models are contextualized as observable values and beliefs that have been
crafted by individuals’ shared experiences. Cultural settings are conceptualized as instances
when people join forces to carry out valued activities that require action. Clark and Estes (2008)
suggest that when stakeholder and organizational goals are not met, it is often secondary to
insufficient resources and because goals are not aligned with the mission of the institution. In
order for an organization to successfully achieve its mission and goals, cultural models, cultural
settings, resources, and processes must all be aligned. Table 11 highlights the organizational
influences that were assessed as needs and thus regarded as high priority for achieving the
stakeholder’s goal. Recommendations for these influences based on theoretical principles are
also shown in Table 11.

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Table 11
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organization
Influence
Priority
Needs
High
Low
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Models
OTF need to
perceive that
there is a culture
of trust between
the OT
department and
administration to
supply the
resources needed
for a mentorship
program.

H
Effective change efforts
ensure that everyone has
the resources)
equipment, personnel,
time, etc.,) needed to do
their job, and that if
there are resource
shortages, then
resources are aligned
with organizational
priorities (Clark and
Estes, 2008).

Walk the Walk and
building trust. Manager
behavior as well as
organizational climate
can set conditions that
impede organizational
change. (Korsgaard,
Brodt, & Whitener,
2002)
Pair needs assessment
findings with strategic
plan to help establish
trust and prioritize
allocation of resources
that align with the
organizational mission
to create the mentorship
program.
There is a culture
of fight or flight
in the
organization
about creating a
unified
mentorship
program.

H
Organizational culture
needs to align with
organizational behavior
for change to occur
(Clark and Estes, 2008)

Conduct an informal
audit of Whitby’s
organizational behavior
(policies, procedures,
and communication) to
check where alignment
can be developed with
the OT department’s
goals and objectives in
piloting the mentorship
program.

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Cultural Settings
The organization
needs to support a
structured
mentorship
program.

H
Part I: (Moran &
Brightman, 2000)
Change management is
the process of
continually renewing an
organization's direction,
structure, and
capabilities to serve the
ever-changing needs of
external and internal
customers. Leaders can
drive behavior and align
these behaviors to
synchronize with the
desired organizational
change.

Part II: Effective leaders
have the skills and
strategies needed to
redesign their
organization for
effective
communication
(Denning, 2005;
Hathaway & Henson,
2013; Lewis, 2011).
Prioritize the types of
organizational support
(during curricular
planning meeting) OT
faculty will need to start
a mentorship program.
This will be done
through an action plan.

During curricular
planning meeting work
with OT faculty to
design a
communication model
that effectively
manages organizational
information in-house.

Cultural Model Solutions
Occupational Therapy Faculty Need to Perceive that There Is a Culture of Trust
Between the OT Department and Administration to Supply the Resources Needed for a
Mentorship Program. Only two occupational therapy faculty were able to articulate the ways
in which organizational trust would help secure the resources needed to implement a mentorship
program. A recommendation based on organizational change theory has been selected to close
this cultural model gap. According to Clark and Estes (2008), effective change efforts supply
individuals with the resources they need to successfully do their job and most importantly, if

116
resources are scant, they are prioritized according to organizational needs. Korsgaard, Brodt,
and Whitener (2002) suggest that trust in the face of conflict is affected by organizational climate
and manager behavior; events that are considered negative or policies that seem unfair affect
how individuals trust their organizations. This would suggest that establishing a culture of trust
through supplying the resources needed to fulfill the goal of creating a mentorship program
would allow organizational and stakeholder needs to be in alignment. The recommendation then
is to pair needs assessment findings with the strategic plan to establish trust and prioritize
allocation of resources that align with the organizational mission to create the mentorship
program.
When examining mentorship in higher education, Bean, Lucas, and Hyers (2014)
suggested that mentorship programs fail because they are not connected to a supportive
organizational culture. Ozyilmaz, Erdogan, and Karaeminogullari (2018) found desired
employee workplace behaviors and attitudes a result of high self-efficacy and trust in the
organization. Clark and Estes (2008) posit that good communication fosters trust in individuals
so much so that their organizational performance adjusts to changing needs. In their discussion
of trust, Mollering and Sydow (2019) suggest that trust can become a governing principle that
helps form strategic alliances on an inter-organizational level. It would appear that establishing a
culture of trust could help align organizational and departmental needs and thereby increase
awareness for the resources needed to create a mentorship program.
There Is a Culture of Fight or Flight in the Organization About Creating a Unified
Mentorship Program. For this influence the culture of fight or flight is represented as silos
within the organization in which individuals must choose to either fight for their program or
refuse to collaborate with others’ program. This concept is also reflected in not having an

117
organization wide cadre of seasoned teachers wanting to be mentors in general. Findings
revealed that some participants were not entirely sure of the types of collaborations that would
work for the organization while other participants thought having a good mix of people in any
one area would help the organization support a unified mentorship program. Additional findings
for this influence suggested that there were different levels of knowledge amongst participants as
to how Whitby University functions. A recommendation based on organizational change theory
has been selected to close this cultural model gap. According to Clark and Estes (2008),
organizational culture needs to align with organizational behavior for change to occur. The
authors suggest that creative tension needs to exist between a stable organizational culture and
one that encourages adaptability and flexibility. This would suggest that aligning an
organizational culture with organizational behavior (policies, procedures, and communication)
will help facilitate creative collaborations. The recommendation is to conduct an informal audit
of Whitby’s organizational behavior to check where alignment can be developed with the OT
department’s goals and objectives in piloting the mentorship program.
Silos in an organization form when departments function in isolation from one another as
they look out for their own interests and become problematic when they serve an isolated
function rather than an organizational one (Dell, 2005). Focusing on foundational performance
goals that all departments have a stake in can change how an organization values utility (Dell,
2005). The following concept is outlined by Dell (2005) as a way to work through
organizational siloing to a more shared outcome process: (a) establish and communicate the
vision, (b) establish end-to-end processes, (c) prioritize problem areas, (d) establish process
owners and teams, (e) develop solutions, and (f) reward and reinforce behaviors (p. 36). By

