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The perceived effectiveness of dual language programs at the middle school level
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The perceived effectiveness of dual language programs at the middle school level
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Content
THE PERCEIVED EFFECTIVENESS OF DUAL LANGUAGE PROGRAMS
AT THE MIDDLE SCHOOL LEVEL
by
Jerry Yi-Cheng Hsieh
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2007
Copyright 2007 Jerry Yi-Cheng Hsieh
ii
DEDICATION
The writing of a doctoral dissertation can be a long and difficult journey.
Without the support of my family, this would not have been possible. This
dissertation is dedicated to my grandparents, Yu-Ten and Suang-Mei, who have
loved, supported, and encouraged me since birth.
I wish to dedicate this dissertation to my father, Wen-Ching, and mother,
Yueh-Hsiang, who have always motivated me to reach my fullest potential. Thank
you for all the sacrifices you have made to provide me, my brother and my sister a
path to a better life. The work is also dedicated to my wife, Julie, who has
supported and motivated me throughout the pursuit of my doctorate degree. To my
children, Marcus and Chloe, thank you for your patience and understanding while
daddy spent countless hours working on this study.
The completion of this dissertation is an example of what passion and
dedication can accomplish. One of my favorite quotes by Lao Tzu, the father of
Taoism, “even a journey of 1000 miles begins with a single step.”
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to thank and acknowledge my committee members: Chairperson Dr.
Eugenia Mora-Flores, Dr. Gisele Ragusa, and Dr. Michael Genzuk. Dr. Eugenia
Mora-Flores offered her mentorship, dedication, and friendship to guide me
through the dissertation process. Dr. Ragusa and Dr. Genzuk provided me with
guidance and suggestions based on their wisdom and expertise in the area of
bilingual education and English learners.
I would also like to thank Ms. Helene Gordon, the program evaluator of the
SFUSD’s Program Evaluation & Research Department. Ms. Gordon kindly assisted
me through the application process. My sincerest gratitude to the students, parents,
teachers, administrators, and the principal of the school where I conducted my
studies. Special thanks to my translators, Chester Kwok and Niki Choi. Without
your support and dedication, this dissertation would not have been possible.
Many, many thanks to my dear friends and colleagues in the Ed.D. program,
especially Emi Kojima, Julie Huang, Mikiya Mori, Tung-Yuan (Tony) Liu, and
Ting-Yu (Vicky) Cheng. Thank you for your support and encouragement
throughout the dissertation process. Special thanks to Dr. Frances Wu-Barone for
her support and friendship. To my dear wife, thank you for always being there for
me during my ups and downs.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii
Acknowledgement iii
List of Tables vi
List of Figures vii
Abstract viii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
Overview 1
Research Questions 5
Significance 5
Limitations 6
Definition of Terms 7
Conceptual Frameworks 11
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 13
Introduction 13
Historical Perspectives 14
Second Language Acquisition 22
Program Models 26
Program Implementation and Instructional Strategies 31
Evaluations and Assessments 45
Teachers’ Perspectives 51
Parents’ Attitudes and Perspectives 56
Conclusion 61
Gaps in Research 65
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 68
Introduction 68
Research Questions 70
Research Design 70
Participants and Settings 72
Data Collection Procedures 76
Data Analysis 81
Summary 85
v
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH FINDINGS 87
Introduction 87
Demographics 88
The Nature of the TWI Program at the Middle School Level 95
The Perceived Program Effectiveness 129
Supplementary Finding: The Trend of Learning Mandarin 146
Summary 149
CHAPTER FIVE: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 156
Implications 156
Recommendations for Practice 161
Recommendations for Future Research 166
Conclusion 168
REFERENCES 170
APPENDIX A: School District Approval Letter 179
APPENDIX B: Teacher Information Sheet 180
APPENDIX C: Parent Informed Consent – English Version 183
APPENDIX D: Parent Informed Consent – Chinese Version 187
APPENDIX E: Observation Checklist 190
APPENDIX F: Interview Questionnaires 193
vi
LIST OF TABLES
1 Years of Implementations of the TWI Program in Texas 37
2 The Initial Program Model of the TWI Programs in Texas 37
3 The Schedule of In-Class Observations 77
4 The Place of Interviewing Parent Participants 80
5 Table of Themes 83
6 The Structure of Participating Classes 89
7 General Background and Teaching Experience of Teachers and
Administrators 91
8 Teaching Credentials possessed by Teachers and Administrators 92
9 General Information of Parent Interviewees 93
10 Children’s Linguistic Background 94
11 The Characteristics of the Nature of a TWI Program at the
Middle School Level based on School Interviewees’ Responses 127
12 The Characteristics of the Nature of a TWI Program at the
Middle School Level based on Observations Findings 129
13 The Characteristics of the Perceived Effectiveness of a TWI
Program at the Middle School Level identified by the School
and Parent Interviewees 145
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
1 Historical Timeline 16
2 The 50-50 Program Model 27
3 The 90-10 Program Model 30
viii
ABSTRACT
Dual language, or two-way immersion (TWI) education has gained
popularity in the United States over the past few decades. Although many scholars
contend TWI programs are more effective than English-only instruction when
educating English learners (EL) students, the effectiveness of TWI programs
remains controversial. Furthermore, while extensive studies have been conducted
on the TWI programs at the elementary school level, research on the dual language
programs at the middle and high school levels has been very limited.
The purpose of the present research was to determine the nature and the
perceived effectiveness of dual language programs at the middle school level. For
this study, Bridgeview Middle School in the city of San Francisco was selected to
be the research site. A qualitative approach which utilized in-class observations,
one-on-one interviews, and documentation was employed. In addition, a mixed
analytic approach that included both a deductive analytical approach using
Montone and Loeb’s (2000) study and an inductive analysis using grounded theory
was employed.
In the present research, the emerged themes were organized based on the
nature and the perceived effectiveness of the TWI program at the middle school
level. Themes related to the nature of the TWI program were motivation and
encouragement; qualified teachers and the need for professional development; lack
of resources; lack of support; lack of communication; positive student interaction;
student attitude and behavior differences; preparation and implementation; and
ix
SDAIE-like instructional strategies. Meanwhile, themes related to the perceived
effectiveness of the TWI program included maintaining students’ mother tongue;
slow English progression; noticeable linguistic and academic performance; and
perceived program success. In addition, as a supplementary finding, this research
also identified the trend of learning Mandarin.
In sum, while the TWI program at the middle school level was effective in
educating both EL students and native English-speaking students, the
recommended areas for improvement included developing conceptual framework;
maintaining consistent communication with stakeholders; developing core
curriculum in all subject areas; providing differentiated instruction to serve students
with different needs; offering professional development to teachers; and
strengthening students’ language development. Furthermore, recommendations for
future research included the following areas: study identical to the present research
but in different settings; in-depth analysis on the performance of the TWI programs
at the middle school level; extensive, longitudinal study on the nature of the TWI
programs; study which tracks graduates’ academic performance in high school; and
research that includes students’ viewpoint along with other stakeholders to provide
a holistic perspective of the TWI programs.
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Overview
The United States of America has always been a country of immigrants.
Whether people migrated to this country in search for career opportunities, better
education, or a more promising future, many have made this country their home.
The research indicates the recent growth of the total population of the United States
is partly due to the increased number of immigrants during the last two decades of
the 20
th
century. Among all immigrants, Hispanic and Asian are the two largest
immigrant populations. According to the U.S. Census Bureau (as cited in
Lindholm-Leary, 2001), while the U.S. population increased 17 percent from 1980
to 2000, the Hispanic population increased 83 percent (from 6.4 percent of the U.S.
population in 1980 to 11.9 percent in 2000) and the Asian population increased 153
percent (from 1.5 percent of the U.S. population in 1980 to 3.8 percent in 2000). In
2003, among the 33.5 million foreign born population that represented 11.7 percent
of the total U.S. population, 53.3 percent originated from Latin American countries
while 25 percent originated from Asian countries (Larsen, 2004). Statistical data
from the U.S. Census Bureau highlight the dramatic increase of the ethnic
populations in the U.S. The growth of the foreign born population in this country is
further magnified by undocumented immigration, with an estimated five million
undocumented immigrants in 1996, and an estimated addition of 275,000
immigrants per year (U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, 2003).
2
As the number of immigrants continues to grow, the number of students
whose first language is not English has also increased. In the U.S., at the turn of the
millennium, an estimated 3.7 million school-age children across the nation are
English learners (ELs) (Montecel, Cortez, Cortez, & Villarreal, 2002). Although
immigrants reside in all 50 states, it is evident that the increased number of EL
students impacts the existing school system in states with high immigration, such as
California, Texas and New York. For instance, in the state of California, 1.6
million EL students accounted for nearly a quarter of the total student population
enrolled in the public school system in the 2004 -2005 school year (California
Department of Education, 2006). In a classroom where one out of every four
students is an EL, the lack of proper instructional strategies to meet their language
needs can severely impact the students’ academic development. In addition,
without understanding the instruction of the classroom teacher, students’ emotional
behavior might adversely affect their learning progress in the classroom (Krashen,
1987).
Scholars and researchers (e.g. Genesee & Gándara, 1999; Lindholm-Leary,
2000; Rolstad, Mahoney & Glass, 2005) have suggested various instructional
methods to better serve EL students. In addition to the mainstream English-only
instruction, there are two alternatives. The first alternative is the numerous types of
bilingual education programs. The most common bilingual programs include
transitional, submersion, and immersion programs (Baker, 2001). Unlike the
bilingual education programs that promote biliteracy and bilingualism in European
3
countries, bilingual education in the U.S. acts as a revolving door to support EL
students in learning English before transitioning them into the mainstream English-
only classroom (Linton, 2004). Although the short-term transitional curricula
offered in the bilingual programs in the U.S. aim to reinstate EL students as quickly
as possible, the research shows students need at least four to seven years to gain
academic English proficiency (Hakuta, Butler, & Witt, 2000). Consequently, many
researchers believe that this alternative may not be an ideal instructional method for
educating EL students (Lindholm-Leary, 2001; Linton, 2004).
Another alternative to mainstream English-only instruction is dual language
education, also referred to as two-way immersion (TWI). First introduced to the
U.S. in the 1960s, dual language education aims to purposely integrate language
majority students and EL students in the same classroom. The goal of the dual
language program is to develop bilingual skills, enhance academic achievement,
and promote positive attitudes toward diverse cultures for both groups of students
(Lindholm-Leary, 2001). Some of the commonly available dual language programs
include the 50-50 model and the 90-10 model, which will be discussed in detail in
the subsequent chapter.
Despite waves of immigration, which created the language and cultural
diversity unique to the immigrants’ origins, American society has often accepted
these newcomers and their ethnic cultures. However, Americans have not been as
accepting of the immigrants’ foreign languages. Although “the United States has
adopted neither an official language nor a government-sanctioned body to regulate
4
speech” (Crawford, 1995, p. 22), the debate over the “rightful” language for
schooling children in this country has always been a highly controversial topic.
Although many experts in the field of education have agreed that instructing
EL students with the support of students’ native language assists students to acquire
the English language and other subject areas (Crawford, 1995; Krashen, 1996), the
controversy stemming over the use of languages other than English as the
instructional media in the public schools has never diminished. While many
researchers (e.g., Kirk Senesac, 2002; Smith, Arnot-Hopffer, Carmichael, Murphy,
Valle, González, & Poveda, 2002; Rolstad, Mahoney, & Glass, 2005) agree dual
language education is superior to English-only instruction and transitional bilingual
education programs when educating EL students, the program implementation as
well as the effectiveness of two-way immersion (TWI) programs are debatable.
While many studies have been conducted in dual language education at the
elementary level, scholars believe that further research is needed in the middle
school and high school levels (Montone & Loeb, 2000; Lindholm-Leary, 2001). In
order to better address these issues, research questions that are essential to dual
language education will be discussed in the following section. In addition, the
rationale behind the importance of the study will be discussed, followed by the
limitations that were taken into account in the study. Meanwhile, the definition of
terms used throughout this study will be defined and identified. Lastly, this chapter
concludes with the conceptual frameworks of the present research.
5
Research Questions
The proposed study aimed to enhance the understanding of the nature and
the perceived effectiveness of the TWI programs at the middle school level. Based
on the review of the literature and the purpose of this study, the research questions
that will be addressed are:
• What is the nature of the dual language program at the middle school level?
o What is the perceived effectiveness of dual language programs at the
middle school level based on teachers’ perspectives?
o What is the perceived effectiveness of dual language programs at the
middle school level based on parents’ perspectives?
Significance
Researchers, such as Lindholm-Leary (2001) and Montone and Loeb
(2000), foresee the need of future research on TWI programs at the secondary level.
Although there were numerous limitations of the present research, it is still critical
for the field of education to continue the conversation of dual language programs.
While the data from the Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL) (Center For Applied
Linguistics, 2006) showed the number of TWI programs has increased from 24
programs in 1986 to 329 programs in 2006, most of these programs were
implemented at the elementary school level. Based on the data available from CAL,
among all TWI programs currently available in the U.S., only 43 programs (34
middle school level and nine high school level) offer TWI programs beyond the
elementary level. In order to ensure the long-term success of dual language
6
education in the U.S., it is critical to conduct a methodologically sound study
beyond the elementary level.
Meanwhile, since most dual language studies conducted in the U.S. have
been based on students whose first language is Spanish, future research on other
ethnicities is needed to reflect changing demographics. As the second largest
immigrant population in the United States, the Asian community has increased 153
percent (from 1.5 percent of the U.S. population in 1980 to 3.8 percent in 2000).
This study will focus on a Cantonese-English program implemented in Bridgeview
Middle School in San Francisco, California. Upon the completion of the study, it
will provide insight to the nature and perceived effectiveness of the TWI program
from the teacher and parent perspectives.
Limitations
Based on the design of this study, the possible limitations are addressed
below:
First, since this study assessed TWI programs at the middle school level, the
research results cannot be applied to other grade levels of dual language programs.
Second, since there was limited randomization of the sample selection, the outcome
of this study should not be generalized. In addition, the school’s definition of TWI
instruction may be inconsistent with that of other schools or studies. Lastly, the
degree of cooperation of participants including teachers, school administrators,
students, and parents, may affect the outcome of the study.
7
Definition of Terms
The following terms are defined as they are used in this dissertation:
Bilingualism
The term “bilingualism” cannot be simply defined as some researchers have
stated (e.g., Baker, 2001; Bhatia & Ritchie, 2006). For the purpose of this study,
Titone’s (1972) definition will be used. According to Titone, bilingualism refers to
“the individual’s capacity to speak a second language while following the concepts
and structures of that language rather than paraphrasing his or her mother tongue”
(p.11).
Bilingual Education
Linton (2004) provided a well-defined explanation of the term “bilingual
education” in the U.S. According to Linton, “bilingual education refers to some
programs developed under [the] Bilingual Education Act (BEA)… aimed to
improve the poor school performance of immigrant children by providing funds for
transitional programs to help children of limited English-speaking ability learn
English before transitioning into regular classrooms” (p. 47, 48).
Dual Language Programs
Also called bilingual immersion, two-way immersion (TWI), two-way
bilingual, enrichment, and developmental bilingual education, “in dual language
programs, English-dominant and target-language-dominant students are
purposefully integrated with goals of developing bilingual skills, academic
excellence, and positive cross-cultural and personal competency attitudes for both
8
groups of students” (Lindholm-Leary, 2001, p. 30). The terms “dual language” and
“two-way immersion” will be used interchangeably in this study.
English Learner (EL) / English Language Learner (ELL)
For this study, La Celle-Peterson and Rivera’s (1994) definition of English
language learners will be used for its appropriateness. According to La Celle-
Peterson and Rivera, “‘English Language Learners’ (ELLs) refers to students
whose first language is not English and encompasses both students who are just
beginning to learn English … and those who have already developed considerable
proficiency” (p. 75). For the purpose of the research, EL and ELL will be used
interchangeably.
English-as-Second-Language (ESL)
ESL is defined as “a program in which children are placed in [regular]
English-only classes for most of the day, and provided with concentrated
instruction aimed at teaching English as a second language during part of the day”
(Rolstad, Mahoney, & Glass, 2005, p. 575). In this study, ESL refers to one of the
transitional bilingual programs where EL students learn English before entering the
mainstream classroom.
Exito Bilingüe
“Exito Bilingüe is a school wide, multi-age interactive literacy program in
Spanish that is implemented three days a week for 60-minute periods” (Smith &
Arnot-Hopffer, 1998, p. 268) at Davis Bilingual Magnet School in Arizona.
9
Foreign Born
Larsen (2004) defined foreign born as “those who were not U.S. citizens at
birth” (p. 1). In this study, foreign born and immigrants are used interchangeably.
High-Stakes Testing
“Use of test scores to make decisions that have important consequences for
individuals” (Pearlman, 2001). For this study, high-stakes testing refers to the
statewide standardize exams that all students require to take regardless of the level
of English proficiency.
Limited English Proficient (LEP)
Lindholm-Leary (2000) defines LEPs as “students who do not possess
sufficient English language proficiency to participate fully in mainstream education
classes” (p. 10). The terms LEP, EL, and ELL will be used interchangeably in this
study.
Language Majority Students
Language majority students refer to students “who in the United States are
native English speakers” (Howard & Christian, 2002, p. 2). In this study, language
majority students are students who were born in the U.S. and speak English as their
primary language.
Language Minority Students
Howard and Christian (2002) defined language minority students as “those
students whose first language is not English” (p. 1). In this study, language
10
minority, ELL, and EL students represent the same group of students who are not
proficient in English.
Native Language / First Language (L1)
Also known as the first language (L1), native language refers to “the
language used in raising a child” (Brisk, 2005, p. 7). In this study, the native
language refers to students’ first language regardless of their ethnicities.
Second Language (L2)
The term “second language” is defined as “the one learned at a later stage,
often in their first excursions from the home environment, through media, in
schools, and with peers” (Brisk, 2005, p. 7).
Structured English Immersion (SEI) / Structured Immersion (SI)
SEI or SI is the program that “provides a specially structured version of the
regular curriculum so that students may acquire the language of instruction while
simultaneously learn content… however, [children’s home language] is rarely or
never spoken by the teacher in the classroom” (Rolstad et al., 2005, p. 575). SEI
refers to one of the transitional bilingual programs in this study.
Transitional Bilingual Programs
“[The program] has been described as those in which the students’ L1 and
English are used in some combination for instruction and where the L1 serves as a
temporary bridge to instruction in English” (Lara-Alecio, Galloway, Irby,
Rodriguez, Gómez, 2004, p. 37).
11
Two Way Immersion (TWI) Programs
“In TWI programs, language minority and language majority students are
integrated for all or most of the day and receive content and literacy instruction
through both English and the minority language, with the goals of promoting
academic achievement, bilingualism and biliteracy development, and cross-cultural
competence in all students” (Montone & Loeb, 2000, p. 2). The terms “TWI” and
“dual language” will be used interchangeably in this study.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework used to guide the present research included
Montone and Loeb’s research on the TWI programs at the secondary level (2000),
Stronge’s model of qualities of effective teachers (2002), and Cummins’ model of
common underlying proficiency (1983, 1984).
Montone and Loeb’s (2000) research on a secondary level TWI program is
one of the few literature of its kind. The study sets an example of the nature of TWI
programs at the secondary school level and how the program should be
implemented. Based on Montone and Loeb’s research, the present study is another
attempt to determine the nature as well as the perceived effectiveness of the TWI
program at the middle school level.
Meanwhile, to understand teacher’s behavior and implementation in the
classroom, the developmental theory of teacher development is adapted in this
study. Stronge’s Teacher Assessment Checklists (2002) provide a guideline for
determining the quality of teachers and their efficiency in teaching students in the
12
classroom. While teachers’ quality and characteristics are not the primary focus of
the present research, this study attempts to grasp the nature and the perceived
effectiveness of the program through interviewing teachers and observing teachers’
practices in the classroom and program implementation.
Cummins’ model of common underlying proficiency (CUP) (1983, 1984)
stresses the interdependence of L1 and L2 academic skills. The model identifies
knowledge such as “cognitive/academic or literacy-related skills” a student
acquires in L1 are transferable to the development of L2. The present research
attempts to determine the nature of a TWI program where some classes are
instructed in the students’ first language.
In the subsequent chapters, issues in regards to the study of dual language
programs at the secondary level will be discussed. In Chapter Two, the literature
related to dual language education will be reviewed for setting the theoretical
framework of the study. In Chapter Three, the research methodology used for this
study, such as the instrumentation, demographics of participants, and variables, will
be discussed. In Chapter Four, findings found through this study will be studied
thoroughly. Lastly, in Chapter Five, the implications generated through the findings
of the study, the recommendations for future research, as well as the conclusion
will be provided.
13
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Research on issues related to English learners in the U.S. has always been a
popular topic (Lindholm-Leary, 2001; Hawkins, 2005). Although many of these
studies focused on various types of bilingual education models such as transitional
bilingual education, submersion, and various immersion programs, dual language
education has gained the momentum over the last two decades (Montone & Loeb,
2000; Peregoy & Boyle, 1999; Torres-Guzmán, Kleyn, Morales-Rodríguez, & Han,
2005). Also known as two-way immersion (TWI) education, developmental
bilingual education, enrichment education, and dual immersion, “[dual language
education] is an instructional approach that integrates native English speakers and
native speakers of another language (usually Spanish) and provides instruction to
both groups of students in both languages” (Howard, Sugarman, and Christian,
2003, p. 1). Since the launch of the first modern dual language program in Coral
Way Elementary in Miami in the 1960s, the number of dual language programs has
increased to 329 in 29 states and Washington, D.C. (Center for Applied Linguistics,
2006). Meanwhile, researchers have reported positive outcomes in student learning
and academic performance in dual language programs (Kirk Senesac, 2002;
Rolstad, Mahoney, & Glass, 2005; Smith et al., 2002).
This review of the literature will evaluate issues, trends, and practices that
directly contribute to English learner (EL) students’ learning and academic
achievement and the effectiveness of dual language programs. The first section of
14
this chapter begins by framing the historical perspectives of dual language
education. Next, fundamental concepts and theories of second language acquisition
will be assessed. Third, dual language programs based on various program models
will be discussed. Followed by the implementation and instructional strategies used
in dual language programs and the perspectives of evaluating and assessing the
performance of these programs. Next, a look at the teachers’ and parents’
perspectives on student learning and program effectiveness will be presented.
Finally, an evaluation of gaps in the literature will be discussed.
Historical Perspectives
The question of how to best educate children with limited English
proficiency has been a highly controversial issue since the 1960s. Since then, the
debate has arisen over which programs should be offered to students with limited
English proficiency.
In addition to English-only instruction, there are also bilingual education
and dual language education offered in many public and private schools in the
United States. While TWI education is not a new concept, people often cannot
distinguish dual language education from bilingual education. Simply put, dual
language education promotes bilingualism of both language-majority and language-
minority students in the program. Its objectives include academic achievement,
bilingual proficiency, biliteracy, and multicultural awareness among all students
(Christian, 1994). Thus, all students are expected to be bilingual and biliterate in
this type of program.
15
Unlike dual language education, which emphasizes the literacy
development in two languages at the same time, bilingual education often refers to
“[the] transitional programs to help children of limited English-speaking ability
learn English before transitioning into regular [English-only] classroom” (Linton,
2004, p. 48). Thus, in the United States, the goal of many bilingual programs is not
intended to foster nor promote bilingualism (Brisk, 2005). These bilingual
programs are classified into three major categories: English immersion, early-exit
bilingual, and late-exit bilingual programs.
In the English immersion program, English is used exclusively throughout
the elementary level. The purpose is to introduce English to EL students early so
students are exposed to an all-English environment at school. In the early-exit
bilingual program, students’ native language is used occasionally in kindergarten
and first grade and phased-out subsequently. Lastly, in the late-exit bilingual
program, students’ mother tongue language is used throughout the elementary
level. However, the use of English as the instructional medium is increased as
students progress through the grade levels. Thus, both early-exit and late-exit
bilingual programs increase EL students’ English proficiency level by using
students’ mother tongue as a tool to achieve the objective (Cummins & Genzuk,
1991).
Ovando (2003) conducted research on the historical development and
current issues in bilingual education in the U.S. His intention was to examine the
various explanations of historical events that have shaped language policy and
16
discuss numerous challenges facing bilingual education in this country. The
historical perspectives toward foreign languages over the last three centuries were
examined. Ovando categorized the U.S. history into four phases based on the
linguistic policies toward languages other than English. These four phases are the
permissive period of the 1770s to 1880s, the restrictive period of the 1880s to
1960s, the opportunist period of the 1960s to 1980s, and the dismissive period of
the 1980s to present (Ovando, 2003; Baker & Jones, 1998).
Figure 1
Historical Timeline
Source: Adapted from Ovando (2003).
In the permissive period of the 1770s to 1880s, although bilingualism was
not actively promoted, learning the native language, religion, and culture within
immigrant communities was permitted. Between the 1880s to the 1960s, the
linguistic policies of the U.S. became restrictive due to factors, such as the
standardization and bureaucratization of urban schools, the need for national unity
during the two world wars, and the desire to unify goals among Americans. In the
opportunist period of the 1960s to 1980s, the linguistic policies in this country
experienced another transition. One of the rationales behind this transition was the
realization of the importance of language, mathematics and science, which affected
military, commercial, and diplomatic activities during the Cold War era. The
1980s
1960s 1880s 1770s
Permissive Opportunist Dismissive Restrictive
17
movement led to the founding of the National Defense Education Act in 1958, with
the primary goal to improve the level of foreign-language education in the United
States. Domestically, the passage of bills and the occurrence of events had changed
American attitudes toward languages other than English.
One of the most important events of bilingual education in this country was
the success of the TWI program at Coral Way Elementary School in Miami in the
1960s. With the main objective of promoting bilingualism among both native
English-speaking students and Spanish-speaking EL students, Coral Way’s
approach was to instruct two groups of students separately for their English and
Spanish language development while integrating them in other curricula (Crawford,
1995). In 1966, three years after the inception of the TWI program at Coral Way, a
district report indicated that the students at Coral Way became “culturally
advantaged” in the sense that they could effectively communicate bi-culturally in
dual languages. Coral Way’s success proved EL students could achieve
bilingualism, academic success, and become culturally advantaged with the proper
instruction (Crawford, 1995).
