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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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The issue of remediation as it relates to high attrition rates among Latino students in higher education: an evaluation study

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The issue of remediation as it relates to high attrition rates among Latino students in higher education: an evaluation study

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Content Running Head: REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 1

The Issue of Remediation as it Relates to High Attrition Rates Among Latino Students in Higher
Education:
An Evaluation Study
by
Tammy Brown Allen

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2019

Copyright 2019 Tammy Brown Allen
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 2

DEDICATION
To my great-grandmother Sarah Neal Long for always being my biggest cheerleader and
the best guardian angel ever, thank you for watching over me as I progressed towards the finish
line of my doctoral program. I learned more from you than I ever learned in any classroom and I
will always love you for that. I hope that I have made you proud.
To my children Ahkiah, Lakeisha, and Khalil, thank you for your love and support
throughout this process. I could not have done it without you.
To my awesome grandchildren, Taylin, Sarah, Nishaan, Kamryn, and Nihal, you mean
the world to me. Now that this milestone has been reached, you have your Nana’s undivided
attention back for keeps. You guys are my everything.
To all of my family and friends who have supported me along the way, I cannot begin to
thank you enough. I love you all.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
List of Tables 5
List of Figures 6
Abstract 7
Introduction of the Problem of Practice 8
Organizational Context and Mission 8
Importance of Addressing the Problem 10
Organizational Performance Goal 10
Stakeholder Group of Focus and Stakeholder Goal 11
Purpose of the Project and Questions 13
Review of the Literature 14
Background of Remediation with Latino Students in Higher Education 15
The Role of Language for Latino Remedial Reading Students 15
The Latino Experience in College Remediation 16
Importance of Faculty to Student Relationships for Latinos in College 17
Promising Practices for Accelerated Remedial Instruction in Higher Education 18
Professional Development for Faculty 21
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 22
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation 38
and Organizational Context
Methodological Approach 42
Findings 45
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 4

Technology Use for Active Learning 46
Culturally Relevant Teaching Approaches 51
for Promoting Inclusiveness
Building Relationships with Latino Reading Students 58
Learning the Latest Experimental Learning Strategies 64
Forming Learning Communities for Accelerated Reading Students who are 69
English Language Learners
Solutions and Recommendations 76
Knowledge Recommendations 78
Motivation Recommendations 83
Organization Recommendations 87
Conclusion 93
References 95
Appendices
Appendix A: Participating Stakeholders 103
Appendix B: Protocols 105
Appendix C: Credibility and Trustworthiness 108
Appendix D: Ethics 110

REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 5

LIST OF TABLES
Table Title Page
1 Organizational Goal and Stakeholder Goal 13
2 Assumed Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 37
3 Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Recommendations and 77
Specific Examples

REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 6

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title Page
1 Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Interactions 39

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ABSTRACT
The intent of this study was to identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
factors that shaped the implementation of the accelerated reading courses at Dream Community
College. The full-time faculty members of the college’s reading department had a goal of
implementing accelerated reading courses that would combine two levels of remedial reading
courses into a single semester. The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analytic framework provided an
approach to understanding the organizational and stakeholder’s goals and it helped to highlight
the assumed knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences that could potentially affect
the outcome of the faculty’s goal of implementing the accelerated remedial reading courses by
December of 2018. A qualitative approach was conducted using interviews and observations.
The interviews and observations revealed that the faculty felt that they needed access to the latest
educational technology and ongoing training for that technology in order to facilitate active
learning with their students, yet the findings showed that instead the faculty needed to utilize
Open Education Resources, which would provide various teaching tools at no cost. The findings
also revealed that there was a need for the organization to provide the faculty with ongoing
focused professional development. The implications of these findings demonstrates the
probability of continued high attrition among Latino students in the reading department if the
faculty did not receive what was needed for them to achieve their goal. This study concludes
with recommendations that are based on the findings and literature.

REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 8

Introduction to the Problem of Practice
This study focused on the issue of remediation as it relates to high attrition among Latino
students in Dream Community College’s (pseudonym) reading department. Latinos are one of
the fastest growing minority groups in the United States, yet research shows that they have the
lowest rates of college enrollment and completion (Bohon, Johnson & Gorman, 2006; Kaupp,
2012). Traditionally, a disproportionate number of Latino students have been placed into
remedial reading classes in higher education (Melguizo, 2007, Gilroy, 2013; Slaughter,
Ehrenberg & Hanushek, 2004). For students who do not initially pass the exam and place into
college-level English classes at Dream Community College, there are four remedial reading
classes that must be taken and completed successfully before students can enroll in a transferable
English class. On average, it takes two years or more for students to successfully progress
through the sequence of remedial reading courses. Due to the length of time required to complete
all of the necessary remedial reading classes, frustration causes many students to drop the
courses or to quit college altogether (Gilroy, 2013; Scott & Normore, 2013).
Organizational Context and Mission
Dream Community College (pseudonym) is a public community college located in a
socio-economically disadvantaged urban area in southern California. The college has a student
body of approximately 17,000, and 65% of the students identify as Latino (American
Association of Community Colleges, 2015). The attrition rate for the college’s Latino students is
24%. This is in comparison to the 27% attrition rate for White students and the 29% attrition rate
for African American students at the college. This is relevant because the majority of the student
body is Latino. The college’s mission is to maintain a culture of continuous improvement and a
commitment to providing quality higher education, innovative instruction, and services to a
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 9

diverse community of learners. The mission is to also prepare students for transfer to universities
and to enter the workforce by earning applied degrees and certificates (Dream Community
College, 2016). A key component of the college’s mission is to foster economic growth and
global competitiveness through workforce development and to improve quality of life for all
students.
For many students, remedial courses provide an academic foundation in higher education
and are the pathway to college-level courses. Many Latino students spend thousands of dollars
on these courses, which do not earn them transferrable credits (Crisp & Nora, 2009; Gilroy,
2013). To address the issue of high attrition rates, and given the fact that remedial courses serve
as gatekeeping courses for many students, the reading department has recently introduced
accelerated remedial reading classes. Through these classes, students have an opportunity to
progress through two levels of reading courses in one semester. Traditionally, students would
move through one level per semester. The accelerated reading courses are designed to help
students reach a transferrable English course in half the time that it would traditionally take to do
so. The accelerated reading courses are designed to improve reading comprehension, vocabulary
development, critical thinking, second language acquisition, and study skills for students by one
grade level over the course of an eight week session. Students who successfully progress through
the accelerated reading courses would advance to a higher level of reading every eight weeks and
reach a transferrable level of English in half the time that it would traditionally take. While the
accelerated courses are taught at a faster pace, the content is the same as a traditional semester-
long reading course. The timeline for two accelerated reading courses is equivalent to one
traditional sixteen week semester.

REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 10

Importance of Addressing the Problem
Students with greater academic needs, such as those who are enrolled in remedial
courses, require greater resources and faculty and staff attention. Proper resources and faculty
involvement have been found to help reduce student attrition rates (Dowd & Grant, 2006; Nunez,
2011; Scott & Normore, 2013). This study is important because the successful implementation of
accelerated reading courses should reduce the amount of time that it typically takes to progress to
a transferrable level English course. This study is also significant because the promise of higher
education through increased graduation rates has long-term implications for students. If students
can remain in college and eventually obtain their degrees, their chances of reaching a middle-
class socio-economic level are greatly increased (Melguizo, 2007; Stern, 2012). Additional
benefits are that these students will be able to economically enhance and govern their
communities (Melguizo, 2007). By reaching their full educational potential, they will also be
able to avert the trend of being fixed in low paying jobs. This is a common fate for many ethnic
minorities who lack a degree (Melguizo, 2007; Stern, 2012).
Organizational Performance Goal
Dream Community College serves approximately 17,000 students each academic year.
The campus is racially and ethnically diverse. This is reflected through the faculty, staff, and the
college’s student body. Dream Community College’s primary organizational goal is to provide
academic programs that focus on a graduation rate of 70% rate for students from all
demographics with Associates degrees and/or successfully transferring students to four-year
universities. The current overall graduation rate is 18%. When disaggregated, the Latino student
graduation rate is 22%. This is in comparison to the 21% graduation rate for White students and
the 11% graduation rate for African American students. While all three groups would benefit
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 11

from increased graduation rates, the focus of this study is on Latino students because this is the
racial demographic that comprises the majority of the student body at Dream Community
College. The results of efforts to achieve this goal can be measured by the college’s 2018 - 2019
graduation and transfer rates. According to Clark and Estes (2008), performance goals are
specific tasks that teams or individuals must successfully execute by a designated deadline and
specific criteria must be used to achieve the goal. Effective performance goals are tied to the
overall organizational goals.
Stakeholder Group of Focus and Stakeholder Goal
The stakeholder group of focus was the Dream Community College reading department
full-time faculty, which consists of three faculty members. This group was selected as the group
of focus because they have full control over the design aspect of the curriculum that is offered to
the students within the department. This includes the implementation of accelerated remedial
reading courses. They also delegate which courses will be taught by adjunct instructors within
the department. Full-time faculty members are also responsible for training adjunct faculty on
implementing the newly created curriculum. Proper curriculum and implementation strategies
are essential for student success, and since the decisions of these strategies rest on the full-time
faculty, it was important to include them as the focus for this study.
As of January 1, 2018, the state of California instituted a new mandate for all 114 of its
community colleges. The mandate is called AB-705 and it requires all community colleges to
provide remedial instruction for students that need it for a maximum of one year and to then
place them into college level transferrable English and math courses. The intention of the
mandate is to shorten the timeline for remediation, thus increasing the possibility of students’
completing transfer-level English and math in one academic year. While the mandate does not
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 12

specifically speak to reading, it is expected that the reading department will provide the
necessary comprehension and vocabulary remediation to prepare students for a transferrable
level English.
The specific goal of the reading department, to be accomplished by the full-time faculty,
was to implement accelerated reading courses that will combine two levels of remedial reading
courses into a single semester by December 2018. This goal was measured by the quality of the
accelerated courses and the inclusion of the accelerated courses in the college’s course schedule.
The shortened accelerated reading course sequence timeline is in contrast to the two years or
more that it would typically take for students to progress through the necessary remedial reading
classes, and is thought to help decrease the attrition rate. The curriculum for the accelerated
courses was developed by the full-time reading department faculty. That curriculum will consist
of lessons focusing on word attack skills, vocabulary development, reading comprehension
improvement, basic writing conventions, and study skills. Each course will include an
accompanying lab, where students will have an opportunity to practice the skills that they have
learned in the classroom through a series of assigned reading and vocabulary exercises. Each
student is required to complete three hours of lab work each week during the courses. It is
important for Latino students to successful complete the necessary curriculum within the eight
week timeframe. Failure to accomplish this goal will likely result in more Latino students
dropping out before reaching a transferrable level of English.

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Table 1
Organizational Goal and Stakeholder Goal

Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to identify what knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors shape the implementation of the accelerated reading courses. Dream
Community College’s reading department was on its way to achieving its goal of implementing
accelerated reading courses that will combine two levels of remedial reading courses into a
single semester. The achievement of this goal would reduce the remedial timeline and increase
the likelihood of Latino students progressing to a transferrable level English course. According
to Clark and Estes (2002), to accomplish set goals and to close performance gaps in an
organization, it is essential to begin by identifying the cause of the gap and the performance
improvement program that will best address the problem. The Knowledge, Motivation, and
Organizational analysis framework facilitates that problem solving process. The analysis in this
study, thus, focused on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to
achieving the organizational goal (in the case of this study, increasing graduation rates). While a
complete evaluation would focus on all stakeholders, for practical purposes the stakeholders of
Organizational Goal
The primary organizational goal is to provide academic and training programs that focus on a
70% rate for graduating students with Associate degrees and/or successfully transferring students
to four-year universities.
Stakeholder Goal
By December 2018, the reading department will implement accelerated reading courses that will
combine two levels of remedial reading courses into a single semester. By reducing the timeline
for the completion of remedial reading courses, Latino reading students can move into
transferable level English classes within a year.

REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 14

focus in this study were the full-time faculty members of Dream Community College’s reading
department, who as stated above, developed the curriculum and are in charge of implementation.
The questions that guided this study are the following:
1. What are the full-time faculty’s knowledge and motivation related to meeting their
goal of implementing accelerated reading courses that will combine two levels of
remedial reading courses into a single semester?
2. What is the interaction between organizational culture and context and stakeholder
knowledge and motivation as it relates to meeting their goal of implementing
accelerated reading courses that will combine two levels of remedial reading courses
into a single semester?
3. What are the recommendations for the Dream Community College reading
department’s practice in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources, such as professional development for faculty who are implementing
accelerated remedial reading courses?
Review of the Literature
This literature review provides a background on remediation with Latino students in
higher education and explore the various explanations for the high rate of attrition among Latino
community college students who are enrolled in remedial reading courses. The review opens
with research on the need to shorten the remedial reading course sequence to retain Latino
community college students. This is followed by an overview of the literature on the current
research regarding promising teaching practices, professional development, and expected
qualities of effective accelerated reading faculty. This review of literature on general research is
followed by an overview of the Clark and Estes Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework, which
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 15

will focuses on the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on reading department
faculty whose goal was to implement accelerated reading courses that combine two levels of
remedial reading courses into a single semester.
Background of Remediation with Latino Students in Higher Education
Remediation in higher education was intended to systematically prepare underprepared
students for college-level courses; however various factors have collectively influenced remedial
instruction over time. Remedial courses include foundational academic courses such as reading,
writing, and math (Levin & Calcagno, 2008; Villarreal & Garcia, 2016). There has historically
been an overrepresentation of Latino students enrolled in college remedial programs. The
majority of these students are Latino males (Levin & Calcagno, 2008; Villarreal & Garcia,
2016).
The Role of Language for Latino Remedial Reading Students
Many Latino remedial students lack English language proficiency and as a result struggle
to develop their reading and writing skills. The majority of these students begin their college
careers at community colleges and they complete assessment placement tests upon admission
(Crisp & Nora, 2009; Villarreal & Garcia, 2016). In addition, the incoming college assessment
tests reflect their language levels. Because language is a major barrier to college success, most of
these students are enrolled in English Learner classes at their colleges (Kaplan, 2009; McGlynn,
2003; Stern, 2012). As a result of the language barrier and failure to do well in remedial classes
at the college, many of these students end up being placed on academic probation and ultimately
drop out. The lengthiness of the remedial sequence timeline has also been shown to have a
negative influence on the student dropout rate (Levin & Calcagno, 2008; Villarreal & Garcia,
2016).
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Recent California community college placement tests revealed that 70% of their Latino
EL students, both documented and undocumented were placed in remedial math classes and 42%
were placed into remedial English classes (Melguizo, 2007). For example, Long Beach City
College, a California community college whose student body is primarily comprised of Latino
students reported that 90% of their incoming students are enrolled in at least one remedial class
(Stern, 2012). Attentive administrators, counselors, faculty, peer advisors, and tutors are
recommended for EL students, as they are an important component to these students’ success
(McGlynn, 2012; Stern, 2012).
The Latino Experience in College Remediation
A large number of Latino students begin their careers in higher education by being placed
into remedial reading classes (Crisp & Nora, 2010; Melguizo, 2007, Gilroy, 2013). Students who
do not place into college-level English classes at Dream Community College are required to
complete a sequence of remedial reading classes before they can enroll in a transferable English
class. It takes approximately two years or more for students to move through the sequence of
remedial reading courses. Many Latino students become frustrated with the amount of time they
must spend in the remedial reading course sequence and the fact that they do not receive credit
towards graduation for the remedial courses. These factors cause many to dropout before
reaching a transferable level English course (Gilroy, 2013; Scott & Normore, 2013).
Latino students in higher education face many challenges as they progress through the
college remedial sequence. For example, Latino students often lack faculty support and feel
alienated on campus (Carrasco-Nungaray & Peña, 2012; Tovar, 2015). Another challenge that
many Latino students face is a lack of awareness or understanding of campus academic
resources, campus services, and transfer guidance (Carrasco-Nungaray & Peña, 2012; Neumann,
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 17

1996; Tovar, 2015). Recent studies have also shown that student success and student
development programs have a positive effect on remedial college students (Booth et al., 2014;
Hatch & Bohlig, 2016). Many of these programs are designed for remedial college students and
focus on essential skills for college success, such as study skills and tutoring. They also provide
information about all of the services that the college offers (Booth et al., 2014; Hatch & Bohlig,
2016; Levin & Calcagno, 2008).
Importance of Faculty to Student Relationships for Latinos in College
Recent studies have also shown that strong faculty to student relationships are essential
for Latino academic success and retention. Students who are enrolled in remedial courses require
greater faculty attention. The implementation of an accelerated program will require faculty to
work closely with students during the implementation process. Adequate faculty involvement
helps to reduce student attrition rates, particularly with remedial students (Dowd & Grant, 2006;
Harris, Joyner & Slate, 2010; Nunez, 2011; Scott & Normore, 2013). Professional development
workshops that focus on culturally relevant approaches for teaching Latino students have been
found to be helpful for facilitating the faculty-student relationship building process (Cejda &
Hoover, 2011; Walker, 2015).
Close faculty-student relationships are vital to accelerate remedial Latino student success.
The best predictor of Latino student persistence is a solid faculty-student relationship (Cejda &
Hoover, 2011; Villarreal & Garcia, 2016). Ongoing encouragement and one-on-one time from
faculty help to reduce students’ thoughts of dropping out of college. Latino students believe that
strong faculty-student relationships facilitate a more inclusive and comfortable learning
environment (Scott & Normore, 2013; Villarreal & Garcia, 2016). These close relationships with
faculty make students feel more relaxed and confident about participating in class (Cejda &
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 18

Hoover, 2011; Scott & Normore, 2013; Villarreal & Garcia, 2016). Latino students also
appreciate faculty who are supportive, respectful of their opinions, and genuinely care about
them and their learning (Cejda & Hoover, 2011; Scott & Normore, 2013; Villarreal & Garcia,
2016).
Promising Practices for Accelerated Remedial Instruction in Higher Education
In addition to faculty-student relationships, research has found that accelerated remedial
instruction is a good way to reduce the challenges faced by Latino students in higher education,
by shortening the time it takes to complete non-credit coursework, ultimately leading to higher
completion rates (Fain, 2013).
Accelerated instruction allows students to complete all of the coursework of a traditional
semester at a faster pace. Students enrolled in accelerated courses can complete the requirements
in half the time that it would take if they enrolled in a traditional semester-long course. There are
various approaches that have shown promise in accelerated remedial instruction.
The curriculum that the reading department faculty at Dream Community used in the
accelerated reading courses was a combination of packaged curriculum and curriculum that they
developed themselves. But, of course, just creating accelerated courses are not the answer to
ensure student success. What happens in those courses, and how faculty engage students with the
material matters a great deal. Lessons that include active learning activities, culturally relevant
teaching, experimental learning strategies, and learning communities tend to be more memorable
than lectures alone. Such strategies and approaches are particularly useful for teaching struggling
readers (Hatch & Bohlig, 2016; Levin & Calcagno, 2008; Scott & Normore, 2013). In the next
section, these key strategies are discussed.

