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Educating hearts and minds through high-quality service learning curriculum in U.S. high schools
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Educating hearts and minds through high-quality service learning curriculum in U.S. high schools
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Running head: HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 1
Educating Hearts and Minds Through High-Quality Service Learning
Curriculum in U.S. High Schools
by
Steve Kim
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
Decmber 2019
Copyright 2019 Steve Kim
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS i
Acknowledgment
In humble gratitude to all the professors at USC, especially the dissertation team: Dr.
Cathy Krop, Dr. Alexandra Wilcox, Dr. Anthony Maddox, and Dr. Eric Canny. Thank you very
much for your support throughout the dissertation process. Thank you also to my family,
friends, and most importantly to God for giving me the opportunity to study and persevere.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 2
Table of Contents
Acknowledgment i
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Introduction 9
Introduction of the Problem of Practice 9
Organizational Context and Mission 10
Organizational Performance/Status Need 11
Related Literature 12
Defining Service Learning 12
Benefits of Service Learning 12
Components of High-Quality Service Learning Programs 13
Importance of the Organizational Innovation 14
Organizational Performance Goal 15
Description of Stakeholder Groups 16
Stakeholder Performance Goals 16
Stakeholder Group of Focus 17
Purpose of the Project and Questions 18
Methodological Framework 19
Organization of the Study 19
Chapter Two: Literature Review 20
Review of the Literature 20
Defining Service Learning 20
History and Growth of Service Learning as Experiential Learning 21
Current Definitions of Service Learning 23
Benefits and Challenges of Implementing Service Learning 25
Student Benefits from Service Learning 25
Teacher Benefits from Service Learning 28
Community Benefits from Service Learning 30
Challenges of Implementing Service Learning 31
Components of High-Quality Service Learning Programs 34
What Makes a High-Quality Service Learning Program 34
Models of High-Quality Service Learning 36
The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework 38
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 39
Knowledge and Skills Influences 39
Knowledge Influences 40
Motivational Influences 45
Self-efficacy Theory 45
Expectancy Value Theory 47
Organizational Influences 50
Cultural Models and Settings 50
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholder’s Knowledge 56
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 3
Motivation, and the Organizational Context
Conclusion 59
Chapter Three: Methodology 61
Purpose of the Project and Questions 61
Methodological Approach and Rationale 61
Participating Stakeholders 63
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 65
Data Collection and Instrumentation 66
Interviews 66
Data Analysis 69
Credibility and Trustworthiness 70
Ethics 71
Limitations and Delimitations 73
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 76
Participating Stakeholders 77
Determining Continuing Needs and Current Assets 78
Findings of Assumed Knowledge Needs 78
Teachers Need to Understand What Service Learning Entails 79
Teachers Need to Know How Service Learning is Connected to Mission 81
Teachers Need to Know How to Prepare a Service Learning Experience 82
Teachers Need to Know How to Reflect on Their Abilities 84
Teachers Need Knowledge to Form Lasting Relationships 86
Ideas from Service Learning Leaders on Knowledge Needs 87
Summary Results and Findings of Knowledge Needs 89
Findings of Assumed Motivational Needs 91
Teachers Needs to Believe They are Capable of 92
Applying Service Learning into Their Curriculum
Teachers Need to Include Their Self-Identity 93
and Intrinsic Passion for Service
Teachers Need to See Improvement in Student Learning Outcomes 94
Ideas from Service Learning Leaders on Motivational Needs 96
Summary Results and Findings of Motivational Needs 97
Findings of Assumed Organizational Needs 99
The Organization Needs to Align Service Learning with 99
the Mission of the School
The Organization Needs to Promote Interest in 101
Service Learning from Teachers and Administrators
The Organization Needs to Provide Role Models of Service Learning 102
The Organization Needs to provide Logistical Support 103
to Implement Service Learning
Ideas from Service Learning Leaders on Organizational Needs 104
Summary Results and Findings of Organizational Needs 107
Emerging Themes 108
Building a Strong Connection to Mission 109
Creating Deeper Understanding of High-Quality Service Learning 109
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 4
Providing Teachers Necessary Support to Implement 111
High-Quality Service Learning
Promoting Service Learning Throughout the Campus with a 112
Long-Term Vision
Summary of Assumed Needs and Emerging Themes 113
Chapter Five: Recommendation, Implementation, and Evaluation 114
Introduction to Recommendations 114
Recommended Solutions to Emerging Themes 114
Recommended Solutions to Theme 1: Building a Strong 115
Connection to Mission
Suggestions from Service Learning Leaders on 117
Connection to Mission
Action Steps for SLHS on Connection to Mission 119
Recommended Solutions to Theme 2: Providing Teachers 123
Necessary Support to Implement High-Quality Service Learning
Suggestions from Service Learning Leaders on Providing 124
Teachers with Support
Action Steps for SLHS on Providing Teachers with Support 126
Recommended Solutions to Theme 3: Teachers Need 130
Deeper Understanding of High-Quality Service Learning
Suggestions from Service Learning Leaders on Deeper 131
Understanding of High-Quality Service Learning
Action Steps for SLHS on Deeper Understanding 135
of High-Quality Service Learning
Recommended Solutions to Theme 4: Connect Service Learning 137
with the Entire Community as Part of a Long-Term Vision
Suggestions from Service Learning Leaders on Involving 138
Community and Long-Term Vision
Action Steps for SLHS on Involving Community and 141
Long-Term Vision
Implementation Plan 147
Step 1: Establishing a Sense of Urgency 149
Step 2: Create a Guiding Coalition 149
Step 3: Create a Vision for Change 150
Step 4: Communicate the Vision 150
Step 5: Empower Action by Removing Barriers 151
Step 6: Generate Short-Term Wins 152
Step 7: Build on the Change 152
Step 8: Anchor Change in Culture for Sustained Change 153
Evaluation Plan 154
Level 1: Reactions 154
Level 2: Learning 155
Level 3: Transfer 156
Level 4: Results 157
Further Research 158
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 5
Conclusion 160
References 163
APPENDIX A 179
Teacher Interview Protocol 179
APPENDIX B 181
Service Learning Leader Interview Protocol 181
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 6
List of Tables
Table 1: Stakeholder Performance Goals 16
Table 2: Assumed Knowledge Influences on Performance, Knowledge Types, 44
and Knowledge Assessment
Table 3: Assumed Motivational Influences on Performance and Assessments 49
Table 4: Assumed organizational influences 55
Table 5: Creswell’s Model for Qualitative Data Analysis 69
Table 6: Description of Participating Stakeholders 77
Table 7: Summary of Assumed Knowledge Needs 79
Table 8: Summary of Assumed Motivational Needs 91
Table 9: Summary of Assumed Organizational Needs 99
Table 10: Summary of Emerging Themes 108
Table 11: Summary of Emerging Themes 115
Table 12: Building a Strong Connections to Mission Action Plan 120
Table 13: Providing Teachers with Support Action Plan 126
Table 14: Deeper Understanding of Service Learning Action Plan 135
Table 15: Involving Community and Long-Term Action Plan 142
Table 16: Implementation Plan Table 147
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 7
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework 58
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 8
Abstract
Service learning has a positive personal, social, and academic outcome on student performance
(Furko & Root, 2010; Hixson, Ravitz, & Whisman, 2012; Warren, 2012). Moreover, service
learning prepares students to be agents of social change with 21st century learning skills
(Baumann, 2014; Sabat, Morgan, Perry, & Wang, 2015). However, there is a lack of high-
quality service learning curriculum in U.S. high schools (Thomsen, 2014). In addition, only a
quarter of school administrators and teachers see service learning as a valuable educational
approach to education (Chung & McBride 2015; Spring, Grimm, & Dietz, 2009). The purpose
of this study was to explore and understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs
of religious studies teachers and department chairs at Service Learning High School (SLHS) to
implement high-quality service learning, as defined by standards established by the National
Youth Leadership Council (NYLC), into their curriculum. Service learning leaders were also
included as part of the study to gain perspective on innovating change ideas in service learning.
The data resulted in four emerging themes: building a strong connection to mission, teachers
needing deeper understanding of high-quality service learning, provide teachers with necessary
support to implement high-quality service learning, and promote service learning throughout the
campus with a long-term vision. In Chapter 5, the emerging themes are presented with
suggestions from service learning leaders and action steps for SLHS.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 9
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
Service learning is a form of active learning that integrates meaningful community
service with instruction and reflection to enrich the learning experience, teach civic
responsibility, and strengthen communities (Spring, Grimm, & Dietz, 2008). Research has
shown that service learning has a positive personal, social, and academic outcome on student
performance (Furko & Root, 2010; Hixson, Ravitz, & Whisman, 2012; Warren, 2012).
Moreover, service learning prepares students to be agents of social change with 21st century
learning skills (Baumann, 2014; Sabat, Morgan, Perry, & Wang, 2015). A high-quality service
learning program includes: duration and intensity, partnerships, links to curriculum, meaningful
service, youth voice, diversity, reflection, and progress monitoring (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki,
2011). However, there is a lack of high-quality service learning curriculum in U.S. high schools
(Thomsen, 2014). In addition, only a quarter of school administrators and teachers see service
learning as a valuable educational approach to education (Chung & McBride 2015; Spring,
Grimm, & Dietz, 2009). Throughout the years, the percentage of high schools in the United
States reporting service learning activities has declined from 46% in 1999 to 35% in 2008
(Spring, Grimm, & Dietz, 2008). This is in part due to steady loss in funding. By 2012, states
lost $40 million in federal funding to support service learning through the National and
Community Service Trust Act (Ryan, 2012). McLellan and Youniss (2003) show that although
41 states require students to take a civics course to graduate, only 11 states require students to be
involved in service learning projects. In California, the CalServe Initiative, established by the
California Department of Education in 1990 to provide funding in support of service learning,
lost funding and the program was eliminated in 2012 (California Department of Education,
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 10
2017). An assembly bill (AB-189) was brought up in 2017 to mandate service learning
curriculum in California, but it was vetoed by the governor in January 2018 since service
learning was already embedded in history curriculum guidelines (California Legislative
Information, 2017). Loss of funding for service learning programs and a general decline in an
emphasis in them in schools has resulted in lack of high-quality service learning opportunities,
which risks the opportunity of positive personal, social, and academic outcomes for students to
be agents of social change in the 21st century (Hixson, Ravitz, & Whisman, 2012).
Organizational Context and Mission
The organization that will serve as the site for this study is Service Learning High School
(SLHS). SLHS is a pseudonym used to protect the identity of the school. SLHS is a private
Catholic high school (grades 9-12) in the western United States. The mission of SLHS is to
educate the hearts and minds of the students. The school is rooted in the tradition of the Catholic
Church and focused on providing a college preparatory program in an inclusive family
environment. Students are challenged to engage in intellectual, spiritual, and social
development. Ultimately, SLHS exists to form the mind, body, and spirit of the students to be
servant leaders in society.
1
There are currently 1800 students enrolled at SLHS, ranging from ages 13 to 18. SLHS
is a coed school with 55% female students and 45% male students. The demographics of the
students include: 47% White, 30% Asian, 10% Hispanic, 10% Multi-racial, 2% African
American, and 1% Pacific Islander. In terms of religious affiliations, 65% of the students
identify as Catholic and 35% identify as non-Catholic. The teachers and staff identify as 74%
1
The source comes from the organization’s website and the actual URL is not provided in order
to protect the identity of the school.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 11
White, 11% Hispanic, 7% Asian, 5% Multi-racial, 3% Native American, 1% African
American, and 1% Pacific Islander. Moreover, 68% of the teachers and staff identify as Catholic
and 32% identify as non-Catholic.
Organizational Performance Status/Need
In order to fulfill the mission of SLHS to educate the hearts and minds of the students in
the Catholic tradition, it is imperative to provide integrated high-quality service learning
opportunities for students. Failure to do so can risk the opportunity of positive personal, social,
and academic outcomes for students to be agents of social change in the 21st century (Hixson,
Ravitz, & Whisman, 2012). Billig and Brodersen (2007) showed that aligning service learning
activities with standards that link to curriculum resulted in students scoring higher in terms of
academic engagement and efficacy. At SLHS, students currently participate in some level of
service learning through their religion classes. This includes helping out at service organizations
during the semester and writing a reflection paper. However, the service learning program has
no standards and lacks making a connection with class curriculum. Moreover, the annual school
climate survey results consistently show many students express disinterest and consider service
learning a waste of time. Thus, the organization needs to more effectively implement service
learning as part of the curriculum and fulfill the graduation outcome for students to become
servant leaders in society.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 12
Related Literature
Defining Service Learning
One of the reasons why there is a lack of high-quality service learning is that there is no
clear definition of service learning (Billig, 2000; Jacoby & Associates, 1996; Spring, Grimm, &
Dietz, 2008). Over the last 30 years, at least 200 different definitions of service learning have
been published, describing service learning as a philosophy, pedagogy, experience, program,
internship, or community service (Jacoby & Associates, 1996). However, service learning is
rooted in the works of John Dewey, whose philosophy in the 1930s focused on trying to answer
how experiences can be educative (Bringle & Hatcher, 2000; Giles & Eyler, 1994). Then, by the
1980s, Dewey’s work on experiential learning resulted in neo-Deweyians such as David Kolb,
who developed his experiential learning theory (Bringle & Hatcher, 2000). By the 1990s,
service learning shifted towards seeking funding and emphasizing its focus on community
service (Harkavy & Hartley, 2010). Currently, Sigmon (1994) describes service learning as an
equal focus to both the classroom learning and the service goals. Both the service and the
learning goals mutually reinforce each other to benefit both the students and the community
(Eyler & Giles, 1999).
Benefits of Service Learning
In general, research has shown that service learning can benefit students, teachers, and
the community. In regards to students, service learning has a positive personal, social, and
academic outcome on student performance to prepare students to be agents of social change with
21st century learning skills (Furko & Root, 2010; Hixson, Ravitz, & Whisman, 2012; Warren,
2012). For example, Billig, Jesse, and Grimley (2008) conducted a four-year study at a school
district in Philadelphia to analyze the behavior of students who participated in service learning.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 13
The results showed that students who participated in at least 30 hours of service learning
achieved higher scores on state tests and showed positive academic behavior such as higher class
attendance. Also, Jacoby (2014) suggested a good way to approach STEM students and
curriculum is to engage students in service learning to go deeper into their understanding of the
ethical, legal, democratic, and social dimensions of their disciplines. There are also several
benefits for the teachers to implement service learning to strengthen one’s identity, purposeful
work, and incentives (Banerjee & Hausafus, 2007; Cranton, 2006; Furko & Root, 2010; Hou &
Wilder, 2015). Cranton (2006) concluded that service learning can help transform the teacher's
role as more of a facilitator. For example, the relationship between the student and the teacher
becomes more fluid as they learn from each other and develop a trusting relationship. In
addition, teachers see service learning as a benefit when it increases student performance
academically, socially, and emotionally (Billig, Jesse, & Brodersen, 2008; Furko & Root, 2010;
Levesque-Bristol, Knapp, & Fisher, 2010). Service learning can also benefit service
organizations to help the service organizations thrive and make positive long-term effects (Billig
& Conrad, 1997; Cronley, Madden, & Davis, 2015; Geller, Zuckerman, & Seidel, 2016).
Service learning provides unique benefits to the community organizations such as renewed
energy, building relationships, direct service, and increased funding (Geller, Zuckerman, &
Seidel, 2016).
Components of High-Quality Service Learning Programs
Service learning can be understood by focusing on the standards that define a high-
quality service learning program. The National Youth Leadership Council created K-12
standards of a high-quality learning program, which include: duration and intensity, partnerships,
link to curriculum, meaningful service, youth voice, diversity, reflection, and progress
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 14
monitoring (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011). There are models of high-quality service
learning throughout the country (Maryland State Department of Education, 2017; Campus
Compact, 2003). For example, approximately 55,000 students graduate from Maryland public
schools and complete approximately four million hours of service (Finney, 1997). Within
Maryland, Allegany County is considered to be the most successful service learning program by
the state director of service learning (Miller, 2014). Miller (2014) concluded that in Allegany
County, there is a devoted staff member at the district level dedicated to service learning. What
makes Allegany County successful is a curricular infusion of service learning. Service is directly
infused into almost every curriculum, especially within STEM courses. There is also extensive
research on how colleges and universities can run an effective high-quality service learning
program (Campus Compact, 2003; Bringle & Hatcher, 2000; Morton and Troppe, 1996). For
example, Campus Compact is a national coalition of over 1,000 colleges and universities
committed to democracy, civic education, and community development (Campus Compact,
2003). A high-quality service learning program not only benefits the students, teachers, and the
community, but it is essential for continued innovation in education, including at SLHS.
Importance of the Organizational Innovation
It is important for SLHS to provide integrated high-quality service learning opportunities
for a variety of reasons. If the organization does not provide a high-quality service learning
education, students lack the opportunity to grow with personal, social, and academic outcomes to
be agents of social change in the 21st century (Baumann, 2014; Sabat, Morgan, Perry, & Wang,
2015). In addition, the organization may lose the balance of the school’s mission to educate the
hearts and minds of the students. The focus of the student’s education at SLHS can be too much
on academic rigor instead of applying their studies to be agents of social change and servant
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 15
leaders that make a positive difference in the world. In regards to Catholic education, the
bishops have strongly recommended the importance of incorporating Catholic social teaching
into all of its educational programs (United States Catholic Conference of Bishops, 2005). Ozar
and Weitzel-O’Neill (2012) referred to the National Standards and Benchmarks for Effective
Catholic Elementary and Secondary Schools to show that one of the benchmarks for an excellent
Catholic school includes providing opportunities outside the classroom for student faith
formation and action in service of justice. Service learning can provide a way for Catholic
schools to incorporate its social teachings outside the classroom and at the same time be
innovative to meet the demands of 21 century skills. Thus, failure to provide integrated high-
quality service learning opportunities will negatively impact the organization’s ability to achieve
its mission to educate the hearts and minds of students.
Organizational Performance Goal
SLHS’s goal is that by May 2024, Service Learning High School will have integrated
service learning opportunities in each grade and multiple subjects that are aligned with the
standards for high-quality service learning education (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011). This
goal was established as part of the school's strategic plan to make sure that students are
challenged to be lifelong learners that make a difference in society. As part of the mission to
educate the hearts and minds of the students, a high-quality service learning program can
enhance educating the hearts of the students. The achievement of a high-quality service learning
program will be measured by comparing the performance of SLHS students with the high school
service learning recommended strategies by the National Youth Leadership Council, as well as
by student feedback from the annual school climate survey. A high-quality service learning
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 16
program includes: duration and intensity, partnerships, link to curriculum, meaningful service,
youth voice, diversity, reflection, and progress monitoring (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011).
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are several stakeholder groups that contribute to the achievement of Service
Learning High School’s organizational goal. One key stakeholder group are the school
administrators, who need to be involved at the initial stages to come up with a strategic plan to
implement service learning across the school. A second stakeholder group that is instrumental in
the achievement of the organizational goal are the teachers, especially religious studies teachers,
who are responsible for preparing the curriculum and implementing the standards of a high-
quality service program. Finally, the students serve as another important stakeholder group since
it is their participation in the service learning program that will inevitably determine its impact.
Table 1 below describes the stakeholder performance goals.
Stakeholder Performance Goals
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of SLHS to educate the hearts and minds of the students to be servant leaders in
society.
Organizational Performance Goal
By May 2024, Service Learning High School will have integrated service learning opportunities
in each grade and multiple subjects that are aligned with the standards for high-quality service
learning education.
Administrators Teachers Students
By May 2020, all school
administrators will approve a
strategic plan to have
integrated service learning
opportunities in each grade
that are aligned with the
By September 2020, all
religious studies teachers will
successfully implement a
minimum of one pilot project
that meets the standards of a
By May 2021, all students at
Service Learning High School
will participate in a high-
quality service learning
experience.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 17
standards for high-quality
service learning education.
high-quality service learning
education.
Stakeholder Group of Focus
Although a complete analysis would involve all stakeholder groups to provide integrated
service learning opportunities at SLHS, it is important to focus on the providers that need to be
experts in embedding a service learning curriculum into their practice and getting the message of
its importance across to the students. Therefore, the stakeholders of focus for this study will be
teachers at SLHS. In particular, the stakeholder teachers that are of importance are religious
studies teachers who have had at least some experience in implementing service learning into
their curriculum and other subject department chairs who can provide a general understanding of
the needs of teachers who have yet to try service learning.
At SLHS, only religious studies teachers have piloted the early stages of service learning
projects. Therefore, they are the group of teachers that can provide basic experiential and
behavioral data on service learning. In addition, at SLHS, many new initiatives start with the
religious studies department since it is part of the core mission of the school. Subsequently,
religious studies teachers can serve as champions for service learning to extend its reach into
other subjects. Furthermore, while the religious studies teachers are the main stakeholder group
for this innovation study, all subject department chairs were interviewed to understand their
perceived needs for service learning to expand from religious studies to other departments in the
future.
The religious studies teachers’ goal is that by September 2020, all religious studies
teachers will successfully implement a minimum of one pilot project that meets the standards of
a high-quality service learning education. A pilot project can include using service learning as
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 18
part of a unit or a summative project to encourage students to apply their learning by serving
the needs of others. This goal is in line with the school’s strategic plan to make sure that
students are challenged to be lifelong learners that make a difference in society. Failure to
accomplish this goal means that the teachers will not be able to fulfill the mission of the school
to educate the hearts and minds of the students. Moreover, when students do not experience a
high-quality service learning program, they risk the opportunity of positive personal, social, and
academic outcomes to be agents of social change in the 21st century.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project is to conduct a needs’ analysis in the areas of knowledge and
skill, motivation, and organizational resources necessary to reach the organizational performance
goal of the school providing high-quality service learning education. The analysis will start by
determining a list of possible needs and then move to examining these systematically to focus on
actual or validated needs. While a complete needs’ analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for
practical purposes the stakeholder to be focused on in this analysis is all religious studies
teachers with some service learning experience and department chairs at SLHS. The questions
that will guide the needs’ analysis are as follows:
1. What are the knowledge and motivational needs of SLHS teachers to implement high-
quality service learning as defined by NYLC?
2. What is the interaction between culture and context at SLHS and the teachers’ knowledge
and motivation in relation to achieving high-quality service learning at SLHS?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to
provide high-quality service learning at SLHS?
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 19
Methodological Framework
This study will include the framework of Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis, a
systematic, analytical method that helps to clarify the organizational performance goals of
providing high-quality service learning education at SLHS and gaps between current
performance and those goals. Assumed knowledge, motivation and organizational needs will be
generated based on personal knowledge and related literature. These needs will be validated by
conducting qualitative research based on interviews, literature review and content analysis.
Organization of the Study
Five chapters are used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with an
introduction to the importance of service learning and SLHS’ mission, goals and stakeholders.
Chapter Two provides a review of current literature surrounding service learning. Topics
include: elements of service learning, benefits of service learning, and benchmarking case studies
of service learning programs. Chapter Three examines the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences as well as the methodology for choice of participants, data collection
and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are assessed and analyzed. Chapter Five
provides solutions based on data and literature, for addressing the needs and closing the
performance gap as well as recommendations to provide a high-quality service learning program
at SLHS.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 20
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Review of the Literature
This literature review examines the status of high-quality service learning curriculum in
high schools within the United States. The review begins with general research regarding key
elements that define service learning, including history, growth, and current definition of high-
quality service learning. This is followed by an overview of the student, teacher, and community
benefits of service learning, along with its challenges and limitations. Finally, the general
research concludes by examining components of high-quality service learning programs in
certain states and universities. Following the general research literature, the review turns to the
Gap Analysis Framework (Clark & Estes, 2008). The Gap Analysis Framework examines the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affect high-quality service learning.
Defining Service Learning
The definition of service learning is rooted in experiential learning with the works of
John Dewey and David Kolb (Bringle & Hatcher, 1996; Giles & Eyler, 1994; Saltmarsh, 1996).
Throughout the years, one of the reasons why there is a lack of high-quality service learning is
that there is no clear definition of service learning (Billig, 2000; Jacoby & Associates, 1996;
Spring, Grimm, & Dietz, 2008). However, Sigmon (1994) describes service learning as an equal
focus to both the classroom learning and the service goals. Both the service and the learning
goals mutually reinforce each other to benefit both the students and the community (Eyler &
Giles, 1999).
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 21
History and Growth of Service Learning as Experiential Learning
The history and growth of service learning is rooted in the works of John Dewey and
continued through David Kolb (Bringle & Hatcher, 1996; Giles & Eyler,1994; Saltmarsh, 1996).
Since service learning is rooted in experiential learning, it is important to focus on the
philosophy of John Dewey, who tried to answer how experiences can be educative (Giles &
Eyler, 1994). In the 1930s, Dewey explored experiential education and concluded that not every
experience results in education (Dewey, 1938). An educative experience requires agreeableness
and effect on later experiences. However, it is possible that students can have an agreeable
experience without having a positive effect on later experiences. Thus, Dewey’s philosophy and
education challenged the need to incorporate pedagogy together with experience (Saltmarsh.
1996). He attempted to set standards that would validate an educative experience (Giles &
Eyler,1994). First, the experience must generate interest in the students. Second, the experience
must be intrinsically worthwhile for the students to participate in. Third, the experience should
present real-world problems that awaken a new curiosity and desire to seek out new information.
Finally, the experiential learning needs to occur over a considerable time to foster development
over time (Dewey, 1933).
Also, Dewey emphasized that to be successful in life, students need to be engaged not
just academically, but have a holistic approach of mind, body, and spirit (Saltmarsh, 1996). As a
result, Dewey emphasized the importance of reflective inquiry as the key that links the student's
service to the community and their academic learning. For Dewey, a reflective process needs to
generate meaning through relationship with experience and ideas. Also, reflection needs to
occur systematically through interacting with the community and promote personal and
intellectual growth of oneself and of others (Rodgers, 2002). His study becomes the foundation
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 22
of stressing the importance of reflection in the service learning model/process and also self-
efficacy for students, teachers, and organizations (Saltmarsh, 2016).
The theoretical foundations of Dewey focused on experiential learning, which is the basis
for defining service learning. By the 1980s, Dewey’s work on experiential learning resulted in
neo-Deweyians such as David Kolb, who developed his experiential learning theory (Bringle,
Clayton, & Hatcher, 2013). For Kolb, experience is the fundamental block of education. In
1984, based on Dewey’s work on educational experience, Kolb developed a learning cycle that
presented a way of emphasizing experience with effective learning results (Bringle & Hatcher,
1995). The learning cycle includes four key aspects: concrete experience, reflective observation,
abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation (Bringle, Clayton, & Hatcher, 2013).
First, the learning cycle begins by encountering a concrete unbiased experience. After the
experience, one needs to understand the experience into learning through reflective observation.
This leads to formulating new ideas through abstract conceptualization. Finally, the last step in
the learning cycle involves trying to incorporate new ideas into action through active
experimentation (Kolb, 1984). Kolb’s theory helped create a concrete learning theory that has
been used commonly for practice and research in service learning (Bringle, Clayton, & Hatcher,
2013). The 1980s can be described as a time for pedagogical innovation while the 1990s can be
described as a time to seek funding for community service (Harkavy & Hartley, 2010).
By the 1990s, service learning shifted towards seeking funding and emphasizing its focus
on community service (Harkavy & Hartley, 2010). In 1993, Congress passed the National and
Community Service Trust Act in support of service learning (Witten, 1998). This was bipartisan
legislation, and it resulted in funding states nearly $40 million every year through the Learn and
Serve America (LSA). Due to funding opportunities from LSA, service learning became more
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 23
popular and was included in benchmarks and instructional strategies in many states’ standards
and/or frameworks (Rautio, 2012). For example, states such as Maryland and the District of
Columbia incorporated service learning as part of the high school graduation requirement
(Finney, 1997). Subsequently, in 2000, 27 states had some mention of service learning in state
policy; by 2011, that number jumped to 42 states (Rautio, 2012). Yet, this growth in service
learning resulted in many different current definitions of service learning (Jacoby & Associates,
1996; Sigmon, 1994).
