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Authentic professional learning: a case study
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Running Head: AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 1
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING: A CASE STUDY
by
JULIE LOUISE DUNCAN (KOCSIS)
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2020
Copyright 2020 Julie Louise Duncan (Kocsis)
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 2
Acknowledgements
When undertaking this process, I thought it would be a challenge. Moving to the other
side of the world, learning a new culture, leaving most of my family behind, I knew it was not
going to be easy. However, this process had been a prolonged dream of mine, and I am so glad
that I had the opportunity to add this experience to my journey of lifelong learning. This would
not have not been possible without the support of the following people:
To Julie Slayton, my Dissertation Chair: I would not be at this point if it were not for you. Your
availability to help guide me through this process and your role as dissertation chair has been
instrumental in challenging my own practice and perceptions as an educator. The time you spent
analyzing data and providing feedback, held me accountable to your high standards that have
come from being a true inspiration and utmost professional in the field of education. Your
expectations challenged my thinking in a way that I would like to see all educators be
challenged, and to think about what each person can bring to their teaching. Your wealth of
knowledge and your willingness to help me through this seemingly endless process, made me
realize how valuable this experience was, and for that I am truly thankful.
To Artineh Samkian: I had a wonderful learning experience in both your Inquiry classes.
Initially, the thought of taking a class that involved statistics was absolutely terrifying to me.
However, you are a true inspiration as both a professor and teacher. Your classes guided me
through and prepared me for what to expect when out in the field. You made these classes
extremely relevant and meaningful. Thank you for your inspiration and offering feedback and
support during this process.
To Frances Kellar: I admire your work, and your expertise in teacher mentoring, I appreciate
your willingness to serve on my committee. Thank you for your valuable insights, and practical
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 3
feedback on my dissertation.
To my beautiful mother: Thank you for being there with me, every step of the way, from across
the other side of the world. I know that leaving you was even harder than this whole process, but
you understood my need and passion to drive educational change. You were always the voice
inside my head, pushing me to keep going through the many obstacles that kept coming up. Your
love and compassion have made me the person that I am today, and you drove me to be the best
person that I could be. I take my final defense on this day, your birthday, and I couldn’t feel
prouder. Happy Birthday! I am the luckiest daughter in the world, and I love you Mum xx.
To my grumpy father: You always pushed me to achieve the best and settle for nothing less. Your
tough love was what I needed to get through many things in life. Thank you for supporting me
through this process.
To my eldest daughter: Your mindfulness and huge heart kept me sane through all of this. We
were able to inspire each other, and your passion for leaning fueled mine further. I am so proud
of what you have achieved, in this new country and culture, and I know that your resilience will
see you go far in life and impact those around you.
To my youngest daughter: During this process you have grown into a strong, independent young
woman. Your will and determination provided me with much needed motivation when obstacles
kept getting in my way. Follow your dreams, and make me proud!
To my friend YC: Thank you for ensuring that I would make it to the end of this. Your food runs
provided me with the boost that I needed to get me through the writing sessions. Most of all,
seeing your attitude change towards your own learning, made me realize why I love being a
teacher. Thank you for your support and much needed comic relief.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 4
To teachers that I have worked with: Again, none of this would have been possible without
acknowledging the wonderful teachers that I have worked with, who inspired me to grow from
my own experiences.
To all my students past and present: You are the reason why I do this. Every day, I am reminded
of how lucky I am to have the opportunity to help you become the best version of yourselves.
The classroom experiences that I have every day ensures that no one day is alike, but one thing is
for sure, I have, for the most part, had the most amazing and fun time with many years of
laughter.
Fight On!
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 5
ABSTRACT
One of the most important factors impacting on student performance is how the teacher
engages with their students through their practice. As a result, teacher professional learning is
conducted within the school in an attempt to develop teacher skill and knowledge and engage
teachers in professional discourse that enhances teacher practice. This study examined the ways
in which an urban high school engaged in professional development and whether it was authentic
learning, in which teachers engaged in critical reflection that led to teacher practice change. Ten
hours of observations and 5 semi-formal interviews were conducted, including the principal and
the assistant principal, who was also a staff coach for the teacher participants.
At the whole school level, the type of professional development teachers engaged in was
reflective of what Cochran-Smith and Lytle (2009) referred to as knowledge for practice. The
learning experiences of teachers were impeded by structural factors such as the timing and the
actual location. In addition, the focus of these meetings is compliance based, constricting the
opportunity for teachers to reflect upon their practice. By contrast, at the faculty level, teachers
engaged in critical discussion, and this allowed participant to challenge their own perspectives
and enhance their practice.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 6
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 2
Abstract 5
Chapter One: Overview 8
Background of the Problem 9
Statement of the Problem 10
Purpose of the Study 12
Significance of the Study 12
Organization of the Study 13
Chapter Two: Literature Review 14
Authentic Professional Learning 15
Knowledge ‘for, in and of’ practice 16
Timing and context 22
Teaching and learning as a social and transformative approach 27
Coherence, cognition and collaboration 32
Conclusion 34
Reflective Practices 34
Conclusion 37
Communities of Practice 37
Conclusion 42
Conceptual Framework 42
Authentic Professional Learning 45
Reflective Practices 46
Communities of Practice 47
Summary 48
Chapter Three: Methods 49
Sample Population 49
Participant Selection 52
Data Collection and Instrumentation 53
Interviews 53
Observations 54
Data Analysis 55
Credibility and Trustworthiness 56
Limitations and Delimitations 58
Ethics 59
Conclusion 60
Chapter Four: Findings 61
Background of Diamond High School 61
Faculty and Staff 62
Research Questions 62
School level professional learning 63
Theme 1 65
Theme 2 68
Theme 3 71
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 7
Teacher level professional learning 78
Theme 1 78
Theme 2 81
Theme 3 84
Conclusion 87
Chapter Five: Discussions, Implications and Future Research 89
Summary of findings for Research Questions 90
Implications and Recommendations 92
Practice 92
Policy 94
Research 97
References 100
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 8
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Around the world, governments are responding to poor student academic performance in
a variety of ways. In the United States, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 and the
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) of 2015 set out to provide high quality instruction to low
performing students, no matter their socio-economic status or background (California
Department of Education, 2015). Policy makers at the federal, state, and local level have long
believed that a teacher who possesses both content and pedagogical knowledge are able to
provide high quality instruction to their students (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009). As such, they
have largely allocated money and resources towards providing teachers with the type of
knowledge that they do not already have (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009; Kennedy, 2016). Yet
the mere delivery of knowledge did not ensure better teaching practice for the teacher or translate
to improved learning outcomes for students in the classroom (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009;
Kennedy, 2016).The teacher’s approach to instruction affects the relationship between the
student and the teacher and the students and the content (Elmore, 2000a; Horn & Little, 2010),
and these relationships influence student learning (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005;
Elmore, 2000a). Therefore, teachers need to be able to develop skills that allow them to provide
high quality instruction, or engage in ambitious teaching (Lampert, 2013; Grossman, 2013) to
students from a variety of backgrounds. Thus, teachers need professional learning opportunities
that allow them to build the skills that they need (Elmore, 2000a).
Much research has been conducted on the way in which teachers learn and the structures
of professional learning needed for teachers to apply this new knowledge into their classroom
teaching practice (cf., Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009; Kennedy, 2016; Webster-Wright, 2009).
However, schools continue to engage in and implement professional learning practices that
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 9
emphasize the dissemination of new knowledge, with little consideration as to how teachers can
learn this knowledge and then apply it to their teaching practice (Kennedy, 2016). As such, this
study sought to examine and understand the nature of professional learning afforded at the school
and teacher level in order to see if it fostered opportunities for teacher learning that could
translate to improved teaching. In this paper, I present background of the problem, the statement
of the problem, the purpose of the study, a review of the literature on professional learning,
findings and conclude with implications and recommendations as a result of this study.
Background of the Problem
The opportunity gap that persists for students at the lowest performing schools within a
same district is often the result of the low quality of instruction they receive as compared to
students at the highest performing schools (Carter, 2013). Furthermore, Little (2003) has
suggested that student achievement can only be enhanced by building the capacity of teachers
within the school through professional learning.
As a country, we spend billions of dollars on professional learning in order to improve
teaching and learning opportunities experienced by our students, and more specifically our
historically marginalized and minoritized children (Carter, 2013). We continue to continue and
deliver ineffective professional learning programs, despite there being substantial literature that
demonstrates better ways to teach teachers (Carter, 2013).
The acquisition of both skills and knowledge is most effective for teachers when they are
given opportunities to reason and communicate about problems of practice (Desimone, 2009;
Kennedy, 2016). Approaches that support teacher practice, such as professional dialogue, allow
teachers to not only reflect upon their own practice, but the practice of other teachers (Desimone,
2009). Research has demonstrated that schools still engage in professional learning practices
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 10
that do not encompass these learning opportunities (Darling-Hammond et al., 2009; Kennedy,
2016). In order to enhance teacher professional learning, there needs to be an environment that
allows teachers to collaborate as a professional community, to share and engage in problems of
practice and have the time to implement and reflect upon their own practice. (Darling-Hammond
et al., 2009; Wei et al., 2009).
Statement of the Problem
Although much research has demonstrated the benefits of effective professional learning
and the value of “authentic” learning (Webster-Wright, 2009), many educational institutions still
engage in outdated teacher practices in which teachers are presented with new knowledge and
not given the opportunity to discuss, reflect or apply what they have learned in their day to day
teaching (Webster-Wright, 2009). What results is low quality professional learning that does
little to enhance teacher knowledge and skills or improve student outcomes. We fail to create
authentic professional learning opportunities for our teachers or use adult learning theory to
support teacher ability and practice (Webster-Wright, 200
Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999) claim that professional learning is often embedded with
beliefs, expectations and various assumptions about what would be the most effective way to
develop teacher practice. As a result, many schools tend to continue to deliver professional
learning based on what has always been done, rather than question its effectiveness. Restricting
professional learning to the imparting of knowledge, where the expert’s knowledge resides
outside of the teacher and the teacher is not seen as bringing any knowledge or expertise to the
learning, and knowledge to improve practice, where the teacher is still treated as someone who
lacks his/her/zir own knowledge, limits the teacher’s ability to reflect and create meaningful
connections to his/her/zir teaching practice. However, Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999) assert
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 11
that knowledge of practice allows teachers to collaborate and act as researchers within their own
classroom context as it positions them as experts in their own right. Teachers are enabled to
critically reflect and discuss with their colleagues a part of a professional community, creating a
sense of systemic inquiry and new knowledge.
Often when teachers attend professional learning within their school, they are not asked
to apply or implement their new learning in their own classrooms. The existing structure of
professional learning often relates to the delivery of the content and not how teachers then go and
apply this in their classrooms. Darling Hammond and Bransford (2005) argue that teachers are
unable to see the quality of their instruction and its relationship to their students in the classroom.
They argue that obstacles stand in the way of teachers being able to effectively teach their
students. When referring to these obstacles, they examine how teachers are unable to transfer
new knowledge into their classroom and rely on how to teach the content to their students via
their own experiences as a student. As a result, these experiences form the basis of what they
have learned from their own teachers instead of what they were taught in their own teacher
training program. These teachers need to think differently about their teaching practice and
design student lessons and activities that have clear learning outcomes so that students know
what is expected of them. In a second problem of enactment, teachers need to be able to
understand the factual knowledge gained during professional learning enough to organize it in a
manner that it can be retrieved and readily applied in the classroom (Kennedy, 1999). The issue
of complexity refers to the teachers’ ability to adjust or modify instruction according to the needs
of their students or the environment of the classroom (Hargraves & Shirley, 2009). The above
issues can be problematic for the classroom teacher who is confronted with the differing learning
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 12
needs of students, what he/she/ze thinks he/she/ze knows based on his/her/zir own experiences as
a student and the lack of time given for critical reflection and evaluation of teaching practice.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to answer the following research questions:
What does authentic teacher learning look like in the context of a professional learning
community at an urban high school? and How does the professional learning aim to support
teacher practice change?
Significance of the Study
Institutions of education are experiencing an increased level of accountability as
government reforms continue to address the opportunity gap among students from different
backgrounds and with differing abilities (Goldschmidt & Phelps, 2010). The Every Student
Succeeds Act (ESSA) insists upon high quality teachers to improve the learning outcomes of
students from low socio- economic backgrounds. Central to its effectiveness is the sustained and
supported professional learning of teachers to improve student outcomes. Effective teacher
professional learning is crucial to the success of student learning (Elmore, 2000a; Horn & Little,
2010). Teachers need to have the opportunity to reflect upon their learning and collaborate with
their colleagues, and actively engage in authentic learning that results in teacher practice change.
Both theoretical and empirical research has highlighted that teacher collaboration can improve
not only a teachers’ knowledge of their content but can improve the quality of instruction and
teacher learning (Grossman et al., 2001; Glazier et al., 2012). This study will allow for an
understanding of the practices, processes and structures that are needed for authentic professional
learning to occur within the school context and how identifying teacher learning needs through
critical reflection and communities of practice can enhance and change teacher practice.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 13
Organization of the Study
This study examined and researched the processes currently in place at an urban high
school where teachers are actively involved and engaged in authentic professional learning, with
the goal of improving student learning outcomes and teacher practice. The paper is organized as
follows:
Chapter one provides an overview of the study in which the background and statement of
the problem were identified. The purpose of the study, the research question and the significance
of the study are also represented in this chapter.
Chapter two reviews current literature on the variety of ways that teacher teams engage in
professional learning. The literature includes the following components of research: (1) authentic
professional learning (2) critically reflective practices, and (3) communities of practice. The
chapter concludes with a conceptual framework including a conceptual model in an attempt to
embed current understandings of professional learning with new research.
Chapter three has identified the methods, research design, sample and population, data
collection and data analysis for this case study. This chapter also discusses the role of the
researcher during the research process and clarifies ethical considerations that were taken into
account prior to and following the collection of data from the school site.
Chapter four represents the findings of this study and attempts to address the research
questions, including five themes that were prevalent throughout both interviews and observations
at the site.
Chapter five presents a summary of the findings, and discusses the implications of why
these findings can and should inform teacher practice. Recommendations are then given for
practice, policy and research to compliment the study.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 14
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Historically, the professional learning of teachers has been largely focused on providing
teachers with content, so that they in turn could deliver this content to their students (Garet et al.,
2001; Webster-Wright, 2009). Research has indicated that professional learning is most effective
when there is a dedicated effort to engage teachers in professional reflection and time is allocated
to critique their own methods of practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999; Rodgers, 2002; Valli,
1997). As a result, “authentic” teacher learning in urban high school settings has focused on
professional learning as a community of practice and how this learning can support teacher
practice change.
In this section I present the following sets of ideas about professional learning
1
by
representing the following theoretical and empirical pieces, in order to answer my research
questions, What does authentic teacher learning look like in the context of a professional
learning community at an urban high school? and Does the professional learning support teacher
practice change?, The first section focuses on authentic professional learning. In this section, I
start by examining the theoretical work of Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999) in regards to,
knowledge for, in and of practice, to represent the distinctions between types of professional
learning, those that foster learning and change in practice and those that do not. I will then
present Webster-Wright (2009) to address how professional development focuses on the
development of a teacher and as such does not promote opportunities to support teachers in their
professional learning. In the second section, I focus on reflective practices and present the
theoretical work of (Jay & Johnson, 2002) who defined reflection as being both an individual and
collaborative process. I then present the theoretical work of Valli (1997), who argued that teacher
1
I will be using the language of professional learning, as articulated by Webster-Wright (2009) rather than the
language of professional development.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 15
reflection consisted of two dimensions, including quality and content. In the final section, I
present the concept of a “community of practice” and present empirical findings from Grossman
et al., (2001) and Desimone (2009), who highlight the importance of teacher collaboration,
routine protocols and processes, informal and formal interactions, relating to problems of
professional practice. At the end of this chapter, I offer the conceptual framework that emerged
as a result of this study.
Authentic Professional Learning
For “authentic” professional learning (PL) to occur, one must undergo and continue to
learn as a professional (Webster-Wright, 2009). More specifically, PL is constructed in a manner
that is active, social, related to practice and is continuous for the learner (Garet et al., 2001;
Putman & Borko, 2000; Webster-Wright, 2009). In this section, I will outline the current
literature that will help me understand what is meant by “authentic” professional learning. I will
present one theoretical piece of information, followed by one empirical piece to demonstrate the
application of the theory. I will start with the research of Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999) as
they argue that from the outset, both the individual teacher and group as a collective need to be
understood for their professional knowledge and actions in making sure what teachers should
know becomes explicit and outcomes for professional learning are identified and outcomes
defined as part of a school’s structure. Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999) suggest that when these
elements are combined and consistently applied, then high-quality professional learning will
occur. After Cochran-Smith and Lytle, I turn my attention to the empirical work conducted by
van Es, Tunney, Goldsmith, and Seago (2014) who examined the concept of “high quality
conversation in which discussions were found to be similar to research that described productive
discussions as generative dialogue and knowledge building. I will discuss the concept of timing
and context in authentic professional learning and present the main findings from Horn & Little
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 16
(2010); Putman & Borko (2010) and Garet et al., (2001). Following this, I will discuss the
concept of teaching as a social construct and how leaning is a transformative process as
researched by Cranton and Caruesetta, 2004; Mezirow, 2000; Elmore, 2002; Webster-Wright,
2009). To finalize this section on authentic learning, I present Coherence, Cognition and
Collaboration in Professional Learning highlighting the work of (Wei et al., 2009) and Rodgers
(2002).