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Technology for active learning. Active learning approaches that involve technology
such as interactive computer programs are useful tools for teaching remedial students. These
computer programs provide underprepared students with engaging, self-directed modules, as
well as diagnostic feedback that highlights the student’s progress (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich,
2010; Scott & Normore, 2013). Another example of active learning would be to have students
use a computer to create a paper that expresses their opinions on specific reading content.
Group activities are another active learning approach that can include technology. Such
activities encourage and foster healthy social interaction within the classroom (Levin &
Calcagno, 2008; Scott & Normore, 2013). For example, faculty can instruct students to create a
group PowerPoint presentation when covering specific topics in the classroom. Teaching is only
fully effective when appropriate information and communication technology are used as
resources to facilitate learning for students (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010).
Skill-training. Another effective approach in accelerated remedial classes is skill-
training. This involves building skills for students within a real-world context and it has shown to
be significantly more useful than traditional lectures alone, particularly in remedial accelerated
classrooms (Levin & Calcagno, 2008; Scott & Normore, 2013). An example of skill-training
using a real-world context would be to have a group of students read and interpret a section of a
workplace safety manual (Levin & Calcagno, 2008; Scott & Normore, 2013).
Culturally relevant teaching. Recent studies have found that students of color tend to be
more engaged when they see components of their culture included in the lessons (Cejda &
Hoover, 2011; Walker, 2015). Additional research supports the notion that faculty to student
cultural awareness and the inclusion of culturally relevant instructional materials is important
because it has positive effects on academic performance, as well as the attrition rates of students
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 20

of color (Dowd & Grant, 2006; Nunez, 2011). Culturally relevant teaching approaches are also
valuable for addressing issues that might hinder student success (Cejda & Hoover, 2011; Walker,
2015).
Faculty members must also have knowledge and understanding of the important role that
language plays in reading. For example, vocabulary is a primary factor in reading comprehension
and academic success for EL students, therefore all comprehension lessons should include an in
depth vocabulary component (Lopez, 2011; Wu, 2018).
Culturally relevant strategies are also important because Latino students place great value
on one-on-one time with faculty. Faculty and students can learn a great deal from each other
once a supportive and trusting relationship has been established because Latino students are
more open to faculty who are supportive and show concern for their needs (Cejda & Hoover,
2011; Villarreal & Garcia, 2016). One culturally relevant approach is for faculty to learn
something personal about each of their students and to share something personal about
themselves to the students. This time and attention are important to their success (Cejda &
Hoover, 2011; Scott & Normore, 2013). Information from one-on-one faculty-student
conversations can also produce important data for the implementation of the accelerated reading
courses.
Faculty members can learn culturally relevant teaching approaches through professional
development workshops that are focused on faculty who teach accelerated remedial level courses
to minority students. They can provide faculty with culturally relevant accelerated remedial
content that has shown to be useful in the classroom. Culturally relevant teaching is also useful
for building stronger faculty-student relationships (Fullam, 2017; Ruiz & Cantu, 2013).
Culturally relevant pedagogy includes the cultures, experiences, and languages that
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 21

students of color bring to the classroom and uses those elements to enhance engagement and
academic success (Cejda & Hoover, 2011; Lopez, 2011). Culturally relevant teaching helps
Latino students to better comprehend what they are learning, as they can make better connections
to the content. Lastly, it facilitates student engagement and promotes equity in student learning
outcomes (Fullam, 2017; Ruiz & Cantu, 2013).
Experimental learning strategies. An additional effective approach is the use of
experimental learning strategies that involve problem-solving techniques. This approach allows
students to access problems, determine what needs to be done, and formulate a successful
execution plan (Levin & Calcagno, 2008). Another effective experimental learning strategy is
combining accelerated remedial reading courses with labs and tutors (Scott & Normore, 2013).
Lessons taught using these strategies tend to be more memorable than lectures alone (Levin &
Calcagno, 2008; Scott & Normore, 2013). These strategies have proven to be helpful for
accelerated remedial classrooms (Hatch & Bohlig, 2016; Levin & Calcagno, 2008).
Learning communities. Learning communities are formed groups of students in the
same classroom that share academic goals and meet routinely to discuss and collaborate on
classwork. Learning communities are designed to keep students on track, and to promote student
integration into the social and academic aspects of campus life. The use of learning communities
has shown to have positive effects on accelerated remedial student outcomes (Hatch & Bohlig,
2016; Levin & Calcagno, 2008). Faculty need to know how to use learning communities in their
classrooms to show students connectedness between remedial courses and other subjects and
show how all of the courses contribute collectively to their overall learning.
Professional Development for Faculty
For faculty to be best positioned to incorporate the above promising practices,
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 22

professional development workshops are necessary for faculty to facilitate remedial student
success. The workshops must focus on an array of topics that are relevant to student success
(Cejda & Hoover, 2011; Walker, 2015). Professional development workshops that focus on the
inclusion of technology into accelerated remedial classrooms are useful (Gilroy, 2013; Scott &
Normore, 2013). These workshops would instruct faculty how to use various computer-based
remedial reading programs as a teaching tool in their accelerated courses (Gilroy, 2013; Scott &
Normore, 2013). Such workshops are valuable for faculty working with remedial students (Booth
et al., 2014; Cejda & Hoover, 2011). Professional development programs should also encourage
faculty to attend cultural events to get ideas about how to include culturally relevant lessons in
their classrooms.
Professional development workshops that are designed specifically for reading faculty
should include a component on second language acquisition, as this is important to the academic
success of the majority of the students enrolled in the reading courses at Dream Community
College. For example, a workshop that teaches culturally relevant reading approaches could
teach faculty about the importance of extensive reading for EL students. Extensive reading is an
effective approach for vocabulary enhancement with EL students. Students are instructed to read
a lot of literature within their English proficiency level and the material systematically gets more
challenging for the student over time (Suk, 2017; Wu, 2018). Such workshops provide high-
quality instruction for faculty and provide forums for faculty discussions about challenges and
ways to improve the academic success and transfer rates for Latino students.
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analytic framework provides one approach to
understanding the organizational and stakeholder performance goals and allows the researcher to
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 23

highlight any gaps between the performance goal and the level of performance. Once the gap is
identified, the framework primarily focuses on the assumed knowledge, motivational, and
organizational influences that have the potential to affect the outcome of the stakeholders’ goal
(Clark & Estes, 2008). This approach was used in this study to examine the possible influences
on meeting the stakeholder goal.
As theorized by Clark and Estes (2008), there are four types of knowledge and skills
influences that can affect the outcome of a goal. Those influences are factual knowledge,
procedural knowledge, conceptual knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge. Factual knowledge
involves knowing how to become familiar with a particular discipline and know how to address
problems within that discipline (Krathwohl, 2002; Pajares, 2006). Procedural knowledge focuses
on the subject-specific techniques used for accomplishing a goal. It also involves knowing when
to implement appropriate procedures (Krathwohl, 2002; Trevino & Defreitas, 2014). Conceptual
knowledge involves the interrelationships of basic elements within a larger structure that makes
it possible for them to work cohesively. Possessing conceptual knowledge means knowing about
categories, principles, theories, models, and structures (Krathwohl, 2002). Lastly, metacognitive
knowledge involves having general knowledge about cognition in general. It also involves self-
awareness and knowledge of one’s thinking. Possessing metacognitive knowledge means
knowing about strategies and cognitive tasks (Krathwohl, 2002; Trevino & Defreitas, 2014).
In addition to needing on the job knowledge, motivation is what drives people towards
their goals and it delegates how much effort people exert on the tasks that they execute. The
three key components of motivation are active choice, persistence, and mental effort.
Motivational principles to be considered when examining the gap analysis include self-efficacy
and goal orientation (Clark & Estes, 2008; Pajares, 2006). Lastly, there are organizational
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 24

influences on stakeholder performance that can be analyzed, such as workplace culture,
workplace processes, and workplace resources (Clark & Estes, 2008). These organizational
influences can either serve as barriers or facilitators to the end goal.
Each of these components of Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework was
addressed in terms of faculty knowledge, motivation, and the organizational requirements,
barriers, and support needed to meet their goal of implementing accelerated reading courses that
combined two levels of remedial reading courses into a single semester by December 2018. This
implementation was done in a high-quality way using some of the aforementioned promising
practices. In this section, I will first discuss the presumed knowledge and skills influences on the
stakeholder performance goal. The next section includes information on the possible
motivational influences on the achievement of the stakeholder goal. Lastly, the organizational
influences on the attainment of the stakeholder goal will be discussed.
Knowledge and skills. Knowledge and improvement of skills are essential for optimum
job performance. Employees who are not clear about their goals will not be able to solve
problems effectively when they arise in the future. Sufficient knowledge and ongoing
improvement of skills are needed to address future problems properly. According to Clark and
Estes (2008), information, training, and job aids are necessary when people seek to enhance their
knowledge. One form of information that can be useful is helping people to identify promising
practices for certain situations. Next, an employee who has already completed training may be
provided a job aid, such as a manual that contains instructions on implementing a procedure that
they have already been taught. Lastly, people can acquire “how to” skills and knowledge through
training and practice. Such training must be followed up by constructive feedback (Clark &
Estes, 2008). To improve one’s skills, additional education is a necessity. Education allows
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 25

people to obtain strategic, conceptual, and theoretical knowledge that might be helpful to them
when they are faced with future problems (Clark & Estes, 2008).
To gauge the degree to which the faculty members were knowledgeable about what was
needed to implement the accelerated reading courses, it was important to understand their
knowledge to determine whether it facilitated or hindered their ability to reach their goal. It is
important to assess the knowledge possessed by the stakeholders to achieve their goal (Clark &
Estes, 2008; McGlynn, 2014). This analytic approach served as the framework for this study and
for the succeeding literature review.
Using technology to facilitate active learning in accelerated remedial reading courses.
The inclusion of technology to facilitate active learning is an important component of an
effective accelerated remedial reading course implementation. To reduce the time spent in
remediation, many community college faculty members are integrating new teaching concepts
and technology to facilitate active learning for students to accelerate their remedial work (Gilroy,
2013; Scott & Normore, 2013). Such technology would include interactive online reading
comprehension and vocabulary learning programs. For example, students would read short
stories on the computer, then analyze the stories, create alternative endings, and print their
finished story. They would then reflect on what they have read and written and later share their
alternative endings with the class. This active learning activity requires the latest interactive
technology.
Accelerated reading faculty need to have procedural knowledge of how to facilitate active
learning by teaching students to use interactive computer-based remedial reading programs and
other technology. Faculty members can demonstrate this knowledge by explaining how the
programs work and how the programs are beneficial for helping their remedial reading students
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 26

become active learners. Faculty should view technology as a valuable teaching tool and know
how to support the meaningful use of technology in their classrooms (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-
Leftwich, 2010).
Culturally relevant teaching. To provide their accelerated remedial reading students with
the best possible learning outcomes and to build strong faculty – student relationships, reading
department faculty members needed to have procedural knowledge about how to use various
culturally relevant teaching approaches that promote inclusiveness in their classrooms. Faculty
also needs to have procedural knowledge of culturally relevant strategies that can be used for
building faculty-student relationships. Faculty need to know how to help students use their
linguistic resources. For example, it is important for faculty to assess their students’ funds of
knowledge and use that prior knowledge to help their students connect to the new things that
they are learning. Students’ engagement and reading acquisition skills can be linked to their
reading motivation by using culturally relevant materials that are based on cultural history,
values, themed community events, and ethnic traditions (Fullam, 2017; McCollin & O’Shea,
2005; Ruiz & Cantu, 2013). Faculty must have knowledge of their students’ cultural norms and
backgrounds in order to establish and maintain strong faculty-student relationships. Cultural
awareness and strategies for promoting inclusiveness have shown to help build and maintain
faculty-student relationships (Dowd & Grant, 2006; Nunez, 2011). Among the culturally relevant
reading material that can be used for teaching are books, newspapers, magazines, and reading
comprehension software.
Knowledge of experimental learning strategies for teaching accelerated reading
courses. Conceptual knowledge is an important influence for faculty who teach accelerated
reading courses. Faculty members who teach reading in an accelerated format needed to have
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 27

conceptual knowledge of experimental learning strategies that can be used in accelerated
remedial classrooms. Such strategies allow students to assess problems, determine what needs to
be done, and design an appropriate plan of execution (Levin & Calcagno, 2008; Scott &
Normore, 2013).
Faculty members can demonstrate their knowledge of these strategies by describing the
experimental learning strategies that they utilize in their classrooms. The reason that
experimental learning strategies are necessary is that all of the reading concepts that would be
taught in a traditional semester-long remedial reading course have to be covered within the time
allotted for an accelerated remedial reading course (Scott & Normore, 2013). To achieve this,
faculty have to use teaching approaches that may not ordinarily be used in traditional semester-
long remedial reading courses. For instance, experimental learning strategies such as coupling
accelerated remedial reading classes with labs or tutoring facilitate student success (Scott &
Normore, 2013). Faculty who use experimental learning approaches in their remedial reading
classrooms should have conceptual knowledge for teaching their students problem-solving
techniques, such as critical thinking, and formulating successful plans of execution (Levin &
Calcagno, 2008). Faculty members who have conceptual knowledge of experimental learning
approaches tend to have success with providing engaging and memorable lessons for their
students (Levin & Calcagno, 2008; Scott & Normore, 2013).
Knowledge of the strategies for forming learning communities. The faculty must also
have conceptual knowledge of strategies for forming learning communities for students who
were enrolled in accelerated reading courses. Faculty members who use learning communities in
their accelerated remedial classrooms would be expected to have their students collaborate on
projects that are focused on study skills and time management (Hatch & Bohlig, 2016; Levin &
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 28

Calcagno, 2008).
When conducting a gap analysis, it is important to ascertain whether or not the
stakeholders have the necessary knowledge to accomplish their goal (Clark & Estes, 2008;
McGlynn, 2014). Table 2 reflects four knowledge influences reviewed above that faculty needed
to reach their stakeholder goal of implementing accelerated reading courses that combine two
levels of remedial reading courses into a single semester.
Motivation. This portion of the literature review focuses on motivational influences that
relate directly to the accomplishment of the faculty’s goal. Motivation is what drives people
towards their goals and it delegates how much effort people exert on the tasks that they execute.
Active choice, persistence, and mental effort are the three key components of motivation. Active
choice is when people move from simply having intentions to pursue a goal to actually taking
action to achieve the goal. Persistence is the continuous movement towards the goal even when
faced with adversity and obstacles. Mental effort means creating innovative solutions to
problems and working smarter. When people are not motivated, they tend to lack persistence,
energy, and direction to get things accomplished (Clark & Estes, 2008, Pajares, 2006).
Self-efficacy Theory of Reading Faculty. Self-efficacy is the confidence that individuals
have in their abilities to successfully execute tasks. These beliefs influence how people think,
decide which goals to pursue, and how to strategize. Self-efficacy beliefs also influence the
amount of effort that is dedicated to endeavors, and one’s level of commitment to reaching their
goals. According to social cognitive theory, the foundation for human motivation, personal
accomplishment, and overall well-being stems from self-efficacy (Bandura, 2000; Pajares, 2006;
Pintrich, 2003). Early models of achievement motivation and behavior show that people try
harder and perform better when they expect to be successful (Bandura, 2000; Beer, Eisenstat, &
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 29