Meanwhile, various types of bilingual education programs were
implemented as a result of Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education
Act (ESEA) of 1968, also known as the Bilingual Education Act (BEA). However,
the initial implementation of BEA did not require schools to instruct in languages
other than English to apply for funds. Under the Bilingual Education Act, funds and
resources were distributed to schools to support educational programs, to train
18
teachers, to develop and distribute instructional materials, and to promote parental
involvement in their children’s school activities (Crawford, 1995). As a result,
BEA has been revised several times. “Various revisions of the BEA have
emphasized different goals: ethnic awareness in the 1970s, English fluency and
academic achievement in the 1980s, more freedom for local- and state-level
decision-making in the 1990s” (Linton, 2004, p. 48). However, most programs
developed for EL students are designed to transfer students into English
monolingual classrooms.
Since the Bilingual Education Act of 1968, the case of Lau vs. Nichols has
set another milestone in bilingual education. The case of Lau vs. Nichols is the only
Supreme Court ruling on the language minority students’ rights to special
assistance to facilitate learning in the classroom. In 1970, under the direction of a
San Francisco poverty lawyer, Edward Steinman, the family of a non-English
speaking Chinese student and 1,789 other non-English speaking Chinese students
sued the San Francisco School Board for the poor academic performance of their
children. The Federal District Courts ruled in favor of the school officials, citing
that while the children’s lack of English proficiency was unfortunate, the school
officials cannot be held accountable.
In 1974, under Justice William O. Douglas, the Supreme Court overruled
the lower courts’ decision. Douglas argued that “there is no equality of treatment…
merely by providing students with the same facilities, textbooks, teachers, and
curriculum; for students who do not understand English are effectively foreclosed
19
from any meaningful education” (as cited in Crawford, 1995, p. 45). The court
believed that under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, the Chinese-speaking students
have the right to special assistance to facilitate equal educational opportunity in
school. The ruling of Lau vs. Nichols has mandated school districts to take
affirmative actions to ensure English learners have the access through the use of
bilingual education models (Crawford; Paulston, 1980).
Although most bilingual programs implemented in the U.S. today do not
actually promote bilingualism, the concept of having bilingual education in public
schools has been under attack since the 1980s (Linton, 2004). In the dismissive
period of the 1980s to the present, anti-bilingual movements, such as “English
Only”, “U.S. English”, and “English First”, started to spread across the nation with
the goal of making English the official language of the U.S. (Crawford, 2001). The
trend of the English-only movement gained momentum in the 1990s with help from
the group “English for the Children” led by Ron Unz, a Silicon Valley millionaire
who founded and directed a nationwide campaign against bilingual education. The
movement in California took the form of a voter initiative in 1998. On June 2nd of
1998, California voters granted the passage to Proposition 227, which restricted the
use of students’ primary language for instructional purposes and instead called for a
one-year transitional program of “structured English immersion” regardless of
children’s age, level of English proficiency and grades (Gándara et al., 2000).
Furthermore, two years after the passage of Proposition 227 in California, Unz had
20
again successfully initiated Proposition 203 in Arizona with an even more stringent
criterion on instruction for EL students.
With regard to the post-Proposition 227 era, Herrera and Murry (1999)
discussed the effect of the referenda and other political interventions that impacted
the education system. This study exposed three highly controversial arguments in
the aftermath of Proposition 227, which included English as an endangered
language vs. a culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) student’s right to an
appropriate education; bilingual education vs. structured English immersion; and
local control and professional volition vs. state-mandated, English-only education.
With these three highly controversial arguments in mind, Herrera and Murry
recommended currency, defensibility, and futurity as three key components that
support educational practices of CLD students.
Currency refers to educators’ understanding of the current trends and
developments in the sociocultural and sociopolitical conditions of the school that
might influence students and their families. Another key component, defensibility,
refers to educators who are “capable of self-examination and self-reflection on
practice, collegial articulation of research and theory based rationales behind that
practice, and the reflective development of a personal platform for best practice”
(Herrera & Murry, 1999, p. 196). Lastly, futurity refers to educators who are
capable of thinking beyond the traditional role to better serve the needs of students.
Meanwhile, Herrera and Murry suggest that future research is needed to ensure the
feasibility of these three components as well as to seek additional factors that might
21
encourage bilingual education for culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD)
students.
Through the understanding of the historical trends, such as the Bilingual
Education Act of 1968, the case of Lau vs. Nichols in 1974, and Proposition 227 of
California in 1998, Ovando (2003) concluded that the linguistic ideology in this
country has been altered based on historical events. In addition, several challenges
to bilingual education have been identified, including issues of power (e.g., cultural
identity, social class status, and language politics); misconceptions of language
learning; and the confusion between program evaluation research and basic
research. In short, Ovando argues trends in politics, society, and the economy have
shaped the nation’s perspectives of linguistic diversity.
Since the first experiment at Coral Way Elementary School in the 1960s,
dual language education has been falsely associated with transitional bilingual
education. Meanwhile, the literature on historical events and U.S. linguistic policies
has indicated Americans’ attitudes toward languages other than English and
bilingualism have changed impulsively. Although the concept of instructing EL
students in languages other than English at school has been challenged since the
1980s, dual language education has proven to be a successful alternative to the
transitional bilingual education and the English-only instruction in numerous
settings. Regardless of the instructional strategies, EL students in the U.S. are
learning English as a second language. Thus, in the following section, the literature
of second language acquisition will be discussed.
22
Second Language Acquisition
The literature on EL students’ second language acquisition in the English
language has increased dramatically over the past few decades. While there are
many schools of thoughts on how ELs acquire English as the second language,
studies conducted by Krashen (1981, 1982), Cummins (1979, 1983, 1984), and
Thomas and Collier (Collier, 1987, 1989, 1992, 1995; Collier & Thomas, 1989;
Thomas & Collier, 1996) have contributed greatly and are widely accepted in the
field of education.
As a former professor at the University of Southern California, Krashen is
one of the most respected researchers in the field of second language acquisition in
the modern era. Krashen’s research over the past decades can be summarized into
five hypotheses: the acquisition/ learning hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis,
the monitor hypothesis, the input hypothesis, and the affective filter hypothesis
(Krashen, 1981, 1982).
The acquisition/learning hypothesis proposes two methods of language
development: acquisition and learning. While acquiring a language occurs
unintentionally during the process of language development, learning a language,
on the other hand, occurs intentionally and often through education. In the natural
order hypothesis, a language is acquired in a predictable order. For instance, in
English, students learn to use verbs in present tense before past tense
(Masciantonio, 1988). Meanwhile, the monitor hypothesis describes the differences
between language acquisition and language learning. Krashen believes that while
23
acquisition is accountable for language fluency, the learning part of language
development can only be used for editing or “monitoring” the language being
acquired (Krashen).
Another Krashen’s theory is the input hypothesis, which states that learners
acquire a language only when they understand the meaning, or comprehensible
input, of the message. While comprehensible input is a general term that takes
many forms, the more a learner is exposed to comprehensible input, the more
effective it is for the learner to acquire the language. Meanwhile, as a learner
acquires the meaning of a language, he/she also learns structure, or grammar. The
theory suggests a learner needs to be exposed to a language level where the
structure is slightly beyond the learner’s current competency. An example of
Krashen’s input hypothesis is the use of specially designed academic instruction in
English (SDAIE) that aims to educate students with limited English proficiency
(Sobul, 1995). Lastly, the affective filter hypothesis states that a learner’s second
language acquisition is directly affected by attributes, such as motivation, anxiety
and self-confidence. Although this theory sounds simple, it is, in many ways,
essential to the success of one’s second language acquisition. As a result, it is ideal
for students to have high motivation, low anxiety, and high self-confidence during
language development.
Meanwhile, Cummins’ research on EL students’ language acquisition has
also laid a solid foundation in the field of education. Some of Cummins’ most
important contributions include the concept of basic interpersonal communicative
24
skills (BICS) and cognitive/academic language proficiency (CALP) (1979) and the
common underlying proficiency (CUP) theory (1981, 1983, 1984). According to
Cummins (1984), “[BICS] was defined in terms of ‘the manifestation of language
proficiency in everyday communicative contexts,’ whereas CALP was
conceptualized in terms of the manipulation of language in decontextualized
academic situations” (p. 137). Cummins (1984) also noted that while, on average,
EL students need five to seven years to gain academic English proficiency, students
often need much less, or approximately two years, to pick up “peer appropriate L2
conversational skills” (p. 150). As a result, even when an EL student acquires
BICS, which enables him/her to speak English fluently, he/she may not necessary
gain academic English proficiency, or CALP, needed to compete alongside with
their native English-speaking peers.
The common underlying proficiency (CUP) is another theory introduced by
Cummins. CUP stresses the interdependency between student’s L1 and L2
academic skills. The theory states that language learners’ acquisition of L1 and L2
are not only interrelated, but also the “cognitive/academic or literacy related skills”
acquired from one language can be easily transferable to another language
(Cummins, 1983, p. 376). In addition, the transfer of knowledge or academic skills
is more likely to occur from L1 to L2 since the language learner is more likely to
have more exposure to literacy in the majority language and is more inclined to
acquire knowledge due to strong social pressure.
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In the attempt to determine the time needed for language learners to acquire
a second language, Thomas and Collier have conducted a series of studies over the
past two decades (Collier, 1987, 1989, 1992, 1995; Collier & Thomas, 1989;
Thomas & Collier, 1996). During these studies, Thomas and Collier purposely
incorporated a wide variety of students with diverse background and instructional
designs to determine students’ performance in various settings. In addition, they
purposefully utilized students’ standardized tests and assessment measures of
numerous subject areas (e.g., language arts, readings, math, science, and social
studies) as the measurement for their studies because, ultimately, students’
academic performance is based on the test scores of these assessments.
The results of Collier and Thomas’ studies indicates that EL students who
had no prior schooling in their mother tongue often took over seven to ten years to
catch up with their native English-speaking peers. For EL students who had two to
three years of prior schooling in their native language, they needed five to seven
years of proper English education to catch up to peers of their age group (Collier,
1995). Thus, based on Collier and Thomas’ studies, formal education in students’
mother tongue is an important variable in assessing the amount of time EL students
need to achieve the “norm” level academic English. Meanwhile, these findings of
Collier and Thomas research are closely aligned with the five to seven years
suggested by Cummins (1981).
In sum, the literature of second language acquisition from Krashen,
Cummins, and Thomas and Collier suggests that not only does EL students’ mother
26
tongue not hinder student’s English acquisition, but also, through the use of EL
students’ L1, they are able to acquire academic English more rapidly. In addition,
the knowledge acquired through either language can be transferable between the
languages. However, it is more likely for cognitive and academic knowledge and
literacy skills to convey from student’s L1 to L2 (Cummins, 1983). Among
numerous instructional strategies that were utilized in students’ native language to
assist them in learning English, dual language programs, which aim to incorporate
students’ mother tongue as the instructional medium, have been identified as one of
the most effective strategies in educating EL students. In the subsequent section,
different type of TWI models will be reviewed.
Program Models
Although dual language education is one of many types of instructional
methods for educating EL students, there are variations within dual language
education. Howard and Christian (2002) have categorized program models based
on the methods of language distribution by time, by topic and by instructor.
However, regardless of the type of program models, most TWI programs seek the
balanced 50-50 attendance ratio of the language-minority and language-majority
students (Howard & Christian). The first part of this section will focus on program
models with language distributed by time. Programs, such as the classic 50-50
model and 90-10 model will be examined. Second, the program model with
language distributed by content areas will be evaluated. Lastly, an example of the
program models with language distributed by instructor will be reviewed.
27
Two of the most commonly researched program models are the 50-50, also
known as the “balanced” model, and the 90-10, also known as the “minority
language dominant” model (Howard & Christian, 2002). In both models, the ratios
refer to the percentage of instructional time in each language at the beginning of the
program rather than the percentage of student population. In the 50-50 model, 50
percent of the instructional time should be dedicated to a language other than
English while the remaining 50 percent of the instructional time should be
dedicated to English. The instructional time in the language other than English and
the English language is expected to remain equally balanced throughout all grade
levels within the program.
Figure 2
The 50-50 Program Model
Source: Adapted from Lindholm-Leary, 2001, p. 31.
28
An example of 50-50 models is the “50-50 Content Model” (Gómez,
Freeman, & Freeman, 2005). The purpose of this program is to better serve areas
with high numbers of EL students. The key features of the 50-50 Content Model
include: language distribution by content areas rather than by time; instruction for
each subject area is provided in one of the two languages; development of content
biliteracy is promoted by the end of fifth grade; the usage of Bilingual Learning
Center, “an interactive subject-based learning area with activities that support first
language and second language learners” (Gomez et al., p. 157), is required for pre-
kindergarten to first grade and encouraged for other grade levels; and the concept
of “the language of the day” is utilized to provide learning in one of the two
languages.
Since the 50-50 Content Model had been implemented in over 45 schools in
Texas and Washington, Gómez et al. (2005) selected test score data of five schools
with 240 students from two school districts to participate in this investigation. The
test results of Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS), a standardized
exam in reading and mathematics, were used to determine student performance
from these five schools. The findings indicated an overwhelmingly high percentage
of students enrolled in the 50-50 Content Model met or exceeded the minimum
state standards in both reading and mathematics (Gómez et al., 2005). The results
demonstrated even when the percentage of native English-speaking students was
below the recommended, balanced student ratio, the model can still effectively
provide the 50-50 dual language content instruction. However, Gómez et al.
29
suggested, “to ensure that the model is promoting biliteracy and content-area
knowledge in two languages, Spanish test results need to be analyzed” (2005, p.
163). Thus, further research is needed to analyze student learning in various content
areas in both English and Spanish. In addition, in-depth qualitative studies
consisting of classroom observations and interviews with various stakeholders are
also needed to ensure the proper implementation of the program.
Another approach to the 50-50 language distribution for a TWI program is
by the instructor (Howard & Christian, 2002). However, this approach requires two
simultaneous instructors in which the first instructor teaches in English while the
second instructor teaches in the language other than English. Oyster Elementary
School in Washington, D.C. has been a pioneer in this type of program (Crawford,
1995). Although Oyster’s experiment has been a huge success in dual language
education, it has encountered serious flaws – the waste of capital expenditure and
human resources. Since two teachers are assigned to a classroom simultaneously,
the student-teacher ratio is half of other public schools in the same district.
Although the demand for dual language education is high, the high capital
expenditure and loss of human resources has discouraged this Washington, D.C.
school district from replicating the Oyster model in other schools.
In comparison, the theoretical concepts of the 90-10 model remain identical
to the 50-50 model. In the 90-10 model, up to 90 percent of instruction is in the
minority language for the first year or second year, while the remaining ten percent
of instruction is in the English language. However, in the 90-10 model, the time
30
spent on English instruction gradually increases as students progress through the
program. By fourth to sixth grade, the percentage of instructional time in either
language accounts for 50 percent of the total time in school. Thus, the key
difference between the 50-50 model and the 90-10 model is the amount of
instructional time in each language during the primary grades from kindergarten to
grade three (Howard & Christian, 2002).
Figure 3
The 90-10 Program Model
Source: Adapted from Lindholm-Leary, 2001, p. 31.
Although not a TWI program, a good example of the 90-10 model is
Krashen’s (1996) “Eastman plan” that is widely utilized in the state of California.
Also known as the “late-exit” or “gradual exit” model, the Eastman plan strictly
intends to teach EL students to learn English through the use of students’ mother
tongue while promoting English proficiency. During the early years of the Eastman
31
plan, the program integrates all students, including native English-speaking
students and EL students, in classes such as art, music and physical education to
avoid “segregation” (Krashen, p. 9). However, students with limited English
proficiency are pulled out from regular classes for their English lessons. As
students’ level of English proficiency increases, more subjects are instructed in
English while fewer subjects are instructed in the language other than English.
Ultimately, all subjects will be taught in English, however, the development of
students’ native language is uninterrupted since the program is intended to “…
continue [students’] first language development in classes teaching language arts
and social studies in the first language” (Krashen, p. 9).
In conclusion, regardless of the grade level, academic topic, and geographic
location, these program models all attempt to provide balanced, language
distribution instruction. The goal is to implement a program to maximize the
benefit of two languages by assisting students in developing high levels of
proficiency in both English and the student’s native language while achieving at or
above grade level in academic performance, and developing positive cross-cultural
attitudes and behaviors (Howard, Sugarman, & Christian, 2003). The success of
these programs is dependent on program implementations and instructional
strategies.
Program Implementation and Instructional Strategies
In the attempt to analyze an effective method for teaching language-
majority students, Peregoy and Boyle (1999) examined the instructional strategies
32
of teaching native English speaking students in two Spanish-English dual language
programs near San Francisco, California. The research is conducted through
classroom observation of 61 students from two school sites, Creekside and Seaside.
The concept of “multiple embedded scaffolds” was proposed to assist native
English speaking students in language acquisition and academic content through a
new language. The components of the multiple embedded scaffolds included “…
the curriculum routine, comprehension support, teacher modeling, peer modeling,
the sequence in which language learners gradually assume responsibility for the
response, and the manner in which the teacher increases the complexity of language
and content of the routine” (Peregoy & Boyle, p. 143). Although Creekside and
Seaside shared several common characteristics, these two schools differed in
curriculum settings. Creekside employed a storybook routine while Seaside utilized
the class mascot method of teaching. In the storybook routine, the teacher at
Creekside normally introduced a storybook during the open activities and formed
learning activities based on these stories. The activities enabled students to interact
with each other, which further enhanced students’ linguistic development. As
students progressed through the school year, more complex stories were
introduced. In the class mascot routine, the teacher at Seaside utilized the class
mascot – Oso, a stuffed bear, as the teaching interface during the daily instruction.
Through students’ interaction with Oso, the teacher was able to increase students’
verbal and non-verbal participation, which gradually enhanced the linguistic
development in the program. Although the two curricula varied, as teachers
33
increased the length and complexity of the lesson, students’ language acquisition
and content learning improved over time.
The concept of multiple embedded scaffolds enhanced student learning
through the progression of the program. Based on the study, Peregoy and Boyle
(1999) identified two implications for future developments in implementing
scaffolding instructional strategies. First, research is needed on teacher-led
instruction to determine the use of multiple embedded scaffolds among all grade
levels. Second, further research is needed to determine the effectiveness of multiple
embedded scaffolding on second language learners.
Hadi-Tabassum (1999) performed a study on students in his science class in
an inner-city middle school in Houston, Texas. The purpose of the study was to
qualitatively and quantitatively assess the instructional curriculum of a TWI
science classroom and to examine the impact of educational policy and practice on
students. Four instructional methods were used in this research: two-way
immersion, cooperative grouping, team-teaching, and portfolio assessment. Two-
way immersion approach groups EL students and English-speaking students
together to “… [promote] cognitive, linguistic, and social/affective development for
both groups of students” (Hadi-Tabassum, p. 2). Meanwhile, cooperative grouping
works in conjunction with the two-way immersion approach. It pairs two EL
students with two native English-speaking students during in-class group activities.
This allows students to learn and exchange ideas from one another while working
collaboratively. The third instructional method employed is Hadi-Tabassum’s
34
research is team teaching that incorporates two teachers in the same science
classroom. While one teacher prepares lessons in English, the other prepares the
same lesson in the language other than English, or Spanish in this case. This
method allows both groups of students to learn the content through the mother
tongue at first and then transfer to the other language during “class discussions and
cooperative group interactions” (p. 3). The forth instructional method employs
student portfolios to assess their growth in both content areas and language
developments. The portfolio assessment approach not only helps teachers track
students’ progression, but also gives students’ parents a better understanding of
their children’s learning progression. Meanwhile, quantitative research based on a
Likert-scale survey was conducted at both the beginning and the end of the school
year to assess students’ attitudes toward science.
The findings in the qualitative research indicated both EL students and
English-speaking students experience higher academic achievements and are highly
motivated to learn science content in both English and Spanish. The results of the
quantitative survey showed similar outcomes, which indicated students’ attitudes
toward science increased at the end of the school year. In short, the proposed
instructional strategies led to effective instruction for both groups of students.
Hadi-Tabassum (1999) suggests studies on the new methods and techniques used in
the science classroom in relation to motivation and other school-related experiences
are needed.
35
In an attempt to identify effective instruction for EL students,
Alexandrowicz (2002) proposed several instructional strategies for tutors and
educators. Factors that affect ELs’ literacy acquisition were identified before
presenting the suggestions for effective instruction. These factors included
students’ oral proficiency and the number of vocabularies known prior to entering
school, students’ literacy level in the native language and the differences and
similarities between the native language and English, and students’ understanding
of basic cultural and societal concepts. The findings suggested tutors need to know
students’ “socio-economic, political, educational, linguistic and culturally-related
issues… when teaching [EL] students” (Alexandrowicz, p. 73). EL students need
individualized instruction that addresses individual learning needs. In addition, in
order to provide individualized lessons, instructional planning should be based on
the “ongoing assessments of the development of [students’] listening, speaking,
reading and writing proficiency” (Alexandrowicz, p. 74). Thus, Alexandrowicz
suggests tutors and educators need to possess basic skills of instructional planning
and a solid understanding of students’ abilities and their cultural and linguistic
backgrounds to discover their fundamental needs.
Lara-Alecio et al. (2004) conducted research in dual language education
with the intention of identifying characteristics of the two-way immersion (TWI)
programs implemented in Texas. Second, the investigation sought to initiate an
online network directory of the TWI programs in the state of Texas to provide
communication channels among existing TWI programs and those in the planning
36
phases. For this research, a survey was electronically mailed to 304 bilingual
directors across the state of Texas. Among the bilingual directors, 274 recipients
responded, which indicated a response rate of 90 percent (Lara-Alecio et al., 2004).
Lara-Alecio et al.’s (2004) grand-scale research yielded several findings.
Among a total of 552 school districts in Texas, 166 dual language programs in 61
school districts were identified. Thus, TWI programs were implemented in
approximately 10 percent of school districts that have some form of bilingual
education. Among all participants, 53 percent reported the 50-50 model of TWI
program was implemented in their school districts while the other 47 percent
utilized the 90-10 TWI model. The research results indicated that the majority of
TWI programs in Texas served the early elementary grades (pre-kindergarten to
second grade). Lara-Alecio et al. clarified that this could be the result of the newly
implemented TWI programs that were initiated less than three years ago. In
addition, all participants reported that Spanish and English were the languages of
instruction for their TWI programs. Among all participants, 47 percent of the TWI
programs showed a near balanced ratio of native English-speaking students and
native Spanish-speaking students, while the other 53 percent of TWI programs in
Texas have unevenly distributed student ratios, such as overrepresented Spanish-
speaking minority students. The findings indicated a 75 percent majority of TWI
programs were located in three highly populated Hispanic areas: Texas Lower Rio
Grande Valley, Houston, and El Paso. The unique demographics of the Hispanic
population in Texas helped to explain the disproportionately distributed student
37
ratios in over half of the TWI programs. Lastly, while the research results indicated
54 percent of TWI programs were in place less than three years ago, the other 46
percent of TWI programs were implemented within the last four to six years. In
terms of initial program models, 38 percent of TWI programs in the first year of
implementation reported the use of the 90-10 model, while 62 percent reported the
use of the 50-50 model. Table 1 and 2 summarized the implementation of TWI
programs in the state of Texas.
Table 1
Years of Implementation of the TWI Programs in Texas
Years Percentage
Less than 3 years 54
4 to 6 years 46
Source: Adapted from Lara-Alecio et al., 2004.
Table 2
The Initial Program Model of the TWI Programs in Texas
Program Model Percentage
50-50 62
90-10 38
Source: Adapted from Lara-Alecio et al., 2004.
In general, the literature is the first comprehensive report of TWI programs
in the state of Texas. Through the preliminary research, authors hoped to provide a
cornerstone for future research with interest in improving the education of language
minority students. Although the research has uncovered numerous characteristics of
38
TWI programs in Texas, Lara-Alecio et al. claim further evaluation is needed to
assess TWI programs at the local and state levels across the nation.
Smith and Arnot-Hopffer’s (1998) studied Exito Bilingüe, a multi-grade
level Spanish language arts program designed for all students from first through
fifth grade at Davis Bilingual Magnet School in Arizona. Smith and Arnot-Hopffer
intended to study the implementation of Exito Bilingüe which assists both language
minority and language majority students to become biliterate. Second, the
investigation sought to compare Exito Bilingüe to other types of dual language
programs. The differences and similarities between Davis and other dual language
models and the rationale behind Exito Bilingüe were first discussed. The initial
findings suggested Spanish literacy skills improved among all Davis students
following the implementation of Exito Bilingüe. In addition, the results of
standardized tests in English language arts and literacy also confirmed student’s
English proficiency were not sacrificed due to the newly implemented Exito
Bilingüe. Smith and Arnot-Hopffer also noted the common goal of the teachers and
administrators in promoting biliteracy at Davis was the most critical factor in the
success of Exito Bilingüe. In addition, the school’s magnet status, stable student
population, small class size, number of highly qualified teachers and
administrators, and the support from parents and the principal were also critical to
the program’s success.
Smith and Arnot-Hopffer (1998) also identified challenges in promoting
Spanish literacy in the dual language program. The most important challenge was
39
the lack of appropriate reading materials available for advanced readers. Since
many of Davis students participating in Exito Bilingüe were ahead of their grade
level, in terms of Spanish literacy, lack of such materials encumbered student
language development. Thus, fulfilling the demand of advanced reading materials
in the minority languages is needed.
Unlike Smith and Arnot-Hopffer’s research on all students in a program,
Potowski (2004) performed a study on the use of the Spanish language among four
students in a regular Spanish-English dual language classroom. The purpose of the
research was to determine the possible effects that might promote or hinder the use
of the Spanish language. The methods used in this research included classroom
observations with the supplements of both audio and video recording, interviews
with students, parents, and the teacher, and field notes taken during the process.
The findings from this study indicated that during the Spanish lessons,
when students were instructed to communicate in Spanish 100 percent of the time
while in the classroom, students only used Spanish 56 percent of the time. In
addition, while students’ first language had little association with students’ overall
usage of Spanish, the results indicated two girls (one language-minority student and
one language-majority student) tended to use Spanish more frequently than two
boys. One of the possible rationales was that “the girls were more willing to
conform to the teacher’s expectations” (Potowski, 2004, p. 83). In addition, other
findings revealed that although students tended to communicate with each other in
English more frequently, they always spoke Spanish when responding to the
40
teacher, especially when publicly speaking in the classroom. Thus, one possible
area of future research is the students’ attitudes and perspectives on language use.
In addition, Potowski also stated the correlation between students’ ethnic identities
and their language choices should be further investigated.