Knowledge For, In and Of Practice
Cochran-Smith and Lytle (2009) identified three conceptualizations of knowledge,
namely: (1) knowledge for practice, (2) knowledge in practice, and (3) knowledge of practice.
Knowledge for practice refers to the routine behavior that teachers endured as part of what is
generally considered best practice. Knowledge is passed on to teachers in the form of
disseminating content with little regard to how teachers then interpreted this knowledge. The
delivery of this knowledge was usually in the form of externally based experts presenting at
workshops. This knowledge may have included pedagogical theories, research-based theories, or
even instructional techniques for the classroom. Understanding the relationship between
knowledge and practice can be thought of as knowledge for practice and underlies the concept of
how teachers are often assessed, based on their content knowledge. Cochran-Smith and Lytle
(1999) outlined that in this distinct process, teachers utilized knowledge, but were not able to
expand upon this knowledge as the knowledge did not come from them but was given to them.
Knowledge in practice was best described as a situation in which a trainer or mentor works with
teachers collectively to implement and design lessons. Unlike knowledge for practice,
knowledge in practice allows teachers to construct knowledge in their own way as a tool,
experimenting with instructional techniques in the classroom. In addition, teachers were able to
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 17
assign meaning to this knowledge and become responsible for the generation and mediation of
ideas in the classroom. A situation was therefore established where the teacher was able to learn
from his/her/zir own experience as a classroom practitioner and critically reflect upon that
experience (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). As a result, effective teacher learning occurred when
teachers understood and learned from their own actions.
Knowledge of practice referred to the knowledge a teacher gained as a result of his/her/zir
own research. As such, a teacher engaged in his/her/zir own active research, questions were then
created and formed, and professional dialogue occurred. Concurrently, experts’ knowledge was
used to inform the inquiry. The teacher when able build a dialogue focused around how to
structure and organize newly learned information.
Knowledge generation and its use are regarded as difficult, as it is challenging to both
generate and transfer that knowledge and apply it. If teachers in fact learn from inquiry, how is
this knowledge then applied to classroom practice? Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999) examined
the way in which teachers engaged in oral inquiry. Teachers who engaged in oral inquiry within
teaching communities were then able to engage in rich conversations about a number of factors
including: classroom observations and reflections, curriculum materials and practices in addition
to classroom and school related artefacts and documents (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999).
Through these conversations, teachers were able to analyze and interpret data in a way that
informed knowledge regarding their own practice and their students’ learning. As such, a
teacher’s engagement in dialogue that is focused on instructional practice should improve student
learning outcomes.
Cochran-Smith and Lytle (2009) suggested that oral inquiry, such as curriculum planning
and programing provided teachers with a reason to communicate and therefore reflect upon their
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 18
own practice with their colleagues. The deliberate practice of inquiry through communication
was referred to as inquiry as stance (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). This process had four major
components that included: (1) an instructor who met regularly with a pre-determined group, (2)
as a group, an analysis of evidence of practice documents was undertaken for reflection and
reference, (3) the group then had a critical discussion relating to practice, perceptions and
ideologies, and (4) knowledge was applied from their acquired knowledge to their professional
practice. Inquiry as a stance had teachers assessing their own understanding about their current
situation. From this, teachers used their knowledge and engaged in collaborative inquiry and at
that point were able to reflect upon their own professional practice. As a result, these
communities of inquiry allowed teachers to engage in learning as knowledge of practice and
provided opportunities for professional learning to occur.
van Es, Tunney, Goldsmith, and Seago (2014) examined how the use of video could
facilitate in the analysis of teacher practice so that it could be used as a tool to drive professional
learning. More specifically, they asked the following research questions: (a) What particular
practices do facilitators of video-based professional development enact to support teachers in
productive discussions of mathematics and learning? And (b) How do these practices coordinate
to support teacher learning? The study was comprised of two sample groups. The first group,
referred to as The Mapleton Video Club, consisted of a selection of fourth and fifth grade
teachers from an urban school who met once of a month for a period of a year. A total of 10
meetings included both a primary and secondary facilitator, with the primary facilitator leading
the meetings, whilst the secondary facilitator filmed the meetings and participated in the group
discussions. The research team filmed participating teachers in their classrooms and then
selected clips for analysis at each meeting. Each meeting lasted 60-75 minutes, including 30
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 19
minutes for discussion. The facilitator introduced each clip before it was viewed by the group in
attempt to provide an overview of both the lesson and the mathematical concept, as well as a
summary. For additional context, the teacher who had given the lesson also provided a summary
to the group.
The second video group consisted of eight middle and high school teachers from Atwood
school district, who participated in the Learning and Teaching Linear Functions (LTLF)
professional development program. This sample group also met once a month over a period of 1
year. Reporting on this group included the teachers’ work on the foundation module. The module
included eight sessions that lasted for 3 hours each. The LTLF sessions at Atwood included
classroom video of students discussing their work on a problem relating to linear relationships.
Video was also taken of teachers discussing the problems themselves. However, the study
focused specifically on the video discussion segments within the classroom only. The research
team believed that both video groups shared the same philosophy in that teacher learning was
better when grounded in teacher practice.
Data comprised of 10 video tapings and 8 foundation module meetings for the LTLF
Atwood group. All of the meetings for this group were videotaped. The segment in which
teachers discussed video clips was transcribed. All meetings in The Mapleton Club were
videotaped and all 10 meetings were transcribed.
The analysis of the data centered around the concept of “high quality conversation” that
was derived from the discussions. In particular, there was a focus on whether the group engaged
in sustained discussions of the details of students’ mathematical thinking, as they sought to make
details of their thinking, and engaging in joint sense making of student ideas. The concept of
high-quality discussions was similar to research that described productive discussions as
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 20
generative dialogue, dialogic discourse, or knowledge building discourse (cite). As a result, the
discussions that followed all video clips were viewed and coded using three criteria. These
criteria included: (1) students’ ideas as the object of inquiry and the group sustained a focus on
making sense of student thinking; (2) the discussion of student thinking focused on substantial
mathematical ideas; and (3) how teachers consistently responded to and built on one another’s
ideas to jointly make sense of what they observed in the video.
To effectively measure substantive discussions of student mathematical thinking, the
research team incorporated a three-level coding framework. From the Mapleton sample group,
the research team viewed 26 clips from the participants classrooms across the 10 meetings. From
this, 15 of these discussions were coded as being of high quality. From the Atwood sample
group, the research team viewed 16 video clips from across their 8 meetings. From this, 10 were
identified as high quality.
The framework specified four practices for engaging teachers in substantive discussion
whilst watching a video in a group-based setting. The first practice was orienting the group to
the video analysis task. The facilitator posed general prompts to elicit the participant’s ideas and
to assist in contextualizing and launching teachers’ knowledge about both the classroom and the
mathematics lesson. Two moves were associated with this practice: contextualizing and
launching. In this sense, contextualizing allowed for the provision of information to the group
regarding the lesson, the unit or the classroom context to assist in the group’s understanding of
the video clip. Launching involved the utilization of general prompts to elicit participant ideas.
These moves were vital in the participants understanding of the video task. Contextualizing
allowed for the development of shared expectations and to have routine ways of discussing
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 21
mathematical instructional interactions. Contextualizing provided facilitators with a greater
understanding of how participants were thinking about what they were watching.
The second practice focused on sustaining an inquiry stance. Six moves were related to
this practice including: high-lighting and lifting up, pressing and clarifying, and offering and
countering. Highlighting involved facilitators pointing out or drawing out particular events or
interactions. Lifting up referred to the facilitator taking up noteworthy ideas from participants
and using them as the focus of the discussion. Pressing involved the facilitator prompting
teachers to expand upon their ideas or explain their reasoning. As such, the facilitator directed
attention to noteworthy student ideas, offered different points of view and prompted students to
explain their reasoning. Clarifying involved the facilitator reinforcing a participant idea to ensure
common understanding among the group, thereby encouraging participants to refine their ideas
further.
The third practice involved maintaining a focus on the video and mathematics in which
the facilitator pointed to evidence, connected ideas and redirected the discussion. This aided in
keeping the discussion grounded in relation to the artefact under study at the time. The fourth
practice involved supporting group collaboration. This practice consisted of three facilitator
moves including: standing back, distributing participation and validating participant ideas.
Participants were allowed to pursue ideas without the interjection of the facilitator. In addition,
the facilitator invited participants into the discussion if they had not already contributed to the
group. The actions undertaken by the facilitators assisted in providing routine ways of
conducting video based professional learning.
van Es et al (2014) discussed the advantages of teachers having facilitators who were
familiar with the content area to allow them to understand what is captured in the video. But
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 22
more specifically, how to identify the interactions that are represented in the video. The work
conducted by facilitators and the framework used in this study could be used as a tool to assist
leaders in professional development to guide their staff. The coordinated inclusion of all four
practices within the framework and their associated moves could improve video-based learning
for teachers and their development. The orienting the group to video analysis task provided a
framework for not only the viewing but the analysis of mathematical problem solving. In
addition, sustaining an inquiry stance and maintaining a focus on the video and the mathematics,
provided routine methods of inquiry into events and the subsequent interactions recorded on
video. It is from these recording that educators can make evidence- based claims about teaching
and learning.
Although there is a large amount of research in support of authentic professional learning
and what this looks like in an urban high school, many schools across the country continue to
deliver professional learning in the same way that they have in previous decades. Research
indicates that authentic professional learning requires that newly learned knowledge includes the
availability and resources for teachers to engage in critically reflective practices and share their
ideas and experiences with each other. This study seeks to identify the importance of timing and
context specific learning that focuses on how teachers learn best and how they can apply this
learning into their classrooms.
Timing and Context
Teachers experience both intellectual and social isolation in their professional learning
endeavors, often having to work and plan independently and away from their peers. In addition,
teachers must make instructional based decisions that focus on their current classroom situations
and the students that they teach on a daily basis (Grossman et al., 2001; Putman &Borko, 2000).
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 23
Putman and Borko (2000) suggested that the context in which people learn can transform
cognition and as such, where teachers learn can have an impact on their practice.
Putman and Borko (2000) referred to PL as dynamic in nature, more specifically, a
situation in which teachers acquired knowledge about learning, teaching, and content in a variety
of settings. They suggested that teacher learning be grounded in a specific aspect of teacher
practice, as they argued that knowledge is situated within a context. As such, a teacher should
have the opportunity to gather knowledge, both research-based and theoretical through the
attendance of staff development workshops. It was then anticipated that the teacher use this
knowledge in his/her/zir classroom, and receive feedback from the new lesson in an attempt to
critically reflect upon the implementation of recently acquired knowledge in his/her/zir
classroom practice. As a result, what a teacher had learned was largely based on the context or
situation in which his/her/zir had learned and in an environment that was conducive to practicing
and reflecting upon newly acquired knowledge.
For effective PL to occur, Putman and Borko (2000) suggested that one of the most
important ways in which authentic professional learning occurred was when learning activities
happened at the school site, particularly within the individual teacher’s classroom. They
suggested that in order for professional learning to effectively change teacher practice it had to
be implemented within a particular social or physical context, social within nature and be
dispersed across not only people but resources as well. For example, teachers who attended
professional learning off site should then bring their experiences back and share them with their
colleagues.
Horn and Little (2010) conducted a study to investigate how “teacher talk” enhanced
teacher professional learning opportunities. The study focused on two teacher work groups
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 24
within the same school. Both audio and video taped artefacts and interviews were conducted
over a period of 2 years as part of a project that centered on teacher learning at two urban high
schools. Conversational routines were observed that included the following components: (a)
normalizing a problem of practice; (b) further specifying the problem; (c) revising the account of
the problem; (d) generalizing to principles of teaching. Normalizing a problem involved
dialogue relating to reassurance of an issue in order to lead into in-depth discussions about
specific classroom problems of practice. Questions were then asked to the teacher who
introduced the problem of practice, leading to a greater level of analysis and reflection among the
team of teachers. Their research focused on learning communities and how conversations of two
separate groups can either by enhanced or limited opportunities for teacher learning. The groups
differed in the way in which conversational routines supported frameworks for teaching to
specific areas of practice. Results from the broader data set highlighted contextual factors that
helped account for the differences in the practices of the two groups.
For the purpose of the study, conversations were identified as the repetition of dialogic
patterns that occurred with the social setting of a teacher learning community (Horn & Little,
2010). From this definition, “conversational routines” were then defined as a situation in which a
person intentionally moved to establish group listening norms and response times. In order to
establish patterns of routine conversation amongst the groups, each group was given method in
which to define, elaborate and conceptualize problems it encountered. In addition, the routines
provide a framework for teachers to engage in principles of practice (Horn & Little, 2010).
The framework for conversational routines derived by Horn and Little (2010) included a
process of four steps. The first step in the process was concerned with the normalization of
practice. This was the initial stage in which teachers began to have more in depth conversations
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 25
about specific problems of practice. The second step involved being able to specify the problem
further. This occurred when members of the group were able to clarify and be more specific in
the questions that they were asking of each other. This complex step also allowed the group to
make inferences about a problem of practice over time, with the intention of moving towards a
focused reflective discussion (Horn & Little, 2010). The third step involved a revision of the
initial problem and provided the teachers with most professional growth. At this stage, teachers
thought over the questions that were raised and linked them to the professional practice of others
within the group. Teachers were able to engage in dialogue employing a number of perspectives,
sharing professional practice and gathering resources in an attempt to address the initial problem.
The final step saw teachers generalizing the problem to principles of teaching. As a group,
professional learning was enhanced when generalized principles of teaching and learning were
discussed and reflected upon as specific problems of practice. As a result, both individuals and
the collective group were supported when professional knowledge was implemented within the
context of practice and focused towards finding solutions for problems of practice (Horn &
Little, 2010). The study highlighted that when the framework for conversational was not used in
one group, they turned away from their practice.
In a study conducted by Garet et al. (2001) the effects of different aspects of
1027 math and science teachers from all areas of the country. They were asked to complete a
survey that asked them questions about their own experiences of PD. The focus of the research
was to examine the relationship between effective features of PD that had been previously
identified in the literature and the actual reported changes in skills, knowledge and classroom
practice as reported by teachers (Garet et al., 2001). Three structural features were analyzed
including: (a) the duration of the activity, (b) the form or context of the PD (e.g., in house
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 26
workshop), and (c) how the activity exercised cohesion amongst a group of teachers. In addition,
three core features of PD were examined and included: (a) the level of content an activity had;
(b) the degree to which the activity allowed opportunities for active learning; and (c) to what
extent did the activities align with teaching standards and goals and ultimately teacher learning
(Garet et al., 2001).
When asked about the type of activity that they were involved in teachers specified
whether they believed it to be reform oriented or traditional in its context. To illuminate what
would be considered “traditional” in the sense of PD, the workshop was used as an example.
Other types of PD included: network meetings, study groups, mentoring and peer observations.
Seventy nine percent of participants identified that they participated in a traditional form of PD
(Garet et al., 2001). In terms of structural features, results indicated that the activity or form of
PD had an impact on duration. Traditional activities were deemed to be short lived in contrast to
reform activities that tended to involve more hours of face-to-face interaction and spanned a
greater period of time. Duration also led to a more positive impact on the three core features,
namely: coherence, active learning and content focus of PD. The three core features lead to an
improvement in teacher skill, knowledge and instructional practice strengthening the claim that
activities with a connection to learning experience enhance teacher skill and knowledge (Garet
et.al., 2001). However active learning was shown to have less of an impact on teacher practice
than the other core factors of coherence and focus content (Garet et al., 2001).
Garet et al. (2001) suggested that there was an improvement in classroom teaching
practices when teachers received professional development that incorporated three key factors.
These factors included content, active learning and coherence. Content included aspects such as
(1) a focus on the subject matter, pedagogical subject matter and teaching methods; (2)
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 27
adaptation of professional development goals specifically for student learning; and (3) aligning
professional development to the ways in which students learn the subject matter. Active learning
was associated with teachers engaging in analysis of teaching and learning including (1) having
others observe teaching practice in addition to observing expert teachers; (2) planning and
implementation of teaching methods and curricula; (3) revision of student work as a result of
new knowledge covered in professional development and (4) engagement in written work and
generating discussion. The final key factor referred to coherence in which the connection of
goals and other activities were followed up in greater detail. In addition, both state and district
standards and assessments were aligned and communication amongst teachers involved sharing
of solutions and discussion to improve teacher practice over time.