Current Definition of Service Learning
One of the reasons why there is a lack of high-quality service learning is that there is no
clear definition of service learning (Billig, 2000; Jacoby & Associates, 1996; Spring, Grimm, &
Dietz, 2008). Over the last 30 years, at least 200 different definitions of service learning have
been published, describing service learning as a philosophy, pedagogy, experience, program,
internship, or community service (Jacoby & Associates, 1996). In a broader general context,
service learning is a form of active learning that integrates meaningful community service with
instruction and reflection to enrich the learning experience, teach civic responsibility, and
strengthen communities (Spring, Grimm, & Dietz, 2008). In the context of a high school
classroom setting, service learning can be defined as a powerful pedagogical strategy that
encourages students to make meaningful connections between content in the classroom and real-
life service experiences (Engstrom & Tinto, 1997).
Billig (2000) showed that although there can be agreements on broadly defining service
learning as a form of experiential learning, disagreements arise when trying to distinguish service
learning from other experiential education approaches such as community service, field
education, or internships. It can be easier to define service learning by focusing on what is not
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 24
considered service learning. According to Furco (1996), service learning is different from
community service, which focuses on engaging students in activities where the primary focus is
on the service being provided and the primary beneficiary is the service recipient. Miller (2014)
conducted interviews and discovered community service requirements alone do not directly
accomplish learning goals. For example, the Fairfax County Public Schools in Virginia asks
students to complete ten hours of service a year. Its qualification of service learning is so broad it
even includes belonging to an extracurricular club or watching a neighbor’s children. Service
learning facilitates learning, while a community service requirement includes students
completing hours without necessarily relating it to learning. Service learning plans may include
part of community service, but service learning is connected back to learning.
Service learning at its core is intentionally designed to benefit equally the provider and
the recipient of the service to ensure equal focus on both the service being provided and the
learning that is occurring (Furco, 1996). Sigmon (1994) mentions the need for a balance
between service and learning by presenting four levels of service learning pedagogy. If the
curriculum separates the service from the learning goals, then it can be defined as service
learning. Second, if the learning goals of a course is the primary focus, then service becomes
secondary and it is called service-LEARNING. Examples of service-LEARNING include
internships and field education (Eyler & Giles, 1999). Third, if the service outcomes become
the primary focus, then the learning objectives become secondary and it is called SERVICE-
learning. Examples of SERVICE-learning include community service and volunteerism (Furco,
2013). Lastly, Sigmon (1994) describes SERVICE-LEARNING as an equal focus to both the
classroom learning and the service goals. Both the service and the learning goals mutually
reinforce each other to benefit both the students and the community (Eyler & Giles, 1999). For
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 25
example, students learning about physiology can apply their learning in the course to providing
mobility assistance to seniors at a nursing home. The program provides a needed service to
seniors and it can help the students better understand physiology of elderly people.
Consequently, the program benefits both the students and service organizations (Furco, 1996).
Subsequently, service learning can be defined as an active learning experience that balances
classroom learning and service goals. When the definition of service learning is applied
correctly, it can result in benefitting students, teachers, and the community.
Benefits and Challenges of Implementing Service Learning
Service learning has a positive personal, social, and academic outcome on student
performance (Billig, Jesse, & Brodersen, 2008; Furko & Root, 2010). There are also benefits for
the teachers to implement service learning to strengthen one’s identity, purposeful work, and
incentives (Banerjee & Hausafus, 2007; Cranton, 2006; Furko & Root, 2010; Hou & Wilder,
2015). In addition, service learning can be used as the vehicle to provide benefits to service
organizations to provide more volunteers and help with long-term planning (Billig & Conrad,
1997; Cronley, Madden, & Davis, 2015; Zuckerman & Seidel, 2016). However, there are also
challenges and limitations to providing high-quality service learning (Furco & Billig, 2002;
(Abes, Jackson, & Jones, 2002; Abravanel, 2003; Kielsmeier, 2010).
Student Benefits from Service Learning
In general, research has shown that service learning has a positive personal, social, and
academic outcome on student performance to prepare students to be agents of social change with
21st century learning skills (Furko & Root, 2010; Hixson, Ravitz, & Whisman, 2012; Warren,
2012). First, service learning has a positive impact on students' academic learning (Hebert &
Hauf, 2015; Soukup, 1999). Astin, Vogelgesang, and Ikeda (2000) showed that students who
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 26
participated in service learning had a higher grade point average and better writing skills when
compared to students who did not participate in service learning. Also, Mpofu (2007) revealed
that participation in service learning had no improvement in students taking multiple choice tests
but students scored much higher when asked deeper critical thinking case study questions.
Moreover, Billig, Jesse, and Grimley (2008) conducted a four-year grant at a school district in
Philadelphia to analyze the behavior of students who participated in service learning. The results
showed that students who participated in at least 30 hours of service learning achieved higher
scores on state tests and showed positive academic behavior such as higher class attendance.
Socially, students engaged in high-quality service learning have a higher sense of social
responsibility and are civically engaged (Billig, Jesse, & Brodersen, 2008; Sax, Austin & Avalos,
1999). Winston (2015) examined five undergraduate experiences of college students to evaluate
the long-term effects of service learning. The research revealed that service learning had the
greatest impact for political participation after college. Moreover, service learning affects
positive social behaviors such as voting, donating money to political candidates, raising a
student's awareness of the needs within the community and fostering enduring political
participation by developing a moral identity. Notably, a joint comprehensive study was
conducted by the U.S. Department of Education and the Association of American Colleges and
Universities on the effect of service learning on civic engagement (Cress, Burack, Giles, Elkins,
& Stevens, 2010). The study showed that service learning helps students engage in the
community, promotes future civic engagement, and heightens sense of social responsibility,
voting and volunteerism.
In regards to emotional development, studies suggest that when students participate in
service learning, it has a positive effect on personal efficacy, identity, and moral development
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 27
(Brown, 2011; Levesque-Bristol, Knapp, & Fisher, 2010; Madsen & Turnbull, 2006). Levesque-
Bristol, Knapp, and Fisher (2010) analyzed more than 600 college students enrolled in service
learning courses from more than 30 different disciplines. The results showed that service
learning contributes to positive emotional motivation, moral development, and fostering a
positive learning climate for students through reflection and self-awareness. Also, Astin,
Vogelgesang, Ikeda, et al. (2000) collected longitudinal data from 22,236 college undergraduates
attending a national sample of baccalaureate-granting colleges and universities from 1985 to
1998. The study followed the students' progress through surveys and interviews throughout the
years. The qualitative research revealed that students who participated in service learning
showed an increased sense of personal efficacy, awareness of the world, awareness of one’s
personal values, and engagement in the classroom experience.
Service learning is also connected with 21
st
century learning skills of critical thinking,
communication, collaboration, and creativity (Alismail & McGuire, 2015). Baumann (2014)
showed that service learning is effective in improving levels of school attainment and 21st
century skills acquisition for students especially at the lower end of academic performance.
Sabat, Morgan, Perry and Wang (2015) revealed that different from other educational innovative
models, service learning uniquely prepares students with 21st century skills through practicing
applied knowledge, teamwork, civic engagement, and a desire to contribute to the community.
Jacoby (2014) suggested a good way to approach STEM students and curriculum is to engage
students in service learning to go deeper into their understanding of the ethical, legal,
democratic, and social dimensions of their disciplines. Manning-Ouellette, Chrystal, Parrott
(2018) revealed a positive effect of increased engagement and academic performance when
applying service learning to first year women students in STEM. Also, Fullerton, Reitenauer,
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 28
and Kerrigan (2015) showed that service learning teaches students crucial 21st century skills in
transformative ways by developing leadership, teamwork, and professional skills geared towards
making a social change. Halberstadt, Schank, Euler, and Harms (2019) suggested using service
learning as an innovative teaching format for sustainability entrepreneurship education.
Subsequently, when high-quality service learning is implemented, it benefits the student
academically, socially, emotionally, and prepares them with valuable 21
st
century skills to be
agents of social change. Moreover, service learning provides positive benefits not only for the
students but for teachers as well.
Teacher Benefits from Service Learning
There are several benefits for the teachers to implement service learning to strengthen
one’s identity, purposeful work, and incentives (Banerjee & Hausafus, 2007; Cranton, 2006;
Furko & Root, 2010; Hou & Wilder, 2015). Cranton (2006) concluded that service learning can
help transform a teacher's role as more of a facilitator. For instance, the relationship between the
student and the teacher becomes more fluid as they learn from each other. Moreover, service
learning is beneficial to the teacher since it helps create a more trusting and respectful
environment. Also, Hou and Wilder (2015) conducted a survey of faculty members from a
major research university in the Southeastern United States. Out of 449 participants, the survey
results showed that the strongest motivating factor for the faculty was self-identity and intrinsic
passion. Service learning gives an opportunity for teachers that are social justice or service
oriented to engage in the curriculum and work together with students.
Teachers see service learning as beneficial if it brings an added value through purposeful
work that increases student performance. Banerjee and Hausafus (2007) gathered survey results
from human sciences faculty members in institutions of higher education across the United
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 29
States. The survey gauged faculty perceptions about the added value of service learning as a
teaching strategy in human sciences courses. When the faculty were asked if service learning is
a value added, the mean score for the entire sample was 6.08 (from 1 to 7 scale), which revealed
that faculty members perceived service learning as an added value. Also, O’Meara (2013)
concluded that teachers view service learning as beneficial since it can be an opportunity to be
engaged in work that has meaning, purpose, and also meet the necessary teaching goals at the
same time. Teachers see service learning as a benefit when it increases student performance
academically, socially, and emotionally (Billig, Jesse, & Brodersen, 2008; Furko & Root, 2010;
Levesque-Bristol, Knapp, & Fisher, 2010). Henrich, Sloughter, Anderson, and Bahuaud (2016)
showed how teachers can use service learning as a tool to address students who have a negative
attitude toward math. Also, Newman, Dantzler, and Coleman (2015) revealed how teachers can
be engaged in service learning due to higher academic achievements in science for students
living in high poverty areas with potential at-risk behavior. Moreover, there has been an increase
in teacher willingness to try service learning due to increased academic performance in foreign
language education as a result of service learning (Bloom & Gascoigne, 2017; Burke, 2017;
Hellebrandt, Arries, & Varona, 2004). Teachers are also exploring service learning in other
areas such as Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL). Wurr (2018) showed
how service learning leads to small but significant gains in teaching and learning English
language learners. The varied multi-use benefits for service learning presents possibilities for
teachers in different departments to explore implementing service learning as part of their
curriculum.
Also, service learning provides an opportunity for incentives for teachers. Bringle and
Hatcher (2000) conducted a study of 44 college campuses with service learning. The research
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 30
showed that teachers see service learning as beneficial when provided with incentives such as
promotions and tenure track to incorporate service learning successfully. Furthermore, Bulot and
Johnson (2006) concluded that teachers see service learning as useful since it can bring positive
feedback from organizations, recognition by peers, institutions and other colleagues. Moreover,
Jacoby (2014) stated that teachers can see service learning as beneficial if they are provided with
incentives to incorporate service learning into their courses, including awards and grants to help
fund curriculum development. Subsequently, service learning provides a platform for teachers to
be facilitators, participate in meaningful and purposeful learning that aligns with their intrinsic
values, and provides an opportunity for incentives. In addition, service learning benefits not only
the school but works towards providing a benefit to the community as well.
Community Benefits from Service Learning
Service learning can be used as a vehicle to provide benefits to service organizations to
help the service organizations thrive and make positive long-term effects (Billig & Conrad, 1997;
Cronley, Madden, & Davis, 2015; Zuckerman, & Seidel, 2016). According to Cronley, Madden,
and Davis (2015), the greatest benefit from the perspective of the community partners was that
students can provide critical resources to expand organizational capacity. Community partners
expressed enjoyment in playing a mentoring role and also gaining new knowledge from the
perspective of the students. Often, students brought creative solutions to problems that
organizations did not think of beforehand. Billig and Conrad (1997) studied annual K-12 reports
on service learning and educational reform and pointed out service learning as a valued resource
that can positively make a difference in the community. Also, student volunteers can help bring
a positive perception and recruit more volunteers for service organizations.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 31
Service organizations also view service learning as a tool that can make a difference in
the community. Mohamed and Wheeler (2001) studied the perspective of program officers in
service organizations and concluded that they see service learning as a way to cultivate new
generations of citizens that are civically engaged and care about the community. If service
organizations can be actively involved in educating students, it can create more people interested
in making a long-term difference even after the service learning (Batenburg, 1995). Geller,
Zuckerman, and Seidel (2016) view service learning as a catalyst for community development.
The study focused on analyzing 129 community-based organizations that received a grant from
K-12 students engaged in a service learning program. The results showed that the partnership in
schools brought continued interest in students wanting to serve after the program. From the
organization’s perspective, not only did it reenergize the morale of the employees, but it helped
sustain funding by attracting donors that are willing to give after seeing the positive effects of
service learning implemented in the community-based organizations. Service learning provides
unique benefits to the community organizations such as renewed energy, building relationships,
direct service, and increased funding. The benefits of service learning can be contextualized
with examples of high-quality service learning. While the literature suggests benefits to
students, teachers and the community of implementing service learning, challenges still remain
to implementing service learning.
Challenges of Implementing Service Learning
There are certain student, teacher, and community challenges to implementing service
learning. There are various studies that present a more nuanced perspective on student benefits
of service learning (Furco & Billig, 2002; Hebert & Hauf, 2015; Ziegert & McGoldrick, 2004).
Furco and Billig (2002) stated that norms for service learning research are not clearly
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 32
established. According to Hebert and Hauf (2015), many of the student benefits from service
learning are due to anecdotal evidence and more rigorous testing is required. The discrepancy
may be due to grades not reflecting critical thinking skills, self-selection bias, and different
grading methods. Subsequently, Ziegert and McGoldrick (2004) suggested a methodological
shift in considering service learning by adding more studies with rigor toward scientific research
to determine if there are true benefits of student outcomes in service learning. Furthermore,
according to Palmer and Savoie (2002), even if service learning has a positive short-term
outcome, it does not necessarily result in positive long-term outcomes. For example, there are
many cases of low-quality service learning experiences when students are not actively engaged
(Palmer & Savoie, 2002).
Also, teachers may find it challenging to try a new pedagogical model like service
learning, especially if they lack a general understanding of what service learning is (Abes,
Jackson, & Jones, 2002; Cushman, 2002; Furco & Ammon, 2000; O'Meara & Niehaus, 2009).
Borkoski and Prosser (2019) revealed that although faculty in different departments throughout
the school can see potential benefits of service learning, service learning practices are still
considered as less valuable than research and perceived as additional workload rather than an
integrated part of the curriculum. Cushman (2002) conducted a qualitative study at the
University of California Berkeley on service learning courses. Through observations, informal
interviews, and field notes, the study determined that without a careful understanding of the
wider context of service learning, it is very difficult to sustain a high-quality service learning
program. Moreover, according to Furco and Moely (2012), faculty issues stemming from service
learning programs include: lack of knowledge or competency, expectations of added work to
implement changes, distraction from course content, lack of institutional support, and lack of
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 33
rewards or recognition. Furthermore, Jacoby (2014) concluded the main challenge for faculty
for implementing service learning is the fear that the logistical issues and details will be
overwhelming. Faculty point out lack of institutional support and ultimately not wanting to take
on the added responsibility, liability, transportation, and extra costs that come with service
learning.
Service learning can be challenging not only for the students and teachers, but to the
community as well when their needs are not met (Abravanel, 2003; Hammersley, 2012; Stoeker,
Tyron, & Loving, 2011). Stoeker, Tyron, and Loving (2011) showed that many service learning
opportunities are favored towards student learning. Community organizations start out with how
the community can help the students learn instead of focusing on how the students can help the
community. Similarly, Abravanel (2003) showed that the school is often focused on ensuring
student learning outcomes from the service experience so that the students can learn and do well
on their exams. However, the community organizations are often focused on the impact of the
service and creating numbers (such as hours served) to obtain grant money. Moreover, Cronley,
Madden, and Davis (2015) concluded that service providers often become disengaged in
classroom learning needs and students do not have a positive service experience. Moreover,
there is a perceived power dynamic where the community partners do not feel like equals and are
often disrespected. Despite certain challenges to implementing high-quality service learning,
there are standards that define components of a high-quality service learning program and
examples of high-quality service learning programs that have been successfully implemented in
various institutions.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 34
Components of High-Quality Service Learning Programs
Service learning can be understood by focusing on the standards that define a high-
quality service learning program. There are many definitions of service learning that include
different elements. However, according to Pritchard and Whitehead (2004), the most commonly
used standards to define high-quality service learning were developed by the National Youth
Leadership Council (NYLC). To look for models of best practices, there are models of high-
quality service learning in Maryland school districts and college models of service learning
(Maryland State Department of Education, 2017; Campus Compact, 2003).
What Makes a High-Quality Service Learning Program?
The National Youth Leadership Council created K-12 standards of a high-quality service
learning program, which include the following eight components: duration and intensity,
partnerships, link to curriculum, meaningful service, youth voice, diversity, reflection, and
progress monitoring (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011).
With respect to duration and intensity, students who participate in longer and more
intense service learning (at least one semester) were more likely to value school and be civically
engaged after graduation (Billig & Brodersen, 2007; Billig, Root, & Jesse, 2005). Spring, Dietz,
and Grimm (2006) conducted a survey of high school students and discovered that students
engaged in intense and longer periods of service learning were three times more likely to believe
that they can make a difference in the community when compared to students involved in short
or no service projects. Longer and more intense service learning results in positive ongoing
sustainable partnerships with the community, which leads to greater self-discipline and measure
of academic progress (Abravanel, 2003; Bailis & Melchior, 2004; Kramer, 2000; Sheldon &
Epstein, 20005). Kramer (2000) cited reciprocal partnerships as an essential category for
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 35
sustainable service learning projects to be successful for students and service organizations.
Service learning is also an excellent way to link the curriculum to help achieve certain standards
and goals (Billig, Root, & Jesse, 2005; Kraft & Wheeler, 2003). Billig and Brodersen (2007)
showed that aligning service learning activities with standards resulted in students scoring higher
in terms of academic engagement and efficacy. Service learning also fosters meaningful service,
as students become more engaged when faced with real life challenges in their community
(Furco, 2002; Kessler, 2000; Melchior & Bailis, 2002)
Also, meaningful service promotes youth voice to take ownership as agents of social
change (Billig, Root, & Jesse, 2005). Bradley et al. (2007) revealed that students who were
given a voice to take ownership in service learning showed more concern, personal efficacy, and
critical thinking skills. Furthermore, service learning broadens a student's perspective to be
multi-dimensionally diverse and be open minded to social issues (Billig, Root, & Jesse, 2005;
Hammond & Heredia, 2002; LaPointe, 2004). Also, high-quality reflection throughout the
service learning process is crucial for students to continually be engaged in civic dispositions
(Billig, Root, & Jesse, 2005; Leming, 2001). Blyth, Saito, and Berkas (1997) determined that
students who engaged in service learning reflection had more positive attitudes towards social
responsibility when compared to students who did not engage in reflection. Lastly, service
learning requires progress monitoring to continuously review benchmarks set towards certain
goals to present learning opportunities and increase student performance (Safer & Fleischman,
2005; Shannon & Bylsma, 2003). Even though eight characteristics of a high-quality service
learning program have been defined (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011), there is currently
limited research to support models of effective implementation, particularly at the K-12 level.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 36
Models of High-Quality Service Learning
One example of high-quality service learning is presented through the Maryland School
Districts (Finney, 1997; Maryland State Department of Education, 2017; Miller, 2014). In the
1980's, Maryland affirmed the philosophy of experiential learning by John Dewey and made
attempts to connect learning in the classroom with service organizations. Then, by July 1992,
Maryland became the first state in the United States to mandate service learning participation as
a graduation requirement. In order to graduate high school, a student must complete 75 hours of
student service that includes preparation, action, and reflection components (Finney, 1997).
Also, Finney (1997) stated that the Maryland Student Service Alliance (MSSA) had been formed
to provide formal structure to each school district to plan and implement service learning. Each
region has a MSSA staff member who coordinates and facilitates meetings and professional
development opportunities in service learning. The districts also created youth programs that
target teenagers willing to take leadership roles in service learning. The goal of MSSA and
youth programs are to ensure that the Maryland school districts: meet a recognized need in the
community, achieve curriculum objectives through service learning, reflect throughout service
learning experience, develop student responsibility, establish community partnerships, plan
ahead for service learning, and equip students with knowledge and skills needed for service
(Maryland State Department of Education, 2017). Thus, Maryland has been a role model state
that follows the standards of high-quality service learning set by NYLC (Celio, Durlak, &
Dymnicki, 2011).
Also, within Maryland, Allegany County is considered to be a leader in service learning
(Miller, 2014). Miller (2014) concluded that in Allegany County, there is a devoted staff
member at the district level dedicated to service learning. What makes Allegany County
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 37
successful is a curricular infusion of service learning. Service is directly infused into almost
every curriculum, especially with STEM courses. Moreover, in order to infuse service learning
into the curriculum, teachers participate in a professional development program (offered by
University of Massachusetts Dartmouth Leduc Center for Civic Engagement) and work in a core
group that includes students and the help of the district resources.
Also, another model example of service learning is the International Baccalaureate (IB)
Organization. IB is a nonprofit organization that currently works with nearly 3,300 schools in
141 countries, providing young people with an academically rigorous set of courses designed to
help them become engaged world citizens who are active, compassionate, and lifelong learners
(Billig, 2017). Ledger and Dickson (2018) showed that many of the schools in Australia decide
to follow the International Baccalaureate model due to the IB's innovative program features such
as service learning. Billig (2017) concluded that students in the IB program showed
improvement in developing personal and leadership skills since the service learning program was
meaningful, linked to curriculum, included student voice and choice, and incorporated elements
of in-depth reflection that included, for example, discussion of impact on self and community,
and shared discussion with peers. Also, Hayden and McIntosh (2018) showed evidence that the
IB's service learning program can provide meaningful experiences that can result in leading
students toward a transformative process beyond the individual to serve others. The IB service
learning program is a concrete example that fulfills key elements of the standard of a high-
quality service learning program set by the National Youth Leadership Council (Celio, Durlak, &
Dymnicki, 2011).
There is more extensive research on how colleges and universities can run an effective
high-quality service learning program (Campus Compact, 2003; Bringle & Hatcher, 2000;
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 38
Morton and Troppe, 1996; Bringle & Hatcher, 1996). For example, Campus Compact is a
national coalition of over 1,000 colleges and universities committed to democracy, civic
education, and community development (Campus Compact, 2003). Campus Compact studied
the degree of success among 44 institutions that attended Campus Compact planning institutes at
which a team of administrators, faculty, and staff developed a campus plan for implementing
service learning. The findings suggest that institutionalizing service learning is most likely
when: it is in line with the mission and strategic plan, there is broad acceptance and long-term
support for service learning, faculty are part of the planning process, incentives are provided to
the faculty, and there is sustained effort for integrating service and academic study (Bringle &
Hatcher, 2000). In summary, while there are models of high-quality service learning to learn
from, more work needs to be done in understanding what is needed to implement service
learning at the elementary and secondary level.
The Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework
This study will use the framework of Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis, a systematic
and analytical method that helps clarify the organizational performance goals of providing high-
quality service learning education at SLHS. The process includes identifying the gap between
the goal and the current performance level. Afterwards, the stakeholder's knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences are examined to explore and understand the
performance gap (Clark and Estes, 2008). Clark and Estes (2008) determined that assessing the
stakeholder's knowledge to perform the task to achieve their goal is crucial to productivity. The
literature reviewed in this section will focus on teachers’ factual, conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive knowledge of service learning (Krathwohl, 2002). Second, motivation is what
propels individuals to be engaged in a task and seek the desired outcome (Mayer, 2011). This
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 39
study will explore self-efficacy theory and expectancy value theory (Rueda, 2011), and their
connection to teachers’ motivation to implement service learning. Lastly the gap analysis
includes analyzing organizational influence by focusing on the cultural model and cultural
settings that effect stakeholder performance and goal achievement (Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001).
Clark and Estes' (2008) gap analysis will be used to examine the religious studies
teachers and department chairs’ knowledge, motivation and organizational needs to meet their
performance goal to implement a high-quality service learning project by September 2020. The
first section includes exploring the assumed knowledge and skill influences on the teachers’
performance goal. In order to have integrated service learning opportunities in each grade that
are aligned with the standards for high-quality service learning, particular knowledge and skills
of the teacher stakeholder group need to be addressed. Next, the stakeholder's goal will be
considered from a motivational perspective (Clark and Estes, 2008). Understanding what
motivates teachers to implement service learning is crucial to reaching the stated performance
goal and coming up with potential solutions. Lastly, the study will explore organizational
influences that affect the stakeholder's performance goal.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills Influences
Service learning is an essential element to sustain the mission of SLHS to educate the
hearts and minds of the students to be servant leaders in society. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest
that assessing the stakeholder's knowledge and skills to perform the tasks to achieve their goals is
crucial to productivity. In order to have integrated service learning opportunities in each grade
that are aligned with the standards for high-quality service learning, particular knowledge and
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 40
skills of the teacher stakeholder group need to be addressed. If the teachers have the knowledge
and skills to implement high-quality service learning, it will benefit the school in reaching its
goal of a high-quality service learning program integrated throughout the school (Grossman &
Salas, 2011).
Knowledge Influences. The key knowledge influences related to teachers implementing
service learning are factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge. First, factual
knowledge refers to discrete and basic content elements that are easily accessible (Rueda, 2011).
The factual knowledge related to the basics of service learning include the foundation for
teachers to consider implementing service learning (Furco & Ammon, 2000). Second,
conceptual knowledge is being able to comprehend complex organized forms of knowledge
within a larger context (Krathwohl, 2002). Conceptual knowledge of how service learning is
applied in a wider context is crucial for teachers to implement a service learning curriculum
(Cushman, 2002). Third, procedural knowledge focuses on how to perform a skill or a task
(Krathwohl, 2002). An example of procedural knowledge is teachers knowing how to prepare a
service learning experience that mutually benefits both classroom learning and service
organization goals. Finally, metacognitive knowledge refers to an individual's own self-
knowledge and cognition (Krathwohl, 2002). An example of metacognitive knowledge is the
ability to self-reflect after the service learning project and see what kind of impact it had on one's
own learning and service to others (Bursaw, Kimber, Mercer, & Carrington, 2015).
The teachers need to know what service learning entails. Understanding the basic
elements of service learning is crucial for teachers to implement a high-quality service learning
program. Furco and Ammon (2000) conducted a three-year qualitative study of California's
teacher education program. Teacher educator deans were selected randomly from 74 institutions
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 41
and the results from the survey revealed that only 65% of the educational deans introduced
service learning. The neglect of service learning was mostly due to their lack of general
understanding of what service learning entails. Some teachers misunderstood service learning as
a form of community service while others viewed it as conducting a project in class. Also, Abes,
Jackson, and Jones (2002) received more than 500 faculty responses from 29 higher education
institutions regarding service learning. The survey included both open-ended and closed
questions regarding their knowledge of service learning. Many responses concluded that
teachers simply do not know enough about service learning to teach it effectively. Teachers
wanted to know more about the basic concepts of service learning to confidently teach it to their
students. Not understanding the factual knowledge of basic service terminology and concepts
makes it difficult to even begin implementing a high-quality service learning program (Furco &
Ammon, 2000). At SLHS, teachers have not had basic training on the fundamentals of service
learning and may not have this factual knowledge. Therefore, teachers at SLHS need to first
comprehend the factual knowledge before applying conceptual and procedural knowledge to
teach the students.
SLHS teachers need to know how service learning is connected to the institution and
its mission. SLHS teachers need to have the conceptual knowledge to take basic elements of
service learning and manage the interrelationships within a larger structure (Krathwohl, 2002).