In addition to the TWI programs at the elementary level, Montone and Loeb
(2000) conducted one of the few studies on dual language programs at the
secondary school level. The investigation identified the challenges of the
implementation of TWI programs in secondary schools while providing
suggestions in meeting these challenges. For the research, telephone interviews
with school or district representatives from seven TWI programs across the nation
were conducted. The findings indicated the challenges of implementing a
secondary level dual language program included 1) program planning; 2) language
distribution, curriculum, and materials; 3) student participation and motivation; 4)
attrition and late entries; 5) student scheduling; 6) teams, clusters, and houses; 7)
staffing; 8) transportation; and 9) parent involvement (Montone & Loeb, 2000).
In program planning, findings suggested that at least one year of preparation
is needed prior to the actual implementation of the program. Montone and Loeb
recommended that program practitioners need to include ideas and suggestions of
all of the potential stakeholders when planning the program; discuss and plan goals
and objectives; form task forces and teams to tackle issues such as scheduling,
curriculum design, and language distribution; survey parents on reasons for and
41
against enrolling their child in the TWI program; host periodical meetings once the
program starts; and bring in exports when needed.
In addition, other challenges were the issues of language distribution,
curriculum, and materials. Findings reported although TWI programs at the
secondary school level provide the same curricula as general English-only
programs, the issues of which subjects should be instructed in the language other
than English is often a difficult decision (Montone & Loeb, 2000). Montone and
Loeb suggested TWI programs at the secondary level should “have at least two
mandatory classes in the non-English language each year” (p. 8); maintain constant
continuation of the language distribution from one grade to the next; select subject
areas to be instructed in the language other than English based on the textbooks and
teaching materials available; and employ teachers who can teach more than one
subject area.
The third challenge is the issue of student participation and motivation.
Findings indicated that many TWI programs at the secondary school level faced
difficulties in recruiting students due to “many biological and social forces” such as
the increase of individualism and peer pressure among students (Montone & Loeb,
2000, p. 9). In addition, many existing TWI programs reported challenges in
maintaining a balance of EL students and native English-speaking students.
Montone and Loeb suggested new TWI programs should prepare to promote TWI
programs to potential students in the elementary schools, parents, and the school
district; provide sufficient social activities between the TWI and general English-
42
only programs; and offer challenging and meaningful classes to attract and
motivate students.
Meanwhile, another challenge for secondary level TWI programs is the
issue of attrition and late entries. Findings showed many existing TWI programs at
the secondary school level lost students as students advanced to higher grades. In
addition, some programs that did not have sufficient students were often forced to
allow late-entry students. Since both attrition and late-entry can cause problems in
the implementation of the TWI program, Montone and Loeb (2000) recommended
to maintain students’ interest and motivation to remain in the TWI program,
provide well designed schedules that enable students to take courses effectively,
and set requirements which filter qualified candidates for late-entry.
Student scheduling is another challenge identified by Montone and Loeb
(2000). Since students in high school and middle school have many core courses to
fulfill while enjoying the freedom of selecting elective classes, it is difficult to
provide a well-rounded schedule especially when students have to take courses that
are instructed in the language other than English. Montone and Loeb recommended
that the school administrator who is responsible for the master schedule needs to
ensure scheduled TWI classes are not in conflict with each other and the mandatory
courses. They also suggested to hire a counselor who specializes in TWI programs
to assist in the scheduling. Lastly, Montone and Loeb recommended to have an
extended period per day for students in the TWI program. TWI students would be
able to utilize the extra period for the flexibility of scheduling.
43
Another challenge of TWI programs at the secondary school level is related
to the method a school uses to organize teachers and students into terms, clusters or
houses. Schools with TWI programs may face difficulties when the program wants
to group its teachers and students together without being overly isolated from the
rest of the school. Since there was no single best solution for this matter, Montone
and Loeb (2000) suggested TWI programs need to select the best structure that
works best for all stakeholders.
The Staffing issue is another challenge known to many secondary school
level TWI programs. Findings indicated teachers who are bilingual and possess the
necessary credentials and experience to teach students in a TWI program were
difficult to find for many existing programs. However, without qualified teachers
who are proficient in both English and the language other than English, classes that
are instructed in the students’ mother tongue may not be offered. To answer this
challenge, Montone and Loeb (2000) recommended that programs need to train or
provide opportunities for existing teachers to “become familiar with students,
programs goals and structures, [and] curriculum…” of the elementary school level
TWI programs. They also suggested new TWI programs to hire teachers who have
experience in teaching TWI programs at the elementary school level or in the case
of limited staffing, employ part-time teachers to teach the smaller classes.
Meanwhile, for many TWI programs, the issue of student transportation
was critical to the implementation of the program since middle and high school
students don’t always live in the neighboring communities. Montone and Loeb
44
(2000) suggested TWI programs need to work with the school district to resolve the
issue of transporting students or consider the possibility of running the program at
an alternative school site. The last challenge acknowledged in Montone and Loeb’s
research was the issue of parent involvement. Findings showed parents of TWI
programs at the secondary school level may become less supportive of the program
due to the increased pressure of academic achievement and standardized tests.
Montone and Loeb suggested the programs need to strengthen the parent-school
liaison by hosting events such as “TWI Parents’ Night”, maintaining constant
communication with parents and providing language classes for both English
speaking and non-English speaking parents to increase their support for the
program (p. 15).
In summary, since many TWI programs at the secondary level faced similar
challenges, Montone and Loeb suggested new secondary school level TWI
programs to “be patient, plan well in advance, hire good teachers, and obtain buy-in
from the district, the school, the teachers, the students, and the parents” (p. 21).
Although implementing TWI programs at the middle and the high school
levels is challenging, the programs can deliver promising results. In addition to the
benefits commonly seen in most elementary level TWI programs, the potential
benefits of secondary school level TWI programs include the opportunity to
continuously develop second language skills, enter advanced language courses in
high school or college, prepare for International Baccalaureate (IB) programs in
high school, and earn college credit through Advanced Placement (AP) language
45
exams. Based on findings of the telephone interviews with individuals of seven
TWI programs across the nation, Montone and Loeb proposed future research in
students’ academic performance and language development, issues on assessment,
professional development of the teachers, and implementation strategies of
programs in the secondary TWI programs are needed.
By and large, both the implementation and the instructional strategies have
undeniable influence on the success of dual language education. Some researchers
(e.g., Mora et al., 2001; Torres-Guzmán et al, 2005) question the congruence of the
theoretical concept and implementation of the dual language education in some
programs. However, unmistakably, when language programs are well implemented,
dual language education helps students to attain high academic development in
both languages. Successfully implemented programs require well-trained
implementers, and effective methods of measurement through evaluations and
assessments of dual language education.
Evaluations and Assessments
In an attempt to clarify the relationship between Spanish-speaking students
and the poor achievement in state-wide high-stakes testing – Colorado Student
Assessment Program (CSAP), Escamilla et al. (2005) challenged the widely
accepted concept that linguistic and ethnic diversity led to low achievement on
standardized tests at the elementary school level. The findings indicated there was
little correlation between linguistic diversity and low achievement on standardized
tests. Neither Spanish-speaking nor bilingual education programs were the true
46
cause of the gap in CSAP. The deception had misled many people, including a
large number of educators and school administrators, the officials in the CDE, and
the public. On the contrary, participation in bilingual programs meets state content
standards by assisting students in learning through the Spanish language. As a
result, Escamilla et al. (2005) proposed educators and administrators need to
carefully identify the true causality of the achievement gap and provide assistance
based on the need of those students.
Smith et al. (2002) investigated the highly appraised bilingual program at
Davis Bilingual Magnet School in Arizona. The purpose of the study was to
identify the factors that promote and challenge the success of the dual language
program at Davis. Data sources such as the observation of in-class activities,
interviews with students, parents and teachers, and content analysis of students’
previous work in both Spanish and English were collected. Meanwhile, mixed
methodologies were used to facilitate multiple interests of authors and to
triangulate data sources. While this study was not designed to focus on student
performance on standardized tests, the findings of the research concluded that
although Davis students were instructed in Spanish at least 70 percent of the time in
school, Davis students scored at or above district and state levels on multiple
standardized tests, such as Stanford 9 and Arizona Instrument for Measuring
Standards (AIMS). In addition, findings also revealed that a strong supportive
school community helped to foster the success of the dual language instruction
program at Davis.
47
Kirk Senesac (2002) led research on the Inter-American Magnet School in
Chicago, the first two-way bilingual immersion school in the Midwest. The
rationale for this research was to identify factors that may affect the effectiveness
of the program. In addition to the classroom observations and meetings with
various stakeholders over a period of ten years, data sources such as surveys,
interviews and focus groups were also conducted to support this research.
The results indicated EL students at Inter-America consistently attained
high achievement in English reading and writing, mathematics, science, and social
studies, even when classes were instructed in English less than half of the time
(Kirk Senesac, 2002). Kirk Senesac recognized several features contributed to the
achievement of the effective instruction at Inter-America Magnet School. These
features included a challenging core curriculum designed for diverse students in a
classroom; home-like learning environment with high expectations for student
learning and personal development; well trained and highly qualified teachers and
administrators; pedagogical approaches and strategies to foster student-centered
and active learning; and parent and community involvement. The high rate of
student attendance and satisfaction of parents also indicated the strong support of
the students and their family, which directly contributed to the effectiveness of the
program.
Meanwhile, in an attempt to seek the most effective methods to instruct EL
students, Rolstad et al. (2005) performed a meta-analysis to determine the
consequences of various instructional programs. For the analysis, seventeen articles
48
published since 1985 were selected from the existing educational database, ERIC,
PsycInfo, and Dissertation Abstracts. Common criterion among all articles included
minority students in K-12 setting, statistical data needed for the meta-analysis, and
a description of the types of treatments and the comparisons between the programs.
The research results concluded, for minority students, bilingual education is more
helpful than English-only instruction in improving student performance in both
English and the student’s native language. More specifically, according to Rolstad
et al., “… students in long-term DBE [Developmental Bilingual Education]
programs performed better than students in short-term TBE [Transitional Bilingual
Education] programs” (p. 590). The finding is in accordance with Smith et al.
(2002) and Kirk Senesac’s (2002) studies in different dual language programs. As a
result, Rolstad et al. proposed that dual language programs should be at least
permitted, if not highly promoted, in schools serving ELs.
While optimistic results of dual language education can be found in many
studies, some researchers have expressed concern over the growing number of self-
designated programs (Torres-Guzmán et al., 2005; Mora et al., 2001). Torres-
Guzmán et al. studied the implementation of new TWI programs in New York City,
NY. Due to the increased popularity of dual language education, many schools
have attempted to offer students the option to participate in such programs. Some
researchers argue the term “dual language” is as confusing as “bilingual education”
due to the contradiction in personal interpretation (Howard, Olague, & Rogers,
2003). Mora et al. also noted “… simply labeling a particular program ‘bilingual’
49
or ‘dual language’ or ‘two-way immersion’ does not guarantee success in meeting
linguistic and academic goals” (p. 454). Thus, the purpose of this research was to
investigate the coalition of labels and implementation in the self-designated dual
language programs. For this research, a survey was distributed to all pre-
kindergarten to eighth-grade teachers in 60 schools offering dual language
programs. The response rate of 85 percent further strengthened the reliability of the
survey. In addition, classroom observations were conducted in all schools during
the research period.
The findings indicated only two out of 60 programs met the 50-50 model
requirement of instruction in the language other than English (LOTE) while eleven
programs provided close to 50-50 LOTE instruction (Torres-Guzmán et al., 2005).
The research results also identified 29 programs have at least 30% language
minority students, the bare minimum requirement for the dual language program.
Overall, only ten out of 60 programs met the necessary restrictions of the 50-50
language program model when both the language distribution and the proportion of
students were considered. Since the number of mislabeled dual language programs
is extremely high, the self-designated programs may hinder studies on the
effectiveness of dual language programs. Thus, future development in reinstating
mislabeled dual language programs are needed to ensure the extensive success of
dual language education.
Mora et al. (2001) presented an article that portrays various theoretical
models of dual language instruction, with the purpose of examining the
50
fundamental pedagogical principles and pitfalls that affect the implementation of
these models. By reviewing the theoretical models of bilingual education and the
various types of dual language models, the congruence between the program
models, teachers’ beliefs, and teachers’ actual language use patterns were
identified. Mora et al. argued that a lack of consistency between the theoretical
principles and the actual instructional practices created the potential pitfalls, which
hindered the effectiveness of the program. Labeling a program “bilingual” or “dual
language” does not warrant the success of the program. The success of a dual
language program is based on meeting the linguistic and academic needs of
students. Thus, Mora et al.’s investigation is in harmony with other research (e.g.,
Howard, Sugarman, & Christian, 2003)
In summary, various researches indicated TWI programs are more effective
than the English-only approach when instructing EL students (Escamilla et al,
2005; Kirk Senesac, 2002; Smith et al., 2002; Rolstad et al., 2005). Literature
reviewed in this section also indicated that even without emphasis on the outcome
of standardized tests, students enrolled in the dual language program performed at
or above the state level (Smith et al., 2002). In addition, instead of blindly
assuming gaps, researchers warn schools and educators to carefully apply
instruction based on the needs of students (Escamilla et al., 2005). Program
administrators and evaluators need to validate the actual implementation of TWI
programs to ensure the program is designed to promote bilingualism and serve the
needs of students (Mora et al., 2001; Torres-Guzmán et al., 2005). Meanwhile, the
51
strategies for implementing a dual language program and the instructional methods
are critical to the success of dual language education.
Teachers’ Perspectives
The school teachers are often known as the strongest supporters of the dual
language programs (Shannon & Milian, 2002). Since the teachers play the role of
the supporter, as well as the implementer, the literature on the teachers’
perspectives are critical to the study of dual language education.
Alamillo and Viramontes (2000) conducted research on the aftermath of
Proposition 227 in California. The purpose of this study was to examine the
teachers’ perspectives on the impact of Proposition 227 to the school system.
Among the 77 teachers who were interviewed, eight teachers were randomly
selected from each of the three instructional settings: the teachers who remained in
TWI education; the teachers who transitioned from TWI education to structured
English immersion (SEI); and the teachers who remained in the SEI or English-
only instruction. This study focused on the impact of Proposition 227 on the
teaching profession, the instructional practices, the students, the school culture and
the teacher relationships.
The findings indicated that bilingual teachers who remained in TWI
education instruction after the implementation of Proposition 227 “felt devalued
and demoralized” (Alamillo & Viramontes, 2000, p. 158). Bilingual teachers felt
that their expertise in educating EL students was being questioned. The teachers’
instructional practices were impacted by the mandate to modify their language arts
52
program to accommodate the needs of oral language development and phonemic
awareness. Although bilingual teachers continued to teach in the students’ primary
language, they began to experience pressure, due to the lack of primary language
materials as well as the pressure to increase standardized test results. In addition,
bilingual teachers agreed that Proposition 227 has had a negative impact on the
students. As Alamillo and Viramontes noted, “many [EL students] have
internalized negative ideological attitudes [toward] their native language” (p. 162).
In terms of the impact on school culture and teacher relationships, Alamillo &
Viramontes found that bilingual teachers believed the mandate of Proposition 227
was the primary cause of the division between bilingual teachers and English-only
or SEI teachers. However, many of the participating bilingual teachers received
strong support from the principals, even after the execution of the mandate.
Second, teachers who transitioned from TWI education to SEI after
Proposition 227 had mixed perspectives on the teaching profession. Although some
teachers experienced no impact after the mandate, Alamillo and Viramontes (2000)
noted that “two out of the eight teachers in this setting lost their bilingual stipends
as a result of Proposition 227” (p. 159). In addition, these teachers faced extra
pressure to increase the students’ standardized test scores. In terms of the
perceptions on the impact of Proposition 227 on the instructional practices, new
SEI teachers experienced the most transformation since instruction in the students’
primary language (Spanish in most cases) was no longer an option. The teachers
reported the need to use other mediums, such as visuals and music, to replace the
53
absence of the students’ primary language. The Teachers who were new to the SEI
programs perceived a negative impact of Proposition 227 on the students. First, the
teachers expressed concern over the students’ loss of self-identity, including their
culture and mother tongue language. Second, the teachers perceived EL students’
“frustration” since students in the SEI program were stripped of the right to choose
language-use in the classroom as well as on the tests. In terms of teachers’
perspectives of the impact of Proposition 227 on the school culture and the teacher
relationships, the teachers who transitioned from TWI education to SEI perceived
clear divisions amongst themselves and English-only instruction teachers. While
teachers who were new to the SEI programs faced challenges, “there is a general
consensus amongst SEI teachers that Proposition 227 had created frustration in the
school community” (Alamillo & Viramontes, p. 165). However, similar to bilingual
teachers’ perspectives, strong support from principals was present.
Third, the teachers who continued in the SEI program after the passage of
Proposition 227 perceived no major effect on their teaching profession and their
instructional practices. However, similar to bilingual teachers and new SEI
teachers, the teachers who instructed SEI classes prior to or post Proposition 227
expressed the pressure to increase students’ standardized test scores. In terms of
their perspectives on the impact on the students, although some teachers perceived
no impact from the proposition, some raised concern over the self-esteem of the
students in the SEI and English-only programs. Lastly, the teachers who continued
54
in SEI programs believed the mandate resulted in minimum impact to the school
culture and teacher relationships.
As the mediator between the school and the students, teachers’ perspective
is a key indicator of the success of the program. Although teachers’ perspectives on
the impact of Proposition 227 have been intersected with multiple factors including
high-stakes testing and an increase in student accountability, “teachers have
witnessed an overall negative effect on second language learners’ cultural and
linguistic identity and educational future” (Alamillo & Viramontes, 2000, p. 166).
Meanwhile, future research on the impact of Proposition 227 is needed to derive a
conclusion on the effects of this mandate on the minority students.
Hughes, Gleason, and Zhang (2005) performed a study on first grade at-risk
students who “scored below the median score on a state approved district-
administered measure of literacy” (p. 308). The intent of this study was to
measure the predictors of teachers’ perceptions on the academic ability of students
from ethnically diverse settings. For this study, the data was collected from 607
student participants and 173 teacher participants from three school districts in
Southwest Texas. While student participants included African American (N=147),
Hispanic (N=236), and White (N=224), the majority of the teachers were White
(80%), and female (93.4%).
The findings of this research indicated the teachers viewed their relationship
with White and Hispanic students and parents more positively, when compared to
the relationship with African American participants. The relationship variables
55
such as student-teacher support and parent-teacher alliance helped to predict
teachers’ perceptions of students’ academic ability. While these relationship
variables have an effect on the students’ academic achievement, Hughes et al.
(2005) suggested the achievement gap for African American students can be
narrowed by improving home-school and student-teacher relationships. This study
also found students’ socioeconomic status and gender affect teachers’ perspectives
of students’ academic ability. Evidently, the characteristics of a student, such as
student-teacher support, parent-teacher alliance, SES, and gender, affect the
teachers’ perspectives of the students, which in turn, have strong effect on students’
academic achievements. Future development on empirically supported
interventions to improve the affective quality of teachers’ relationship with low
SES and minority students are needed.
Elhoweris, Mutua, Alsheikh, and Holloway’s (2005) examined the effect of
students’ ethnicity on teachers’ decision making process when placing students in a
gifted and talented program. In this study, questionnaires were gathered from 207
teachers from 16 elementary schools in a large Midwestern city school district. The
participants were asked to read one of the three vignettes. All three vignettes
consisted of identical storylines, with student ethnicity as the single variable.
The findings showed participants rated European American and non-labeled
(control group) students the same while giving African American students the
lower score. As a result, in this study, student’s ethnicity had a significant impact
on the decision making process of participating teachers. This finding is consistent
56
with previous findings (Hughes et al., 2005). However, further development is
needed to investigate if additional student characteristics affect teachers’ decision
making process. Future research is also needed to examine other ethnicities and
their impact on teachers’ decision making process in programs for the gifted.
Teachers’ perspectives on the EL students and the impact of Proposition
227 on students were examined in this section. While it is too early to criticize the
effectiveness of this mandate in the early stage of implementation, teachers
perceived a negative impact on minority students. The literature review in this
section also demonstrated that various student characteristics such as ethnicity,
gender, attitude, and SES, influence the teachers’ perspectives of the students.
However, the teachers’ perspectives also help to shape student behavior and
academic success. While the well-prepared teachers are able to provide the
guidance to students in school, students spend more time outside of school. To
ensure the success of the students, as well as the success of dual language
education, parents’ perspectives of the program is imperative. Not only do parents
have the duty to educate their children but parents possess the right to select the
best education based on the needs of the children.
Parents’ Attitudes and Perspectives
Previous research indicated, regardless of parents’ educational background,
socioeconomic status, ethnicity, gender and the children’s academic content,
parents’ attitudes and perspectives have a strong effect on student learning and
academic achievement (Bogenschneider, 1997; Hidalgo, Siu, Bright, Swap, &
57
Epstein, 1995). The fact stands true for parents whose children attend dual
language programs. While many parents of EL students lack the language
proficiency and ability to facilitate children’s learning, their passion towards their
children’s education never diminishes.
In recent years, the studies conducted by numerous researchers in various
states have shown a pattern of positive parental support towards dual language
programs. In an effort to increase the probability of meeting the needs of culturally
and linguistically diverse students in Arizona, Stritikus and Garcia (2005) utilized
the data from the Arizona Education Policy Initiative (AEPI) to identify parents’
perspectives regarding the passage of Proposition 203, a mandate for one-way
immersion programs in the state of Arizona. Second, the investigation sought to
identify the best practices of possible educational alternatives for educating EL
students. The data was collected by AEPI through telephone interviews with a total
of 755 randomly selected Hispanic and non-Hispanic parents in the state of
Arizona. Findings suggested an 83 percent majority of Hispanic parents and a 59
percent majority of non-Hispanic parents oppose Proposition 203, since both
groups believe that both languages should be used in classrooms where ELs are
present. The finding implies that educational policies in Arizona are clearly
unaligned with the majority of parents’ perspectives. Thus, further development in
promoting additive conceptions of linguistic diversity to policy makers and
educators are needed.
58
In a study of bilingual education in Colorado, Shannon and Milian (2002)
performed a survey with participants whose children were enrolled in the dual
language programs. The study attempted to discover the reasons these
participants send their children to dual language programs and how they respond to
Unz’s challenge of eliminating bilingual education. For the study, a simple one-
page survey, written in both Spanish and English, was distributed to participating
parents at the end of the school year. With over a thousand surveys collected, the
results showed an overwhelmingly high level of support for the dual language
program as indicated in Stritikus and Garcia’s study (2005). With the
understanding of the possible drawbacks on studies which use self-reported
questionnaires, Shannon and Milian found that “parents view these programs to be
academically sound, an innovative vehicle for promoting communication and
respect among children from different cultures, and effective in teaching a second
language” (p. 693). In summary, both Hispanic and non-Hispanic parents preferred
dual language programs to continue in Colorado as these programs provided the
best educational needs for their children.
In a Chinese-English preschool in San Francisco, Lao (2004) attempted to
unearth parents’ motives for sending their children to the bilingual program and
their attitudes toward the program. In the study, survey results of 86 participants
were collected. Similar to Shannon and Milian’s (2002) findings, the results of this
research indicated both Chinese-dominant and English-dominant parents
understand and strongly support Chinese-English bilingual education, although
59
parents value different benefits of the program. In general, parents enroll their
children in the dual language programs for the practical advantage of being
bilingual, promoting positive self-image, and enhancing the ability to effectively
communicate within the Chinese community.
Furthermore, Lao (2004) argued that improvements are needed in
promoting bilingualism beyond the classroom. The findings showed there is a lack
of children’s Chinese reading materials at home, which hinders children’s literacy
growth in the language. Lao suggests, “Schools need to work in concert with
parents to establish more effective home-school partnerships to meet the different
language needs and expectations of the parents and students coming from a
spectrum of Chinese American families …” (p. 116). Future development in
bridging the partnership between parents and the school can be beneficial for
students in the TWI program.
Young and Tran (1999) conducted research to examine Vietnamese parents’
attitudes toward their children’s bilingual education in California. Although there is
no Vietnamese-English bilingual program currently implemented in the
community, the main focus was to examine parents’ attitudes toward participation
in their children’s bilingual program, language use, and the fundamental beliefs of
bilingual education. A total of 106 Vietnamese parents whose children attended
San Diego City Schools participated in a survey conducted for this research.
Although participants’ occupation and socio-economic status varied widely, the
60
majority of their children attended the mainstream English-only classes, regardless
of the characteristics of the participants.
The findings of the research indicated that 82 percent of the participants
preferred two-language instruction over the English-only instruction in
circumstances where their children were not proficient in English. The result is
consistent with the findings from Shannon and Milian’s and Loa’s studies on
parents’ preference of TWI programs for their limited English proficient children.
In addition, the result indicated the length of residency in the U.S. and parents’
attitudes toward bilingual education are positively correlated. Even when students
are already proficient in both Vietnamese and English, 81 percent of participants
still prefer the TWI program to the English-only program (Young & Tran, 1999).
Their top three reasons included the importance of keeping native language and
culture (96%), practical advantages (e.g., future career opportunities) of being
bilingual (93%), and superior cognitive development (92%). Overall, the study of
Vietnamese parents’ perspectives toward TWI programs is identical to the findings
of Chinese parents’ perspectives on TWI programs in Lao’s study. Meanwhile,
research shows that parent involvement in school helps to promote the awareness
of cultural values. Future study on parent perspectives toward participating in
decision-making is also needed to ensure the long-term success of the bilingual
programs.
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Conclusion
In this literature review, numerous aspects related to the issues, trends, and
practices of dual language education were examined. In the first section, the
historical perspectives related to the linguistic policies and mandates were
discussed. Second, the key literature on second language acquisition was reviewed.
Third, various TWI program models based on the different methods of language
distribution were evaluated. Meanwhile, issues related to the implementation and
instructional strategies of dual language programs were discussed. Next, evaluation
and assessment on the effectiveness of dual language programs were examined.
Furthermore, the effects of teachers’ perspectives as well as the factors that
influence teachers’ perspectives of the students were examined. Lastly, the attitudes
and perspectives of parents with children enrolled in the dual language program
were reviewed.
The historical perspective of bilingualism in public schools was discussed
in the first section of this chapter. Initially, the divergence between dual language
education and bilingual education was clarified. While dual language education
promotes bilingualism and biliteracy of students, the transitional “bilingual
education” in the U.S. does not foster bilingualism. In most cases, bilingual
education acts as the revolving door, which assists EL students in learning English
before the transition into the mainstream English-only classroom. Several
researchers (Ovando, 2003; Crawford, 1995; Herrera & Murry, 1999; Linton, 2004)
noted that the language ideology in the U.S. has shifted impulsively due to factors,
62
such as the national security, the political interests, and the power of the
referendum. Important historical events such as the initiation of the Bilingual
Education Act in the 1960s, Lau vs. Nichols case in the 1970s, the anti-
bilingualism movements in the 1980s and Proposition 227 of California in the
1990s, were also reviewed.