118
focusing on mutual goals and accountability, Whitby’s organizational behaviors can be matched
with the OT department’s objectives in piloting the first-of-its-kind mentorship program.
Cultural Settings Solutions
Part I: The Organization Needs to Support a Structured Mentorship Program. The
cultural setting influencer involved in this study was posed as a two-part question that asked
OTF to consider the organizational support needed and the organizational support already
available for a mentorship program. Discussion here is thus framed in two parts. For part I,
faculty, (n = 11) had different opinions on what types of organizational support would be needed
to start a mentorship program. A recommendation based on change management theory has
been selected to close this cultural setting gap. According to Moran and Brightman (2000),
change management is a process of revisiting an organization’s purpose, structure, and direction,
in hopes of serving the changing needs of all stakeholders, both internal and external. According
to their theory, leaders can drive behavior to move organizational change forward. This would
suggest that prioritizing needs would help OT faculty direct efforts on the essential contexts for
mentorship support. The recommendation then is to utilize an action plan during curricular
planning meetings to prioritize the types of organizational support OT faculty will need to start a
mentorship program.
In a study by Zeind et al. (2005), some major contributing factors in the success of a
mentorship program were administrative support, presence, and financial investment. Clark and
Estes (2008) suggest that in order to have successful organizational change, one must align the
structures and day-to-day processes of the institution with goals. Part of Whitby’s strategic plan
initiative is to onboard new faculty and prepare them for excellence in teaching. If this goal was
aligned with the creation of the first of kind mentorship program, the cultural setting at Whitby

119
University could help provide the structure and process in which mentorship can occur.
Moreover, by prioritizing the types of support that create mentorship infrastructure,
administrative, financial, and time, OT faculty could create a strong foundation on which to
build.
Part II: The OT department Needs to Know the Types of Resources the
Organization Already Has. For part II, more than half of OT faculty were not clear on the
types of resources the organization already has. Lack of formal communication channels leave
faculty with generalized information. A recommendation based on communication and
organizational change has been selected to close this cultural setting gap. Denning and Stephen
(2005), Hathaway and Henson (2013), and Lewis (2011) posit that effective leaders have the
skills and strategies needed to redesign their organization for effective communication. This
would suggest that OT faculty that are creating the new mentorship program have an opportunity
to plan for effective communication channels. The recommendation then, is to design a
communication model that effectively manages organizational information in-house during OT
curricular planning meetings.
Preparing organizations for change requires various types of communications strategies.
In their study examining the extent to which managers demonstrated behaviors and skills that led
to effective implementation of change, Gilley, Gilley, and McMillan (2009) found that
motivation and communication were positively correlated with effective change: .70 and .68,
respectively. In their concept paper Will and Mueller (2019) posit a macro (entity)-to micro
(individual) connection to change management where communication and information are key
factors to successful organizational change. Clark and Estes (2008) share that clear and
transparent communication helps individuals plan and adjust to new changes. The literature

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supports the creation of a communication model that would help manage the sharing of
organizational information.
Summary of Knowledge, Motivation and Organization Recommendations
The following is a summary of recommendations for the aforementioned KMO tables.
Under the area of knowledge recommendations, factual influences will be addressed by
providing OTF with a visual organization of the components of a mentorship program and
providing worked examples of characteristics and behaviors that mentees need and want.
Procedural recommendations include providing training in the form of demonstration, practice,
and feedback to design a mentorship program, utilize factual knowledge from evidence-based
research to conduct training sessions for designing a mentorship program, and provide job aides
to pull in the transfer of knowledge from other areas faculty have used for program development.
Metacognitive recommendations provide OTF with specific strategies that other innovating
universities use to plan and manage time for mentorship duties and have them use this as a
springboard for curriculum planning.
Regarding motivation recommendations, the influence of self-efficacy will be addressed
by setting concrete and challenging goals that allow OTF to experience success when creating
the mentorship program. The interest influence will be addressed by activating personal interest
through providing choices and control when creating/designing the mentorship program,
subsequently building upon personal interest and prior knowledge. Attribution influences will be
addressed by providing opportunities for open forum discussions that allow for feedback,
stressing the importance of effort, goals, and strategies. Lastly, the emotion influence will be
addressed by supporting OTF’s need for autonomy and choice in the mentorship decision-
making process by honoring feedback and facilitating reflection during open forum discussions.