Teaching and learning as a social and transformative approach
The act of authenticity is said to be a result of when teachers critically reflected upon
social norms about teaching and rejected these norms. As such, teachers challenged norms and
differentiated themselves from the collective of teachers. Cranton (2004) argued that by this
stage, authenticity developed, with teachers knowing who they were when separated from the
collective group. Many researchers (Cranton and Caruesetta, 2004; Mezirow, 2000; Elmore,
2002; Webster-Wright,2009) believed that authentic learning involved a transformative learning
process, in which teachers had developed a sense of awareness to challenge ideas that were being
presented to them. I will now present the main ideas behind the theoretical work of these
researchers, including the main empirical findings from Cranton and Caruesetta (2004).
Cranton and Carusetta (2004) investigated the concept of authentic teaching and what
that would look like in the everyday classroom practice. They became curious with the notion of
authentic teaching as developed from transformative learning theory. They proposed that if
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 28
knowledge about teaching is communicative, therefore it must be socially constructed by
practitioners and scholars. As a result, teaching is something that is learned through experience,
and it is the reflection of that experience that is used as a dialogue with others. As a result,
learning about teaching is transformative in nature (Cranton,1996; Cranton & Carusetta 2004).
Cranton and Carusetta (2004) defined authenticity as a multifaceted concept that included
the following four components: being genuine, showing consistency between values and actions,
the ability to relate to people in a way that encouraged authenticity, and the participation in life
in a critical way. Furthermore, Cranton (2001), described authenticity as an expression of
genuine self in the community. For teachers, this involved a specialized form of communication
in which learning was the goal and the engagement in meaningful conversations were both
genuine and grounded in honesty. Mezirow (2000) also identified that this development of self-
awareness was, in itself, a transformative process.
Many adult educators believe that by being “authentic” includes making sure that
behaviors are congruent with our words (Brookfield, 1990; Ray & Anderson, 2000). Jarvis
(1992) suggested that being authentic was when a person consciously fostered the growth and
development of themselves and others. For teachers, this occurred when both teacher and student
engaged and learned through critical dialogue, similar to the process of reflective learning.
Cranton and Carusetta (2004) conducted a 3-year study to investigated the concept of
authentic teaching and what that would look like in everyday classroom practice. A grounded
theory approach was used and interviews of 22 educators from three Canadian universities were
conducted. Participants were largely chosen on the basis of recommendations from colleagues
and whom they believed to be authentic teachers. Other than this, no criteria were used, as they
wanted to work out the meaning of that through their participants. Interviews were conducted
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 29
twice per year. The goal of their research was to explore the concept of authenticity and the
extension of their research also allowed them to observe how faculty developed and transformed
their perspectives on teaching within a natural environment.
Results revealed five specific dimensions of authenticity which included: self-awareness,
awareness of others, relationships with learners, awareness of context and a critically reflective
approach to practice. They found that the context of teaching was not often addressed in research
on authenticity. For many of the participants, teaching was a passion and was something that
gave them meaning in their life. In terms of “awareness of others,” participants showed a strong
interest in their students’ needs and learning styles and even their own personal problems. They
hypothesized that a person who has a good understanding of his/her/zirself as a person and a
teacher was more likely to exhibit a relationship with values and his/her/zir actions.
Cranton (2001) described teaching as a social process that took place within its context.
As a result, a person who was aware of the context of teaching would be more aware of the
relationship between the classroom environment, the departmental and institutional routines, the
subject area and the cultural expectations that would then impact the students, the teacher and
their relationship. Critical reflection therefore was at the heart of transformative learning.
Furthermore, if authenticity was to occur, one needed to be aware of who they were and how to
act upon this. In addition, for authenticity to occur, Cranton and Carusetta (2004) expressed that
reflection not only encompassed a group as well as the individual, it had to involve the knowing
of how one was both different and the same as his/her/zir colleagues.
Critical reflection is a cultural process of transformative learning (Mezirow, 2000).
Mezirow (2000) described transformative learning as a process by which beliefs, values,
perspectives and uncritically assimilated assumptions are questioned. As a result, learning
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 30
became both open and permeable and more validated (Mezirow, 2000). People tended to derive
meaning from their own experiences and start to develop a frame of reference for understanding
the way in which the world works, based largely on the notion of uncritically assimilated
information. Mezirow (2001) described a situation in which new faculty seldom received the
necessary training to accommodate different learning styles in the classroom, and as a result,
they often used strategies based on their own experiences as a student or adhered to advice
gathered from their fellow colleagues. For teachers to develop authenticity, faculty needed to be
critical of the academic community collective and challenge their ways of thinking, by
differentiating their thoughts, thinking and values.
Elmore (2002) emphasized that there was a broad consensus on what effective
professional learning should consist of. Within the research field, educators largely believed that
student learning can be improved through the process of enhancing the skills and knowledge of
educators. As such, professional learning activities would encompass the following: (a) an
emphasis on pedagogical skills that lead to effective instruction through a focus on the teachers’
content knowledge; (b) a connection between the purpose of professional learning and student
learning; (c) grounded in a theory based on adult learning; (d) engage and involve participation
of all staff including leaders; (e) ongoing and consistent effort to sustain the program; (f) allow
teachers to interact in a social capacity regarding problems of practice in an attempt to build
capacity amongst the collective group; (g) learning to be situated within close proximity to the
school, the classroom or the location of practice and (h) a dedicated and going commitment to
the evaluation process in terms of the effect of professional learning on student achievement
(Elmore, 2002).
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 31
Elmore (2002) highlighted that the biggest concern regarding professional learning was
not so much the knowing of what needed to be implemented to make an effective learning
program for teachers, but rather how such programs could successfully be implemented within
schools as part of an ongoing and sustained structure within the school culture. He referred to the
nature of current professional learning within schools as sometimes a temporary or one-off
incident or occurrence. Elmore (2002) emphasized that professional learning needed to be
sustained and ongoing, requiring knowledge, persistence and focus. More specifically,
professional learning encompasses the practice of improvement and its effective implementation
and ongoing success was therefore dependent on supportive in school structures that harness
collaboration (Elmore, 2002).
Webster-Wright (2009) suggested that “authentic” professional learning was ongoing and
referred to the experiences of teachers and the recognition that teachers learned in many ways.
This process included casual conversations with colleagues to formally conducted workshops.
Rather, authentic professional learning was not based on passive development but active
learning. Webster-Wright (2009) suggested that the term “professional development” implied
that the teacher is deficient in some way and in need of such development rather than having the
opportunity to partake in self-directed learning. Webster-Wright agreed that activities associated
with professional development have become more learner oriented and indeed more interactive,
yet they have failed to address authentic work-related experiences and as such, have not engaged
the learner (Webster-Wright, 2009). The way in which professional development has been
delivered has been decontextualized and often delivered externally by outside experts,
illuminating the separation of research from practice. Conversely, much of the research
suggested that professional development was dynamic in nature, both active and social, and more
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 32
specifically related to practice. The practice of delivering PD has remained the same largely as a
result of the little knowledge known about how teachers learn and continue to learn as an
ongoing process of their careers (Webster-Wright, 2009). Furthermore, professional learning was
at its most effective when established within a community of learners. Teachers who engaged in
problem solving and critical reflection were better able to question assumptions about teaching
and were more likely to change existing teacher practices (Webster-Wright, 2009).
Webster-Wright (2009) asserted that reflection encompassed many different activities
including engaging in a dialogue between two people to self-contemplation. For reflection to be
considered “critical” it must be able to challenge a person, question his/her/zir own beliefs or the
beliefs of others, consider previously held assumptions about him/her/zirself and others. The
significance of critical reflection in professional learning is that it enables the possibility of
transformative change to occur (Webster-Wright, 2009). When learners start to question
commonly held assumptions about their own beliefs, they start to view themselves and the world
that surrounds them in a different way. This transformative has allowed the learner to view their
own experience through a new lens and accordingly to change their own classroom practice
(Webster-Wright, 2009).
Coherence, Cognition and Collaboration in Professional Learning
Wei et al. (2009) identified three factors when designing professional development that
could impact teacher knowledge and practice and also impact student learning outcomes. These
three factors included, firstly, the content of professional development. This could be broken
down further in terms of specific pedagogical goals, types of content and student learning.
Coherent and collaborative learning experiences were the focus of the second factor; context for
professional development. Coherence may be defined as the way in which teachers connect their
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 33
knowledge about standards in professional learning, curriculum and assessment and how this
was applied into their classroom practice. Collaboration referred to the progression made from
inquiry to reflection in which colleagues entrusted in each other to improve their practice. This
occurred in a context in which teachers negotiated their day through delivering content,
understanding pedagogical conditions, taking risks and dealing with any other issues that may
have arisen in the classroom. Therefore, for professional learning to occur and effectively
improve student learning outcomes, learning experiences should allow for a modeling of new
teaching practices and the provision of time to allow teachers to practice. In addition, the number
of hours and the length of professional learning outcomes can have an impact on student learning
outcomes. As a result, professional learning designed to improve student learning outcomes can
be effective when experiences are both focused and sustained over time (Wei et al., 2009).
Rodgers (2002) used Dewey’s concept of reflection (1933) to propose a 4-phase reflective cycle
that she applied to her own professional learning work with teachers. Rodgers (2002) argued that
teachers had to undergo all four stages of the cycle to be in a position to think about students’
learning, so that they could have an understanding of their own teaching, and the subject matter,
and more specifically, how these factors interact in the classroom.
Rodgers (2002) claimed that teachers who had not understood or internalized their
subject matter were not able to focus on monitoring student learning. As such, the first stage of
the reflective cycle emphasized the need for teachers to be cognitively “present.” If teachers
were not cognitively present, they were unable to identify when their students were thinking. The
“description” phase saw teachers gathering data in relation to students and the subject matter
being taught in the classroom environment. The analysis of the collected data allowed for
teachers to critically examine how their students understood the subject matter being taught and
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 34
from this, how successful teachers were in teaching the content to their students. Analysis was
the third stage of Rodger’s (2002) reflective cycle and related to where teachers assign meaning
to their subject matter and teaching practice. Teachers devised a common language about both
teaching and learning. This process eliminated much confusion around the language used to
discuss and evaluate teacher practice. During this analysis phase, teachers also had to disclose
any assumption that they held about student learning that could impact and influence their
teaching practice within the classroom. Experimentation was the final phase of the reflective
cycle and resulted in teachers working cohesively to discuss and implement a variety of
strategies for dealing with classroom questions and problem that arise in their day to day
teaching (Rodgers, 2000)
Conclusion
Elmore (2002) highlighted that professional learning is ongoing and dynamic in nature,
and schools are therefore accountable for ensuring the success of increasing teacher knowledge
through sustained and ongoing support of their teachers. However, without the time or structure
in place, teachers do not have the ability to reflect on their own practice. Mezirow (2000) attests
to the benefits of transformational learning that occurs best within the context of the school
environment. Much of the research has focused on what authenticity in professional learning
means and the impetus of having school structures to support these processes. I now look at what
the research suggests in terms of having teachers reflect upon their own classroom practice in an
attempt to better address the research question of what conditions currently exist to support
teacher professional learning.
Reflective Practices
The process of critical reflection has been highly effective in achieving authentic
professional learning (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). Reflection in relation to teacher practice
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 35
has be defined as an individual or collaborative thinking process that is systematic, intentional
and purposeful (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999; Schön, 1983; Valli, 1997). Teachers who
engaged in critical reflection and how reflection impacted on students learning, were more likely
to think about adjusting, modifying or improving their instructional practice as a result of the
knowledge gained through reflection (Darling-Hammond, 2009; Little, 1996; Wei et al., 2009).
Reflection may be defined as being both an individual and collaborative process, and the
ability to express that reflection must involve experience and uncertainty (Jay & Johnson, 2002).
This process involved teachers articulating their thoughts to their colleagues and not just
themselves, acknowledgement of key characteristics of situations and from this, the generation
new questions and forms of inquiry. Throughout this process, teachers reflected and gained
insight from (1) personal values, experiences and beliefs, (2) a greater context for which
questions are raised and, (3) additional perspectives (Jay & Johnson, 2002). How then did this
reflection occur in everyday classroom practice? Jay and Johnson (2002) referred to a specific
typology of reflection consisting of (1) descriptive (2) comparative, and (3) critical reflection.
Descriptive reflection was concerned with what would happen when the teacher reflected for
example; the reporting of facts, extracts, causes and effects. Descriptive reflection refers to what
the teacher was thinking about in relation to the problem that they were presented with. The
teacher then identified the problem and was steadily able to discuss the problem in a frame in
which change had occurred. Jay and Johnson (2002) identified comparative reflection as looking
at a problem and being able to examine it in multiple ways and from a varied and distinct
perspectives. As part of this process, teachers questioned their own beliefs and experiences in
addition to whatever bias and assumptions they may have brought to this particular problem. In
saying that, comparative reflection did not allow a teacher to examine problems from a broader
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 36
viewpoint. Critical reflection, however allowed for a person to have considered the implications
of an issue, and as a result, a new perspective is established. The typology presented by Jay and
Johnson (2002) allowed teachers to think about their own experiences and how this could assist
in problems that they encountered in the classroom.
Valli (1997) offered a more comprehensive review of teacher reflection, that incorporated
five types of reflection and consisted of two dimensions: quality and content. Content was
concerned with the “what” teachers thought about, whereas quality with the “how” teachers
thought about their practice. For example, content was concerned with issues of student
engagement, active learning, time spent on tasks and completion, homework and a student’s
level of prior knowledge. The first type of reflection identified was “technical reflection.” In
terms of content, this simply referred to a teacher’s ability to teach or their level of skill. In
reference to quality, it described how a teacher’s attitudes and/or actions are influenced by an
evaluator or researcher and then applied based on the expectations of the expert.
The second type referred to reflection-in and reflection-on action. In terms of content,
this referred to what the teacher was able to do the classroom. For example, his/her/zir beliefs
and values, the classroom context and the students themselves. Quality then referred to how a
teacher uses his/her/zir teaching experience to justify his/her/zir decisions. Deliberative
reflection was the third type of reflection in which teacher based their decisions off a variety of
sources which include: experience, the advice of others, personal experiences and beliefs and
research. Content referred to the teachers’ examination of their own actions including; the
school’s climate, organization and culture, the actual subject being taught and the relationship
with their students. Quality referred to whether the teachers were effective in considering
competing claims and being able to justify these claims through his/her/zir own decision-making
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 37
process. Personalistic reflection was the fourth type and in terms of content considered how
teachers think about their personal life in relation to their profession and how this then related to
the goals of their students. In terms of effective quality, teachers needed to consider how
empathetic they were or could be with their students. Finally, teachers needed to think about the
political, social and moral dimensions of schooling and the environment in which they worked.
In terms of quality, teachers needed to be able to evaluate the overall purpose of schooling, from
this broad perspective.
Conclusion
Having teachers exposed to reflection and a framework for how professional learning
works in a practical setting is of great benefit for educators to evaluate how their practice has
impacted on their students (Rodgers, 2002; Wei et al, 2009). However, Rodgers (2002)
advocated the need for a community that supports critical reflection through a structure that is
recognized within the school environment. Teachers who are given the opportunity to reflect
upon their own personal beliefs, values and experiences are more receptive to the perspectives
and therefore provides them with a greater context in which to ask more questions (Jay &
Johnson, 2002). Teachers need to be given the chance to not only reflect upon but share their
ideas and knowledge. If professional learning needs to support networks of teachers who can
reflect together, then a further study of the literature of communities of practice needs to be
undertaken to better support my research question.
Communities of Practice
The concept of communities of practice (COP) in the education literature on teacher
collaboration was first introduced by Wegner (1998). Wegner (1998) defined a community of
practice as a professional group in which teachers had the opportunity to not only share, but
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 38
develop and maintain knowledge and best practices in teaching. In addition, teachers would then
be able to identify, collaborate and resolve shared problems of practice within the school
environment. In addition, research demonstrates a sense of ownership in belonging to a group
whereby, communities that maintain a student-centered culture and provide both innovative,
outcome focused goals for professional learning will continue to strive for the improvement of
both staff and students (Gallimore et al., 2009; Horn & Little, 2010). This sense of ownership is
highlighted in the empirical work of both Grossman et all, 2001 and Desimone (2009). In this
section, I present the main findings from their research.
In their 2 ½ year study, Grossman et al (2001) focused their empirical inquiry on what
differentiates “groups” of teachers from a community of teachers (Grossman et al., 2001). They
employed the definition of community used by Bellah et al. (1985) in which community was
expressed as a group of people, socially interdependent, participating together in both decision
making and discussions. The shared practices of the group served to define the community and
nurture it. In their study, Grossman et al (2001) incorporated volunteer English and social studies
teachers in addition to an English as a second language teacher and a special education teacher
from an urban high school.