The literature on second language acquisition based on Krashen’s,
Cummins’, and Thomas and Collier’s studies over the past decades were examined.
Although studies were conducted in different academic settings with different
emphases, findings indicated that learning mother tongue or learning academic
contents through the use of mother tongue does not hinder EL student’s second
language acquisition. In addition, since academic knowledge skills are transferable
between student’s L1 and L2, and formal education in L1 assists the student in
learning L2, the use of mother tongue should not be discouraged. Meanwhile,
studies show EL students need five to seven years or more to reach the academic
English proficiency of their native English-speaking peers (Collier, 1987, 1989,
1992, 1995; Collier & Thomas, 1989; Cummins, 1981; Thomas & Collier, 1996).
In addition to the clarification of dual language education and bilingual
education, various models of dual language education were evaluated. Program
models were categorized based on the methods of the language distribution by
time, by topic, and by instructor (Howard and Christian, 2002). The program
models with language distribution by time are the 50-50 model and the 90-10
model. In these two models, the ratio presents the percentage of the time spent on
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the minority language and the English language at the beginning of the TWI
program. The main difference between the 50-50 model and the 90-10 model is the
time distributed to the instruction in the minority language during the first half of
elementary school (Howard & Christian). In the latter half of elementary school,
both the 50-50 model and the 90-10 model institute an even ratio of language
distribution. In the case of the language distribution by the topic, the 50-50 Content
Model was presented (Gómez et al., 2005). In the 50-50 Content Model, the ratio of
50-50 language distribution is achieved through the division of topics. The
instruction for each subject is provided in one of the two languages. Another
approach of the language distribution for a TWI program is by instructor. In this
model, two instructors, one teaches in the minority language and the other teaches
in English, are assigned to teach in the same classroom simultaneously. An
example of the language distributed by instructor is the TWI program implemented
at Oyster Elementary School in Washington, D.C. (Crawford, 1995).
Then, the implementations and instructional strategies of dual language
education were evaluated. In addition to the review of various successful programs,
such as Exito Bilingüe in Davis Bilingual Magnet School, the research revealed
when programs were properly implemented, dual language education can assist EL
students in achieving high academic development in both languages and other
content areas (Alexandrowicz, 2002; Hadi-Tabassum, 1999; Peregoy & Boyle,
1999). Several researchers expressed concern over the implementation of dual
language programs in several areas. While Potowski (2004) identified the issue of
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students’ language use in the dual language program, Montone and Loeb (2000)
recognized the need of further research on the dual language programs at the
secondary level.
Next, the literature on the evaluations and assessments of TWI programs
was reviewed. The findings concluded that although EL students and programs that
promote bilingualism are criticized as the cause of the gaps in the academic
achievement and high stakes tests, in reality, dual language programs are more
effective in instructing EL students (Escamilla et al., 2005; Rolstad et al., 2005).
Students of TWI programs often perform as well as or above the norm in
standardized tests, even when achieving high test scores in the high stakes tests is
not the primary focus in the TWI programs (Smith et al., 2002; Kirk Senesac, 2002;
Rolstad et al., 2005). Torres-Guzmán et al.’ (2005) and Mora et al.’s (2001) studies
expressed concern over the validity of many dual language programs. The results
revealed many “bilingual” or “dual language” programs do not meet the minimum
requirements of the TWI programs. Program administrators and evaluators need to
validate the actual implementation to ensure the success of dual language
education.
Meanwhile, teachers’ perspectives have a crucial effect on student learning
and the success of the program. The findings of the literature review suggested that
although it is too early to judge the overall success of Proposition 227, teachers
perceived a negative impact on students initially. The literature review also
identified multiple variables that influence teachers’ perceptions of students
65
(Hughes et al., 2005; Elhoweris et al., 2005). Thus, the teacher-student relationship
is reciprocal. Since teachers act as the mediator between the school and the
students, their perspectives are a strong indication of the success of the program
and the students.
Lastly, parents’ attitudes and perspectives toward dual language education
in numerous states were examined. The findings suggest both language-majority
parents and language-minority parents hold positive attitudes toward the TWI
programs and the concept of bilingualism regardless of their ethnicities, geographic
locations, and levels of English proficiency (Lao, 2004; Shannon & Milian, 2002;
Stritikus & Garcia, 2005; Young & Tran, 1999). Although parents might have
different incentives for enrolling their children in a dual language program, they
understand the underlying pedagogies and the benefits of the program. Positive
attitudes and perspectives of parents are critical to the success of dual language
education.
While many issues have already been addressed in the literature review,
there are still challenges facing dual language education.
Gaps in Research
In the Unites States, since the implementation of the first dual language
program in the 1960s, the debate on issues related to teaching students whose first
language is not English has been disputed persistently. In politics, various bills and
propositions affecting bilingual education have been mandated at both federal and
state levels. While mandates such as the Bilingual Education Act of 1968 and the
66
1974 case of Lau vs. Nichols have promoted bilingualism in this country,
Proposition 227 in California and Proposition 203 in Arizona have hindered the
linguistic and academic development of many EL students. Regardless of these
political affairs, the number of TWI programs continues to increase (CAL, 2006).
In Academia, scholars and researchers have raised awareness in various areas.
Evidently, one size does not fit all when it comes to educating language-minority
students. Whereby, the literature reviewed has identified issues related to the
program models, evaluation and assessment, program implementation and
instructional strategies, and teachers’ and parents’ attitudes and perspectives toward
dual language education. Several gaps have been identified throughout this
literature review.
First, although the literature review has identified some characteristics of
TWI programs at the elementary school level, the literature on the middle and high
school levels’ TWI programs is limited. Thus, a study on the nature of the TWI
programs at the secondary school level is essential for a better understanding of the
TWI programs beyond the elementary schools. In addition, while many researchers
have stressed the importance of the program implementation and instructional
strategies to promote the success of dual language education, the effectiveness of
these strategies is still in question. This is especially true for TWI programs in the
middle school and high school levels. Since the literature in dual language
programs at the post-elementary level is nearly inaccessible, there is an evident
need to examine students’ academic achievement and language development
67
beyond the primary grade level. Another area of future research is teachers’
perspectives that may directly affect EL student learning and teachers’ passion for
teaching. Lastly, although the literature review indicates both language-minority
and language majority parents possess positive attitudes and perspectives toward
TWI education, research on parents’ perspectives toward the effectiveness of the
TWI program at the middle school and high school is needed.
Based on the gaps identified through the literature review, three research
questions have been established. The overarching research question is: What is the
nature of the dual language program at the middle school level? In addition, the two
sub-questions are:
• What is the perceived effectiveness of dual language programs at the middle
school level based on teachers’ perspectives?
• What is the perceived effectiveness of dual language programs at the middle
school level based on parents’ perspectives?
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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
Issues related to educating English learners (EL) have always been a popular
topic in the U.S. (Lindholm-Leary, 2001; Hawkins, 2005). While numerous
advocates support various instructional methods, the debate over the most effective
method for educating EL students is controversial. Dual language programs, or
two-way immersion (TWI) programs, were first introduced in the U.S. in the 1960s
and have gained popularity over the last two decades (Peregoy & Boyle, 1999;
Montone & Loeb, 2000; Torres-Guzmán et al., 2005). TWI programs purposefully
integrate both native English-speaking students and EL students into the same
classroom while providing instruction in both English and EL student’s native
language to both groups of students simultaneously (Howard, Sugarman, &
Christian, 2003). The goal of the dual language program is to develop bilingual
skills, enhance academic achievement, and promote positive attitudes toward
diverse cultures for both groups of students (Lindholm-Leary, 2001). Over the last
few decades, dual language education has evolved into various program models
categorized by methods of language distribution through time, academic topic, and
instructor (Howard & Christian, 2002).
In comparison to English-only and various transitional programs, dual
language education has shown positive results in teaching sound academic English
and the target language to both native English-speaking students and EL students
(Kirk Senesac, 2002; Smith et al., 2002; Rolstad, Mahoney, & Glass, 2005).
69
However, a number of researchers have questioned the implementation and the
validity of some TWI programs (Montone & Loeb, 2000; Mora, Wink, & Wink,
2001; Potowski, 2004; Torres-Guzmán et al., 2005). Consequently, the discussion
over the effectiveness of TWI programs is inconclusive. In addition to the TWI
program itself, classroom teachers and parents play a crucial role in student
learning. Their perspectives toward dual language programs can directly and
indirectly influence the success of the dual language program (Young & Tran,
1999; Shannon & Milian, 2002; Lao, 2004; Elhoweris et al., 2005; Hughes et al.,
2005; Stritikus & Garcia, 2005).
While the number of TWI programs has increased dramatically over the last
two decades, from 24 programs in 1986 to 329 programs in 2006, the majority of
these programs are employed at the elementary school level (CAL, 2006).
According to “the directory of two-way bilingual immersion programs” conducted
by Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL), among all TWI programs, there are 286
elementary level, 34 middle school level and nine high school level programs. In
addition, due to the limited availability of TWI programs in middle schools and
high schools in the U.S., research on TWI programs beyond the elementary level is
inadequate (Lindholm-Leary, 2001; Montone & Loeb, 2000). Evidently, there is
increased demand for a methodologically sound study in TWI programs beyond the
elementary level.
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Research Questions
The present study aimed to enhance the understanding of the nature and the
effectiveness of dual language programs at the middle school level. Based on the
literature reviewed and the purpose of this study, two research questions have been
identified. The overarching research question that is addressed in this study is:
• What is the nature of the dual language program at the middle school level?
In addition, the sub-research questions of the present research are:
o What is the perceived effectiveness of dual language programs at the
middle school level based on teachers’ perspectives?
o What is the perceived effectiveness of dual language programs at the
middle school level based on parents’ perspectives?
To better address these research questions, methodologies and procedures
used in this study have been thoroughly discussed in this chapter. In the following
sections, components of the research design such as participants and setting, data
collection procedures, and data analysis will be examined.
Research Design
After reviewing various research methodologies, a qualitative research
approach was selected for its appropriateness and strengths that would fulfill the
purpose of the study. According to Creswell (2003), “a qualitative approach is one
in which the inquirer often makes knowledge claims based primarily on
constructivist perspectives… or advocacy/participatory perspectives… or both” (p.
18). Since this study intended to investigate the program’s effectiveness by
71
exploring the program implementation, instructional strategies, and teacher and
parent perspectives, the characteristics of qualitative research were consistent with
the research objectives.
Qualitative research has several strengths over a quantitative approach. One
of its strengths is the ability to examine issues in depth with a selected sample size
(Creswell, 2003; Patton, 2002). In qualitative research, “the researcher is the
primary instrument for data collection and analysis” (Merriam, 1998, p. 7). This
approach allows the researcher to spend extensive time in the naturalistic setting
that encourages intensive interaction with participants, which provides the
researcher the opportunity to collect first-hand realistic data.
Another strength of qualitative study is its emergent and evolving
characteristics. In contrast to the pre-configured quantitative research, the ability to
respond to changing conditions of the on-going study gives the qualitative
researcher the flexibility to adjust data collection procedures while the study
unfolds (Merriam, 1998). For instance, in this study, the ability of probing during a
semi-structured interview with open-ended questions granted the researcher the
opportunity to discover the intended meanings of participants.
Lastly, “one of the strengths of qualitative analysis is looking at program
units holistically” (Patton, 2002, p. 228). Since this study was designed to explore
the program effectiveness, the unit of analysis was the entire program in both dual
language and English-only settings. Unlike quantitative research that gets the
overall result by combining data from individuals, “qualitative methods involve
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observations and description focused directly on the unit: The program … not just
the individual people, becomes the case study focus in those settings” (Patton, p.
228). This unique characteristic of qualitative research is critical since the
characteristics and effectiveness of the entire program was the primary focus of this
research.
Participants and Setting
The data collection for this research took place at Bridgeview Middle School
in San Francisco during the spring semester of the 2006-2007 school year.
Bridgeview was one of the two school sites (one high school and one middle
school) recommended by the office of Multilingual Program and the Program
Evaluation and Research Department of the San Francisco Unified School District
(SFUSD). The school was selected for its Cantonese-English TWI program,
community demographics, geographic location and accessibility.
Prior to the data collection, the research proposal was submitted to the
Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the University of Southern California (USC)
and the SFUSD’s Program Evaluation and Research Department. While the IRB
application at USC took nearly two months to complete, the process of the SFUSD
application took over two months. Once the Program Evaluation and Research
Department approved the research proposal, an official acceptance letter was
issued. A copy of the SFUSD approval letter is presented in Appendix A.
Subsequently, Dr. Chestnut, the principal of Bridgeview, was contacted directly
through telephone. After reviewing the research proposal and a few telephone
73
discussions, Dr. Chestnut approved the research proposal and welcomed the
researcher to conduct the study at his school site.
Located in the north central region of San Francisco, Bridgeview Middle
School served a total of 961 students in sixth, seventh, and eighth grades during the
2006-2007 school year. The school was headed by Dr. Chestnut, and two assistant
principals. In addition, three counselors, 46 teachers and 18 paraprofessionals were
also employed at Bridgeview. Gender distribution among teachers was
approximately 46 percent male and 54 percent female. On average, teachers of
Bridgeview Middle School had approximately 13 years of teaching experience in
the San Francisco Unified School District (San Francisco Unified School District,
2006a).
The average class size of Bridgeview Middle School was approximately 28
students per class. The student body consisted of 576 Chinese, 113 Hispanics, 93
African Americans, 90 other non-White, 25 other White, 23 Filipinos, three
Japanese, three Korean, and 35 others. The gender ratio of students was 50.1
percent female and 49.9 percent male. Among all students at Bridgeview, 285
students were identified as English learners, 124 individuals were identified as
Special Education students, and 314 individuals were categorized as Gifted and
Talented (GATE) students. In addition, 617 students at Bridgeview were enrolled
in the free lunch program and another 165 students were enrolled in the reduce
lunch program.
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Bridgeview Middle School was one of public middle schools in the SFUSD
who offered the Cantonese-English TWI program as an alternative to English-only
instruction to students of diverse backgrounds. Established in 1998, the TWI
program at Bridgeview offered two classes per grade level to serve its students. In
the 2006-2007 academic school year, the students enrolled in the TWI program
accounted for approximately one fifth of the total student population at Bridgeview
Middle School.
Since the present study utilized the qualitative research methodologies that
include interviews, observations and documents, interactions with participants were
necessary. Besides the school principal, other active participants of the present
research included a school counselor, teachers of the three observed classrooms,
four other teachers who participated in the TWI program, and 11 parents who were
selected to participate in interviews. The school counselor and seven teachers were
introduced by the principal to the researcher. After describing the purpose of the
study and presenting an information sheet, listed in Appendix B, to each potential
interviewee, the school counselor and teachers agreed to be interviewed. Thus, the
present research included perspectives of nine school interviewees: the principal,
the counselor, three teachers from observed TWI Math classes and four TWI
teachers. The purpose of including school administrators and additional teachers in
addition to the three observed Math teachers was to increase the reliability and
validity of the present research.
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In terms of parent participants, an estimated number of 110 copies of parent
informed consent forms, in both English and Chinese, were distributed in the three
participating TWI Math classes during the first observation sessions and in one of
Teacher #6’s Chinese Language Arts classes. A copy of both the English and
Chinese versions of parent informed consent forms are provided in Appendix C and
Appendix D. Since half of the students in the observed eighth grade Honors Math
class were in the TWI program while the remaining half were in the English-only
program, Teacher #6 volunteered to distribute parent consent forms to her eighth
grade students to ensure that parent perspectives of eighth grade TWI students were
included in the present research. The signed parent consent forms were collected
throughout the observation period. Amongst all the parents whose children were
enrolled in the participating classes, a total of 19 parents agreed to participate in
this research while 11 parents were randomly selected to be interviewed. The
purpose of the randomization of parent interviewees was to increase the reliability
and the validity of the present research.
In addition, the three observed TWI Math classes were recommended by Dr.
Chestnut. After an informal introduction to the teachers, the researcher was
welcomed to conduct the present research in these three classes. In the following
section, the procedures and methodologies used for the data collection will be
discussed.
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Data Collection Procedures
Data collection techniques used to conduct the study included observations,
interviews, and documents. The following describes data collection procedures for
each instrument.
Observations
In-class observations, intended to explore the actual program implementation
and instructional strategies used in the classrooms, were performed in January of
the 2006-2007 school year. In order to gain a holistic perspective of Bridgeview’s
TWI program, one Math class per grade level, or 50 percent of total student
population in the program, was included in this research. The observed classes
included a sixth and a seventh grade TWI Math class and a combined eighth grade
Honors Math class where approximately half of the students were from the TWI
program while the remaining half were from the regular English only program.
Teachers of the three TWI Math classes participated in this research were
introduced and recommended by the principal for the present research. While
students were not the primary subjects of the study, the researcher was formally
introduced to students during the first observation session in all three classes. Each
participating class was observed for one period per day for five consecutive school
days.
Since the purpose of the in-class observation was to explore the nature of the
program, which included the implementations and instructional strategies provided
in the classroom, the focus of the present research was on the interaction and
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instruction of the teacher and students, and not the individual students. Table 3
listed below shows the observation schedule in detail.
Table 3
The Schedule of In-Class Observations
Participated
Class
Frequency
Length of
Observation
(Hour/Session)
Total Hours of
Observation
6A 5 Consecutive Days 1 5
7A 5 Consecutive Days 1 5
8A 5 Consecutive Days 1 5
Meanwhile, since the classroom teacher acted as the mediator between the
school and students, and the implementer of the program, it was critical to observe
the actual implementation and instruction provided in the naturalistic classroom
setting. For this purpose, a rubric adapted from Stronge’s (2002) “Teacher Skills
Assessment Checklists” was utilized during observations. Stronge’s checklists were
based on “a comprehensive review and synthesis of research related to effective
teaching” (Stronge, p. vii). His book, “Qualities of Effective Teachers”, was often
utilized by school administrators and department chairs of elementary and
secondary schools across the nation to evaluate teacher performance. In addition,
many elementary and secondary teachers around the world used Stronge’s
checklists for self-reflection and as a means for self-improvement.
While Stronge’s checklists seemed to be ideal for evaluating the effectiveness
of a classroom teacher using specific criteria, not all indicators in the checklists fit
the needs of this study. As a result, selected indicators adapted from Stronge’s
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model were revised to accommodate this research. In addition to the indicators
adapted from Stronge’s model, other indicators generated by the researcher were
also included to suite the special need of the present study. A copy of the
observation protocol is available in Appendix E.
During the observation sessions, the checklist was employed with care. Once
the activity described in an indicator was observed, a check mark (√) was added to
the “observed” box next to each indicator. In addition, field notes were taken next
to the indicators on the observation protocol. This process ensured that each
indicator was carefully observed. The observation checklist provided a focal point
that helped the researcher focus on the intended matters rather than observing
blindly. Furthermore, since field notes were taken with care to reflect findings
during observations, neither audio- nor video-recording equipments were utilized
during the observation sessions. The intent of conducting this research without
audio or video equipments was to preserve the naturalistic setting of the
participating classrooms and prevent interruption caused by researcher’s presence
in the classroom.
The observation commenced immediately upon the beginning of each class
session. The teacher’s interaction with students and the methods used to initiate the
lesson and introduce new topics to the class were observed. In addition, the
teacher’s body language and voice tone were examined. Furthermore, the number
of times and methods in which students asked questions were noted. The strategies
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the teacher used to respond to students’ questions were recognized. Finally, each
observation session ended when the school bell rang.
Interviews
One-on-one interviews with teachers, and parents of students enrolled in
Bridgeview’s TWI program were conducted after the completion of in-class
observations during the 2007 spring semester. The interview questions were not
distributed prior to the interview. For the purpose of this study, semi-structured
interviews with open-ended questions were offered to all interviewees. In a semi-
structured interview session, “the investigator will have a set of questions on an
interview schedule, but the interview will be guided by the schedule rather than be
dictated by it” (Smith, 2003, p. 56). The reason for interviewing participants after
observation sessions was to prevent participants from changing their natural
behavior during observations and preparing their answers before the interview.
The interview questionnaires were designed to examine teachers’, school
administrators’ and parents’ perspectives on the nature and the effectiveness of
Bridgeview’s TWI program.
For this study, the three teachers from the observed Math classes, the
principal, a counselor and four TWI teachers were asked to participate in the
present research. In addition, the informed consent forms in both English and
Chinese versions were distributed to students in the observed classes and Teacher
#6’s eighth grade Chinese Language Arts class during the first day of observation.
Students were asked to bring back the form with their parent’s signature. Among
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the 110 copies of informed consent forms distributed, 19 parents agreed to be
interviewed. Meanwhile, 11 out of the 19 parents were randomly selected to
participate in this research.
Table 4
The Place of Interviewing Parent Participants
Parent Home Workplace School Park Telephone
1 X
2 X
3 X
4 X
5 X
6 X
7 X
8 X
9 X
10 X
11 X
Total 4 2 1 2 2
All interview sessions were designed to last approximately 30 minutes and
were audiotaped upon the interviewee’s approval. Interviews were then transcribed
into Microsoft word for future analysis. While teachers and school administrators
were interviewed in their classrooms after school or during the preparation period,
the interview sessions with participating parents took place at the location of their
choice, such as their homes, the school, the workplace, or via telephone. Among all
parent interviewees, four were interviewed at their home, two were at their
workplace, one was at school, two were at a public park and two were over the
telephone. Table 4 showed the locations where the interviews with parents took
81
place. The interview questionnaires for both parents and teachers are available in
Appendix F.
Documentations
In addition to in-class observations and one-on-one interviews with teachers
and parents, numerous documents related to Bridgeview’s TWI program were also
examined. Documents were collected from the teachers and administrators at
Bridgeview, and the San Francisco Unified School District’s (SFUSD) website.
The data that were collected included the statistics of the school, the vision and the
mission statements, and goals of SFUSD Two-Way Dual Language Project that
oversaw the TWI program at Bridgeview.
The combination of observations, interviews and the documentation
provided a better understanding of the nature of the program as well as the
perspectives of teachers, school administrators and parents. The following section
discusses how each instrument was decoded, recorded and analyzed.
Data Analysis
Since the present research aimed to explore the nature and the effectiveness
of TWI programs at the middle school level through the use of in-class
observations, one-on-one interviews with teachers, administrators and parents, and
documents, a mixed analytic approach was utilized to determine the findings. First,
challenges identified in Montone and Loeb’s (2000) article on the secondary school
level TWI programs were employed in the present research. These challenges
included student participation and motivation; staffing; language distribution,
82
curriculum, and materials; and parent involvement. However, a closer look at the
data revealed findings of the present research were much more thorough than the
challenges identified by Montone and Loeb. While the present research employed
multiple methodologies, the only research methodology used by Montone and Loeb
was the telephone interviews with personnel of the school or the school district.
This research identified facts and issues that were not mentioned in the previous
literature. For instance, the issue of staffing in the secondary school level TWI
programs determined by Montone and Loeb referred to employing quality
staff/teachers. However, findings of the present research indicated that while
employing qualified teachers was important, the need for professional development
for existing teachers was also critical to the well-being of the program. As a result,
based on the findings of this research, these themes have been redefined as
motivation and encouragement, qualified teachers and the need for professional
development, lack of resources and lack of support.
In addition, further characteristics of a dual language program emerged from
the data, including lack of communication, positive student interaction, student
attitude and behavior differences, preparation and implementation, SDAIE-like
instructional strategies, maintaining mother tongue, slow English progression,
noticeable linguistic and academic performance, perceived program success, and
the trend of learning Mandarin. These themes were derived using grounded theory.
Grounded theory is an inductive analytical approach where “… the researcher
attempts to derive a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction
83
grounded in the views of participants in a study” (Creswell, 2003). In addition, this
approach requires multiple phases of data collection and the analysis of the
correlations amongst findings (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Table 5 listed below
included emerged themes and an example of each theme that will be discussed in
the following chapter.
Table 5
Table of Themes
Theme Example
Motivation and Encouragement Teacher's verbal encouragement during the class.
Qualified Teachers and the
Need for Professional
Development
Bilingual teachers who were experienced and
possessed necessary credentials.
Lack of Resources
Lack of school-based curriculum for Cantonese
instructed classes.
Lack of Support Limited support from the school district.
Lack of Communication
More communication opportunities are needed
for TWI teachers to meet with each other.
Positive Student Interaction
EL students and native English-speaking
students interacted frequently and positively with
each other.
Student Attitude and Behavior
Differences
EL students tended to give more respect to the
teacher.
Preparation and
Implementation Class agenda was written on the board.
SDAIE-Like Instructional
Strategies
The teacher spoke English in a slower pace to
accommodate EL students.
Maintaining Mother Tongue
Parents highly valued children's ability to
communicate in Chinese.
Slow English Progression
Some school interviewees and parents concerned
their children's English progression.
Noticeable Linguistic and
Academic Achievement
Teachers noticed students' English and academic
advancements.
Perceived Program Success
Parents sent more than one child to the TWI
program.
The Trend of Learning
Mandarin
Some interviewees preferred Mandarin to
Cantonese due to different reasons.
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The analysis began with the examination of documents collected from school
administrators and teachers as well as online resources such as the SFUSD’s
website. Findings of documentation provided a basic overview of what
Bridgeview’s TWI program should look like and what the program intended to
accomplish, such as the demographics of the program, the program model, the
vision and mission statement of the school, and the goals of the TWI programs.
Findings of documents were then compared with results of observations and
interviews. Through this process, the original intentions, the nature, and the
perceived effectiveness of the program were realized.
Meanwhile, interview sessions were conducted with the pre-arranged semi-
structured, open-ended questionnaires. Interviews with teachers, administrators and
parents were audiotape with a digital audio recorder upon interviewees’ approval
and transcribed into word documents upon leaving the site. Each interview was
analyzed based on the response of the participant. Data collected through
interviews were compared and analyzed. The interview results were categorized
based on the role of participants – the teacher or the parent. Meanwhile, the same
analytical process was repeated until the last interview session had been completed.
In the case of observations, the checklist adapted from Stronge’s model was
used as the guideline for the observation sessions in the present research. However,
the indicators on the checklist were not graded based on the Likert scale-like
measurement. Instead, indicators that were observed during the observation
sessions were marked as observed while the un-observed indicators were left blank
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on the checklist. Data collected on the observation checklist during in-class
observations were cross-referenced with field notes and organized immediately
upon leaving the research site to prevent the failure of recollections. The results of
the checklists and field notes from the three participating Math classes were then
compared and analyzed thoroughly. Through this analytical process, the actual
implementation of the dual language program at Bridgeview Middle School was
recognized. The findings of the observations were compared with results from the
interviews and documents.