SLHS teachers need to know how service learning is connected to the larger school community,
and its mission. Cushman (2002) conducted a qualitative study at University of California
Berkeley on service learning courses. Through observations, informal interviews, and field
notes, the study determined that without a careful understanding of the wider context of service
learning, it is very difficult to sustain a high-quality service learning program. Instead of being
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 42
just the teacher in a classroom setting, the teacher needs to go beyond the factual knowledge and
understand how service learning is connected with their students, curriculum, the school, and
service organizations. A teacher needs to understand how to function outside the classroom
setting as a mentor, coach, or a salesperson to promote the mission of the school and make
connections with local service agencies. Similarly, O'Meara and Niehaus (2009) reviewed
narratives of faculty nominated for the Thomas Ehrlich Faculty Award for Service-Learning, a
national award for service learning administered by Campus Compact. The documents focused
on the necessity for teachers to know how service learning connects with their identity,
institutional context, mission, and commitment to service organizations. Therefore, teachers at
SLHS need to have conceptual knowledge that service learning is connected with the mission of
a Catholic high school to serve others and be willing to lead by example as mentors outside the
classroom as they work with service organizations.
SLHS teachers need to know how to prepare a service learning experience that benefits
both the classroom and the service organization. SLHS teachers need to know how to conduct
a service learning program that benefits both student learning in the classroom and adds positive
value to service organizations outside the classroom (Geller, Zuckerman, & Seidel, 2016).
Procedural knowledge focuses on how to perform a skill or a task (Krathwohl, 2002). Sigmon
(1994) describes service learning as an equal focus to both the classroom learning and the service
goals. Both the service and the learning goals mutually reinforce each other to benefit both the
students and the community (Eyler and Giles, 1999). When teachers exercise the procedural
knowledge of a mutually reciprocal relationship between classroom learning and service goals,
both parties benefit toward achieving high-quality service learning (Geller, Zuckerman, &
Seidel, 2016). However, Cronley, Madden, and Davis (2015) showed that when there is a lack
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 43
of reciprocal exchange between teachers and service providers, service providers do not feel as
equals, become disengaged in classroom learning needs, and students do not have a positive
service experience. Currently, teachers at SLHS are assumed to have minimal knowledge of the
needs of service organizations. Therefore, teachers at SLHS will need to gain this knowledge to
work with service organizations to see how service learning can benefit both the students and the
community.
SLHS teachers need to know how to reflect on their abilities to implement service
learning activities. Teachers at SLHS need to intentionally include reflection as part of the
curriculum for the students and also seek out time for themselves to reflect, recharge, and meet
with other teachers to process the service learning experience. Metacognitive knowledge refers
to knowledge about cognition with awareness and control (Mayer, 2011). Metacognitive
knowledge of service learning is essential for a high-quality service learning program. Warner
and Esposito (2009) conducted interviews with the teachers and students during a service
learning course at Elon University in North Carolina. The study revealed the importance for not
only the students to reflect, but the teachers as well to comprehend the experiential learning
process and make necessary improvements. The National Youth Leadership Council included
reflection as an important but often left out key element to a high-quality service learning
program (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011). Currently, reflection is optional for students, and
teachers at SLHS may not take time to reflect on their service learning experience.
Table 2 shows the SLHS organizational mission, global goal, stakeholder goal, and four
assumed knowledge influences affecting SLHS teachers’ implementation of service learning, as
suggested by the literature.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 44
Table 2
Assumed Knowledge Influences on Performance, Knowledge Types, and Knowledge Assessment
Organizational Mission
The mission of SLHS to educate the hearts and minds of the students to be servant leaders in
society.
Organizational Global Goal
By May 2024, Service Learning High School's will have integrated service learning
opportunities in each grade and multiple subjects that are aligned with the standards for high-
quality service learning education.
Stakeholder Goal
By September 2020, all religious studies teachers will successfully implement a minimum of 1
pilot project that would meet the standards of a high-quality service learning education.
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type (i.e.,
declarative (factual or
conceptual), procedural, or
metacognitive)
Knowledge Influence
Assessment
-Teachers need to understand
what service learning is and
how it aligns with curriculum to
use it effectively
Declarative factual -Interview questions that ask
teachers to demonstrate basic
knowledge of service learning
-Teachers need to know how
service learning is in line with
institutional context and its
mission
Declarative conceptual -Interview questions to
determine the teachers’
knowledge of how service
learning is connected with
institutional context, mission
and service organizations
-Teachers need to know how to
prepare a service learning
experience that mutually
benefits both classroom
learning and service
organization goals
Procedural -Interview questions on how
teachers prepare a service
learning experience that
mutually benefits both
classroom learning and
service organization goals
-Teachers need to know how to
reflect themselves in order for
service learning to be a
transformative experience
Metacognitive -Interview questions that
assess teachers’ reflection
strategies in service learning
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 45
Motivational Influences
In order for a service learning program to be effective, it requires the teachers to be
motivated to implement service learning. Motivation is what propels individuals to be engaged
in a task and seek the desired outcome (Mayer, 2011). Motivational factors can either positively
or negatively influence how individuals can start, continue and complete their tasks (Rueda,
2011). Clark and Estes (2008) explain that motivation includes the processes of: active choice,
persistence, and mental effort. Understanding what motivates teachers to implement service
learning is crucial to evaluating performance problems and coming up with potential solutions
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
There are many motivational theories and influences, but the literature reviewed in this
paper will explore self-efficacy theory and expectancy value theory. Self-efficacy refers to the
belief that an individual is capable of completing the task (Pajares, 2006). Teachers need to
believe that they are capable in applying service learning in their classes to be positively
motivated (Forbes, Wasburn, Crispo, & Vandeveer, 2008). Also, expectancy value theory
emphasizes the motivational value of enhancing an individual's personal or professional life
(Eccles, 2006). Self-efficacy and expectancy value can motivate or demotivate a teacher to
implement high-quality service learning (Abes, Jackson, & Jones, 2002; Banerjee & Hausafus,
2007).
Self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy refers to judgments that individuals hold about their
capabilities to learn or perform a course of action at designated levels (Pajares, 2006). Bandura
(2000) points to social cognitive theory to show that self-efficacy is crucial to positive behaviors
and outcomes towards the goal. Self-efficacy is directly related to motivation since individuals
need to believe that they are capable of completing their goals to want to complete them (Rueda,
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 46
2011). Self-efficacy can be raised or lowered depending on several factors: individual's
evaluation of their experience, feedback through social persuasions, observing others through
vicarious experiences, and personal reactions (Pajares, 2006). Research has shown that
employees with high self-efficacy are motivated and engaged in completing their goals while
employees with low self-efficacy are less motivated and disengaged in completing their goals
(Rueda, 2011).
SLHS teachers need to believe they are capable of applying service learning into their
curriculum. Teachers need to believe that they are capable of applying service learning in their
classes in order to implement a high-quality service learning program. Forbes, Wasburn, Crispo,
and Vandeveer (2008) conducted surveys of faculty members at Purdue University. The
respondents were asked to rank the importance of factors identified in research that motivate
faculty participation in service learning. The results pointed toward low self-efficacy as the main
concern for the lack of motivation to implement service learning. For example, the faculty
expressed a lack of service learning examples, locating service partners, and access to evaluation
of service learning programs as ways that demotivate faculty to implement service learning.
Furthermore, due to a lack of effective training, over 40% of the faculty stated they do not feel
competent enough to teach service learning. Teachers questioned their capability to teach
service learning and have effective student outcomes, which resulted in a lack of motivation to
implement high-quality service learning. Hence, raising self-efficacy of the teachers is critical to
the success of implementing a high-quality service learning program. At SLHS, teachers need
the confidence and self-efficacy to believe that they can implement a high-quality service
learning curriculum.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 47
Expectancy value theory. Similar to self-efficacy, expectancy value theory is critical to
motivation and completing goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). While self-efficacy focuses on an
individual's capability to do the task, expectancy value theory focuses on the individual doing the
task (Eccles, 2006). Eccles (2006) defines expectancy value theory as the extent that an
individual believes the goal will enhance a person's personal or professional life. Having a high
expectancy value is a strong predictor of persistence, mental effort, and active choice to perform
the necessary task to complete the goal (Rueda, 2011).
There are four factors that an individual finds value in a given task (Rueda, 2011). First,
attainment value refers to how a task is consistent with an individual's identity of who they are.
Intrinsic value is focused on the subjective enjoyment one receives from the task. Utility value is
determined by the usefulness of a given task in meeting its goals. Cost value is the perceived
amount of cost required, which includes emotion, time, and energy, in order to complete the task
(Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). In order to implement high-quality service learning, the teachers at
SLHS need to be motivated with a sense of intrinsic passion towards making a difference, see
improvements in student performance, and be provided with necessary support such as time to
plan for service learning.
SLHS teachers need to include their self-identity and intrinsic passion for service.
Teachers who are passionate to serve and own it as part of their identity are natural champions of
implementing service learning as part of their curriculum (Hou & Wilder, 2015). Hou and
Wilder (2015) conducted a survey of faculty members from a major research university in the
Southeastern United States. The survey focused on questions such as: What do you think
motivates faculty involvement in service learning? Out of 449 participants, the results showed
that the strongest motivating factor for the faculty was self-identity and intrinsic passion. Certain
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 48
teachers pointed out that it is part of their identity to be socially committed to making a
difference in the community. This points to the attainment value of teachers. Teachers who
view themselves as oriented towards social justice and service are more likely inclined to seek
value in service learning. Moreover, other teachers pointed towards intrinsic value as a key
motivator. Teachers expressed an intrinsic passion to provide students with realistic work that
makes a difference in the community. Teachers at SLHS will need to possess a self-identity
toward social justice (attainment) and intrinsic passion for service (intrinsic value) to implement
high-quality service learning.
SLHS teachers need to see improvements in student learning outcomes. SLHS teachers
are motivated to try something if they can see that it can make a positive difference in student
performance. Utility value is determined by how well a task is useful in meeting future goals,
and cost value is the perceived amount of cost required, which includes emotion, time, and
energy, in order to complete the task (Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Banerjee and Hausafus
(2007) gathered survey results from human sciences faculty members in institutions of higher
education across the United States. The survey gauged faculty perceptions about the added value
of service learning as a teaching strategy in human sciences courses. When the faculty were
asked if service learning is a value added, the mean score for the entire sample was 6.08 (from 1
to 7 scale), which revealed that faculty members perceived service learning as an added value.
Furthermore, the highest motivational factors for teaching service learning was utility value. The
majority of the faculty cited increased student understanding of the course material and personal
development as a motivating factor to implement service learning. The study revealed that
teachers are motivated when they are able to see the utility value of improvements in student
learning outcomes that come from service learning. Therefore, teachers at SLHS will need to see
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 49
improvements in student learning outcomes that come from service learning to be motivated to
invest time and energy into it.
Table 3 shows the organizational mission, global goal, stakeholder goal, and assumed
motivational influences affecting SLHS teachers’ implementation of service learning, as
suggested by the literature.
Table 3
Assumed Motivational Influences on Performance and Assessments
Organizational Mission
The mission of SLHS to educate the hearts and minds of the students to be servant leaders in
society.
Organizational Global Goal
By May 2024, Service Learning High School's will have integrated service learning opportunities
in each grade and multiple subjects that are aligned with the standards for high-quality service
learning education.
Stakeholder Goal
By September 2020, all religious studies teachers will successfully implement a minimum of 1
pilot project that would meet the standards of a high-quality service learning education.
Assumed Motivation Influences
Motivational Influence Assessment
Self-efficacy: Teachers need to believe that they
are capable of applying service learning into their
curriculum
Interview questions about the teachers’
confidence to apply service learning into
their curriculum
Teachers need to include their self-identity toward
social justice (attainment) and intrinsic passion
for service (intrinsic value)
Interview questions on the importance of
student learning outcome that results from
teachers implementing service learning
Teachers need to see improvements in student
learning outcomes that come from service
learning (utility)
Interview questions asking if teachers have
seen improvement in student performance
due to service learning
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 50
Organizational Influences
This section of the review will focus on the organizational influences that are necessary
to implement high-quality service learning. In order to achieve the organizational goal, the
organization needs to focus on its culture. Culture is a dominant force in performance and Clark
and Estes (2008) define it as the goals, beliefs, emotions, processes, and core values learned by
persons in a work environment. When diagnosing performance gaps, the stakeholders can have
knowledge and motivation but will not meet their performance goals if there are organizational
cultural barriers (Rueda, 2011). For example, teachers can have basic knowledge of service
learning and be intrinsically motivated to implement service learning. However, if teachers
perceive that they are not supported by the organization, they can feel frustrated, and it can have
a detrimental effect on achieving the organizational goal of providing high-quality service
learning (Jacoby, 2014).
Cultural models and settings. Cultural models and cultural settings are two types of
organizational cultural influences that have an effect on organizational performance. Rueda
(2011) defines cultural models as the shared mental schema of how the world functions and
shapes how an organization is structured, including values, practices, policies, and reward
structures. Cultural models can be described as tools for the mind that focus on what is valued,
traditions, perceptions, and group held beliefs that are often automated and hidden (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). An example of cultural models is the perception of alignment of service
learning with the mission of the school. Another example is recognizing perceived interest in
service learning from teachers and administrators. Conversely, Rueda (2011) defines cultural
settings as various social contexts where the policies and practices of an organization are
enacted. Cultural settings provides a tangible context whenever people are gathered to
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 51
accomplish something (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Examples of cultural settings include
providing role model examples and concrete incentives for teachers to participate in service
learning.
The organization needs to align service learning with the mission of the school. At
SLHS, not only is it necessary for teachers to know how service learning is connected with the
school’s mission, it is the organization’s responsibility to promote a high relevance of service
learning that connects with the mission of the school. An important cultural model influencer is
the perceived alignment between service learning and the mission of the organization.
According to Holland (1997), the perceived alignment of service learning with the mission of a
school is an organizational factor that is crucial to achieving its goals. The framework for
organizational perspective on commitment to service learning includes: low relevance, medium
relevance, high relevance, and full integration of mission and service learning. First, low
relevance refers to a school that does not perceive service learning as part of the mission since it
is not defined nor valued. Second, medium relevance refers to teachers that perceive service
learning as a part of the school's mission. Third, high relevance refers to teachers that perceive
service learning as a crucial part of the school's mission and academic agenda. Last, full
integration refers to both the teachers and organization perceiving service learning as part of their
character and identity and is fully aligned with the mission of the school (Holland, 1997).
Young (2007), based on the level of commitment and organizational factors set by
Holland (1997), conducted a study of 12 university and college service learning programs in the
United States. The schools that scored low on mission were linked to perceived misalignment of
the campus mission and institutional actions regarding service learning. The perceived
misalignment led to less communication, frustration, and the belief that teachers and
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 52
administrators were not on the same page. However, schools that scored high on mission
showed the teachers believe strongly that service learning is a part of their identity and they are
fulfilling the mission with the support of the school (Young, 2007). Also, O'Meara and Niehaus
(2009) revealed the necessity for teachers to know how service learning connects with their
identity, institutional context, mission, and commitment to service organizations. The
conceptual knowledge of the teachers on service learning is dependent on their perception of
how much service learning is aligned with the mission of the school. Low perception of
alignment between mission and service learning can lead to teacher beliefs that the organization
does not support gaining knowledge of service learning and have a negative effect on motivation
as well. Subsequently, in order to provide high-quality service learning and support teachers at
SLHS, the organization needs to provide a cultural model that includes service learning as an
integral part of the mission of the school.
The organization needs to promote interest in service learning from teachers and
administrators. Another cultural model influence is perceived interest in service learning from
teachers and administrators. Bennett, Sunderland, Bartleet, and Power (2016) showed that one
essential tactic for implementing and sustaining service learning is a groundswell of interest from
faculty, administrators, and students. For example, when a group of teachers get together and are
perceived as being interested in service learning, they become the champions of service learning
and create excitement that fosters a culture of implementing service learning. Research from
Butin (2010) indicated that the first step in getting faculty and students engaged in service
learning is perceived institutional support. When the faculty see an increased sense of interest
and commitment from the administration, the faculty become more open to trying out service
learning. However, when faculty and administrators are seen as disinterested in service learning,
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 53
there can be a lack of motivation and knowledge to implement high-quality service learning
(Bennett, Sunderland, Bartleet, &Power, 2016; Butin, 2010). Therefore, the organization needs
to promote perceived interest in service learning from teachers and administrators at SLHS.
The organization needs to provide role models of service learning. SLHS needs to
provide its teachers with concrete role model examples to implement high-quality service
learning. One cultural setting influence is the teacher’s need to be provided with role model
examples of service learning in practice. Furco and Moely (2012) conducted a three-year study
of service learning schools and discovered one key to get teachers to implement service learning
is the institution providing concrete examples of service learning. Providing role models and
experts of service learning allows teachers to gain expertise and explore questions without being
pressured to implement it right away. McDonald and Dominguez (2015) pointed out the need
for role model examples of service learning that can clearly identify class objectives, select
community partners, and define roles of stakeholders. SLHS needs to provide teacher role model
examples that can demonstrate procedural knowledge of a mutually reciprocal relationship
between classroom learning and service goals, so that both parties benefit toward achieving high-
quality service learning (Geller, Zuckerman & Seidel, 2016).
Abes, Jackson, and Jones (2002) showed that when there are concrete role model
examples of service learning, it increases teacher self-efficacy and promotes utility value as
teachers can see increased improvement in student performance. However, a lack of role model
service learning examples can demotivate teachers to implement service learning. Forbes,
Wasburn, Crispo, and Vandeveer (2008) revealed that 40% of teachers do not feel competent to
teach service learning due to lack of effective training and role model teachers. Subsequently,
the root of a lack of self-efficacy of SLHS teachers in implementing service learning can be an
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 54
organizational problem of the school not providing enough training and role model examples of
high-quality service learning.
The organization needs to provide logistical support for teachers to implement service
learning through increased time, staff support, and incentives. In order to provide high-quality
service learning, the organization needs to provide teachers at SLHS with logistical support and
incentives. Banerjee and Hausafus (2007) revealed the main reason for teachers not using
service learning was that service learning courses are time and labor intensive. It would be
difficult to balance implementing service learning with other professional responsibilities.
However, Miller (2014) showed that in certain Maryland school districts, faculty are provided
with devoted service learning staff members dedicated towards guiding faculty. Moreover,
teachers are given time during school hours to collaborate in professional learning communities
to implement service learning.
Jacoby (2014) stated that faculty are motivated to try service learning if they are provided
with incentives to incorporate service learning into their courses, including awards or grants to
help fund curriculum development, recognition, promotion, and tenure. Bringle and Hatcher
(2000) conducted a study of 44 college campuses with service learning. The research showed
that not only do the faculty need knowledge of service learning, but the organization needs to set
incentives in place for faculty to be motivated to implement service learning. When faculty do
not see incentives such as recognition and rewards, they do not see the cost value in doing extra
work to gain knowledge and are less likely to be engaged in service learning.
Table 4 shows the organizational mission, global goal, stakeholder goal, and assumed
organizational influences.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 55
Table 4
Assumed organizational influences
Organizational Mission
The mission of SLHS to educate the hearts and minds of the students to be servant leaders in
society.
Organizational Global Goal
By May 2024, Service Learning High School's will have integrated service learning
opportunities in each grade and multiple subjects that are aligned with the standards for high-
quality service learning education.
Stakeholder Goal (If Applicable)
By September 2020, all religious studies teachers will successfully implement a minimum of
1 pilot project that would meet the standards of a high-quality service learning education.
Assumed Organizational Influences
Organization Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1:
The organization needs to have alignment
between service learning and the mission of
the organization
Interview questions on how teachers perceive
service learning is aligned the mission of the
school
Cultural Model Influence 2:
The organization needs to promote interest in
service learning from teachers and
administrators
Interview questions on how widespread is
the perceived interest of service learning
among the teachers on campus.
Cultural Setting Influence 1:
The organization needs to provide role model
examples of service learning in practice
Interview questions on if teachers have
enough support (training, formation, role
models) to teach service learning
Cultural Setting Influence 2:
The organization needs to provide supports
for teachers to implement service learning
through increased time, staff support, and
incentives
Interview question that focus on whether
teachers have enough time and incentives to
prepare for and implement a high-quality
service learning program
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 56
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge, Motivation and the
Organizational Context
In order to approach the research questions that lead to achieving organizational
performance goals, there needs to be an underlying framework (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Maxwell (2013) states the purpose of a conceptual framework is to help inform the research
design in assessing and refining research goals, developing relevant research questions, choosing
an appropriate method, and identifying validity threats to conclusions. The conceptual
framework for this study was the application of the knowledge, motivation, and organization gap
analysis as described by Clark and Estes (2008). Moreover, Creswell (2014) states that
constructivists seek understanding of the world in which they live. This conceptual framework
comes from a constructivist worldview by seeking to explore and understand the teachers
involved in service learning as stakeholders in relation to SLHS and its organizational influences.
The knowledge, motivation, and organizational influencers are organized independently
in the literature review to classify the different types of influencers. However, the conceptual
framework shows how they impact each other toward achieving high-quality service learning
education. For example, Abes, Jackson, and Jones (2002) revealed that teachers simply do not
know enough about service learning to teach it effectively. The lack of factual knowledge on
service learning has an effect on self-efficacy and motivation. It can be difficult for teachers to
believe that they are capable of applying service learning if they do not have basic knowledge of
it (Forbes, Wasburn, Crispo, & Vandeveer, 2008).
In regards to motivation, teachers are motivated when they see student learning
improvements that come from service learning (Banerjee & Hausafus, 2007). However, student
improvement is dependent on teachers knowing how service learning is in line with institutional
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 57
context, mission, and commitment to service organizations (Cushman, 2002). Also, it can be
hard to see signs of student improvement to motivate teachers if teachers do not have the
procedural knowledge to prepare a service learning experience that mutually benefits both
classroom learning and service organization goals (Geller, Zuckerman, & Seidel, 2016).
Also, an important organizational cultural setting influence is the organization providing
faculty development, assistance and incentives, and establishing policies that promote service
learning (Jacoby, 2014). The school needs to provide concrete and available opportunities for
teachers to gain factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge. However, teachers cite the
organization as a key barrier to gaining knowledge of service learning (Furco & Moely, 2012).
Moreover, when the organization provides incentives to try service learning, it can potentially
motivate teachers to develop a self-identity and passion to teach service learning (Hou & Wilder,
2015). Figure 1 below provides a depiction of the conceptual framework.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 58
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework (Figure 1) seeks to explore the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences on performance of stakeholders, and their interdependence, that may
affect the organizational goal achievement. The stakeholders are religious studies teachers and
department chairs represented by the green circle, which includes knowledge and motivational
factors to implement high-quality service learning. Moreover, both the religious studies teachers
and department chairs belong to a larger organizational culture of SLHS, which is depicted as a
black circle. Both religious studies teachers and department chairs interact within the
organization as part of the school’s cultural models and settings. Data on teachers assumed
influences on performance were collected to validate the knowledge, motivation, and
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 59
organizational needs of teachers to meet their performance goal. Furthermore, the service
learning leaders are depicted in the red circle and were interviewed to validate assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs and provide potential solutions to high-quality
service learning. The interaction of the teachers’ knowledge and motivational influences, along
with the organizational influences directed the framework towards the blue arrow that points
downward into the yellow rectangle, which represents the ultimate goal of implementing high-
quality service learning.
Conclusion
The purpose of this research project was to explore and understand the lived experiences
of teachers at Service Learning High School (SLHS) relative to their goal of implementing high-
quality service learning integrated into their curriculum. In this chapter, a review of the related
literature illustrated key elements of service learning, including history, growth, and defining
high-quality service learning. This was followed by an overview of the student, teacher, and
community benefits of service learning, as well as some challenges. The review then examined
schools, districts, and states as case study examples of high-quality service learning.
Following the general research literature, the review presented a gap analysis framework
to examine assumed teacher knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affect
implementation of high-quality service learning. Key assumed knowledge influences included
knowledge of service learning, knowledge of how service learning fits in the context of the
school, knowledge of working with service organizations, and knowledge of reflection. The
assumed motivational factors included teachers’ self-efficacy of believing they are capable of
teaching service learning and expectancy intrinsic and utility values. The assumed
organizational factors on goal achievement included the cultural model influence of perceived
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 60
interest in service learning from teachers and administrators and the cultural setting influence of
providing incentives for teachers to implement service learning. The framework focused on the
knowledge and motivational factors of teachers, the stakeholders, in relation to the organizational
factors of SLHS to reach the goal of implementing high-quality service learning at SLHS.
Chapter 3 will present the methodological approach to explore and understand the assumed
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on performance.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 61
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to explore and understand the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational needs for Service Learning High School (SLHS) to implement an innovative,
high-quality service learning design, as defined by standards established by the National Youth
Leadership Council (NYLC), into their curriculum. Chapter 2 documented assumed teacher
needs at SLSH to do this, and to better understand their current gaps and assets. While a
complete needs’ analysis would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholder
group of focus for this analysis were religious studies teachers and subject department chairs at
SLHS. Understanding of the needs to implement a high-quality service learning program across
a high school were supplemented by interviews with service learning leaders in the field. The
questions that will guide the needs’ analysis are as follows:
1. What are the knowledge and motivational needs of SLHS teachers to implement high-
quality service learning as defined by NYLC?
2. What is the interaction between culture and context at SLHS and the teachers’ knowledge
and motivation in relation to achieving high-quality service learning at SLHS?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to
provide high-quality service learning at SLHS?
Methodological Approach and Rationale
This study was a qualitative design to explore and understand the experiences of teachers,
and specifically religious studies teachers, by conducting a needs analysis in the areas of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources necessary to reach their performance goal
to implement a high-quality service learning project by September 2020. Department chairs at
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 62
SLHS were also interviewed to get preliminary input into their needs to expand service learning
to other departments outside of religious studies in the future. In addition, service learning
leaders that have showed innovative development in service learning were targeted and
interviewed to gain valuable feedback on their experience of service learning and provide
potential solutions to an innovative service learning program at SLHS.
Qualitative research is focused on understanding how people interpret their experiences,
how they construct their words, and how they develop a sense of meaning through their
experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). At SLHS, there are ten teachers in the religious studies
department, all having had at least some, but in several cases minimal, experience teaching
service learning. Creswell (2014) states that qualitative designs have an inductive approach.
Rather than testing out the theories of service learning, an inductive approach generates theories
of service learning by analyzing the experiences of religious studies teachers through a
qualitative design.
Also, it is essential to understand the experiences of department chairs in other subjects
that have not had an opportunity to experience service learning. Department chairs in religious
studies, English, math, science, and foreign language were interviewed. Their perspective
provided valuable insights that can be used to start service learning in other departments and
reach SLHS’s long-term goal of having integrated service learning opportunities in each grade
and multiple subjects that are aligned with the standards for high-quality service learning
education by 2024. In addition, seven service learning leaders were strategically identified,
which comprised leaders in service learning locally, regionally, and outside the United States.
The experiences and suggestions from the service learning leaders helped provide
recommendations and solutions to provide high-quality service learning at SLHS.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 63
This study was based on the framework of Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis, a
systematic, analytical method that helps to clarify desired organizational and stakeholder
performance goals, current performance, and knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences causing gaps between current and desired performance. Assumed knowledge,
motivation and organizational influences on religious studies teachers’ ability to provide a high-
quality service learning program were generated based on personal knowledge and related
literature. A qualitative study offers an array of explanations to understand how things work by
asking descriptive questions (McEwan & McEwan, 2003). In order to provide a high-quality
service learning program, it is essential to ask descriptive research questions to understand the
lived experience of each teacher's knowledge and motivation, and how it relates with the
organizational supports available.
Also, this study adopted a constructivist worldview by seeking to explore and understand
the teachers involved in service learning. Creswell (2014) states that constructivists tend to seek
understanding of the world in which they live and work. Interviews were conducted to explore
each teacher's perspective on service learning and understand their lived experience within the
school culture and context. After exploring and understanding the lived experience of the
teachers involved in service learning, it subsequently led to developing potential knowledge,
motivation, and organizational solutions to provide high-quality service learning at SLHS and
potentially elsewhere.
Participating Stakeholders
SLHS has over 100 teachers but the focus of the study was on all 10 religious studies
teachers at SLHS who have had some experience leading a service learning program and five
department chairs from religious studies, English, math, science, and foreign language
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 64
departments. At SLHS, only religious studies teachers have had some familiarity with
implementing service learning experiences, and up to this point, even for these teachers, service
learning has not been a key focus of SLHS. Students currently participate in some level of
service learning through their religion classes. This includes helping out at service organizations
during the semester and writing a reflection paper. However, the service learning program has
no standards and makes no connection with class curriculum. Moreover, the annual school
climate survey results consistently show many students express disinterest and consider service
learning a waste of time.