Spector, 1990; Pintrich, 2003).
Faculty members need to be confident in their ability to effectively use technology, such
as computer-based remedial reading programs to engage their students. Research suggests that
self-efficacy may be more significant than skills and knowledge for faculty who utilize
technology in their classrooms (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010).
Faculty must have self-efficacy for using various culturally relevant teaching approaches
that promote inclusiveness in their classrooms. Faculty must also have self-efficacy for using
strategies for building faculty-student relationships. Such teaching approaches are also valuable
sustaining faculty-student relationships. To become culturally aware of their students and learn
new approaches for building relationships with students, faculty should regularly attend
culturally relevant professional development workshops (Cejda & Hoover, 2011; Walker, 2015).
Participating in such workshops helps faculty to understand that culture matters, and it helps
build faculty confidence in their ability to maintain inclusiveness in their classrooms and to build
and sustain relationships with their Latino students (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010).
Faculty must demonstrate self-efficacy for using experimental learning strategies in their
classroom teaching approaches. The strategies should be creative, engaging, and prompt students
to access problems and formulate plans that will effectively address the problem. The lessons
should be confidently delivered in a way that is more memorable for the student than the lecture
would be alone (Levin & Calcagno, 2008; Scott & Normore, 2013). This is important because if
faculty are confident that their actions can produce the desired outcomes, they will persevere
when faced with challenges in the classroom.
Lastly, the faculty must have self-efficacy for forming learning communities within their
accelerated remedial reading classrooms. Faculty must be confident in their abilities to assess
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 30

accelerated remedial reading students’ academic goals and to group these students accordingly.
Faculty members must rely on their ability to show their students connectedness between various
courses. Faculty members should be confident in their ability to explain to students how all of
the courses contribute to their learning as a whole and how learning communities will have a
positive effect on their learning outcomes (Hatch & Bohlig, 2016; Levin & Calcagno, 2008).
People perform at a higher level, anticipate and tend to have successful outcomes when they are
confident in their abilities. Because self-efficacy influences outcomes, the opposite can be
expected by people who lack confidence in their abilities (Bandura, 2000; Pajares, 2006;
Pintrich, 2003). Research suggests that self-efficacy may be more significant than skills and
knowledge for faculty who utilize technology in their classrooms (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich,
2010).
Goal Orientation for Reading Faculty. Another assumed motivation influence is goal
orientation. Goal orientation involves the implementation of organizational structures that
promote personal and social responsibility. It also provides a safe, comfortable and predictable
environment (Pintrich, 2003; Yough & Anderman, 2006). Intrinsic motivation is highest when
people are engaged and enjoying their assigned tasks. People who take a personal interest in
enjoyable tasks will, in turn, assign intrinsic value to the tasks. Personal interest increases with
more intense engagement and mastery of the lessons. People who are motivated intrinsically
believe that persistent practice will produce greater results. In contrast, people whose goals focus
solely on performance are more likely to be extrinsically motivated, believe that their
competence is fixed, and are less likely to change (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003; Shraw &
Lehman, 2009; Trevino & Defreitas, 2014).
Student learning improves when the faculty displays a genuine interest and involvement
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 31

in the lessons (Pintrich, 2003). Their classrooms must be comfortable environments for
providing active learning approaches using this technology. Faculty must be intrinsically
motivated to achieve their goal by attending professional development workshops that are
focused on learning new ways to utilize the most current instructional technology for facilitating
active learning and academic growth (Pintrich, 2003; Yough & Anderman, 2006).
Similarly, faculty must also be motivated to discover and utilize new approaches to
culturally relevant teaching that promote inclusion and strategies for helping students with
second language acquisition. The formation of strong faculty-student relationships helps increase
the success rate of Latino students. Organic faculty-student interaction and an awareness of the
students’ beliefs and values is crucial for boosting academic performance, and for lowering the
attrition rates of students of Latino students (Cejda & Hoover, 2011; Dowd & Grant, 2006;
Nunez, 2011; Walker, 2015). Classroom environments that include active learning lessons about
the culture of Latinos make Latino students feel more welcome, included, and comfortable, and
that feeling of inclusiveness is essential to lessening the attrition rate of these students (Bensimon
& Dowd, 2009; Jenkins, 2010; Kaplan, 2009; McGlynn, 2012). As such, it follows logically that
faculty need to want to provide this culturally relevant instruction to their students.
Experimental learning strategies should be engaging for the students because students
will place great value on their tasks when they have a personal interest in the lessons. When
students are intrinsically motivated, they will begin to believe that practice leads to an
improvement in academic success (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003). It is important for the faculty to
maintain a goal orientation towards using experimental learning strategies because students
become motivated to work harder when they have intrinsic motivation and higher levels of
interest in their lessons (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003).
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 32

Lastly, faculty members need to be motivated to form effective learning communities in
their accelerated reading courses. Learning communities should be comfortable and supportive,
so that groups can meet routinely to collaborate on class assignments. Faculty members must be
motivated to form learning communities that are also focused on facilitating the academic and
social aspects of the classroom (Hatch & Bohlig, 2016; Levin & Calcagno, 2008). Faculty should
have a goal orientation for building and sustaining supportive relationships in the learning
communities in their classrooms. It is important for faculty to ensure to encourage personal and
social responsibility among their students, and to maintain a safe and comfortable learning
environment (Pintrich, 2003). Along with the assumed knowledge influences, Table 2 includes
the assumed motivation influences the faculty needed to reach their stakeholder goal of
implementing accelerated reading courses that will combine two levels of remedial reading
courses into a single semester.
Organizational Influences
This portion of the literature review focuses on organizational influences that are relevant
to the achievement of the faculty’s goal. Organizational influences are work processes and
material resources that can facilitate or prevent an employee’s achievement of performance
goals. Whenever work processes are changed, employee jobs are also changed, as they are
directly affected by the new processes. A combination of knowledge, skills, and motivation to
operate successfully are required for organizational goals to be achieved. However, work
processes will determine how the workers, equipment, and materials will interact, so that the
desired goal is achieved. If these processes are not aligned with the organizational goals, the
likelihood of failure is significantly increased. Deficient work processes will prevent workers
from having sufficient knowledge, skills, and high motivation that is needed to successfully
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 33

achieve organizational goals or close performance gaps.
While procedures instruct individuals how to execute tasks, processes inform people how
to use their individual skills to work collectively. To improve workplace performance, gaps must
be identified and processes must be redesigned to be more efficient. Workplace performance
gaps tend to be connected. It is also vital for organizations to provide material resources, such as
the necessary environment, supplies, materials, tools, specialized equipment, and current
industry related technology for workers if goals are to be achieved. The most important work
process is organizational culture, because it dictates how everyone within the organization will
work as a team to achieve the set goals (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Cultural Models. Culture is a system of the shared values, beliefs, goals, learned
processes, and a shared understanding of what the organization does. The cultural model is the
cultural profile that those within the organization would use to describe the organization.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), a cultural profile can be developed by aligning
organizational culture with organizational behavior, as well as with policies and procedures. The
cultural model is usually dependent on the cultural setting. The cultural setting is the type of
organization or industry that makes up the workplace. For example, the cultural model would be
different for a bank than it would be for a nightclub because the cultural settings are very
different (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Cultural model influences and training for faculty on technology for active learning.
Another assumed organizational influence was the need for training classes for faculty that teach
active learning approaches that could be used in their classrooms. The organization should
provide training classes that focus on active learning approaches for specific curricula. Such
training helps faculty members maintain student engagement in the classroom (Booth et al.,
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 34

2014; Walker, 2015). It is important for the organization to provide ongoing training for faculty
on the latest instructional technology that can be useful for active learning in the classroom.
Many of the students at Dream Community College come from families that are socio-
economically disadvantaged and, as a result, they do not have access to computers in their
homes. Therefore, it was vital for the reading department faculty members to optimize their time
with students on the computers and other instructional technology in the classroom and the
reading lab. Recent studies have shown that the use of technology in the classroom helps to
facilitate active learning and accelerates remedial work (Gilroy, 2013; Scott & Normore, 2013).
Through training classes, faculty members can learn how to properly use various forms of
instructional technology that are useful for facilitating active learning in the classroom. The
training classes can also provide information about the advantages, limitations, and changes in
specific technology. “How to” skills and knowledge can be acquired through training and
practice. This training and practice must be provided by the organization and would come in the
form of professional development workshops for the faculty, and it must be followed up by
constructive feedback from the administration within the organization (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Cultural model influences and training on culturally relevant teaching approaches that
promote inclusiveness. The organization should provide training classes for faculty members
that discuss cultural awareness. Culturally relevant training classes that promote inclusiveness
are essential for faculty to facilitate student success for students of color. Faculty need to use
culturally relevant teaching approaches in their remedial classrooms to promote inclusiveness
and to improve the academic success and transfer rates for Latino students (Cejda & Hoover,
2011; Walker, 2015). Culturally relevant training classes also provide an opportunity for faculty
to learn about issues that might be barriers to student success and retention (Booth et al., 2014;
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 35

Cejda & Hoover, 2011; Walker, 2015). One culturally relevant teaching approach for faculty is
to have their students use their funds of knowledge to apply abstract theory to issues regarding
social justice and community issues (Cejda & Hoover, 2011; Walker, 2015).
Research shows that culturally relevant training classes are valuable for teaching faculty
ways to minimize obstacles that might hinder student success (Cejda & Hoover, 2011; Walker,
2015). It is also the responsibility of the administration at Dream Community College to provide
culturally relevant training classes for faculty that focus on faculty-student relationship building.
The training classes should also focus on building, optimizing, and maintaining faculty-student
relationships. For example, the training classes had to make faculty aware that Latino culture
places value on the community more so than the individual.
Cultural setting influences and professional development workshops for faculty on
experimental learning strategies. The organization should provide professional development
workshops that encourage and teach faculty various experimental learning approaches. The
organization should be supportive of faculty’s efforts to utilize experimental learning strategies
in their classroom. It is also important for faculty to implement teaching approaches that are
engaging and facilitate success for accelerated remedial course students (Cejda & Hoover, 2011;
Scott & Normore, 2013). Workshops for faculty should focus on experimental learning strategies
for helping students learn how to assess problems and devise appropriate solutions or the
problems. Real-world scenarios can be used when teaching students problem-solving techniques.
Such strategies are effective for helping students to remember the lesson (Levin & Calcagno,
2008; Scott & Normore, 2013).
Cultural setting influences and professional development workshops focused on
forming learning communities. The organization needs to offer professional development
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 36

workshops that showed faculty members how large and small group activities can be used to
engage accelerated remedial students. Such workshops should provide information on teaching
students how to build skills within a real-world context and show faculty how to show students
connectedness between academic subjects. (Levin & Calcagno, 2008; Scott & Normore, 2013).
Cultural is difficult to influence, yet it has a powerful effect on performance and outcomes. The
organization needs to offer training classes and professional development workshops that
addressed the faculty’s topics of interest. Table 2 includes two cultural model influences and two
cultural setting influences.

REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 37

Table 2: Assumed Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences

Assumed Knowledge Influences Knowledge Type (i.e.,
declarative (factual or
conceptual), procedural, or
metacognitive)
Faculty need to know how to use technology to facilitate active
learning for students, how to use various culturally relevant
teaching approaches for promoting inclusion, culturally
relevant strategies for building faculty-student relationships.
Procedural

Faculty need to know various experimental learning strategies
and strategies that can be used to form learning communities
that will benefit ESL students in accelerated reading
classrooms.
Conceptual
Assumed Motivation Influences
Self-Efficacy:
Faculty need to be confident in their ability to use instructional technology to facilitate active
learning, various culturally relevant teaching approaches for promoting inclusiveness, culturally
relevant strategies for building faculty-student relationships, various experimental learning
strategies, and their ability to form learning communities that will benefit ELS students in
accelerated reading classrooms.
Goal Orientation:
Faculty need to be motivated to include instructional technology for active learning, various
culturally relevant teaching approaches for promoting inclusiveness, strategies for building
faculty-student relationships, various experimental learning strategies, and form learning
communities for ESL students in accelerated reading classrooms.
Assumed Organizational Influences
Cultural Model Influences:
The organization needs to provide training classes for faculty on the use of technology to
facilitate active learning for students, as well as training classes for faculty that focus on various
culturally relevant teaching approaches for promoting inclusiveness, culturally relevant
strategies that can be used for establishing and optimizing opportunities for faculty-student
relationships in accelerated reading courses.
Cultural Setting Influences:
The organization needs to provide professional development workshops that teach various
experimental learning strategies to faculty and workshops that teach faculty how to form
learning communities that will benefit ESL students in accelerated reading classrooms.

REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 38

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
A conceptual framework is the underlying structure or scaffolding of a study. It consists
of key concepts, theories, factors, and variables and explains the relationship between them about
to the study. It is also the perspective that the study comes from. The purpose of a conceptual
framework is to serve as a lens to study phenomena, and every study has one. (Maxwell, 2013;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). While each of the potential influencers has been presented above
independent of each other, they do not remain in isolation from each other. Figure 1 below and
the following narrative demonstrate the way that they interact with each other.

REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 39

Figure 1. Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Interactions

Dream Community College
Cultural Models and Settings
(Training classes that teach faculty to use technology
to facilitate active learning, and culturally relevant
teaching approaches. Professional development
workshops focused on experimental learning
strategies and forming learning communities.)
u
Faculty
(Procedural and conceptual knowledge,
as well as self-efficacy and goal
orientation for using technology to
facilitate active learning approaches,
various culturally relevant teaching
approaches, strategies for building
faculty-student relationships,
experimental learning strategies, and
strategies for forming learning
communities.)
By December 2018, the
reading department faculty
will implement accelerated
reading courses that will
combine two levels of
remedial reading courses into
a single semester.
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 40

Figure 1 represents the organization’s cultural settings and cultural models, as well as the
faculty’s knowledge and motivational influences. For the faculty to achieve their goal, there must
be ongoing interaction between the organization and the faculty. Figure 1 reflects the relationship
between the faculty’s knowledge, skills, motivation, and the organization with the faculty
situated within the organization. As outlined at the top of the blue circle in Figure 1, the
organization is responsible for providing professional development workshops for faculty. For
faculty to be effective teachers in the classroom, the organization must provide training classes
for faculty that focus on the use of technology to facilitate active learning approaches that can be
used for classroom instruction. The organization must also provide training classes for faculty on
various culturally relevant teaching approaches that promote inclusion, culturally relevant
strategies that can be used for building relationships with students, as well as workshops that are
focused on second language acquisition. In addition, the organization must offer faculty
professional development workshops that are focused on experimental learning strategies and
forming learning communities within the classroom. Without these supports, it is theorized that
faculty will not have the conceptual and procedural knowledge.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), information, training, and job aids are necessary for
those who seek to improve their knowledge or skills. To improve faculty skills, additional
education through professional development is necessary. Professional development provides
faculty with the strategic, conceptual, and theoretical knowledge that is helpful to them when
they are faced with problems in the classroom (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Within the smaller green circle of Figure 1 are the faculty’s specific knowledge, skills,
and motivations that were required to achieve the goal. The necessary knowledge and skills for
faculty are related to the use of technology to facilitate active learning in the classroom, various
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 41

culturally relevant teaching approaches, as well as culturally relevant strategies that can be used
for building faculty-student relationships and second language acquisition. The faculty members
also need knowledge about experimental learning strategies that could be used in their
accelerated remedial reading classrooms, as well as knowledge about forming learning
communities within those classrooms.
The motivation components are faculty self-efficacy for using instructional technology to
facilitate active learning for students, using various culturally relevant teaching approaches,
culturally relevant strategies that can be used for building faculty-student relationships and
second language acquisition, and using experimental learning strategies and forming learning
communities in their accelerated remedial reading courses. In addition to self-efficacy, faculty
members need goal orientation for including instructional technology for active learning and
various culturally relevant teaching approaches into the implementation of the accelerated
remedial reading courses. These knowledge, skills and motivational influences are positioned
directly below the organization’s cultural settings and models because they are directly affected
by each of them.
The solid blue downward arrow in Figure 1 represents the faculty’s movement towards the goal,
which is outlined in the lower yellow box of Figure 1. For the faculty to achieve their goal, the
organization must provide the faculty with specific training classes and professional
development workshops that will promote the growth of the faculty’s knowledge, skills, and
motivation. Professional development workshops need also to include motivational topics that
focus on self-efficacy and goal orientation. This is important because the organization’s
willingness to provide what the faculty need has an impact on whether the faculty will achieve
their goal of implementing accelerated remedial reading courses that will combine two levels of
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 42