Summary
This chapter addressed rationales of employing the qualitative research for
the present study followed by the discussion of the procedures and processes that
were used to perform data collection. Methodologies used to explore the nature and
the effectiveness of the TWI program included observations, interviews and
documents. The in class observations were implemented in a sixth and a seventh
grade TWI math class and a combined eighth grade Honors math class where
approximately half of the students were from the TWI program while the remaining
half were from the regular English only program. Each participating class was
observed for one period per day for five consecutive school days. The purpose of
observations was to explore the nature and the effectiveness of the program through
observing the implementation and the use of instructional strategies in the
classroom. The second instrument was one-on-one interviews with teachers and
school administrators as well as parents whose children were enrolled in
86
Bridgeview’s TWI program. The semi-structured open-ended questionnaires were
designed to explore the participants’ perspectives of the program. Findings of in-
class observations, interviews with school participants, and interviews with parent
interviewees were used for triangulation to ensure the validity and reliability of the
present research. Lastly, the documentation that included numerous official
statements and general statistics of the TWI program were collected and reviewed.
The analysis of documents provided insight into the original purpose and goals of
the program, which were then used to validate findings of interviews and
observations. In the following chapter, themes emerged from observations,
interviews and documentation will be analyzed and discussed thoroughly.
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH FINDINGS
Introduction
While many studies show two-way immersion (TWI) programs are
effective in educating students at the elementary level (e.g., Kirk Senesac, 2002;
Smith et al., 2002), others have shown concern over the implementation and
validity of TWI programs (e.g., Montone & Loeb, 2000; Lindholm-Leary, 2001;
Torres-Guzmán et al., 2005). Most studies conducted to date have focused on
program implementation and instructional strategies, and the effectiveness of dual
language programs in the elementary school level, and thus research beyond this
level is inadequate. The goal of this study was to investigate the nature and
perceived effectiveness of the dual language programs at the middle school level.
Data presented in this chapter are intended to elucidate the proposed research
questions:
• What is the nature of the dual language program at the middle school level?
o What is the perceived effectiveness of dual language programs at the
middle school level based on teachers’ perspectives?
o What is the perceived effectiveness of dual language programs at the
middle school level based on parents’ perspectives?
Data collected through in-class observations, one-on-one interviews with teachers,
administrators, and parents, and documentation from Bridgeview Middle School
were analyzed and presented according to the research questions. In the following
sections, demographics of the participants and themes that emerged throughout data
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collection are presented with an analysis of these themes: motivation and
encouragement; qualified teachers and the need for professional development; lack
of resources; lack of support; lack of communication; positive student interaction;
student attitude and behavior differences; preparation and implementation; SDAIE-
like instructional strategies; maintaining mother tongue; slow English progression;
noticeable linguistic and academic performance; perceived program success; and
the trend of learning Mandarin.
Demographics
The research was conducted at Bridgeview Middle School in the San
Francisco Unified School District in January 2007. The research included nine
school interviewees and 11 parent interviewees. School interviewees included three
teachers of the three observed classes, four additional teachers, one counselor, and
the principal.
Participating Classes
The first set of data collected consisted of in-class observations performed
in three Math classes at Bridgeview Middle School. This included a sixth and a
seventh grade general TWI class, and an eighth grade Honors class. All three
observed classes were instructed in English. While all students in the sixth and the
seventh grade classes were enrolled in the TWI program, approximately half of all
students in the eighth grade class were from the TWI program while the remaining
half were from the regular English-only program. In addition, only four students in
the eighth grade combined Honors class were of non-Chinese origin while the
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remaining students in all three classes were of Chinese origin. Although the
structure and student distribution of the observed eight-grade Math class was not
typical for TWI classes, it was part of the analysis.
In terms of teachers’ ethnicities, two out of three teachers, Teacher #1 and
Teacher #2, were first generation immigrants with Chinese heritage while the other
teacher, Teacher #3, was American born Caucasian. Thus, two out of three teachers
of the participating classes were bilingual and biliterate in English and Cantonese.
Regardless of their ethnicities, all teachers were fluent in English and possessed the
supplementary single subject credential in Math. Findings through interviews with
teachers of these participating classes also indicated all three teachers possessed the
single subject credential in math and the Bilingual, Cross-cultural, Language and
Academic Development (BCLAD) certification. Table 6 shows a summary of the
class structure of the participating classes.
Table 6
The Structure of Participating Classes
Participated
Class
Class
Type
Teacher's
Ethnicity
Percentage
of TWI
students
Percentage
by Students'
Ethnicity
Total Hours of
Observations
6A TWI Chinese 100 100 Chinese 5
7A TWI Chinese 100 100 Chinese 5
8A
Combined
Honors Caucasian 50 83 Chinese 5
School Interviewees
The three teachers of the observed classes, four additional teachers, one
school counselor and the principal were invited to participate in this research. All
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nine educators were closely involved with the two-way immersion program at
Bridgeview. Interviews were conducted in classrooms and offices during after
school hours or teacher’s preparation period. During the interviews, all participants
agreed to be audio recorded. While only two out of nine interviewees spoke
English as their first language, the remaining seven interviewees spoke Cantonese
as their first language. Since all school interviewees were proficient in English, the
English language was used as the medium for all interview sessions with teachers
and school administrators upon the researcher’s request. Findings indicated all
school interviewees were fluent in English, regardless of their birthplace and first
language. Meanwhile, six out of nine participants were first generation immigrants
with Chinese heritage. These six participants possessed extensive teaching
experience in Hong Kong prior to their arrival to the United States. A summary of
interviewees’ background and teaching experience is presented in Table 9.
As Table 7 reveals, the TWI teachers at Bridgeview who participated in the
present research had 18 to 37 years of experience in educating EL students. In
comparison, 70 percent of TWI teachers in the U.S. have less than 5 years of
experience in educating TWI students (Christian, Howard, & Loeb, 2000). The
research indicated TWI teachers at Bridgeview had an unusual high level of
experience when compared to the average TWI teacher in the U.S.
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Table 7
General Background and Teaching Experience of Teachers and Administrators
Participated Teachers and Administrators
Background
Information #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 Counselor Principal
Born in Hong Kong X X X X X X
Born in the USA X X X
Native Cantonese
Speaker X X X X X X X
Native English
Speaker X X
Years of
Experience in the
field of Education 22 32 18 25 37 35
~
30 Unknown 26
Experience in
teaching ESL/ELD X X X X X
Foreign teaching
experience
(Hong Kong) X X X X X X
In terms of teaching credentials, six out of seven teachers possessed the
multiple subject credential, with the exception of Teacher #3, while six out of seven
teachers possessed the BCLAD certification, with the exception of Teacher #6.
Findings also indicated many teachers possessed various single subject credentials
to supplement their multiple subject teaching credential. For instance, all three
teachers of the observed math classes, Teacher #1, Teacher #2, and Teacher #3,
held the supplementary math credential, and Teacher #3 also held the single subject
science credential. In addition, two teachers, Teacher #4 and Teacher #7, possessed
single subject credential to teach Chinese Mandarin while Teacher #1 was in the
process of acquiring his Chinese Mandarin credential. A detailed summary of
teaching credentials held by interviewees is presented in Table 8 listed below. A
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quick review of table revealed all school interviewees possessed the necessary
qualifications to teach TWI classes.
Table 8
Teaching Credentials possessed by Teachers and Administrators
Teachers and Administrators
Credentials #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 Counselor Principal
Multiple Subject X X X X X X X
BCLAD X X X X X X
Math X X X X
Science X
Mandarin X X
Social Studies X
Parent Interviewees
For this research, parent consent forms were distributed to students in the
three observed math classrooms, as well as Teacher #7’s Chinese classroom.
Although her class was not one of the observed classes, Teacher #7 volunteered to
participate in this research because of her passion for the TWI program and her
close relationship with parents. Approximately 110 copies of consent forms, in both
English and Chinese, were distributed in class. Students were asked to return
consent forms once their parents had read and provided their signatures. Parents
were given the choice to “agree to be interviewed and audio-taped,” “agree to be
interviewed but not audio-taped,” or “do not agree to be interviewed and audio-
taped.” While a total of nineteen parents agreed to take part in this research, 11
parents were randomly selected from the participant pool.
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Parent interviewees were given the choice to conduct the interview in their
language of choice, which included English, Mandarin or Cantonese, and the
location for the interview. Amongst the eleven interviews, one parent was
interviewed in English, eight were interviewed in Mandarin and two were
interviewed in Cantonese with the assistance of a Cantonese-Mandarin translator.
In addition, four interviewees were interviewed at their homes, two were
interviewed at their workplace, one was interviewed at school, two were
interviewed at nearby parks, and two were interviewed over the telephone. Table 9
presents data on the languages used for the interviews and the location of the
interviews.
Table 9
General Information of Parent Interviewees
Parents
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11
Language used for the Interview
English X
Mandarin X X X X X X X X
Cantonese (with
a translator) X X
Location of the Interview
Home X X X X
Work X X
School X
Park X X
Over the Phone X X
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Meanwhile, general information about the students’ linguistic background
was collected during the interviews. All eleven parents indicated their child’s first
language was Cantonese, however, one parent also included Mandarin as one of his
child’s first languages. None of the children’s first language was English even
though four out of eleven children were born in the United States, while the
remaining seven children were born abroad. In terms of the child’s current primary
language, three out of eleven parents said English was the language used most
frequently at home while the remaining eight children spoke Cantonese as their
home language. When parents were asked the number of years their child has been
learning English, five children appeared to be newcomers who had learned less
than three years of English, one child had learned three to six years of English and
the other five children had learned more than six years of English. A summary of
the children’s linguistic backgrounds is shown in Table 10.
Table 10
Children’s Linguistic Background
Parents
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11
Child's First Language
English
Cantonese X X X X X X X X X X X
Mandarin X
Child's Primary Language
English X X X
Cantonese X X X X X X X X X
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Table 10
Children’s Linguistic Background (Continued)
Parents
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11
Child's Birthplace
USA X X X X
Abroad X X X X X X X
Child's Years of Learning English
0 to 3 years X X X X X
3 to 6 years X
6+ years X X X X X
While many facts and basic statistics of Bridgeview’s TWI program were
already presented in this section, other characteristics were not as identifiable. In
the following sections, emerged themes identified through observations, interviews
and documents have been presented based on the corresponding research questions.
Since it was critical to understand the implementation and instructional strategies of
the TWI program, the following sections will first identify the nature of the
program followed by the perceived effectiveness of the program.
The Nature of the TWI Program at the Middle School Level
Since the TWI program is offered through Bridgeview Middle School, the
program and the school naturally share a common vision and mission statement.
The “School Accountability Report Card Highlights 2006/2007” stated:
The vision of [Bridgeview] is to create and maintain a positive, energetic,
and supportive teaching and learning environment. This will be
accomplished by focusing on the cognitive, social/emotional, and physical
development of our student through a holistic, family-centered approach.
Students will become lifelong learners as we build on and stimulate their
intellectual curiosity. As independent and critical thinkers, our students will
become critical customers of core academics. We will accomplish this by
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means of a core curriculum that focuses the students to become aware of the
relationships between Science, Language Arts, Math, Social Studies,
Technology and the Arts and their applications.
Students will become responsible citizens, respecting their communities and
themselves.
Furthermore, as a member of the San Francisco Unified School District’s
Multilingual Program, Bridgeview’s TWI program needs to adhere to the district’s
policy on the language arts programs. According to the SFUSD, “[students] in the
Two-Way Immersion program develop competency in a second language and in
English. The goal is for students to become bilingual and biliterate while accessing
the curriculum in two languages.”
In terms of the program setting, Bridgeview’s TWI program is offered to
the sixth, seventh, and eighth grade students. The TWI program was designed to
instruct in one language at a time. For instance, in subjects such as Math, Science,
English, and Physical Education, English is the dedicated language of instruction,
while in subjects such as Chinese Language Arts, and Social Studies, Cantonese is
the medium for instruction. Rather than instructing in two languages in one class,
teachers utilize different teaching strategies to assist student learning. As a result,
an entrance exam is hosted by the school before the students’ enrollment because,
in order to qualify for the program, perspective students must demonstrate a certain
level of competency in the primary language. An entrance exam is uncommon in
elementary school level TWI programs since students generally enter the program
with limited academic and cognitive skills. However, in middle school level TWI
programs, such as the program at Bridgeview, the goal is to educate students who
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already possess the fundamental academic and language skills in both English and
Cantonese. In addition, since Bridgeview did not have a feeder school, perspective
students possessed different levels of language skills. As a result, an entrance exam
was placed to screen the potential candidates.
In addition, with the exception of the Chinese Language Arts class, which is
the dedicated “elective” course for the TWI program, the TWI students enroll in the
same class schedule and the same number of academic subjects as students in the
regular English-only program.
While the vision and mission statement of Bridgeview Middle School and
the district’s Multilingual Program have a strong influence on Bridgeview’s
Cantonese-English TWI program, the nature of the program is also affected by
other elements such as the program’s design, implementation, instructional
strategies, curriculum, settings, stakeholders, and the interaction between these
elements.
Based on the mixed analytic approach, several themes have surfaced in
order to define the nature of the TWI program at Bridgeview Middle School. The
emerged themes were: motivation and encouragement; qualified teachers and the
need for professional development; lack of resources; lack of support; lack of
communication; positive student interaction; student attitude and behavior
differences; preparation and implementation; and SDAIE-like instructional
strategies.
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Motivation and Encouragement
Teachers’ ambition to motivate student learning was another theme
identified through observations. According to Krashen’s affective filter hypothesis,
students learn more effectively when they are motivated, have strong self-
confidence and low anxiety (1981, 1982). Numerous motivation approaches were
employed, such as verbal and visual encouragement, asking proper questions to
maintain the lesson momentum, and introducing interesting topics and practices. In
order to ensure the success of its students and the TWI program, it is important to
constantly motivate students to learn and participate in the classroom (Hadi-
Tabassum, 1999; Montone & Loeb, 2000).
The most direct method of motivation was verbal encouragement during the
lecture. This motivation approach was observed in all three classes. For instance,
Teacher #3 told her students that she was proud of those who were able to complete
their assignments on time. During another observation session, Teacher #3 told
students that she believed they would have a bright future since they were able to
do math at the advanced level. Meanwhile, Teacher #2 explained to students the
importance of a meaningful discussion. As he pointed out to students, “the purpose
of the discussion is to find out where the mistakes are.” In addition to teachers of
observed classes, Teacher #7 also stressed the importance of verbally encouraging
students in the TWI program. As she pointed out:
We have to keep reminding [students of the TWI program] that in learning
Chinese or learning a second language they should not consider themselves
as limited English proficient students. You have to keep reminding students
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that if you are able to master two languages, you are actually superior
because you are giving yourself more challenges… build up their
confidence, build up their value in learning second language and make sure
they are able to use their target language from time to time.
In addition to verbally motivating students, signs of visual encouragement
were also found in participating classes. For example, messages such as “Respect:
You have to give to get,” “Responsibility: You are responsible for you,” “Never
settle for less than your best,” “Even a 1000 mile journey begins with a single step”
and “Math is like life… take it one step at a time” were posted in classrooms.
While teachers verbally and visually motivated students, the effectiveness of verbal
and visual encouragement was difficult to measure.
Another motivation technique observed in the participating classes was to
ask students proper questions. Asking students questions related to the lecture not
only helped to maintain students’ focus but interesting questions also motivated and
provided students with comprehensible input (Krashen, 1981, 1982). However,
forming proper questions required skills and experience as well as student’s ability
to comprehend the content and questions. The data showed that although many of
the questions raised by teachers were relevant to teaching, students were not always
able to comprehend the questions. The cause of this disparity is yet to be defined.
Lastly, findings indicated that increasing students’ interest of the subject
was another motivational approach many teachers employed. One way to motivate
students was to assign in-class group activities. During the observations, all three
teachers frequently assigned group activities in various forms. Students seemed to
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enjoy these assignments since they could interact with friends while tackling
somewhat challenging tasks. However, Teacher #1 questioned the effectiveness of
group activities although he, too, assigned group work to his sixth graders:
… [students] like to work as a group. They like to hang around and then
talk about it. But how effective is it? I don’t think so. It’s very difficult. I
don’t believe in it because once you give them the group work, if a group of
students understand the target knowledge, they understand that’s the lesson,
then it’s ok. If only they can stop slacking and socializing. So, personally, I
don’t believe in the group work very much. But it’s a judgment call –
good and bad. The bad is that it’s less efficient for the teacher if you want to
teach something in certain way, some of the students may not buy into it.
Teacher #4 shared her experience in utilizing interesting materials during
group activities to generate student interest, which in turn, motivated student
learning in her Chinese classes. For instance, in order to generate student interest in
learning Chinese, she asked her students to draw traditional Chinese facemasks,
sing Chinese songs, and play Chinese drums together. These in-class activities
encouraged cooperative grouping amongst EL and native English-speaking
students (Hadi-Tabassum, 1999). Through these activities, students were able to
work collaboratively while learning and exchanging ideas.
Another interesting practice was to treat the entire class as a large group.
For instance, during one observation session, Teacher #1 gave the class an
interesting task, which also functioned as a mathematics addition exercise. For this
assignment, the entire class was asked to work as a large group where students
shared answers with the whole class instead of the neighboring students during
normal in-class group activities. Students were asked to insert numbers into four-
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by-four squares where all four blocks in each straight and diagonal line added up to
the same amount. Findings indicated this approach encouraged student interaction
and class participation by empowering students to shout out their answers and work
collaboratively in a large group.
In addition to in-class group activities, Teacher #2 incorporated technology
into his teaching to maintain student interest. Although this approach was not found
in the literature review, it proved to be effective in Teacher #2’s classroom. For
instance, while Teacher #2’s classroom was not the only classroom equipped with
computers, he was the only teacher who had students work on projects with the
computer during the entire observation period. His class was also the only class that
utilized a Scantron machine to provide instant feedback on student assessments.
While technology is a less common medium of instruction in TWI programs, this
instructional approach served as a tool to motivate Teacher #2 and the students in
the classroom. Teacher #2 stated his passion and success in incorporating
technology into teaching during the interview:
Every year, I want to challenge myself and experiment with something new
with my classes. For the last couple of years, I tried to incorporate more
technology into my teaching. In the last couple of years, I tried programs
like Photoshop and Movie Maker. My students made graphics using Excel
program and they made posters with graphics using Photo Shop. They
videotaped their class activities and they put all these video clips into a
movie… I think this is kind of successful with my classes because
technology is a language by itself. It’s a computer language. It’s a video
language. So, even though English learners are not very good in English,
they can still use the computer and make video. They find some success in
there and that really increases their self-esteem.
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Unlike Teacher #2’s technology approach, Teacher #3 had her unique
approach of generating student interest while keeping them motivated. During one
of the observation sessions, she invited Jenny, a graduate student from San
Francisco State University, to present topics that were not normally introduced in
middle school math classes. The major purpose of Jenny’s visit was to share her
experience with math and to show students what they can do with math in their
future academic and career paths. Although topics were more challenging than their
usual math practices, students seemed to enjoy the change. Besides introducing
interesting topics, Jenny also acted as a role model for many students. Students
seemed to admire Jenny and liked her very much. During another observation
session, Teacher #3 invited her former students to visit the class to talk about their
experiences in advanced math classes and high school. Like Jenny, these high
school students were also people who could inspire Teacher #3’s eighth graders.
The above practices, verbal and visual encouragements, asking proper
questions, cooperative group learning, technology, and introducing guest speakers
are examples of different ways of motivational teaching to involve students in their
learning. These instructional strategies are similar to the specially designed
academic instruction in English (SDAIE) employed to teach students with limited
English proficiency (LEP) in the transitional bilingual programs. Meanwhile, these
findings are important because the literature by Hadi-Tabassum (1999), Peregoy
and Boyle (1999), and Montone and Loeb (2000) shows that in order for students to
be successful in school they need ample opportunities to engage in their learning.
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Clearly, teachers in the observed classes utilized many instructional strategies and
techniques to motivate students and generate student interest on the presented
topics to assist student learning.
Quality of Teachers and the Need for Professional Development
When Bridgeview interviewees were asked what could be done to improve
the program, eight out of nine participants suggested hiring more qualified teachers,
paraprofessionals, and providing continuous professional development. In addition,
Dr. Chestnut also stressed the importance of having qualified teachers and the
continuous improvement of the TWI program at Bridgeview. In Dr. Chestnut’s
interview, he mentioned, “Recruit the best teachers. That is the key… This is not to
say that I don’t have the best teachers, but it’s to say that no matter how good the
program is running, you can always improve it.” The quality of teachers was one of
the most agreeable themes which emerged during the teacher interviews.
However, interviewees seemed to have different interpretations of qualified
teachers. For instance, Teacher #1 mentioned, “[by] good teachers, I mean the
qualification and the background of the teacher. If you really are bilingual and bi-
cultural and really good at both, this kind of teacher is very difficult to come by.”
Teacher #6 also commented on this issue from the Chinese immersion perspective.
According to him, “[one] of our problems right now is that we don’t have enough
qualified teachers for the [Cantonese] language here.” Teacher #1 and Teacher #6
were not alone. Several teacher interviewees also agreed on the need of qualified
teachers for the Chinese immersion courses. Meanwhile, Teacher #3 viewed the
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program from the English immersion perspective. She believed students’ slow
progression in English was strongly related to the paraprofessionals’ lack of
English proficiency. As she pointed out:
I have seen, for instance, students in the two-way immersion program
tutored by a para in English and that para barely speaks English. How can
that para help students pronounce English correctly when that adult cannot
even pronounce English correctly?
Teacher #3 suggested qualified teachers and paraprofessionals should have
a high level of English fluency in order to help EL students to learn English. In
addition, she suggested that the TWI program at Bridgeview should employ more
native English speaking teachers in English instruction classes such as math,
science, English language art, and physical education. Teacher #3 also suggested
that more qualified paraprofessionals with fluent English capability were needed to
better serve students with LEP. Teacher #7 had a different perspective of a
qualified teacher.
… we need to have competent teachers to teach our program, teachers who
are well trained and experienced and can teach not just the subject matter,
but also have the kind of patience to deal with all kinds of students,
embracing every single student.
In addition, providing continuous professional development and training for
current teachers were other suggestions for program improvement. Teacher #7
suggested a more systematic way of training teachers when she commented on the
school district’s plan to adapt Mandarin in the coming years.
… you have a target group of teachers who are already serving students.
Train them first, and then, from there you train more. Attract more people to
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get to the college of education to get credentials to teach various subjects, or
even hire teachers from foreign countries.
Teacher #7 mentioned the importance of professional development at
Bridgeview. She believed a strong program was based on well-trained teachers and
even teachers who taught subjects in Chinese could benefit from professional
development. Teacher #6 also stressed the importance of training.
… I think teacher training is very important. Train new teachers to fit into
this teaching environment. Train those who know Chinese very well and
who want to be a teacher. Some administrators have the wrong concept that
if you can speak Chinese you can teach Chinese. You know it’s not that
way. A good teacher does need training.
Teacher #1 believed that good teachers needed to know various
instructional strategies, participate in proper training and implement correct
application. Similar to Teacher #6, Teacher #1 also believed that a person who was
capable of speaking both languages and knew both cultures did not make him or
her a good teacher.
In terms of parent perspectives, even though most parent interviewees did
not have opinions on the faculty at Bridgeview, Parent #1 mentioned that hiring
better teachers could be one method to improve the program. He noted that,
according to his daughter, “some of the teachers in the TWI program did a really
good job in educating students while others were not qualified to teach.” Thus, he
suggested more qualified teachers would greatly improve the existing program at
Bridgeview.
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In sum, while the research results indicated qualified teachers were
desirable at Bridgeview, hiring qualified teachers remains a challenge for many
TWI programs (Montone and Loeb, 2000). Meanwhile, school interviewees
defined a qualified teacher as an individual who is bilingual, and biliterate with
high level of fluency in both English and Cantonese, well-trained and experienced
in teaching TWI classes, and has patience to teach and embrace students with
diverse backgrounds. School interviewees also mentioned the importance of
professional development for existing teachers to maintain the quality of education
for students enrolled in Bridgeview’s TWI program. Thus, it is important for
teachers to continuously seek professional development and self-improvement
(Stronge, 2002).
Lack of Resources
Lack of resources was another theme identified during interviews with
school interviewees. While Teacher #2 and teacher #3 believed Bridgeview’s TWI
program was well funded and sufficient when compared to the general program, six
out of nine school interviewees believed more resources could help facilitate
effective learning and improve the current TWI program. Several teachers
mentioned that this was especially true for Chinese Language Arts and Social
Studies classes that were instructed in Chinese. As the literature suggests, students’
language acquisition depends on their exposure to comprehensible input, which can
take place in many forms such as books, newspapers, televisions and interpersonal
conversation (Krashen, 1981, 1982). The desired resources identified in the present
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research included better funding, improved learning environment, and a core
curriculum and more teaching materials.
The need for extra funding was mentioned frequently during interviews,
since lack of funding led to a shortage in other resources such as teaching materials
and classroom setup. For instance, Teacher #4 mentioned that as a result of poor
funding, she was forced to use her personal funds to purchase a DVD player for her
students to watch Chinese DVDs during class. In addition, Teacher #6 also pointed
out that the program could use more funds to purchase books, newspapers and
other classroom settings that could create a better learning environment for students
in his Chinese and Social Studies classes. Parent #6 said, “If they can get more
funds, I believe teachers can do even more in classrooms.”
Furthermore, six out of nine school interviewees recognized the lack of a
school-based curriculum and teaching materials such as manual scripts and
textbooks for Chinese Language Arts and Social Studies classes as one of the most
urgent needs for Bridgeview’s TWI program. Teacher #1, Teacher #4, and
Teacher# 6 specifically mentioned the two Chinese-instructed courses were
especially difficult to teach due to the limited resources on curriculum, teaching
materials, and reading materials. Thus, teachers often had to design lectures based
on their years of experience in the field.
In response to the interview question: “what can the program developers
and teachers do to facilitate effective learning?” Dr. Chestnut responded, “[we need
to] provide [teachers] with classroom space, [and] give them as much support in
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every extent possible in terms of curriculum, and instruction materials.” However,
he admitted that his responsibility was to run the entire school, and not just the
TWI program. In addition, since Bridgeview’s TWI program was relatively new,
support for teachers of the TWI program was limited. According to the principal,
“… the flaw of the program is that because to me it’s still new, the curriculum is
not there. If the curriculum is not there, it is just not going to be good for the
teachers.” Teacher #1 also identified the lack of the curriculum and teaching
materials.