Since only religious studies teachers have piloted early stages of service learning
projects, they were chosen as the key group of teachers that can be studied to understand how
service learning can be aligned with high-quality standards of the National Youth Leadership
Council. In addition, at SLHS, many new initiatives start with the religious studies department
since it is part of the core mission of the school. Subsequently, religious studies teachers can
serve as champions for service learning to extend its reach into other subjects by May 2024.
Also, in order to understand the potential for service learning to expand in the future to be
integrated across grades and curriculum, it was important to understand the perspective of
department chairs who have not yet experienced service learning as part of the curriculum.
Department chairs have general knowledge of teachers in their department as well as subject
curriculum and would be the leaders to initiate the expansion of service learning into other
subjects.
Also, seven model leaders in service learning were chosen to help generate potential
solutions and models to address current knowledge, motivational, and organizational needs
among teachers and to innovate in the area of a service learning high school model. Service
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 65
learning leader (SLL) 1 and SLL 2 are both directors of service learning programs at a Catholic
high school in western United States. SLL 1 and SLL 2 were chosen since they are known as
leaders in trying new thing in the area of service learning. SLL 3 is the director of a service
learning program at a public-school district in eastern United States. She was chosen as a service
learning leader based on the literature review and recommendation from the dissertation
committee. SLL 4 is in charge of service and spirituality at a private university in Midwest
United States. SLL 4 was chosen based on his connection with SLHS and to see how service
learning at the college level can be applied in high schools. SLL 5 is the curriculum director of
service learning at an international school in Holland. SLL 5 was chosen based on the literature
review showing success in service learning internationally. SLL 6 and 7 are both directors of
service learning programs at a private university in eastern (SLL 6) and western (SLL 7) United
States. SLL 6 and SLL 7 were chosen based on the recommendation of SLL 5, who identified
SLL 6 and SLL 7 as innovative leaders in service learning worth interviewing. The perspective
of the service learning leaders validated the literature review and provided insights on the
recommendations and solutions for SLHS to implement high-quality service learning.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The sampling approach for this qualitative study was census sampling. Johnson and
Christensen (2015) say census sampling involves sampling the entire population by
comprehensively including all cases in the study. In order to explore and understand the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs of teachers at SLHS to implement high-quality
service learning, it was important to interview all full-time religious studies teachers who have
had some experience leading service learning and will pilot the service learning innovation being
studied through this research. Since there are currently 10 religious studies teachers who have
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 66
had experience with service learning, a comprehensive approach was applied by seeking to
interview all 10 religious studies teachers. It was also important to interview the population of
department chairs at SLHS to understand their needs to expand service learning across all grades
and curriculum in the future. Furthermore, the seven service learning leaders provided enough
variation in geographic location, type of schools, and expertise to gain a variety of insights on
how service learning can be applied at SLHS. The 10 interviews of religious teachers, 5
interviews of all department chairs, and seven interviews of service learning leaders allowed for
a qualitative in-depth research by entering into their world to explore their thoughts, beliefs,
knowledge, motivation, and organization influences to achieving high-quality service learning.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
The research design for this study was a qualitative design. Qualitative research is
focused on understanding how people interpret their experiences, how they construct their
worlds, and how they develop a sense of meaning through their experiences (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The research questions for this study were aimed at understanding the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational needs of religious studies teachers and department chairs to
implement high-quality service learning at SLHS. Patton (2002) contends the purpose of
interviewing is to allow outsiders to enter into the other person's perspective. Interviews were
conducted to explore and enter into each teacher's perspective and understand service learning
from their point of view within the school culture and context.
Interviews
The interview process is an interpersonal data-collection method in which the interviewer
collects data from the interviewee, who provides the data (Johnson & Christensen, 2015).
Furthermore, Johnson and Christensen (2015) state that census sampling involves sampling the
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 67
entire population by comprehensively including all cases in the study. All 10 religious studies
teachers, 5 department chairs from various departments, and 7 service learning leaders were
contacted via email and asked to participate in the study. Following their approval, the researcher
scheduled in-person interviews in a private space inside the teacher’s center at SLHS. As an
administrator at SLHS, the researcher conducted all the interviews except one. Since there is an
interviewee that reports to the researcher, this person was interviewed by another USC student
that has gone through the iStar process. This person was prepped through a mock interview
session to gain basic knowledge of the problem of practice. In regards to service learning
leaders, due to the distance of the location between the interviewer and the interviewee, private
video Zoom conferences were conducted.
In regards to the interview protocol, for the religious studies teachers, the interviews
followed a semi-structured approach by including structured and non-structured questions to
validate or not validate the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on
performance (see Appendix A). For department chairs the questions from Appendix A were
used but focused more on the motivation and organizational needs to implement service learning
in the future. In regards to service learning leaders, broader semi-structured questions were
asked to seek out potential opportunities and innovative solutions in service learning (see
Appendix B). Johnson and Christensen (2015) suggest that a semi-structured interview format
allows certain topics, words, and questions to be changed and adapted to gain a comprehensive
understand and also allow for flexibility to explore the topic. This type of approach reflects a
qualitative emergent design that is responsive to changing conditions of the research study
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The semi-structured approach orients the interview questions to be
directed at answering the research questions and gaining a deeper understanding of assumed
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 68
influences on performance but also leaves room for unstructured questions that can emerge as
unexpected assumed influences and innovative ideas to achieve high-quality service learning
education.
Following a semi-structured interview protocol, all religious studies teachers, department
chairs, and service learning leaders who agreed to participate were interviewed for
approximately one hour. In line with the conceptual framework and the research questions, the
interviews began with general knowledge questions of each teacher’s grasp of service learning.
Patton (2002) recommends asking factual and experience questions to understand knowledge
influences. Subsequently, teachers were asked to define service learning and describe a typical
day of how service learning is used in their instruction. Afterwards, the questions shifted
towards the motivation of teachers to embrace service learning. Patton (2002) describes how
opinion and value questions help understand the cognitive and interpretive process of people
about opinions. Hence, motivational questions focused on the teachers’ beliefs and opinions
about service learning. Afterwards, the questions shifted in focus from the inner circle of
religious studies teachers’ knowledge and motivation to the outer circle of the organization in the
conceptual framework.
In regards to department chairs, the questions focused on the motivational and
organizational needs to see how service learning can be implemented outside the religious
department. With regards to the service learning leaders, questions focused on exploring
potential innovative ideas and solutions to implement high-quality service learning. Weiss
(1994) says qualitative interviews help develop holistic descriptions and integrate multiple
perspectives. The organizational questions were focused to connect the knowledge and
motivational influences of service learning teachers with SLHS to see how service learning
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 69
functions together in line with the mission of the school and how the school supports teachers in
implementing service learning opportunities. The specific interview questions are included in
Appendix A and Appendix B.
Data Analysis
The purpose of this project was to conduct a needs’ analysis in the areas of knowledge
and skills, motivation, and organizational resources necessary to reach the organizational
performance goal of the school providing high-quality service learning education. After the
qualitative interview data was collected, the content was analyzed by searching for patterns
characteristics, and themes obtained through the lens of individual participants (Patton, 2002).
The content was analyzed by following Creswell's (2014) data analysis process. Table 5 below
presents Creswell’s model for qualitative data analysis, which was used in this study.
Table 5
Creswell’s Model for Qualitative Data Analysis
Step 1:
Organize and Prepare Data
Step 2: Read through Data for General Impressions
Step 3: Data Analysis- Code and Categorize
Step 4: Coding Process
Step 5: Describe themes to be within the narrative
Step 6: Interpret data
First, the interview data was organized by using a transcription service. Second, the
transcriptions were read by the researcher to confirm accuracy and gain general impressions.
Third, the data was analyzed by assigning relevant data into color coded assumed knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences. Fourth, the coding process involved adding, moving,
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 70
and subtracting certain data into different color codes. Fifth, the researcher identified certain
themes that emerged as a result of the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs.
Corbin and Strauss (2008) mention that coding qualitative data involves taking raw data and
raising it to a conceptual level. The color codes were rearranged into bigger conceptual
emerging themes. Lastly, the data was interpreted to present findings from the research, which
were compared with recommendations from service learning leaders which led to action plans
for implementing high-quality service learning at SLHS. Afterwards, the action plans were
sorted based on Kotter’s 8 step change model (Kotter, 2012). Lastly, the data was put into an
evaluation system according to the four levels of evaluation model by Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick (2016).
Credibility and Trustworthiness
Qualitative research can be worthless if the researcher fails to disclose biases,
predispositions, and connection to the study (McEwan & McEwan, 2013). Researcher bias is the
influence of the researcher’s experience and beliefs that can be a threat to validity (Maxwell,
2013). As a member of SLHS, there is an assumption that the school can do better to improve its
service learning program. Many students lack enthusiasm when it comes to service learning.
Hence, there can be a bias to view service learning as something negative. Also, the researcher
is a Catholic priest, which means that service learning can be limited to a Catholic worldview of
serving others through the lens of faith. Moreover, as someone coming from a high socio-
economic status, the researcher needs to be sensitive and aware of how service learning can be
interpreted by people from different socio-economic statuses.
Creswell (2014) presents strategies to increase credibility such as using rich data, and
verbatim transcripts. The emergent qualitative design has rich and deep probing questions to
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 71
interview all 10 religious studies teachers, five department chairs from other departments, and
seven service learning leaders to collect a wide range of data. Moreover, the interviews were
transcribed into verbatim transcripts to increase trustworthiness of the data collection process.
The verbatim transcripts were used to analyze the data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Also, since the researcher is the primary instrument of data collection in this study, it is
critical to address researcher bias and present a neutral environment during the interview process
(Creswell, 2014). As an administrator at SLHS, in order to reduce threat to validity, interviews
were conducted in a private space at the teacher’s center at SLHS. The teacher’s center is a
lounge for teachers to relax but it also has private rooms for teachers to hold private
conversations. There was one interviewee that reports directly under the researcher, and this
person was interviewed by another USC student that has gone through the iStar process. This
person was prepped through a mock interview session to gain basic knowledge of the problem of
practice. These biases and ethical considerations were taken into account to ensure the
trustworthiness of the qualitative research throughout the study in an ethical manner and update
changes if needed (Glesne, 2011).
Ethics
Creswell (2014) states that constructivists seek understanding of the world in which they
live. This qualitative study comes from a constructivist worldview by seeking to explore and
understand the teachers involved in service learning as stakeholders in relation to SLHS and its
organizational goals. As part of the study, certain ethical considerations were addressed such as
informed consent, voluntary participation, and confidentiality (Glesne, 2011; Rubin & Rubin,
2012).
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 72
Rubin and Rubin (2012) discuss the importance of informed consent to ensure that
participants understand the nature of the research, are aware of the risks, and are not forced to
participate. The 10 religious studies teachers and 5 department chairs at SLHS, along with the 7
service learning leaders were all invited to participate by email. Moreover, Krueger and Casey
(2009) discuss the importance of being transparent by explaining the purpose of the study and
having all information available to view. In the invitation email, the interviewees clearly learned
about the purpose of the study as qualitative research for innovation in service based learning in
Catholic schools.
A key ethical consideration is that no harm is done to the interviewee by allowing the
interviewee to stop participation at any time (Glesne, 2011). Participants were informed that the
interview is strictly voluntary and they can choose to stop the interview at any time if they feel
uncomfortable. Furthermore, Rubin and Rubin (2009) say it is important that no harm should be
caused to the interviewees by not exploiting them. In order to avoid harm, only what the
interviewees gave permission to record became part of the study. Moreover, the researcher
ensured that no material was published that would cause harm to the interviewees such as
embarrassment or loss of job. Safely storing and securing the data that is collected is important
to ensure the right to privacy of the interviewees (Glesne, 2011). The researcher ensured data
security by recording all notes and storing it in a Google Drive cloud-based system, which
includes a security password and a two-factor authentication.
As an administrator at SLHS serving as the director of campus ministry, service is part of
the core mission as a Catholic school and the school can benefit from the study by improving its
current practice and sharing insights with other schools. Glesne (2011) states that the benefits to
the subject or society must outweigh the potential risks. A potential risk can be confusion by
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 73
other members of the organization to perceive a dual role as a researcher and an employee.
Instead, qualitative researchers should be guests in the private spaces of the world (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). In order to avoid confusion and assert the role as a guest investigator, the
subjects received a written letter in their mailbox and an email explaining that the reason for
conducting the study was as a student at USC, not as an administrator, and the potential benefits
it can have for the school. Also, the research was framed as an innovative study to help the
school envision possibilities, instead of evaluating negative aspects of the service learning
program. Rubin and Rubin (2012) state that as part of causing no harm to the subjects, it is
critical not to pressure people to participate, especially if they feel reluctant. Teachers were
clearly notified that participating in the interview was completely optional and whether or not
they chose to participate and what they said in the interview would have no impact on their
employment status.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations are influences that the researcher cannot control and delimitations are the
boundaries set by the researcher that need to be addressed (Creswell, 2014). One area of
limitation is researcher bias. Researcher bias is the influence of the researcher’s experience and
beliefs that can be a threat to validity (Maxwell, 2013). As a member of SLHS, there is an
assumption that the school can do better to improve its service learning program. The researcher
can have bias to view service learning as something important and have unusually high
expectations for teachers to implement a high-quality service learning program. In order to
address potential bias, the researcher’s evaluation of the teacher’s knowledge of service learning
was based on the standards of a high-quality service learning program by The National Youth
Leadership Council (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011). The researcher looked for teachers to
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 74
articulate key words and standards instead of judging the teacher’s knowledge. Furthermore,
when making certain assumptions regarding the data, the researcher only made assumptions that
could be supported by a majority of the interviewees making certain claims and assumptions.
Hence, referring to rich data and frequency can help with the bias towards pleasing the
interviewer. Also, the researcher only has experience working in Catholic schools and it limits
the understanding of service learning only from a Catholic perspective. Also, the validity of the
study could be limited by the researcher’s lack of skill in interviewing and data collection, and
data analysis.
Another limitation to the research stems from the truthfulness of respondents during the
interview process. Interviewees may be unwilling to talk about sensitive issues, especially if it is
about their performance in front of an administrator (Patton, 2002). The respondents can present
biased answers of what they want the service learning program to be or there can be various
personal reasons to not be truthful in answering questions regarding service learning and how it
ties in with the organization. As a Catholic priest and an administrator at SLHS, knowing that
the researcher is studying the topic of service learning, there can be a bias for the interviewee to
say things that would please the researcher. However, the researcher tried to provide privacy and
openness. First, the researcher conducted the interviews in a private space at the teacher’s center
at SLHS. The teacher’s center is a lounge for teachers to relax but it also has private rooms for
teachers to hold private conversations. Moreover, the researcher told the interviewees that this is
for academic research and what is discussed has no impact on their jobs. The researcher also
told the interviewees that their anonymity will be honored and they can stop the interview
anytime if they feel uncomfortable with certain questions or topics.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 75
In regards to delimitations, the scope of the study was primarily limited to SLHS. This is
due to convenience and easy access to conduct research since the researcher is an administrator
at SLHS. Also, the stakeholders for the interviews are 10 religious studies teachers with service
learning experience and 5 department chairs. This is by design to gain perspectives from
teachers with and without service learning experience, but it did not include the perspectives of
all teachers at the school and the data results may not be generalizable. Moreover, the interviews
of 7 service learning leaders helped bring insights to potential change ideas in service learning
but was not extensive enough to make it generalizable.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 76
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The purpose of this project was to come up with new ideas to implement an innovative
service learning model in a Catholic high school and embed service learning across the school
curriculum in a meaningful way. The study focused on the needs of religious studies teachers at
Service Learning High School (SLHS), along with department chairs and service learning
leaders to create an innovative model for a high-quality service learning program.
1. What are the knowledge and motivational needs of SLHS teachers to implement high-
quality service learning as defined by National Youth Leadership Council (NYLC)?
2. What is the interaction between culture and context at SLHS and the teachers’
knowledge and motivation in relation to achieving high-quality service learning at
SLHS?
3. What are the recommended knowledge, motivation, and organizational solutions to
provide high-quality service learning at SLHS?
As discussed in Chapter 3, the methodology for this study was a qualitative design. This
study adopted a constructivist worldview by seeking to explore and understand the teachers
involved in service learning. Interviews were conducted to explore each teacher’s perspective on
service learning and understand their lived experience within the school culture and context. The
interviews helped identify continuing needs and assets along with potential solutions to provide
high-quality service learning at SLHS.
This chapter starts by describing the stakeholders. Subsequently, the results and findings
are presented with an analysis of the interview data into knowledge, motivation, and
organizational needs and assets. Finally, the interview data is organized by sharing emerging
themes.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 77
Participating Stakeholders
The participating stakeholders for this study were all religious studies teachers with
service learning experience, department chairs, and service learning leaders in the field of service
learning. All 10 religious studies teachers, 5 department chairs, and 7 service learning leaders
participated in the study. Therefore, there was 100% participation in collecting the interview
data. Table 6 includes the description of the participating stakeholders.
Table 6
Description of Participating Stakeholders
Participant Stakeholder Gender Teaching
Experience
Organization
RST 1 Religious Studies
Teacher (RST)
Male 1-5 Years Service Learning High
School (SLHS)
RST 2 RST Male 6-10years SLHS
RST 3 RST Female 16-20 years SLHS
RST 4 RST Female 11-15 years SLHS
RST 5 RST Male 1-5 years SLHS
RST 6 RST Male 16-20 years SLHS
RST 7 RST Male 41-45 years SLHS
RST 8 RST Male 1-5 years SLHS
RST 9 RST Male 6-10 years SLHS
RST10/DC 1 RST/Department
Chair (DC)
Male 6-10 years SLHS
DC 2 DC Female 21-25 years SLHS
DC 3 DC Male 11-15 years SLHS
DC 4 DC Female 16-20 years SLHS
DC 5 DC Female 16-20 years SLHS
SLL 1 Service Learning
Leader (SLL)
Female 6-10 years Catholic High School in
Western United States
SLL 2 SLL Female 11-15 years Catholic High School in
Western United States
SLL 3 SLL Female 6-10 years Public School District in
Eastern United States
SLL 4 SLL Male 6-10 years Private University in
Midwest United States
SLL 5 SLL Female 11-15 years International School in
Holland
SLL 6 SLL Female 1-5 years Catholic University in
Eastern United States
SLL 7 SLL Female 26-30 years Private University in
Western United States
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 78
Determining Continuing Needs and Current Assets
The assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs from the literature review
were determined to be continuing needs or current assets based on the interview data. The
assumed needs were identified as continuing needs when the majority of the religious studies
teachers (more than five out of ten religious studies teachers) yielded evidence of lacking the
needed knowledge, motivation or organizational supports to successfully implement high-quality
service learning into their curriculum. On the contrary, the assumed needs were identified as
current assets when a majority of the religious studies teachers (more than five out of ten
religious studies teachers) yielded evidence that they had the needed knowledge, motivation, or
organizational supports to successfully implement high-quality service learning into their
curriculum. Also, the assumed needs included input from the department chairs to further
identify continuing needs and current assets in envisioning how service learning can be applied
outside of the religion department. Moreover, interview data and evidence from service learning
leaders in service learning helped to understand the elements of high quality service learning
programs that SLHS could aspire to as they establish an innovative, high quality approach to
service learning.
Findings of Assumed Knowledge Needs
The assumed knowledge needs to implement a comprehensive, high-quality service
learning experience at SLHS that will be discussed are: teacher’s basic knowledge of what
service learning entails, teacher’s knowledge of how service learning is connected with the
institution and mission, teacher’s knowledge to prepare a service learning experience that
benefits both the classroom and the service organization, and the teacher’s knowledge to reflect
on their abilities to implement service learning activities. In addition to these assumed
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 79
knowledge needs that were explored through this research, an additional knowledge need was
raised through the interviews for teachers to know how to form long lasting relationships with
service organizations. Table 7 below summarizes the findings of the assumed knowledge needs.
Table 7
Summary of Assumed Knowledge Needs
Assumed Knowledge Need Continuing
Need
Current Asset Newly
identified
Need
Teachers need to know what service
learning entails
X
Teachers need to know how service
learning is connected to the institution and
its mission
X
Teachers need to know how to prepare a
service learning experience that benefits
both the classroom and the service
organization
X
Teachers need to know how to reflect on
their abilities to implement service
learning activities
X
Teachers need to know how to form long
lasting relationships with service
organizations
X
Teachers Need to Understand What Service Learning Entails
Based on the qualitative interview data, teachers have a general understanding of service
learning but lack the knowledge of a high-quality service learning program. The National Youth
Leadership Council created K-12 standards of a high-quality learning program, which include:
duration and intensity, partnerships, link to curriculum, meaningful service, youth voice,
diversity, reflection, and progress monitoring (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011). Moreover, in
the context of a high school classroom setting, service learning can be defined as a powerful
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 80
pedagogical strategy that encourages students to make meaningful connections between content
in the classroom and real-life service experiences (Engstrom & Tinto, 1997). In regards to
religious studies teachers at SLHS, they demonstrated a general understanding of service
learning as a kinesthetic and hands on approach to education. Religious studies teacher (RST) 4
said, “Service learning is education in the classroom that leads to action.” RST 8 said, “Service
learning is where the rubber meets the road to put our Catholic values into practice.”
Furthermore, other religious studies teachers mentioned the process of planning for service
learning. For example, RST 1 said, “Service learning can be defined in three stages: prep-work,
service itself, and some reflection.” Therefore, the religious studies teachers were able to
demonstrate a basic understanding of service learning.
Although all 10 religious studies teachers said they have a general understanding of
service learning, 8 out of 10 could not fully articulate a high-quality service learning program
that is linked to the curriculum. Teachers at SLHS did not mention curriculum when asked to
define service learning. Furthermore, when asked how service learning is linked to curriculum,
teachers responded with a lack of knowledge. RST 2 responded, “I have tried to link it to the
curriculum but it’s very hard.” RST 4 said, “I teach Juniors and I do not think it’s linked to the
curriculum and I don’t know how to.” In addition, RST 1 said, “Here’s the curriculum, whatever
you are studying, and then we take a timeout for service learning and then we go back. So, it’s
not really connected.” Therefore, religious studies teachers have a general understanding of
service learning but lack the knowledge of a high-quality service learning program that is linked
to the curriculum, which makes it a continuing need for additional knowledge.
In comparison to religious studies teachers, department chairs demonstrated even less
knowledge of what a service learning program entails. Some department chairs shared their
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 81
personal experience of service learning outside of SLHS. However, most of the department
chairs showed little to no understanding of what a service learning program entails. Department
chair (DC) 5 said hesitantly, “I am curious but I don’t even really know what a service learning
program fully looks like so I do not have an understanding of it.” Moreover, DC 2, who has had
previous experience in service learning as a student said, “Yes I’ve done service learning
personally but I wouldn’t know how to teach it as part of the class.” Hence, the department
chairs expressed even less knowledge of what a service learning program entails when compared
to religious studies teachers, making it a continuing need for additional knowledge for both
religious studies teachers and department chairs at SLHS.
Teachers Need to Know How Service Learning is Connected to Mission
Both religious studies teachers and department chairs at SLHS have a strong knowledge
of how service learning is connected to the mission of the school. All 10 religious studies
teachers and 5 department chairs said that service learning is an important part of the school’s
mission. For example, RST 6 pointed to the history of the school and how it was connected with
the religious brothers of the Holy Cross who set the example of service through their dedication
to serve the students and the local community. RST 9 said, “Service learning is rooted in our
mission with the Holy Cross brothers who continuously served those on the margins by inserting
the poor and vulnerable members of our community.” Others mentioned that service learning is
a part of who we are as a school community. RST 2 said, “Service learning is at the core of our
mission to serve other people and the community, an opportunity to put our faith into action. It
is not an optional thing. It is a part of who are and what we do.” RST 4 said regarding service
learning, “Okay, this is part of the fabric of what it means to be a holy cross man or woman, you
know, I don’t do service just because I can put it on my college resume.” Furthermore, RST 3
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 82
has seen the connection of service learning and mission grow stronger throughout the years. He
said, “Service programs was good but it has blossomed into one of the vital parts of our mission
and charism. It’s really our bottom line.” As a result, the religious studies demonstrated a strong
knowledge of how service learning is connected to the mission of the school.
Similar to religious studies teachers, department chairs expressed a strong connection
between service learning and mission. Although most department chairs have not had significant
service learning experience, they understood the connection between service learning and the
mission of the school. DC 3 said “I don’t have a lot of service learning experience but if it’s
presented in a concrete way, I see it as an authentic way to bring about the mission of the school
to serve others.” Other department chairs were quick to come up with solutions and were open
to the idea of service learning since it is part of the school’s mission. DC 5 replied, “I can see it
as part of our mission and one thing that comes to mind is bringing our abilities to maybe
struggling writers or, you know, for tutoring children.” Therefore, both religious studies teachers
and department chairs demonstrated a strong connection of service learning with the mission of
the school, which makes it a current asset at SLHS.
Teachers Need to Know How to Prepare a Service Learning Experience that Benefits Both
the Classroom and the Service Organization
An effective service learning experience requires an equal focus to both classroom
learning and the service goals (Sigmon, 1994). Both the service and the learning goals mutually
reinforce each other to benefit the students and the community (Eyler & Giles, 1999). The
interview data revealed that 9 out of the 10 religious studies teachers can improve on how to
prepare a service learning experience that benefits both the classroom and service organizations.
The only service learning teacher that expressed knowledge in both classroom and service
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organization benefits was RST 9, who is the coordinator for service learning activities. RST 1
said, “We have only one with the title of service learning coordinator so the responsibility falls
on one individual and we don’t really know what is going on in the service organization.”
Furthermore, RST 6 replied, “I am aware of the organizations but I don’t have a relationship so
I’m not very knowledgeable.” Others such as RST 2 said, “I feel comfortable about my
curriculum but not knowledgeable about service organizations.”
Several other religious studies teachers mentioned a continuing need in knowledge of
how service learning can benefit the service organizations. RST 5 said, “It’s a big task if you
want it to be more than a field trip.” RST 10 said, “There is a lot of room for growth in talking
more about it [service organizations] to do a better prep and bringing about the context of the
situation.” RST 8 said that sadly sometimes the students have nothing to do when they arrive at
a service organization. RST 5 replied, “I think the intention is good but sometimes the students
can be a burden on the service organizations to accommodate so many of us.” Subsequently,
when asked how SLHS can have a more meaningful impact at the service organizations, the
religious studies teachers said they lack contextual knowledge of the service organizations and
their needs. RST 9 said, “We need to provide the students and teachers context for these people
and organizations that we are visiting so that we can better help them.” RST 10 also mentioned
that knowledge of the context and how to build authentic long term relationships with service
organizations can help in providing a service learning experience that benefits both the
classroom and service organizations. Hence, religious studies teachers lack the knowledge to
prepare a service learning experience that benefits both the classroom and service organizations.
In regards to department chairs, they expressed more hesitation than religious studies
teachers in knowledge of a service learning that benefits both the classroom and service
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organizations. DC 2 has had some experience leading a service project such as a beach clean-up.
However, she felt uncomfortable in saying that she is knowledgeable about service learning.
Also, DC 4 said, “I am open to it but I wouldn’t know where to start. I am not trained in it and I
have no connections to service organizations.” In summary, both religious studies teachers and
department chairs lacked the knowledge to prepare a service learning experience that benefits
both the classroom and service organizations. Some religious studies teachers felt comfortable in
preparing a service learning experience that benefits the classroom but lacked knowledge in
service organizations. The department chairs expressed an openness to trying out service
learning but expressed hesitation due to lack of knowledge in preparing a service learning
experience. Therefore, the lack the knowledge to prepare a service learning experience that
mutually benefits the classroom and the service organizations is a continuing need at SLHS.