121
For organization recommendations, cultural model influences will be addressed by
pairing needs assessment findings with the strategic plan to help establish trust and prioritize
allocation of resources that align with the organizational mission to create the mentorship
program. Additionally, cultural models influences will be addressed by conducting an informal
audit of Whitby’s organizational behavior to check where alignment can be developed with the
OT departments’ goals and objectives in piloting the mentorship program. Cultural setting
influences will be addressed by prioritizing the types of organizational support OT faculty will
need to start the mentorship program through the utilization of an action plan and by designing a
communication model that effectively manages organizational information in-house, both during
OTF curricular planning meetings.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The New World Kirkpatrick Model is the evaluation framework that will be utilized to
integrate the implementation and evaluation plan for this study. An updated version from the
1950s model created by Dr. Don Kirkpatrick, the New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016)
enhances the four levels to address previous misconceptions and misuses. The model integrates
four levels of evaluating training that are comprised of reaction (level 1), learning (level 2),
behavior (level 3, and results (level 4). Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) suggested utilizing
the model in reverse, or with the end in mind first. Taking this into consideration, this study will
evaluate Level 4 first: the degree to which outcomes occur secondary to training, followed by
Level 3: the extent that participants transfer knowledge and apply what they have learned during
training, then Level 2: the degree of acquisition of knowledge, and finally, Level 1: the degree
that the training was satisfactory. The use of the New World Kirkpatrick Model will help

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examine the extent to which recommended solutions are implemented and then evaluated for
successful completion of the performance goals.
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
One important part of the mission of Whitby University is to educate health professionals
and scholars through the sharing of knowledge and practice of skills. In the strategic plan, the
administration's goal is to achieve excellence in teaching in an effort to promote faculty
development and recruitment. The goal specifically states: There will be an enhanced process
for onboarding new clinical faculty through teacher development. In hopes of aligning the
strategic initiative with its mission to educate healthcare professionals and scholars through the
sharing of knowledge and practicing of skill sets, Whitby University must foster the growth and
development of new teachers by offering avenues for formal mentorship. Failure to provide
these opportunities may result in faculty being unprepared for the rigors of teaching in higher
education. This may exacerbate feelings of inadequacy, stress, and burnout among clinicians
transitioning into academia and create exponential problems with teacher retention. To date, no
such program exists at Whitby University.
The organizational performance goal is: By December of 2021 the School of Allied
Health Professions at Whitby University will onboard 100% of new clinical faculty through an
introductory mentorship program aimed at fostering growth and development in teaching. The
primary stakeholder goal is: By May of 2021 occupational therapy faculty at Whitby University
will create and implement a mentorship program for new clinical faculty transitioning into
academia by readying them for roles in teaching. This goal is in alignment with the strategic
plan, mission, and goal of Whitby University to onboard new clinical faculty through teacher
development and to achieve excellence in teaching. Alignment is an important factor to consider

123
for relevancy in programmatic outcomes and when evaluating learning outcomes. The desired
outcome is that the first-of-its-kind mentorship program for clinicians transitioning into
academia will be created. Moreover, the department of occupational therapy will be the first to
pilot the program for 100% of newly on-boarded OT faculty.
Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Leading indicators are the short-term observations and measurements that propose that
important key behaviors are forecasted to create positive results (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). For the OT department at Whitby University achieving the desired outcome of designing
and creating a mentorship program for clinicians transitioning into academia would include both
internal and external achievements of the outcomes in Table 12.

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Table 12
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Increase recognition
of mentorship
program in OT
literature.
Number of publications
of research study.
Number of mentions
in the literature.
Research office tracks data in literature.
Increased interest for
startup of SAHP
wide mentorship
program.
Number of mentions
of level of interest
noted at Fall and
Spring faculty forum.
FCEC (Faculty Council Executive
Committee) documents SAHP (School of
Allied Health Professions) departments
interested in developing a mentorship
program through sign up and qualtrics
survey.
Internal Outcomes
Mentorship program
is up and running in
the OT department.
Number of
participants in the OT
mentorship program.

Program lead tracks number of
participants.

Quarterly reporting by department chair on
how often faculty are engaging in being a
mentor or mentee.
Improvement in
teaching skill sets.

Qualtrics survey
developed.

Course evaluations.
Program chair tracks data.

Share out during quarterly course
evaluation faculty meetings.
Improvement in
teaching and
learning
environment.
Faculty surveys and or
faculty self-reports.
During curricular planning meetings or
during creation of yearly faculty
development plans share outs via open
forum discussions, or via 1:1 discussions
with department and program chair.

Level 3: Behavior
Critical Behaviors
In order to achieve the aforementioned outcomes, occupational therapy faculty will have
to demonstrate key behaviors that support training evaluation practices. According to Kirkpatrick
and Kirkpatrick (2016), level 3 behaviors are pivotal in influencing level 4 results. The key
behaviors that must be demonstrated by OT faculty to create and implement a mentorship

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program include questioning, flexibility, scenario development, and negotiating solutions. Table
13 exhibits a detailed analysis of critical behaviors, metrics, methods, and timing.
Table 13
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. OT faculty will question
feasibility and sustainability
of mentorship design options.
Google doc
suggestions
during all
mentorship
meetings

Comparison and
contrast to research
findings of
innovative programs
Quarterly
2. OT department will
demonstrate flexibility in
allotment of productive
mentorship time on FWAs.
Completed
faculty
workload
agreements for
all 13 faculty
Department chair
reports
Every 2 quarter
3. OT faculty will create
scenario development
schema to posit ideas for
mentorship program.
Google doc
scenario
development list
with at least 7
ideas
Mentorship program
facilitator report
Quarterly
4. OT faculty will engage in
the process of negotiating
solutions for the creation and
implementation of
mentorship program.
Using needs
assessment
results to create
at least 7
workable
solutions

Mentorship program
facilitator
prioritization of
needs
Quarterly

Required Drivers
Required drivers are processes that support critical behaviors on the job (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Drawing from the knowledge, motivation, and organization
recommendations in the previous sections of this chapter, the following drivers consist of the
motivation and organizational influences that are needed to drive the achievement of the
stakeholder outcomes. See Table 14.