… I think using Chinese for instruction is quite a task. You got to have a lot
of preparation and a lot of teaching materials. An example is teaching
American history with Chinese. Where does the material come from? ...
there is no such book here. I mean books written in easy Chinese are
already difficult to find.
Meanwhile, Dr. Chestnut also noticed the issue of limited exposure to the
Chinese language and culture for many American born students. Although San
Francisco has a large Chinese community, he believed students did not have the
proper environment to learn Chinese. In addition, Teacher #6 also stressed the
importance of providing the proper learning environment. He mentioned:
One of the challenges of our program is the environment. We always find
students learn slower if Chinese to them is a new language because we
don’t have the environment… That’s why I try to put more Chinese book in
the classroom and I have to make them read… The more you see it, the
easier it is to learn the language. So, we need the environment.
In sum, like the literature by Smith and Arnot-Hopffer (1998), Montone and
Loeb (2000), and Kirk Senesac (2002), findings of the present research suggested
numerous resources were needed at Bridgeview’s TWI program. The desired
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resources included funding, core curriculum and teaching materials, and a proper
learning environment where students can practice both English and Cantonese.
Lack of Support
Another emerged theme identified by the majority of Bridgeview
interviewees was the lack of support from stakeholders both inside and outside the
school. Five teachers and administrators believed the TWI program needs and
deserves additional support than it currently receives. Internally, while many school
interviewees recognized the school administration’s support for the TWI program,
some general education teachers seemed to have doubt or were even against the
idea of having the TWI program at Bridgeview. Teacher #7 pointed out that some
general education teachers were strongly against the TWI program due to
miscommunication and misunderstanding within the school, which also led to the
competition between programs. Teacher #7 mentioned that many general education
teachers felt threatened by the success of the TWI program because they believed
their job may be threatened if the TWI program continued to expand and more
bilingual teachers were hired. She suggested:
[General education teachers] need to have that kind of professional
development opportunities, too. Because, we are not here to teach this
particular group of teachers to learn how to speak and write Chinese, no, but
we want them to understand there is an importance here. So there is no
miscommunication, no misunderstanding and no competition.
Teacher #6 also stressed the importance of having support from the faculty and
staff.
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… we need support from the faculty as well because some teachers really
don’t understand the program. It happens quite often, when a newcomer
comes to the school, the counselor doesn’t understand the kid doesn’t know
any English. So they want to put the student in the two-way immersion
program. We have to tell the counselor again and again that this program is
not for everyone. It does not work like the English sheltered class. If the
student wants to learn English, put him or her in the ESL class. It will help
him or her more. [Thus,] we need the faculty to support our program as
well.
Teacher #7 suggested disagreement and misunderstanding among teachers and
administrators needed to be set aside, because “[education] is for students, not for
teachers.” She believed that the school and teachers should serve the needs of
students.
On the other hand, external support, such as the support of the school
district and the public, was also desired. Several school interviewees believed that
there was lack of support from the school district. Teacher #6 clearly stated,
“[when] I say support, it’s not only the policy. We need materials, like books,
teaching materials, good curriculum, [and] coordination between the schools and
teachers.” Teacher #2 also shared his perspective on the support needed from the
school district and the public.
I think one way to make this program better is to go out and promote the
program. To let more people know what we are doing here. We have been
talking about going to different elementary schools and town hall meetings
so we can inform the public about this program. If people know what we are
doing here then we can get more support from community, from parents and
the school district.
Besides Teacher #2, Dr. Chestnut and Teacher #7 also claimed the support of the
public is critical to the long-term success of the program. Both interviewees
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believed that in order to generate interest and need, the purpose and the benefit of
the TWI program need to be heard by the public. Once interest and need are
presented, the public will generate the necessary support to fuel the TWI program.
In general, in order to better serve students in the TWI program, the support
from various parties is highly desired. Internally, the support of general education
teachers is needed. Several interviewees mentioned that due to lack of
understanding and limited communication, many general education teachers
viewed the TWI program as a competitive threat to their job security. Meanwhile,
support from external stakeholders, such as the school district and the public, was
also desired. Findings indicated resources, such as teaching materials and textbooks
that often supplied by external stakeholders were required to run an efficient
program. Thus, it is important to have strong support from both internal and
external stakeholders.
Lack of Communication
A lack of communication was one of the reoccurring issues during
interviews with the teachers and the administrators. Among all Bridgeview
interviewees, seven participants believed a lack of communication occurred at
multiple levels.
Several teachers believed a lack of communication was quite significant
among teachers within the school, or even within the TWI program itself. Teacher
#3 criticized that “[nobody] in the [TWI] program has ever asked me if the kids are
doing ok. There is a lack of communication.” Expressed more mildly, Teacher #4
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believed that communication channels, such as hosting meetings regularly with
teachers within the program, would be beneficial for teachers to share ideas and
teaching materials. Teacher #3 also believed better communication was needed
between teachers and administrators within the program. Meanwhile, several
school interviewees stressed the need for better communication between teachers of
the TWI program and teachers who taught the general education courses. For
instance, Teacher #7 pointed out the competition between the TWI program and
other programs at Bridgeview. She believed the problem arose from a lack of
communication. According to Teacher #7, “[the] problem is they don’t understand
what you are teaching. They only see more Chinese classes.” Thus, more
communication channels are needed to encourage communication within the
school.
In addition to the communication problem among teachers and
administrators, several Bridgeview interviewees also pointed out the same issue
existed between the school and the school district. As Teacher #2 expressed:
… there is always lack of communication between the school site and the
district. A lot of times, I sense that the district doesn’t really understand
what we are doing here at [Bridgeview]. They know we have the program,
but I don’t think they have a very good understanding of what we are doing.
So, more communication between the school sites and the district will be
helpful.
Teacher #7 also recognized the miscommunication between the school and
the district. However, she believed the problem was partly due to the
misunderstanding of the term “dual language program.” She pointed out that
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different people interpreted the dual language program differently. Thus, she
suggested the miscommunication issue between the school and the district can be
greatly reduced if researchers at the national level can provide a universal definition
for the TWI program. This finding was consistent with the literature by Montone
and Loeb (2000), which stresses the importance of proper communication between
the school and the school district.
Lastly, several interviewees also identified the need to have good
communication with parents and the public. Teacher #6 mentioned the importance
of propaganda, which was one of the causes that led to the passage of Proposition
227 in California in 1998 (Gándara et al., 2000). Teacher #6 believed the school
district and the public need to be informed so that people know about the
importance and the benefit of the TWI program. Teacher #7 also added:
[We] make sure the program itself is well perceived and understood by the
public… If people don’t see the need, they will not support the program…
So, make sure everybody understands the program. The program is well
perceived and there is a need. When there is a need, you will have the
support. Maintain good communication with parents and community
members.
Meanwhile, Dr. Chestnut also emphasized the importance of promoting the
program to the public. He believed the school and the district had to “sell the
program” and “advertise the program as often as possible” to inform the public
about the existence and benefits of TWI programs.
In general, the lack of proper communication with both internal and
external stakeholders was a known issue at Bridgeview’s TWI program. Internally,
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school interviewees realized that maintaining consistent and proper communication
is needed amongst the teachers within the TWI program as well as with teachers
and administrators who were not directly involved with the program. Externally,
the school where the TWI program resided needs to strengthen liaisons with the
school district, the public and parents.
Positive Student Interactions
When school participants were asked how English learners behaved,
interacted, or performed compared to their native English-speaking peers, six out of
nine school interviewees responded that positive interaction was often observed
between students who were American born Chinese (ABC) and English Learners
(ELs), newcomers who had arrived to the United States for a few years and often
had limited English proficiency. Several teachers identified that at first, students
tended to cluster together with peers who were fluent in their native language. One
teacher believed that ELs who had friends who could speak the same language in
the same class was actually beneficial to the student. According to Teacher #1, “It’s
good because it gives them more security – a sense of security. Friendship is easier
to emerge. And then, they are more inclined to like the class because they got
friends in it.” Teacher #6 also commented on the occurrence of the initial self-
segregation amongst students. However, he noticed ABCs and ELs eventually
became friends once they had the chance to interact with one other. According to
Teacher #6:
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At first, of course you can see they are separated into two groups. That is at
the beginning of the school year. But you can see the change gradually. For
example, I tried to ask them to do some group work. Asking some EL
students to work with those English-speaking students. Then, they start to
know each other. And then they tried to help each other. Gradually, they
become friends. You don’t see much difference between them. I think that
helps.
Teacher #7 also identified the positive interaction among EL students and
their native English-speaking peers. As Teacher #7 mentioned:
I could see there is a lot of interaction, especially in these past three, four
years when we had a mixed student population of fluent English speakers
and limited English students. Because when we put them together, they can
learn from each other.
Based on the field notes taken during the observations, the same positive
interaction among students was frequently observed in all three participating
classrooms. This was especially true during group activities where students were
allowed to verbally communicate on a specific academic topic. This event also
provided a platform for EL students to practice both basic interpersonal
communication skills (BICS) and cognitive/academic language proficiency (CALP)
(Cummins, 1979).
However, oral communication in Cantonese was occasional observed even
though English was the medium of instruction in math class. This was especially
true in the sixth and seventh grade classes where all students were enrolled in the
TWI program. This incident could be partly due to many students’ limited basic
interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) in English (Cummins, 1983, 1984).
Since many students in the TWI program were new immigrants who had arrived to
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the U.S. shortly before enrolling in the program, many of them had not acquired
BICS to communicate fluently in English.
While students in Teacher #3’s class interacted in a friendly manner as
observed, Teacher #3 noticed a minor reflection of parents’ attitudes amongst these
two groups of students.
It’s been my observation that in the Chinese American community there is a
big divide between American born Chinese and foreign-born Chinese.
There is a lot of animosity, a lot of lack of respect from one group to
another in the world amongst adults. Some of that is carried over to the
students. I don’t think it is as bad as it is with adults but I do see some of
that. I think tension exists between those two groups of people. I see a little
bit of that in the classroom.
Although parents’ perspectives may influence students’ attitudes and beliefs,
findings of both the in-class observations and the interviews with school
participants indicated students at Bridgeview’s TWI program interacted with each
other frequently and positively. School interviewees also indicated EL students and
native English-speaking students had a positive influence on one another and
learned from each other during in-class activities, which were identical to the
model of cooperative grouping identified in Hadi-Tabassum’s literature (1999).
Student Attitude and Behavioral Differences
While some Bridgeview interviewees did not notice a difference in behavior
between ABC and EL students, due to their shared Chinese heritage, six school
interviewees recognized a divergence. When teachers were asked to identify both
similarities and differences between ABC and EL students, Teacher #1, Teacher #2,
and Teacher #3 responded that, in general, students in the TWI program were more
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teachable. In addition, Teacher #2, Teacher #3, and Teacher #7 reported students in
the TWI program had little behavioral problems and were quieter and well behaved
during class. The interview findings were consistent with data collected during
observations since nearly all students shared the same ethnic identity. However,
upon probing during the interviews, many teachers’ responses further confirmed
the existence of differences in behavior and attitude between these two groups of
students. As Teacher #1 responded:
Oh, definitely. Great differences in the learning style, behavior, and how
they treat the teacher. Americanized kids and traditional Chinese kids are
very different. Chinese kids are more respectful, more obedient. They work
hard. Somehow, Chinese believe in hard work. American kids believe in
respect. You got to give them the respect and then you got to give them
fairness.
Other interviewees included Dr. Chestnut also commented that, in general,
newcomers behaved better and showed more respect to teachers when compared to
American born students. Teacher #3, the only Caucasian teacher who participated
in this interview, commented that she was disturbed by her findings in the field of
education over the past 18 years.
I think it is a very sad commentary on America that the best behaved, the
most respectful students, 99 percent of the time are born somewhere else. I
don’t know what America is doing to our own children. I find that the
behavior and the respect they give their teachers, the amount they want to
try in school is much greater than the native students.
While this was the consensus amongst the majority of school interviewees,
several interviewees acknowledged a shift in student attitude and behavior. For
example, Teacher #1 and Teacher #2 reported that some ELs were becoming more
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vocal, just like many American born students. However, becoming more vocal and
more active in the class could be either positive or negative. While identifying
students’ behavior and attitude differences were unfeasible due to the time restraint
of this research, the principal pointed out, in extreme occasions, kids could even
turn bad.
Generally speaking, [ELs] behave better in the classroom then American
born kids. More respectful to teachers. But when they turn bad, they turn
really bad. Because kids who come from Taiwan, Hong Kong and other
foreign countries, when they come to this country what they want to do is
they want to Americanize quickly. How do you become Americanized?
You behave, act and talk like the kids born here… Some of these kids want
to be Americanized so bad, they will do whatever it takes. Those are the
kids who don’t have a lot of self-confidence, don’t have a lot of support at
home.
In sum, there were certain similarities and differences between foreign-born
EL students and ABCs. Since most of the students in Bridgeview’s TWI program
were Chinese in origin, it was difficult to distinguish them apart during a limited
observation period. While there were many similarities amongst all students, such
as being more teachable and having less behavioral problems, some school
interviewees also recognized the differences between EL students and their native
English-speaking peers. These differences included learning style, behavior, and
the respectfulness to teachers.
Preparation and Implementation
The review of field notes taken during observations indicated all three
classes were well prepared prior to the lecture. Teachers seemed to know what
needed to be accomplished daily. In the seventh grade math class, Teacher #1 often
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had the class agenda written on the board prior to the students’ arrival. The class
agenda was employed as a guideline to ensure the best use of class time. However,
Teacher #1 did not rush through activities to achieve class objectives, but rather
took time to provide feedback and answer students’ questions as needed. In terms
of implementation, unequal treatment of students was not observed. As stated in the
field notes, Teacher #1treated students equally and instructed all students in the
same manner. Although Teacher #1 was bilingual in both English and Cantonese
and English was the designated language for participating classes, conversations in
Cantonese were occasionally observed between the teacher and students and
amongst students themselves.
In participating sixth grade and eighth grade classes, Teacher #2 and
Teacher #3 also had lesson objectives planned in advance, although the daily
agenda was not observed. Since the eighth grade math class took place in the last
period at school, Teacher #3 did not hesitate to go overtime if the daily objectives
were not achieved promptly. However, this rarely occurred during the observation
period. While the TWI students in this eighth grade Honors class were treated equal
to their English-only counterparts, Teacher #3 acknowledged the difference in
students’ English proficiency. During the interview with Teacher #3, she
mentioned that she often made the necessary adjustments to accommodate EL
students to ensure instructions and messages were clearly explained. According to
Teacher #3:
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I pay more attention to vocabulary than I would ordinarily. I do not slow the
program down but I do try to talk slower or explain in different ways. I am
more conscious of how I say things than I would in regular class outside of
San Francisco… We don’t have a lot of kids that come from English rich
households.
Teacher #3’s strategy enabled her to use comprehensible input that could be easily
understood by students with LEP, as suggested in previous literature (Krashen,
1981, 1982).
Findings of the in-class observation also indicated that, in the sixth grade
class, Teacher #2 implemented English-only instruction strictly. Similar to Teacher
#1, Teacher #2 was also bilingual in Cantonese and English. However, he never
spoke Cantonese with students, neither did he allow students to communicate with
each other in Cantonese during the observation period. As he explained during the
interview:
A lot of my students ask me if they can explain in Chinese. I will say no. I
usually say that they can try to use English to express themselves because,
in order to learn the language, you have to use it. So, in order to learn
English, you have to use English in class as much as possible. At the same
time, if they want to learn and maintain their Chinese, they should use
Chinese in the social studies class. They can talk about social studies topics
in Chinese. In that way, they can improve their Chinese by using the
language. So, in the classroom where the teacher allows students to use
English and Chinese together, I don’t think it serves the purpose.
The review of field notes also found that besides the pre-lecture preparation
and language implementation, all three teachers were able to take care of
administrative tasks such as the initial greeting, the daily announcement and review
of homework quickly and efficiently. Furthermore, homework assignments were
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often written on the board in all classrooms. Findings of observation also indicated
teachers always re-announced the assignments before students were dismissed.
Another part of the program implementation was class management. While
students in the participating TWI classes were often well behaved and disciplined,
the occasional chat among students led to distraction in class during the lecture
were also observed. The review of field notes showed all three teachers had good
class management skills, even though different techniques were exercised.
In the sixth grade math class, Teacher #2 employed several techniques to
manage his class. For instance, during observation sessions, the “silent call”
strategy was used to assist students to refocus on class work and give the teacher
their undivided attention. Once students noticed the teacher’s response to their
misbehavior, they would show their respect, return to their seats and be ready to
learn. In the case where the “silent call” did not achieve the desired result, Teacher
#2 started calling names of students to remind them of their inappropriate behavior.
Another technique employed by Teacher #2 was to ask the student who interrupted
the order of the class to step outside of the room for several minutes. This
technique often worked quite effectively since the rest of the class would be alerted
and thus began to quieten down and concentrate on the lesson. In addition to the
previous two techniques, Teacher #2 also used the “countdown” technique, which
gave students a few seconds to settle down and be seated. Teacher #2 also used
motivation as a class management technique. For instance, since the sixth grade
math class took place right before lunch, Teacher #2 often prioritized the order of
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students’ attendance to lunch based on their in-class behavior. Thus, students in
each table were often self-regulated and reminded each other to compete for the
right to go to lunch early.
In the seventh grade class, Teacher #1 utilized a different set of techniques.
Teacher #1 had one student sitting alone and away from the rest of the class during
the entire observation period. The student appeared to be extremely active. This
occurrence helped the rest of the class concentrate on the lecture and class
activities. The second technique employed by Teacher #1 was to constantly raise
questions during the lecture. This method helped students focus on the current
status of the lecture, while making them aware that they may be the next person to
be called on to provide solutions. Lastly, having a close relationship with the class
was another method which improved class management. Although English was the
dedicated language for Teacher #1’s math class, from time to time, Cantonese was
used to remind students to focus on class activities and to encourage them to work
harder to achieve a good grade. It seemed like this approach worked well since
students appeared to interact more comfortably and naturally in Teacher #1’s class.
Like Teacher #2, Teacher #3 also employed the “countdown” practice
effectively. Since Teacher #3 headed the eighth grade Honors class, students in her
class seemed to be more mature and had better self-discipline. Once the countdown
started, students knew how to react and what needed to be done. In addition,
Teacher #3 seemed to give a clear warning as she counted down. As a result,
students were often seated before the countdown ended. Another technique
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employed by Teacher #3 was to have students manage the administrative tasks at
the beginning and the end of class. For instance, while Teacher #3 gave her
greetings and daily announcements to the class, one student would take care of the
attendance sheet while others collected homework assignments and brought them
to the teacher. This approach clearly reduced the time spent on administrative tasks
and kept students busy while listening to teacher’s instruction. Lastly, as mentioned
in the previous section, Teacher #3 did not hesitate to keep students after class if
the daily objectives were not achieved. This approach also worked as an effective
method to maintain the stability of the class.
This section discussed the preparation and implementation of the TWI
classrooms. Findings showed teachers of the observed classes prepared teaching
materials and assignments prior to students’ arrival although not all teachers
provided a daily agenda on the whiteboard. Meanwhile, administrative tasks were
taken care of quickly during most observation sessions. In terms of the class
implementation, while some teachers did not follow the language policy strictly,
the English language was used during the majority of the observation period.
Meanwhile, different techniques were employed to manage the classroom. These
class management approaches were needed to maintain a good learning
environment and provide effective teaching for students. The literature by Kirk
Senesac (2002) also mentions the importance of providing a welcoming, home-like
learning environment with high expectations of students as one of the key factors
for providing effective instruction in TWI programs.
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SDAIE-Like Instructional Strategies
The need to differentiate instruction through the use of multiple
instructional strategies in a TWI class was another theme emerged in the present
research. Seven out of nine Bridgeview interviewees expressed that this was due to
mixed levels of students in the TWI classes. As Dr. Chestnut mentioned:
If it was the ideal situation, then what you will have is 30 kids all at one
level. Unless you are in a private school, this is impossible. Even in the
regular class, they are not always going to be at the same level. Some kids
do faster than the others. Some kids are more visual, some kids are more
hands on… You know every kid is different.
As a result, various instructional techniques were employed in TWI classes. This
finding was reconfirmed through interviews with school interviewees. For instance,
Teacher #1 expressed that, “… teachers often face difficulty in adapting different
approaches. Sometimes, one approach only works for a group of students but not
the other.” The principal also acknowledged this challenge. He mentioned, “…
teachers need to have a variety of instructional strategies because students learn at
different levels, learn at different pace, and absorb in different fashions.” Thus, in
addition to the commonly seen step-by-step demonstration and homework
assignments, instructional methods such as providing real life examples, assigning
group activities and taking students on field trips were strategies observed in the
participating classes.
Teachers often linked real life matters into their lessons. For instance, in
Teacher #3’s eighth grade class, many “word” problems were based on real life
materials, such as commonly known vegetables, fruits, and pizza ingredients. In the
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sixth grade math class, Teacher #1 employed Belgium waffles into a math problem
during one of his lectures. Meanwhile, Teacher #7 gave students the chance to
practice Chinese through a Chinese presentation assignment after the Thanksgiving
break. For this assignment, she asked students to give a two-minute speech about
the person who he or she wanted to say thank you to during the class. Meanwhile,
all math classes at Bridgeview were instructed together with the science classes.
Teachers incorporated both subjects to create more interesting lessons.
During the observation period, group activities were frequently utilized in
all participating classes. Although different tasks were assigned during group
activities, students seemed to enjoy working in groups regardless of the tasks.
Teacher #1 mentioned students who were born in the United States preferred to
work in groups specifically.
Sometimes, one approach only works for a group of students but not the
other. Like the homework issue, those born in China believe the teacher
should give them a lot of homework and they usually like to listen to the
lecture more. And then the ABCs, they don’t like homework very much.
They are more inclined to the activities approach… they like to work as a
group.
Teacher #2 and Teacher #3 also assigned group activities, however, during the
observation period, most of the group activities appointed in their classes were
science related practices such as the gravity exercise and the elements of water
exercise. Overall, students seemed to enjoy group activities. Although students
tended to be noisier during group assignments, the hands on experience appeared to
be an effective learning strategy. In addition to numerous in-class instructional
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strategies, Teacher #3 was in the process of organizing a field trip for her eighth
grade Honors class. Students were returning signed parent consent forms over
several observation sessions, however, the field trip was scheduled beyond the
observation period.
The combination of instructional strategies used in Bridgeview’s TWI
classes was identical to the approach of the specially designed academic instruction
in English (SDAIE), which is defined as “… the term now used to describe
academic content instruction designed for intermediate, threshold level (speaking,
listening, reading and writing) LEP students in California. SDAIE is grade level
subject matter in English specifically designed for speakers of other languages”
(Sobul, 1995). With SDAIE strategies, teachers are able to provide comprehensible
input that can be easily understood by the EL students through the content teaching
(Krashen, 1981,1982, 1992; Freeman & Freeman, 1995). Since EL students often
acquire basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) before the
cognitive/academic language proficiency (CALP) (Cummins, 1979, 1980),
instructing students with the English vocabularies they already understand will be
greatly beneficial for their learning progress.
Meanwhile, SDAIE utilized only the English language as a medium for
content instruction. Since two out of six classes at Bridgeview’s TWI program were
instructed in Cantonese, the combination of strategies used by the program was
more SDAIE-like than the genuine SDAIE approach. By employing SDAIE-like
instructional strategies in the TWI classrooms, teachers at Bridgeview were able to
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instruct students of different academic and linguistic competence in the same
classroom. EL students with various English proficiency levels were able to learn
alongside with their native-English speaking peers.
In sum, the emerged themes have a strong effect on the nature of the TWI
program. In order to provide a more holistic view of these themes and the
interrelationships amongst them, the summarized results of the interviews with
teachers and administrators and findings of in-class observations have been
presented in Table 11 and Table 12. First, school interviewees’ perspectives on the
nature of the program have been categorized in Table 11.
Table 11
The Characteristics of the Nature of a TWI Program at the Middle School Level
based on School Interviewees’ Responses (n=9)
Characteristics f %
Quality of Teachers and Professional Development 8 89
SDAIE-Like Instructional Strategies 7 78
Lack of Communication 7 78
Positive Student Interactions 6 67
Student Attitude and Behavioral Differences 6 67
Lack of Resources 6 67
Motivation and Encouragement 5 56
Lack of Support 5 56
Note: f = the frequency of interviewees’ responses of the new finding. The
percentages were rounded up to whole numbers.
As shown in Table 11, the themes with the highest consensuses amongst
school interviewees were: quality of teachers and professional development (89%),
SDAIE-like instructional strategies (78%) and lack of communication (78%).
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Findings indicated that the majority of teachers and administrators at Bridgeview
recognized the elements needed to operate a TWI program, educate students with
mixed academic and linguistic abilities, and improve the performance of current
practice. While SDAIE-like instructional strategies were both observed in
classrooms and recognized by interviewees, eight out of nine teachers and
administrators believed more qualified teachers and professional development for
existing faculty were critical to serve the needs of students. In addition, school
interviewees also recognized the communication with stakeholders as one of the
key weaknesses of the current program. These key findings are consistent with the
literature by Smith and Arnot-Hopffer (1998), Montone and Loeb (2000),
Alexandrowicz (2002), and Kirk Senesac (2002), quality teachers and continuous
need for professional development, SDAIE-like instructional strategies, and proper
communication with numerous stakeholders are critical to provide quality
education to students in the TWI programs.
Table 12 presents themes that emerged through observations. Since each of
the three Math classes were observed one period per day for five consecutive
school days, a total of 15 observation sessions were conducted. The table showed
all four themes emerged frequently in the observed TWI classes. Findings indicated
all three participating teachers were well-prepared and provided strong
implementation in classes. For instance, all three teachers had good classroom
management skills and often took care of the administrative tasks quickly and
effectively. Meanwhile, teachers seemed to motivate and encourage students
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frequently through verbal encouragement, visual aids and other approaches. Third,
positive students interactions encouraged students to work cooperatively during
group activities. Furthermore, the importance of providing SDAIE-like pedagogical
strategies assisted in student learning. These findings were aligned with the
literature by Hadi-Tabassum (1999), Montone and Loeb (2000) and Kirk Senesac
(2002).
Table 12
The Characteristics of the Nature of a TWI Program at the Middle School Level
based on Observations Findings (n=15)
Characteristics f %
Preparation and Implementation 14 93
Motivation and Encouragement 14 93
Positive Student Interactions 13 87
SDAIE-Like Instructional Strategies 12 80
Note: f = the frequency of observation sessions. The percentages were rounded up
to whole numbers.