Teachers Need to Know How to Reflect on Their Abilities to Implement Service Learning
Reflection is a key ingredient for both the students and teachers to implement a
successful service learning experience (Abravanel, 2003; Bailis & Melchior, 2004; Kramer,
2000; Sheldon & Epstein, 20005). When asked if reflection is important as part of service
learning, all 10 religious studies teachers agreed. RST 8 said, “If you don’t take time to stop and
think about what you did, it really didn’t have a lot of meaning for you. All you did was just do
something without reflecting.” Similarly, RST 10 replied, “If you just have the experience
without the debrief, that time for personal reflection, you probably will not get the full meaning
and value of the experience.” However, when asked about their knowledge and how to reflect on
their abilities to implement service learning, the responses were mixed based on each teacher.
Three out of the ten religious studies teachers articulated clearly their knowledge on how they
implement reflection. RST 1 said, “With my students, we take time before to reflect on what our
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 85
service day can look like, we reflect on the day of, and we reflect after the experience.” Other
religious studies teachers said they continue to reflect even weeks after the service learning
experience. However, the majority of the religious studies teachers expressed lack of knowledge
in incorporating reflection as part of service learning. RST 4 said, “Yes we do some reflection
but it is very little and unfortunately we don’t really reflect once we get back in the classroom.”
RST 1 said, “We just do reflection for 10 to 15 minutes when we get back from the service
experience before school ends.” Similarly, RST 5 said, “We have a reflection question for
students to reflect on when we get back and share in small groups but that’s about it and that’s
about all I know.” Also, when asked if the religious studies teachers reflect themselves on their
service learning experience, all of them said no. RST 6 said, “I wish I had time to reflect! Just
getting the kids safely back home is my biggest worry.” RST 1 said, “Maybe at the end of the
school year when I do my evaluations but I don’t really have time to reflect personally.”
Therefore, the majority of religious studies teachers do not spend much time for reflection with
students and as teachers.
Similar to religious studies teachers, department chairs also expressed a lack of
knowledge in reflection. All five department chairs were open to reflection as long as it does not
waste time for student learning. DC 2 said, “I think it’s a good idea to take time for reflection
but I’m not sure if I have time for it and I don’t really know how to lead a reflection.” DC 4
said, “I’d like to incorporate reflection but someone needs to teach me how to do it.” Hence, the
department chairs were open to the idea of reflection as part of service learning as long as it can
enhance student performance. However, all the department chairs clearly said they lacked
knowledge on how to reflect on their abilities to implement service learning activities. DC 3 said
that he would not know where to begin to either ask the students to reflect or reflect himself on
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 86
service learning. Therefore, the religious studies teachers and department chairs expressed a
continuing need on how to reflect on their abilities to implement service learning.
Teachers Need Knowledge to Form Lasting Relationships with Service Organizations
The interviews also presented a new knowledge need that was not part of the assumed
needs. Notably, knowledge of duration and intensity is one of the standards of a high-quality
learning program by The National Youth Leadership Council (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki,
2011). Initially, this did not appear to be a significant need. However, the religious studies
teachers, department chairs, and the service learning leaders expressed knowledge of long-lasting
relationships with service organizations as a crucial element for a successful service learning
program. In fact, many of the religious studies teachers expressed the need to form long lasting
relationships with service organizations as the biggest area of growth for service learning
programs. RST 1 said, “For a Catholic school that’s trying to implement Christian Gospel
values, there needs to be a longer relationship with the clients to not work for tweaks but
transformation.” Similarly, RST 4 replied, “I do not think service learning should be a one and
done thing. I would like to know how we can help relationships grow and form long lasting
partnership with the service organizations.” Also, RST 7 said that if we can learn how to build
long lasting relationships with service organizations, it would lead to a much deeper level of
student learning such as understanding privilege and humility. Therefore, the religious studies
teachers demonstrated a lack of knowledge to form long lasting relationships with service
organizations, which makes it an important continuing need.
Similar to religious studies teachers, the department chairs expressed the need to form
long lasting relationships with service organizations. Although department chairs do not know
much about service learning, most expressed a desire to learn how to form long lasting
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 87
relationships with service organizations. DC 3 said, “If we were to do service learning in my
department, I think we should do it right by thinking long term relationships instead of just a
one-time event.” Furthermore, DC 4 mentioned, “I want to know how to make service more
than just seeing cute kids and feeling good. We need to build long lasting relationships like a
brother-sister thing and there needs to be continuation.” Other department chairs such as DC 5
said if they can learn how to build long lasting relationships with service organizations, then it
would be worthwhile to invest effort in making changes to a more service learning friendly
curriculum. Therefore, the knowledge to form long lasting relationships with service
organizations was expressed as a need by religious studies teachers and department chairs, which
makes it an important area where new knowledge acquisition is desired.
Ideas from Service Learning Leaders on Knowledge Needs
The interview data from the service learning leaders presented examples that validated
the literature review and put into reality the assumed knowledge needs expressed by the teachers.
For example, service learning leader (SLL) 1 said, “In terms of what makes a high-quality
service learning experience, it needs to be linked to the curriculum. But lots of times, it’s just like
a separate one and off thing.” SLL 1 also said many people talk about service learning but do
not really know what it is, which makes it a continuing need for many schools with service
learning programs. Also, many of the service learning leaders pointed out the importance of how
faculty need to know service learning as part of the mission. For example, SLL 6 mentioned,
“The religious studies teachers would like to see ourselves as acting in the Jesuit mission of the
university in the academic division.” Others such as SLL 4 said, “I know at our university it is
about educating hearts and minds. And service learning by design and definition should be part
of the identity and the mission of the school in order to be effective.”
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 88
In regards to understanding service learning as beneficial to both classroom learning and
service organizations, the service learning leaders emphasized that many times, service learning
benefits the classroom more than the service organizations due to lack of knowledge of service
organizations. SLL 7 said, “People misunderstand service learning as just okay we teach
something and then you just go out and help the community. But there has to be a real
connection with the community if not it just benefits the classroom.” SLL 6 said regarding
service learning benefitting both classroom and service organizations, “Sometimes it can be a
conflict but they need to work together.” SLL 6 showed that this is possible by students
researching a real need by service organizations and constantly working together as equals. In
SLL 6’s community, students met with a homeless service organization and asked what are their
needs. The organization said the homeless have cell phones but do not know the location of the
food pantries. In response, the students geo-mapped the food pantry locations to help the service
organizations better serve the homeless and also provide an opportunity for the students to serve
the homeless.
Also, the service learning leaders all agreed that knowledge of reflection is crucial for
implementing high-quality service learning. SLL 3 said, “Yes we have to take time for reflection
or students don’t get much out of it.” Yet, reflection is not taken very seriously. For example,
SLL 7 said:
People in the service field talk about reflection as being kind of the key thing that helps students
connect their classroom learning to real life experiences. But very often, reflection is reduced to
just kind of keeping a journal and somehow the learning will magically happen. Instead
reflection needs to be intentional with a fairly prompted process questions with a particular
purpose to drive the student learning home. And the reflection needs to continue throughout the
semester. I’m not sure if this type of reflection if happening in many service learning programs.
SLL 7 diagnosed that a lack of reflective process is a common problem in institutions trying to
implement high-quality service learning.
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The service learning leaders also validated the new knowledge need to form long lasting
relationships with service organizations. SLL 1 said, “Not only is it important for service
learning to be part of the curriculum, but it needs to have continuity.” SLL 1 showed how her
school offers social justice classes that include the students not only going to different countries
as part of service learning, but a following class the next semester picks up where the previous
class left off and continues to work with the service organizations. Moreover, SLL 7 said, “One
advice I have is that teachers need to possess long term knowledge when it comes to service
learning. It’s much easier to do something simple but try to think long term.” SLL 7 shared how
teachers were able to facilitate long term relationships with service organizations. For example,
after continuing to work with a local elementary school that needs tutoring help, they have
developed a rapport and trust with each school and are committed in a long-term relationship to
mutually help one another. The long-term relationship also involves the knowledge of the
organization to work well with the service organizations. SLL 1 mentioned that in her
immersion programs, the school has committed financially by giving annual donations to service
organizations in need. In return, the service organizations can use the annual donations to help
grow and provide a better service to the students that come for service learning. SLL 1
concluded that when the organization knows how to be committed in long-term relationships, it
makes it easier for everyone involved and the program gets better every year.
Summary Results and Findings for Knowledge Needs
In regards to assumed knowledge needs for a high-quality service learning program at
SLHS, the interview data resulted in one current asset, three continuing knowledge needs, and
one newly identified knowledge need. Throughout the interviews, it was clear that both religious
studies teachers and department chairs knew how service learning is connected to the institution
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 90
and its mission. All 10 religious studies teachers strongly cited service learning as being an
important part of the mission of the school. Even department chairs who had limited service
learning experience understood service learning as an important part of expressing authentically
the mission of the school. Also, many of the service learning leaders pointed out the importance
of how the faculty needs to understand service learning as part of the mission. Since all the
interview data suggested service learning as a key element to the mission of the school, it was
considered as a current asset.
In regards to the current needs for additional knowledge to implement a high-quality
service learning program, teachers at SLHS need a deeper understanding of the elements of high-
quality service learning. The religious studies teachers were able to generally describe service
learning but 8 out of 10 could not fully articulate a high-quality service learning program that is
linked to curriculum. Moreover, 9 out of the 10 religious studies teachers said they can improve
on how to prepare a service learning experience that benefits both the classroom and service
organizations. Furthermore, the majority of the religious studies teachers expressed lack of
knowledge in incorporating reflection as part of service learning. Also, many of the religious
studies teachers expressed the knowledge need to form long lasting relationships with service
organizations as an area of growth. The religious studies teachers expressed these knowledge
needs as important to providing high-quality service learning but admitted a lack of knowledge
and the need to improve in these areas.
The department chairs demonstrated less knowledge than the religious studies teachers
due to their lack of experience. However, since they knew that it was an important part of the
mission of the school, they showed interest and openness to learn about service learning. Also,
the service learning leaders shared from their experience not only the importance of these
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 91
assumed needs but concrete examples of high-quality service learning that incorporates this
knowledge. Overall, teachers have a strong knowledge of how service learning is part of the
mission of the school and possess a general understanding of service learning, but lack a deeper
understanding of service learning in regards to how it links to curriculum, benefits both students
and service organizations, reflection, and forming long lasting relationships with service
organizations.
Findings of Assumed Motivation Needs
The assumed motivational needs to implement service learning opportunities in each
grade and multiple subjects that are aligned with the standards for high-quality service learning
education that will be discussed are: teacher’s belief that they are capable of applying service
learning into their curriculum, teacher’s self-identity toward social justice and intrinsic passion
for service, and the teacher’s need to see improvement in student learning outcomes that come
from service learning. Table 8 below summarizes the findings of the assumed motivation needs.
Table 8
Summary of Assumed Motivation Needs
Assumed Motivation Need Continuing
Need
Current Asset
Teachers need to believe that they are
capable of applying service learning into
their curriculum
X
Teachers need to include their self-identity
toward social justice and intrinsic passion
for service
X
Teachers need to see improvements in
student learning outcomes that come from
service learning
X
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 92
Teachers Need to Believe They are Capable of Applying Service Learning into Their
Curriculum
Forbes, Wasburn, Crispo, and Vandeveer (2008) pointed toward low self-efficacy as the
main concern for the lack of motivation to implement service learning. At SLHS, the religious
studies teachers believe that they are capable of applying service learning into their curriculum
while department chairs expressed lack of confidence. When asked to rate on a scale of 1 to 10
if they believe they are capable of applying service learning into their curriculum, the average of
the ten religious studies teachers was 7.5. The rating would have been higher if it was not for
one of the new religious studies teachers who expressed a lack of self-efficacy as a teacher in
general. Most of the religious studies teachers believed that they are capable of applying service
learning into their curriculum due to their Catholic faith and school background. Religious
studies teacher (RST) 10 said, “I’m pretty comfortable. I feel like having being a product of
service learning, you know, in Catholic college, I am capable of doing it right.” Moreover, RST
1 said, “Personally, I feel comfortable. I feel like I am capable since it applies naturally within
the Catholic social teaching of the school.” Even religious studies teachers who said they were
at a 5 or a 6 in the scale said they still believe they can do it but they do not have enough time.
RST 5 said, “I’d say somewhere between a 5 and a 6 in my confidence level. I know I can do it
and I believe that I can do it but it is not at a 10 because I simply do not have enough time to do
it.” Therefore, religious studies teachers showed they feel capable in applying service learning
into the curriculum, which makes it a current asset.
In comparison to religious studies teachers, department chairs expressed much less self-
efficacy in believing that they are capable of applying service learning into their curriculum. The
overall score of the five department chairs was 5 on a scale of 1 to 10. Many of the department
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 93
chairs expressed hesitation and discomfort when asked about their capability to apply service
learning into their curriculum. Department chair (DC) 3 said, “I would say it would be a stretch
for myself and most of the people in the department so we are not really capable.” DC 2 said, “I
am open to the idea but there are certain parts of it that scare me and I don’t feel comfortable at
all.” Moreover, DC 5 replied, “It is at like a 2 or a 3 but if we had the right examples and
professional development, I think my confidence level would go up.” Therefore, since
department chairs were lacking in service learning experience, not many believed that they are
capable of applying service learning into their curriculum. In summary, although the department
chair lack self-efficacy in service learning, their self-efficacy can easily go up with proper
support and practice. Also, since the majority of the religious studies teachers have a high self-
efficacy in applying service learning, the motivational need for teachers to believe that they are
capable of applying service learning into the curriculum is a current asset.
Teachers Need to Include Their Self-identity and Intrinsic Passion for Service
Teachers who are passionate to serve and own it as part of their identity are natural
champions of implementing service learning as part of their curriculum (Hou & Wilder, 2015).
At SLHS, all 10 religious studies teachers, no matter where they were at in terms of their
knowledge and motivation of service learning, expressed a high motivation for service learning
as part of their identity and intrinsic passion for service. RST 2 said, “Service is at the core of
who we are and what I am about. That’s what it means to be at a Catholic school.” Similarly,
RST 4 stated, “I can’t imagine being a religious educator at a Catholic school and not be
passionate about service.” Furthermore, RST 7 was moved with emotion and conviction when
he said, “Christian service is a huge piece of my own faith and this is what saved me. The idea
that we can teach students to be people of service like Jesus is what moves me to come to work
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every day.” Hence, service is at the heart of many religious studies teachers and they are
passionate for service.
Regarding department chairs, even though they lacked knowledge in service learning,
they expressed service as part of their identity and were passionate as well. DC 2 said, “I was
fascinated with service as a kid and decided to join the Peace Corps. I enjoy service and it’s a
part of who I am as a person to this day.” Moreover, DC 3 said, “I remember in high school I
had to feed a disabled person and it changed my life. Service is really important and that’s why I
am teaching at a Catholic school.” In addition, DC 4 stated, “Yes I am passionate for service. I
like to consider myself as a social worker as I help students that are in need.” Hence, it is clear
that department chairs are highly motivated to serve as they view service as part of their identity
and passion. Therefore, since all the religious studies teachers and department chairs are
passionately motivated by service, the motivational need for teachers to include self-identity and
intrinsic passion is a current asset.
Teachers Need to See Improvements in Student Learning Outcomes
Banerjee and Hausafus (2007) revealed that a majority of the faculty cited increased
student understanding of the course material and personal development as a motivating factor to
implement service learning. Teachers need to be motivated by the utility value of service
learning having a positive impact on student learning outcome. The interview data showed some
teachers having anecdotal experiences of positive student outcomes from service learning but
overall, it is still a continuing need. RST 2 said, “For sure the seeds are being planted and when
I see students serving and working together, it motivates me as a teacher.” RST 4 said, “When
kids go on service learning, I see that they come back as better classmates to each other. There is
a stronger bond as a class and it helps student learning.” RST 5 said, “I have a student who
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 95
stutters a lot but when we went to service learning, he became confident and was super engaged
with the people. I think he is a better student and a better person as a result of the experience.”
Yet, the evidence for a lack of student improvement is stronger, which affects motivation. RST
1 said, “Sometimes I am discouraged because service learning has low to medium impact at best.
Perhaps less than 5% have a real transformational experience from the service learning trip.”
Also, RST 8 said jokingly regarding service learning at SLHS, “This doesn’t have to be the most
meaningful experience. In fact, I hope this isn’t the most meaningful experience because it can
be so much better.” RST 9 expressed frustratingly, “I feel like every time after the service
learning experience, I walk away thinking this or that could have been better but I’m not
motivated when the next time we do the same thing again.” Furthermore, RST 6 and RST 1 said
that they would be more motivated to implement service learning if the service had more
meaningful long term relationships with the service organizations. Hence, a majority of the
religious studies teachers expressed a lack of motivation due to not seeing enough positive
student learning outcomes, which makes it a continuing need.
The response of the department chairs was similar to religious studies teachers in needing
to see improvement in student outcomes from service learning. The department chairs revealed a
lack in motivation due to not seeing positive student outcomes. DC 2 said, “You know, I think
it’s just so hard to see that transformation happening. You lay all this groundwork and you may
never see the fruits of your labor.” DC 4 said, “Some students come back from service learning
but are still living in their bubble with first world problems, which shows that we can do better.”
DC 3 said that currently, it can be hard to see how service learning can have a big impact on the
math department. He said, “And if the teachers feel that it doesn’t help the students, they’ll just
do it to check off the box but won’t be motivated to really do it.” Therefore, the department
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 96
chairs need to see more examples of positive student outcomes to really be motivated to
implement service learning in their curriculum. In summary, both the religious studies teachers
and department chairs expressed a lack of evidence of positive student outcomes related to
service learning which may be affecting motivation and makes this an area of continuing need at
SLHS.
Ideas from Service Learning Leaders on Motivational Needs
The interview data from the service learning leaders presented examples that validated
the literature review and put into reality the motivational needs expressed by teachers at SLHS.
For example, many of the service learning leaders pointed out that teachers need to go past the
hurdle of believing that they are not capable of applying service learning into their curriculum.
Service learning leader (SLL) 1 said, “Teachers lack self-confidence but you have to motivate
them and simply put, the more they do it, the more confident they become.” SLL 6 provided an
example of how some engineering teachers felt they were not capable of applying service
learning into their curriculum. The engineering teachers said they felt uncomfortable taking the
students outside the class and were scared to lead reflections. However, the engineering teachers
were provided with a service learning mentor and they quickly felt more comfortable the second
and third time applying service learning into the engineering curriculum.
Also, the service learning leaders pointed out that some teachers have a natural passion to
serve and others do not. SLL 5 mentioned that it is much easier to talk about service learning
when a teacher identifies him/herself as an advocate for social justice and change. Even though
there might be more work to do to prepare a service learning curriculum, their passion drives
them to serve the students and the community. When there are teachers not as passionate about
service, SLL 5 said, “You have to take teachers where they are at. Acknowledge their expertise
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 97
and then slowly nudge them with ideas towards a service oriented activity or curriculum.” In
addition, the service learning leaders stated that as service learning programs grew and
improved, it brought positive student outcome results, which validated the reason for having
service learning and it motivated more teachers to get on board. SLL 5 said there were hardships
at the beginning, “But once the positive outcomes came rolling in, teachers were on board. For
example, students created a recipe book to help the local farmers market by getting the
photojournalism class involved and even a TV show was interested in the story.” SLL 2
mentioned how certain success stories really motivated the teachers and the school community.
SLL 2 stated:
We had a student who did some volunteer work at an elderly care home and visited people with
disabilities that could not leave the room. Feeling deep empathy for the elderly, he decided to
create a 360-degree virtual reality camera to help disabled people experience a virtual reality
skiing trip and a tour of Paris. It brought a lot of excitement to our school community and more
teachers were on board with the concept of service learning.
The service learning leader examples provide possibilities and potential solutions on how
positive student outcomes can motivate and empower teachers to implement service learning.
Summary Results and Findings for Motivational Needs
In regards to assumed motivational needs for a high-quality service learning program at
SLHS, the interview data suggested strong teacher motivation in two areas and one area of
continuing need. When asked to rate on a scale of 1 to 10 if they believe they are capable of
applying service learning into their curriculum, the average of the ten religious studies teachers
was 7.5. This demonstrated a high-level of self-efficacy. The SLHS teachers who felt less
confident expressed lack of experience and time as two primary factors. Moreover, religious
studies teachers had high motivation for service learning as part of their identity and intrinsic
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 98
passion for service. Many cited service as the main reason why they are teaching at SLHS with a
sense of conviction.
In terms of the department chairs, when asked to rate on a scale of 1 to 10 if they believe
they are capable of applying service learning into their curriculum, the average was 5. Although
they scored lower due to lack of experience, they still expressed an openness to try service
learning. The service learning leaders provided examples to help teachers get past the hurdle of
believing they are not capable of applying service learning into their curriculum through support
and practice. Moreover, similar to the religious studies teachers, the department chairs were
highly motivated to include service learning as part of their identity and passion to teach at a
Catholic school and make a difference in the community.
Although teachers at SLHS were motivated to implement service learning through self-
efficacy and identifying service learning as part of their passion for service, the motivational
momentum was hindered by a lack of utility value. Teachers need to be motivated by the utility
value of service learning having a positive impact on student learning outcomes. The interview
data showed some teachers having anecdotal experiences of positive student outcomes from
service learning but overall, it is a continuing need. Furthermore, when comparing the examples
of student improvement from service learning leaders and how it motivates faculty to try service
learning, it showed that teachers at SLHS need to see more examples of positive student
outcomes in order to be motivated to implement service learning in their curriculum. Overall,
teachers believe that they are capable of applying service learning into their curriculum and own
it as part of their identity and passion for service. However, the lack of seeing positive student
outcomes hinders their motivation to implement high-quality service learning.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 99
Findings of Assumed Organizational Needs
The assumed organizational needs to implement an innovative high quality, immersive
service learning program across SLHS that will be discussed are: the organization’s need to align
service learning with the mission of the organization, to promote interest in service learning, to
provide role model examples of service learning, and to provide logistical support for teachers to
implement service learning through increased time, staff support, and incentives. Table 9 below
summarizes the findings of the assumed organizational needs.
Table 9
Summary of Assumed Organizational Needs
Assumed Organizational Need Continuing
Need
Current Asset
The organization needs to align service
learning with the mission of the
organization
X
The organization needs to promote interest
in service learning from teachers and
administrators
X
The organization needs to provide role
model examples of service learning
X
The organization needs to provide logistical
support for teachers to implement service
learning through increased time, staff
support, and incentives
X
The Organization Needs to Align Service Learning with the Mission of the School
According to Holland (1997), the alignment of service learning with the mission of a
school is an organizational factor that is crucial to achieving its goals. At SLHS, although there
can be room for improvement, service learning is perceived as being strongly aligned with the
mission of the school, which makes it a current asset. Similar to the responses regarding the
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 100
teacher’s knowledge of how service learning is connected with the mission of the school, all 10
religious studies teachers spoke positively about how service is aligned with the organization’s
mission and pointed to the history of the school and how the religious brothers have instilled a
sense of mission through service. RST 3 said, “Yes service learning is strongly tied to our roots,
going back to the religious brothers who shaped our school.” RST 9 said, “The brothers gave us
the motto of educating hearts and minds. It is still today and there is no disagreement between
mission and service learning.” Yet, several religious studies teachers pointed out that although
service learning is aligned with the mission of the school, there can still be improvement. RST 7
stated, “Yes service learning is a strong part of the mission of our school, but there is a tension
between the heart and the mind. The brothers never told us if the split should be 40% heart and
60% mind.” RST 6 said, “One value system is putting your money where your mouth is and I
think service is part of our mission but we can spend a little more on the service side.” RST 10
said, “Basically service is strongly aligned with the mission of the school and it is perceived that
way but we can be more intentional about it by putting more money, resources, and energy into
service.” Overall, the religious studies teachers at SLHS viewed that the organization has
aligned service learning with the mission of the school, which makes it a current asset.
The department chairs offered similar responses to the religious studies teachers by
saying the organization has strongly aligned service with the mission of the school. DC 3 and
DC 4 mentioned the importance of educating not just the mind but the heart as well, which is a
key part of the school’s mission. Other department chairs responded positively by presenting the
alignment of service and mission as a way to move forward with innovation. DC 2 said, “I think
we are working on a new vision statement and it mentions forming leaders of impact, which is
not just smart people but people who make a difference by serving the world.” Furthermore, DC
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 101
5 said, “Going forward, I think anything that 21
st
century students are doing to connect and serve
others is fulfilling our mission, which I support and the school supports as well.” Overall, at
SLHS, although there can be room for improvement, service learning is strongly aligned with the
mission of the school and the organization is ready for innovative changes, which makes it a
current asset.
The Organization Needs to Promote Interest in Service Learning from Teachers and
Administrators
When the organization provides a sense of interest and commitment toward service
learning, the faculty become more open to trying out service learning (Bennett, Sunderland,
Bartleet, & Power, 2016; Butin, 2010). Even though service learning is perceived as strongly
aligned with the mission, the organization does not promote an interest in service learning, which
makes it a continuing need. RST 3 said, “Yes service learning is tied with the mission and the
religious brothers but what about now? What about us?” RST 3 was referring to being stuck in
a nostalgic time of the religious brothers promoting interest toward a culture of service combined
with learning. However, the brothers are no longer at the school and SLHS needs new leaders
and the organization as a whole needs to promote service learning. RST 2 said, “If the
organization and the leaders are fantastic and excited about service learning, then everyone else
will quickly get on board.” RST 1 replied, “I think we can do a better job of promoting interest
in service learning and simply put, if the school and the adults are interested, then the kids will
be excited about it too.” Subsequently, the religious studies teachers showed that organization
can improve in promoting interest in service learning from teachers and administrator, which
makes it an area of continuing need at SLHS.
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Similar to the religious studies teachers, the department chairs responded with a desire for
more interest to promote service learning. DC 2 said, “I think teachers and administrators are
open to service learning but the school needs to promote it and we just need to see more of it.”
Furthermore, DC 3 said, “If the school shows interest in service learning by allocating more
resources and promoting its, then it means that there is a sense of commitment, which helps even
non-religious teachers to buy into the service learning model.” Hence, the interviews conducted
with the religious studies teachers and department chairs from SLHS revealed that SLHS does
not fully promote service learning and, therefore, it is an area needing additional organizational
focus.
The Organization Needs to Provide Role Models of Service Learning
One key to get teachers to implement service learning is the institution providing
concrete examples of service learning (Furco & Moely, 2012). Both religious studies teachers
and department chairs at SLHS recognize that there needs to be more role models of service
learning. Several of the religious studies teachers referred back to the history of the religious
brothers. RST 7 said, “The religious brothers were the role models of service whether it was
fixing the clock, mowing the lawn, helping the poor or leading a march. We learned what
service learning means from watching them.” However, the religious brothers are no longer on
campus. Regarding current role models on campus, RST 8 replied, “We have our service
coordinator who helps us and gives us tips but it’s just one person. We need more.” RST 5 said,
“I’m sure there are programs and people out there who can show us how to do a good job in
service learning. We need to bring those people in.”
Also, similar to religious studies teachers, department chairs shared a lack of role models
in service learning. DC 3 said, “I see a lot of value in service learning but I need examples and
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 103
people with experience to help set parameters with lesson plans. I need to see it before I can do
it.” Similarly, DC 4 said, “I need someone with connections to show me how to deal with
service organizations.” Other department chairs expressed similar views by stating they are open
to trying out service learning but lack direction since there are not many examples or role models
of how service learning can be implemented. In summary, the interview data from the religious
studies teachers and department chairs showed that there is a lack of current role models of
service learning, which creates a continuing need to implementing high quality service learning.
The Organization Needs to Provide Logistical Support to Implement Service Learning
Banerjee and Hausafus (2007) revealed the main reason for teachers not using service
learning was that service learning courses are labor intensive and there is a lack of staff support.
Also, Jacoby (2014) stated that faculty are motivated to try service learning if they are provided
with incentives to incorporate service learning into their courses. The interview data suggests
that time and staff support are a clear organizational need but incentives are not needed to
implement high-quality service learning at SLHS. All 10 religious studies teachers mentioned
they wished they had more time with support to work on service learning. RST 1 said, “We need
to be provided with time during school hours if the school wants us to really work on
implementing service learning.” RST 3 said, “Yes, more time dedicated specially for service
learning at our department meeting or professional development days.” Moreover, RST 10 said,
“We need to be provided time to form teams or committees to really think about how service
learning can be used in our curriculum and throughout the school.”