The study examined the formation, function and benefits of having a teacher community.
Grossman et al. (2001) suggested that working within a teacher community has the potential to
transform existing structures for collaboration within teacher groups and allow individual
teachers to reflect upon their own practice. The study’s data consisted of teacher interviews,
reflective journals, interviews, emails field notes and discussions with teachers (Grossman et.al.,
2001). The participants met with the community and researchers twice per month to create and
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 39
implement an interdisciplinary curriculum of English and social studies and to discuss both
English and history subject specific content (Grossman et al., 2001).
In the study, Grossman et al. (2001) proposed five benefits to being part of a teaching
community. Firstly, teachers would have a specific place for ongoing teacher development
within the school. Secondly, by having a specific learning community on site, the focus would be
on the students and specifically the responsibility of the teacher. Thirdly, the nature of
communities had to allow for collective, rather than individual knowledge that could be shared
and included a multiple of perspectives. Fourthly, the collegial environment had to allow for
experienced teachers to support new teachers. Finally, the community had to have the capacity to
build and increase leadership capacity amongst the group of teachers.
The process in which teachers as a collective group transform into a professional
community was long and dependent on a number of key factors (Grossman et al., 2001).These
factors included: the ability of teachers to work cohesively in both an intellectual and social
capacity so that they in turn form a teacher community , and secondly, that the social and
intellectual interactions of the teachers’ community be not only negotiated but monitored as an
ongoing process (Grossman et al., 2001). The very nature of high school teaching often saw
teachers designing, planning and implementing curriculum independently of their colleagues. As
a result, Grossman et al., 2001 suggested that teachers needed to be given time to make sense of
the content that they are teaching. In addition, teachers needed to be able to not only understand
the content but needed to have an awareness of other’s understanding of the content. They need
to be given time to be able to support the different ways of how this subject knowledge can be
interpreted and integrated this into their classroom teaching practice and how they related this
with their students. (Grossman et al., 2001).
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 40
For the community of teachers to be effective in terms of teacher participation,
participants felt valued in their contribution and that they were actively involved in professional
discussions and the concurrent actions of the community (Grossman et al., 2001). Therefore,
teachers worked together in establishing, monitoring and revising group norms to manage these
new social interactions (Grossman et al., 2001). Furthermore, the community embraced a culture
of trust that harnesses a community of sharing and the distribution of new ideas and perspectives
(Grossman et al., 2001). As part of an ongoing process from a group of teachers to an effective
collective professional community, there needed to be: (1) regular meetings and meeting places
for orchestrating intellectual and social change, (2) ideally self- selected groups, (3) regular and
consistent monitoring and controlling of group norms to enhance interdependent collaboration,
(4) consistent in terms of structured time and resources, and (5) a sense of intentionality to
enable the transformation from collegial group to professional community (Grossman et al.,
2001).
Little (1990) described teacher collaboration as a process in which a teacher’s
professional identity became the responsibility of the community and as a result, the practice of
teaching which was once considered private moved into the public arena. Through collaborative
teams, teachers were then able to build their capacity and the wider school community. Little
(1990) outlined how this notion of community allowed teachers to perceive themselves as part of
an “occupational community” as their interaction and participation expanded outside of the
context of the classroom. This changing sense of identity for teachers leant itself to greater levels
of accountability for the learning outcomes of students and a more effective professional learning
community (Little, 1990).
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 41
Little (1990) referred to the to the collective work of teachers as “joint work,” a situation
in which teachers had the shared responsibility for the work of teaching, shared conceptions of
autonomy for the group, supported the group in both leadership and professional practice and
had affiliations that were group centered and focus on professional work. In addition, the impetus
to maintain a relationship focused on collaboration being reliant on a teacher’s realization of the
importance of interdependence. If the work team generates academic, social and emotional
stimulating outcomes, then teachers were more likely to engage in these interdependent tasks.
However, the reverse could also happen, when the work was not stimulating, the teachers will
seek to work independently rather than collaborate with the group (Little, 1990).
Furthermore, Desimone (2009) argued that the professional learning of teachers was
directly related to their daily interactions in the classroom. Consequently, quality professional
learning was a result of the following factors: (1) content focus, (2) active learning, (3)
coherence, (4) duration, and (5) collective participation. Content focus referred to the improving
and deepening of subject matter knowledge, with a focus on the relationship between the subject
matter and how students learned. Secondly, active learning was said to have occurred when
teachers were responsible for leading their own professional learning. This was achieved by
being observed by others, observing dedicated expert teachers, the analysis of student work, and
the process of planning lessons. Thirdly, the extent to which teacher professional learning was
aligned to school and teacher goals, the standards for student learning, the evaluation of student
assessments, opportunities for on-going professional communication, and the beliefs that
teachers maintained was referred to as coherence. Fourthly, duration referred to the span of time
over which a learning activity took place and included the number of hours teachers would spend
engaged in the task. Finally, teachers of the same grade level or same school being able to share
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 42
ideas and discussions and learning from each other was referred to as collective participation.
These features examined by Desimone (2009) have allowed teacher learning to be more
meaningful, focusing on problems of practice and the application of useful solutions.
The empirical research highlighted by Desimone (2009) led to the proposal of a
framework to assess whether these elements were in place, and consequently, if so, did they lead
to an improvement in student learning outcomes and ultimately change teacher practice in the
classroom. The proposed framework was designed to measure the effectiveness of different types
of professional learning. The framework worked as a “cycle” in that firstly teachers have
experienced professionally learning. As a result of this professional learning, the teachers’
knowledge and skills have increased and they have also experienced a change in their beliefs and
attitudes. After achieving this, teachers use and apply their newly acquired knowledge and skills,
beliefs and attitudes to their instruction, and from these instructional modification, students’
learning outcomes should be increased (Desimone, 2009).
Conclusion
For a school and its teachers to move towards a community of practice, there needs to be
an environment that is conducive to multiple conditions. These include regular teacher
collaboration, routine protocols and processes, informal and formal interactions and a relevance
to the problems of professional practice (Grossman et al., 2001; Horn & Little, 2010; Little,
1990). School structures need to focus on sustaining an environment that emphasizes continuous
improvement for both staff and students (Horn & Little, 2010).
Conceptual Framework
This conceptual framework draws upon the research outlined in my literature review with
a specific focus on the ideas of: (1) authentic professional learning, (2) reflective practices, and
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 43
(3) communities of practice. Maxwell (2013) describes a conceptual framework as a model of
what research is currently available that you plan to study. The framework systemically presents
a culmination of the assumptions, expectations, beliefs, concepts and theories that both inform
and support a research study (p. 39). I used this conceptual framework to study the day-to-day
conditions that took place at Diamond High school in regard to professional learning.
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework.
In this conceptual framework, professional learning between teachers depends upon the
teacher as an individual learner and the teacher as a learner in a collective group. At the
individual level, the teacher needs to be self-directed in his/her/zir learning. At the group level,
teachers share a collective responsibility for their learning. There are conditions that needed to be
present at both the individual and collective level including support and time. At the individual
level, the teacher needs to be self-directed in his/her/zir learning and willingly apply these newly
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 44
acquired skills and knowledge in his/her/zir classroom. Professional learning occurred at the
teacher level, with support structures in place, but did not occur at the whole school level, with
these support structures lacking to engage teachers in authentic learning.
When a teacher is engaged in discussion with his/her/zir peers, he/she/ze were able to
improve his/her/zir practice and learn from his/her/zir colleagues. Unlike reflection, in which
teachers look at their own practice, critical discussion involves a deeper understanding of the
experiences of their colleagues and the experiences that every individual student brought into
classroom. From these critical discussions, teachers move from their own perspectives that they
maintained within the classroom, to a community of practice in which teachers are exposed to a
variety of cultural experiences. From this point teachers move towards a community of practice,
they start to embrace and reflect upon the differences that exist among race, ethnicity, power,
gender and sexual orientation within their classrooms and engage in some process of reflection.
This discussion becomes deeper when an individual teacher is able to move towards a group of
like-minded colleagues and seek quality discourse and comparative discussion to not only
improve their own teaching, but the quality teaching of their colleagues in their classrooms.
Time relates to the allocation of time away from face-to-face teaching in which teachers
reflect and discuss their teaching practice within a community of practice or in the whole school
context. Support relates more specifically to the existing structures within the school that
supported teacher professional learning. Protocols in place should have had the ability to sustain
the professional culture of a community of practice and thereby improve teacher instruction. A
discussion of each component of the conceptual framework derived from my review of the
literature as well as my analysis of the data I collected will now be presented.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 45
Authentic Professional Learning
Professional learning is most effective when teachers are given the opportunity for
reflection and time is allocated to question their own methods of practice (Cochran-Smith &
Lytle, 1999; Rodgers, 2002; Valli, 1997). Authentic professional learning (PL) occurs when a
teacher is actively engaged in the learning process and continues to learn as a professional
(Webster-Wright, 2009). More specifically, PL is constructed in a manner that is active, social,
related to practice and is continuous for the learner (Garet et al., 2001; Putman & Borko, 2000;
Webster-Wright, 2009) Cochran-Smith and Lytle (2009) suggest that when these elements are
combined and consistently applied, then high-quality professional learning will occur.
As such, teachers need to have the opportunity to communicate with their colleagues.
Being able to discuss issues of curriculum planning and programing as a method of oral inquiry
allows teachers to reflect that on their own practice. This process initially begins at the individual
level, when teachers start to question their own practice. When a teacher acquires new
knowledge, applies it in their classroom, they seek comparative discussion with their colleagues.
As part of my conceptual framework, I incorporate the four components of Cochran-Smith and
Lytle’s (1999) inquiry as a stance. These components include: (1) an instructor who meets
regularly with a pre-determined group, (2) group analysis of evidence of practice documents is
undertaken for reflection and reference, (3) critical discussion relating to practice, perceptions
and ideologies, and (4) knowledge applied from one’s acquired knowledge to his/her/zir
professional practice. The model allows teachers to assess their own knowledge and
understanding and therefore engage in reflective practice. Secondly, there is an emphasis on
professional learning communities through the deliberate discussions relating to teacher practice
and perception.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 46
Teachers however, need time to meet, time to discuss and then time to apply newly
learned information. When time is scheduled to foster professional learning opportunities
teachers were better able to (1) discuss students’ conceptual understanding (Cochran-Smith &
Lytle, 1999; Putman & Borko, 2000); (2) experiment with new teaching methods and discuss
with other teachers (Garet et al., 2001; Putman & Borko, 2000; Wei et al., 2009); and (3) identify
and challenge their own beliefs about their practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999).
Reflective Practices
Teachers must have the opportunity to engage in discussions about their practice in which
they can reflect upon what they are doing in their day-to-day routine, and how this can impact on
their students. Utilizing the current literature on professional learning, teachers need to be in an
environment that is conducive to the understanding an improvement of their own practice and
their specific teacher content knowledge.
The nature of professional learning is dynamic and is most effective when teachers are
given the opportunity to reflect upon their own teaching practices (Putman & Borko, 2000;
Webster-Wright, 2009). When teachers engage in reflective practice as part of their professional
learning, they are able think differently about their work and this leads to a change in their own
teaching practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999; Putman & Borko, 2000; Rodgers, 2002; Schön,
1983; Valli, 1997). Teachers who discuss their knowledge with their colleagues are more likely
to become self-directed in their learning, further enriching their content and improving student
learning (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999).
Teachers may be involved in either individual or collaborative reflection. In my
conceptual framework, I incorporate Jay and Johnson’s (2002) typology to address the research
question: What indications can be used to measure teacher practice change as a result of
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 47
“authentic” professional learning? Teachers must be able to articulate their own thoughts and
feelings in attempt to generate new questions and further inquiry. The process involves teachers
being able to: (1) reflect upon their own personal beliefs and experiences, (2) experience a
greater context for the questions being derived. (3) understand additional perspectives. In order
to see and monitor how reflective change happens in the classroom I incorporate the conditions
for which reflection in the classroom can be monitored using Jay and Johnson’s (2002) typology
of reflection. Three types of reflection have been identified in the classroom environment
including: (1) descriptive (2) comparative, and (3) critical reflection. These forms of reflection
not only allow teachers to think about what they are doing in the classroom, but more
specifically how they can make a cognitive connection about improving their practice (Cochran-
Smith & Lytle, 1999).
At the comparative reflection phase, teachers question their beliefs and assumptions that
they may have as an individual. However, reflection at this stage does not incorporate the
broader views of colleagues and does not incorporate the political or cultural context in which
classroom teachers work. When teachers move into an environment in which a community of
practice is supported, they are exposed to the social and cultural experiences of their colleagues
and are better able to understand the different perspectives of the students and teachers that co-
exist within the school environment.
Communities of Practice
I propose that the concept of professional learning communities is defined as a collective
of teachers who work together in the process of discussion and decision making and are socially
interdependent (Grossman et al., 2001). Authentic professional learning requires both leaders and
teachers to be engaged in a community of ongoing learning based on trust and commitment and
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 48
where the group experiences an array of perspectives, harnessed knowledge and accepts the
communal responsibility for the behavior and norms of the group (Grossman et al., 2001). It is
paramount that teachers feel comfortable within their school environment when undergoing the
process of challenging their own beliefs and assumptions and examining their teaching practice.
A comfortable school environment will allow teachers to be more inclined to take risks and look
for alternative solutions to problems of practice to lessen the negative impact that they may have
in their classrooms (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). As the group of teachers continues to
progress, they become a professional community, becoming accountable for both student and
teacher learning (Grossman et al., 2001).
When teachers do not have access to a supportive environment that fosters professional
learning, teachers are exposed to more traditional forms of professionally learning. Often
externally based or off-site, teachers are subjected professional learning that is based off the
knowledge for practice model, in which teachers are no longer active participants in the learning
process. Such forms of professional learning result in minimal learning for the teacher and as
result, teachers have difficulty in applying newly learned concepts in the classroom.
Summary
When teachers do not have access to a supportive environment that fosters professional
learning, teachers are exposed to more traditional forms of professionally learning. Often
externally based or off-site, teachers are subjected professional learning that is based off the
knowledge for practice model, in which teachers are no longer active participants in the learning
process. Such forms of professional learning result in minimal learning for the teacher and as
result, teachers have difficulty in applying newly learned concepts in the classroom. Now I turn
to the methods used in this study.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 49
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
The following chapter describes the research design that I used to conduct this study and
the instrumentation, data collection and analytic approaches that I used. This qualitative case
study was informed by the following research questions: What does authentic teacher learning
look like in the context of a professional learning community at an urban high school? and How
does the professional learning aim support teacher practice change?
In this section, I provide the reasons why qualitative research was used and explain the
process I underwent to conduct a basic qualitative study. Qualitative research is a widely
accepted methodology used in both social sciences and applied areas of practice, including
education (Merriam, 2002). A basic interpretive qualitative approach was undertaken, using
observations and interviews to understand and make meaning of the participants’ experiences.
From this, I interpreted information and started the analysis process. The analysis consisted of
deriving patterns and themes, making inductions and deductions and proposing relationships
between concepts. When the analysis was completed, a rich description of the findings was
made.
The purpose of qualitative research is to understand a phenomenon from the perspective
of those who experience it (Patton, 2002). The use of qualitative methods such as interviews and
observations allowed for greater insight into other people’s experiences of authentic professional
learning and enabled me to see what it looked like for those who were involved in it. Patton
(2002) suggested that the researcher should interview participants using open-ended questions in
locations where they feel familiar and comfortable. Observations took the form of naturalistic
inquiry, participants’ behavior and the way in which they conducted themselves during
observations and interviews was subject to variation, as a result of my presence. This occurred
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 50
primarily as a consequence of participants knowing and viewing that the researcher was taking
notes on what they said and their actions. As the researcher, I was there long enough and was
able to gain insight into the thoughts and the way that those involved made meaning of the
experience.
Creswell (2014) suggested that it is the issue or research problem being studied that
should determine the data collection method chosen for the study. The interview process allowed
me to better understand the roles that teachers played within the school and the attitudes that they
had toward existing professional learning structures within the school, and their perceptions on
communities of practice to enhance student learning. Conversely, observations allowed me to see
how teachers engaged with each other and how effective collaboration impacted on teacher
professional learning (Merriam, 2009).
A case study is defined as both an analysis of a bounded system and an in-depth
description that allows the researcher to study specific characteristics within a given situation
(Merriam, 2002). I conducted a single case study wherein I examined the structures of
professional learning within an urban high school, and the collaborative community of practices
that were focused on improving instruction and student learning. I specifically studied five staff
who were already engaged in professional learning and understood the conditions that existed
and led to teacher engagement and improvement in their own community of practice to
ultimately improve student learning outcomes.