In addition to themes related to the nature of the TWI program, the results
of the present research also intended to answer the second research question, “what
is the perceived effectiveness of dual language programs at the middle school level
based on parents’ and teachers’ perspectives?” In the following section, the themes
related to the perceived effectiveness of the TWI program are discussed.
The Perceived Program Effectiveness
In addition to the findings related to the nature of the TWI program, the data
collected also identified interviewees’ perspectives on the performance of
Bridgeview’s TWI program, which helped to answer the second proposed research
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question. In the following section, themes emerged from the data collection, such
as maintaining mother tongue, slow English progression, noticeable linguistic and
academic achievement, and perceived program success will be discussed in detail.
Maintaining Mother Tongue
All 11 parent interviewees clearly presented a positive attitude towards
maintaining their children’s mother tongue. In addition, all nine school
interviewees either directly or indirectly showed their support for maintaining the
students’ first language or learning and becoming proficient in another language.
Based on Cummins’ common underlying proficiency (CUP) theory, Cantonese
instructed classes that develop students’ reading competency not only develop
students’ Cantonese skills, but also allow students to build “a deeper conceptual
and linguistic proficiency that is strongly related to the development of English
literacy and general academic skills” (1984, p. 148).
Furthermore, many parent interviewees, several teachers also believed
students needed to learn Chinese because they were in favor of preserving the
Chinese heritage passed down from their ancestors. For instance, Teacher #6 shared
his perspective on maintaining student’s first language and culture.
The target language is, of course, the first thing. To make them learn
Chinese so they can read, write, speak and understand Chinese more.
[Second,] since students in our program are mainly Chinese, we have
another target, which is to teach them Chinese culture and, sometimes, a
little bit of Chinese history as well. So, we hope they will realize that
although they are in America, they should know something about Chinese.
They should be proud of their own culture.
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Teacher #7 stressed the importance of maintaining the mother tongue language and
she believed having students with bilingual capability could be an asset to society.
I perceive it as very important for students to learn at least two languages.
So, for students here in the U.S. because English is their official language,
at the same time, because the population is made up of different ethnic
groups, it is very important that we value each ethnicity’s culture and
language. This is an asset that these students have brought to the U.S. So, I
think learning another language or maintaining the language is very
important.
As the only non-Chinese origin interviewee at Bridgeview, Teacher #3 also showed
her support for students who invested time and effort to learn their mother tongue
language. She mentioned:
I am in favor of maintaining two languages and I give my students extra
credit for going to Chinese school because I figure they can’t do other extra
credit if they do that. I try to be supportive of being bilingual in every way I
can because I think it is really crucial.
On the other hand, other interviewees, like Teacher #2, expressed the
importance of learning Chinese from another perspective. He believed that
maintaining Chinese ability opens up other opportunities in the student’s future
career.
Because of the technology that we have today, we need to communicate
with other countries all the time. So, if a student possesses the language
skills to communicate, it will help them to become more successful in the
future. Like a lot of businesses move to China these days, if they can speak
both English and Chinese, it is a plus for them. This is something that can
help them in the future.
Like the teachers, while parent interviewees all agreed on the importance of
maintaining their children’s mother tongue language, parents seemed to have
different reasons. One of the most common answers was “Chinese people need to
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learn Chinese.” Seven parents believed that since their child was born into a
Chinese family, he or she had the obligation to learn and understand the Chinese
language and culture. For instance, when asked to describe the importance of
retaining the mother tongue, Parent #4 responded, “[of course,] since we are a
Chinese family, it is critical for her to have the basic [Chinese] communication
skills.” In addition, Parent #9 mentioned the importance of learning the mother
tongue. She said, “I told my children that it’s very important to know our own
culture and language. I stressed to them that they must learn to read and write
Chinese.” Parent #7 also expressed that, “… since we are Chinese, it is a must for
my child to know our own language and culture. My child must be able to listen,
read, and write Chinese fluently.” The finding of parents’ perspectives on the issue
of retaining mother tongue was aligned with previous research (e.g., Young &
Tran, 1999; Lao, 2004).
Another common reason mentioned by many parents was the chance of
finding a better job if the child understood both Chinese and English. Parent #8
believed that being fluent in another language, in addition to the English language,
could be beneficial for her daughter when she enters the job market. Parent #11’s
reason for enrolling her daughter into Bridgeview’s TWI program was to“[retain]
her Chinese proficiency.” She added that “China’s economy is getting stronger and
it’s important to know Chinese to be able to communicate with other Chinese
people. Also, I think [my daughter] needs to understand basic Chinese culture.”
Likewise, Parent #4 mentioned learning Chinese granted her daughter the
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opportunity to stay connected with people in China and possibly engage in business
with China in the future.
Meanwhile, other parents had different reasons for retaining the child’s
mother tongue. Parent #1 was one of the most aggressive supporters of retaining
the mother tongue language and a strong advocate for all his children to become
multi-lingual speakers. He mentioned, “I would say the more [languages] the
merrier. Only stupid people would say that, you know, you just need to know
English. I know learning English is important, but the more [languages] you learn,
the better.” Parent #1 was not alone, several parents, teachers and school
administrators also mentioned the importance of learning Mandarin in addition to
retaining student’s first language – Cantonese.
In sum, parents, teachers and school administrators involved in the TWI
programs were all advocates of maintaining mother tongue. Although interviewees
had different reasons, many, if not all, believed students would benefit from
retaining their first language. Previous research also indicated EL students who had
two to three years of formal L1 education took at least five to seven years to
achieve the norm level of English proficiency of their native English-speaking
peers. In contrast, students with no formal L1 schooling often took seven to ten
years or more to achieve the same results (Collier, 1995). Furthermore, many
interviewees believed maintaining mother tongue helped students retain their own
culture and identity, which is highly valued in the Asian community.
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Slow English Progression
One of the emerged themes derived from interviewing teachers and parents
was the progression of English acquisition amongst ELs. While maintaining
students’ mother tongue was a significant purpose of Bridgeview’s TWI program,
six out of nine school interviewees believed many TWI students, especially ELs,
needed to accelerate in English as quickly as possible. As Teacher #6 stated, “ …
for some students, their most urgent need is to learn English if they want to survive
here… The kids I am talking about are those new immigrants.” Teacher #3 also
believed many of her students were not progressing in English enough. She stated,
“In the two-way immersion program, there is a lot of emphasis in the child’s
progress in Chinese. It is supposed to be dual languages. What are they doing about
the child’s progression in English?” In addition, Teacher #3 added that “I don’t
want to give up with excelling in Chinese because I think that is important but kids
need help with [English] pronunciation and vocabulary. That is a con of the
program.” Teacher #6 and Teacher #3 were not alone on this issue. Over half of
school interviewees believed that increasing EL students’ English proficiency level
is one of the most urgent tasks. Dr. Chestnut mentioned that “… I truly believe
students need to as quickly as possible grasp the English language and assimilate
into English culture. Acquisition of English language is crucial.” However, the
principal also pointed out that the TWI program might not be the most ideal
solution for students who have very limited English proficiency and need to learn
English. Since Bridgeview’s TWI program was designed to promote students’
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mother tongue in addition to English instruction, students had to spilt their effort
between English and Cantonese. As the school counselor mentioned, “[Students in
the TWI program] are just not getting [English] full time.” Many teachers were on
the same page as the principal and the counselor. They believed that newcomers
who possessed solid mother tongue proficiency and who were in urgent need of
acquiring English as quickly as possible would be better off with the ESL program
designed to strengthen students’ English proficiency.
In terms of parents’ perspectives on the importance of acquiring English, all
parents who participated in this research came to a consensus that learning English
was inevitable for all children in the United States, which was also aligned with the
viewpoint of many school interviewees. This point was strongly emphasized by
many new immigrant parents whose children had limited English proficiency. For
instance, while Parent #2 believed retaining the child’s mother tongue language
was necessary, she stressed that learning English was even more crucial to her
daughter at this point of time. Parent #11, the mother of an EL student whose
family had immigrated to San Francisco two years ago, also stressed the
importance of acquiring English, especially since they were living in the United
States. In addition, she mentioned acquiring English was extremely important since
English was the most commonly used international language.
While Parent #4’s daughter was born in the United States, he also firmly
believed the importance of having solid English proficiency. As he mentioned,
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[My daughter] was born here. She lives here, and will work here in the
future. English is a must in order to survive in the United States. Both
Chinese and English are important for her to learn. However, I think
English is a bit more important since we are living here in the United States.
Parent #9’s children were born in San Francisco as well. She stressed that “…
English is a must if you want to live in the United States.” In addition, Parent #1,
whose two American born daughters were enrolled in Bridgeview’s TWI program,
stressed the importance of having a strong English foundation. According to him:
English is the main thing. Because you are you in the United States, you
must learn English and you must use English. If you don’t speak English
well enough, you will not be able to find a job. Also, it’s a good idea to
know a bit of something. Once you know English well, you can learn
Chinese even better. Without the main thing, the secondary is going to be
mediocre, too.
In addition to interview findings, observations also revealed traces of lack
of English proficiency among some students. For instance, during several
observation sessions, students were called to read a section or a word problem in
class. While some students were able to read the assigned section with ease, others
seemed to have difficulty. Although students’ poor reading ability does not
translate to lack of English proficiency, students who have acquired basic
vocabularies and English proficiency should be able to read the assigned sections
coherently.
Furthermore, a review of field notes also revealed that in the seventh grade
math class, some students attempted to communicate with the teacher in Cantonese.
In addition, in all observed classes, students occasionally spoke Cantonese amongst
themselves. Although this does not constitute to lack of English proficiency,
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students’ preference to speak in their mother tongue indicated that they felt more
comfortable communicating in Cantonese. However, since English was the medium
of instruction in all math classes at Bridgeview, the use of Cantonese may result in
less time practicing English. Thus, the use of Cantonese in English-only classes
may affect students’ English progression. According to Krashen’s affective filter
hypothesis (1981, 1982), students’ language choice is influenced by their attitudes
toward acquiring the language. Thus, EL students’ choice to speak Cantonese in an
English-only classroom is a reflection of their personal attributes, such as
motivation, anxiety, and self-confidence.
In sum, findings of the present research showed many TWI students had
slow English acquisition. While there was limited evidence collected during
observation sessions, interviews with parent and school participants clearly
uncovered this shortfall. An overall high percentage (85%) of parent and school
interviewees recognized the issue of slow English progression amongst students
enrolled in Bridgeview’s TWI program, even though English was utilized as the
instructional medium in four out of six classes. Many interviewees believed that
acquiring English proficiency was the most urgent need for EL students. The
failure of producing students with high English proficiency level in programs such
as TWI education may be one of the reasons that led to the passage of Proposition
227 in California.
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Noticeable Linguistic and Academic Achievement
The overall success of students’ language development and academic
performance was another theme uncovered in this research. While student
achievement was not identifiable through observations due to limited observation
sessions, the interview findings revealed many participants recognized student
improvement. When Bridgeview interviewees were asked to give their perspectives
on the students’ language development and academic performance, seven out of
nine interviewees gave positive confirmation on language development while six
out of nine participants recognized students’ academic progression. In the case of
parent interviewees, nine out of eleven parents agreed with the majority of teachers
and administrators and recognized their children’s positive learning progression.
In terms of students’ language development, two teachers, Teacher #3 and
Teacher #6 felt that there was not enough positive progression in the English
language. While Teacher #3 specified that many of her EL students did not show
enough progression in the English part of two-way immersion, Teacher #6 believed
students’ language development depended on the effort invested by the individual.
According to him, “Some students make big progress in the three years in this
program. But, as I said [before], some students did not volunteer to come to this
program. They were forced by their parents to come.” Thus, Teacher #6 stressed
that individual effort was the determining factor of student’s language
development. Parent #1, the father of two daughters who were enrolled in
Bridgeview’s TWI program, also believed student’s performance at school,
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including the language development and academic achievement, was strongly
affected by the individual effort invested by each student. He pointed out that one
of his daughters worked very hard and the other did not. As a result, the self-
motivated daughter, who invested time and effort, was recognized by her
achievement at school as well as her personal growth and knowledge.
Other parents also recognized their children’s linguistic improvement.
Parent #5, the father of an EL student who had arrived to the U.S. less than three
years ago, mentioned that although his son was still lagging behind many of his
classmates in English proficiency, his son did show a lot of improvement since his
arrival. Parent #5 added:
If we are discussing his personal progress, I think he improved a lot already.
When he first arrived, he did not understand a lot of American things, such
as comics and cartoons, but he is much better now. He can express himself
much better in English when compared to his initial arrival.
Parent #6, the mother of two American born students at Bridgeview’s TWI
program, also shared her positive perspective, based on her two children’s language
development. According to her,
Through this program, my son is able to learn and describe things and
history of Egypt in Chinese. He can also explain American matters and
culture in Chinese. My daughter can even write essays in Chinese, which is
very good. Sometimes, I even learn from them. Their English level is also
getting better.
Findings on the students’ positive linguistic development were identical to
the literature by Young and Tran (1999), Shannon and Milian (2002) and Lao
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(2004) where parents viewed the TWI programs as an effective method to teach
their children two languages.
On the other hand, Parent #2 and Parent #8 shared a different perspective.
As new immigrants to the U.S., Parent #2 compared her daughter’s English
progression with her friend’s children who attended an English-only program in
Sacramento, California. She pointed out her friend’s children spoke much better
English than her daughter who attended the TWI program at Bridgeview. Thus,
Parent #2 felt that the TWI program was not as effective as the English-only
program. Parent #8, the mother of another EL student, also mentioned she did not
notice any significant progression of her child’s English skills over the past
semester. However, she believed her daughter would eventually improve through
her progression in the TWI program.
In relation to the students’ academic performance, the majority of school
interviewees and many parent interviewees also had positive experiences. As a
dedicated math and science teacher, Teacher #2 shared his opinion based on his 14
years of experience at Bridgeview. According to him, “I will say most of them met
my expectation… I can say that many of our students are college-bond students.
They finish middle school here, they move onto high school and they continue onto
college.” Teacher #3 shared the same perspective through a different approach.
I notice no difference in math and science. I do not notice a difference in
achievement with my EL students even when their English skills are
lacking. Word problems are still harder for them but their theory is not a big
problem. In their test scores, all students come through my class score well.
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Parent #9 shared the same perspective as many school interviewees.
According to her, “I think [my daughter] is accelerating in all aspects… She is in
eighth grade now. I have seen a lot of progress over these years. In terms of cultural
awareness, I think she understands both Chinese and American culture pretty well.”
In addition, the interview with Dr. Chestnut once again confirmed TWI students’
academic achievements.
Students in two-way immersion programs are doing well in terms of
meeting the academic performance index, API and AYP. So, they are doing
well academically in both Chinese and English… everyone talks about
Lowell High School. A lot of times, each year, when kids attend high
school, we have a good percentage that came out of two-way immersion
program.
Later, Dr. Chestnut explained Lowell High School as a high caliber public school
in SFUSD and its admission was often based on students’ test scores, grade point
average (GPA) and an entry essay.
In general, the majority of parent and school interviewees noticed students’
linguistic and academic achievement. In the case of linguistic development, while
many believed the program was adequate in retaining students’ mother tongue,
some interviewees believed students did not show enough English progression. In
terms of students’ academic improvement, nearly all interviewees agreed
Bridgeview’s TWI students showed noticeable academic development since their
enrollment. Based on these achievements, parent and school interviewees shared
their perspectives on the overall success of Bridgeview’s TWI program, which will
be discussed subsequently.
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Perceived Program Success
The question that generated the highest consensus from both teacher and
parent interviewees was the effectiveness of the TWI program at Bridgeview. Out
of nine school interviewees, seven participants provided a definite answer and
recognized the effectiveness of the program, while the remaining two teachers gave
positive responses with some uncertainties. Dr. Chestnut identified that “… kids in
the two-way immersion program seem to be academically more successful than the
general [education] kids.” Teacher #2 also pointed out that most of his students
were well prepared for high school programs after three years at Bridgeview. He
added:
… I measure the success from the perspective of the teachers, parents and
students. As a teacher, I am very happy with the program. I can see students
improving. I can see them move into the college-bond path. Parents, we
heard a lot of comments from parents and most of them are very positive.
They like sending their kids to our school. We have one student from one
year and the sibling will follow the next year. That tells us how supportive
the parents are… Students, they seem to be happy to be in this program. We
have the highest attendance rate of the whole school.
In addition, Teacher #7 mentioned that the success of the program was more than
student’s academic performance.
When compared with other programs, I think our program is very effective.
It’s not just academically, but also student behavior. Chinese teachers tend
to be concerned about students’ education, so we are comparatively strict.
We maintain good contact with parents. [Students in the TWI program]
progress pretty well academically. At the same time, because they have less
discipline problems, most of them are very good students… limited English
students are catching up with their English-speaking peers. We see their
progress. Most of them moved from below basic to basic. For fluent English
students, they are picking up their Chinese steadily, at the same time, they
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also progress and show improvement in other subject areas, especially
math.
Meanwhile, two Teachers, Teacher #3 and Teacher #6, gave positive
responses with some uncertainties to the effectiveness of the TWI program.
Teacher #3 mentioned that while the program was effective in teaching Chinese
and academic content, many of her EL students did not progress enough in English.
In Chinese classes, Teacher #6 also believed the effectiveness was mainly related to
the gap in students’ language proficiency level. He stated that if students in the
same class varied greatly in their language proficiency, the effectiveness of the
class could be discounted greatly.
In terms of parent participants, ten out of eleven parents expressed their
satisfaction over Bridgeview’s TWI program. While parents were not asked to rate
the TWI program, many of them believed the program deserved at least 80 to 95
points out of 100. For instance, Parent #10 gave the TWI program a score of 90
because he believed the program was helpful and teachers in this program showed a
lot of responsibility and passion in teaching. As he pointed out, “I think [the TWI
program is] acceptable. I will rate it 90 out of 100 points. Teachers in this program
are very responsible. They even offer before and after school tutoring for [my
child] at no cost.” Meanwhile, Parent #7 gave Bridgeview’s program a score of 80
out of 100 and he added, “The overall effectiveness is quite good as far as I know.
At least, the school helps [my children] retain their mother tongue language, which
might help them in their future career.” Parent #5 also mentioned:
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I think this two-way immersion program is doing a fairly good job. At least,
I can see my child still remembers how to read and write Chinese. If he
doesn’t have this opportunity, he probably would have forgotten a lot of
Chinese already.
Parent #9 also thought Bridgeview’s program educated her daughter well. She
stressed that this was especially true for the two courses that were instructed in
Chinese since she did not understand subjects that were taught in English. She
mentioned that, “… learning Chinese in the two-way immersion program at
[Bridgeview] boosts her understanding of Chinese culture greatly.”
On the other hand, as the only parent interviewee who did not think the
TWI program worked as promised, Parent #2 gave a negative feedback based on
her daughter’s linguistic progression. Since her family just immigrated to the U.S.,
she didn’t think her daughter had any problems maintaining her Chinese
proficiency. Thus, she judged the effectiveness of the program solely based on her
daughter’s English progression. When all parent interviewees were asked about the
possibility of future enrollment of a younger child, Parent #2 was also the only
parent who provided a negative feedback, while all other parents firmly committed
to this program. Parent #2 reasoned that the school was located too far from her
house and it was not worth the effort to send her child to the TWI program at
Bridgeview.
In general, although nearly all interviewees shared a positive perception of
Bridgeview’s TWI program, they perceived the program’s effectiveness differently.
In order to assess the findings holistically and determine the correlation of the
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emerged themes, Table 13 below provides a summary of the themes related to the
effectiveness of the TWI program. Since nine teachers and administrators and 11
parents were interviewed, a total of 20 individuals participated in the present
research.
Table 13
The Characteristics of the Perceived Effectiveness of a TWI Program at the Middle
School Level identified by the School and Parent Interviewees (n=20)
Characteristics f %
Maintaining Mother Tongue 20 100
Perceived Program Success 17 85
Slow English Progression 17 85
Noticeable Linguistic and Academic Achievement 16 80
Note 1: f = the frequency of school and parent interviewees. The percentages were
rounded up to whole numbers.
Note 2: Two additional school interviewees conditionally agreed with the overall
program success.
Table 13 indicated that although interviewees valued the effectiveness of
the TWI program differently, all themes scored 80% or above. In addition, the
differences among interviewees’ perspectives did not vary greatly. The theme that
generated the highest consensus was maintaining the child’s mother tongue
(100%), which was consistent with Young and Tran’s (1999) study where the
primary reason for parents to enroll their children in the TWI programs was to
retain the mother tongue and culture (96%). In fact, findings showed both school
and parent interviewees recognized students’ progress in retaining the mother
tongue. In addition, the findings remained valid even for students who had just
immigrated to America. Parents of these newcomers reported they were excited to
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see their children practicing the native language while acquiring English and
academic contents (80%), which was also recognized by researchers such as Young
and Tran (1999) and Shannon and Milian (2002). In addition, while a high
percentage of interviewees recognized students’ linguistic and academic
achievements (80%) and the perceived success of the TWI program (85%), only
15% of interviewees were satisfied with the progression of students’ English
language acquisition. Both school and parent interviewees believed that acquiring
English proficiency was one of the most urgent tasks for students with LEP at
Bridgeview.
Supplementary Finding: The Trend of Learning Mandarin
In addition to the themes discussed previously, the trend of learning
Mandarin Chinese was a theme which surfaced naturally and unexpectedly. Among
all interview participants, four school interviewees and four parents stressed the
need to incorporate Mandarin as part of the TWI program.
When Parent #4 was asked to provide her expectations of the school and
teachers, she pointed out that she preferred the school to teach her daughters
Mandarin Chinese instead of Cantonese. She reasoned:
Mandarin Chinese is easier to learn because of the Pinyin pronunciation.
Cantonese doesn’t have a formal way of pronunciation… Students have to
listen to teacher’s pronunciation and memorize it. But if my child is
learning Mandarin, she can practice the pronunciation that is instructed in
the textbook at home.
Later, Parent #4 added that the TWI program would be even more attractive if
instruction was conducted in simplified Chinese characters rather than traditional
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Chinese characters. Parent #7 was another strong advocate for the Mandarin
transition. He mentioned the importance of learning Mandarin numerous times
during the course of the interview. According to Parent #7, “In addition to English,
I truly hope [my daughter] can pick up Mandarin… I think [the program] should
change to Mandarin. It doesn’t have to be much, just one or two periods per week. I
really look forward to this change.” Besides Parent #4 and Parent #7, Parent #11
also stressed the TWI program could be greatly improved by switching to
Mandarin immersion, although he considered the existing program to be effective.
The Mandarin trend was clearly recognized during parent interviews. While
all parents identified their children’s mother tongue language to be Cantonese,
eight out of eleven parents were able to communicate in Mandarin fluently during
the interview. In addition, many parents identified themselves as immigrants from
China who had strong foundation in simplified Chinese. Thus, although students’
mother tongue language was Cantonese, many parents perceived Mandarin as the
language of the mother nation.
Several school interviewees also recognized the trend and expressed their
perspectives on this issue during the interview. For instance, while Teacher #1
believed the TWI program should focus on the majority students’ mother tongue
language in addition to English, he also recognized the trend towards Mandarin
Chinese. As Teacher #1 mentioned:
Even when it comes to Cantonese, when you come to the middle school
[level], I think Mandarin is the way to go. They even have AP for college in
Mandarin for high school. There should be a link. Without this link to the
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upper level model, it’s very hard… Besides, Mandarin [will] eventually
overtake all the other Chinese dialects.
Meanwhile, Teacher #4, one of the two teachers who possessed the
Mandarin teaching credential among Bridgeview interviewees, was another strong
supporter of Mandarin Chinese. Teacher #4 pointed out that she had added a
Mandarin course to her sixth grade Chinese class once a week as an introduction
for her students. She also mentioned her and Teacher #1 had taken intensive
courses for teaching Mandarin-Chinese and Chinese culture in Beijing, China
during the past summer.
Dr. Chestnut also expressed his vision of having a Mandarin program at
Bridgeview. He stressed that Mandarin is the language of the Chinese. He believed
if one wanted to learn Chinese, Mandarin is the language of choice. However, the
principal mentioned that the new program, if feasible, should run alongside the
current Cantonese-English dual language program.
… what I would like to see is that we continue this current version, but I
want to build a second one. I will have a Mandarin speaking two-way
immersion program. That’s what I want. Why do I want that? I want that
because right now if you go to China, Mandarin is a national language. If
you go anywhere in China, you speak Mandarin… If you truly want to have
a Chinese two-way immersion, it should be Mandarin. It really should be
Mandarin.
In sum, many parent and school interviewees perceived learning Mandarin
as a world trend that is unavoidable for their children or students. While Cantonese
was the first language for nearly all interviewees, many participants viewed
Mandarin as another mother tongue that should replace or co-exist with Cantonese
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as the target language at Bridgeview’s TWI program. Many of them sincerely
believed that students who possess both English and Mandarin proficiency have
more advantages in the future. Based on the interview findings, the trend of having
an English-Mandarin immersion program seemed to generate a lot of interest and
support from both the community and within the school.
Summary
Data collected consisted of in-class observations, one-on-one interviews
with educators and parents, and documents. The responses provided by the
participants were invaluable to this study. In this research, numerous themes have
emerged through the data collection process and have been presented according to
the corresponding research questions:
• What is the nature of the dual language program at the middle school level?
o What is the perceived effectiveness of dual language programs at the
middle school level based on teachers’ perspectives?
o What is the perceived effectiveness of dual language programs at the
middle school level based on parents’ perspectives?
Themes related to the nature of the program were presented first in this
chapter, followed by themes associated with the perceived program effectiveness.
Emerged themes related to the nature of the program included: motivation and
encouragement; qualified teachers and the need for professional development; lack
of resources; lack of support; lack of communication; positive student interaction;
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student attitude and behavior differences; preparation and implementation; and
SDAIE-like instructional strategies.
The first theme identified was teacher motivation and encouragement. Since
most students at Bridgeview’s TWI program were ELs who constantly faced
challenges both academically and socially, it is important to constantly encourage
and motivate students to learn English in addition to the standard curriculum while
retaining their mother tongue. Findings of observations and interviews showed
teachers at Bridgeview used numerous approaches to motivate students. These
approaches included verbal and visual encouragement, asking proper questions to
generate lesson momentum, and introducing interesting topics. However, the
success of verbal and visual encouragement was difficult to measure.