126
Table 14
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical
Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
OT faculty facilitator will supply a review checklist of
organizational supports needed.
Quarterly 4
Reminder board for OT faculty on good components of a
mentorship program.
Quarterly 1, 3, 4
Faculty will utilize productivity time responsibly. Quarterly 2
Job aides will be utilized to help in transfer of
knowledge.
Quarterly 3, 4
Concept mapping to highlight mentorship characteristics
and behaviors that are needed and wanted.
Quarterly 3, 4
Encouraging
Utilize open forum discussions to establish trust. Quarterly 1
Create debrief time where OT faculty can share what’s
working and what is not for mentorship planning and
creation.
Quarterly 1, 2, 3, 4

Faculty meet to discuss choices and decisions regarding
mentorship program.
Quarterly 1, 2, 3, 4
Monitoring
Action plan monitoring for the successful creation and
implementation of mentorship program.
Quarterly 1, 3, 4
Touch base with OT faculty about how they are feeling
about the creation of the mentorship program.
Quarterly 1, 3, 4

Organizational Support
By establishing a culture of trust where failures and successes are celebrated for the
knowledge gained, Whitby University will support the endeavors by the occupational therapy
department to create the first-of-its-kind mentorship program. Allocation of time, resources and
financial support by the administration to the OT department will help foster reciprocity and

127
accountability. Transparency in the alignment of needs between the University’s strategic plan
and mission to support excellence in teaching with that of the OT departments’ goals and
objectives to mentor 100% of clinicians transitioning into academia will garner the type of
support needed for sustainable change, innovation, and creativity at Whitby University.
Level 2: Learning
Learning, as described by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) references the extent to
which participants develop an increased level of knowledge, skills, confidence, and competence
secondary to participating in a training or learning experience. A summary of the KMO
solutions found at the end of Chapter Four provide the context for the following learning goals.
In hopes of performing the critical behaviors listed above, occupational therapy faculty need to
increase their knowledge, skills, confidence, and competence after mentorship education and
training.
Learning Goals
1. Describe the characteristics of a good mentorship program. (DF)
2. Explain what mentees/mentors want in a mentoring relationship. (DF)
3. Explain the difference between mentorship, apprenticeship, and coaching. (DF)
4. Generate a plan for designing and implementing a mentorship program. (KP)
5. Understand how allocated time for mentorship planning on Faculty Workload
Agreements contributes to productivity. (KM)
6. Value the problem-solving process. (M-Value)
7. Attribute the success or failure to create this mentorship program to your own efforts (M-
Attribution).
8. Feel positive that OT faculty can create this mentorship program. (M-Emotions)

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9. Have confidence that you can help create this mentorship program. (M-Self-Efficacy)
10. Foster interest in creating this mentorship program. (M-Interest)
11. Understand the complexities of Whitby’s organizational culture. (O)
12. Know what is available in terms of resources already present at Whitby University (O &
K)
13. Find ways to establish trust between the organization and the department. (O)
Program
The goals listed in the previous section will be achieved during curricular and faculty
meetings where brainstorming and open forum discussions will take place with all of the faculty
from the department of occupational therapy. The faculty member in charge of facilitating the
discussions for the mentorship program will begin by sharing the results of the needs assessment.
After sharing the results, open forum discussions will take place with the goal of securing buy-in
and setting up the first stage of an action plan for the creation of the mentorship program.
Preliminary procedural goals will be put into place as a way to establish trust, instill values, and
help motivate faculty. Any knowledge gaps found in the needs assessment will be addressed
through the sharing of job aides, concept maps, and checklists and through a check and balance
system during open forum discussions. Through ongoing discussions, the needs of faculty will
continue to be monitored through scenario development exercises as a safe way to negotiate
solutions and honor all voices.
Evaluation of the Components of Learning
Listed below is Table 15, the Evaluation Components of Learning for the Program that
highlight the methods or activities that will be used to evaluate the learning goals.

129
Table 15
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Think in pairs and share out with everyone Before, during and after
Share out ideas through concept mapping Before and during
Open forum discussions Before and during
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Scenario development Before, during and after
Micro-teaching Before and during
Action Planning Before, during and after
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Discussion about value and interest Before, during, and after
Discussion about concerns Before, during, and after
Formative Dialogues Before and during
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Confidence checks Before, during, and after
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Dedicated time on Faculty Workload Agreements During and after

Level 1: Reaction
Reaction, as described by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) refers to the level
participants find training useful and pertinent to their job. Table 16 lists the methods that will be
utilized to determine how participants react to learning and training events.