A case study provided both a thorough and rich description and portrayal of this
phenomenon over a period of time (Merriam, 2009). I was able to investigate the five
participants within the context in which they undertook their work. Merriam (2009) expressed
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 51
that the main concern of the researcher conducting a case study was to understand the
participants’ perspective in any given phenomenon and not his/her/zir own perspective.
Sample
The purpose of my study was to better understand teachers’ experiences in professional
learning at their school site. It was anticipated that teachers who engaged in professional learning
in a more collaborative way would be able to sustain and build communities of practice and, in
turn, improve the learning outcomes of their students (Grossman et al., 2001). Purposeful
sampling was used to select and identify one school site. Purposeful sampling allows for the
researcher to determine which subjects and conditions best fit their study. Consistent with
Merriam (2002), purposeful sampling allowed for the opportunity to learn the most about my
participants as it gave me the opportunity to gain insight, discover and understand the
participants who were best positioned to offer experiences that were consistent with the
questions I sought to answer. The participants had an experience of professional learning within
the context of a professional learning community. In addition, consistent with Maxwell (2013), I
was able to select both the site and examine the participants in the context in which the
phenomenon was taking place. As such, I selected a school site where there was a process for
professional learning and a desire to build teacher capacity in regard to communities of practice.
Setting
The following criteria were used for both staff and site selection.
Criterion 1. The high school had an existing process or model of professional learning
designed to improve teacher instruction.
Criterion 2: The high school emphasized the importance and significance of professional
learning within its mission statement or school plan.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 52
Criterion 3: More than 30 schools were contacted through email in an attempt to find a
suitable site for this study. In addition, I used my network, including the support of my chair and
committee to connect with potential sites. The assistant principal of Diamond High expressed
interest in the study and consulted with her principal. The principal agreed that the school would
be interested in participating
Participants
A team of teachers were identified by the assistant principal on the basis of their
effectiveness and willingness to engage in teacher collaboration. I then had correspondence via
email with the assistant principal and then met with her in person, before observing the school
site for the first time. On the first visit to the school, I observed a staff development session and
the assistant principal introduced me to one of the participants. The assistant principal sent out
targeted emails to staff and waited as the responses came in. According to the assistant principal,
the teachers demonstrated a history of being a part of a collaborative team in their specific
content area.
Teacher Role
Miss Kay Principal
Miss Smith Assistant Principal
Miss Green English Teacher
Miss Johns English Teacher
Mr. Blake Art Teacher
Figure 2. Teacher roles
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 53
These teachers were not determined by the length of employment or specific teaching
area. Teachers were observed on two occasions and their interactions monitored before these
teachers were decided to be suitable candidates Teacher selection was guided largely by the
definition of community used by Bellah et al. (1985) in which a community was expressed as a
group of people, socially interdependent, participating together in both decision making and
discussions.
Data Collection and Instruments/Protocols
The goal of this study was to gain insight into the conditions that were implemented
within a school to engage teachers in collaborative practices to enhance teacher instruction and
student learning. As such, data was collected from interviews with teachers, in addition to
documents and artifacts, and observations of onsite teacher professional learning.
Interviews
In order to focus on the research questions and conceptual framework, one formal
interview was conducted with each participant. Interview times ranged from 40 minutes to 75
minutes. The shortest interview was with the school principal, and the longest interview
conducted was with the assistant principal. The three teacher interviews ranged between 45
minutes and 65 minutes. Interviews allow the reader to gain insight into people’s thinking and
the way that they are making meaning of their experiences. A semi-structured interview protocol
was used. This interview style allowed me to respond to the worldview of the participant, who
brought new ideas and concepts to enhance my understanding of their experience (Merriam,
2002). Over the course of the observations, I conducted an informal interview with each of the
participants. This took the form of a casual conversation in which I asked about their teaching
experiences and how long they had been teaching. The discussion also focused on their role
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 54
within the school. The interviews provided me with a greater insight into the existing
professional learning processes within the school. The interviews assisted in my understanding
of what were the factors that made up authentic professional learning.
Drawing on my conceptual framework both the formal and informal interview questions
allowed me to gain a greater understanding of the importance of teachers being given the time to
reflect upon their own teaching practice and discuss the ways in which they believed that their
learning was best supported. Interviews also helped me gain insight into the composition of an
effective community of practice. More specifically, the value that the teachers had for their
collective group, the processes that were in place for meetings and discussions, and how the
group monitored and adapted to desired instructional goals Although questions were specifically
targeted, participants were forthcoming and elaborated upon their own experiences. Such factors
included: time allocated for teacher learning, teacher planning time, school accountability for
teacher professional learning and teacher attainment of professional learning goals. The
interview protocol also emphasized teacher goals, structures and processes for teacher learning.
Observations
Unlike interviews, observations allowed for a first-hand account of the phenomenon that
was being studied and provided the opportunity to observe the phenomenon within the context in
which it occurred (Merriam, 2009). My conceptual framework and research questions examined
the conditions that were in place at a school site that lead to authentic professional learning for
teachers. Consequently, I conducted 10 hours of observations that allowed me to observe the
interactions, physical environment, both reflective and informal discussions and participants
during professional learning sessions. I conducted 3 whole PD sessions and two small group PD
sessions. Notes and observations were taken in regard to the group dynamics and structure and
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 55
the processes in place to ensure accountability and progressions towards instructional goals and
student learning outcomes. Observations consisted of diagrams of classroom and meeting spaces.
Memos were taken as reminders of conversations or physical interactions that were made
(Merriam, 2002).
Documents and Artifacts
Documents and artifacts were collected from observations as part of the data collection
process. They included a copy of the school plan with the incorporated targets for professional
learning. Documents also include both the minutes and agendas from some professional learning
meetings. These documents and artifacts served to provide a formalized record of
communication and understanding among teachers. Furthermore, handouts and interactions
served to demonstrate the level of interaction and sharing of knowledge and experiences among
teachers.
Data Analysis
Interviews and observations were conducted, along with analytic memos that were
written while in the process of undertaking research and collecting data (Miles et al., 2013). This
helped determine what was happening in the data while I was still in the process of collection,
until a more formal analysis was undertaken. I conducted open coding to allow codes to emerge
from the data (in vivo) in addition using the conceptual framework for a priori codes. Multiple
cycles of analysis were completed, including the development and refinement of a codebook. in
order to move from an open cycle of coding to an analytic cycle and the identification of themes
and patterns. Examples of in vivo codes included: data driven discussion, school priorities and
planning time. Examples of a priori codes included: descriptive discussion, quality discourse and
descriptive discussion. From this, I engaged in typicality, counting the presence of codes to
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 56
identify how prevalent they were, to ensure that I was not leading to any conclusions if there was
not adequate data. For example, much of the data from interviews mentioned discussion,
however, upon further examination the amount of times “discussion” occurred was less, due to
the fact that some “discussion” was merely casually conversion, that needed to be further
categorized and not tallied as relevant discussion. I also looked for evidence that contradicted
what I believed to be finding in the data in order to prevent any self-fulfilling prophecy that I
may have had, and analyzed data through analytic memos that I wrote. In addition, I consulted
with my supervisor about my data findings, to ensure that findings were credible. The purpose of
the data analysis was to identify information within the data that corresponded with the research
questions, without being ambiguous or misleading in such claims (Merriam, 2002 Evidence
demonstrated the necessity for strong support structures and processes embedded within the
school’s daily teaching and learning operations.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Participants were more willing to open up and be honest with someone who they believed to be
honest in his/her/zir actions (Maxwell, 2013). As such, participants received a description of the
study that included my intentions for the data that I intended to collect, what data I would collect
and the overall purpose of the study. By doing this, I established a level of trust with them. In
order to be trustworthy as a researcher, as the instrument, I recognized the biases that I brought
with me due to my experiences and the type of work that I do. To control my biases, I wrote
observer comments during interviews and observations, and noted when I was experiencing a
bias and checked and challenged that bias. I wrote comments to myself, to check my bias in
regards to the different context and experiences that I had experienced and how my experience
may not be applicable in certain contexts within this environment when observing for a limited
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 57
time. I also wrote reflective notes, and asked questions to make sure that I was not coloring the
data with my biases. In addition, I engaged in triangulation, by using multiple data sources. I also
consulted with my supervisor, who acted as a sounding board for what I saw in the data, during
the data analysis phase, as a method for checking credibility.
The staff I observed and interviewed were recommended by the assistant school
principal, and as such, this kept the study focused on answering the research questions and
gathering data from teachers who actively engaged in communities of practice. As such, the
identification of participants who demonstrated qualities of being engaged in authentic
professional learning was paramount. This is consistent with Merriam (2009), who asserted that
there needs to be a connection between the participants and the research question. In my own
professional capacity, I have worked as a high school teacher for nearly 20 years, including 12
years as Head of Curriculum and Professional Learning. In addition, I have worked
collaboratively on national research projects in regard to quality teaching and learning. My
teaching, leading and research experiences have provided me with expertise and knowledge in
teacher practice, professional learning and whole school leadership and structural processes to be
eligible to determine the credibility of the data that I collected in both interviews and
observations. To bracket my biases and expectations, I consulted with colleagues about my
observations. I used multiple data sources including; interview, observation, documents and
artefacts so that I could engage in triangulation. (Maxwell, 2013). I conducted member checks
and asked people in the field if my findings were consistent with their experiences. In addition, I
kept an audit trail and documented my document collection and data analysis. While in the field,
I captured descriptive data as a result of ten hours of observations and five formal interviews and
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 58
informal interviews. Rich field notes captured detailed information in regards to the context and
structure of professional development.
Limitations and Delimitation
The following limitations and delimitations included factors that were beyond and within
my control and may have impacted the data I was able to collect or how the data were then
interpreted. First, I offer the limitations I faced and second I offer the delimitations I created.
Limitations
1. Truthfulness: The degree of honesty participants expressed during interview
responses varied in terms of the amount of information they disclosed or what they
were willing to share.
2. Access: My research was focused on the conditions in a school that contributes to the
existence of communities of practice. I was limited by the interactions that I had and
the access of the school staff.
3. Time limitations: The duration of the study was limited and dependent on the
availability of the staff at the high school. Both interview and observation times were
also determined by the availability
Delimitations
1. Instrumentation: The instrumentation used for the observations and interviews
conducted in this case study may not have yielded appropriate data to answer the
specified research questions. In addition, being a novice researcher designing
interviews and conducting observations may not have provided an adequate amount
of data to address each research question.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 59
2. Researcher Experience Level: My limited experience in working with research
protocols, data analysis and the creation of data instrumentation tools may have
limited the richness of my responses to the research questions.
Ethics
This study involved the collection of data from various individuals and as such, required
the study to be conducted in an ethical manner. In order to maintain the integrity of the research,
it was important that I developed trust among the teachers and protected their right to privacy
when expressing their own thoughts and opinions (Creswell, 2014). To ensure that the
participants were protected and not vulnerable, I applied to the Institutional Review Board (IRB).
As part of the research process, the IRB required me to assess the potential for risk to
participants in the study (Creswell, 2014). I then obtained permission from the school site to
conduct research and confirmed that the school does not have a vested interest in the outcome of
the study (Creswell, 2014). l then obtain informed consent from the teachers, acknowledging
their participation in the study. Participants were informed that their participation was entirely on
a voluntary basis and that they could have withdrawn at any time. This information was
communicated through an information sheet outlining and describing the purpose of the study.
An explanation was given to the teachers participating in this study before the commencement of
observations and interviews which outlined the purpose of the inquiry, methods used, assured
confidentiality and ultimately obtained informed consent (Merriam, 2009).
The data collection process undertaken was undertaken in a respectful, non-disruptive
manner in order to cause the least possible disturbance within the school site. As a researcher, it
was also important to respect the power exchanges that existed within the school environment
and to avoid the possible exploitation of teachers during the interview and observation process
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 60
(Creswell, 2014). Regarding the data analysis process, I avoided disclosing only positive results
and respected the privacy of the teachers and school by using pseudonyms. When reporting
information, I maintained the integrity of the study by being honest, transparent, using unbiased
language, and shared the data with others. In addition, the data will be kept for 5-10 years in
accordance with the recommendation of the American Psychological Association in order to
protect its confidentiality (Creswell, 2014).
Conclusion
In conducting this research, I examined and strove to better understand the conditions in
which teachers were actively engaged in a community of practice focused on improving teacher
instruction and practice. A group of teachers who demonstrated a commitment to engaging in
sustained professional learning were the unit of measurement in my dissertation. Data was
collected through the process of observations, interviews that were both semi- structured and
informal, and admission of artifacts and documents. My conceptual framework was used as a
vehicle for guiding both the analysis and collection of data.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 61
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
In this qualitative case study, I endeavored to discover how teachers in an urban high
school worked collaboratively to engage in a community of practice. I was concerned with how
teachers examined student data and engaged in professional learning to discuss their teaching
practices at a deep and rich level. More specifically, I examined whether and how professional
learning was sustained and supported within the school to improve teacher instruction. I
investigated the how a professional learning community enabled practice change through the
opportunity to discus and reflect with time, content and the role of mentoring. The findings in
chapter four are representative of the observation and interview data collected. Three teachers
and two administrators; one who was a teacher and coach. Teachers were formally interviewed,
five informal interviews were conducted, five observations were conducted. Three classroom
teachers, one assistant principal who also operated as a coach and a teacher and the principal
were interviewed. The data from the observations were triangulated with the participant
interviews and related artifacts. To provide the context for the findings, I present a brief A brief
description of the research site and the participants is provided. Lastly, I present and discuss the
findings supporting each research question.
Background of Diamond High School
Located in a large city in Southern California, Diamond High School is a public charter
school, founded in 2013, and, as a result of a merger, has three schools in its network. The
schools seek to prepare their students for college and change their community by closing the
socio-economic, gender and ethnic gap. They set out to achieve this by providing equal access,
commitment to their values and a rigorous curriculum.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 62
Faculty and Staff
Two of the members of the English Department agreed to be interviewed for this study in
addition to an assistant principal who was part of the English Faculty, another teacher who
sometimes attended professional learning within the faculty and the principal. The interviewed
teachers’ classroom experience varied from 4-15 years. One of the teachers had completed a
master’s degree in Education and another teacher was in the process of completing her doctorate,
also in education. The assistant principal operated as the head of the English department and was
a coach to 9 staff within the school, including the three teachers interviewed. All of the teachers
interviewed expressed an extreme passion for teaching and wanting to have a direct impact on
the school community in which they worked. They all identified the importance of a teaching
environment that focused on the different learning and social needs of their students. Diamond
High School has 36 teaching staff. The participants time at the school varied from less than a
year to 7 years.
Below is the research question and the themes that emerged from the data.
Research Questions: What does authentic teacher learning look like in the context of a
professional learning community at an urban high school? and How does the
professional learning aim to support teacher practice change?
In this section, I offer findings related to both of these questions. The findings are
organized first by research question and second by whether they relate to school level or teacher
level activities. I have organized the findings this way because there were significant differences
between the experiences of teachers during whole school professional learning and teacher level
professional learning. At the school level, I present two themes that address the research
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 63
question. This is followed by the presentation of three themes that were prevalent at the teacher
level.
School Level Professional Learning
While I argued in my conceptual framework that teachers needed time to meet, time to
discuss and then time to apply newly learned information, learning at the school level at this
urban high school was not characterized by attributes of authentic learning and instead reflected
traditional elements of knowledge for practice approaches to teacher professional development.
Cochran-Smith and Lytle (2009) referred to knowledge for practice that describes the routine
behavior that teachers endure as part of what is generally considered best practice among
teachers. As such, knowledge is passed on to teachers in the form of disseminating content with
little regard to how teachers then interpret this knowledge. At Diamond High School, staff were
treated as the recipients of knowledge. Observations of whole school professional development
revealed several themes that further elucidate the approach taken by school leaders to
professional learning at the school site.
First, professional learning was not structured to promote authentic learning. Data
consistently revealed teachers sitting in student desks and facing the front of the classroom,
whilst presentations were being made to them. It was though teachers were placed in an
environment where they were meant to listen and view content and were not in an environment
conducive to discussion and interaction with colleagues. Some time was given for quick
discussion about the presentation, though staff would discuss with the person immediately next
to them or in their row. Although some discussion was had, teachers were situated in an
environment in which they had to sit there and partake in the viewing of a presentation. Some
teachers were involved in presenting, in most cases talking about a new initiative that they were
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 64
implementing and to inform staff that this was what would be happening. Some staff reported
back findings from off-site professional development that they attended, which was received
with ambivalence by some staff. Teachers were not actively participating in the learning process
and not engaging in authentic professional learning, at the whole school level. Some teachers
were completing other tasks; sending emails, correcting student work or texting on phones.