reading courses into a single semester. The faculty’s knowledge, skills, and motivation also
affected their ability to reach their goal.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study is to identify what knowledge, motivation, and organizational
factors that shape the implementation of the accelerated reading courses. By reducing the
timeline for the completion of remedial reading courses, Latino reading students could progress
into transferable level English classes within a year.
This literature review focuses on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
related to achieving the faculty’s goal. The literature review also includes discussion on current
research about remediation for Latino students in higher education, discussion about promising
practices for accelerated remedial instruction in higher education, and discussion about the kind
of faculty training and professional development that was necessary. The literature suggests that
the training and professional development be provided by the organization.
Methodological Approach
A qualitative case study design is inductive, and is especially useful for evaluation in a
bounded organization. The rationale for using a qualitative methodological approach is that it
allows the researcher to use interviews to conduct in-depth analyses of the reading department
faculty’s knowledge and motivation as well as allows an exploration of the programs, processes,
and activities in this context. This method allows the researcher to gain a more thorough
understanding of the research problem. The case study design also requires researchers to collect
data over a sustained period, and various data collection methods can be used (Creswell, 2014;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The sample for this study was the three full-time faculty members in the reading
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 43

department (See Appendix A for more detail on the sample). The participants were asked a
series of open-ended questions about the problem, the assumed influences regarding the
knowledge and motivation of the faculty, and the organizational influences that they felt are
facilitators and/or obstacles to reaching the stakeholder goal. Interviews were intended to elicit
candid and in-depth responses from the participants. A lot of useful data can be gathered through
the interview process (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Full-time reading faculty were also observed to examine the implementation of the
accelerated remedial reading classes. Observations are also an effective method of data
collection because the observer can gain firsthand knowledge about behaviors and activities in a
natural setting (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Through observation, I was able to
gain further insight into the specific knowledge factors that were involved in the faculty’s
implementation of the accelerated remedial reading courses.
All of the information from the data collection was then integrated into the interpretation
of the overall results. The following section provides more detail on the study’s data collection
and instrumentation.
Qualitative Data Collection and Instrumentation
Qualitative data was gathered by conducting in-depth interviews with and observations of
the three full time faculty members. The information from this data collection effort was then
integrated into the interpretation of the overall findings.
Interviews
A semi-structured protocol allowed me to encourage participants to elaborate on their
responses. Questions were asked to help obtain data to address the study’s research questions.
All interviews took place in a small conference room located within the reading lab. I reserved
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 44

the times to use the conference room for the interviews so that there would be complete privacy
and no interruptions. Interviews were scheduled during a time when all full-time reading
department faculty members were on campus, which was during mornings and afternoons,
Monday - Thursday. Each participant was interviewed twice, one full interview with a follow-up
interview. Each participant’s initial interview lasted for one hour and each follow-up interview
lasted for one hour. A total of 6 hours was spent interviewing the participants.
At the beginning of the interview process, I distributed an information sheet about the
study to each participant. I explained to each participant that they would have an opportunity to
elaborate on their responses given the semi-structured nature of the interviews. The participants
were asked a series of open-ended questions about various components of the remedial reading
program, the remedial course sequence, cultural awareness, and their teaching practices. I also
asked about the organizational factors that either facilitated or inhibited their ability to
successfully implement the accelerated remedial reading course, with a specific focus on the type
of professional development they had received. These questions thus addressed the assumed
influences regarding the knowledge and motivation of the faculty, and the organizational
influences for reaching the goal.
Once all participants’ initial interviews had concluded, a follow-up one hour interview, as
previewed above, was conducted with each participant within two weeks. During the follow-up
interview, each participant had an opportunity to review the transcriptions from their first
interview and provide further clarification if necessary. The interviews were intended to elicit
candid and in-depth responses from the participants. A lot of useful data can be gathered through
the interview process (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). It was an appropriate method
for faculty to self-report what they knew and if they were motivated to use that knowledge as it
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 45

related to teaching remedial reading students.
Observation
Observations were also used as a method of data collection for this study. One week after
the initial interview, I observed each full-time faculty member’s remedial reading class for one
hour weekly over a four week period. A total of 12 hours was spent on classroom observations. I
arrived to each of the observed classes five minutes before the start time. Once the classes began,
I observed and took detailed field notes on how the faculty members interacted with their
remedial students, particularly their Latino remedial students. I also took detailed field notes on
the faculty members’ teaching approaches, activities, interactions between faculty and Latino
students, behaviors of the faculty member and Latino students, as well as notes about the
classroom setting. These observations were useful for supporting the responses that the
participants provided in the interviews. Observations are an effective method of data collection
because the observations take place in a natural setting. In particular, observations allowed me to
see how the faculty incorporates practices, such as technology for facilitating active learning,
culturally relevant teaching approaches, culturally relevant strategies for building faculty-student
relationships, experimental learning strategies, and forming learning communities, as highlighted
in the literature review above. Observations also help to support developing findings, which
means that they are useful for supporting the findings from the interviews. (Creswell, 2014;
Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Findings
The purpose of this study was to identify what knowledge, motivation, and organizational
factors shaped the implementation of the accelerated reading courses. It explained the faculty’s
goal of implementing accelerated remedial reading courses that would reduce the timeline for
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 46

completion, thus making it possible for Latino reading students to progress into transferable level
English classes within a year. This study also examined the faculty’s role as accelerated remedial
reading instructors, as well as the organization’s support of their role and the achievement of the
faculty’s goal.
As per the literature, the faculty needed knowledge of experimental learning strategies,
knowledge of how to form learning communities for English language learners. They also
needed knowledge of how to use technology to facilitate active learning for students and they
needed knowledge of how to use various culturally relevant teaching approaches to build faculty-
student relationships and to help students with second language acquisition. In addition, the
faculty needed self-efficacy and a goal orientation for using experimental learning strategies,
strategies that can be used to form learning communities, instructional technology to facilitate
active learning, and culturally relevant teaching approaches to build faculty-student relationships
and for helping students with second language acquisition in their accelerated remedial reading
classrooms. The following sections present the findings for this study and advance evidence for
assertions intended to address the study’s research questions.
Technology Use for Active Learning
The first finding is that all three participants agreed that technology is playing an
increasingly greater role in reading instruction. While they all stated that they could use a
computer for their basic needs at work, they did not feel confident in their abilities to utilize the
latest instructional technology to teach students in their accelerated reading classes. They all
expressed a need for ongoing training on the latest technology available for active learning
instruction. For example, Rosa stated,
I try to use technology to facilitate active learning in my classroom, but I would be more
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confident doing so with proper training on the latest instructional technology. I have often
thought that I needed help to find ways to use new technologies, such as social media to
teach active learning strategies and to engage students. Right now, I don’t know how to
do that. The college should invest in the newest instructional technology and provide
ongoing professional development workshops that teach faculty how to use the latest
technology for active learning.
Rosa’s response was connected to the assumed motivation influence self-efficacy. The faculty
need to be confident in their ability to use instructional technology to facilitate active learning
and Rosa stated that she would be more confident doing so if she had the proper training on the
latest instructional technology. Her response is also connected to the assumed organizational
cultural model influence. Rosa’s response that the faculty need the latest technology to facilitate
active learning for their students demonstrated that she was not aware that there are many free
multi-modal literacy tools that are available for reading instruction, such as Open Education
Resources (OER). OER resources include many types of educational materials that are in the
public domain and available for anyone to use free of cost. Among the available free OER
resources are textbooks, videos, interactive assignments, and projects. OER literacy tools can be
used to enhance and enrich reading instruction, as long as instructors model, demonstrate, and
build background knowledge while preparing students for reading. During two of my
observations of Rosa’s classroom, I noticed that the students were using the same two
instructional reading programs. There was very little variety in the content of the programs. The
reading department used two online reading programs. These two programs allowed the students
to practice their comprehension and vocabulary skills through a series of multiple choice
exercises. These observations showed that Rosa could benefit from using the available multi-
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modal materials and technology that OER has for active learning and student engagement in
reading. Rosa informed me that the students had become bored and subsequently disengaged
with using the same instructional technology for so long. Thus, there was a presumption that
different technology and materials would keep the students engaged. Such technology and
materials are available for free on OER and the faculty needs to be made aware of that.
When asked how confident she felt using the latest technology for active learning in her
classrooms, Lucy responded,
I like to make use of available technology that allows students to participate in ways that
they can engage with the world around them. Whether that be via videos, games,
threaded discussions, messaging, etc. This would help keep them engaged in the lessons
and they would interact with each other more in learning communities. The programs that
we are currently using do not have those features. Current students respond well when
provided tools they have used since childhood, in ways that serve the discipline and the
adult learner. I would like to learn how to use this type of technology in my classroom
and the college needs to provide professional development workshops that teach faculty
how to use these platforms.
Like Rosa, Lucy’s response showed that she also lacked knowledge about the available OER
literacy tools that are available. Her response is connected to the knowledge influences, because
she lacked knowledge about OER and according to her, she is well aware of the importance of
knowing how to use instructional technology for active learning strategies with her students. It is
also connected to the cultural model organization influence, because she stated that the
organization needs to provide professional development workshops that teach faculty how to use
this technology. Her response also addresses the research question about the interaction between
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 49

the organizational culture and context and the stakeholder knowledge and motivation as it relates
to meeting their goal of implementing the accelerated reading courses. Lucy’s response also was
supported by my observations of the available technology that the reading department uses for
instruction. She showed me the same two online reading programs that I had observed in Rosa’s
classroom. Lucy pointed out that neither of the programs includes videos, games, threaded
discussions, messaging, etc. These are the types of technology that she felt will facilitate active
learning for her students, yet it is not available at the college and the faculty is not trained how to
use the technology. This finding made it evident that there is a need for professional
development workshops that are focused on making faculty aware of the available zero cost OER
materials and instructional technology that can be used to facilitate active learning in reading
classes. The free OER resources include many of the features that Lucy desired for her students,
such as videos and games.
When asked about her confidence using instructional technology for active learning with
her students, Mary’s answer was very much aligned to the responses of Lucy and Rosa. Mary
reported,
I feel confident using the existing instructional technology that we have available because
we have used it for a long time. The instructional technology that we use in the reading
department is not the most current available. I’m not sure what the most current
instructional technology is for reading. I don’t feel confident using the latest technology
with my students because it is not available in our department and I simply do not know
how to use it. I do know that we need it and we need to be trained how to use it to help
our students. If we were to acquire the latest instructional technology, the college would
have to offer professional development or some type of training on how to use it. The
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training needs to be ongoing because technology is always changing.
Like Rosa and Lucy, Mary’s response addressed the research question about the interaction
between the organizational culture and the faculty’s knowledge and motivation as it relates to
meeting their goal of implementing the accelerated reading courses. The faculty members all
expressed that they have a lack of knowledge on the use of the most current technology to
engage students in active learning, because there is a lack of such technology and a lack of
training on how to use it. All three faculty members also lacked knowledge about the array of
available free resources that are available through OER.
On two of the occasions that I observed Mary’s classrooms, her students used the two
available reading computer programs to complete multiple choice exercises that focused solely
on comprehension and vocabulary. Within fifteen minutes of beginning their work on the
computers, several of the students seemed to become disengaged from their work. The students
did not appear interested in using the assigned reading programs on their desktop computers. For
instance, during both observations, at least three students pulled out their cell phones and
appeared to be scrolling on the screens when they should have been working on their desktop
computers. While these students used their cell phones to take intermittent breaks from their
assigned computer work, they all returned to the computer work within two to three minutes. I
did not observe any side conversations among the students during Mary’s classes. My
observations of Mary’s classrooms and the available instructional technology supported the
finding that the faculty lacks knowledge about the abundance of free OER resources that can be
used to facilitate active learning in their classrooms.
All three participants felt that they could keep their students better engaged if they had
access to the latest instructional technology, as well as knowledge and self-efficacy to use that
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technology in their classrooms. All three participants also shared the sentiment that the ongoing
technology training should be provided by the organization. There is a need for new instructional
technology, however that technology and other materials can be obtained through OER, which is
completely free. If OER technology and materials are used by the faculty for instruction, then the
costs to the organization would be eliminated and the faculty would immediately receive what is
needed to enhance active learning in their classrooms. The organization needs to provide
professional development workshops that make faculty aware of the available OER resources
and how to use what is available. This finding is consistent with Pintrich (2003) and Yough and
Anderman (2006), who advised faculty to attend ongoing professional development workshops
that are focused on learning new ways to utilize the most current instructional technology for
facilitating active learning, student engagement, and academic growth. This is also consistent
with Clark and Estes (2008) finding that “How to” skills and knowledge can be acquired through
training and practice. This training and practice must be provided by the organization and would
come in the form of professional development workshops for the faculty. Ongoing professional
development workshops with a focus on the latest technology would help them to become more
knowledgeable on how to use the technology in their classroom and better serve their students.
This finding supported the assumed influences for knowledge and organization. The faculty need
access to and knowledge about how to use the latest instructional technology and the
organization needs to supply that technology and provide the training for the faculty.
Culturally Relevant Teaching Approaches for Promoting Inclusiveness
A second finding is that all of the participants stated that culturally relevant teaching
approaches are important. However, only two of the three participants were using culturally
relevant approaches in their classrooms at the time of the study. The third participant expressed
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that she was not using such approaches, but would like to learn how to include them in her
lessons. She believed that she would be more motivated to use various culturally relevant
approaches if she knew how. Thus, she expressed that she did not have the procedural
knowledge to implement such strategies in her classroom and she lacked self-efficacy for using
the approaches. This finding is supported by Dowd and Grant (2006) who stated that it is
important for faculty to have cultural awareness of their students and to include culturally
relevant instructional materials. Doing so has positive effects on academic performance and it
helps to lessen the attrition rates for students of color (Cejda & Hoover, 2011; Walker, 2015).
When asked her self-efficacy for using various culturally relevant teaching approaches in her
accelerated remedial reading classes and how she maintains a culturally inclusive classroom,
Lucy responded,
While I make every effort to utilize culturally responsive methodologies, I am always
eager to learn more. I want to know how students learn in their homes. I’m curious about
whether or not they have elders who tell them stories, read, or sing to them. I don’t have
knowledge of those things, but I want to learn. I think that it is critical for students to see
themselves in the materials we provide for them from which to learn. I try to honor the
backgrounds and experiences of my students. Students learn in unique ways from their
families and some of those methodologies are culturally driven. I try to incorporate some
of these methods into my class activities. I also am mindful to include literature by
authors from different backgrounds, as well as news articles that are relevant to my
students’ backgrounds. One way that I am currently maintaining a culturally inclusive
classroom environment is by having my students bring articles about their homelands and
communities. I then use these articles as resources to teach outlining and other topics. I
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also teach and model respect for self and others within the classroom environment.
Lucy’s response addressed the research question about the faculty’s knowledge related to
meeting their goal of implementing the accelerated reading courses. Lucy admitted that she
lacked knowledge of various culturally relevant approaches. Her response showed a
connectedness to the assumed knowledge influence that faculty need procedural knowledge of
how to use various approaches before they can speak to their self-efficacy. Lucy continued her
response by stating,
I am comfortable including the culturally relevant approaches that I know, but I want and
need to learn more the newest and most effective approaches. I want to be motivated to
use new approaches. Our college used to hold a variety of workshops on teaching and
learning strategies that focus on cultural competency. Honestly, this is something that we
could use a lot more of. I believe that my own research on culturally responsive teaching
and cultural humility have helped more than the professional development workshops
that have been offered in the past. The organization should provide workshops that teach
faculty how to use the most promising culturally relevant approaches. Learning various
culturally relevant approaches would increase my self-efficacy for using them in my
classroom.
Lucy’s response about her lack of self-efficacy for using various culturally relevant approaches
addresses the research question that asked what the faculty’s motivation is related to meeting
their goal of implementing the accelerated reading courses. Her response is also connected to the
assumed self-efficacy motivation influence, which is that faculty need to be confident in their
ability to use various culturally relevant approaches to promote inclusiveness. Lucy’s students
were reading an abridged version of the biography of former slave and abolitionist Frederick
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 54