130
Table 16
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Attendance from meeting minutes During
Asking relevant questions Before, during, and after
Contributions to concept maps Before and during
Contributions to scenario developments Before, during, and after
Relevance
Pulse check via open forum discussions Before, during, and after
Customer Satisfaction
Observations during meetings During
Feedback from meetings Before, during, and after

Evaluation Tools
Immediately Following the Program Implementation
By conducting data analysis during a training program, assessors can glean information
in real time and adjust programmatic content to meet the needs of participants (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). When data analysis is performed immediately after a training program,
gathered information can gauge if expectations were met and if content was relevant (Kirkpatrick
& Kirkpatrick, 2016). The survey found in Appendix C is completed at the end of mentorship
training for the purpose of identifying any concerns that need to be addressed for subsequent
training and to make content relevant to the needs of occupational therapy faculty in training.
Delayed for a Period After the Program Implementation
Delaying data analysis for a period after training allows individuals to gather information
that either supported or hindered generalization of knowledge, skills, confidence, or competence

131
to workplace (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The survey found in Appendix D is to be
completed a few months after mentorship training. This mission-driven program has specific
performance and behavioral expectations designed to align with the organizational mission. The
goal is to gather narratives, data, success factors, and barriers to success in an ongoing effort to
keep the training program relevant to the needs of faculty.
Data Analysis and Reporting
The report findings will be administered during a curricular planning meeting via de-
identified and summarized findings in a concept chart. The information found in both the
immediate and delayed instruments will be shared out by this researcher in a PowerPoint format.
Information highlights will include key findings, benchmarked outcomes, room for
improvement, and concepts of what is working.
Summary of the Implementation and Evaluation
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) was utilized to gather and analyze data in real
time so as to measure, assess, plan, implement, and evaluate recommendations with the goal of
achieving both the stakeholder and organizational goal of onboarding new clinical faculty
through teacher development and mentorship. This approach allowed important information to
be examined in terms of where to begin training, how to plan for it, support it, and assess
outcomes. Expectations prior to using the framework included re-thinking how data are
collected, understanding the importance of evaluating along the way, and learning how to
maximize outcomes during times of organizational change.
It is one thing to benchmark outcomes and quite another to turn efforts into results. The
New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) allows for a comprehensive methodology for training to
occur in a way that helps facilitators plan for change when making data-based decisions. The

132
ultimate value in utilizing this tool comes from having step-by-step guidelines on how to use the
information gathered during data analysis to help achieve important organizational and
stakeholder goals. Starting with the end in mind allows individuals to assess results, plan for
critical behaviors and expectations and increase learning in multiple areas of knowledge, skills,
and behaviors.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
The Clark and Estes (2008) framework offers a process in which to analyze and achieve
organizational goals by identifying gaps in organizational functioning in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organization (K, M, O). Some of the strengths of this approach include: (a)
utilizing gap analysis to compare where the organization is to where it wants to be, (b) being able
to utilize evidence and research based strategies to examine in detail KMO resources and
performance, and (c) a way to assess organizational change during static and dynamic
institutional functioning. Some of the weaknesses of the approach include: (a) the generalization
of findings amongst all participants will make strategy applications relevant to a majority of
individuals but will inevitably leave out a select few; (b) the difficulty in getting an honest
picture of KMO influences affecting individuals, as it often difficult to speak constructively
about an organization in flux; and (c) identifying performance goals, gaps, and solutions through
KMO influences does not always make sense to individuals. Having to identify a problem of
practice in one’s organization can be stressful. Despite using research-based approaches to
identify a specific problem, the process is still very much subjective and as such can leave the
evaluator feeling “responsible” for outcomes.
The case study approach in this research study also has its strengths and weaknesses.
According to Yin (2009) and Creswell (2013), one of the main strengths of case study research is

133
that it allows the researcher to examine a wide array of evidence through interviews,
observations, documents, and artifacts. Case study research allows opportunities to develop rich,
detailed descriptions of the case/s being studied and allows for an equally robust analysis
(Creswell, 2013). There are other strengths of this approach as well: documentation can be
revisited as often as needed, interviews provide “...causal inferences and explanations” (Yin, p.
102), direct observations can be performed in a timely fashion, and participant observation
allows for insight into behaviors (Yin, 2009). Some of the weaknesses of case study research
include bias selectivity and bias reporting for documentation sources, bias reflexivity and
response bias during interviews, and constraints of time, productivity, and cost during direct and
participant observations (Yin, 2009).
In this study, triangulation was used to help ensure validity. Patton (2002) states that
triangulation strengthens research by combining multiple sources of data. Data triangulation in
this study was used by combining the interview with observations and document analysis.
Through triangulation, it was the intent to minimize the intrinsic bias that is often found in
studies that use single methods, one observer, or one framework (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016;
Patton, 2002). It is not the point of triangulation to produce results that are the same. Variances
in data sources may collect information that show different results, and this is both a strength and
a weakness in using triangulation for a validity measure.
Limitations and Delimitations
This study was impacted by several limitations. Utilizing a convenience sample
minimized any chance of generalizability. The problem of practice studied was in this
researcher’s organization which may be viewed as a conflict of interest. The element of time
was a limiting factor for data collection and analysis in accordance with the program of study.

134
Funding was non-existent for this particular research design. Resources could be viewed as
limited as the availability of documents and artifacts for analysis was based on what the
department chair felt comfortable sharing. Responses to open-ended qualitative questions varied
from being very succinct to very verbose. Some participants were able to share ideas with
detailed specifics while other participants struggled to get their point across. This may have
affected the depth of analysis. The participants in this study formed a bounded case which
proved difficult when identifying exclusionary criteria and thus may be a delimitation. Direct
observations relied on the trustworthiness of the researcher and as such, data might be viewed by
others as having biased and subjective errors in reporting. Additionally, not all observations
were able to occur, especially with those identified under criterion two for observations
secondary to summer break occurring. This might have left other gaps in the data that were not
able to be addressed. Lastly, the November 2017 mandate from the Accreditation Council for
Occupational Therapy Education (ACOTE) to move the entry-level degree requirement for
occupational therapists’ from a master’s to a doctoral degree by July 1, 2027 has been amended
as of April of 2019 to allow for dual entry level degrees: a master’s or doctoral degree (American
Occupational Therapy Association, 2019). This could decrease the level of urgency for some
schools to fill doctoral positions, although according to some informal accounts, approximately
70% of occupational therapy programs are already in transition to meet the doctoral level entry
point.
Recommendations for Future Research
Future research exploring other occupational therapy academic programs’ experience
with mentoring might prove useful in ascertaining whether there has been successful
implementation for helping the clinician transition to academician. In terms of mentoring