During school professional development, some teachers were disengaged and doing other things,
and those that were actively listening, had little opportunity to voice their own opinions at a
deeper level. As such, school structures need to emphasize continuous improvement for both
staff and students and ensure that this is done consistently (Horn & Little, 2010;). As mentioned
in my conceptual framework, for authentic professional learning to occur at the school level
there must be an environment of both informal and formal interactions, a relevance to the
problems of practice, routine processes and protocols and regular teacher collaboration
(Grossman et al., 2001; Horn & Little, 2010; Little,1990). These conditions did not exist at the
whole school level. The context in which people learn can transform cognition (Putman &
Borko,2000). Furthermore, if professional learning is to effectively lead to a change in teacher
practice, then it must be implemented within a particular social or physical context across both
people and resources. At the school level, there was no such physical or social context that
allowed for effective teacher practice change. Teachers did not have the opportunity to articulate
their own thoughts in order to stimulate new questions or inquiry (Jay and Johnson, 2002). When
teachers provided an opinion, it was often dismissed as a passing comment and did not generate
further discussion. Teachers did show a variety of responses based on their experiences however,
time was not dedicated to further discussion. To some extent, teachers engaged in some
descriptive discussion in the short group time that they were allocated, and this was brought back
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 65
to the whole staff group. However, teachers did not engage in comparative or critical reflection
largely as a result of limited time and presenters having an agenda to work through. Without
these forms of reflection at the whole school level, teachers were not given the opportunity to
think critically about their own classroom and practice, or how they could make that cognitive
connection to improve their own practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009). I address each of these
themes in greater detail below.
Theme #1: At the school level, professional learning was structured to promote
knowledge for practice or exposure to information and not authentic learning. Data from
whole school professional learning opportunities consistently revealed that the location and
seating arrangement was not an environment in which authentic learning could happen. The
classroom set up lent itself to passive learning in which teachers were not able to be actively
present in the learning that occurred. Teachers were seated in rooms where they faced the front,
structurally making it harder for seminar style interaction to occur and that promote real
discourse. In two out of three whole staff development days observed, there were not enough
tables and chairs for everybody to be seated in. Although, I only attended three dedicated whole
school learning sessions, during each event, there was no evidence that the lack of seating for
staff was unnatural or out of the ordinary. Staff did not seem surprised that there was not enough
room to sit all staff, and teachers who did not have seats, waited outside until the assistant
principal (AP) found seats for everyone. On this occasion, 6 of the 36 staff at the back of room
faced the front of the classroom without tables or anything to support their writing with. Staff did
not move tables to be closer together and any discussion that occurred, was made with the person
next to them and not conducive to small group discussion. On another occasion, four staff stood
at the back of the room, after arriving late and finding that there was not enough seating. After 20
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 66
minutes, two of these teachers went and got seats from another classroom. On the third occasion
of staff development, despite the room having the same seating structure, there were enough
chairs as fewer teachers were in attendance. There was not a dedicated learning space for staff
development, and the room structured for teachers to just show up rather than having the room
set up ahead of time, for all teachers to have their own seats, interact with each other and engage
in group collaboration and discussion. This environment of individual row seating and facing the
front with little social interaction added to this feeling and did not contribute to a collaborative
learning environment.
In addition to the constraints imposed by the location chosen for professional learning,
the timing of whole staff PDs was not conducive to real learning, with teachers having a limited
opportunity to discuss their opinions at a deeper level or having the sustained energy or
commitment to do this at the dedicated time. Sessions occurred at the end of the week, on a
Friday afternoon, when teachers were tired from the week’s activities. The timing did not
promote their ability to engage productively and people were not always present, and some
people left early. Even when teachers were physically present, the timing of the PD at the end of
the week, availed itself to teachers who were tired and drained. Some teachers physically looked
tired; yawing and slumped into chairs, indicating that they were unable to sit focused in a chair
for a period of 2 hours. Rodgers (2002b) explains that teachers who are present, observe and pay
attention to their surroundings. They demonstrate an open acceptance for their students and the
capacity as learners. The same can be said for teachers who undergo professional development.
They need to be cognitively present in order to continuously focus on their capacity to learn.
One teacher who spoke to the challenges presented by having professional learning sessions on
Fridays was Miss Johns. For example, said that holding sessions on Friday afternoons meant that
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 67
staff were “often not in the right frame of mind to take on new information or discuss it in
specific detail with each other.” Thus, she suggested that teachers were not present, in a position
to focus on the information being provided She also believed individually, that at the end of the
week “discussing anything school related would be centered around frustration of the work week
more than anything else.” She offered insight into her state of mind, indicating that it was
difficult for her to focus on the information for the purposes of learning and more likely to focus
on it in connection with the challenges she had faced during the school week.
In addition, the professional development produced a form of intellectual and social
isolation for teachers. Grossman et al. (2001) suggest that teachers experience both intellectual
and social isolation in their professional learning endeavors, often having to work and plan
independently and away from their peers (Grossman et al., 2001). Here, Miss Johns believed that
there was a lack of time for her to think about what she had learned and then apply it. She said,
“We need more time to internalize and synthesis about how to apply what we learn and then
measure it. PD with more specific goals would help focus our time and especially if those goals
came from the teachers.” Here, she was articulating her belief that the time afforded for their
learning was not adequate and would not produce practice improvement that could be
documented. She also did not believe that the time was sufficiently focused or driven by what
teachers believed would benefit them most. Her believe is consistent with research that has
demonstrated that effective professional development is most successful when sustained over a
period of time (Darling-Hammond et al., 2009; Little, 2006; Wei et. al., 2009;). As such, for
knowledge to result in authentic learning, professional development should allow for both
sufficient duration and consistency over a period of time. Whilst the issue of timing is more to do
with the scheduled time rather than the consistency or duration, the scheduled time of Friday
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 68
afternoon impacts on duration as teachers were tired and had little energy to participate; either
leaving early, as evidenced by people dismissing themselves at various times, or not being
present to begin with. Miss Johns believed that she could not be an active participant in learning
as the structure of scheduled Friday afternoon meetings impacted on her ability to engage
energetically in whole school staff development due to fatigue. In addition, observation data
demonstrated that not all teachers were actively engaged in these sessions. One teacher was
consistently texting on her phone, another teacher was using in an online chat application on her
laptop and two teachers were consistently talking about their plans for the weekend throughout
the session.
Theme 2. At the school level, teachers were not afforded learning experiences that
enhanced teacher practice change, largely as a result of presenters having a prioritized
agenda to work through. Whole school professional development focused largely on
procedural information, rather than enhancing teaching practices. During each of the three
meetings I observed, the events ran over time and there were no specific time slots allocated for
presentations in terms of duration. Presentations were completed at the end of the meetings and
this ultimately affected time available for teachers to engage in any form of reflection. There was
no clear evidence of staff expectations for what they were supposed to do and a lack of
organization in the agenda. In two out of three sessions observed, staff spent 15 minutes
individually reading literature that was meant to supplement the presentation. This use of time
took time away from other types of interactions that did not take place: staff interaction,
discussion and reflection. In addition, it was a big expectation for staff to read pages of literature
in that time and then be able to comprehend and reflect on it in such a short turn around.
Transformative change happens among learners who are able to question and challenge their
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 69
actions and habitual thought (Webster-Wright, 2009). Staff were not given the opportunity to
reflect upon the literature at a deep level, as time allocated simply allowed for a superficial
reading.
As I offer in my conceptual framework, authentic learning requires time for teachers to
work together to investigate their practice (Putman & Borko, 2000). Cochran-Smith and Lytle
(1999) express how over time, teachers work collaboratively at articulating, understanding and as
a result, altering their teaching practice. This occurs when teachers not only engage in a
discussion but are involved in a “substantive conversation” that involves more than simply,
‘“describing, discussing, and debating teaching” (p. 294). It is through this discourse that
teachers are able to question their instructional practice.
For example, one whole school staff development demonstrated the limited opportunity
given for teachers to engage in such reflective discussion was evidenced. The session went on for
over an hour, with more than half of that time involved all the staff watching a video. During the
brief introduction on the topic of “equity,” two teachers who went on an external professional
development came back and explained how watching this video would give staff a better idea of
what equity was and that they would be showing excerpts that would “better explain what we
learned” and then the teachers would have a discussion about aspects of the videos that the
teachers though were interesting. One of the teachers presenting also informed the staff that she
had been teaching a long time, 8 years, but did not know all answers. She then asked the staff to
select an area of focus featured in the video that interested them and think about what that meant
to them. This was quickly interrupted by one teacher who asserted: “Are you actually going to
provide us with a definition of what equity is or means and discuss it?” The presenting teacher
looked towards the other teacher and said: “She will.” At this point the room became silent and
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 70
the video started to play. Everyone watched the video, which continued for 11 minutes. Staff
were then asked to discuss with the person next to them or few people nearby, what they
watched. A prompt question was given to staff via PowerPoint asking teachers to consider how
they feel about what they watched. The video focused on a teacher who expected her students to
walk in single file into a classroom with something in their mouths to silence them. Teachers had
3 minutes to discuss what they had watched and not all staff chose to participate. Based on the
body language of many in the room, they were apprehensive as to what to do, with little
instruction or context of what to do or what “equity” meant. As such, instructor brought the
discussion back to whole group, one person provided feedback and then staff went back to
watching another 10 minutes of the video. Again, a total of 5 minutes was provided for
discussion, but staff were informed that time was limited. After the 5 minutes, staff watch
another 10 minutes of video. During this time staff became restless and two staff members left.
Ten additional minutes of video played, then the session came to an abrupt finish as the
presenters ran over time. Teachers voiced their frustration when asking for a definition to be
given on what they were meant to be learning about. As observed, some teachers did not
contribute to discussion when working in small groups and being asked the prompt questions.
Teachers appeared overwhelmed by the amount of video that they had to watch and interpret and
then contribute to the group. The dedicated time, a total of 15 minutes out of 60 minutes, for
discussion was not enough for teachers to discuss what they had watched. The decision to play Y
minutes of the video during the session removed an hour of time during which teachers were
unable to engage in discussion and reflection. The decisions made during this professional
development session were inconsistent with those I offer in my conceptual framework. the
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 71
choices in this session did not allow teachers to discuss their knowledge with their colleagues,
further enriching their content and improving student learning (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999).
Theme #3: Lack of Interaction that supports authentic learning. Inconsistent with
my conceptual framework, in which I argue that teachers need to be engaged in professional
learning activities that are constructed in a manner that is active, social, related to practice (Garet et
al., 2001; Putman & Borko, 2000; Webster-Wright, 2009) Cochran-Smith and Lytle (2009), during staff
development sessions, staff were treated as empty vessels to be filled by using presentation style
professional development, availing staff of the opportunity to engage in purposeful interaction
that supported their ability to really think about and engage in discussion relating to their
practice. There was minimal evidence of real discussion, and no substantial time to support real
discussion. Teachers need to engage in quality discourse through conversations that foster
opportunities to generate discussion. Discussions about real issues related to content,
instructional choices, and student learning, allow for teachers to engage in professional learning
(Wei et al., 2009). Four of the five participants interviewed did not believe that the PD at the
school level aligned with purposeful interaction that aligned with their practice. For example,
one teacher acknowledged that PD was aligned only when it was led by teachers, and that there
was more opportunity for “staff to talk about what they were doing in the classroom.” His
perspective is consistent with Wei et al. (2009) as he understood that effective PD allowed for
staff to engage in discussions that were directly related to what they did in their classrooms with
their students. A second teacher, Miss Green, believed that there were two types of PD at the
school, and as such, the purpose of PD at the school level was to inform and update staff, rather
than teach staff new knowledge. She said,
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 72
The first type of PD is all staff development so its purpose is to provide staff with updates
on new information and priorities. The other type are the faculty ones, where we look
over student work samples, data, assessment results and work together as a faculty.
Miss Green did not have the expectation that whole school staff development at the school was
centered around teacher learning. Her expectation was that whole staff sessions were about
updating staff on new information and priorities, and she made no indication that these sessions
were about instruction. Her vision of the purpose of PD is congruent with many researchers, who
claim that this form of PD, known as knowledge-for-practice, sees teachers passively receiving
information on the latest techniques whilst having no connection with the classroom, and
therefore having the least potential for enhancing teacher practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle,
1999; Elmore, 2002; Garet et al., 2001; Webster-Wright, 2009). Her understanding of the
purpose for whole staff development was reinforced through the fact that at these meetings,
procedural information was dealt with as the priority, with some form of presentation being
completed only at the end of each session. By contrast, Miss Green saw the purpose of her
faculty time as one where teachers worked together to discuss student work samples and
assessments. Miss Green made a clear distinction that in faculty time, the experiences were about
learning, and in whole staff development time, her experiences were about obtaining information
that is generally not consistent with enhancing teacher practice. A third teacher indicated that the
goals of PD at the school level were “very unclear and never articulated consistently.” For the
PD to be authentic, it would have had to be “continuing, active, social, and related to practice”
(Webster-Wright, 2009, p. 703). In the case of these four teachers, one teacher agreed that PD
was related to practice when led by teachers, another believed that PD was not consistent in its
purpose, another only believed it was consistent in its purpose some of the time, and another
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 73
teacher believed that the purpose of whole staff PD was to pass on information and keep staff
updated. All teachers indicated that the PD lacked the opportunity to engage in any discussion
that led to quality discourse about their practice.
In addition, these professional development meetings were largely focused on getting
through compliance issues rather than having time dedicated to authentic learning experiences.
Miss Smith said,
There was an issue with staff development and its focus on compliance at the school.
This year is better than it has been on the past. We try not to focus on more compliance as
much and keep school business to email in order to eliminate time wastage in meetings.
For example, having a discussion about the coffee machine not working, is something
that can be done in an email, and issues like that are no longer brought up in school
development. Professional development through staff meetings has allowed for more
professional discourse. This year we have really looked at our school climate and the
relationship between students and teachers, in targeted PD for some departments to
support staff who work with our ELL students and students with disabilities.
Miss Smith realized that whole school PD was not allowing for staff to engage in discussion
relating to teacher practice. However, whilst there is a shift from focusing on compliance-based
issues, staff PD was not conducive to conditions that promote authentic learning, such as
allowing time for discussion and reflection.
Whilst I was able to witness some professional development at the whole staff level that
was less compliance based, there was minimal evidence of teachers engaging in professional
discourse and no opportunity for staff to discuss what was being presented to them as a whole
group. Teachers were provided with information and told not to discuss it at this point, as they
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 74
were not in a whole staff group that had been recognized by administration as not needing to
discuss this data at a deeper level. The following was observed on one whole staff development
day in the first session, introduced by the principal.
P: Oh, I am late.
Continues to set up laptop and screen is projected onto blackboard.
P: Oops, you are not meant to see that.
Tries to minimize screen but cannot so closes laptop. Slide presentation comes up with title
“Pupil Free Day” not staff development or professional learning.
P: Today we are going to be looking at benchmarks. I just want you to look at data, but
you do not have to understand it. This will be more of a focus in the English, Science
and Math faculties but it’s everyone’s data and you are all responsible for our kiddos
and these results. I just want you to be aware that these are the subgroups that we
should be looking at.
Puts up table showing subgroups of students but does not go into detail about each and informs
staff again just to ‘be aware” and you can discuss it later but this is for your own information.
This presentation was shortly followed by a staff member who had been nominated by
the principal to talk about his role in coordinating classroom observations. Staff were not aware
of this and he explained the process in which teachers should volunteer to be observed and by
hanging a sign outside their classroom door in which teachers could fill out if that wanted to
observe. A teacher then raised their hands and asked, “Is there a process or policy for this?” To
which presenting teacher said, “I don’t not know” Nobody in the room, could seem to answer if
there was or not, despite teachers being asked to do this.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 75
Naturally teachers raised their hands asking logistical questions about when and where
observations expected to happen, and again these questions had not been thought out to satisfy
the inquiries made by the teachers. The presentation finished early and after only 35 minutes in
the first session, teachers were dismissed 25 minutes early before their next session. During this
time, many staff walked around not knowing what groups they were in for the breakout sessions,
or what the breakout sessions were. Some staff had not received the agenda or chosen a group.
Staff were unsure of what rooms they were to be in, including the presenters. Some staff decided
to just walk into sessions, unaware of what they were attending, but because they had found a
classroom with teachers, they sat down. This observation data represents a lack of understanding
on behalf of the school administration in relation to adult learning and how professional
development time can be used to enhance teacher practice and professional learning. This is
consistent with my conceptual framework in which I review inquiry as a stance (Cochran-Smith
& Lytle, 1999), who argue that when a teacher acquires new knowledge, they seek comparative
discussion with their colleagues, and an important component of this is having time for group analysis of
evidence of practice documents for reflection and reference, The principal starts the session with
content that she does not want staff to see, suggesting a lack of preparedness for work that she
was about to undertake. She then specifically tells staff that they do not have to understand the
information that she is displaying. These actions make the presentation not about the staff and
their ability to decipher data and think about how it is relevant but moves it further away from
them by saying they only need to “be aware” of it. This shows that she is not interested in
empowering them in how to use data to inform their practice.