Similar to religious studies teachers, department chairs also pointed to lack of time as a
critical need. DC 2 replied, “Like I said, I’m open but it’s a time issue. Teachers don’t have
time to do creative stuff like this.” DC 4 raised a concern, “How are we going to be given time
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 104
to prepare for service learning? How is the school going to provide extra hours or extra prep
time?” The responses make it clear that teachers need time to be able to work on service
learning.
In regards to support, similar to the role model needs expressed by teachers, the interview
data presents a need for additional supports to effectively implement high quality service
learning. RST 9, who is the designated service learning coordinator, said, “I feel like I am the
only support. I am the person providing the prep materials, reflection materials, and setting up
the experiences for the classroom teachers.” The statement from RST 9 revealed that teachers
simply depend on one person for staff support for service learning and it simply is not enough.
RST 6 mentioned, “It’s not fair that we only have RST 9 taking up the entire load. We need
more staff support to grow our service learning program.” On the other hand, incentives were
not seen as an organizational need. RST 4 said, “Teachers can use a little bait to show they are
appreciated but I think it’s not going to be the determining factor that makes or breaks service
learning.” Also, DC 3 said, “I don’t think teachers will be motivated by just incentives to try
service learning.” Hence, incentives were not an organizational need. However, the interview
data showed the organization needs to provide better logistical support through increased time
and support. Both religious studies teachers and department chairs need the organization to
provide more time and staff support to implement service learning, which makes it a continuing
need at SLHS.
Ideas from Service Learning Leaders on Organizational Needs
The interview data from the service learning leaders presented examples that validated
the literature review and put into reality the assumed organizational needs. For example, the
service learning leaders mentioned that when service is aligned with the mission of the school,
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 105
the organization is healthy to make some creative changes. SLL 4, SLL 6 and SLL 7 mentioned
how if service is not part of the school’s mission, it is going to be impossible to move forward
and promote service learning. SLL 4 said, “Because educating hearts and minds is a big deal for
us and part of what we do, it is much easier for me to propose new ideas.” SLL 2 said regarding
her process to improve the service learning program at her school:
Once I was able to tie in the importance of service as part of the mission, I put together a
committee and did some backward designing. We revisited out graduation outcomes and our
mission statement and saw that necessary changes had to be made to improve out service
program. Then, it was easy to get the changes approved because we were enhancing our mission
through service.
The service learning leaders reinforced that the organization needs to align service learning with
the mission of the school. This is a foundational prerequisite before trying to attempt any major
changes.
Also, the service learning leaders pointed out that when the organization shows interest in
service learning through concrete changes, it is a game changer. SLL 2 said, “Once we made
changes to the graduation outcomes and included service learning as a capstone project, it
showed that it was for real and other teachers and administrators were on board.” SLL 4 talked
about how creating a center for social concern changed the school’s outlook on service learning.
“You know, our Center for Social Concern started in an old TV studio and now it takes up a
large part of our campus. Now there is an array of offerings for students to be involved in
service.” SLL 4 mentioned that creating and growing the Center for Social Concern created a
buzz that put service learning on the map for teachers, administrators, and the students. The
service learning leaders’ examples show how when there is concrete action toward interest in
service learning by the organization, it serves as a catalyst for teachers and administrators to be
involved in service learning.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 106
The service learning leaders also showed that teachers need role models and mentors for
service learning to actually take into effect. SLL 1 said, “I can tell you for a fact that our
principal has been on every single service learning trip and he is a clear role model for us.” SLL
1 continued by saying that when there are role models of service learning such as the principal
and other teachers with experience, it makes it easier for teachers to buy in and actually try out
service learning. SLL 3 mentioned that the school and the district has a service learning support
center with staff members who are available to mentor teachers interested in service learning.
Also, SLL 5 said, “We have curriculum helpers. They are mentors/role models that take you
through designing lesson plans for teachers and making connections with local organizations.”
Both SLL 3 and SLL 5 stated that once the teachers can meet with role models to ask questions
and see what are the possibilities of incorporating service learning into their curriculum, they are
more than willing to try it out.
In terms of providing support for teachers, a common theme from the service learning
leaders was that professional development and staff support needs to be complimented by
providing time for teachers to work on service learning. SLL 5 said, “We offer lots of training
and professional development opportunities to help teachers feel supported in service learning.
However, if we don’t give teachers time to work on it, it will not happen.” Similarly, SLL 7
said, “It can be very burdensome for faculty to take on service learning. Not only do we need to
sit down and support them by going through the syllabus and seeing what is possible, we also
have to give them time to actually plan it and try it out.” In terms of incentives, SLL 6 said, “We
have a faculty cohort model with monetary incentives for teachers who want to try out service
learning. Some are motivated by it and others are not.” These concrete examples from the
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 107
service learning leaders will provide potential recommendations for an action plan to implement
a high-quality service learning program at SLHS.
Summary Results and Findings for Organizational Needs
In regards to assumed organizational needs for a high-quality service learning program at
SLHS, the interview data resulted in one current asset and three continuing needs. At SLHS,
both religious studies teachers and department chairs agreed that although there can be room for
improvement, service learning is perceived as being strongly aligned with the mission of the
school, which makes it a current asset. RST 10 said, “Basically service is strongly aligned with
the mission of the school and it is perceived that way but we can be more intentional about it by
putting more money, resources, and energy into service.” This demonstrated that the
organizational foundation of aligning service learning to the mission is a current asset but it can
be built on by addressing other organizational continuing needs.
The three organizational continuing needs to implementing high quality service learning
that were identified include: promoting interest in service learning from teachers and
administrators, providing role models of service learning, and logistical support through
increased time, staff support, and incentives. DC 3 said, “If the school shows interest in service
learning by allocating more resources and promoting it, then it means that there is a sense of
commitment, which helps even non-religious teachers buy into the service learning model.” The
teachers recognized the organizational importance of how service learning is aligned with the
mission of the school but the teachers need to see more organizational support. Teachers need to
see support from the administration that indicates interest toward implementing service learning
whether it is a new department, more service coordinators, or a new building for service learning.
The openness to try out service learning needs to be met with organizational support by
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 108
providing time to work on service learning during school hours. Many teachers expressed a
desire for department meetings and professional development with role model examples.
However, incentives were not perceived as an organizational need since the teachers were
already motivated by sense of mission and passion to serve. Also, the service learning leaders
presented various examples of how to potentially address the organizational needs at SLHS. The
idea of creating a Center for Social Concern and a service learning support group helped identify
opportunities for improvement at SLHS since there is currently only one person dedicated to
service learning and a lack of space at SLHS. Overall, the organization has aligned service
learning with the mission of the school. However, there are current organizational needs of
promoting interest, role models and logistical support through increased time, and staff support
to implement high-quality service learning.
Emerging Themes
Combining the current assets and continuing knowledge, motivational, and organizational
needs, the data resulted in four emerging themes to pursue in building an innovative, high quality
service design at SLHS: building a strong connection to mission, teachers having a deep
understanding of high-quality service learning, providing teachers with necessary support to
implement high-quality service learning, and promoting service learning throughout the campus
with a long-term vision. Table 10 below summarizes the emerging themes.
Table 10
Summary of Emerging Themes.
Emerging Themes Current Asset to
Build On
Continuing Need
Building a strong connection to mission X
Teachers having a deep understanding of
high-quality service learning
X
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 109
Providing teachers with necessary support
to implement high-quality service learning
X
Promoting service learning throughout the
campus with a long-term vision
X
Building a Strong Connection to Mission
SLHS has critical current assets that are rooted in the teachers’ strong connection to the
mission of the school. Both religious studies teachers and department chairs have a strong tie to
the history of the religious brothers and the mission of the school to serve others. Religious
studies teachers mentioned that service learning is a part of who they are as a school community.
Even department chairs that admitted to lacking in knowledge of service learning were
committed to service as the mission. The department chairs discussed the importance of
educating not just the mind but the heart as well, which is a key part of the school’s mission.
Other department chairs responded positively by presenting the alignment of service and mission
as a way to move forward with innovation.
Having such a strong sense of connection between service and mission is a foundational
pre-requisite before trying to attempt any major changes. Many service learning leaders stressed
the importance of building a strong connection between service learning and mission. Building a
strong sense of connection between service and mission is what allows the teachers to have a
sense of strong self-efficacy. Furthermore, once the organization has aligned service learning
with the mission of the school, it allows teachers to be open to trying service learning.
Creating Deeper Understanding of High-Quality Service Learning
Although service learning is understood with a strong sense of the school’s mission with
a spirit of openness to try service learning, teachers lacked the knowledge of key service learning
components. All 10 religious studies teachers said they have a general understanding of service
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 110
learning as something that includes learning in the classroom and serving the community.
However, a general understanding of service learning is not enough to implement a high-quality
service learning program as suggested by The National Youth Leadership Council created K-12
standards of a high-quality learning program (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011). In terms of
religious studies teachers, 8 out of 10 could not fully articulate a high-quality service learning
program that is linked to curriculum. Currently, religious studies teachers lack the knowledge to
prepare a service learning experience that benefits both the classroom and service organizations.
Also, various religious studies teachers lacked the need for reflection. Lastly, the interviews
helped surface a new continuing need for teachers to know how to form long lasting
relationships with service organizations.
The department chairs, as expected, demonstrated less knowledge than the religious
studies teachers due to their lack of experience in service learning. Although they showed
interest and openness to learn about service learning, they expressed hesitation and doubt to
implementing high-quality service learning. When asked to rate on a scale of 1 to 10 if they
believe they are capable of applying service learning into their curriculum, the average was 5.
Many department chairs expressed low level of self-efficacy in implementing service learning
due to the lack of what a service learning program entails. Also, both religious studies teachers
and department chairs lacked utility value of service learning. The interview data showed some
teachers having anecdotal experiences of positive student outcomes from service learning, but
overall this is a continuing need. When comparing the examples of student improvement from
service learning leaders and how it motivates faculty to try service learning, it showed that
teachers at SLHS need to see more examples of positive student outcomes to be motivated to
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 111
implement service learning in their curriculum. However, it is hard to produce positive student
outcomes when teachers lack a deeper understanding of high-quality service learning.
Providing Teachers Necessary Support to Implement High-quality Service Learning
The previous themes highlighted that teachers view service learning as tied to the mission
as well as open to trying and improving service learning. However, a big part of the reason why
teachers at SLHS lack a deeper knowledge of service learning is because they are not provided
by the organization with necessary support to implement high-quality service learning. The
three organizational continuing needs that were identified were: promoting interest in service
learning from teachers and administrators, providing role models of service learning, and
logistical support through increased time, staff support, and incentives. The teachers recognize
the organizational importance of how service learning is aligned with the mission of the school
but the teachers need to see more organizational support. The openness to try out service
learning needs to be met with organizational support by providing time to work on service
learning during school hours. Furthermore, teachers expressed a desire for department meetings
and professional development with role model examples.
Also, in regards to professional development and role models, service learning leaders
mentioned that certain schools and the districts have a service learning support center with staff
members who are available to mentor teachers interested in service learning. Other examples
include support through mentors/role models that take teachers through designing lesson plans
for and making connections with local organizations. Once the teachers can meet with role
models to ask questions and see what are the possibilities of incorporating service learning into
their curriculum, they are more than willing to try it out. Therefore, the examples of service
learning from the service learning leaders help present the organizational continuing needs at
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 112
SLHS of promoting interest, role models and logistical support through increased time, and staff
support to implement high-quality service learning.
Promoting Service Learning Throughout the Campus with a Long-Term Vision
Not only does the organization need to provide teachers with support to implement high-
quality service learning, the organization needs to be intentional in promoting service learning
throughout the campus with a long-term vision. Simply providing more support staff and
professional development is not enough to implement a sustainable high-quality service learning
program. The service learning leaders advised that service learning needs to be promoted with a
long-term view in mind. Similarly, the spirit of openness expressed by the religious studies
teachers and department chairs was for a long-term lasting service learning program. Religious
studies teachers mentioned that service learning is a program that is not meant to tweak but
transform the students and the school community.
In order to promote a long-term vision of service learning, the interviews suggested
permeating service learning throughout the campus instead of limiting it to religion class. The
teachers at SLHS expressed a spirit of openness to try or improve service learning and applying
service learning outside the religion curriculum. Also, service learning can spread beyond just
the classroom, for example, it could be incorporated with sports teams. Moreover, the service
learning leaders’ examples help present potential ways to spread service learning throughout the
campus, whether it is a service learning department, service learning mentors, or a new building
dedicated to service learning. Hence, the religious studies teachers and department chairs
expressed a desire for a long-term service learning program that goes beyond religion class and
can have an effect throughout the campus.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 113
Summary of Assumed Needs and Emerging Themes
In combining the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs to implement
a high-quality service learning experience at SLHS, four areas were identified as current assets,
seven were identified as continuing needs, and one new knowledge need emerged. In terms of
knowledge needs, teachers have strong knowledge of how service learning is part of the mission
of the school and have a general understanding of service learning, but lack a deeper
understanding of service learning in regards to how to link it to the curriculum, how to benefit
both students and service organizations, reflection, and forming long lasting relationships with
service organizations. In terms of motivational needs, teachers believe that they are capable of
applying service learning into their curriculum and own it as part of their identity and passion for
service. However, the lack of observable student outcomes tied to current service learning
hinders their motivation to implement additional service learning opportunities. In terms of
organizational needs, the organization has aligned service learning with the mission of the
school. However, there are current organizational continuing needs of promoting interest, role
models and logistical support through increased time, and staff support to implement high-
quality service learning. Also, looking across the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
needs and assets at SLHS, the data suggested four emerging themes to consider in building an
integrated, high quality service learning experience at SLHS: building a strong connection to
mission, deeper understanding of high-quality service learning, necessary support to implement
high-quality service learning, and promoting service learning throughout the campus with a long-
term vision. Chapter 5 addresses the emerging themes and presents evidence-based
recommendations with a plan for implementation and evaluating a high-quality service learning
program.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 114
CHAPTER FIVE: RECOMMENDATIONS, IMPLEMENTATION, AND EVALUATION
Introduction to Recommendations
The findings from this research are intended to support achievement of the goal for SLHS
to implement an innovative model of service learning. This will be supported by having all
religious studies teachers by September 2020 successfully implement a minimum of one pilot
project that meets the standards of a high-quality service learning education. This pilot is
expected to build lessons and expertise to move the school by May 2021 to a place where all
students will participate in an integrated, high-quality service learning experience throughout
their high school years. In order to achieve this goal, this chapter takes the current needs and
emerging themes from the interview data to present evidence-based recommendations. The
recommendations from the emerging themes are presented with suggestions from service
learning leaders and action items that pertain to SLHS. Furthermore, the action items are sorted
according to Kotter’s 8 step change model (Kotter, 2012) to foster effective implementation.
Also, the chapter establishes an evaluation plan according to the Kirkpatrick model (Kirkpatrick
& Kirkpatrick, 2016) to assess if the changes are effective in providing a high-quality service
learning education at SLHS and to make needed adjustments over time.
Recommended Solutions to Emerging Themes
Combining the current assets and continuing knowledge, motivational, and organizational
needs, the data resulted in four emerging themes to pursue in building an innovative, high quality
service design at SLHS: building a strong connection to mission, teachers having a deep
understanding of high-quality service learning, providing teachers with necessary support to
implement high-quality service learning, and promoting service learning throughout the campus
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 115
with a long-term vision. Each theme will be presented as well as possible solutions and actions
steps under the theme. Table 11 below summarizes the emerging themes.
Table 11
Summary of Emerging Themes.
Emerging Themes Current Asset to
Build On
Continuing Need
Building a strong connection to mission X
Teachers having a deep understanding of
high-quality service learning
X
Providing teachers with necessary support
to implement high-quality service learning
X
Promoting service learning throughout the
campus with a long-term vision
X
Recommended Solutions to Theme 1: Building a Strong Connection to Mission
At SLHS, not only is it necessary for teachers to know how service learning is connected
with the school’s mission, it is the organization’s responsibility to promote a high relevance of
service learning that connects with the mission of the school. Although there is a strong
connection between service learning and mission and is perceived as a current asset, the school
needs to continue to develop and fully integrate service learning with the mission of the school.
According to Holland (1997), the perceived alignment of service learning with the mission of a
school is an organizational factor that is crucial to achieving its goals. The framework for
organizational perspective on commitment to service learning includes: low relevance, medium
relevance, high relevance, and full integration of mission and service learning. First, low
relevance refers to a school that does not perceive service learning as part of the mission since it
is not defined nor valued. Second, medium relevance refers to teachers that perceive service
learning as a part of the school’s mission. Third, high relevance refers to teachers that perceive
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 116
service learning as a crucial part of the school’s mission and academic agenda. Last, full
integration refers to both the teachers and organization perceiving service learning as part of their
character and identity and is fully aligned with the mission of the school (Holland, 1997). Young
(2007), leveraging the level of commitment and organizational factors set by Holland (1997),
conducted a study of 12 university and college service learning programs in the United States.
The schools that scored low on mission were linked to perceived misalignment of the campus
mission and institutional actions regarding service learning. The perceived misalignment led to
less communication, frustration, and the belief that teachers and administrators were not on the
same page. However, schools that scored high on mission showed the teachers believe strongly
that service learning is a part of their identity and they are fulfilling the mission with the support
of the school (Young, 2007).
At SLHS, based on the interview data results, both religious studies teachers and
department chairs perceive high relevance of service learning as part of the school’s mission.
The majority of the teachers expressed service learning as part of the school’s historical mission
and identity. However, both religious studies teachers and department chairs lack experience in
high-quality service learning and service learning is still not fully aligned with the mission of the
school. DiEnno and Taylor (2019) conducted a study examining the results of how a positive
service learning experience impacts the mission of the school with three categories of benefit for
teachers: pedagogical, personal, and relational. Teachers at SLHS lack the pedagogical relation
with service learning and its mission. Although there is a strong connection between service
learning and mission and is perceived as a current asset, the school needs to continue to develop
and fully integrate service learning with the mission of the school.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 117
Suggestions from service learning leaders on building a strong connection to
mission. The recommendations to fully integrate service learning into the mission of the school
involves intentionality showing commitment to service learning. Hegarty, Niall, and Angelidis
(2019) mentioned how service learning is a creative way to intentionally promote the mission of
schools, especially schools geared toward social justice. The service learning leaders interview
data revealed several ways to intentionally connect service learning and the mission of the
school, which included: hiring service learning and mission oriented teachers, prioritizing service
learning as a growth area, and providing opportunities for teachers to experience service learning
themselves.
Connecting service learning with the mission of the school is a foundational prerequisite
before trying to attempt any major changes and it begins by hiring faculty and staff committed to
service learning. SLL 4 said a big factor for promoting service learning is hiring well. SLL 4
stated, “Our school’s mission is strongly connected to service learning because we make sure
that everyone we hire buys into the mission to educate hearts and minds. A sample question
might ask how they will enhance the mission of the school through service.” This means that
potential candidates are asked if they have a desire toward service and having service learning
experience is seen as a positive attribute when considering the candidate to be hired.
Furthermore, SLL 5 mentioned that during the hiring process, it is important to state the
organization’s mission and ask how the candidate will enhance the mission. SLL 5’s mission is
to, “Provide young people with an academically rigorous set of courses designed to help them
become engaged world citizens who are active, compassionate, and lifelong learners.” In regards
to service learning, potential interview candidates can be asked how they will go beyond just
teaching and challenge students to be engaged in service as lifelong learners.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 118
Also, in order for service learning to be fully integrated into the mission of the school, it
must be a priority growth area for the entire school. O’Meara and Niehaus (2009) revealed that
the conceptual knowledge of the teachers on service learning is dependent on their perception of
how much service learning is aligned with the mission of the school. Hence, before offering
more human resources and professional development courses on service learning, the teachers
need to see that the organization is invested in making service learning a priority that is linked
with the mission. SLL 2 mentioned how she was able to make service learning a priority growth
area that was linked with the mission of the school. SLL 2 shared that service learning was not a
big part of the school’s mission. She said, “Service learning was about just getting your hours in
and it felt punitive as I was chasing kids down who didn’t meet the requirements.” However, she
was able to bring this issue during a Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC)
accreditation meeting. After deliberation with the school leadership, service learning was
identified as a priority growth area to enhance the mission of the school. SLL 2 stated, “Before,
it was hard to make changes to service learning and get buy-in from people. However, once it
was identified as a growth area, it made it easier to form committees and make some positive
impactful changes.” When the organization provides a sense of interest and commitment toward
service learning, the faculty become more open to trying out service learning (Bennett,
Sunderland, Bartleet, & Power, 2016; Butin, 2010). SLL 2 showed that identifying service
learning as a priority growth area to enhance the mission can show the organization’s
commitment to improving service learning, which makes it easier for teachers to engage in
service learning opportunities.
Moreover, it is important to provide opportunities for teachers to experience service
learning themselves. Stringfellow and Edmonds-Behrend (2013) pointed out that when teachers
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 119
were involved in service learning opportunities amongst teachers before applying it to the
students as part of the curriculum, they moved from volunteer status to social change agents that
bought into the mission of the school. SLL 1 said, “I can tell you for a fact that our principal has
been on every single service learning trip and he is a clear role model for us.” SLL 1 continued
by saying that when the principal sets the tone by going on service learning trips, it shows that
the organization is committed to service learning and promotes a culture of service learning
amongst the teachers. SLL 6 also said that when teachers are provided with service learning
opportunities to go themselves, it makes it easier for them to lead one in the future. For example,
SLL 6 said, “Some engineer teachers feel they are not capable of leading a service learning trip.
However, we provided help and when they went on a service learning trip themselves, it made it
easier for them to buy into what we are trying to do as a school.” Hence, fully integrating
service learning as part of the mission involves not just planning service learning trips for
students, but for the faculty to experience service learning themselves in order to grasp how it is
connected with the mission of the school.
Action steps for SLHS on building a strong connection to mission. The service
learning leaders’ interview data revealed several ways to intentionally connect service learning
and the mission of the school, which included: hiring service learning and mission oriented
teachers, prioritizing service learning as a growth area, and providing opportunities for teachers
to experience service learning themselves. Table 12 below provides a description of the action
plans based on the suggestions from the service learning leaders to provide a stronger connection
to mission and service learning.
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Table 12
Building a Strong Connection to Mission Action Plans
Emerging Themes Action Plan KMO Addressed
Building a
Strong
connection to
mission
Hire service learning
and mission oriented
teachers
• Teachers need to include their self-
identity toward social justice and
intrinsic passion for service
• Teachers need to know how service
learning is connected to the
institution and its mission
• Organizational need to align service
learning with the mission of the
organization
Prioritize service
learning as a growth
area
• The organization needs to promote
interest in service learning from
teachers and administrators
Provide opportunities
for teachers to
experience service
learning themselves
• Teachers need to know what service
learning entails
• Teachers need to believe that they
are capable of applying service
learning into their curriculum
SLHS needs to be more intentional in implementing these recommendations. For example, if
SLHS focuses on hiring teachers that are oriented toward the mission and service learning, it
would address the need to have teachers that are already passionate for service learning and
possess some prior knowledge of how service learning is connected to the mission of the school.
Moreover, it would address the organizational need to align service learning with the mission of
the organization. However, hiring service learning and mission oriented teachers is only
implicitly applied. At SLHS, all 10 religious studies teachers and five department chairs, no
matter where they were at in terms of their knowledge and motivation of service learning,
expressed a high motivation for service learning as part of their identity and intrinsic passion for
service. However, questions about service and how it is connected with the mission of working
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 121
at a Catholic school are not explicitly asked during the hiring interview process. DC 3 said, “I
think filling our school with service oriented faculty is key to making this work and it starts with
the hiring process.” One potential solution is to expand the existing role of the director of
mission and effectiveness. The director of mission and effectiveness can develop two to three
questions that explicitly ask candidates about service and mission during the interviews, similar
to questions brought up by SLL 4, which asks how will the candidate enhance the mission of the
school through service. Moreover, the director of mission and effectiveness can be part of the
hiring committee or interview panel for key administrator positions to ensure that the school is
committed to hiring leaders that are service oriented and in line with the mission of the school to
educate hearts and minds to serve the world.
SLHS can also be intentional in prioritizing service learning as a growth area. This
solution addresses the organizational need to promote interest in service learning from teachers
and administrators. The first item in the school’s strategic plan is to fully embrace SLHS’s
Catholic mission identity and ignite the hearts of its whole community through uncompromising
commitment to lives of service.
2
However, prioritizing service learning as part of the Catholic
mission of the school is not explicitly explained in detail. Similar to the example of SLL 2, who
deliberately identified service learning as a growth area to enhance the mission of the school,
SLHS needs to concretely identify service learning as a clear growth area to enhance the mission
of the school. The interview data clearly showed that teachers are open to service learning but it
needs to improve. Moreover, surveys can be administered to students, teachers, and the
administration to provide more data points on the need to have service learning as a clear growth
2
The source comes from the organization’s website and the actual URL is not provided in order
to protect the identity of the school.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 122
area to fulfill strategic plan priority one. Once service learning is identified as a concrete way to
work on the first item in the strategic plan, then it becomes the basis to form committees, include
service learning as part of the educational improvement plan of the school, and discuss the need
to provide more personnel and resources to implement a high-quality service learning program.
In terms of providing opportunities for teachers to experience service learning
themselves, SLHS can also be intentional in making it possible for teachers to experience service
learning before being asked to lead a service learning trip. This solution addresses the teachers’
need to know what service learning entails, and the teachers’ need to believe that they are
capable of applying service learning into their curriculum. Those who have previously had
personal service learning experience are intrinsically passionate about the mission to serve. For
example, DC 2 said, “I was fascinated with service as a kid and decided to join the Peace Corps.
I enjoy service and it’s a part of who I am as a person to this day.” SLL 6 also noted that when
teachers experience service learning themselves before being asked to lead a service learning
trip, not only do they feel more confident, but they understand that service is a big part of the
school’s mission. At SLHS, all service learning experiences ask teachers to be leaders in charge
of leading the service learning trip. However, the school can provide opportunities for teachers
and faculty members to simply attend service learning experiences as a participant without
worrying about the logistics and connecting it back to the curriculum. Also, the school can
provide opportunities at least once a year for faculty only service learning experiences as part of
a professional development day or a retreat. These types of experiences will allow teachers to
simply experience service learning and how it is connected with the mission of the school.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 123
Recommended Solutions to Theme 2: Providing Teachers with Support to Implement
High-quality Service Learning
The teachers at SLHS recognize the organizational importance of how service learning is
aligned with the mission of the school but the teachers need more organizational support. The
openness to try out service learning needs to be met with organizational support by providing
role models. Abes, Jackson, and Jones (2002) showed that when there are concrete role model
examples of service learning, it increases teacher self-efficacy and promotes utility value as
teachers can see increase improvement in student performance. However, a lack of role model
service learning examples can demotivate teachers to implement service learning. One key to
get teachers to implement service learning is the institution providing concrete examples of
service learning through programs and personnel (Furco & Moely, 2012).
Also, the teachers at SLHS need to be provided with time to work on service learning.
Banerjee and Hausafus (2007) revealed the main reason for teachers not using service learning
was that service learning courses are time and labor intensive. It would be difficult to balance
implementing service learning with other professional responsibilities. Similarly, Jacoby (2014)
concluded the main challenge for faculty for implementing service learning is the fear that the
logistical issues and details will be overwhelming. At SLHS, the majority of religious studies
teachers and service learning teachers expressed a lack of time as a major stressor to
implementing high-quality service learning. Furthermore, teachers expressed a desire for
department meetings and professional development with role model examples. Therefore, SLHS
needs to come up with solutions for the organization to provide more role model examples and
time for teachers to implement high-quality service learning.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 124
Suggestions from service learning leaders on providing teachers with support. Some
of the school districts in Maryland provide concrete role model examples of service learning
support through programs and personnel. Finney (1997) stated that the Maryland Student
Service Alliance (MSSA) had been formed to provide formal structure to each school district to
plan and implement service learning. Each region has a MSSA staff member who coordinates
and facilitates meetings and professional development opportunities in service learning.