While some parent and school interviewees believed teachers in the TWI
program at Bridgeview educated students well, many participants recognized the
improvement of the existing program can be achieved by recruiting better teachers,
more qualified paraprofessionals and offering professional development for
existing faculty. Several school interviewees expressed the need for more qualified
teachers to teach Chinese courses, however, one teacher also pointed out the
shortage of native English-speaking teachers and qualified paraprofessional in the
TWI program. Meanwhile, several school participants also stressed the importance
of providing continuous professional development for teachers both in the TWI
program and general education courses.
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Besides the need of qualified teachers and paraprofessionals, findings also
indicated numerous limitations at Bridgeview. The lack of resources such as funds,
school-based curriculum and teaching materials, and proper learning environment
was one of the limitations. While two out of nine school interviewees believed the
TWI program was not under funded when compared with other programs at
Bridgeview, over half of the school interviewees as well as one parent participant
believed the program could be improved if more funds were available. Another
limited resource identified was the lack of solid curriculum and teaching materials.
Many participants stressed this was especially true for courses that were instructed
in Chinese. In addition, several school participants also mentioned the lack of a
proper learning environment for TWI students.
The lack of communication and support from numerous parties and limited
resources were areas of concern. Seven out of nine school interviewees expressed
the need for communication at multiple levels such as within the school, between
the school and the school district, and with the public. The majority of the teachers
participated in this research mentioned there was a significant need for
communication between teachers within the TWI program as well as other teachers
at Bridgeview. Several TWI teachers believed scheduled meetings can provide
teachers with the opportunity to share teaching materials or instructional strategies.
In addition, interview participants also recognized the need for positive interaction
between teachers of the TWI and regular program at Bridgeview. Many teachers
realized the lack of communication led to misunderstanding, which created conflict
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within the school. The same lack of communication also occurred between the
school and the school district and between the school and the public. Without
proper communication channels, support from these parties were also unavailable.
Thus, many school interviewees expressed that support from the teachers in the
general education program at Bridgeview, the school district and the public was
very much needed.
In addition, lack of resources such as funding, standardized curriculum and
teaching materials, and the proper learning environment also affected the program
performance and student learning greatly. Findings indicated the resource shortage
strongly affected the Chinese Language Arts and Social Studies classes where
Cantonese was used as the medium for instruction.
In terms of student characteristics, while the initial self-segregation among
native English speaking students and EL students was recognized by some school
interviewees, five out of seven teachers acknowledged the existence of positive
interaction between these two groups in the TWI program. Several teachers
attributed the initial segregation to the difference in students’ language proficiency.
As students in the same class gained language proficiency, and became more
familiar with each other, the interaction among students increased.
The difference in behavior and attitude among EL students and their native
English-speaking peers was another theme which emerged during interviews.
While this theme was not identified during observation sessions, findings from
interviews with school participants confirmed the difference in student behavior
153
and attitude towards teachers and learning. The majority of school interviewees
believed EL students behaved better in school and showed more respect to teachers
than ABCs. However, the trend of newcomers becoming more “vocal” began to
materialize as the ELs became more Americanized.
In terms of the program implementation, the teachers of the TWI program
were well prepared for lessons as shown during the observation. Teachers seemed
to have the teaching materials, in-class activities, and homework assignments
prepared prior to the lecture. Teachers often had homework assignments written on
the board prior to the beginning of class as well. In addition, class agenda and daily
class objectives were closely monitored. Although English was the language of
instruction for all math classes at Bridgeview, the occasional use of Cantonese
between the teacher and students was observed in one of the math classes. In
regards to the class management capabilities, all three teachers had various
techniques to manage the observed classrooms.
Numerous instructional strategies such as linking real life matters with
lesson objectives, providing group activities and taking students on a field trip were
utilized in the observed TWI classes. One of the reasons for utilizing multiple
instructional strategies was due to the student mix in English proficiency. Also,
since students learn differently at different pace, many school interviewees believed
the traditional sit and learn strategy did not fit students of diverse backgrounds and
needs. Thus, teachers of Bridgeview’s TWI program utilized multiple instructional
154
strategies, which were similar to the specially designed academic instruction in
English (SDAIE) used in many transitional programs.
Besides themes related to the nature of the TWI program, several emerged
themes regarding the effectiveness of the program were also presented in this
chapter. These themes were maintaining mother tongue, slow English progression,
noticeable linguistic and academic achievement, and perceived program success.
One of the themes related to the program effectiveness was maintaining students’
mother tongue language. While participants had different reasons for encouraging
children to learn their mother tongue, findings showed nearly all school and parent
interviewees recognized the success of the TWI program on this subject.
Slow progression in English amongst EL students was another identified
theme. Out of all school interviewees, six expressed concern over students’ English
progression. While maintaining students’ mother tongue language was a main focus
of the TWI program, many educators believed acquiring English was the most
urgent task among many EL students. The same finding also occurred during parent
interviews. Parents of many EL students believed gaining English proficiency
should come before retaining the mother tongue language. Both parent and school
interviewees believed English was a must for students in the United States.
While many participants expressed concern over the slow English
progression of many EL students, six out of nine school interviewees and nine out
of eleven parent interviewees recognized the overall positive linguistic and
academic achievement among students. Several school interviewees reported that
155
students graduated from Bridgeview’s TWI program performed well in high
school. Teacher #2 even mentioned many of his students were college-bound with a
bright future. In addition, all but two parent interviewees expressed the overall
satisfactory of their children’s academic progress.
Lastly, in terms of overall effectiveness of the TWI program, nearly all
interviewees participated in this research recognized the success of the program.
While parent participants were not asked to rate the performance of the program,
many parents gave Bridgeview’s TWI program 80 to 95 points out of 100. School
interviewees were also excited to report the high accomplishment of the program.
Themes presented in this chapter emerged from in-class observations,
interviews with educators and parents, and the analysis of the documentation.
These emerged themes helped to answer the proposed research questions.
Meanwhile, implications and recommendations generated from the findings will be
discussed in the following chapter.
156
CHAPTER FIVE: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
As one of the alternatives to English-only instruction in the United States,
the two-way immersion (TWI) program, also known as the dual language program,
integrates both native English-speaking students and EL students in the same
classroom. With the goals of developing bilingual skills, enhancing academic
achievement, and promoting a positive attitude towards diverse cultures amongst
both groups of students, the dual-language programs have gained momentum over
the last two decades (Peregoy & Boyle, 1999; Montone & Loeb, 2000; Lindholm-
Leary, 2001; Torres-Guzmán, Kleyn, Morales-Rodríguez, & Han, 2005). However,
since most of the existing studies conducted on the TWI programs have focused on
the elementary school level (Montone & Loeb; Lindholm-Leary), this qualitative
research aimed to fulfill the lack of research on the TWI programs at the secondary
school level as identified in the literature reviewed. Therefore, the purpose of the
present research was to explore the nature and the perceived effectiveness of the
dual language program at the middle school level.
This chapter has been organized into five sections. The first section
discusses implications derived from these key findings. The second and third
sections include recommendations for both practice and future research. Finally,
the last section of this chapter provides a conclusion for this research.
Implications
Issues related to the nature and the effectiveness of the TWI programs at the
secondary level have remained a challenge for practitioners in the field of
157
education. Based on the results of the findings of the present research and the
review of literature, several implications have been determined. One of the most
significant implications identified in this research was the importance of
communication. Findings of the present research showed TWI programs often lack
communication with stakeholders, which leads to limited support and resources
desired by the program. Maintaining effective and consistent communication
between teachers, administrators, parents and the community that are directly or
indirectly involved with the organization is necessary to foster a competent
program (Smith & Arnot-Hopffer, 1998; Montone & Loeb, 2000; Kirk Senesac,
2002; Smith et al., 2002; Sheldon, 2003; Lao, 2004). Based on the research
findings, the TWI program as a whole needs to be a better communicator who
actively reaches out to stakeholders both within and outside of the school system.
Another implication identified was the significance of providing continuous
professional development for existing teachers and paraprofessionals. The present
research indicated teachers need to have certain characteristics, such as ability to be
patient with students of mixed levels, provide different instructional strategies, and
understand and accept students’ culture and linguistic differences, in order to fulfill
the needs of students in the program. The literature review (e.g., Smith & Arnot-
Hopffer, 1998; Montone & Loeb, 2000) also showed the quality of teachers as one
of the important factors that affect the implementation and the success of the
program. While hiring new teachers who possess such characteristics is one method
to improve the program, Stronge’s model (2002) of developmental theory suggests
158
teachers need to continuously seek ways for self-improvement. Thus, the need to
provide continuous professional development for current teachers is also a crucial
factor in maintaining program competence. Although teachers at Bridgeview all
possess teaching credentials and certificates coupled with years of teaching
experience, the opportunities for professional development are needed to better
prepare teachers for students with different needs in this dynamic environment. In
addition, teachers who are not directly involved with the program would also
benefit from professional development. Some desired professional development
include enhancing teacher’s class management skills, introducing the nature and the
implementation of the TWI program to teachers of the general education program,
improving teacher’s interpersonal skills, and strengthening the network among
teachers within the TWI program.
The third implication was the importance of possessing bilingual and
biliterate abilities among EL students. Findings of the present research showed that
20 out of 20 parent and school interviewees perceived maintaining mother tongue
as an important objective for enrolling students in the TWI program while 17 out of
20 interviewees showed concern on students’ slow English progression. However,
Cummins (1984) and Collier (1995) agree that immigrant children need two to
three years to develop conversational English and at least five to seven years to
develop academically sound English proficiency. As the findings indicated in Table
10, over half of the children whose parents participated in the present research have
been learning English for less than six years.
159
Meanwhile, parents of the present study perceived the importance of being
bilingual and biliterate while advancing in the academic content as the reasons for
enrolling their children in the TWI program. The review of the literature also
revealed parents whose children were enrolled in the TWI programs perceived the
ability to retain the mother tongue while learning English and academic contents as
a major purpose of TWI programs (Young & Tran, 1999; Shannon & Milian, 2002;
Lao, 2004). Studies also indicated student’s L1 and L2 academic skills are
interdependent (Cummins, 1983, 1984). Therefore, learning the mother tongue
language assists the student in acquiring the second language (Collier, 1995;
Cummins, 1984).
However, the present study indicated that while students of the TWI
program were advancing both academically and linguistically, some interviewees
showed concern on EL students’ slow progression in English acquisition. The slow
language acquisition among students in the Bridgeview’s program could be
attributed to several issues. One of the factors may be due to the low barrier of
entry into the TWI program. Due to the limited student pool and the lack of
resources in the public school system, a stable student enrollment was difficult to
maintain for non-magnet dual-language programs (Smith & Arnot-Hopffer, 1998).
As a result, students with a wide range of academic and linguistic abilities were
pooled into the same TWI classrooms. The present research also showed parents
whose children were not born in the U.S. were most concerned about their
children’s progression in acquiring English. Another possible cause of slow English
160
acquisition among many EL students could be the implementation of the language
policy in the TWI classrooms. While Bridgeview’s program followed the
“separation of language” strategy that used one language for one content area,
students often spoke the mother tongue with one another even in classes where
English was used as the medium for instruction. The results of this research were
in-line with the previous studies on factors that may affect students’ language
acquisition (Potowski, 2004).
Findings of the present research and the review of existing literature (e.g.,
Kirk Senesac, 2002; Montone and Loeb, 2000) indicated the significance of having
a well-defined curriculum for TWI programs. Without a properly defined school-
based curriculum for all subject areas, many teachers were faced with the daunting
task of having to design their own class lectures based primarily on personal
teaching experience. Furthermore, new teachers who lack experience may find this
task especially challenging. Essentially, a program needs to provide teachers access
to a standardized curriculum with comprehensive teaching and reading materials to
maintain effective teaching. In the long run, teachers may feel a sense of anxiety
and frustration over the lack of resources and may burnout from having to spend
countless hours having to source their own materials and design their own program.
In addition, students who are the direct beneficiaries of the program can benefit
from a school-based curriculum, which offers more extensive, up to date reading
and teaching materials.
161
Lastly, it is important to provide differentiated instructions to stimulate
student learning in TWI programs. The present study found that regardless of the
students’ initial academic and language competence level, all students, even
students enrolled in the general education program, often learn at a different pace
and prefer different methods of acquiring knowledge. Therefore, in this research,
teachers often utilized SDAIE-like instructional strategies, which provide
comprehensible input, to serve both EL and native English-speaking students’
different needs (Krashen, 1981, 1982). The existing literature also indicated
classroom teachers need to employ multiple instructional strategies during the
lectures (Hadi-Tabassum, 1999; Peregoy & Boyle, 1999). Furthermore, the results
of Alexandrowicz’s (2002) research showed students with LEP need individualized
instruction to suit their individual learning needs. In sum, it is important for TWI
teachers to utilize multiple instructional strategies to provide comprehensible
lessons.
Recommendations for Practice
Based on the implications identified, several recommendations have been
determined for practitioners in the field of education.
Conceptual Framework
One of the most crucial factors of a successful program is to have a well-
defined, shared conceptual framework for the TWI program. Although the school
district and schools have their own set of vision and mission statements, since the
TWI program is a part of the school and school district, it naturally shares these
162
objectives. However, the program has its own local needs. For instance, since one
of the TWI program’s goals was to maintain EL student’s mother tongue in
addition to learning English and other academic contents, the program had
additional duties to accomplish when compared with the general education
program. Thus, the school should develop a conceptual framework to guide its TWI
program and help teachers and administrators refocus on issues that matter the most
to their students.
Consistent Communication
Second, the support and partnership of the school, parents and the
community are crucial components in maintaining a well-implemented program
and producing academically successful students (Bogenschneider, 1997; Smith &
Arnot-Hopffer, 1998; Montone & Loeb, 2000; Sheldon, 2003; Lao, 2004). Thus,
consistent and effective methods of communication with numerous stakeholders
need to be established. Within the school, administrators and educators need to
ensure the vision and goals of the TWI program are shared and understood by all
parties (Smith & Arnot-Hopffer, 1998). In addition, periodic meetings among
faculty members within the TWI program are also needed so teachers can exchange
teaching materials, thoughts and ideas. Externally, maintaining reliable
communication channels with the school district, parents and the community are
needed to inform numerous parties about the status, benefits, outcomes and
upcoming events of the school and the TWI program.
163
In addition to regular meetings, another medium of communication is a
school website which can help improve communication between stakeholders by
providing informative data about the program, act as a channel for teachers to
exchange ideas and teaching materials, and provide an update on scheduled
meetings. The website can also act as a means of promoting the TWI program to
the public and thus strengthen support and increase the interest of potential
applicants. In addition to the website, TWI program evaluation forms can be
distributed to teachers, administrators, parents and students as a method to provide
feedback. In sum, stakeholders need to understand and “buy-into” the program in
order for them to provide psychological and financial support.
Core Curriculum
The implementation of a school-based curriculum for the TWI program is
crucial to both teachers and students. In classes such as Math, Science, Physical
Education, where English is the medium of instruction, teachers of the TWI
program can share teaching materials with teachers in the English-only program.
However, in classes where the mother tongue is the medium of instruction, such as
Chinese Language Arts and Social Studies, an official guideline such as a school-
based curriculum, is desirable. One possible approach is to have teachers from
different TWI programs work in conjunction with the school district to derive a
core curriculum that would include manual scripts, teaching materials, and reading
materials for subject areas taught in the language other than English. In addition,
the school district can contract outside sources such as specialists and researchers
164
to work with the group of TWI teachers in designing a curriculum that suits the
needs of the individual school. Finally, the TWI programs need to be reviewed
annually in order to maintain and enhance program efficiency.
Differentiated Practice
Furthermore, since many TWI classes constitute students with mixed
academic and language capabilities, providing instructional strategies that fit the
individual needs of students, especially students with limited English proficiency,
have become necessary (Alexandrowicz, 2002). Alexandrowicz suggests that
educators need to understand the needs of individual students and provide
instruction accordingly. Thus, one of the recommendations for practitioners in the
field of education is to employ qualified teachers to teach students with mixed
abilities (Smith & Arnot-Hopffer, 1998; Montone & Loeb, 2000). In the TWI
programs where EL students often possess the basic interpersonal communication
skills (BICS) but lack the cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP)
(Cummins, 1979, 1980), teachers who have the necessary training, know-how,
experience and can provide different instructional strategies to suit children with
individual needs would benefit students the most (Alexandrowicz, 2002). For
instance, the SDAIE strategies aim to provide comprehensible input in teaching
students with mixed English proficiency levels.
Professional Development
Meanwhile, offering continued professional development (CPD)
opportunities to existing teachers are also desirable. The type of professional
165
development should be determined according to the school and individual needs of
its teachers (Craft, 2001). Possible directions for professional development include
providing training and strategies to facilitate the development of English, offering
continuous development in academic Chinese instruction, and reviewing class
management skills that focus on settings in the TWI programs. In addition,
professional development, such as workshops and training in SDAIE strategies that
helps teachers to understand and quickly identify individual student needs, is also
necessary for teachers of TWI programs (Alexandrowicz, 2002).
Language Development
The result of the present study on student’s language use in the classroom
was consistent with the previous research (e.g., Potowski, 2004). Findings
suggested students of TWI programs tend to speak the preferred language of their
peers even when the language was not used as the medium for instruction. Thus,
the separation of language in the TWI programs needs to be strictly enforced and
encouraged in order to provide students with the optimal environment to practice
the target languages through content teaching.
Furthermore, the demand for learning Mandarin has become a global trend
(Groves, 2005; Ramzy, 2006). Findings of the present research also indicated a
strong desire to teach Mandarin at the research site. While Cantonese is the mother
tongue of all the children of the parent participants and possibly for nearly all the
students of the research site, the increased demand for Mandarin lessons has
become significant due to reasons such as the uprising Chinese economy in the
166
global market and parents’ beliefs in learning Chinese as a potential advantage for
their children’s future career. Furthermore, since China has become more
influential in the world economy, many believe learning Mandarin grants the
opportunity for greater success (Groves; Ramzy). As a result, providing Mandarin
lessons would fulfill the needs of the students and parents. Two applicable methods
of providing Mandarin lessons are: 1) offering Mandarin as an elective course, and
2) implementing the Mandarin-English TWI program alongside the Cantonese-
English program.
Recommendations for Future Research
The present research aimed to enhance the understanding of the TWI
program at the middle school level and had done so on various levels. However,
research on the TWI program in the secondary level is still insufficient. In this
section, possible directions for future researchers are discussed.
One of the recommendations for future research is to perform studies that
are identical to this research but in different settings. Since studies on TWI
programs beyond the elementary school level are scarce, more research on TWI
programs at middle and high school levels are needed to further examine the nature
of the program and to verify the performance of dual language programs at the
secondary level (Montone & Loeb, 2000; Lindholm-Leary, 2001). Furthermore,
since many studies conducted in the field of dual-language education have been
based on the elementary school level Spanish-English TWI programs, researchers
167
who are interested in Spanish-English immersion programs could emphasize on the
secondary school level programs within similar target languages.
Second, the in-depth analysis on the performance of the TWI programs is
also needed. As one of the recommendations for the program improvement,
Teacher #2 suggested inviting a “coach” or a team of specialists from outside the
field of education to help the school and the district better understand the TWI
program. The purpose of this approach is to determine the strengths and
weaknesses of the current TWI program and seek possible resolutions to enhance
the program’s performance, which in turn will benefit students in the TWI
program. Future researchers with experience in analyzing organizational
performance are strongly encouraged to perform an in-depth analysis of existing
TWI programs to ensure the best use of school resources. In addition, the extensive,
longitudinal study on the nature of TWI programs at the middle and high school
levels is another possible direction for future research. While many findings
presented in this research were valuable indicators of the program characteristics,
not all characteristics can be identified within the proposed research time frame.
Longitudinal studies on the nature of the TWI program at the middle and high
school levels are highly recommended to present a more thorough and holistic
perspective of the program and its success in developing fully biliterate, bilingual
students.
Moreover, according to the results of the literature reviewed and the
findings of this research, the TWI programs are often known for students’ high
168
achievement on standardized tests (Montone & Loeb, 2000; Kirk Senesac, 2002;
Smith et al., 2002) and the ability to produce graduates who later enroll in high
caliber high schools. Since there was no systematic approach to track graduate’s
performance in high school, interviewees’ perception of graduate’s success is yet to
be confirmed. Follow-up studies with emphasize on the TWI students’ academic
performance and language development during their high school years should be
further investigated.
Lastly, since the data collection focused on the perspectives of the school
and parent interviewees as well as the findings of in-class observations, the
students’ viewpoints were not included in the present study. However, as one of the
stakeholders and the direct beneficiary of the TWI programs, the students are
directly involved with and affected by the program. Thus, future research that
includes the students’ perspectives for a more holistic view of the nature and
effectiveness of the program is also highly recommended.
Conclusion
Two-way immersion programs have proven to be an effective approach for
educating both native English-speaking students and English learners. Since most
of the existing literature have emphasized on the programs in the primary grades,
the present research helped to enhance the understanding of the nature of TWI
programs at the secondary level and further validated the effectiveness of this
pedagogy through teachers’, administrators’ and parents’ perspectives and in-class
observations. However, TWI programs are not without flaws. Issues such as lack of
169
efficient and consistent communication with stakeholders, support and resources,
qualified teachers and opportunities for professional development, mixed academic
and language competence of students, and the increasing demand for Mandarin
lessons are challenges the school teachers and administrators and the school district
have to take into account. After all, regardless of the performance and success of
the current TWI programs, there are always areas that can be improved.
170
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APPENDIX A: SCHOOL DISTRICT APPROVAL LETTER
180
APPENDIX B: TEACHER INFORMATION SHEET
181
182
183
APPENDIX C: PARENT INFORMED CONSENT – ENGLISH VERSION
184
185
186
187
APPENDIX D: PARENT INFORMED CONSENT – CHINESE VERSION
188
189
190
APPENDIX E: OBSERVATION CHECKLIST
Field Notes
Observed
Indicators
Initial interaction with students (e.g., voice tone and
body language of the teacher, methods used to limit
disruption and interruptions).
Comments on and discusses homework in class
Gives clear, specific, meaningful and timely feedback
Handles administrative tasks quickly and efficiently
Reviews important concepts from previous lessons
Provides a smooth transition to new topics
Possesses a positive attitude about students and teaching
Creates a supportive and warm classroom climate
Focuses classroom time on teaching and learning
Links instruction to real-life situations of students
Follows a consistent schedule and maintains procedures
and routines
Carefully links learning objectives and activities
Period
Pre-lecture
During the lesson
191
Field notes
Observed
Indicators
Is aware of all activities in the classroom
Employs different techniques and instructional strategies,
such as hands-on learning
Stresses meaningful conceptualization, emphasizing the
students' own knowledge of the world
Sets overall high expectations toward improvement and
growth in the classroom
Gives clear examples and offers guided practice
Stresses student responsibility and accountability in meeting
expectations
Teaches metacognitive strategies to support reflection on
learning progress
Is concerned with having students learn and demonstrate
understanding of meaning rather than memorization
Questioning reflects type of content, goals of lesson
Period
During the lesson
192
Field Notes
Observed
Indicators
Varies question type to maintain interest and momentum
Prepares materials and questions in advance
Organizes content for effective presentation
Attentive to lesson momentum, appropriate questioning,
clarity of explanation
Varies instructional strategies, types of assignments, and
activities
Leads, directs, and paces student activities
Maintains professional role while being friendly
Knows students' interests both in and out of school
Values student input
Clearly explains homework
Provides opportunity for students to ask questions
Period
During the lesson
Near the end of the
class
Source: Adapted from Stronge, 2002, p. 71-76.
193
APPENDIX F: INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRES
Interview Questions for the Parent Participant
1. What was (were) your child’s first language(s)? What is the primary
language spoken at home now?
2. How many years has your child been learning his/her second language?
3. Do you think it is important for your child to retain the mother tongue?
What value do you see in learning a second language?
4. How do you perceive the role of the school and the classroom teacher?
What are your expectations from the teacher and the school?
5. What are the reasons for enrolling your child in the TWI/English-only
program?
6. How do you think your child is performing at school based on the language
development, culture awareness, and academic achievement?
7. Do you think the school can do better in educating your child?
8. What are your expectations of your child’s future academic and career path?
9. How would you describe the overall effectiveness of the TWI program your
child is enrolled in?
10. If your child has a younger sibling, would you enroll him/her into the same
program when he/she is ready to attend school? Why or why not?
194
Interview Questions for the Teacher Participant
1. Describe your cultural and linguistic backgrounds and your teaching
experience. How many years have you been teaching in this program? What
type(s) of teaching credential(s) do you possess? What is your experience in
teaching EL students?
2. What is your perception of teaching students in the language other than
English? How do EL students behave/perform/interact compared to their
native English-speaking peers in the same classroom? What are the
differences and similarities?
3. What do you think of programs that educate both EL and native English-
speaking students in the same classroom? What are the pros and cons?
4. What can the program developers and teachers do to facilitate effective
learning? What experiences and/or expertise do you utilize to assist student
learning in a TWI classroom?
5. Based on your previous experience, do students in the TWI program
achieve the language development and academic objectives designed for the
academic year?
6. If given the opportunity, how would you improve the program?
7. Overall, how would you describe the effectiveness of this program?
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Dual language, or two-way immersion (TWI) education has gained popularity in the United States over the past few decades. Although many scholars contend TWI programs are more effective than English-only instruction when educating English learners (EL) students, the effectiveness of TWI programs remains controversial. Furthermore, while extensive studies have been conducted on the TWI programs at the elementary school level, research on the dual language programs at the middle and high school levels has been very limited.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Hsieh, Jerry Yi-Cheng
(author)
Core Title
The perceived effectiveness of dual language programs at the middle school level
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education
Publication Date
07/25/2009
Defense Date
05/16/2007
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
bilingual education,dual language programs,English learners,English-Cantonese immersion programs,English-Chinese immersion programs,OAI-PMH Harvest,TWI,two-way immersion programs
Language
English
Advisor
Mora-Flores, Eugenia (
committee chair
), Genzuk, Michael (
committee member
), Ragusa, Gisele (
committee member
)
Creator Email
jerryhsi@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m661
Unique identifier
UC154644
Identifier
etd-Hsieh-20070725 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-525892 (legacy record id),usctheses-m661 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-Hsieh-20070725.pdf
Dmrecord
525892
Document Type
Dissertation
Rights
Hsieh, Jerry Yi-Cheng
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Repository Name
Libraries, University of Southern California
Repository Location
Los Angeles, California
Repository Email
cisadmin@lib.usc.edu
Tags
bilingual education
dual language programs
English learners
English-Cantonese immersion programs
English-Chinese immersion programs
TWI
two-way immersion programs