Douglas, and completing an accompanying worksheet with twenty prompts for discussion related
to the biography. Lucy explained that her culturally relevant resources are limited and the
Frederick Douglas biography would be followed by a biography about Mexican artist Diego
Rivera and that, too, would include a similar worksheet with discussion prompts. She explained
that using the biographies on people of color and having the students answer questions about the
reading was the only approach that she has been using. She further explained that she would like
to learn new approaches and would like to have self-efficacy for using the approaches with her
students. She went on to explain that she is hesitant to try using various culturally relevant
approaches without proper training, because she does not want to offend anyone. The examples
of the culturally relevant materials provided to me by Lucy and her explanation of why she does
not use various approaches support the assumed knowledge influence that faculty need to have
procedural knowledge of how to use various culturally relevant approaches to promote
inclusiveness.
In some ways similar to Lucy, and in other ways not, Rosa communicated how she uses
materials so as to teach in culturally relevant ways. When asked about her use of culturally
relevant approaches, Rosa’s response was,
I need to be more confident using culturally relevant approaches in my classes. Right
now, I am limited to novels that explore issues of race and gender. I would like to help
my students by using literature that explores other social differences. I maintain a
culturally inclusive classroom through my assigned literature selections for my students,
where they can better relate to the themes and characters. I’m sure that there are more
effective culturally relevant approaches that can be used and I would like to learn how to
use them and become confident using them. That training should absolutely be provided
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for faculty in professional development workshops. I cannot recall specific professional
development workshops offered at my campus that expressly promoted culturally
relevant teaching practices; however, there have been several guest speakers and
presentations on campus that celebrate a variety of cultures and experiences.
Rosa’s answer addressed the research question that asked about the faculty’s knowledge and
related to meeting their goal. Rosa said she lacked complete knowledge about various culturally
relevant approaches that can be used. Her response also addresses the research question about the
interaction between organizational culture and context and stakeholder knowledge. As Rosa
explained, the organization did not provide the necessary professional development workshops
that would teach the faculty various culturally relevant approaches that could be used to promote
student inclusiveness. This also shows a connectedness to the assumed cultural model influence,
which is that the organization needs to provide training classes for faculty that focus on various
culturally relevant approaches that promote inclusiveness. This finding was also supported by
Booth’s (2014) and Cejda & Hoover’s (2011) findings that culturally relevant professional
development workshops provide an opportunity for faculty to learn about issues that might be
barriers to Latino student success and retention rates. My observation of her classroom
corroborated her response. On the second and fourth occasions that I visited Rosa’s classroom,
her students participated in a reading circle. The reading circle consisted of the students taking
turns reading paragraphs from the biography about Diego Rivera that Lucy had mentioned would
be coming up in her class. Rosa stopped the students at different intervals during the reading to
discuss about the content. During the two observations of the Rosa’s reading circle, I noticed that
four to five students did not participate in the discussion portion. These students sat quietly and
listened to the other students’ perspectives on the reading. Rosa explained that the reading circle
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was good for culturally relevant critical thinking, but they don’t deviate from the discussion
questions that came with the book and she would like to learn more effective approaches to
prompting discussion that would engage all of her students. My observation of Rosa’s reading
circle sessions supported the fact that the faculty need to know how to use various culturally
relevant teaching approaches.
On the occasions that I visited the classrooms of the faculty members, only two of the
three faculty members actually used culturally relevant teaching approaches or materials. In
contrast to Lucy’s and Rosa’s responses about the use of culturally relevant approaches in the
classroom, Mary answered,
I am not sure that I use culturally relevant teaching approaches in my classes. I am
sensitive to cultural norms that may differ from mainstream “American” culture, but I
have not yet adjusted my teaching to accommodate these norms. I know that such
approaches are important, but I have avoided using culturally relevant teaching because I
have found that exposing students to material outside of their own experience is also very
important. Many times, culture is what is holding a student back from educational
success. Often, the low completion rate of Latino students has to do with the limitations
within their culture. Cultural ideas that limit the role of women in society, that encourage
alcohol consumption, that discourage higher education, etc. are powerful contributors to
how Latino students do in school and in life. So how does an instructor deal with these
powerful influences? That is what I would like to learn. I am not aware if any culturally
relevant professional development workshops have ever been offered. I have not ever
attended one, but I would go if the college offered them. I am interested in learning how
to use culturally relevant approaches since it has been shown to benefit student learning
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outcomes. I think that I could learn a lot about the cultures of all of my students.
Like Rosa and Lucy, Mary’s response shows that she wants to learn various culturally relevant
approaches that can be used for inclusion within her classroom. This is related to faculty’s
knowledge as it relates to meeting their goal. Mary said she is lacking knowledge of the various
approaches. In addition, her response is connected to the assumed cultural model organization
influence, which is that the organization needs to provide training classes for faculty that focus
on culturally relevant approaches that can be used for promoting inclusion within their
classrooms During my observation of Mary’s class, I noticed that 80% of her students were
students of color, but I did not observe her using any culturally relevant materials or approaches
with her students. Mary also responded that she believes that culture can hold students back from
educational success. She stated that Latino culture places limits on the roles of women in society,
encourage alcohol consumption, and discourages higher education. According to Paris and
Alim’s (2014) concept of culturally sustaining pedagogy, when the cultural norms are racist or
sexist, then those norms should be challenged, not celebrated. Mary was not challenging those
norms, but seemed to be more accepting of the fact that those norms exist. There is an obvious
need for faculty to know how to use culturally relevant approaches in their classrooms and to be
able to do so confidently. This finding is consistent with Cejda and Hoover’s (2011) finding that
faculty should incorporate culturally relevant approaches because students of color tend to be
more engaged and feel a sense of belonging when they see components of their culture included
in the lessons.
All of the participants recognized the importance of using a variety of culturally relevant
approaches to promote inclusiveness in their classrooms and expressed an interest in learning
how to incorporate such approaches in their classrooms. All three participants also agreed that
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the culturally relevant training should be provided by the organization. This finding directly
connects to the assumed cultural model influence, the organization needs to provide training
classes for faculty that focus on culturally relevant approaches that can be used for inclusion.
Building Relationships with Latino Reading Students
A common response among all of the participants was that they believed that faculty-
student relationships with students of color were important. This finding is consistent with Cejda
and Hoover’s (2011) finding that faculty-student engagement is the best predictor for Latino
student success and persistence. However, the faculty’s responses about their relationships with
specifically Latino students varied. All three faculty members felt that it was important, but they
did not all foster the same kinds of relationships. For example, when asked to describe her
relationship with Latino students, Lucy responded,
I believe I have a strong relationship with Latino students. I speak a very small amount of
Spanish and I have found that my willingness to “put myself out there” with my Spanish
skills can make them feel more comfortable experimenting with English. I try to
incorporate their experiences into new learning and they seem to pick up things a bit
easier. One strategy that I use to learn more about my students of color is to have them
journal weekly about life in their communities using assigned vocabulary words. Their
journal entries must include the reading concepts that have been covered in class. All of
the students have the option of sharing their journal entries with the class. Sometimes
their journal entries contain Spanish words that cannot be easily translated into English.
The students are then given the opportunity to explain the meaning of the words. My
students learn from me and I learn from them along the way too. I want to learn new
ways to better connect with my students.
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Lucy’s response demonstrated her efforts to form relationships with her Latino students. Having
them journal about their lives and share their stories in class shows her students that she has a
genuine interest in them as people. Her willingness to use her limited Spanish skills with her
students makes them feel more comfortable in her class and thereby they feel more welcome. It
also shows a connectedness to the assumed goal orientation motivation influence, which is that
faculty need to be motivated to include various culturally relevant approaches to build faculty-
student relationships. Lucy’s response that she wanted to learn new ways to connect with her
Latino students shows that she could benefit from culturally relevant workshops that focus on the
values, beliefs, and cultural norms for Latinos. The fact that Lucy needed to learn about her
students’ culture shows that she lacked sufficient procedural knowledge about the various
culturally relevant approaches that can be used to form relationships with her Latino students.
This is connected with the assumed procedural knowledge influence that faculty need to know
culturally relevant approaches to build faculty-student relationships. Lucy’s desire to be
confident using what she learns in her classroom shows a connection to the assumed self-efficacy
motivation influence. Lucy’s response that she needed to learn various culturally relevant
teaching approaches and my observations of her class address the research question about the
faculty’s knowledge and motivation related to meeting their goal of implementing the
accelerated reading courses. The need for culturally relevant training was supported by my
observations of her class. On my second visit to Lucy’s class, she was helping one of her Latina
students edit her journal entry and several times during their conversation Lucy spoke some
Spanish. The student appeared to appreciate this, as she was smiling and responded to Lucy in
Spanish and then in English. During another classroom observation, Lucy asked questions about
the students’ experiences that they shared in their journal entries. Although she showed a
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 60

genuine interest in what they had written, she asked all of the students the same questions about
their journal entries. In-depth knowledge of Latino culture helps faculty members to be more
approachable, engaging, encouraging, and understanding of Latino student problems and
experiences (Nunez, 2011; Verdugo, 1995). For example, in-depth knowledge of Latino culture
would help Lucy form more focused questions about the journal entries of her Latino students
and strengthen her relationship with them. Lucy’s response is also connected to the assumed
cultural model organizational influence, which is that the organization needs to provide
culturally relevant training classes for faculty, so that they can gain knowledge and confidence
about using the culturally relevant strategies that are taught.
Much like Lucy, Rosa described her efforts to connect with her students and reported that
her relationship with Latino students was good. She said,
With all students, I make a conscious effort to find ways to connect with them as
people, and not just as teacher-student. I try to make genuine connections, which
celebrates differences. For instance, I often tell my students stories about my own
experiences as a student. I let them know that I can relate to what they are going through
and that they are not alone in how they are feeling. These conversations seem to help
remove existing barriers and they begin to see me as a person instead of just as a teacher.
This has helped me build trust with many of my students of color. I would definitely like
to learn more techniques for building relationships with my Latino students. They are the
majority of my students here.
Like Lucy’s response, Rosa’s response was connected to the same assumed knowledge and
assumed cultural model organization influences. Her response that she would like to learn new
techniques for building relationships with her Latino students, shows that she also lacked
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procedural knowledge in that area. It also addressed the research question about what knowledge
is related to the faculty’s goal of implementing the accelerated reading courses. This finding is
also connected to the cultural model organizational influence, which states that the organization
needs to provide culturally relevant training classes for faculty to learn various approaches that
can be used for building faculty-student relations.
Rosa’s response was also supported by my observations of her classroom. Throughout
her lectures, she told the class anecdotes about how she personally related to the topics that were
being discussed. She also encouraged them to speak about their own experiences. The students
seemed to enjoy the open forum setting for discussion that Rosa created. This was evidenced by
many of the students relating stories about their own experiences and asking each other probing
questions about what was being discussed. There was also laughter from all of the students at
various times during their discussion. The students provided information about their lives that
Rosa could use to establish and maintain relationships with them if she had the proper training to
do so. It was clear that Rosa was making an effort to connect with her Latino students.
In stark contrast, when asked about her relationship with Latino students, Mary
responded,
My relationship with Latino students is not different from my relationship with all of my
other students. It might be assumed that because I am Latino, my relationships would be
closer or more interactive. Honestly, I may not be as empathetic to Latino students
because of my own life experience. I often get frustrated with these students. I think, “I
did it, why can’t they?” As a first generation student, my parents were immigrants, I
understand the culture, economic and sociological barriers towards higher education, but
I also understand the enormous opportunities available. I would be interested in learning
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how to build stronger relationships with all of my students, not just the Latino ones.
Mary’s response that she is interested in learning how to build stronger relationships with all of
her students and not just her Latino students demonstrates that she is advancing a colorblind
ideology. A colorblind ideology is the downplaying of racial differences and a disregard for the
inequalities that exist between races. Teachers who have adopted a colorblind ideology tend to
use fewer inclusive practices in their classroom (Aragón, Dovidio, & Graham, 2017). Mary’s
response that she is interested in learning how to build stronger relationships with all of her
students also shows that she is not opposed to learning approaches that could help her form and
maintain relationships with Latino students. This response reflects that Mary lacks motivation to
use knowledge of culturally relevant approaches that can be used for building relationships with
Latino students specifically. Therefore, she would benefit from proper training on the inequitable
ways in which Latino students have fared in their educational trajectories. Her response and my
observation of her class addressed the research question about what the faculty’s knowledge and
motivation are in relation to meeting their goal. Her responses are also connected to the assumed
procedural knowledge influence, which is that the faculty need to know how to use culturally
relevant approaches to build faculty-student relationships. Mary’s lack of motivation to build
relationships specifically with her Latino students is connected to the assumed goal orientation
motivation influence, which states that faculty need to be motivated to use culturally relevant
strategies for building relationships with students.
The finding that Mary lacks both knowledge and motivation for building relationships
with Latino students was supported by my four observations of her classroom. At no time during
my observations of her classes did Mary spend any one-on-one time with any of her students.
Cejda and Hoover (2011) found that Latino students value one-on-one time with faculty once a
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 63