Furthermore, Miller (2014) showed that in certain Maryland school districts, faculty are provided
with devoted service learning staff members dedicated towards guiding faculty. Moreover,
teachers are given time during school hours to collaborate in professional learning communities
to implement service learning. During the interviews, SLL 3, who works at a school district in
the Eastern United States, confirmed that her school and the district has a service learning
support center with staff members who are available to mentor teachers interested in service
learning. SLL 3 mentioned that although it took time to get funding for the dedicated service
learning positions, it was definitely worth it. Currently, teachers in SLL 3’s school district can
simply reach out to the local service learning coordinator and an available service learning staff
member will help guide teachers to plan a high-quality service learning experience.
Also, SLL 3 mentioned the launch of a service learning portal on the internet. SLL 3 said
with excitement, “Yeah! So it’s like Facebook, basically, you know, of service learning and
you’re connecting students with organizations and having them take ownership.” The district
completed a pilot program for the entire county and it was quite successful. SLL 3 stated, “We
are finally up to speed and it’s so easy to login to the portal and see upcoming service
opportunities, register, and come back to report it on the portal. Service organizations can post
their needs as well.” Instead of teachers scrambling to look for service learning opportunities,
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 125
they can simply login to the portal and find applicable service learning experiences with posts
from other teachers to receive input on student learning. SLL 3 said the portal will continue to
grow and serve as a tool for teachers and service organizations to connect and highlight signature
programs, role model programs that serves as an example of how service learning can benefit
student learning and the community.
In regards to providing time within school hours for teachers to work on service learning,
several organizations have made financial commitments and others have looked for student
mentors to help alleviate the workload for the teachers. SLL 7 said, “It can be a very
burdensome for faculty to take on service learning. Not only do we need to sit down and support
them by going through the syllabus and seeing what is possible, we also have to give them time
to actually plan and try it out.” Providing time involves making a financial commitment to allow
teachers preparation or professional development time during school hours. SLL 3 said that a
school can have all the programs and staff to help foster a service learning experience but if
teachers are not provided time, it simply will not work. There needs to be dedicated time for
teachers to actually reach out for help. SLL 5 said regarding her organization, “We have
curriculum helpers. They are mentors/role models that take you through designing lesson plans
for teachers and making connections with local organizations.” The curriculum helpers are
available to meet with the teachers during school hours, professional development time, or others
are provided preparation time by the school to work on service learning. SLL 2 said, “Once you
provide time for teachers to work on it (service learning), they can get real creative.”
Also, student mentors in service learning can help alleviate workload for the teachers and
free up time to plan and facilitate a high-quality service learning experience. The service
learning associates are students chosen by the faculty that serve as facilitators to help teachers.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 126
As stated by SLL 6, “It is hard for teachers to do high-quality service learning by meeting
regularly with the students. But the service learning associates meet one-on-one with each
student and journeys with the students on their service learning experience by asking questions
and going over the reflection work.” Similarly, SLL 7 has a peer educator model of service
learning. SLL 7 said, “Our student peer educators are paid a stipend for meeting one-on-one
with students regularly throughout the semester to discuss the reflection questions and monitor
their progress throughout the service learning experience.” There are some challenges such as
student peer educators not having knowledge in certain subjects. For example, SLL 7 mentioned
that a student can reflect on a service learning experience in geology class but the peer educator
may have never taken a geology class. However, it is an opportunity for both students to learn
from each other. Furthermore, knowing that teachers have student peer educators to help
facilitate the service learning process, it makes it less of a time commitment for teachers to plan
and follow up on the service learning experience.
Action steps for SLHS to provide teachers with support. At SLHS, there is a lot of
room for growth for the organization to provide teachers with necessary support to implement
high-quality service learning. Table 13 below provides a description of the action plans based on
the suggestions from the service learning leaders to provide teachers with support to implement a
high-quality service learning program.
Table 13
Providing Teachers with Support Action Plans
Emerging Themes Action Plan KMO Addressed
Provide teachers
with necessary
support to
implement high-
Service learning
portal
• Teachers need to know what service
learning entails
• Teachers need to know how to
prepare a service learning
experience that benefits both the
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 127
quality service
learning
classroom and the service
organization
• Teachers need to know how to
reflect on their abilities to
implement service learning
activities.
• Teachers need to know how to form
long lasting relationships with
service organizations
Add service learning
personnel
• The organization needs to provide
role model examples of service
learning
Provide adequate
time for teachers to
plan service learning
opportunities
• The organization needs to provide
logistical support for teachers to
implement service learning through
increased time, staff support, and
incentives
Student service
learning mentorship
program
• The organization needs to provide
logistical support for teachers to
implement service learning through
increased time, staff support, and
incentives
• Teachers need to see improvements
in student learning outcomes that
come from service learning
Currently, SLHS has only one person dedicated to service learning. One immediate
solution before hiring more personnel is to start a service learning portal as recommended by
SLL 3. Starting a service learning portal would address the knowledge need of teachers to know
what service learning entails, provide online videos of how to prepare a service learning
experience that benefits both the classroom and the service organization, and sample lesson plans
for teachers to know how to reflect on their abilities to implement service learning activities.
Moreover, the examples on the portal would help teachers with the motivational need to believe
that they are capable of applying service learning into their curriculum. Instead of the service
learning coordinator having to organize everything and follow up with teachers and service
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 128
organizations, the portal can serve as a tool to empower teachers and service organizations to
connect with each other. Moreover, teachers can share best practices and resources through the
portal.
Also, SLHS can provide concrete role model examples of service learning support by
adding personnel. Adding service learning personnel would address the organization needs to
provide role model examples of service learning so that they can provide professional
development to teach high-quality service learning to teachers. Currently at SLHS, with only
one staff member designated as the service learning coordinator, it is very hard for one person to
serve all the needs for a high-quality service learning program. Once service learning is
identified as a priority growth area to enhance the mission of the school, it makes it easier to
present a case to spend money to hire more service learning staff members. Similar to SLL 3’s
service learning support center or SLL 5’s curriculum helpers, SLHS needs to start a service
learning department with more personnel to provide role model examples for teachers. The extra
service learning staff members would not only provide professional department opportunities,
but also sit down with teachers and help plan an effective service learning program. Eventually,
the added service learning personnel would form a service learning department dedicated to
providing the school community with service learning needs.
SLHS needs to also provide adequate time for teachers to plan service learning
opportunities. This solution addresses the organizational need to provide logistical support for
teachers to implement service learning through increased time, staff support, and incentives. At
SLHS, many religious studies teachers and department chairs expressed a desire to learn more
about service learning but simply do not have time. SLL 3 said that a school can have all the
programs and staff to help foster a service learning experience but if teachers are not provided
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 129
time, it simply will not work. As a result, SLHS needs to provide time within school hours for
teachers to work with the service learning department and plan service learning opportunities.
Notably, the organization needs to allow time during department meetings to discuss service
learning. The organization can also offer grants for professional development opportunities in
service learning. At SLHS, teachers quickly sign-up for professional development opportunities
and service learning professional development opportunities can be set as a priority. Moreover,
certain teachers, especially if they show an interest and are motivated to try service learning, can
be allowed a prep period to plan for service learning opportunities and teach one less class.
SLHS can also look into promoting teachers to collaborate and co-teach classes and join together
in service learning projects to share the responsibility of implementing a service learning
program. Lastly, the organization can consider an all faculty school retreat on service learning to
provide adequate time for teachers to collaborate and incorporate service learning as part of the
curriculum and cultural identity at SLHS.
Also, students can take on leadership roles in service learning in order to provide support
and free up time for teachers. Similar to SLL 6’s service learning associates program and SLL
7’s peer educator model, SLHS could start a student service learning mentorship program. The
student service learning mentorship program would address the organization needs to provide
logistical support for teachers by freeing up time for teachers. Moreover, the service learning
mentors can provide teachers with updated student improvements that resulted from service
learning. The service learning mentorship program would start out as a pilot project for students
(junior and seniors) who are passionate about service. The service learning department would
train the student leaders on the standards of a high-quality service learning program and how to
lead their peers in the reflection process (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011). Throughout the
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 130
semester, the student leaders would meet with their peer students at least twice a semester to
guide the students in the service learning process and provide updates and suggestions to service
learning teachers on the students.
Recommended Solutions to Theme 3: Teachers Need Deeper Understanding of High-
quality Service Learning
At SLHS, although service learning was perceived with a strong sense of the school’s
mission with a spirit of openness to try service learning, teachers were lacking in possessing
deeper knowledge of key service learning components. Abes, Jackson, and Jones (2002)
concluded that teachers simply do not know enough about service learning to teach it effectively.
At SLHS, the religious studies teachers were able to generally describe service learning but 8 out
of 10 could not fully articulate a high-quality service learning program that is linked to
curriculum. Also, Cronley, Madden, and Davis (2015) showed that when there is a lack of
reciprocal exchange between teachers and service providers, service providers do not feel as
equals, become disengaged in classroom learning needs, and students do not have a positive
service experience. At SLHS, 9 out of the 10 religious studies teachers said they can improve on
how to prepare a service learning experience that benefits both the classroom and service
organizations. In terms of the need for reflection, a study by Warner and Esposito (2009)
revealed the importance for not only the students to reflect, but the teachers as well to
comprehend the experiential learning process and make necessary improvements. At SLHS, a
majority of the religious studies teachers expressed lack of knowledge in incorporating reflection
as part of service learning. Moreover, many of the religious studies teachers expressed the
knowledge need to form long lasting relationships with service organizations as the biggest area
for growth.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 131
In comparison to religious studies teachers, the department chairs, as expected,
demonstrated less knowledge of service learning than the religious studies teachers due to their
lack of experience. Also, when asked to rate on a scale of 1 to 10 if they believe they are capable
of applying service learning into their curriculum, the average was 5. Many department chairs
expressed low level of self-efficacy in implementing service learning due to the lack of
understanding what a service learning program entails.
Suggestions from service learning leaders on deeper understanding of service
learning. There are many examples and models to help teachers gain a deeper understanding of
high-quality service learning. One of the reasons why there is a lack of high-quality service
learning is that there is no clear definition of service learning (Billig, 2000; Jacoby & Associates,
1996; Spring, Grimm, & Dietz, 2008). However, according to Pritchard and Whitehead (2004),
the most commonly used standards to define high-quality service learning were developed by the
National Youth Leadership Council (NYLC). The National Youth Leadership Council created
K-12 standards of a high-quality service learning program, which include the following eight
components: duration and intensity, partnerships, link to curriculum, meaningful service, youth
voice, diversity, reflection, and progress monitoring (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011).
Also, it is important to prepare the teachers for how to create a service learning
experience that benefits both classroom and the service organization. Sigmon (1994) mentions
the need for a balance between service and learning by presenting four levels of service learning
pedagogy. If the curriculum separates the service from the learning goals, then it can be defined
as service learning. Second, if the learning goals of a course is the primary focus, then service
becomes secondary and it is called service-LEARNING. Examples of service-LEARNING
include internships and field education (Eyler & Giles, 1999). Third, if the service outcomes
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 132
become the primary focus, then the learning objectives become secondary and it is called
SERVICE-learning. Examples of SERVICE-learning include community service and
volunteerism (Furco, 2003). Lastly, Sigmon (1994) describes SERVICE-LEARNING as an
equal focus to both the classroom learning and the service goals. Both the service and the
learning goals mutually reinforce each other to benefit both the students and the community
(Eyler & Giles, 1999). For example, students learning about physiology can apply their learning
in the course to providing mobility assistance to seniors at a nursing home. The program
provides a needed service to seniors and it can help the students better understand physiology of
elderly people. Consequently, the program benefits both the students and service organizations
(Furco, 1996). Subsequently, service learning can be defined as an active learning experience
that balances classroom learning and service goals. When the definition of service learning is
applied correctly, it can result in benefitting students, teachers, and the community.
In addition to defining deeper concepts and principles of service learning, there are
certain implementation models of high-quality service learning. SLL 7’s institution serves as a
model for high-quality service learning reflection. As mentioned before, the student peer
educators meet regularly with service learning students and focus heavily on reflection. SLL 7
said regarding student peer educators, “They prepare the students for service learning and they
actually read and comment on the students essays and they’re kind of like a teaching assistant.”
Moreover, SLL 7 mentioned that reflection is the key to the mission of the service learning
program. SLL 7 said there is a difference between just reflecting on an experience, and
reflective thinking. SLL 7 stated regarding simply reflection, “Very often that reflection is just
kind of keep a journal and somehow it will magically happen.” However, reflective thinking is
intentional and guided to help draw out the experiential learning experience.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 133
The student peer educators engage the service learning students through a reflective
thinking process, which includes five mini essay prompt questions to discuss. SLL 7 said, “We
have a fairly prompted process that you know each essay prompts, depending on what kind of
reflection students are doing has a particular purpose.” The first essay prompt is a pre-
experience prompt geared to help students prepare for a service learning experience. The prompt
challenges students to recognize an awareness of their abilities and interests as well as cultivating
an understanding of the local community and global needs. After the first essay and before the
second essay, students are asked to reflect on their meeting and impressions of the student
advisor, potential challenges with service learning, and realistic goals in the service learning
program. Second essay prompt is focused on setting the context of the service learning
experience. Students are asked to conduct basic research on their problem of practice and how it
relates with the organization and community they are serving. After the second essay and before
the third essay, there is an online forum that students are asked to post to share and learn from
each other’s research. Afterwards, the third essay prompt is regarding program objectives.
Students are asked to relate their service learning community experience to their research, ideas,
readings, and course content. After the third essay and before the fourth essay, students are
invited into a group discussion to reflect on their experience and share insights. This leads to the
fourth essay prompt, which is a continuation of the program objectives and the theme can vary
depending on the individual’s interest. Lastly, the fifth essay is a final reflection on the service
learning experience and how to potentially continue the work that they have done. Therefore,
SLL 7’s model of reflection provides a concrete reflection curriculum for service learning
students.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 134
Also, another model example of service learning is the International Baccalaureate (IB)
Organization. The IB is a non-profit organization that currently works with nearly 3,300 schools
in 141 countries, providing young people with an academically rigorous set of courses designed
to help them become engaged world citizens who are active, compassionate, and lifelong
learners (Billig, 2017). Billig (2017) concluded that students in the IB program showed
improvement in developing personal and leadership skills since the service learning program was
meaningful, linked to curriculum, included student voice and choice, and incorporated elements
of in-depth reflection that included, for example, discussion of impact on self and community,
and shared discussion with peers. The research confirms that the IB service learning program is
fulfilling the standard of a high-quality service learning program set by The National Youth
Leadership Council (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011).
There are certain elements of the IB service learning program that make it unique when
compared to other service learning programs. For example, instead of requiring mandatory
service hours or attendance, the students in the IB program meet with their service learning
coordinators to discuss fulfilling their student learning objectives. SLL 5 mentioned regarding
the IB service learning program. “So we’re very mindful of how we talk about and how we
implement it and like I said throughout our programs we do it in a developmentally appropriate
way.” According to SLL 5, there are five stages of service learning objectives. First, students
need to identify their own strengths and develop areas for growth. For example, a student can
explore a passion in science, recognizing certain gifts but also areas for growth. Second,
students need to demonstrate participation with service learning experiences. SLL 5 said,
“Students can articulate the five stages of the learning cycle, from investigation, preparation,
action, reflection, and demonstrating understanding and accomplishments to an audience.” For
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 135
example, students can demonstrate their knowledge and awareness by working on a previous
service learning experience, or by creating a new project. Third, students need to demonstrate
the skills and recognize the benefits of working collaboratively. For instance, a student can
reflect on the experience of working together as a group and with service organizations. Fourth,
students need to demonstrate engagement with issues of global significance. SLL 5 stated:
The whole purpose behind having the service is about the empowerment that we want for young
people. It’s one thing to say that, you know, we’re going to have internationally engaged students
that want to be peacemakers, it’s another thing to give those students an opportunity to enact
those roles as potential world leaders.
Since there is a network of IB schools in 141 countries, it makes it easier for students to connect
with other schools and organizations throughout the world (Billig, 2017). Fifth, students need to
recognize and consider the ethics of choices and actions. Students need to demonstrate the
knowledge of how service can have an effect on people with consequences that can have a
positive sustainable impact in the future.
Action steps for SLHS to provide deeper understanding of service learning. Based
on the teacher’s lack of deeper understanding of high-quality service learning, SLHS needs to
implement some of the models from service learning leaders. Table 14 below provides a
description of the action plans based on the suggestions from the service learning leaders to
provide teachers with a deeper understanding of service learning.
Table 14
Deeper Understanding of Service Learning Action Plans
Emerging Themes Action Plan KMO Addressed
Teachers
needing deeper
understanding of
high-quality
service learning
Professional
development on
service learning
• Teachers need to know what service
learning entails
• Teachers need to know how service
learning is connected to the
institution and its mission
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 136
• Teachers need to know how to
prepare a service learning
experience that benefits both the
classroom and the service
organization
• Teachers need to know how to
reflect on their abilities to
implement service learning
activities.
• Teachers need to know how to form
long lasting relationships with
service organizations
Implement Reflective
Process
• Teachers need to know how to
reflect on their abilities to
implement service learning
activities.
Once service learning is identified as a key area of growth to enhance the mission of the school
and there is a service learning department with faculty and student leaders, then the deeper
knowledge of the content can be shared through formation opportunities such as professional
development. The formation sessions would address all the knowledge needs of teachers to
know what service learning entails, how service learning is connected to the institution and its
mission, how to prepare a service learning experience that benefits both the classroom and the
service organization, how to reflect on their abilities to implement service learning activities, and
how to form long lasting relationships with service organizations. To begin, staff from the
service learning department can lead department meetings to discuss and offer professional
development on the definition of service learning as well as the most commonly used standards
to define high-quality service learning that were developed by the National Youth Leadership
Council (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011). Each of the eight qualities of a service learning
could be carefully explained to the teachers with concrete examples. Moreover, teachers could
be provided with the four levels of service learning pedagogy and how a high-quality service
learning experience benefits both classroom and the service organization (Sigmon, 1994). The
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 137
portal as described by SLL 3 can also serve as an online tool to provide examples of high-quality
service learning.
Also, in regards to reflection during the service learning process, SLL 7’s institution
serves as a model for high-quality service learning reflection engaged in a reflective thinking
process. Following SLL 7’s reflection model addresses the need for teachers to know how to
reflect on their abilities to implement service learning activities. At SLHS, student leaders can
be trained in how to guide student through a reflective process with similar prompts and essay
questions from SLL 7’s institution. Afterwards, service learning students could be assigned to
student leaders that will guide the students throughout the school year. Moreover, student
leaders will also help in meeting with service learning students to discuss the five stages of
service learning objectives from SLL 5’s International Baccalaureates school model. Currently,
students at SLHS are required to simply complete hours as a graduation requirement. Instead,
guiding students by discussing the key learning objectives of service learning can make the
service learning experience more meaningful, impactful, and challenge students to foster
continued long-lasting relationship with the service organizations.
Recommended Solutions to Theme 4: Connect Service Learning with the Entire
Community as Part of a Long-term Vision
At SLHS, a new knowledge need by both religious studies teachers and department chairs
was the need to know how to form long lasting relationships with service organizations. Part of
forming long term relationships with service organizations is to provide more opportunities for
service learning beyond the religious studies department and as part of the entire community.
Spring, Dietz, and Grimm (2006) conducted a survey of high school students and discovered that
students engaged in intense and longer periods of service learning were three times more likely
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 138
to believe that they can make a difference in the community when compared to students involved
in short or no service projects. Longer and more intense service learning results in positive
ongoing sustainable partnerships with the community, which leads to greater self-discipline and
measure of academic progress (Abravanel, 2003; Bailis & Melchior, 2004; Kramer, 2000;
Sheldon & Epstein, 20005).
At SLHS, even if a service learning department is created, simply providing more support
staff and professional development is not enough to implement a sustainable high-quality service
learning program. In order to promote a long-term vision of service learning, the interviews
suggested toward permeating service learning throughout the campus instead of limiting it to
religion class. Also, service learning can spread beyond just the classroom.
Suggestions from service learning leaders on involving community and long-term
vision. The examples from service learning leaders help present potential ways to spread service
learning throughout the campus, whether it is providing service learning outside the religious
studies department, outside of a classroom setting, or a new building dedicated to service
learning. For example, SLL 6 shared insights on how to attract teachers from different
departments to try service learning. SLL 6 stated, “You have to take teachers where they are at,
focus on their interest, and guide them through the process.” SLL 6 provided an example of how
some engineering teachers started feeling they are not capable of applying service learning into
their curriculum. The engineering teachers felt uncomfortable taking students outside the class
and were scared to lead reflections. However, the engineering teachers were provided with
service learning mentors that journeyed with them and they felt more comfortable the second and
third time applying service learning into the engineering curriculum. SLL 6 showed that
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 139
although some teachers may lack self-efficacy or knowledge in service learning, it is possible to
expand service learning in different departments with proper support and practice.
Also, SLL 2 showed that service learning can be applied outside of the religious studies
classes and as part of the graduation outcomes. SLL 2 said, “Once we made changes to the
graduation outcomes and included service learning as a capstone project, it showed that it was
for real and other teachers and administrators were on board.” SLL 2 was able to transform
service learning as simply completing hours into a four-year graduation outcome geared toward
transforming students to be people of service. SLL 2 stated that at the freshmen level, students
are encouraged to seek and explore service opportunities with a reflection element. At the
sophomore level, students engage in deeper service learning opportunities and by junior year,
students are connecting service with social justice issues as they reflect during a junior year
retreat. Afterwards, towards the end of the junior year, students begin preparing for a capstone
project. As seniors, students prepare a capstone project that encompasses their service learning
experience and serves as a culmination thesis for their high school experience. It is part of the
graduation requirement and some capstone projects are chosen as part of the school’s own TEDx
talk. SLL 2’s capstone project example revealed how service learning can be incorporated
outside of religion class and throughout the entire high school process as a graduation
requirement.
Also, SLL 4 shared how his institution is creatively implementing service learning
outside of the classroom setting and connecting service learning with the entire community. For
example, SLL 4 said service learning has become an important aspect of the school’s football
team and the fan base. Not only do student athletes participate in service learning, but the fans
who tailgate at football games are also challenged to participate in service learning. SLL 4 said,
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 140
“We ask people for two to three hours within their whole you know football weekend to be a part
of this.” Whether the football team is at home or traveling on the road, the service learning staff
contacts local service organizations in the area to prepare a meaningful service learning
experience for the fans who show up for the football game. SLL 4 continued, “It is a great way
for the fans to make a positive difference, connect with other, and help further the mission of our
school to educate hearts and minds.” Furthermore, SLL 4 talked about service learning based
family camps. SLL 4 stated:
Our family volunteer camps are about inviting our alumni back to campus and they give a week
of their summer vacation and time. It’s great because our graduates bring their children with
them and they serve a family as they pass on our school’s mission of service. We connect
families with great service learning opportunities so they can be engaged, work together, and feel
like they are making a difference as they give back. Our closing Thursday night is special as we
share stories and there are some remarkable reflections.
SLL 4 expressed that the service learning family camps are so packed during the summer
that they now have to create a waiting list. This is a great way to effectively use service learning
to engage the wider community, especially the alumni network. SLL 4 commented that instead
of asking alumni to donate money, inviting alumni to come to the service learning family camp
is a much more effective way to keep alumni engaged in the mission of the school. After the
service learning family camp, often alumni give money without even being asked to as they
cherish their educational experience and want to continue the mission of the school to serve
others.
Also, as part of the long-term vision, SLL 4 was proud to mention the school’s Center for
Social Concern, which is an entire building dedicated toward service learning. SLL 4 said, “It
started in an old TV studio on campus and now is takes up a large part of the campus. The idea
is that not every student is going to have the same experience but there’s an array of offerings for
students to be involved in something.” Even though the Center for Social Concern started out
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 141
small, it has been increasing in attendance every year and there has been more participation from
students and faculty. Furthermore, the faculty have increased their contributions to the
educational and reflective components at the core of the Center’s courses and programs.
3
Moreover, SLL 4 said that many service organizations are turning to the Center for Social
Concern for partnership opportunities and receive help from students and alumni. Overall, the
Center for Social Concern has made it clear that service learning is an important part of the
school’s mission and priorities. The Center for Social Concern helps connect every part of the
school’s community from a service learning perspective. SLL 4 continued, “At our school, we
don’t have a Greek system with frats and sororities. Instead we have residence halls and every
hall has an assigned service learning coordinator that connects students back to the Center for
Social Concern.” SLL 4 said students become fiercely loyal to their residence hall as they live
together and serve together. Therefore, the Center for Social Concern shows how service
learning can permeate the culture of an entire school and affect the entire community long-term.
Action steps for SLHS on involving community and long-term vision. The examples
of the service learning leaders help shape potential solutions at SLHS to connect service learning
with the entire community as part of a long-term vision. Table 15 below provides a description
of the action plans based on the suggestions from the service learning leaders to connect service
learning with the entire community as part of a long-term vision for service learning.
3
The source comes from the organization’s website and the actual URL is not provided in order
to protect the identity of the school.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 142
Table 15
Involving Community and Long-term Action Plans
Emerging Themes Action Plan KMO Addressed
Promote service
learning
throughout the
campus with a
long-term vision
Provide service
learning opportunities
outside religious
studies
• Organizational need to align service
learning with the mission of the
organization
• The organization needs to promote
interest in service learning from
teachers and administrators
Service learning
capstone project
• Organizational need to align service
learning with the mission of the
organization
• Teachers need to see improvements
in student learning outcomes that
come from service learning
Engage parents and
alumni through
service learning
• organizational need to align service
learning with the mission of the
organization
• The organization needs to promote
interest in service learning from
teachers and administrators
Build a Center for
Social Innovation
• organizational need to align service
learning with the mission of the
organization
• The organization needs to promote
interest in service learning from
teachers and administrators
• The organization needs to provide
logistical support for teachers to
implement service learning through
increased time, staff support, and
incentives
• Teachers need to include their self-
identity toward social justice and
intrinsic passion for service
SLL 6 has shown that with proper support and practice, non-experienced service learning
teachers from different departments are able to implement a high-quality service learning
program. At SLHS, teachers outside of the religious department have not attempted to
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 143
incorporate service learning into the curriculum. However, after the development of a service
learning department, it is possible to consider implementing service learning experiences in
departments outside of religious studies. Having service learning experiences outside of
religious studies would address the organizational need to promote interest in service learning
from teachers and administrators and align service learning with the mission of the organization
as service learning spreads in other departments. The school can start with each department
receiving professional development training on service learning, which includes definitions, best
practices, and student leaders to help teachers as well. The second phase would include a pilot
service learning class in each department. Depending on the success of the pilot course, the
school could then consider moving towards including a service learning element in each class at
SLHS.
Also, SLL 2 showed that service learning can be incorporated as part of the graduation
outcome in a transformational thorough capstone project. Having a capstone project that
becomes part of the graduation outcome would address the organizational need to align service
learning with the mission of the organization as service learning becomes a concrete outcome for
graduation. Moreover, the capstone projects can serve as a way to showcase and highlight
student achievement through service learning, which addresses the motivational need for
teachers to see improvements in student learning outcomes that come from service learning.
Currently, students at SLHS have to complete service hours as part of their graduation
requirement. Since service is seen as completing hours, DC 3 said that it can be hard to see how
service learning can have a big impact on the math department. However, along with getting rid
of the hours and using learning objectives similar to SLL 5’s institution, having service learning
as a capstone project throughout a student’s high school career makes it more viable to consider
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 144
service learning outside of religion class. For example, a freshman interested in math can think
about how math can be used to serve others. After helping out as a math tutor, a student can be
engaged in the service learning reflection process with the help of student service learning
leaders. As the student enters high school, the student can explore world problems and social
justice issues through the lens of math. Afterwards, as a senior the student can work with other
classmates to engage in a capstone math project that uses math to serve the community. It could
be creating a financial plan for teenagers, solving an economic problem, evaluating fair wage
practices at school, or starting a math tutoring application for underprivileged children. The
possibilities can be endless and the capstone project can eventually be shared at the school’s
TEDx talk.