135
programs for schools in the allied health profession, it might be of considerable value to study
how other types of clinicians get on boarded to faculty positions. To date, most of the literature
on mentoring in health care comes from our physician and social work counterparts. It might
also prove worthwhile to conduct a quantitative study on mentorship challenges for occupational
therapy clinicians transitioning to academia in hopes of identifying specific barriers and or
unique approaches to mentorship. This method would allow for outreach outside of a bounded
case study approach and as such, would add measurable data to the knowledge gap in this area.
Finally, a follow up research study from a frame of participatory action research could be
fundamental in highlighting action plans, goals, and implementation strategies that worked for a
particular occupational therapy program.
Conclusion
The problem of practice that served as the impetus for this study addressed the challenges
with implementing mentorship opportunities for occupational therapy clinicians transitioning
into academia. In the strategic plan for Whitby University, administration had created a goal to
achieve excellence in teaching. The goal was established by the strategic planning committee
and aimed for an enhanced process for onboarding new clinical faculty through teacher
development. The occupational therapy (OT) faculty at Whitby University were the key
stakeholders in this study as their collective expertise, knowledge, and skill sets in the area of
program development could help create the first-of-its-kind mentorship program.
The analytical method that helped identify gaps between Whitby University’s
organization’s goal and its actual performance was Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis
framework. This methodology was utilized to assess organizational needs in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational functioning. The results revealed considerable gaps

136
in mentorship knowledge and process, motivational ownership and buy-in, and organizational
support and collaboration.
The knowledge gaps discovered found participants needing to know what components
comprise a good mentorship program. In order to meet the needs of both mentees and mentors,
participants also need to know the types of characteristics and behaviors that individuals want
and need. Although experts in program development, participants lacked procedural knowledge
when it came to designing and implementing a mentorship program. Individuals also need to
reflect on their workload and productivity requirements to see if it is realistic to add mentorship
duties to their workload agreements. Through their collective expertise, OTF were able to offer
suggestions, share ideas, and conjecture as to how they might address these knowledge types of
scenarios. The difficulty, however, lies in knowing how to pair multiple viewpoints into one
workable solution.
Motivation findings revealed that seasoned teachers wanted mentorship opportunities as
much as new teachers did. All OTF found value in having a mentorship program, but none
wanted to lead the way. The concept of ‘other’ as in having a ‘champion’ to lead the endeavor
was a common finding. Differences in how positive, or how confident participants felt in either
their ability or the department’s ability to see the inception of a mentorship program through to
fruition varied based on the contexts of resources available, time, support, and structure of the
program. It was also found that personal interest would have to be cultivated for sustained
interest to occur. Occupational therapy faculty at Whitby University understood the value of
what a mentorship program could bring to the department. The challenge, however, is to find
ways that motivate faculty for the long haul amongst already heavy workloads.

137
It was evident through the findings that distinct organizational gaps exist for occupational
therapy faculty. Variations in workload status appeared to contribute to how well one
understood organizational culture and functioning. There were distinct disparities in how
organizational trust was viewed between administration and departments. Moreover, many
participants were not made aware of the resources that were made available to them as teachers
and most often cited lack of communication or lack of collaboration as the problem. Although
the mission and vision of Whitby University is understood well in terms of its spiritual values,
organizationally speaking, there is a disconnect in understanding how Whitby supports the
onboarding of new faculty.
This study added to the occupational therapy literature in the area of mentorship for
clinicians transitioning into academia. Implications for this study to inform the wider problem of
practice of mentorship difficulties in health care and in higher education is two-fold: it helps
identify gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational functioning, and it helps negotiate
solutions from the bottom up with the use of the Kirkpatrick model (2016) assessing results,
behaviors, learning, and reaction of participants. Implications for future use in occupational
therapy academic practice include providing open discussions for mentorship challenges,
planning for curriculum development, goals for teacher development, and aspirations for
cultivating organizational performance in alignment with teacher growth and mentorship.

138
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152
APPENDIX A
Observation and Document Checklist
Observation/Document Analysis Form
Observation Form and Document Analysis
Date: ________________ Observer: ___________ Organization: ________
Start Time: ___________ End Time: ___________ Type: Document/Meeting
Subject/Content: ___________________________________________________
Attendees (or) Document Authors: ____________________________________
Knowledge (Influences and Method of Assessment)
# Influence Observation/
Document
Analysis
Observed?
0 = no
evidence,
1= some
evidence,
2=strong
evidence
Comments/Evidence
/Questions

153
1 Occupational
therapy faculty
(OTF) need to
know what the
components of a
mentorship
program are.

Observe during
a Faculty
meeting for the
planning of
future
mentorship
program.
Document
analysis:
Review faculty
meeting
minutes, faculty
development
plans, and
faculty
workload
agreements.

2 OTF need to
reflect on their
current workload
agreements and
faculty
development
plans to see how
mentorship can
be implemented
within current
productivity
standards.

Document
Analysis:
workload
agreements,
faculty
development
plans, and
curriculum
development
minutes.

154
3 OTF need to
know how to
design and
implement a
mentorship
program.