Miss Smith recognized that staff development had been compliance related in the past
and believed that it had become much more substantive, allowing for professional discourse. In
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 76
her mind, the move had been away from school business and wasting time to focusing on
specific topics that addressed the needs of a subset of faculty, those who worked with ELL
students and students with disabilities. However, not all teachers within the school belong to a
faculty. As a result, some teachers at the school did not have the opportunity to engage in any
discussions that would allow them to gain knowledge and experience any form of authentic
professional leaning. Occasionally, they might attend a faculty meeting of a department, but in
general are left to seek out their own forms of professional development, One of the teachers
commented “As I don’t have a faculty as such, I do often have to seek out my own professional
development.” This means that some staff are not receiving the targeted professional learning
and may teach these students. The emphasis on staff who did not have a faculty, was to seek out
their own professional development. Whilst I was able to witness some professional
development at the whole staff level, that was less compliance based, there was minimal
evidence of teachers engaging in professional discourse and no opportunity for staff to discuss
what was being presented to them as a whole group.
Authentic learning experiences focus on opportunities to deepen teacher knowledge (Wei
et al., 2009). This was not demonstrated at the school development sessions. There was no clear
evidence of staff expectations for what they were supposed to do during staff development
sessions. The one teacher who did believe the PD was appropriate to support teacher learning
was also the principal of the school. When interviewed, the principal provided evidence of what
she considered to be ineffective whole school development yet, this particular PD went on for a
period of 3 or 4 months at the school. She said,
We tried something called “Affinity Groups.” It is part of Stanford’s Hollyhock
Fellowship Program which some of our teachers at the school are involved in. It involved
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 77
self-identification of PLC groups within the school. Each group was meant to create an
action step. It was pushed by a previous AP and fell flat, as teachers had no say in what
they were doing. It did not address the immediate needs of staff or students. The PLCs
became less relevant and repetitive, and there was no vision or purpose for staff.
Here, the principal was able to identify that there was a clear misalignment of the professional
development in regard to both school goals and school culture and that there was no consultation
with staff. Whilst she identified that this PD did not deepen teacher knowledge, this “ineffective
PD” went on for 3 or 4 months before being stopped. This might also be why the principal
believed that PD was appropriate to support teacher learning if ineffective sessions were
eventually taken off the agenda, despite the negative impact that they could have made on
teachers. This is consistent with Darling Hammond et al. (2009) who assert that the quality of the
professional development that teachers engage in is impacted by the way in which PD sessions
lack structure, continuously without direction, focus or purpose (Darling Hammond et al., 2009).
Miss Smith also expressed how her colleagues felt during the same ineffective PD and
explained the reasoning behind what she believed made these PDs ineffective. She said,
Last year we had a series of PD that seemed to be extremely repetitive. It lasted for about
3 or 4 months and was based off of the old coaching model. It came across to the staff as
something we just needed to get done and get through. Instead, we should have been
looking at what is happening with our students, and asking ourselves what if we try this?
People felt like they were being micro-managed and not professionally developed or
consulted or have the opportunity to learn. It felt like they were not learning any skills to
improve their practice but were made to feel like turnkey robots.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 78
Miss Smith’s own reflection is consistent with Grossman et. al. (2001) who stated that “For a
community of teachers to be effective in terms of teacher participation, participants need to feel
valued in their contribution and that they are actively involved in professional discussions and
the concurrent actions of the community” (p.64). However, in this situation, teachers still
endured 3 or 4 months of repetitive professional development in which they had little
involvement and no opportunity to discuss or reflect upon how what they were learning could
impact on their own knowledge about their teaching. As such, they were not engaged in
authentic learning but were recipients of a program that had to be delivered as a result of
“needing to get through it.”
Teacher Level Professional Learning
Unlike the professional development provided at the school level, professional learning at
the teacher level was consistent with the concepts I articulate in my conceptual framework.
Teachers were given the opportunity for reflection and time was allocated to question their own
methods of practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999; Rodgers, 2002; Valli, 1997). Furthermore,
teachers were actively engaged in the learning process and continued to learn (Webster-Wright,
2009).
Theme #1: Teachers shared a collective responsibility for their learning that is
focused on finding solutions for problems of practice. Teacher learning within the context of
teacher workgroups was authentic, with teachers engaging in reflective dialogue and thinking
differently about their work. Teachers in workgroups worked as a team and demonstrated an
interest in their peers’ work and perspectives. They showed an interest in all students within the
school, not just the ones they were teaching. Discussions moved beyond the teacher’s own
individual perspective, to a community of practice centered around the embracing of differences,
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 79
to improve the practices of one’s own teaching and those around him/her/zir. At the group level,
teachers engaged in authentic learning as they shared a collective responsibility for their
learning. This is consistent with Horn and Little (2010) who suggest that, individuals and
collective groups are supported when professional knowledge is implemented within the context
of practice and focused towards finding solutions for problems of practice. Discussions within
the group, sought to improve teacher practice and learning from other members in the group.
More than reflection was evidenced, with teachers engaging in deep discussions with their
colleagues and the individual differences of students in their classrooms. For example, Miss
Green explained how she perceived that the learning experiences within her faculty and her
engagement as part of that group, led to a change in their colleagues’ practice. She said,
I worked with the 12
th
grade teacher, who expressed that she wanted to do more with her
teaching unit on literary criticism. She felt that her students were not demonstrating
enough knowledge in this area. So, we looked at my 11
th
grade program and discussed
how we could teach the skills for literary criticism more specifically in order to prepare
students for when they enter her 12
th
grade class. We looked at student work samples in
grade 11 and what their level of achievement was in my class. We then identified what
students were lacking and what needed to be more explicitly taught in order to meet the
demands of the 12
th
grade. We each looked at our programs and discussed teaching
strategies, so that they would be consistent across the 2 years and so that we would not be
overlapping in terms of supplementary texts and materials.
This interaction between the two teachers is evident of Wegner’s (1998) view of a community of
practice in which teachers work together to identify and resolve shared problems of practice
within the school environment. Miss Green and her colleague were faced with a common
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 80
problem of practice. Often a classroom teacher struggles with how to teach a specific content or
topic to students, as a result of their limited prior knowledge. Miss Green believed she and her
colleague worked together to ensure that students would have a sound knowledge of literary
criticism in grade 11, so that they could readily apply this knowledge to the new content that
would be taught in the following year. Miss Green also explained that the interaction influenced
her own understanding of her teaching practice and that the quality of faculty interaction allowed
her to listen in different ways and try different things. She expressed,
I think our faculty has a developed sense of trust that allows us to experience different
things. One of my colleagues used to be an instructional coach and would talk about her
experiences with teaching and this made us discuss the content at a deeper level. So,
when we would try out new things, she will word things like “I wonder what would
happen if we tried this?” She has a positive approach and that really helps when working
as a team and collaborating. It makes it easy for us to discuss and move forward and not
be afraid to question things we did not know or understand.
Miss Green’s trust in her faculty and sense of cohesiveness within the group is indicative of what
Grossman et al. (2001) refer to as communal responsibility in which norms, behavior and group
direction emerges as a result of a cohesive group identity that valued the contributions and
perspectives of all individuals within the group. Miss Green believed that her engagement and
involvement within the group allowed her to experience the different perspectives that teachers
brought to their practice and this in turn, has made her more dedicated to not only her students’
learning but her own teacher practice and that of her colleagues. In the informal interview,
conducted after the formal interview, Miss Green discussed how she felt her group worked really
well together to help the students at the school. This is consistent with my conceptual framework
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 81
in which, I refer to a community of practice having a comfortable school environment thats allow
teachers to be more inclined to take risks and look for alternative solutions to problems of
practice to lessen the negative impact that they may have in their classrooms (Cochran-Smith &
Lytle, 1999).
Theme#2: The “coach” system was the vehicle for driving/changing teacher
practice at the school The coaching system at the school, was a system in which administration
at the site level assigned a coach to every teacher (another teacher within the school). Teachers at
the school usually meet with t heir coach every 1-2 weeks, and this was verified by all
participants who were interviewed. The role of the coach was to observe the teacher in the
classroom and then to debrief and reflect upon their teaching practice. This is consistent with my
conceptual framework in which teachers need support, and when teachers do not have access to a
supportive environment that fosters professional learning, teachers are exposed to more
traditional forms of professionally learning (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). All three individuals
interviewed, agreed that their coach has played a significant role in allowing them to think about
their teaching practice. Miss Green believed she worked extremely well with her coach and had
built a relationship based on trust. She referred to her coach as having a positive outlook and how
this positivity had impacted her learning and changed her practice. She said,
. My coach is amazing, she goes above and beyond to provide me with consistent
feedback every time. I actually followed her across from my previous school as I knew
that she was fantastic to work with and very supportive in helping people achieve their
goals. I have learned so much from working with her in teams and as a coach. She is
extremely positive in her approach and how everyone can improve as a teacher.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 82
Miss Green explained how she liked the idea of having goals set by her coach. She described
how after a lesson is observed by her coach, the two teachers met and she was given feedback.
The teachers engaged in a structured dialogue, discussing feedback together and teaching
strategies that could be incorporated into the lesson to improve Miss Green’s practice. At that
point in time, goals were set for the next week’s lesson observation, which Miss Smith would
attend. Miss Green then had time to reflect upon the feedback that she had been given and
incorporate it into future lessons. In our informal interview, Miss Smith said that she found that
the goals set by her coach made her challenge her teaching practice.
The interaction between the two teachers is consistent with both Wei et al. (1994) and
Mezirow (2009) who suggest that structured dialogue can lead to achieving a specified goal that
can include deeply evaluating student work to access student understanding and examining ones
instructional practices. An example of how this interaction led to a change in Miss Green’s
teaching practice is demonstrated below when she explained in the informal interview how the
coaching process made her think about and change her own teaching practice:
My coach [Miss Smith] and I meet every week. In the first week, she does an
observation. The next week, we sit down and discuss what she observed. She then
provides feedback and we set goals for the following week and the next observation.
Because of this, we started to evaluate my teaching programs and student work samples,
by discussing how rigorous the tasks were, how we expected students to complete them,
and comparing differences in student responses.
Miss Green found this experience to be very positive and talked about how this process initially
developed as a result of her classroom observations. Interview data from her coach, Miss Smith,
indicated that Miss Green was experiencing classroom management issues within the class. This
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 83
in turn, resulted in a shift in focus to looking at and evaluating her teaching programs. The goal
for Miss Green then shifted from classroom management to re-evaluating her teaching programs
and integrated assessments. Together, the two teachers designed lesson sequences that would
lead up to rigorous assessment. Data from Miss Smith’s interview, details how, feedback
sessions revolved around backward mapping in which they worked collaboratively revised a unit
of work together and went through each lesson. Miss Smith explains how Miss Green then
attempted the assessments herself to ensure that they mapped the content that she was teaching in
the class. With these new lessons being taught, observations continued to ensure that what had
been implemented was aligned with Miss Green’s goal of providing lessons that culminated in
rigorous assessments for her students.
The collaboration between the two teachers is reflective of Cochran-Smith and Lytle’s
(1999) concept of knowledge of practice, in which teachers explore their own practice through
oral inquiry based on rich discussions about student work samples, teacher classroom
observations and reflections. Here, Miss Green and her coach, Miss Smith, worked together as
part of a community of practice within the English faculty. Miss Smith talked about their
interaction from the perspective of her role as coach, where she believed that she facilitated a
change in practice of other teachers. She said,
As a coach, I have been able to build relationships and help teachers focus on where they
feel they need improvement in their practice. One teacher wanted to work on her
classroom management but through working with her we also confronted the rigor in her
lessons and assessments. We were able to talk about expectations and goals and we
revised a unit of work. We did this by looking at a unit of work, looking and discussing
what the student output should be. We asked each other questions that we needed to think
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 84
about. Was it hands on? Was it cognitively demanding? Who were her students? What
did the lessons look like? We started off with one class and we then went through all of
her classes, using the same process.
This evidenced highlights how Miss Smith thought that the conversations that she engaged in
were rich conversations. Miss Smith also carried out these actions when I observed her in the
community of practice professional learning session. She would go around to each teacher and
ask them questions about rigor and ask teachers to think about whether their students could
understand the content. Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999) referred to “rich conversations” where
teachers were able to analyze and interpret information in a manner that informs their knowledge
in regards to their own practice and enhance their students’ learning. This is consistent with my
conceptual framework in which I incorporate Jay and Johnson’s (2002) typology to address the
research question: What indications can be used to measure teacher practice change as a result of
“authentic” professional learning? This also addresses this theme of the coach driving teacher
practice change. These measures include, teachers being able to articulate their own thoughts and
feelings both individually and collectively in attempt to generate new questions and further
inquiry.
Theme #3: Teachers within the community of practice engaged in collective
participation, reflecting upon the explicit content that they taught and devising strategies to
improve their practice. Teachers in the English faculty, engaged in meetings that were focused
on improving teacher practice through active learning, content focus and coherence with school
goals. This is consistent with my conceptual framework, which highlights that when a teacher is
engaged in discussion with his/her/zir peers, he/she/ze were able to improve his/her/zir practice
and learn from his/her/zir colleagues The head of department who was also the coach to two of
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 85
the faculty members and the humanities director gathered data from faculty teacher observations
and this indicated that teachers were struggling with teaching “Essential Questions” in their
curriculum. The following observations were made from this PD session:
Four teachers sat in a small group with their laptops, in addition to the head of
department. The humanities director was running the session and moved around the space
interacting with the group and individually with the teachers. The humanities director had
an open document projected on the whiteboard, which all teachers could access and share
their opinions and responses for everyone to see. The humanities director then asked the
group “What is an essential question?” The group verbally shared out their responses and
they discussed their responses as a group. Then staff typed their responses on their laptop
and shared the document to the board. As a group, they worked through each response
and determined as a group why they think it is or is not an essential question, the
humanities director then went back through each one explaining why it is or is not an
essential question. She then provided a scaffolded example of essential questions and
talked about when and where you would teach it in a lesson sequence. This concept was
demonstrated by the modelling of a through-line, including suggestions as to when
students should practice and be tested.
The process undergone by the group is consistent with what Jay & Johnson (2002), refer to as
reflection.; an individual and collaborative process, and the ability to express that reflection must
involve experience and uncertainty (Jay & Johnson, 2002). As such, the teachers in this
community of practice, were not simply sharing or swapping resources or analyzing work
samples. They were examining their own practice and that of the other teachers within the group.
They achieved this by examining their own beliefs about their students’ ability to respond to the
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 86
kinds of questions that they pose and verbalizing those beliefs to the group, having these beliefs
challenged by the group and then having discussions and analysis of their responses. The
humanities director had teachers use scaffolds to guide their teaching strategies and model
exemplar examples to ensure consistency among the teachers in terms of quality feedback.
Once having worked through an example of how to teach an essential question, the group
started to work on their own teaching programs. They stayed within the group, as teachers
bounced ideas off each other and continue to discuss, whilst working individually. At this point,
the head of department, Miss Smith, stated:
You can re-arrange the timing of the test, you do not need to teach exactly to the
curriculum, your focus should be on inquiry-based learning for the students. I have taken
out the embedded assessment and found exemplar assessments for students to work on.
You can start working on them in class and mentoring them so they can have a draft
prepared. Also, our ELL students can take the draft to work on in the learning lab, where
they will get further help with their drafts.
Just as Miss Smith recognized opportunities for student learning, she provided
opportunities for teachers to actively learn This is also consistent with my conceptual framework
in which teachers and leaders work actively together in the process of discussion and decision
making and are socially interdependent (Grossman et al., 2001). The teachers continued to work
on their own programs, and the humanities director then came around and viewed their
programs. During this session I observed, Miss Smith and the Instructional Director, provided
feedback and discussed the teachers’ programs. Similar to Desimone (2009), Miss Smith
provided opportunities to engage in active learning seeking continuous improvement through
collaboration among the group, working with them individually and then asking them to share
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 87
their ideas with the group to discuss. Teachers were given opportunities to lead, model and
observe their own practice, and their colleagues. Teachers were then given feedback and had
discussions within their meetings. In addition, Miss Smith informed teachers that ELL students
should take the opportunity to use the draft as a scaffold and go to the learning lab for further
assistance. This is reflective of Desimone (2009), in which the alignment of school wide goals
and priorities with district initiatives and policies, is connected to the overall strategy for school
improvement in a way that is consistent with teacher knowledge and beliefs. One of the
identified goals of the school, was to improve the learning outcomes of ELL students. Miss
Smith had accommodated the needs of ELL students, by providing scaffolded drafts for writing
and, at the same time, provided staff with strategies to improve their teaching practice. This is
consistent with my conceptual framework in which a community of practice is supported, with
teachers exposed to the social and cultural experiences of their colleagues and are better able to
understand the different perspectives of the students and teachers that co-exist within the school
environment (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009).