In regards to creatively using service learning outside of the classroom setting and
connecting service learning with the entire community, SLL 4 revealed several examples that can
be implemented at SLHS to engage parents and alumni in service learning. Applying SLL 4’s
examples to SLHS addresses the organizational need to align service learning with the mission of
the organization as service learning expands beyond just the teachers and students. Furthermore,
it addresses the need for the organization to promote interest in service learning from teachers
and administrators as service learning becomes an area of interest in athletics and alumni
engagement. At SLL 4’s institution, they have service learning opportunities for fans as they
tailgate for football games. Similarly, at SLHS, thousands of people attend football games.
Like SLL 4’s institution, the SLHS service learning department can coordinate with student
service learning leaders to organize service learning opportunities before Friday night football
games. It can start out as something simple - asking fans to bring canned goods or extra school
supplies to the game to help others in need. However, it can become part of the football tailgate
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 145
culture by organizing service learning experiences in the afternoon before the football game. It
would be a great opportunity for opposing fans to collaborate and serve the community
recognizing that there is something bigger than football, which is to be of service to others, no
matter your team affiliation.
Additionally, SLL 4’s idea of family volunteer camps can be something very successful
at SLHS. Many parents ask for service opportunities for families and currently, SLHS only
offers service learning opportunities for students. The alumni office often faces difficulty trying
to get parents and alumni to connect with the school. However, a family volunteer camp during
the summer or a weekend is a great way to invite families to be involved in service learning.
This is a great way to continue to drive the mission of the school to the parents and alumni as
well. Moreover, it can increase participation in the school’s women’s group, men’s group, and
alumni reunions as they look forward to serving together. A successful family volunteer camp at
SLHS would allow service learning to permeate the entire community, beyond just the students,
by reaching out to parents and alumni.
SLL 4’s Center for Social Concern can be a long-term goal for SLHS to put service
learning as the central focus of the school’s identity, mission, and future. DC 3 said, “If the
school shows interest in service learning by allocating more resources and promoting it, then it
means that there is a sense of commitment, which helps even non-religious teachers buy into the
service learning model.” SLL 4 showed that the Center for Social Concern started out small but
helped transform the entire culture of the school. According to SLL 4, everything is connected
with the Center for Social Concern, even the hallway dorms as they have a service learning
coordinator that helps organize service learning opportunities through the Center for Social
Concern.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 146
At SLHS, the organization as a whole is working on a new vision statement that is going
to shape the new science building. Instead of calling it a STEM building or a maker’s lab, it can
be called a Center for Social Innovation. Building a Center for Social Innovation would
concretely address the organizational need to align service learning with the mission of the
organization and promote interest in service learning as time and money will be dedicated toward
the building. The Center for Social Innovation can also be the hub to provide logistical support
for service learning and foster a passion for teachers to include service learning as part of their
identity to serve. DC 2 said, “I think we are working on a new vision statement and it mentions
forming leaders of impact, which is not just smart people but people who make a difference by
serving the world.” Having a service learning department is a great start but as the program
continues to grow with more staff and service learning opportunities outside of religious studies
classes, it can serve as a case to consider building a Center for Social innovation. Instead of
service learning coordinators hosting department meetings or professional development in the
teacher’s lounge, the Center for Social Innovation can be the central focal point where students,
teachers, and outside organizations can come to collaborate and incorporate high-quality service
learning. At the Center for Social Innovation, students are provided the necessary space to not
only come for help on service learning, but also work on potential innovative solutions to
problems that students encounter as they are helping service organizations. The student’s work
can become a capstone project that can be shared as a TEDx talk or displayed at the Center for
Social Innovation for feedback and potentially receive funding from investors and donors willing
to help with the project. Building a Center for Social Innovation at SLHS can be considered in a
long-term plan that helps permeate service learning as an important aspect of the entire
community.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 147
Also, the Center for Social Innovation can eventually become an entity that reaches
beyond a physical building. SLL 4 mentioned that the school has service learning community
throughout the United States that is led by alumni leaders interested in serving their local
community. The Center for Social Innovation can be mobile and utilize available office space
and school classrooms throughout the United States to create a network hub that is dedicated to
service learning and making an impact in the local community. The visibility of the Center for
Social Innovation can help repair the negative impact of the priest abuse crisis in the Catholic
Church and tap into young people desiring to make a social change to rebuild the faith of the
people. Moreover, when people are able to see the potential positive impact the Center for
Social Innovation can have on the local communities, it will lead to people seeing the promise
service learning holds to change lives and communities.
Implementation Plan
The proposed solutions that correspond to the emerging themes from the interview data
need to be put together into an implementation plan. One change model that can be utilized at
SLHS is Kotter’s 8 step change model (Kotter, 2012). Kotter’s change model provides clear and
easy to follow instructions that can implement the proposed solutions into the change model.
Table 16 below is a description of the implementation plan based on Kotter’s change model with
people that are responsible and the estimated time frame.
Table 16
Implementation Plan Table
Kotter’s
Change
Model
Action Step People Responsible Time Frame
1: Establish a
sense of
urgency
Faculty in-service
day focused on
service learning
School administration November, 2019
(1 month)
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 148
Identify service
learning as a growth
area in school’s
strategic plan
School
administration/board of
directors
November, 2019
(2 months)
2: Create a
guiding
coalition
Formation of a
service learning
department
School
administration/teachers
December, 2019
(3 months)
3: Create a
vision for
change
Provide service
learning
opportunities for
teachers
Service learning
department
January, 2020
(3 months)
Conduct focus group
meetings to gain
valuable input from
stakeholders
School administration February, 2020
(1 month)
4:
Communicate
the vision
Provide formation
high-quality service
learning
Service learning
department
March-June, 2020
(3-6 months)
Evaluate student
service learning
based on learning
objective
Service learning
department
May, 2020
(1 month)
5: Empower
action by
removing
barriers
Provide time during
school hours for
teachers to work on
service learning
Service learning
department/Department
chairs
March-June, 2020
(3-6 months)
6: Generate
short-term
wins
Introduce teachers to
the service learning
portal
Service learning
department/IT Department
September 2020
(3 month)
Start student service
learning mentorship
program
Service learning
department/Student
leaders
September, 2020
(3 months)
7: Build on the
change
Provide service
learning
opportunities in
every department
Service learning
department/Department
chairs
September 2020 –June
2021
(year-round)
Build service
learning as a
capstone project
Service learning
department/Administration
May 2021
(year-round)
8: Anchor
change in the
culture for
sustained
change
Director of mission
more involved in
service learning
Director of mission/school
administration
May, 2021
(year-round)
Start family
volunteer camps
Service learning
department
June-August 2021
(3 months)
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 149
Start building a
Center for Social
Innovation
Service learning
department/Department
chairs/Administration
September 2021-2023
(3 years)
Step 1: Establishing a Sense of Urgency
The first step in Kotter’s 8 step change model is establishing a sense of urgency (Kotter,
2012). There needs to be an open and honest conversation about the need for service learning at
SLHS. By November 2019, the school administration will prepare a faculty in-service day
focused on service learning. Based on the interview data, both religious studies teachers and
department chairs see a need to improve service learning as a potential opportunity to expand on
the mission of the school. The in-service day would allow teachers to engage in conversation
about how important service learning can be and envision what role everyone can play in
promoting service learning. An open dialogue conversation about service learning should help
the entire community establish a sense of urgency to improve service learning. Subsequently,
the in-service day can be a catalyst in starting a conversation with the school administration and
board of directors to focus on service learning as a priority growth area for the school. The goal
is to have an open dialogue and come to a consensus of the need to identify service learning as a
growth area by November, 2019.
Step 2: Create a Guiding Coalition
The second step in Kotter’s 8 step change model is to create a guiding coalition (Kotter,
2012). Once service learning is identified as a growth area by the school, then it becomes the
basis to form committees and people dedicated to improving service learning. The interview
data revealed that there is currently only one teacher that serves the role of service learning
coordinator. With the approval of the board of directors and the school administration, SLHS
will solicit teachers at SLHS and outside who are interested in forming a service learning
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 150
department. The department will consist of three to five people dedicated to promoting service
learning at SLHS. The goal is to establish the service learning department by December, 2019.
Step 3: Create a Vision for Change
The third step in Kotter’s 8 step change model is to create a vision for change (Kotter,
2012). Instead of quickly implementing service learning ideas, the service learning department
will work on providing opportunities for teachers to experience service learning. Many
department chairs expressed an openness to service learning but also hesitation due to lack of
service learning experience themselves to understand the possible benefits of service learning for
students. The goal is to start offering service learning opportunities for teachers to simply
participate in service learning without being a leader beginning January, 2020. Moreover, the
school administration will facilitate focus groups with students, teachers, and parents to help
envision innovative ways to incorporate service learning into SLHS. The surveys will be
conducted in February, 2020 and the data will help communicate the vision of service learning.
Step 4: Communicate the Vision
The fourth step in Kotter’s 8 step change model is to communicate the vision (Kotter,
2012). Beginning in March 2020 and ongoing, the service learning department will provide
information on what a high-quality service learning can look like at SLHS. First, teachers will
be provided with professional development on the definition of a high-quality service learning as
developed by the National Youth Leadership Council (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011). Each
of the eight qualities of a service learning program will be carefully explained to the teachers
with concrete examples. Moreover, teachers will be provided with the four levels of service
learning pedagogy and how a high-quality service learning experience benefits both classroom
and the service organization (Sigmon, 1994). Also, starting in May, 2020, the service learning
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 151
department will begin making innovative changes to service learning starting with how students
are evaluated. Currently, students at SLHS are required to simply complete hours as a
graduation requirement. Instead, the service learning department will help teachers evaluate
students by discussing the key learning objectives of service learning. Instead of focusing on the
number of hours, discussing the learning objectives can make the service learning experience
more meaningful, impactful, and challenge students to foster continued long-lasting relationships
with the service organizations. Lastly, by May 2020, all school administrators will approve a
strategic plan to have integrated service learning opportunities in each grade that are aligned with
the standards of a high-quality service learning program as developed by the National Youth
Leadership Council (Celio, Durlak, & Dymnicki, 2011).
Step 5: Empower Action by Removing Barriers
The fifth step in Kotter’s 8 step change model is to empower broad-based action by
removing as many barriers as possible and unleashing people to do their best work (Kotter,
2012). Starting in March 2020, as the service learning department begins to communicate the
vision through service learning formation opportunities, the school administration will allow
time for teachers to work on service learning during school hours. The interview data revealed
that one of the biggest barriers to service learning is teachers simply not having enough time to
work on it. Hence, the school will provide dedicated time during faculty in-service, department
meetings, and time during school hours for teachers to learn and engage with the service learning
department to plan a high-quality service learning program. Allowing time for teachers to work
on service learning will be an ongoing commitment by the school administration. As a result, all
religious studies teachers will successfully implement a minimum of one pilot project that meets
the standards of a high-quality service learning education by September, 2020.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 152
Step 6: Generate Short-Term Wins
The sixth step in Kotter’s change process is generating short-term wins (Kotter, 2012). In
order to keep the momentum going, it is critical to identify “low hanging fruit” that can motivate
everyone to keep striving toward achieving long-term goals. The service learning department
will work with the IT department to launch a service learning portal by September 2020. The
portal serves as a quick way for teachers to access service learning content. Also, the portal can
serve as a tool to empower teachers and service organizations to connect with each other.
Moreover, teachers can share best practices and resources through the portal. Also, starting in
September, 2020, SLHS will launch the student service learning mentorship program. It would
start out as a pilot project for students (junior and seniors) who are passionate about service. The
service learning department will train the student leaders on the standards of a high-quality
service learning program and how to lead their peers in the reflection process (Celio, Durlak, &
Dymnicki, 2011). Throughout the semester, the student leaders will meet with their peer
students at least twice a semester to guide the students in the service learning process by going
over their reflections and the learning objectives of service learning. The student service
learning mentors will make the service learning experience more personal for the students and
also free up time for the teachers as well.
Step 7: Build on the Change
The seventh step in Kotter’s change process is to build on the change. Often,
organizations make changes but let up instead of continuing to build on the change (Kotter,
2012). Once teachers have been provided with time to be trained in service learning and
supported with short-term help like the portal and student service learning mentors, the school is
in a position to provide service learning opportunities in every department. Starting on
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 153
September, 2020, department chairs will be asked to create a pilot service learning class in each
department. Depending on the success of the pilot course, the school can move towards
including a service learning element in each class at SLHS. Also, in order to continue to build
on the service learning experience, by May, 2021, the school can have seniors complete a service
learning capstone project. For example, as a senior, the student can work with other classmates
to engage in a capstone math project that uses math to serve the community. It could be creating
a financial plan for teenagers, solving an economic problem, evaluating fair wage practices at
school, or starting a math tutoring application for underprivileged children. The possibilities can
be endless and the capstone project can eventually be shared at the school’s TEDx talk. As a
result, by May 2021, all students at SLHS will have participated in a high-quality service
learning experience.
Step 8: Anchor Change in Culture for Sustained Change
The eighth step in Kotter’s change model is making it stick by anchoring the change in
the culture for sustained change (Kotter, 2012). SLHS has a clear mission with Catholic values.
Ultimately, the service learning changes that result from the strategic plan need to be part of the
mission and values of the school as well as throughout the entire school community. Anchoring
change in continued service learning involves continuing to hire teachers and staff members that
are committed to service learning. Therefore, starting in May, 2021, the director of mission will
have a more significant role in the hiring committee or interview panel, especially for key
administrator positions to ensure that the school is intentionally committed to hiring leaders that
are service oriented and in line with the mission of the school to educate hearts and minds to
serve the world. Also, starting in June, 2021, SLHS will start family volunteer camps by inviting
alumni families to be involved in service learning. This is a great way to involve the alumni and
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 154
wider community to participate in the mission of the school to serve others. Lastly, as service
learning continues to grow at SLHS, the service learning department, the administration, and
board of directors will have meetings to consider building a space dedicated to service learning.
Potentially, the goal is to open a Center for Social Innovation dedicated to service learning by
September, 2023. This would allow, by May 2024, SLHS to have integrated service learning
opportunities in each grade and multiple subjects that are aligned with the standards for high-
quality service learning education.
Evaluation Plan
The proposed implementation solutions need to be evaluated to see if the changes are
effective in providing a high-quality service learning education at SLHS and as a basis for
making adjustments and changes along the way. The evaluation system that will be used is the
four levels of evaluation model by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016). Level one measures the
reaction of the participants in a program (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Level two measures
the learning and impact of the participants (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Level three
focuses on how the participants apply what they learned at their job (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick,
2016). Level four measures the targeted outcomes as a result of the learning (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Kirkpatrick (2016) recommends analyzing the resources, involving
managers and starting with level 1 and continuing to level 4 as keys to unlocking the four levels
of evaluation. Therefore, the evaluation plan will involve managers to analyze the resources
starting with level 1.
Level 1: Reaction
Level one measures the reaction of the participants in a program (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). At SLHS, if the proposed solutions are implemented effectively, the teachers
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 155
should be actively participating in the formation process. For example, there should be a
majority of teachers that participate in the professional development for service learning.
Anything above 75% attendance should be considered a positive reaction. Also, as service
learning is prompted in departments outside of religious studies, more than 50% participation by
non-religious studies teachers in creating a service learning program in their class can be
considered a positive reaction. The result of the teacher participation can be obtained by
contacting the department chairs and the service learning department staff.
Also, throughout the implementation process, it is important to see if the teachers are
reacting positively or negatively to the proposed changes. Therefore, every semester, as changes
are being implemented, surveys will be conducted for teachers to answer their reactions to the
service learning program changes. The survey will be on a 5 point Likert scale (1 = Strongly
Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, 4 = Strongly Agree). The service learning department will be
asked to manage the survey and evaluate the results of the survey. If the survey shows positive
results towards the service learning changes, then SLHS can continue with the implementation
process. However, if the survey shows negative results with the service learning changes, the
service learning department will further analyze the situation and come up with ways to make
adjustments to the implementation plan.
Level 2: Learning
Level two measures the learning and impact of the participants (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). If the implementation plan is effective, teachers at SLHS should have
knowledge of a high-quality service learning program. The professional development training
sessions by the service learning department, participating in service learning experiences, and
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 156
connecting with the online portal should result in teachers being more knowledgeable and
confident in implementing a high-quality service learning program.
In order to measure the acquired knowledge of the teachers regarding service learning,
interviews will be conducted by the service learning department. All religious studies teachers,
department chairs, and non-religious studies teachers who participated in service learning will be
interviewed and asked how the program changes have helped or not helped them gain knowledge
of service learning. The interviews can follow similar protocols as mentioned in Chapter 3 to
ensure the confidentiality of the interviewees. Afterwards, the interview data will be compared
with the original interviews conducted at the beginning of this study before the implementation
changes occurred.
Level 3: Transfer
Level three focuses on how the participants apply what they learned in their job
(Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). At this level, it is important to see if the teacher’s learning in
service learning actually transferred to the students and the organization. The critical behaviors
to measure include how teachers are effectively teaching service learning to the students.
Moreover, there should be more engagement by the organization and the entire school
community towards service learning initiatives.
One way to measure the effectiveness of the teacher’s skill of teaching service learning is
to evaluate student progress. The quality of the student reflections and capstone projects can be
evaluated to see if it resulted in a high-quality service learning experience. Also, change
initiatives such as the student service learning mentorship program, the portal, family volunteer
camp, and Center for Social Innovation building can be evaluated by evaluating the engagement
level and effectiveness of the programs. Student service learning mentors can conduct
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 157
observations of students engaged in various service learning activities. Bensimon (2005)
mentions the importance of evaluating not just single-loop learning by simply correcting errors,
but engaging in double-loop learning by detecting underlying assumptions behind the actions and
behaviors. Student service learning mentors can look for double-loop learning in students to
measure the transfer of learning and its long-term effects.
Level 4: Results
Level four measures the targeted outcomes as a result of the learning (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). If all of the change implementations are executed effectively, it should result
in SLHS having a high-quality service learning program. At this level, it is important to evaluate
the results holistically with a long-term vision toward sustainable changes (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). The implementation plan should result in a transformation of the SLHS
service learning program to develop students to serve the world.
The proposed change implementations at SLHS will be measured in light of the standards
of a Comprehensive Action Plan for Service Learning (CAPSL) by Campus Compact. Campus
Compact is a national coalition of over 1,000 colleges and universities committed to democracy,
civic education, and community development (Campus Compact, 2003). Campus Compact
studied the degree of success among 44 institutions that attended Campus Compact planning
institutes at which a team of administrators, faculty, and staff developed a campus plan for
implementing service learning. The findings suggest that institutionalizing service learning is
most likely when: it is in line with the mission and strategic plan, there is broad acceptance and
long-term support for service learning, faculty are part of the planning process, incentives are
provided to the faculty, faculty work is publicized, and there is sustained effort for integrating
service and academic study (Bringle & Hatcher, 2000). Moreover, the CAPSL identified four
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 158
important constituencies that need to be considered for effective implementation of service-
learning programs: institution, faculty, students, and community. Through surveys, observations,
and interviews from the previous three levels of evaluation, the service learning department will
evaluate each service learning change initiative based on the categories of institutionalizing
service learning and constituencies by CAPSL. The evaluation will be conducted annually and
presented to the school administration and the board of directors to make necessary changes to
ensure the sustained performance of a high-quality service learning program at SLHS.
Further Research
While this study was primarily limited to SLHS, future research could help build a more
robust and generalizable model of a high-quality service learning high school for broader
implementation. The seven service learning leader interviews brought insights to potential
change ideas in service learning but was not extensive enough to fully understand how certain
programs work. There needs to be a further study that observes the best practices of service
learning. For example, observations can be conducted at SLL 5’s school to take notes on how a
teacher evaluates a student’s service learning experience based on the learning objectives.
Moreover, there is a lot to learn by visiting SLL 3’s school and observe a professional
development session on service learning and see the reaction of the teachers. Furthermore,
observations can take place following SLL 6’s service learning trip and observe the interaction
between teachers, students, and service organizations. Lastly, observation and focus groups
meetings can be conducted at SLL 4’s Center for Social Concern and see how service learning is
a central hub of the lift of the school community. These observation experiences can help gain
deeper understanding of the service learning leaders’ ideas and potentially envision in greater
detail how it can be incorporated at SLHS and other Catholic high schools.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 159
Also, the scope of the research can be extended to not just Catholic high schools, but
Catholic K-12 schools in general. There has been a decline in enrollment in K-12 Catholic
schools across the United States. Since 2005, Catholic school enrollment has dropped over
481,000 students, which is 19.9% decline in the student population (McDonald & Schultz, 2015).
From 2010 to 2016, the number of Catholic schools have dropped from 7094 to 6478, which is a
8.6% decrease (Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate, 2016). The NCES (National
Center for Educational Statistics) projects the percentage of all elementary and secondary
students enrolled in private schools to decrease to 9 percent in 2025–26 (Kena, Hussar,
McFarland, de Brey, Musu-Gillette, Wang, & Barmer, 2016). However, one of the ways for
Catholic schools to keep up with and distinguish itself within rising innovative public and charter
schools is to redesign the curriculum geared towards service learning. There needs to be further
research on the possibility of incorporating high-quality service learning programs in K-12
Catholic schools and its potential impacts on student achievement, enrollment, and parent
engagement.
In addition, since the researcher is working on starting a new Catholic high school built
around service learning, it is necessary to think outside the box. Catmull and Wallace (2014) say
creativity is defined by unexpected connections between unrelated concepts or ideas. The
researcher can search beyond educational institutions to make associations and connections on
how service learning can be applied. For example, many technology companies in the Silicon
Valley such as Google and Tesla encourage innovative ways that challenge the status quo. For
example, Walker (2011) says that under the directive of management, Google programmers
devote 20% of their working time to independent projects of their own choosing. This is
different from the status quo of engineers simply working on their current task with a due
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 160
deadline. Understanding the culture of Google can potentially provide insights on how to create
a culture that can promote students and teachers to dedicate 20% of their time and energy to
independent service learning projects. Also, Dijk, Wells, and Kemp (2016) discuss the
innovation of Tesla. For many decades, the automotive sector has relied on the internal
combustion engine (ICE) but Tesla has managed to disrupt the automotive sector by successfully
introducing full-electric vehicles (FEV). It would be exciting to research Tesla’s management
ideas, organizational policies, and foresight approaches that were applied to plan and implement
FEV that can compete against ICE cars. Understanding Tesla's struggles and success in
disrupting the automobile industry can potential provide valuable insights on how to disrupt the
current educational system in creating a high school based on service learning.
Conclusion
The purpose of this project was to explore and understand the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational needs for Service Learning High School (SLHS) to implement an innovative
high-quality service learning design into the curriculum. The study was conducted through
qualitative interviews with participating stakeholders including:10 religious studies teachers at
SLHS, five department chairs at SLHS, and seven service learning leaders in service learning.
Also, analyzing the current assets and continuing needs of the knowledge, motivational, and
organizational needs, the data resulted in four emerging themes. Having such a strong sense of
connection between service and mission is a foundational pre-requisite to create a sense of
urgency and bring everyone to envision in the same direction. Providing teachers with deeper
understanding of high-quality service learning gives teachers confidence to learn about service
learning. Moreover, providing teachers with necessary support to implement high-quality
service learning removes barriers and provides opportunities for teachers to implement service
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 161
learning. promoting service learning throughout the campus with a long-term vision shows that
the organization is committed to service learning. Afterwards, the various themes were
presented with suggestions from service learning leaders and recommended action plan at SLHS.
Furthermore, the action plans were sorted out based on Kotter’s 8 step change model (Kotter,
2012). Moreover, the evaluation system that will be used is the four levels of evaluation model
by Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016).
The current model of education does not necessarily meet future skill needs. Pope and
Brown (2015) present the findings of how successful private schools can focus too much on
academics. Even though students are getting good grades, they are stressed and not fully
engaged in student learning. As a result, students are under prepared to face the challenges of
the world after graduation. However, high-quality service learning presents an innovative
approach to reimagine education. High-quality service learning provides opportunity of positive
personal, social, and academic outcomes for students to be agents of social change in the 21st
century (Baumann, 2014; Sabat, Morgan, Perry and Wang, 2015). Moreover, following the four
emerging themes that resulted from the study can provide potential recommendations towards
implementing a high-quality service learning curriculum and school to disrupt the educational
system. By September 2023, it is possible to have a Center for Social Innovation that engages
students critically to focus on not just getting good grades and going to college, but making a
positive difference in the world. In a world that focuses heavily on the return on investment
(ROI), students can learn through service learning the importance of social return on investment
(SROI). Stanton-Nichols, Hatcher, and Cecil (2015) identified seven elements by which SROI
investments can be measured: community cohesion, graduation rates, job placement, quality of
life, expanded social networks, social inclusion, and improved health. Jenkins (2011) cites
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 162
Blessed Basil Moreau, who said, "We shall always place education side by side with instruction;
the mind will not be cultivated at the expense of the heart. While we prepare useful citizens for
society, we shall likewise do our utmost to prepare citizens for heaven." The long-term hope is
that service learning can serve as a catalyst for students to become agents of social change in the
21st century and beyond.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 163
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HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 179
Appendix A
Teacher Interview Protocol
KMO Influence Interview Question
Knowledge Influences
Teachers need to understand what service
learning is and how it aligns with
curriculum to use it effectively
What does the term service learning mean to
you?
What are some elements that define a high-
quality service learning experience?
As a religious studies teacher, describe how
service learning aligns with your curriculum.
How do you use it in your instruction? Can you
give me a specific example?
Teachers need to know how service
learning is in line with institutional context
and mission
How is service learning currently in line with
the mission of the school? How is it in line with
the school’s commitment to other service
organizations? ideally, how would service
learning be aligned with them?
Teachers need to know how to prepare a
service learning experience that mutually
benefits both classroom learning and
service organization goals
How knowledgeable do you feel in preparing a
service learning experience that benefits
classroom learning and organizational goals?
What additional knowledge would you like to
have to do this more effectively?
Teachers need to know how to reflect
themselves in order for service learning to
be a transformative experience
After completing a service learning project, do
you reflect on the experience? If so, please
describe your reflection experience.
Motivation Influences
Teachers need to believe that they are
capable of applying service learning into
their curriculum
In your opinion, on a scale of 1 to 10, what is
your confidence level in applying service
learning into your curriculum?
Teachers need to include their self-identity
toward social justice (attainment) and
intrinsic passion for service (intrinsic value)
To what extent do you see service learning as
being aligned with your identity as a teacher in
this school and why? How high a value do you
place on incorporating service learning in your
teaching?
Has service learning made a personal impact in
your life? If so, please describe how.
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 180
Teachers need to see improvements in
student learning outcomes that come from
service learning.
Have you observed any improvement in student
learning as a result of service learning
activities? If so, please describe your
experience.
Organization Influences
The organization needs to present perceived
alignment between service learning and the
mission of the organization.
What is your perception of the school aligning
service learning with the mission of the school?
The organization needs to provide role
model examples of service learning in
practice
Has SLHS provided you with any support in
furtherance of your goals with respect to service
learning? Has SLHS provided you with any
role models?
The organization needs to promote interest
in service learning from teachers and
administrators
At SLHS, do you believe there is enough
interest to support a service learning initiative?
Why or why not?
The organization needs to provide
incentives for teachers to implement service
learning through increased time and
rewards
Does SLHS encourage teachers to
promote/participate in/incorporate service
learning activities in the curriculum? In what
ways?
HIGH-QUALITY SERVICE LEARNING IN HIGH SCHOOLS 181
Appendix B
Service Learning Leader Interview Protocol
Research Interview Questions for Service Learning Leaders:
1: What are the guiding principles around which your service learning program is/was designed?
2: What are the building block elements that make up your service learning program? What are
key elements of its design?
Probe: Why did you choose these building blocks/key elements of its design?
3. Walk me through as a student what I would experience if engaged in your service learning
program?
4. What kinds of incentives are provided to get key stakeholders invested in this model?
(example: financial and non-financial. For both outside stakeholder groups to be involved and
internally for teachers, students and families to be invested)
4: Can you describe an instance when service learning has made an impact in people’s lives?
5: What are some challenges you faced in developing and now in implementing your service
learning program?
6: What kind of advice would you give to a school that is starting to design/develop a service
learning program?
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Service learning has a positive personal, social, and academic outcome on student performance (Furko & Root, 2010
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Educating hearts and minds through high-quality service learning curriculum in U.S. high schools
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