Observe during
a faculty
meeting or
curriculum
development
meeting for the
planning of
future
mentorship
program.
Document
analysis:
Review faculty
meeting
minutes, faculty
development
plans, faculty
workload
agreements,
curriculum
vitaes, and
curriculum
development
minutes.

155
4 OT department
needs to be able
to know the
types of
characteristics
and behaviors
that mentees
need and want.

Observe during
a faculty
meeting or
curriculum
development
meeting for the
planning of
future
mentorship
program.
Document
analysis:
Review faculty
meeting
minutes, faculty
development
plans, faculty
workload
agreements, and
curriculum
development
minutes.

Motivation (Influences and Method of Assessment)
# Assumed
Motivation
Influence
Observation/
Document
Analysis
Observed?
0 = no
evidence, 1=
some
evidence,
2=strong
evidence
Comments/Evidence
Questions

156
1 Interest:
OTF need to
find creating a
mentorship
program
interesting.

Observe during a
faculty meeting or
curriculum
development
meeting for the
planning of future
mentorship program
and verify if they
find value in
creating and
implementing a
mentorship
program.
Document
Analysis: Review
faculty meeting
minutes, faculty
development plans,
faculty workload
agreements,
curriculum vitaes,
and curriculum
development
minutes to see if
mentorship is
prioritized.

157
2 Self-efficacy:
OTF have to
be confident
that they can
create a new
mentorship
program.

Observe during a
faculty meeting or
curriculum
development
meeting for the
planning of future
mentorship program
and verify if faculty
feels confident
about creating and
implementing a
mentorship
program.
Document
Analysis: Review
faculty meeting
minutes, faculty
development plans,
faculty workload
agreements, and
curriculum
development
minutes to see if
there is mention of
concerns, ideas, or
hints to confidence
level.

158
3 Value: OTF
need to see the
value in
creating a
mentorship
program.

Observe during a
faculty meeting,
curriculum
development
meeting, or faculty-
student advising
session for the
planning of future
mentorship program
and verify if faculty
finds value in
creating and
implementing a
mentorship
program.
Document
Analysis: Review
faculty meeting
minutes, faculty
development plans,
faculty workload
agreements, and
curriculum
development
minutes to see if
there is mention of
the value of the
mentorship
program.

159
4 Attribution:
OTF attribute
the success (or
failure) of the
mentorship
program to
their own
efforts.

Observe during a
faculty meeting,
faculty-student
advisement session,
or curriculum
development
meeting for the
planning of future
mentorship program
and verify if faculty
speaks to their
contributions in the
success or failure in
creating and
implementing a
mentorship
program.
Document
Analysis: Review
faculty meeting
minutes, faculty
development plans,
faculty workload
agreements, and
curriculum
development
minutes to see if
there is mention of
what elements
would constitute
success or failure
from their own
efforts in creating
and implementing a
mentorship
program.

160
5 Emotions:
OTF need to
feel positive
about creating
the
mentorship
program.

Observe during a
faculty meeting,
faculty-student
advisement session,
or curriculum
development
meeting for the
planning of future
mentorship program
and verify if faculty
speaks positively to
creating and
implementing a
mentorship
program.
Document
Analysis: Review
faculty meeting
minutes, faculty
development plans,
faculty workload
agreements, and
curriculum
development
minutes to see if
there is mention of
faculty feeling
positive in creating
and implementing a
mentorship
program.

161
Organizational (Influences and Method of Assessment)
Assumed
Organizational
Influence
Observation/
Document Analysis
Observed?
0 = no
evidence, 1=
some
evidence,
2=strong
evidence
Comments/Evidence
Questions
1 Cultural Setting
Influence 1: The
organization needs
to support a
structured
mentorship
program.

Document Analysis:
Verify in faculty
meeting minutes,
faculty development
plans, faculty
workload agreements,
curriculum
development minutes
and or professional
development
documents if budget,
human resources and
or time or other
resources exist for
creating a mentorship
program and examine
them for resource
allocation patterns.

162
2 Cultural Model
Influence 1:
OTF need to
perceive that there
is a culture of trust
between the OT
department and
administration to
supply the resources
needed for a
mentorship
program.

Observe during a
faculty meeting,
faculty-student
advisement session,
or curriculum
development meeting
for the planning of
future mentorship
program and verify if
faculty speaks about
trusting the
organization to
supply the resources
needed to create and
implement a
mentorship program.

3 Cultural Model
Influence 2:
There is a culture of
fight or flight in the
organization OT
about creating a
unified mentorship
program.

Observe during a
faculty meeting,
faculty-student
advisement session,
or curriculum
development meeting
for the planning of
future mentorship
program and verify if
faculty speaks about
the organization and
the thoughts about a
unified mentorship
program;
proactively/reactively

163
APPENDIX B
Interview Protocol
Script prior to interview
Dear Occupational Therapy Practitioner,
I would like to thank you for being willing to participate in the interview portion of my study.
This particular research study seeks to understand the mentorship challenges for occupational
therapy clinicians transitioning into academia. The use of a gap analysis framework, an
analytical method that helps identify gaps between an organization’s goal and its actual
performance, will be utilized to help identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influencers affecting formal mentorship opportunities for OT clinicians transitioning to
academia. The nature of the study is framed from an innovation perspective so your answers will
help supply much needed information regarding the OT clinician-educator.
Review consent form
Do I have your permission (or not) to audio-record our conversation today? Yes____ No____
If yes: Thank you! Please let me know if at any time you would like the audio recording turned
off or if you would prefer to answer something off the record.
If no: Thank you for clarifying. I will only take written notes of our conversation.
Before we begin, do you have any questions I can help clarify? [converse]
Please know that you can also ask questions anytime during our interview ok?
Interview questions
1. Does creating a mentorship program for the OT department interest you? Can you
explain your answer? (M)
2. How would you feel about creating the first-of-its-kind mentorship program for OT
clinicians transitioning into teaching in the OT department? (M)