Conclusion
Authentic teacher learning was not found at the school level. Support structures such as
time needed for reflection and discussion were not evidenced through observation at whole staff
learning sessions. These findings at the school level were consistent with my conceptual
framework, where teachers who do not have access to a supportive environment that fostered
professional learning, were exposed to more traditional forms of professionally learning, such as
the knowledge for practice model (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). However, support structures
evidenced at the teacher level availed themselves for staff to be actively engaged and the
recipients of collaborative learning. This was consistent with my conceptual framework, in
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 88
which, Authentic professional learning required both leaders and teachers to be engaged in a
community of ongoing learning, that harnessed knowledge and accepted the communal
responsibility for the behavior and norms of the group (Grossman et al., 2001).
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 89
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND FUTURE RESEARCH
This study analyzed the role of professional development and the structural support
needed to foster authentic learning and enhance teacher practice. An examination was carried out
to see if those structural processes were enacted in practice and whether elements of
collaboration and reflection were consistent with aspects of professional learning that research
has identified as critical for authentic professional learning. Teachers who engage in reflection
are most likely to experience a change their teaching practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle,2009)
A qualitative case study methodology was utilized to answer the flowing research
questions: (1) What does authentic teacher learning look like in the context of a professional
learning community at an urban high school? and (2) How does the professional learning aim to
support teacher practice change? To answer these two questions, interview and observation data
and artifacts were collected at Diamond High School. Pseudonyms for the school, the principal,
the coach (who also operated as an assistant principal and a teacher), and three teachers were
created to ensure anonymity. All observation data were scripted and all interview data were
transcribed and data analyzed using an inductive approach I used my conceptual framework to
inform my approach to data analysis, I engaged in open coding and identified in vivo and a priori
codes. Once themes were identified from the data, they were compared with the conceptual
framework in which aspects of authentic professional learning were identified and discussed. I
also engaged in comparative and contrastive analysis (Corbin & Strauss, 1998), comparing and
contrasting what happened at the school level with what happened at the teacher level. The final
chapter is a culmination of the insights gained as a result of this case study. The chapter is
organized to include a summary and discussion of the study’s findings, what implications these
findings have for teachers and the enactment of authentic professional learning opportunities and
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 90
the enhancement of teacher practice, as well as offers recommendations to the research
community for further study.
Summary of Findings
The findings revealed the ways in which teachers at Diamond High School engage in
professional development. At the whole school level, teachers engaged in knowledge for practice
(Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999) in which teachers participated in routine behavior, as part of
what is considered typical practice. Teachers continue to engage in this style of professional
development rather than what research suggests about PD that is focused on learning. Structural
factors such as the location and timing of whole school development, limited the opportunity for
teachers to engage and reflect in a collaborative manner dominated the way teachers spent their
time. Time constraints and agendas focused on compliance-based issues, hindering the
opportunity for teachers to engage in authentic learning. Authentic learning experiences focus on
opportunities to deepen teacher knowledge (Wei et al., 2009) and as sessions consistently ran out
of time, and involved silent reading and watching videos, time was not afforded for deep
discussion.
Findings also revealed that there was no clear evidence of staff expectation or purpose
during staff development sessions. While the preconditions necessary for authentic learning,
such as structure were present, they were insufficient and not enough to engage teachers.
Teachers were more inclined to participate, when there was some form of motivation or ‘buy in’
on their part. For example, the coaching system within the school was successful in enacting
practice alteration. Teachers reflected on what they were doing and altered their practice
accordingly. However, this reflection did not result in significant practice change, as the findings
demonstrated that reflection was not critical nor did not result in transformational change. The
success of the coaching system was heavily reliant on the expertise and dedication of the coach
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 91
and their willingness to support fellow teachers. The time and use of qualitative data, through
teacher observation, ensured that teachers were able to identify issues with their own practice
and make improvements through goal setting. This was a powerful tool, that required a certain
level of expertise on the part of the coach, to support such observation. Furthermore, interviews
and observations demonstrated that teachers’ perceptions of professional learning at the school
level was centered around knowledge-for-practice. Teachers did not have the opportunity in
these sessions to reflect and were not able to think about how learning could be connected to
practice. This is consistent with my conceptual framework in which teachers need to be able to
think about how they can make a cognitive connection about improving their practice (Cochran-
Smith & Lytle, 1999).
When teachers worked in their faculties, professional learning was authentic. This
learning resulted in practice change with teachers engaging in reflective dialogue that saw them
challenging their own practice and learning from the different perspectives and experiences of
their colleagues. As a collective group, a community of practice was evident, with participants
finding solutions to problems of practice. This is consistent with Horn and Little’s notions of a
community of practice that promotes opportunities for practice change (2010). From these
discussions, learning was evident, and teachers started to take up what was being offered and
demonstrated how they were going to use it in their lessons or their instruction, including re-
evaluating the teaching and learning that took place in their classes and backward mapping their
assessments to ensure rigorous learning for their students. These teachers managed to engage in a
community of practice, even though it was not in place at the school level. Although, not having
some of the structural elements mentioned in my conceptual framework, such as time and
support, there were teacher level structures, like the presence of a coach, who supported
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 92
authentic learning. Furthermore, there were elements such as trust and a mindset towards
practice change, that promoted authentic learning.
Implications and Recommendations
This dissertation explored the ways in which an urban high school engaged in
professional learning The study’s findings can be used to inform our approach to practice, policy,
and research. In this section I present both implications and recommendations in relation to the
areas of practice, policy, and research. While more data will strengthen these implications and
recommendations, here is what I offer. A discussion, followed by the implications that can and
should inform what we think about professional learning and teacher practice will be given, and
concluded with recommendations that complement or extend the work completed in this study.
Practice
The findings suggest several factors contribute to what makes up professional learning
and teacher practice. Discussed in this section are implications for these factors and several
recommendations. It was evident that both the principal and teachers were passionate about their
practice and believed that their actions and choices were consistent with their existing
understanding of what professional development (PD) should look like in a school. At the school
level, teachers were stuck in a knowledge-for-practice situation in which staff were the recipients
of information, rather than having an opportunity to engage in reflection and content related
discussion. There was also a perception that whole school development was and did carry out
more of a compliance role within the school, and the focus on these sessions was to pass on and
update information. Even though teachers acknowledged that whole staff development was
improving, with less focus on compliance and more focus on content specific PD, these
improvements were still embedded in a knowledge for practice style of presentation. In addition,
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 93
these sessions were confined by structural processes within the school, such as time and context.
An example, of this was the continuation of a highly ineffective, PD in which staff resented the
fact they had to endure these sessions, yet the principal continued to have them, for a period of 3-
4 months. In addition, although well-meaning in her actions, the revelation of student data was
introduced at the whole school level but left to faculty specific time and even then, only
discussed amongst targeted faculties. One implication is that, whether they knew it or not, both
principal and staff define whole staff professional learning within the school as a knowledge for
practice experience, and as such, this continued to dictate the type of learning experience that
teachers would have when they came together to improve their practice. If administration and
teachers at the school believe that whole school teacher learning should be focused on the
acquisition of knowledge and not content related discussion and reflection, teachers are not going
to have opportunities for authentic learning and collaboration that can inform or influence
practice. Despite time and support being available, the structure was insufficient to support
teachers in their learning. Therefore, it is recommended that teachers be given opportunities to
expand their understanding of professional development to extend to the concept of professional
learning, and that the principal be given training to increase awareness of the associated
structural processes that must be afforded, so that the staff and school can move from a
knowledge-for-practice focus to a knowledge-of-practice style of professional learning, as
recommended by Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999) and Webster-Wright (2010).
According to Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999), teachers who engage in knowledge of
practice are active, self-directed learners invested in being accountable for their own learning and
improving content-related and pedagogical practice. This was evidenced in the English faculty
and provided teachers with opportunities for reflection. These sessions allowed the English
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 94
faculty with a space in which they felt powerful, and as such, motivated them and gave them
‘buy in’ to reflect upon their current practice. At the school level, teachers would benefit from
questioning their own practice and engaging in data discussions that involve all staff and increase
their cognitive capacity by thinking, challenging and reflecting upon their practice. Just as staff
are then able to see how they learn differently, they can analyze student data as a whole staff
group and gain more perspective on how students learn differently across faculties. Teachers
need to feel empowered, to motivate themselves to make changes in their own practice. In
addition, the principal, having the responsibility of staff learning, should be given more support
in terms of how to professionally develop whole staff in regards to analyzing and reflecting on
school data. Furthermore, the principal should receive the same professional learning as the
teachers, so that they can teach teachers in the same way, so that teachers can reflect on own
their own practice in these sessions. As such, this will allow for a change in mentality from
presentation style professional development to seeing staff become active participants, creating
new ways of thinking and generating discussions that are require reflection and challenge their
own thinking. Elmore (2002) highlighted how the importance of knowing which programs could
successfully be implemented within schools as part of an ongoing and sustained structure within
the school culture, could assist in changing the existing culture.
Policy
There is an exorbitant amount of pressure placed on principals to deliver professional
development programs within their schools (Hargreaves and Shirley (2009). These findings have
multiple implications for policy makers, who currently have expectations of school principals
being accountable for developing professional development (not necessarily learning)
opportunities for teachers within their schools. The district or charter organization sets the school
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 95
goals, yet the principal is responsible for developing staff to achieve these goals. In this study,
the principal had to manage site issues such as context and timing of when, where and how
teacher development occurred structurally within the school. Whilst authentic professional
learning occurred with the English faculty, this was a result of having a team that had the time,
context and ability to collaborate and reflect as a group. Teachers were engaging in quality
discourse and challenging their own practice. The professional learning sessions for whole staff
indicated that the principal lacked the support and leadership training to undertake the role of
fostering authentic learning that would lead to practice change. Limited support at the policy
level to enable leaders to drive quality discourse in schools, impacts on how much support there
will be at both a district and state level (Hargreaves and Shirley, 2009).
The implication is that school leaders are meant to perform their duties as articulated by
their job description, yet do not receive ongoing support in regard to implementing structural
processes that are conducive to authentic learning. Whilst the principal at Diamond High school
had ongoing professional development, the focus of this development was on her own leadership
and not how to explicitly provide structural support needed to professionally develop teachers.
At present, policy holds leaders accountable for the organization and implementation of staff
development (Hargreaves and Shirley, 2009), yet leaders should not be held responsible for
changing an institution of education, if they have not been given the tools to change the approach
to professional learning. In addition, leaders should be positioned in a way to require that staff
reflect and engage with different perspectives and practices. Leaders need to have the
opportunity to learn about adult learning and not just the learning of their students. Leaders
should also think about whether they provide an environment that empowers teachers to engage
in learning. Teacher education programs focus on the teaching of content and curriculum, where
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 96
principals need to be responsible for the learning of their staff, not just their students. Slayton
and Mathis (2010) suggest that aspiring leaders need to develop their ability to teach adults in
order to change the normative nature of their school, through being present and creating positive
environments for adults to learn. It is this presence that allows leaders to become more aware of
contexts of professional learning and whether it is knowledge-for-practice, as demonstrated at
the whole school level, or collaborative reflection and knowledge of and in practice. An
increased awareness of leaders’ thinking about adult learning will more than likely see them
creating more positive learning conditions conducive to authentic learning. This authentic
learning will include reflective discourse that will improve teacher practice.
Policy makers need to think about the amount of responsibility that they place on leaders
to enact professional learning that is authentic and leads to an improvement in teacher practice.
Policy should outline the measures that will be implemented to support leaders in their own
instructional practice in order to help support their teachers. The program should support their
teaching of adults, and more specifically, should include how to mentor and conduct quality
observations. Such observations also require time and effort in terms of collective qualitative
data. Furthermore, the collection of such data and the observation process, requires a person who
is able to be personable and that teachers feel comfortable with. The success of the coach system,
relied heavily on the personality traits of the coach. Policy needs to also think about educating
leaders in terms of communication skills. Mezirow (2001) argued that faculty needed to be
critical of the academic community collective and challenge their ways of thinking, by
differentiating their thoughts, thinking and values. Observations should provide assistance in
providing a range of perspectives for teachers to learn from. In addition, leadership programs
should focus on how to allocate, implement and teach authentic professional learning to their
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 97
staff. As such, school leaders are then provided with the needed support to help them build their
capacity as a leader and, as a result, build the learning capacity of their staff.
Research
From the findings revealed in this case study, I present implications for future research
and recommendations for facilitating authentic professional learning opportunities that can
enhance teacher practice. This study provided a glimpse of what professional learning looks like
in an urban high school. Professional development at the whole school level, took the form of
knowledge-for-practice in which participants were treated as empty vessels. The learning
experiences of participants at the school level, were consistent with information acquisition. The
findings revealed that participants did not engage in reflection. Although, teachers were provided
with time to engage in professional development at the school level, the time was not used in a
way that allowed for teachers to reflect upon their own practice, or that of their colleagues. In
saying that, at the leadership level, the best intentions for what was believed to be authentic
learning was made by the principal. However, the structural processes within the school were
insufficient and not conducive to effective adult learning. Teachers engaged more, when there
was more of a support structure in place, as evidenced by the coaching system. By contrast,
teachers did not engage successfully when not having some structure, as evidenced with the
Affinity groups PD. The implication of these findings is that additional types of support are
needed to compliment an environment in which teachers engage in discussion that leads to
authentic professional learning and practice change.
Further research can allow for more investigation into the conditions that are beneficial to
teacher practice change, and as such, the following recommendations are given. This case study
was limited by time, and as a result, a limited number of observations were made. Further
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 98
investigation and observation at Diamond High School or other schools with similar
characteristics would yield more finding that are varied from those ones discovered. More
observations at the school level, may highlight all professional development opportunities
provided at the school. This might reveal different approaches being taken to teacher learning
than those revealed in the data collected. It might also be of benefit to observe teachers in their
classrooms, to observe their own teaching practice. Although findings demonstrated that whole
school learning was not conducive to effective professional learning that promoted teachers’
ability to enact practice change, as the literature suggests, it is still possible that teachers did
carry over something from these sessions. In addition, while this case study did not focus on the
role of the principal, ultimately his/her/zir role implicates opportunities available for whole
school professional learning. Elmore (2002) highlighted the importance of knowing how
programs could successfully be implemented within schools as part of an ongoing and sustained
structure within the school culture Thus, I recommend that further research focus on the role and
impact that a leader has on creating authentic learning opportunities. For example, how can
leaders build capacity among themselves as instructional leaders of adults, so that they can drive
effective learning practices that lead to practice change? In addition, research should focus on
how leaders can provide ‘buy in’ for teachers. Future research could also look at teachers who
engage in authentic learning at the community of practice level and how they can enact change at
the whole school level. This was evidence by the inspirational work of coaches who changed
teacher practice at the individual and small group level of their colleagues. This could also
provide some insight into how a school can change its culture of professional learning to one
centered around knowledge-for-practice to knowledge of practice.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 99
Finally, although there has been much research, and readily available resources, a gap
still exists between what researchers recommend and the professional development that is
enacted in our schools every day. Further research that investigates how schools effectively
change school culture and provide structural support, is welcomed.
AUTHENTIC PROFESSIONAL LEARNING 100
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Abstract (if available)
Abstract
One of the most important factors impacting on student performance is how the teacher engages with their students through their practice. As a result, teacher professional learning is conducted within the school in an attempt to develop teacher skills and knowledge and engage teachers in professional discourse that enhances teacher practice. This study examined the ways in which an urban high school engaged in professional development and whether it was authentic learning, in which teachers engaged in critical reflection that led to teacher practice change. Ten hours of observations and 5 semi-formal interviews were conducted, including the principal and the assistant principal, who was also a staff coach for the teacher participants. At the whole-school level, the type of professional development teachers engaged in was reflective of what Cochran-Smith and Lytle (2009) referred to as knowledge for practice. The learning experiences of teachers were impeded by structural factors such as the timing and the actual location. In addition, the focus of these meetings is compliance-based, constricting the opportunity for teachers to reflect upon their practice. By contrast, at the faculty level, teachers engaged in critical discussions, and this allowed participant to challenge their own perspectives and enhance their practice.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Duncan, Julie Louise
(author),
Kocsis, Julie Louise
(author)
Core Title
Authentic professional learning: a case study
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
02/25/2020
Defense Date
01/27/2020
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
communities of practice,OAI-PMH Harvest,professional learning,teacher instruction
Language
English
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Electronically uploaded by the author
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Advisor
Slayton, Julie (
committee chair
), Kellar, Frances (
committee member
), Samkian, Artineh (
committee member
)
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juliekocsis1@gmail.com
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https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-274536
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UC11674984
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Kocsis, Julie Louise
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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Tags
communities of practice
professional learning
teacher instruction