supportive relationship is established. Although Mary speaks, reads, and writes Spanish fluently,
I never observed her communicating with any of her students in any language other than English.
This is an issue, because according to Nunez (2001), Latino faculty members often serve as
bridges between home and campus for Latino students. When Latino faculty members address
their Latino students in Spanish, it creates a more welcoming learning environment. This type of
Latino faculty-Latino student relationship is necessary, because it has positive effects on the
academic performance, as well as the attrition rates of these students (Nunez, 2011; Verdugo,
1995; Zurita, 2005). During my second observation of Mary’s class, she had all of her students
divide into groups of five and they worked together on a joint writing assignment. One of the
groups seated nearest me was comprised of five students who all spoke fluent Spanish and
varying degrees of English. While working in the group, they communicated with each other
solely in Spanish. While working on the assignment, one of her Latino students from the group
asked for clarification about the assignment. Everyone from the group looked at Mary and
listened to her response. Some of the students were still confused. This was evident because one
of the students in the group began to explain Mary’s instructions to the others in Spanish. While
she elected not to address the students in Spanish, it was evident that it would have been more
beneficial for the students if Mary had explained the assignment in Spanish. This also made it
evident that Mary could benefit from professional development workshops that would teach her
strategies for better serving her Latino students. My observation of Mary’s interaction with that
group of students made it apparent that Mary did not understand that this was an issue of equity.
This is substantiated by Dowd’s (2007) finding that equal resources are not equitable when
academic achievement gaps are correlated with race or ethnicity. Students who have greater
educational needs require greater resources in order to academically achieve at the rates equal to
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students with fewer needs. Approaches and policies that are suitable for White middle-class or
affluent students may be detrimental to Latino students or any students from lower
socioeconomic backgrounds. This finding is also supported by Dowd’s (2007) finding that it
matters how instructors and students interact and use resources. This finding also demonstrates
that Mary did not have knowledge about the detriments that can result from advancing a
colorblind ideology. This finding is connected to the assumed cultural model organizational
influence, because the organization needs to provide training for faculty that focus on culturally
relevant strategies that can be used for building and maintaining faculty-student relationships.
Learning the Latest Experimental Learning Strategies
The next finding is that all three participants agreed that experimental learning strategies
are necessary for student engagement and were important contributors to the academic success of
the students in their accelerated remedial reading classes. While all three participants reported
that they had used various experimental learning approaches in their classrooms throughout their
teaching careers, all three participants also felt that they would benefit from ongoing professional
development workshops that focused on the latest experimental learning strategies for
accelerated reading classrooms. This suggested that the faculty members felt they lacked
knowledge about the latest experimental learning strategies. For example, Lucy stated,
I’ve found that if my experimental learning strategies begin to feel stale to me, they
probably are becoming stale to my students as well and they will soon begin to disengage
in the lessons. This is when I’d like to have something new to try. The organization
should provide the workshops.
Lucy’s response suggested that she had knowledge of how to do the work, but wanted to learn
new ideas. She felt she lacked conceptual knowledge about the latest experimental learning
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strategies. This finding is connected to the assumed conceptual knowledge influence, which is
that faculty need to know experimental learning strategies. Lucy’s expressed desire to try
something new with her students showed a connectedness to the assumed goal orientation
motivation influence, which is that faculty need to be motivated to include experimental learning
strategies. Lucy’s response was also connected to the assumed cultural setting organizational
influence, which states that the organization needs to provide professional development
workshops that teach experimental learning strategies to faculty.
Her response was also supported by my observations of her class. There were several
instances during each of my four visits where some of her students became disengaged with the
lesson while Lucy was using an experimental learning strategy. On one occasion, the assignment
was for each student to create a detailed job posting that they would exchange with another
student in a later class. Each student would then write a detailed response to the job posting,
highlighting the reasons that they were a qualified candidate for the job. Two of her students
appeared to start texting on their cell phones and having a conversation with each other. I also
noted that the same job posting experimental learning strategy was being used three of the four
times that I observed Lucy’s class. It appeared to be a continuous assignment. The length of the
assignment indicated to me that Lucy had limited conceptual knowledge of various experimental
learning strategies. The fact that Lucy did not use more than one experimental learning strategy
during any of my observations, made it evident that she needed training that focuses on the latest
experimental learning strategies. This helped to further show the connectedness to the assumed
conceptual knowledge influence. It also helped to show a relation to the assumed cultural setting
organizational influence. The organization needs to provide the necessary training.
When asked about her use of the latest experimental learning strategies, Rosa’s response
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was similar to Lucy’s in some ways and very different in others. Her response was,
In my classrooms, I use practices that involve whole-group instruction, guided practice,
and independent practice, as well as conceptualized reading instruction. I am not really
confident implementing experimental learning strategies in my classes, because I do not
have enough knowledge about the current experimental learning strategies that can be
used specifically for reading. I would be interested in learning more about the latest
strategies. I also want to learn how to evaluate if those strategies are benefiting student
success. Our college should provide the workshops for faculty.
Rosa’s response was similar to Lucy’s, because they both expressed that they would like
to learn the latest experimental learning strategies. By stating that she would like to learn the
latest experimental learning strategies indicated that Rosa lacked knowledge of such strategies.
Her response addressed the research question about faculty’s knowledge as it relates to meeting
the goal of implementing the accelerated reading courses. The major difference between my
observations of Lucy’s and Mary’s classes was that while Lucy only demonstrated one
experimental learning strategy, Rosa used at least three experimental learning strategies. During
each of my four visits to her classroom, I observed her teaching her students how to create
alternative endings to a short story that was read aloud in class. This assignment was completed
by the students in groups of five. During one class observation, Rosa instructed her students to
participate in role-playing for a short story that they were reading from the class textbook.
During my final observation, her students played a game that would help them to better
understand their vocabulary words. The class was divided into two teams and then Rosa would
read a definition aloud and the first team that could guess the corresponding vocabulary word
would earn a point. The team with the most points at the end of the game would win. Rosa later
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explained to me that she has been rotating the same three experimental learning strategies for
years, because she does not have knowledge of the latest strategies. It was evident that Rosa’s
conceptual knowledge of current strategies was lacking and she needed to learn the latest
experimental learning strategies that can be used to teach accelerated reading students. Rosa’s
response and my observations of her class helped to address the research question about what the
faculty’s knowledge and motivation are in relation to meeting their goal of implementing the
accelerated reading courses. It also addresses the research question about the interaction between
organizational culture and context and the faculty’s knowledge and motivation as it relates to
meeting their goal. Like Lucy, Rosa’s response and my observations of her classroom are linked
to the assumed cultural setting organizational influence, which is that the organization needs to
provide the workshops that teach the faculty experimental learning strategies. When asked if she
would benefit from professional development workshops that focused on experimental learning
strategies, participant Mary responded,
I would like to attend professional development workshops and learn about new
experimental learning strategies that can be used for student engagement. I think that
learning new strategies will help improve student learning outcomes. The workshops
would be beneficial to our department and our students, so the college should provide the
training for faculty.
Mary’s response was very much aligned to the responses of Lucy and Mary in that she felt there
was a need for workshops that would teach faculty the latest experimental learning strategies.
Her response was also supported by my observations of her classroom. Each class began with a
thirty minute lecture and was followed up by activities that the students worked on alone or in
groups for the next thirty minutes. Much like the students observed in Lucy’s class, the students
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in Mary’s class did not appear to be completely engaged in the activities. There were several
instances where students pulled out their cell phones and appeared to be texting. At least four of
the students were engaged in conversations not relevant to the lesson with their classmates.
While it was evident that Mary had some conceptual knowledge of some experimental learning
strategies, she lacked knowledge about the most current experimental learning strategies, such as
creating surveys, narratives, simulations, various games, focused imaging, which involves
memory activities. The workshops would make it possible for the faculty to gain the in-depth
conceptual knowledge about the latest experimental learning strategies. The faculty would also
gain motivation to use the strategies in their classrooms by sharing ideas with fellow instructors
in attendance. The workshops would provide a forum for faculty discussion about what works
and what does not work in the classroom. Like Lucy’s and Rosa’s responses, Mary’s responses
and my observations of her class helped to address the research question about what the faculty’s
knowledge and motivation are in relation to their goal of implementing the accelerated reading
courses. Mary’s response that the college should provide the training for faculty also helped to
address the research question about the interaction between organizational culture and context
and the faculty’s knowledge and motivation as it relates to meeting their goal.
The participants responses are supported by the Levin and Calcagno (2008) and Scott and
Normore (2013) findings that faculty members who have conceptual knowledge of experimental
learning approaches tend to have success with providing engaging and memorable lessons for
their students. All of the faculty members needed professional development workshops that
focus on teaching faculty the newest experimental learning strategies for accelerated reading
classrooms and agreed that the organization should provide the workshops. This finding was
connected to the assumed conceptual knowledge influence, which is that the faculty need to
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know various experimental learning strategies. Because the faculty lacked knowledge of the
latest experimental learning strategies, they could not confidently use such strategies in their
classrooms and that will have an effect on their self-efficacy. This is linked to the assumed self-
efficacy motivation influence. Because all of the faculty were using the experimental learning
strategies that they did know and had a desire to learn the latest, it showed a link to the assumed
goal orientation motivation influence. A connection to the cultural setting assumed
organizational influence was made evident because all three of the participants stated that the
organization should provide the necessary training. This demonstrates a connectedness between
all three assumed influences.
Forming Learning Communities for Accelerated Reading Students who are English
Language Learners
Approximately 65% of Dream Community College’s students identify as Latino and for
many of those students, English is a second language. The fifth finding is that all three of the
participants agreed that lack of proficiency in the English language can be a major barrier to the
success of comprehending text in English. The accelerated format of the reading courses make
this even more of a challenge for ELS students. The participants all felt that learning
communities were an effective way to address this problem. The participants all also agreed that
it is important for faculty to know how to properly group students with a shared first language
together with the intent of having the students with the strongest English language skills support
the students with the developing English language skills. When asked about her knowledge and
motivation for forming learning communities that will benefit her English language learners in
an accelerated format, Mary stated,
Knowing how to speak and write the English language is very important when students
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are working to improve their reading skills. It is also necessary for students to be familiar
with the social norms and protocols of the “American” English experience. Because it is
important for English as a Second Language (ESL) students to become familiar and
comfortable with the social norms of our culture, learning communities can provide the
opportunities for students to experience these norms and learn from each other. Often
ESL students are insulated from the rest of society outside of their homes and immediate
community. This results in these students being blocked from the needed exposure to the
English language outside of the classroom. I would like to learn new ways of forming
effective learning communities for these students in my accelerated classrooms. I would
also like to be motivated to try new strategies for forming learning communities and learn
how to pass that motivation on to my students, so that they can better support one
another.
Mary’s response that she would like to learn new ways of forming learning communities that
will benefit her ESL students, and that she would like to be motivated to try new strategies shows
that she lacked knowledge and motivation. This helps to address the research question about
what the faculty’s knowledge and motivation are in relation to meeting their goal of
implementing the accelerated reading courses. The fact that she lacked both knowledge and
motivation shows a link to the assumed conceptual knowledge influence, which is that faculty
need to know strategies that can be used to form learning communities that benefit ELS students
in accelerated reading classrooms.
Mary’s response was also supported by my observations of her classroom. During my
third visit to her classroom, I noted that she divided her students into groups of four or five
students and instructed the students to work together on an assigned task, which involved
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analyzing a story, reflecting on the most important points from the story and forming their own
questions about the story. There was a concerted effort among the students to discuss the
assignment and to come up with strategies for completing the assignment. I also observed that
some of the students in each group were providing assistance to those with lesser English
language skills. For example, a few of the students had discussions about the assignment in
Spanish. The students with stronger English language skills were supporting the students with
developing language skills. There were moments of silence in each group and a few times when
some of the students appeared to not be engaged in the assignment, as was evidenced by their
glances at their cell phones. In spite of these distractions, they were all ultimately able to support
their group enough to complete the assigned task. It is characteristic of a learning community to
include supporting group members, sharing ideas, exchanging feedback with group members,
and working together to complete assigned tasks. Despite the instances of disengagement, the
learning community groups that I observed in Mary’s class seemed to embody these
characteristics. This was evidenced by the relevant questions and opinions that the students were
able to form about the story and read aloud to the class. My observation of Mary’s class made it
evident that she needs knowledge and motivation for utilizing new strategies for forming
engaging learning communities. That fact that several of the students became disengaged while
they were supposed to be focused on the assignment within the learning community shows that
Mary needs to learn how to form learning communities that will sustain the focus and
engagement of her students. She would benefit from professional development workshops that
focused on providing this for faculty.
Much like Mary, Rosa acknowledged the important roles that reading and comprehension of the
English language play in academic success. When asked about her knowledge and motivation for
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forming learning communities for English language learners, Rosa responded,
I don’t teach ESL specifically, but I do know that language acquisition is important to
student success, as reading comprehension and vocabulary are major cornerstones of
written communication and critical thinking. Students have to know how to support one
another and maintain unity in order for learning communities to be effective. As an
instructor, I have to know how to teach my students how to support each other. Learning
communities, which include reading and study skills are important for all students’
understanding of content and reading comprehension strategies. I do not know how to
form them to achieve better outcomes. We need for the college to provide ongoing
professional development workshops that motivate and teach us different ways to form
and manage learning communities for English language learners. I would like for my
students to read and analyze a novel within the context of a learning community. The
workshops could teach me how to form this and make it engaging. I want to make sure
that none of the curriculum is lost in the acceleration process.
Rosa’s response that she did not know how to form effective learning communities to achieve
better outcomes and that she would like for the college to provide professional development
workshops that motivate and teach faculty different ways to form and manage learning
communities for English language learners helped to address two of the research questions. It
indicated what the faculty’s knowledge and motivation are in relation to meeting their goal of
implementing the accelerated reading courses. It also addressed the research question about the
interaction between organizational culture and context and the faculty’s knowledge and
motivation as it relates to meeting their goal. Rosa’s response that she lacks knowledge of how to
form an effective learning community also shows a connection to the assumed conceptual
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knowledge influence, which is that faculty need to know strategies that can be used to form
learning communities that will benefit ESL students in accelerated reading classrooms. Rosa’s
response that she would like to attend workshops that will motivate her to use what she learns in
the workshops shows a connection to both the assumed self-efficacy and the assumed goal
orientation motivation influences, which state that faculty need to be confident and motivated to
form learning communities that will benefit ESL students in accelerated reading classes. Rosa’s
statement that she would like to receive her training via professional development workshops
shows a connection to the assumed cultural setting organizational influence, which is that the
organization needs to provide professional development workshops that teach faculty how to
form learning communities that will benefit ESL students in accelerated reading classrooms.
Portions of this finding were further evidenced by my first observation of her classroom. When
Rosa’s students arrived for class, they immediately began to move their desks to form groups of
four and five. The students then removed an assigned novel from their backpack and each took a
turn reading a passage from the novel. After each passage was read, the group would have a
short discussion about the reading and each student took notes during the discussion. Much like
the students in Mary’s class, there were times when some of Rosa’s students appeared to be
disengaged with the reading and the discussion. This was evidenced by their gazing around the
room and intermittent stares out the window. There were also some positive instances where
some of the students supported their English language learner classmates by speaking Spanish in
their groups. This was characteristic of an effective learning community. While the students were
supporting each other by participating in the group assignment, they could have been more
supportive had they remained engaged in the assignment for the duration of the class time. This
shows that Rosa lacked sufficient knowledge of how to form learning communities that will
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sustain the focus and engagement of her students. Like Mary, Rosa would clearly benefit from
professional development workshops that teach faculty new strategies for forming engaging and
supportive learning communities for English language learners. Although Rosa stated that she
would like to attend professional development workshops that motivate faculty to form effective
learning communities, she appeared to be motivated to make the learning communities in her
classroom work.
Like Mary and Rosa, Lucy placed importance on English language acquisition and
proficiency as it relates to student success. When asked about her knowledge and motivation for
forming learning communities for English language learners, Lucy answered,
Reading requires a level of language acquisition in order to make meaning. Phonetic
awareness can help a learner of English as a second language to say words, and to read
the words, but without comprehension, the student will become frustrated. A well-
developed learning community allows students to support each other, learn from each
other, and to develop some of the social and political capital needed to succeed in a U.S.
college and workplace. I would like to learn new approaches for forming learning
communities in my classrooms.
According to Hatch & Bohlig (2016) and Levin & Calcagno (2008), learning communities are an
innovative concept, which is designed to promote academic and social integration through
supportive group collaboration. Lucy’s description of an effective learning community bears
those characteristics, so this shows that she understands what a learning community is. Her
response that she would like to learn new approaches for forming learning communities shows
that she perceived herself as lacking knowledge of the various ways that effective learning
communities can be formed. This helps to address the research question about what the faculty’s
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knowledge is in relation to meeting their goal. It also shows a connection to the assumed
conceptual knowledge influence, which is that the faculty need to know how to form learning
communities that will benefit ESL students in accelerated reading classrooms.
Lucy’s response was further supported by my last observation of her class. During this
observation, her twenty-four students were divided into groups of four and five. Just as in Rosa’s
class, Mary’s students were reading and discussing an assigned novel in groups. In one group,
some of the students assisted others by translating and explaining some of the content of the
reading in Spanish. This appeared to be useful for helping the English language learners to better
comprehend the reading and the perspectives of other students in the group, as they were
nodding in agreement, taking notes, and participating in the group discussion. While this
approach to forming a learning community appeared to be effective, it was apparent that Lucy
and her students would benefit from her participation in professional development workshops
that would teach her to use new strategies for forming learning communities.
While all of the faculty members used some form of learning communities in their classes, there
was a shared desire among all three of the participants for professional development workshops
that focused on motivating and teaching faculty to use new strategies for forming learning
communities for English language learners. Levin and Calcagno (2008) and Villarreal and
Garcia (2016) explained, the language barrier and failure to do well in remedial classes causes
many Latino students to become frustrated and drop out. English language learners need learning
communities that are supportive, motivating, and engaging. The evidence gathered during the
interviews and observations support the notion that the faculty need to be motivated and know
how to form such learning communities. The faculty would benefit from attending conferences
or on campus professional development workshops with such a focus. Funding for the faculty to
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attend such conferences should be provided by the organization. This helps to address the
research question about what the interaction is between organizational culture and context and
the faculty’s knowledge as it relates to meeting their goal. It also connects to the assumed
cultural setting organizational influence, which is that the organization needs to provide
workshops that teach faculty how to form learning communities.
Solutions and Recommendations
The following section discusses the knowledge, motivation, and organization influences
and their recommendations based on the influences that were mentioned most frequently in
reference to achieving the stakeholders’ goal during informal interviews and supported by the
literature review from Clark and Estes (2008). These recommendations and specific examples
are reflected in Table 3 below.

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Table 3: Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Recommendations and Specific Examples
Recommendations Specific Examples
The organization should provide professional
development workshops that make faculty
aware of the available teaching materials and
technology that the Open Education Resources
(OER) website provides.
Faculty would be made aware of OER
resources, such as textbooks, curricula, syllabi,
lecture notes, assignments, tests, projects,
audio visual, and animation. The training
would also provide information about the
advantages, limitations, and changes with the
specific OER resources and technology.
The organization would provide faculty
members with a series of culturally relevant
professional development workshops or
funding to attend teaching conferences that
focus on promoting inclusiveness within the
classroom.
Faculty can be taught how to learn about your
students through informal interviews, how to
use inclusive language in the classroom, how
to avoid generalizing behavior in the
classroom, and how to include positive images
from various cultural backgrounds in the
lessons.
The organization should provide the faculty
with professional development workshops or
funding for faculty to attend teaching
conferences that have a focus on culturally
relevant approaches for building relationships
with students of color.
Workshops would focus on strategies for
establishing relationships with first generation
Latino students, such as communicating with
them in their first language. Another workshop
would focus on teaching faculty how to form
learning stations that allow students to play
games, or read and analyze culturally relevant
current event articles.
The organization should provide faculty with
professional development workshops that
discuss the newest experimental learning
strategies that can be used in accelerated
reading classrooms. It is also recommend that
the reading department faculty meet at least
twice per month to discuss what experimental
strategies are and are not working with the
students in their accelerated reading classes.
The workshops would teach faculty how to use
experimental strategies such as, the use of
narratives, conducting experiments,
simulations, games, storytelling, focused
imaging, and role playing.
The organization should provide faculty
members with professional development
workshops that give specific instruction on the
most promising strategies for forming and
managing learning communities for English
language learners in accelerated classrooms. It
is also recommended that the faculty form their
own professional learning communities.
In the workshops, faculty would learn effective
ways to provide exposure to English and how
to use scaffolding to form learning
communities. In the professional learning
community, a group of faculty members would
meet regularly to share their experiences and
expertise, and to collaborate to improve their
teaching skills.

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Knowledge Recommendations
Procedural knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. Procedural
knowledge focuses on the subject-specific techniques used for accomplishing a goal (Krathwohl,
2002; Trevino & Defreitas, 2014). It also involves knowing when to implement appropriate
procedures (Krathwohl, 2002; Trevino & Defreitas, 2014). The faculty lacked access to the
newest instructional technology, as well as the procedural knowledge of how to use the newest
instructional technology to facilitate active learning for their students. The recommendation is to
provide faculty with professional development workshops that make them aware of the available
teaching materials and technology that the Open Education Resources website provides. The
resources on the OER website can legally and freely be copied, used, adapted and reshared. For
example, OER resources include textbooks, curricula, syllabi, lecture notes, assignments, tests,
projects, audio visual, and animation. These types of resources can be used to facilitate active
learning in their accelerated classrooms and they are available at no cost. Learning about these
available free resources will help the faculty to gain and sustain knowledge of what can be used
to facilitate active learning in reading and to confidently use these resources to achieve better
learning outcomes with their accelerated reading students. It is also important that the faculty
learn how to condense the content to fit an accelerated format.
The resources and workshops that the faculty members receive are necessary for them to
properly provide classroom instruction for active learning activities. According to Clark and
Estes (2008), people can gain “how to” skills and knowledge through training and practice
(Clark & Estes, 2008). To improve one’s skills, additional education is essential. Education
allows people to gain strategic, conceptual, and theoretical knowledge that might be useful when
they are faced with problems in the future (Clark & Estes, 2008).
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In addition to the aforementioned, all of the participants recognized the importance of
using culturally relevant teaching approaches to promote inclusiveness. While two of the three
participants were actively using the culturally relevant approaches that they knew, one was not
using any culturally relevant approaches at all. All three participants expressed a need to learn
various approaches. Their responses and my observations of their classes showed that the faculty
lacked procedural knowledge about various forms of the culturally relevant teaching approaches
that promote inclusiveness. Procedural knowledge focuses on the subject-specific techniques
used for accomplishing a goal with particular attention to knowing when to implement
appropriate procedures (Krathwohl, 2002; Trevino & Defreitas, 2014). The recommendation is
to provide faculty members with a series of culturally relevant professional development
workshops that focus on promoting inclusiveness within the classroom, but in ways that go
beyond a colorblind ideology. The workshops would provide faculty with lessons about various
cultural backgrounds. For example, faculty can be taught how to provide opportunities for
students to introduce themselves to others in the class, how to use inclusive language in the
classroom, how to avoid generalizing behavior in the classroom, and how to include positive
images from various cultural backgrounds in the lessons. Targeted and sustained workshops that
focus on culturally relevant specific curricula and approaches to teaching are also valuable for
addressing obstacles that might impede on inclusiveness and prevent student success. These
workshops also serve as a forum for discussing ways to improve the academic success of Latino
students (Booth et al, 2014; Walker, 2015). Culturally relevant teaching is also important
because not only does it promote inclusiveness, it also facilitates student engagement, and
promotes equity in student learning outcomes (Fullam, 2017; Ruiz & Cantu, 2013). Student
engagement and reading can be linked to their reading motivation by using culturally relevant
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teaching approaches and lessons that include cultural history, values, themed community events,
and ethnic traditions (Fullam, 2017; McCollin & O’Shea, 2005; Ruiz & Cantu, 2013).
Various culturally relevant approaches that can be used for building faculty-student
relationships are very effective for faculty who aim to establish and maintain relationships with
their students of color (Fullam, 2017; Ruiz & Cantu, 2013). The findings showed that the faculty
lacked procedural knowledge about various culturally relevant approaches that can used for
establishing and sustaining relationships with their students of color and they did not all foster
the same kinds of relationships with their students. Therefore, the recommendation is to provide
the faculty with professional development workshops or training via teaching conferences that
have a culturally relevant focus. This training can provide the faculty with the necessary
knowledge and motivation to use various approaches for establishing and maintaining
relationships with their students of color. For example, a workshop could focus on strategies for
establishing relationships with first generation Latino students, such as communicating with
them in their first language. Another workshop could focus on teaching faculty how to foster a
sense of belonging with their students of color. During her interview, Mary stated that she uses
her limited Spanish to communicate with her ELS reading students, because it can make them
feel more comfortable. A more welcoming environment is created when faculty members
address Latino students in Spanish and a strong faculty-student relationship can then be
established. This type of interaction has positive effects on both the academic performance and
the attrition rates of Latino students (Nunez, 2011; Verdugo, 1995; Zurita, 2005). This
recommendation is viable because the workshops will provide valuable lessons for faculty on
how to build and maintain relationships with their Latino students. Strong faculty-student
relationships have a positive effect on student success.
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Declarative knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. Declarative
knowledge involves the interrelationships of basic elements within a larger structure that makes
it possible for them to work cohesively (Krathwohl, 2002). Having conceptual knowledge means
knowing about categories, principles, theories, models, and structures (Krathwohl, 2002). This
section discusses the faculty’s lack of conceptual declarative knowledge about various
experimental learning strategies. It is essential for faculty to know latest variety of experimental
learning strategies because such strategies have proven to be helpful for accelerated remedial
classrooms (Hatch & Bohlig, 2016; Levin & Calcagno, 2008). While all three faculty members
used some form of experimental learning strategies, they lacked conceptual knowledge about
various strategies that could be used in the implementation of the accelerated reading classes.
The recommendation is to provide faculty with professional development workshops that discuss
the newest experimental learning strategies that can be used in accelerated reading classrooms.
The workshops would teach faculty how to use experimental strategies such as, the use of
narratives, conducting experiments, simulations, games, storytelling, focused imaging, and role
playing. The workshops also serve an ideal place for faculty members to exchange ideas and
information that they have learned at various conferences that they have attended. According to
Clark and Estes (2008), information and training are necessary when people seek to heighten
their knowledge. Lessons taught using various experimental learning strategies tend to be more
memorable than lectures alone and such strategies have proven to be helpful for accelerated
remedial classes (Hatch & Bohlig, 2016; Levin & Calcagno, 2008; Scott & Normore, 2013). I
would also recommend that the reading department faculty meet at least twice per month to
discuss what experimental strategies are and are not working with the students in their
accelerated reading classes. It is also an opportunity to exchange ideas with others who are
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experts in the discipline. The department chair, who is also a full-time faculty member develops
and maintains the culture within the department and will be instrumental in the success of the
implementation. Meeting twice per month will also allow the department chair and the faculty
members to remain informed about issues related to the implementation process and to alter the
strategic plan if necessary. Regular department meetings are essential to a department’s success
because it facilitates discussion about individual teaching interests, strategies, change, common
themes can be identified, recommendations can be made, and proposed actions can be discussed
(Birch, 2004).
In addition to lacking knowledge about various experimental strategies, the faculty lacked
knowledge of strategies that can be used to form learning communities that will be beneficial for
English language learners. While all three faculty members used what knowledge they had to
form learning communities, not all of the observed learning communities kept the students
engaged the whole time. All three faculty members stated that they would like to learn new ways
of forming learning communities that will help their ESL students remain engaged and achieve
better learning outcomes. Conceptual declarative knowledge involves the interrelationships of
basic elements within a larger structure that makes it possible for them to work cohesively.
Possessing conceptual knowledge means knowing about categories, principles, theories, models,
and structures (Krathwohl, 2002). The recommendation is to provide faculty members with
professional development workshops that give specific instruction on the most promising
strategies for forming and managing learning communities for English language learners in
accelerated classrooms. For example, the faculty could learn effective ways to provide exposure
to English, such as prompting group discussions about events in their communities or the
college. Faculty could also learn how to use scaffolding to form learning communities. Such
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workshops would include engaging lessons on how to form learning communities that facilitate
an environment where students with stronger English language skills can support students with
developing English language skills. It is also recommended that the faculty form their own
professional learning communities. In the professional learning community, a group of faculty
members would meet regularly to share their experiences and expertise, and to collaborate to
improve their teaching skills. This partnership would increase the likelihood of positive student
learning outcomes.
It is vital for faculty to know how to properly form learning communities because
learning communities keep students on track, and promote student integration into the social and
academic aspects of campus life (Hatch & Bohlig, 2016; Levin & Calcagno, 2008). The use of
learning communities has shown to have positive effects on accelerated remedial student
outcomes (Hatch & Bohlig, 2016; Levin & Calcagno, 2008). The recommendation should be
effective, because faculty can learn new ways of forming learning communities that will help
their students to remain engaged and successfully collaborate on projects (Hatch & Bohlig, 2016;
Levin & Calcagno, 2008).
Motivation Recommendations
This section discusses the motivation influences and their recommendations based on the
most frequently mentioned motivation influences to achieving the stakeholders’ goal during the
semi-structured interviews and supported by the literature review and the review of motivation
theory. After reviewing the collected data from the study, the assumed causes appeared to
suggest that the faculty members lacked self-efficacy and goal orientation for using the newest
technology to facilitate active learning, various culturally relevant teaching approaches for
building faculty-student relationships, the latest experimental learning strategies, and new
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 84

strategies for forming learning communities for English language learners. Some motivational
influences have a high priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal.
Self-Efficacy. Self-efficacy is the confidence that individuals have in their own abilities
to successfully execute tasks. These beliefs influence how people think, make decisions about
which goals to pursue, and how to best strategize. Self-efficacy beliefs also influence the amount
of effort that individuals invest in their endeavors, as well as one’s level of commitment to
achieving their goals. According to social cognitive theory, the foundation for human motivation,
personal accomplishment, and overall well-being comes from self-efficacy (Bandura, 2000;
Pajares, 2006; Pintrich, 2003). The faculty communicated low self-efficacy in their ability to use
the latest instructional technology to facilitate active learning. They all expressed that they need
access to the latest technology, as well as ongoing training on how to use it to facilitate active
learning with their students. The reading instruction programs that the faculty were using with
their students was dated. All of the faculty members agreed that they could keep their students
better engaged if they had access, more knowledge, and confidence to use the latest instructional
technology. New technology is not a panacea. Active learning can be activated and sustained in
various ways. The problem seems to be more about a need for new curriculum and andragogy.
There are many multi-modal literacy tools available for free through Open Education Resources.
OER offers an array of technology and resources that can be used to enhance and enrich
students’ reading experiences. The recommendation is for the organization to provide the faculty
with ongoing professional development workshops that focus on teaching faculty how to use the
available resources offered through OER. One example of workshop would be to focus on
teaching faculty how to select the best OER resources that can be used for teaching students how
to write and read a script for a short play. The ongoing modeled lessons for the faculty are viable
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 85

because they will help the faculty learn how to use the new material and technology, and learn
how to build and sustain confidence in their abilities as educators through observation of the
modeling, practice, and targeted feedback. Such workshops are important for faculty working
with remedial students (Booth et al., 2014; Cejda & Hoover, 2011). The lessons from the
workshops will teach and motivate the faculty to confidently integrate the technology and other
resources from OER into an accelerated format. All three faculty members lacked self-efficacy
for using various culturally relevant teaching approaches that can be used for promoting
inclusion. Two were using the approaches that they knew, but one was not. However, all three
expressed a need to learn various other approaches. The recommendation is to provide faculty
with professional development workshops that are focused on culturally relevant approaches that
promote inclusiveness. Examples of culturally relevant approaches that would be included are
how to learn about your students through informal interviews, and how to form learning stations
that allow students to play games or read and analyze current event articles. The lessons in the
workshops are to be modeled for the faculty and the faculty would participate in role-play
scenarios and the workshop instructor would provide feedback. Pajares (2006) reveals that a
combination of modeling and feedback increases self-efficacy. This indicates that self-efficacy is
enhanced when people are provided with a demonstration of the tasks that they are expected to
perform. According to Pajares (2003) peer modeling can greatly influence developing self-
perceptions of competence. The faculty members also lacked self-efficacy for using the latest
strategies that can be used for forming learning communities that will benefit ESL students in
their accelerated reading classrooms. The faculty members could not confidently use the various
approaches because they did not know them. The recommendation is to provide professional
development workshops that teach faculty how to form learning communities that will help their
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 86

ESL students achieve greater student learning outcomes in their accelerated reading classrooms.
It is also recommended that the faculty form professional learning communities that will
facilitate faculty collaboration for improvement.
Goal Orientation. Goal orientation involves the implementation of organizational
structures that promote personal and social responsibility. It also provides a safe, comfortable
and predictable environment (Pintrich, 2003; Yough & Anderman, 2006). The faculty members
all had a goal orientation for including instructional technology in their classrooms, however
they needed access to the latest technology and ongoing training on how to use that technology
in their classrooms. While two of the faculty members displayed a goal orientation for using
various culturally relevant teaching approaches for inclusiveness, one faculty member did not.
She showed a lack of goal orientation in this area. Her goal orientation could be enhanced by her
participation in the workshops. It will be motivational for her to hear about the experiences of
other faculty members who have tried and had success with the approaches. Two of the faculty
members demonstrated that they had a goal orientation for building relationships with their
Latino students, but the third faculty member lacked a goal orientation for building relationships
specifically with her Latino students. The recommendation is to provide interactive professional
development workshops and conferences that are focused on teaching faculty various culturally
relevant strategies that can be used for building and maintaining faculty-student relationships.
For example, the workshops would allow faculty members to practice the strategies through a
series of role-play scenarios in which one faculty member would act as the instructor and the
other would act as the student. Feedback can then be provided by fellow attendees and the
workshop’s instructor. During the workshops, the approaches would be modeled for the
participants and the workshops would provide an open forum for discussion among the
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 87

participants about their experiences. Participants can gain motivation through the discussions.
All three participants showed a goal orientation for using experimental learning strategies
in their classrooms, as well as a goal orientation for forming learning communities that would
help their ESL students be successful in the accelerated remedial classes. Faculty must be
motivated to achieve their goal by attending professional development workshops that are
focused on learning new ways to utilize the most current strategies for facilitating academic
growth (Pintrich, 2003; Yough & Anderman, 2006).
People who are motivated intrinsically believe that persistent practice will produce
optimum results (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003; Shraw & Lehman, 2009; Trevino & Defreitas,
2014). It is important for faculty to implement teaching approaches that are engaging and
facilitate success for accelerated remedial course students (Cejda & Hoover, 2011; Scott &
Normore, 2013). In order for faculty to better incorporate promising practices, professional
development workshops are necessary for faculty to facilitate remedial student success (Cejda &
Hoover, 2011; Walker, 2015). The professional development workshops will be instrumental in
the successful implementation of the accelerated reading courses.
Organization Recommendations
This section discusses the organizational influences and their recommendations based on
the most frequently mentioned organization influences to achieving the stakeholders’ goal during
the semi-structured interviews and supported by the literature review and the review of
organization and culture theory. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that organization and
stakeholder goals are often not achieved due to a lack of resources, most often time and money,
and stakeholder goals that are not aligned with the organization’s mission and goals. Gallimore
and Goldenberg (2001) propose two constructs about culture – cultural models or the observable
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 88

beliefs and values shared by individuals in groups, and cultural models, or the settings and
activities in which performance occurs. Thus, both resources and processes and cultural models
and settings must align throughout the organization’s structure to achieve the mission and goals.
Some organizational influences have a high priority for achieving the stakeholders’ goal.
Cultural Model. The cultural model is the cultural profile that those within the organization
would use to describe the organization. According to Clark and Estes (2008), a cultural profile
can be developed by aligning organizational culture with organizational behavior, as well as with
policies and procedures. The first finding showed that the faculty lacked access, procedural
knowledge, and self-efficacy for using the latest instructional technology. This finding also
revealed that the organization did not provide faculty professional development workshops that
informed faculty about OER resources that that can be used to facilitate active learning in their
classrooms. It is recommended that the organization should provide the faculty with ongoing
training for how to utilize the OER resources to achieve better outcomes. This would make it
possible for the faculty to learn about the available OER resources, but to also confidently use
the resources in their classrooms. This showed a connection to the assumed cultural model
organization influence, which is that the organization needs to provide ongoing workshops that
will allow the faculty to learn about the available OER resources and technology that can be used
to facilitate active learning. The training would also provide information about the advantages,
limitations, and changes with the specific OER resources and technology.
According to Waters, Marzano, and McNulty (2003), organizational effectiveness
increases when leaders insure that employees have the resources needed to achieve the
organization’s goals. Insuring staff’s resource needs are being met is correlated with increased
student learning outcomes.
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 89

The second finding showed that the faculty lacked procedural knowledge and self-
efficacy for using various culturally relevant teach approaches that could be used to promote
inclusiveness. It also showed that the organization did not provide faculty with training classes
that focused on various culturally relevant teaching approaches. This finding showed a
connection to the assumed cultural model organizational influence, which is that the organization
needs to provide training classes for faculty that focus on various culturally relevant teaching
approaches that can be used to promote inclusiveness. The recommendation is for the
organization to provide faculty members with sustained professional development workshops or
funding to attend teacher conferences that teach various culturally relevant teaching approaches
and include culturally relevant materials that can be used to promote inclusiveness for their
students of color. For example, the organization could provide a workshop on ways to gain
student perspectives on current events in accelerated reading classes. Such training helps faculty
members establish and maintain student engagement in the classroom, and create a welcoming
environment for all students (Booth et al., 2014; Walker, 2015). Teacher conferences are an ideal
way for faculty members to exchange ideas and be motivated by other educational professionals
from all over the country (Sipe, 2003). Many teacher conferences have a culturally relevant
focus. Culturally relevant professional development workshops provide an opportunity for
faculty to learn about issues that might be barriers to student success and retention with students
of color. These focused workshops enable faculty to gain a better understanding of the
perspectives of their students of color (Booth et. al., 2014; Cejda & Hoover, 2011; Walker,
2015). Once the faculty learn the various approaches, they will have self-efficacy for using those
approaches in the classroom.
The third finding showed that the faculty lacked procedural knowledge about culturally
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 90

relevant strategies that can be used for building and maintaining faculty-student relationships
with their students of color. One faculty member lacked a goal orientation for using such
strategies in her classroom. It was also revealed that the organization does not provide the faculty
with the necessary culturally relevant training that focuses on building faculty-student
relationships. This finding is linked to the assumed cultural model organizational influence,
which is that the organization needs to provide training for faculty that focus on culturally
relevant strategies that can be used for establishing and optimizing opportunities for faculty-
student relationships in accelerated classes. The recommendation for the organization to provide
focused professional development workshops or conference funding for faculty is viable because
it provides faculty with the necessary knowledge and motivation to ensure greater success in the
implementation and sustainability of the accelerated remedial reading courses. If the organization
provides the faculty with the recommended professional development workshops or funding to
attend various teacher conferences, they will also be providing faculty with the means to
maximize student success and retention in their classrooms and a goal orientation to use what
they learn in their accelerated reading classrooms. An example of a workshop would be one that
focused on establishing relationships with first generation college students or strategies for
building trust with undocumented students.
Cultural Setting. The cultural model is usually dependent on the cultural setting. The
cultural setting is the type of organization or industry that makes up the workplace. The
organization should be supportive of faculty’s efforts to implement teaching approaches that are
engaging and facilitate success for accelerated remedial course students (Cejda & Hoover, 2011;
Scott & Normore, 2013). Although the all three faculty members had a goal orientation for using
experimental learning strategies in their accelerated reading classrooms, the findings revealed
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 91

that they all lacked conceptual knowledge about various experimental learning strategies. The
findings also showed that the organization does not provide professional development workshops
that teach experimental learning strategies to faculty who teach accelerated remedial reading
classes. This finding is connected to the assumed cultural setting influence, which is that the
organization needs to provide workshops that teach faculty various experimental learning
strategies.
The recommendation is for the organization to provide engaging professional
development workshops that provide faculty with specific instruction on the most promising
strategies for how to use various experimental learning strategies in their accelerated reading
classrooms. For example, a workshop that focuses on experimental learning could provide
information on teaching students how to use narratives, conduct experiments, build skills within
a real-world context by role playing and teach faculty how to show students connectedness
between academic subjects.
The final finding revealed the faculty all had a goal orientation for forming learning
communities in their classes, but they lacked conceptual knowledge about strategies that can be
used to form learning communities that will benefit ESL students in accelerated reading classes.
The finding also showed that the organization does not provide training for faculty that focuses
on strategies that can be used for forming learning communities that will benefit ESL students.
This finding shows a connection to the assumed cultural setting organizational influence, which
is that the organization needs to provide workshops that teach faculty how to form learning
communities that will benefit ESL students in accelerated reading classrooms. This is important
because students who are English language learners benefit from learning communities that are
supporting and engaging and the faculty must be motivated to establish and manage those
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 92

learning communities for them (Pintrich, 2003). A combination of the language barrier and
failure to thrive in class causes many Latino students to become frustrated and drop out. The
formation of strategically well-formed learning communities can help to minimize Latino
attrition (Hatch & Bohlig, 2016; Levin & Calcagno, 2008).
The recommendation is for the organization to provide the faculty with professional
development workshops that consists of a blend of modeled approaches and hands-on application
of the approaches and strategies that can be used for forming learning communities that are
beneficial for English language learners. One example of a workshop lesson would be to teach
faculty how to group students who share a first language other than English and have them
critique a short story. The workshops will include detailed instruction, practice, and
demonstrations of the approaches and strategies for the faculty through mock scenarios. At
various intervals during the workshops, question and answer sessions will be held to enable the
faculty members to check their understanding. Following the demonstrations, the faculty
members will be provided the opportunity to practice using the approaches and strategies and
receive feedback from the professional development coordinator, as well as peer review from
other workshop attendees. These workshops should be followed up with evaluation of the
faculty’s application of the strategies in their classrooms along with detailed feedback. The
instruction, practice, demonstrations, and feedback will also be used to prepare and support
faculty who are implementing the accelerated remedial reading courses.
While culture is challenging to influence, it has a profound effect on performance and
outcomes (Levin & Calcagno, 2008; Scott & Normore, 2013). The recommendations to provide
professional development workshops that teach faculty how to use the latest experimental
learning strategies and the newest strategies for forming learning communities for English
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 93

language learners are worthwhile. Not only can these recommendations enhance the faculty’s
knowledge and motivation, they can also have a powerful and positive impact on student
learning outcomes and retention.
Lastly, to help ensure Latino students success, it is recommended that the organization
should hold a community circle style discussion session for the faculty and the administration at
the end of each semester to assess what is needed to support both faculty and students. The
faculty works closest with students and they are aware of the barriers to student success in their
classrooms, therefore they would be the greatest sources of information for what is needed. For
example, Lucy stated that the organization can ensure that Latino remedial students find success
by requiring regular meetings with counselors, instituting early alert systems, and offering
supplemental instruction. Rosa’s response was that the organization should require faculty who
teach content area courses to include reading course co-requisites. Mary responded that the
organization could help Latino students find success by hiring more Latino faculty members. All
three participants offered valuable suggestions that the organization should be open to discussing
and considering.
Conclusion
Latinos are one of the fastest growing populations in the United States, yet they have the
lowest college enrollment and completion rates. A disproportionate number of Latinos begin
their college careers by being placed into remedial courses, which traditionally have a lengthy
time line. The lengthiness of the traditional remedial timeline causes many Latino students to
drop out before reaching transferrable levels. This study was important because the successful
implementation of the reading department’s accelerated remedial reading courses would help to
increase success rates and reduce the attrition rates for Latino students. Melguizo (2007) and
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 94

Stern (2012) found that the chances of reaching middle-class status are greatly increased when
students of color remain in college and obtain their degrees. The Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analytic framework provided an approach to understanding the organizational and stakeholder’s
goals and it helped to highlight the assumed knowledge, motivational, and organizational
influences that could potentially affect the outcome of the faculty’s goal of implementing the
accelerated remedial reading courses by December of 2018. While professional development is
not a panacea for lowering the Latino college attrition rate, Dream Community College can
support Latino student success and the reading department faculty in reaching their goal by
considering and implementing the recommendations in this study.

REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 95

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Appendix A: Participating Stakeholders
This section outlines the sampling and recruitment approach for this study. As mentioned
above in the summary of the methodological approach section, this study focused on the full-
time reading faculty at Dream Community College. This section starts with the criteria and
rationale for selecting these faculty members and then discusses how the sample was recruited.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion. Each participant had to be a full-time reading department faculty member.
This group of stakeholders had the power to design, modify, and implement new courses within
the reading department. Full-time reading department faculty members also made decisions
about whether to shorten the remedial reading course sequence. In addition, full-time reading
department faculty members were authorized to determine the promising practices for teaching
Latino students who were enrolled in accelerated remedial reading courses.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
Purposeful sampling was the strategy that was used for this study. This strategy was
selected because the full-time faculty members were the ones with the needed information and
teaching expertise relevant to the problem of practice. I invited the faculty members to
participate in this study at the end of a department meeting. Department meetings at Dream
Community College are only attended by full-time faculty members. I began by explaining the
nature of the study and obtained consent from the faculty members to participate in the study. I
then confirmed times with the participants for the interviews and classroom observations to be
conducted.
A total of three full-time faculty members served as the sample for this study. This
number was appropriate, as it represented the total number of full-time reading department
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 104

faculty members. Although the number of participants was small, they offered significant insight
into the topic and the stakeholder goal, because they were the individuals that made up the entire
department. The faculty members all readily agreed to participate, but with the condition that
they could remain anonymous.
While the participants were all tenured female reading department faculty members who
specialized in teaching remedial reading and basic skills courses to a diverse student body, there
were also variations within the sample group, such as age, race, and length of teaching career.
The composition of the sample group was important, because these variations allowed for
potential contrasting opinions, abilities, and motivations among the sample group members, thus
yielding different data for the study. Sufficient variations among members in the sample group
elicit different perspectives on the problem and the possible influences (Fink, 2013; Johnson &
Christensen, 2015; Kruger & Casey, 2009; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Observation Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The participants selected for the observations were the full-time reading department
faculty who were sampled for the interviews mentioned above because they were the ones
implementing the accelerated remedial reading courses. In particular, the accelerated remedial
reading class sessions of these faculty members made up the observations for this study. This
was the only criterion for selecting what to observe. They also used culturally relevant teaching
approaches to build and/or maintain relationships with the students in their classrooms. Lastly,
these faculty members were selected for observation because of their ability to use experimental
learning strategies and form learning communities in their classrooms.

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Appendix B: Protocols
Interview Protocol
Pseudonym for Interviewee:___________________________________________
Date of Interview:____________
Begin Time:_________ End Time:_________
Interviewer Name:___________________________________________________
Hi, my name is Tammy Allen and I am a University of Southern California doctoral student in the School
of Education.
I want to thank you for your participation in my study on the issue of remediation as it relates to high
attrition among Latino students in higher education. This form will serve as an information sheet. I want
to make it clear that your participation in the study is completely voluntary and you have a right to
withdraw from the study at any time. This interview process will take approximately one hour, as I want
to provide you with sufficient time to think and elaborate on your answers.
Before we begin the interview, I would like to explain the purpose of the study. The research goal is to
gain insight into the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that are needed for reading
department faculty members to successfully implement accelerated remedial reading courses at Dream
Community College. A secondary, long-term goal is to better understand how the inclusion of accelerated
remedial reading courses will affect the attrition rates of Latino students. To protect the confidentiality of
the college, Dream Community College has been assigned as a pseudonym.
The questions I will ask in the interview will be used solely for research purposes and to drive innovation
within the reading department. At no point will you or your responses be judged, as I am serving in the
sole capacity of researcher for this study. Your identity will remain confidential, but the responses from
the collective interviews may be shared. To ensure that your identity will remain anonymous to others,
you create your own pseudonym. Once all participant interviews are concluded, a one hour follow-up
interview will be conducted with you within two weeks. At that time, you will be provided with an
opportunity to review the transcripts from your first interview and provide further clarification if it is
necessary.
Are there any questions or concerns that I can address before we begin?
If you do not have any questions or concerns about the nature of the study or the interview process, I
would like your permission to commence the interview.
I would also like to have your permission to record the interview so that I will have an accurate record of
your responses for transcription later. Also, please let me know if you would like for the recording to
cease at any time during the interview process. I can assure you that I will be the only person that will
have access to the recordings from the interviews. They will be transcribed and the recordings destroyed.
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 106

Interview Questions:
1) How would you describe your role as an accelerated remedial reading instructor?
2) What are the primary differences between teaching a traditional semester-long remedial
reading courses and teaching an accelerated remedial reading course?
3) What are the most vital components of an effective accelerated remedial reading program?
4) Describe the type of practices that you use in your accelerated remedial reading classes.
5) How confident do you feel using instructional technology to facilitate active learning in your
classes? (probe: Can you think of a time when you thought to yourself, “I really need more
help with using technology for active learning strategies”?
6) How confident do you feel using culturally relevant teaching approaches in your classes?
(probe: Can you think of a time when you thought to yourself, “I really need more help with
using culturally relevant teaching approaches”?
7) How confident do you feel implementing experimental learning strategies in your classes?
(probe: Can you think of a time when you thought to yourself, “I really know how to use
experimental learning strategies”? Can you think of a time when you thought to yourself, “I
really need more help with using experimental learning strategies”?
8) How confident do you feel implementing learning communities in your classes? (probe: Can
you think of a time when you thought to yourself, “I really know how to form and use
experimental learning communities”? Can you think of a time when you thought to yourself,
“I really need more help with forming and managing learning communities”?
9) How would you define an effective accelerated remedial reading class learning community?
10) Describe your process for forming learning communities within your accelerated remedial
reading classes, if any.
11) Why are learning communities important for accelerated remedial reading students who have
English as a second language, if at all?
12) Explain the importance of language in the success of reading for students who have English
as a second language.
13) Describe an assignment that you would have accelerated remedial reading students in a
learning community collaborate on if English was their second language.
14) Describe your relationship with Latino students?
15) How do you use culturally relevant teaching in your own practice, if at all?
16) Describe professional development workshops that your organization has offered to faculty
members about culturally relevant teaching practices.
17) How have those culturally relevant professional development workshops helped strengthen
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 107

your relationships with your Latino students, if at all?
18) In your opinion, how will the accelerated remedial reading courses help to lessen the attrition
rates of Latino students, if at all?
19) What more do you think the organization could do in making sure Latino remedial students
find success in remedial courses?
20) Some people believe that the best way to teach students from diverse backgrounds is to use
culturally relevant teaching. What would you say?
21) Describe how you maintain a culturally inclusive classroom environment for Latino students
in your accelerated remedial reading classrooms.
22) Latino students do not have a high college completion rate. How do you see yourself
contributing to lessening the attrition rate of these students?
23) What do you perceive your role to be as it relates to teaching Latino students in your remedial
reading courses?
24) What are some ways that the organization supports you in making sure that Latino remedial
students find success in reading courses?

REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 108

Appendix C: Credibility and Trustworthiness

I maintained the credibility and trustworthiness of my study by using member checking
to gain clarity about the responses that participants provided during the interviews. During the
follow-up interviews, I minimized misinterpretations by discussing my understanding of the
responses with each participant. Checking for accuracy with all participants is valuable for
eliminating misinterpretations of the gathered data (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
At no time during the study did I allow my own biases about pedagogy and
organizational practices, such as teaching strategies for remedial reading students, and the
usefulness of certain professional development, interfere with the data collection process, or how
the data was analyzed, interpreted or presented. I prevented the introduction of my own biases by
basing my study and its results solely on my review of the literature, data from the interviews
and observations. As a full-time faculty member of the reading department, I have assumptions
and biases about teaching approaches I deem effective that I have accounted for as I conducted
my study and executed my data collection, analysis, and reporting activities. These biases are
informed by my race/ethnicity/socioeconomic status and the fact that I am a member of the
organization where my study was being conducted. Both the researcher and the participants bring
bias, attitudes, and predispositions to the interview that will affect their interaction and the data
that is collected. This is important because the data is only as trustworthy as the data collector.
Thus, the credibility and trustworthiness of the study are greatly dependent on the ethics of the
researcher (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2015; Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
The trustworthiness of the data collected during the study is connected to the researcher
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I have presented sufficient details about the findings
of the study in this report in a manner that makes the conclusion as clear and understandable as
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 109

possible. I have presented information about how the process that rendered the findings
transpired. This information has been reported in stages and disseminated via this dissertation, as
this is a common strategy used for presenting findings in dissertation writing (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).

REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 110

Appendix D: Ethics
My chief responsibility was to do no harm to the safety, dignity, or privacy of study
participants when I conducted research that involved human participants. It is important for the
researcher to do no harm, remain respectful, nonthreatening, and nonjudgmental throughout the
interview process. I conducted observations without interfering with the participants and the
natural setting of the observation and at no point did the interview become an interrogation
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Rubin & Rubin, 2012). My interview questions were purposely open-
ended. This ensured that the participants had an opportunity to elaborate on their responses and
provide an abundance of data, which allowed them to come to the questions in the way they saw
fit.
I also showed respect for the participants by complying with their requests for
confidentiality regarding the study. Participants must be made aware and ensured that their
participation in the study is completely voluntary and that they are free to withdraw from the
study at will (Glesne, 2011, Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I informed my participants of their right
to withdraw from the study at any time without fear of reprisal. Participants have a right to
expect that their privacy will be respected and that their confidentiality will be preserved
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Rubin & Rubin, 2012). My approach to informed consent was to
provide my study participants with sufficient information regarding the study so that they could
make a sound and informed decision about whether they wished to participate. I explained the
purpose of the study and the methods that would be used to collect the information that was
gathered.
Withholding information about the true nature of the study is a form of deception.
Researchers should remind participants often that they are being studied. Forgetting to remind
REMEDIATION AND LATINO ATTRITION RATES 111

them can be interpreted as a form of deceit (Glesne, 2011; Rubin & Rubin, 2012). At the start of
each interview, I obtained permission to record the conversation and assured all participants that
all collected data would be securely stored. It is important to ask for permission to record and to
immediately comply with all requests to cease recording if the participant changes his or her
mind. When forming a conversational partnership, the researcher assumes a serious ethical
responsibility for upholding trust, understanding, and mutual respect (Glesne, 2011; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016; Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
As a full-time faculty member in the reading department at Dream Community College, I
had a vested interest in the results of this study. Any potential confusion by the other members of
my organization regarding my dual roles of researcher and faculty member was fully addressed
when information sheets were distributed. None of the participants in my study were in a
subordinate role. The participants for this study were all fellow full-time faculty members within
my department. I ensured that all study participants were fully aware that I would be serving in
the capacity of a researcher rather than an as a professor and colleague. This allowed the
participants to make a more informed decision about whether to consent to participating. When
conducting research, it is vital for researchers to not deceive participants (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016; Rubin & Rubin, 2012). As a researcher, I intend to remain truthful about my role, the
study, and the data collection methods.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The intent of this study was to identify the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that shaped the implementation of the accelerated reading courses at Dream Community College. The full-time faculty members of the college’s reading department had a goal of implementing accelerated reading courses that would combine two levels of remedial reading courses into a single semester. The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analytic framework provided an approach to understanding the organizational and stakeholder’s goals and it helped to highlight the assumed knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences that could potentially affect the outcome of the faculty’s goal of implementing the accelerated remedial reading courses by December of 2018. A qualitative approach was conducted using interviews and observations. The interviews and observations revealed that the faculty felt that they needed access to the latest educational technology and ongoing training for that technology in order to facilitate active learning with their students, yet the findings showed that instead the faculty needed to utilize Open Education Resources, which would provide various teaching tools at no cost. The findings also revealed that there was a need for the organization to provide the faculty with ongoing focused professional development. The implications of these findings demonstrates the probability of continued high attrition among Latino students in the reading department if the faculty did not receive what was needed for them to achieve their goal. This study concludes with recommendations that are based on the findings and literature.

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