164
3. Tell me, what would you value in creating this mentorship program?
4. What do you think your role might be in making this program a success?
5. What do you believe are the components of a good mentorship program?
5a) Tell me what you think is the difference between mentorship, apprenticeship,
and coaching (K)
6. What would you need from a mentoring relationship? (K)
7. If you were in charge of designing a mentorship program for the OT department, what
would that look like? (K)
8. Now let’s say you’ve shared your ideas for the design of this mentorship program, so
how would you implement it? Where would you start? (K)
9. How confident are you that you could help create a mentorship program right now?
(M)
10. When considering Whitby’s mission to onboard and train new faculty for excellence
in teaching, what types of organizational support do you believe will be needed to start a
mentorship program? (O)
11. What type of organizational support do you think we already have? (O)
12. In what ways do you think organizational trust would help the OT department
receive the resources needed to implement a mentorship program?
13. Some people might say that Whitby University suffers from being siloed; do you
think creating a mentorship program that all departments could benefit from would help
that? (O)
14. How positive do you feel that the OT department can create this mentorship
program? (M)

165
APPENDIX C
Participant Evaluation During Training
Participant Evaluation
Date
Instructions: For questions 1-5 please use the following rating scale:
0 = strongly disagree 10 = strongly agree
~Please circle the appropriate rating to indicate the degree to which you agree with each
statement
~Please provide comments to explain your ratings
Rating

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1. I took responsibility for being involved in this program.
Comments:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2. The training held my interest.
Comments:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3. The presentation style of the facilitator contributed to my
Comments: learning.

166

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 4. The information in this program was easy to understand.
Comments:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 5. I would recommend this training to others.
Comments:

For questions 6-9 please use the following rating scale
1 2 3 4 5
None or very low Very high level
level
~Please circle the appropriate rating before the training and now (after the training)
~Please provide comments to explain your ratings
Before the program After the program

1 2 3 4 5 6. Knowledge of mentorship components 1 2 3 4 5
Comments

167
1 2 3 4 5 7. Confidence to help create program 1 2 3 4 5
Comments

1 2 3 4 5 8. Commitment to see the program through 1 2 3 4 5
Comments

1 2 3 4 5 9. Can generate a plan for designing program 1 2 3 4 5
Comments

10. How can this training be improved?

11. Please share any additional comments you may have.

168
APPENDIX D
Participant Evaluation Post-Training
Participant Evaluation
Date
Instructions: For questions 1-3 please use the following rating scale:
0= strongly disagree 10 = strongly agree
~Please circle the appropriate rating to indicate the degree to which you agree with each
statement
~Please provide comments to explain your ratings
Rating

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1. After the training I spent adequate time practicing my
Comments: new skills on the job.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2. I have adequate resources at my work to successfully
Comments: apply what I learned in my training.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3. I receive post-training help from the content expert.
Comments:

169
4. How are you currently integrating what you learned from the training?

5. If you are not using the skills you learned during training, please explain why.

6. What positive outcomes are you seeing as a result of what you are doing?

7. Are there any barriers to utilizing your skills?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The analytical framework utilized for this research was Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis. The purpose of this research was to conduct a needs assessment in the areas of knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational (KMO) resources necessary for occupational therapy (OT) faculty to reach the organization performance goal of creating and implementing a mentorship program for new clinical faculty through an introductory program aimed at fostering growth and development in teaching. A qualitative bounded case study approach was used to collect data via interviews, observations, and document analysis for 11 occupational therapy faculty’s KMO needs for creating a mentorship program. Data analysis consisted of a priori coding for interviews, content analysis via an observation and document analysis checklist, and field notes for observations. Findings for this study revealed considerable gaps in mentorship knowledge and process, motivational ownership and buy-in, and organizational support and collaboration. Implications for future use in occupational therapy academic practice include providing: (a) open forum discussions for mentorship challenges, (b) planning for curriculum development, (c) goals for teacher support, and (d) aspirations for cultivating organizational performance in alignment with teacher growth and mentorship. This study begins to highlight the wider problem of practice of mentorship difficulties for schools in the Allied Health Professions in higher education.

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Evaluation of New Teacher Induction (NTI) mentor practice for developing NTI teachers capable of differentiating instruction to address cultural diversity, equity, and learner variability

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The successful implementation of diversity and inclusion efforts: a study of promising practice

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Women of color senior leaders: pathways to increasing representation in higher education

Asset Metadata

Creator Pavlovich, Sharon Lee (author)

Core Title Mentorship challenges for occupational therapy clinicians transitioning into academia: an innovation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 03/23/2020

Defense Date 03/21/2020

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Academia,clinician,mentorship,OAI-PMH Harvest,Occupational Therapy

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Yates, Kenneth (committee chair), Foulk, Susanne (committee member), Robles, Darline (committee member)

Creator Email spavlovi@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-277974

Unique identifier UC11674218

Identifier etd-PavlovichS-8226.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-277974 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-PavlovichS-8226.pdf

Dmrecord 277974

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Pavlovich, Sharon Lee

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA