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Mandatory reporting of sexual violence by faculty and staff at Hometown University: an evaluation study

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Mandatory reporting of sexual violence by faculty and staff at Hometown University: an evaluation study

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Content Running head: MANDATORY REPORTING 1

Mandatory Reporting of Sexual Violence by Faculty and Staff at Hometown University: An
Evaluation Study

by

James D. McGhee, Jr.

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2019

Copyright 2019 James D. McGhee, Jr.

MANDATORY REPORTING 2

Acknowledgements
Mark Twain wrote, “To get the full value of joy you must have someone to divide it
with.” I am incredibly lucky to have so many wonderful people in my life who have supported,
guided, and challenged me. As I sit writing these acknowledgements, I am incredibly humbled to
have completed this dissertation study and most importantly to have had the opportunity to do so.
Learning is such a great and wonderful privilege. With understanding comes revelation and with
revelation, we fear the world just a little bit less. As such, I would like to thank those people who
have made my journey possible.
First, I would like to thank my dissertation committee: to Dr. Monique Datta for her
unfailing support, wit, humor, and grace, to Dr. Kimberly Ferrario for her patience, commitment,
and guidance at the start of and throughout this journey, and to Dr. David Cash for his guidance,
encouragement, and thought provoking teaching which opened up the world of accountabilityto
me in ways that I never expected. I am so incredibly thankful to each of you for your
commitment to helping me become a better scholar, practitioner, writer, and thinker of big
thoughts.
To my USC Cohort 6 Change Agents: I never expected to find such wonderful
colleagues, friends, and family members. I cherish the time that we have spent with one another
learning and growing together. You have each brought something special into my life.
To Amy Carmack and Carly Cooper: I know the full value of joy, because I have had the
awesome opportunity to share it with you. Even if I learned nothing from this program (and I did
learn), I would still have considered this to be an amazing success, because it brought you two
into my life. I am filled with gratitude each time that I think of you all.
MANDATORY REPORTING 3

To my colleagues: I am sorry to have talked about Lisa, this dissertation study, every day
for three years. I appreciate your guidance, kindness, support, and encouragement. I could not
possibly thank individually all of the people who have been so kind and supportive to me as I
accomplished this goal. However, I wish to express special gratitude: to Grant Azdell for giving
me the encouragement and support to pursue a dream, to Carrie Noonan for always believing in
me, to Carol Bailey, Jayme Watkins, Alicia Elms, Benny Balderrama, and Shoshanna Schechter
for being my friends and family and always being there through thick and thin and believing in
me and loving me during this journey, to Alana Davis, Lauren Bell, Annie Keith, Susan Parker,
Sara Trask, Jenn Thompson, Sabrina Granderson, and Laurie Massery for your encouragement,
kindness, and thoughtful advice throughout this process.
To Dr. Jaimie Hoffman: You recognized something in me and encouraged me to be my
best self. The stakeholder group for this study is largely due to your guidance long after your
responsibility to me as a student ended. Thank you for being a wonderful teacher and mentor.
To James King: I owe you a special debt of gratitude for awakening in me a spirit of
adventure that I thought was lost to the ravages of cynicism and practicality. Thank you for
cheering me on through the ravages of Chapter Four when I had all but lost hope. I look forward
to our next adventure!
To Jay Davis: A best friend is hard to find. A best friend of whom you never get tired and
can travel with for twenty years without arguing was ordained by a higher power. Thank you for
being my friend…travelled around the world and back again. Sometimes first impressions are
wrong, and I am so glad ours were. You are a talented professional, discerning business man, and
a ride or die friend. Thanks for letting me ride shotgun all these years.
MANDATORY REPORTING 4

To my family: I am blessed to have your love and support. I appreciate your patience
when I missed events, birthday, and other special occasions over the last three years. I am so
grateful for your love and for supporting this dream. I hope to keep on making you all proud.
To Nannie and Cecil Roach: Growing up next door to your grandparents as an only child
is both a blessing and a curse. I was fortunate to have two sets of parents and cursed to have
eight eyes trained on me and only me at any given time. Nannie, thank you for taking me to
church and teaching me how to treat other people. I always try to live according to your example.
Poppy, I am so sad that you are not here to see me finish this milestone. I know that you would
be so proud of the work I have done here. I remember when I was a child, and I realized that you
could not read. When I asked to teach you to read, you laughed and told me to get a good
education and learn enough for both of us. I have it covered! Thank you for the lessons you
taught me, for being the people you are, and for loving me.
Finally, to James and Cathy McGhee: I am beyond blessed to have parents who have
loved me the way that you have in this life. You both instilled in me the importance of education.
Mama, thank you for tearing up my homework when I did not write well, and thank you for
always demanding I do my best even when I did not want or need to do so. Daddy, thank you for
teaching me the value of hard work, patience, and an amazing sense of humor. You all have
helped me to build an amazing life. Everything I am today and will be tomorrow is a celebration
of the lessons I learned from you both. Thank you all for everything but more importantly for
loving and believing in me unconditionally.
I am thankful for this experience and the lessons that I have learned along the way. The
journey has been long and arduous, but it has also been filled with joy, humor, and love. I am
MANDATORY REPORTING 5

reminded of the words of J.R.R. Tolkien who said, “Not all who wander are lost.” I will forever
be grateful for this time to wander, explore, and learn.

MANDATORY REPORTING 6

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 8
List of Figures 9
Abstract 10
Chapter One: Introduction
Introduction to the Problem of Practice
Organizational Context and Mission
Organizational Goal
Related Literature
Importance of the Evaluation
Description of Stakeholder Groups
Stakeholder Performance Goals
Stakeholder Group for the Study
Purpose of the Project and Questions
Methodological Approach and Rationale
Definitions
Organization of the Project
11
11
12
13
14
16
17
19
20
21
22
23
23

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Typology and Prevalence of Sexual Violence on College Campuses
Campus and Environmental Factors Related to the Perpetration of Sexual Violence
Accountability and Title IX
Role of the Stakeholder Group of Focus
Clark and Estes’(2008) Gap Analysis Framework
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Conceptual Framework
Conclusion
25
25
30
34
38
39
40
59
65

Chapter Three: Methodology
Participation Stakeholders
Sampling
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Data Analysis
Ethics
Credibility and Trustworthiness
67
67
69
71
74
75
78
MANDATORY REPORTING 7

Chapter Four: Findings and Results
Introduction and Research Questions
Theme 1: Care and Responsibility Drive Compliance
Theme 2: Assumptions and Relationships Prevail Where Training and Knowledge
Fail
Theme 3: Outcome Uncertainty and Cost Versus Benefit Competition Impact
Motivation
Theme 4: Complex Organizational Nuances Create Interesting Stakeholder
Responses
Summary
81
81
82
87

95

103

111

Chapter Five: Recommendations and Solutions
Recommendations to Address KMO Influences
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Summary
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
Limitation and Delimitations
Future Research
Conclusion

115
116
124
137
138
139
140
141
References 143
Appendices
Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Appendix B: Informed Consent Information Sheet
Appendix C: Title IX Mandatory Reporter Post-Training Evaluation
Appendix D: Title IX Mandatory Reporter Training Follow-Up Evaluation

152
152
154
156
158

MANDATORY REPORTING 8

List of Tables
Table 1. Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals 20
Table 2. Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Types, and Knowledge Assessment 45
Table 3. Motivational Influences and Motivational Influence Assessments 52
Table 4. Organizational Influences and Organizational Assessment 58
Table 5. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 116
Table 6. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 119
Table 7. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 122
Table 8. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 126
Table 9. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation 127
Table 10. Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors 128
Table 11. Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 131
Table 12. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 133
Table 13. Title IX Mandatory Reporter Training Program Report Card Example 136

MANDATORY REPORTING 9

List of Figures
Figure 1. An integrated conceptual framework illustrating the interactions of
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
62
MANDATORY REPORTING 10

Abstract
Sexual violence is a significant problem on college and university campuses in the United States
affecting large percentages of students during their studies and later in life. To confront this
alarming issue, the United States Department of Education’s Office of Civil Rights issued new
guidance under Title IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to colleges and universities beginning
with the “Dear Colleague Letter” in April of 2011. The guidance was broad and included a
requirement for institutions to identify faculty, staff, and students to serve as Mandatory
Reporters based on the types of relationships which they have with students. The purpose of this
study was to determine the degree to which Hometown University is meeting its organizational
goal of creating a safe learning environment for students. Knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences affecting Mandatory Reporters were identified using the Clark and
Estes (2008) gap analysis model. Interviews and document analysis of participant reflections
revealed four themes elucidating two knowledge influences, two motivation influences, and two
organizational influences. Additionally, this study recommended a comprehensive learning and
training program for Mandatory Reporters to address the identified knowledge, motivation, and
organizational gaps. The recommended training program implementation and evaluation is
guided by the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) New World Model for Evaluation, and the four
levels of implementation and evaluation tools are detailed. Finally, recommendations for further
research are presented.
Keywords: Title IX, Mandatory Reporters, sexual violence, sexual assault, higher education

MANDATORY REPORTING 11

Chapter One: Introduction
Introduction to the Problem of Practice
Sexual assault is a significant concern on four-year university campuses in the United
States. Researchers found that 20 -24% of women and 1.4 - 6% of men attending four-year
universities and colleges experience sexual violence during their studies (Black et al., 2007;
Krebs, Lindquist, Warner, Fisher, & Martin, 2007). In addition, the number of sexual assaults
occurring on college campuses that go unreported is greater than 90% (Fisher, Cullen, & Turner,
2000). James and Lee (2015) posited that the number of unreported incidents of sexual violence
can be as high as 93%. Victims of sexual violence cite situational ambiguity, fear of retaliation,
lack of proof, fear of ridicule, fear of not being believed, and the fear of losing control of the
situation as some of the many reasons that sexual violence goes unreported (Fisher et al., 2000;
James & Lee, 2015). Further, Black et al. (2011) noted that 81% of female victims and 35% of
male victims reported significant problems both physical and psychological stemming from their
assault both at the time of the incident and later in life.
Sexual violence is a major hindrance to colleges and universities creating a safe living
and learning community for students. The prevalence of sexual violence combined with the
estimates that demonstrate it is an under reported crime create a unique problem for colleges and
universities to tackle (Fisher et al., 2000; James & Lee, 2015). The United States Office of Civil
Rights (OCR) drafted a Dear Colleague Letter in April of 2011 designed to provide guidance for
universities in the areas of prevention education, adjudication, policies and procedures, and
reporting. Colleges and universities as well as the OCR have identified the need to increase
reporting as a pivotal component of creating a safe environment in which students can live and
learn (Ali, 2015; Holland, Cortina, & Freyd, 2018).
MANDATORY REPORTING 12

Organizational Context and Mission
Hometown University (HU), a pseudonym for the research site, is a 4-year private, liberal
arts and sciences college located in central Virginia. According to the University website, HU’s
mission to develop the ethical and mental understanding of its students underlies its ultimate
purpose: to prepare undergraduates for successful lives. Hometown University enrolls 1,446
undergraduate students who pursue their bachelor’s degrees in 54 areas of study, including
majors, minors, and pre-professional programs according to the university fact book which is not
cited here to protect the anonymity of the research site. The majority of Hometown University
students are from the United States (97.9%) and are White (78.7%). Black or African American
(9.12%) students represent the second largest population (9.12%); more female (53.25%)
students than male students (46.74%) attend HU as described in the HU Factbook. Moreover,
the College employs 250 full or part time staff members and 150 full time, part time, or adjunct
faculty members across five divisions (academic affairs, student affairs, college advancement,
enrollment management, and finance and administration) according to the college fact book.
The primary purpose of the faculty and staff is to maintain effective and efficient college
operations and to support students in their academic, co-curricular, and extracurricular activities.
Hometown University, further, commits to holistic personal and professional development
through an innovative career and vocational guidance program that brings together faculty, staff,
and alumni to create a personal career roadmap for each student as listed on the university web
site. Finally, HU guarantees students will be able to graduate within four-years or the College
will provide the courses necessary to graduate for free.
Colleges and universities, in general, exist to educate students. As noted in the Mission
of HU, the university seeks to create an environment in which students can learn and grow as a
MANDATORY REPORTING 13

whole person, and sexual violence is antithetical to that goal. Black et al. (2011) described the
short and long-term effects of sexual violence and demonstrated the deleterious effect that sexual
violence has on the student and their ability to fully engage in the learning process.
Consequently, HU and other colleges and universities must combat sexual violence to safe guard
students and thereby actively support the institutional mission.
Organizational Goal
Hometown University established the goal to create a safe living and learning
environment for all students by 2021. To tackle one of the largest safety issues on university
campuses today, HU set this goal in April of 2011 when the United States Office of Civil Rights
(OCR) distributed the “Dear Colleague” letter that defined sexual violence on university
campuses as a form of gender discrimination under Title IX of the Education Amendments of
1972 (Ali, 2015). OCR gave guidance to universities concerning appropriate sexual assault
investigation, adjudication, and education due to a lack of accountability and success in these
areas on university campuses (Ali, 2015). Understanding both the goal and the context of its
development, it is also imperative to understand how the goal was evaluated.
The achievement of HU’s goal was measured by the results of this evaluation study.
Moreover, evaluating the organization’s performance was important, because research asserts
that 93% of sexual assaults go unreported on university campuses in the United States (James &
Lee, 2015). Further, Black et al. (2011) reported that victims of sexual violence experience
significant deleterious effects including missed class or work, sexually transmitted diseases or
infections, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety, and many other significant mental
and physical health concerns. Consequently, Amar et al (2014) note that victims of sexual
assault who do not report or seek assistance delay the healing process and potentially compound
MANDATORY REPORTING 14

the long-term impacts of sexual violence. Aside from the legal responsibility to address issues of
sexual violence as outlined in the guidance from the Office of Civil Rights, Hometown
University is committed to the success of each student both now and in the future (Ali, 2015).
Evaluating HU’s performance in reaching the above stated goals will enable stakeholders to
gather formative data that will be used to assess the organization’s sexual violence reporting,
response, support services, and educational initiatives.
Related Literature
The extant literature on sexual violence on college campuses paints a picture of an
environment that is not safe for all students. A review of the literature provides insights into the
specific areas that constitute concern for colleges and universities, generally, and Hometown
University, specifically. This section, designed to provide a glimpse into the development of the
overall problem of practice, will examine a) the typology and prevalence of sexual violence; b)
the characteristics of perpetrators of sexual violence; and c) the impact of reporting and campus
resources on sexual violence.
Sexual violence is complex in nature and idiosyncratic in its prevalence on college and
university campuses. Researchers have developed a common but complex typology defining
sexual assault as non-consensual sexual contact, sexual intercourse, oral sex, anal sex, and/or
sexual penetration with foreign objects including digits. It is also important to recognize that any
incident of sexual assault may include more than one of the described acts (Black et al., 2011;
Carey et al., 2015; Fisher et al., 2000; Johnson, Matthews, & Napper, 2016; Krebs et al., 2007;
Krebs, Lindquist, Warner, Fisher, & Martin, 2009; Sorenson, Joshi, & Sivitz, 2014; Zinzow &
Thompson, 2015). Fisher et al. (2000) learned that the rate of sexual assaults on college
campuses could be as high as 27 per 1000 students per year. Moreover, researchers determined
MANDATORY REPORTING 15

that approximately 91% of women and 52% of men reported that their assailant was known to
them (Black et al., 2011; Fisher et al., 2000). Johnson et al. (2016) indicated that cisgender
women or women whose sex at birth is congruent with their gender identification, gay men, and
bisexual men and women were more likely to report being victims of sexual violence. In
addition, students who are trans-women are 4.5 to 5 times more likely to report being a victim of
sexual assault than cisgender males and females. Sexual violence is an invasive, complex, and
impactful problem faced by colleges and universities today, and the characteristics of
perpetrators are equally complex.
Perpetrators of sexual violence on college campuses are most often men; however, the
characteristics of men who commit sexual violence are nuanced and unclear. In a study of 796
college males, Zinzow and Thompson (2015) learned that 30% had committed at least one act of
sexual assault. In addition, 68% of perpetrators of single acts of sexual assault had committed at
least one other act of a similar or more severe nature within the span of the four-year study. Loh,
Gidycz, and Lobo (2005) reported that fraternity men are three times more likely to engage in
sexually aggressive acts than are unaffiliated men. Krebs et al., (2009) ascertained that 25% of
sexual assaults on incapacitated students were perpetrated by fraternity members. Additionally,
McCarthy (2017) found that 19% of sexual assault perpetrators and 38% of domestic violence
perpetrators were male student-athletes. However, Humphrey and Kahn (2000) ascertained that
not all fraternities and athletic teams were equally disposed to acts of sexual assault and
remarked that some teams and organizations should be categorized as low-risk while others were
high-risk. Although sexual violence is most commonly committed by men, the characteristics of
those men are unclear and make identifying potential assailants nearly impossible. Campus
MANDATORY REPORTING 16

intervention and support are, therefore of vital importance in combating sexual violence on
college and university campuses.
Policies, procedures, and reporting structures are all pivotal pieces in addressing the
problem of campus sexual violence. Fisher et al. (2000) mentioned that less than 10% of sexual
assaults are reported each year. Sexual assault victims cite a fear of reprisal, lack of proof, fear
of not being believed, a belief that the incident was a personal matter, and many other common
reasons for not reporting or seeking help (Fisher et al., 2000; James & Lee, 2015). Students and
administrators generally report confidence in campus processes and procedures (Amar et al.,
2014; Streng & Kamimura, 2016). Amar et.al (2014) state unequivocally that reporting sexual
assaults allows the university to provide resources and promotes help seeking behaviors in
addition to creating a safe campus community by identifying perpetrators and stopping future
incidents on campus. Holland and Cortina (2017) found that victims who received positive
support on campus reported better mental health outcomes; however, mandatory reporting by
faculty and staff may hinder reporting behavior as only 5.8% of respondents stated that they were
very likely to report an assault to campus officials if they were aware of mandatory reporting
policies (Holland et al., 2018). Faculty and staff also express concerns over the perceived
negative impacts of mandatory reporting policies in terms of student outcomes and damage to
student relationships (Holland & Cortina, 2017; Weiss & Lasky, 2017).
Importance of the Evaluation
It was important to evaluate the organization’s performance in relationship to the goal of
faculty staff who are identified as mandatory reporters at Hometown University reporting 100%
of incidents of sexual assault that are disclosed to them. The Dear Colleague Letter produced by
OCR hypothesizes that increasing campus reports of sexual violence will reduce the overall
MANDATORY REPORTING 17

number of incidents and produce positive outcomes for victims (Ali, 2015). Although there is
evidence that campus reporting allows universities to provide better support, identify perpetrators
(Amar et al., 2014), and to create better mental health and recovery outcomes for students
(Holland & Cortina, 2017), the results are not as clear as to the role that mandatory reporting
plays in creating a safe campus. Weiss and Lasky (2017) asserted that mandatory reporting
policies may decrease the likelihood that students will seek out trusted faculty and staff for help
when they have been victims of sexual violence. Also, faculty, staff, and resident assistants who
perceive that students may be harmed by mandatory reporting policies may choose to defy the
policy or avoid conversations with students that might result in their need to report an incident of
sexual violence, which may result in negative recovery and mental health outcomes for students
(Holland & Cortina, 2017). This evaluation will allow Hometown University to understand the
degree to which they are currently meeting their goal and to evaluate particular knowledge,
motivation, and organizational indicators that either contribute to or detract from the stated goal
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
Description of Stakeholder Groups
Hometown University has three key stakeholder groups 1) students, 2) Title IX
Mandatory Reporters, 3) Title IX Non-Mandatory Reporters. The first HU stakeholder group is
students as students are the key consumer of the university. Given that HU’s mission centers
around the education of undergraduate students, they are the reason for the organization’s
existence. HU currently has an enrollment of 1,446 students of which 53.25% are female and
46.74% are male as noted in the HU fact book. Research shows that students are significantly
impacted by sexual violence on university campuses, and their beliefs and experiences related to
MANDATORY REPORTING 18

sexual assault reporting, education, adjudication, and support resources are critical to evaluating
current barriers to sexual assault reporting both real and perceived (Black et al., 2011).
Next, Title IX mandatory reporters are a key stakeholder group, as they interact with
students on a regular basis and develop strong relationships. In April of 2011 when the United
States Office of Civil Rights (OCR) distributed the initial “Dear Colleague” letter that defined
sexual violence on university campuses as a form of gender discrimination under Title IX of the
Education Amendments of 1972, OCR defined the role of the Title IX mandatory reporter (Ali,
2015). OCR stated that universities must require individuals who have the ability to act when
presented with incidents of sexual assault or whom students would infer had the ability to act to
report these incidents to the designated Title IX Coordinator at each institution (Ali, 2015). With
a few exceptions detailed later, most faculty and staff have been placed into this category by
most (69%) of their respective institutions (Holland et al., in press). The university fact book
shows that HU employs roughly 150 full or part time faculty members and over 250
administrative staff members. Of those, all are considered Title IX mandatory reporters except
for seven individuals. Further, the college employs and classifies 32 Resident Assistants, who
are students, as Title IX Mandatory Reporters, because the nature of their job places them in a
position to receive reports of sexual violence from their peers.
Title IX non-mandatory reporters are a group that also must be considered when
evaluating sexual assault reporting behaviors. The United States Office of Civil Rights has
determined that the College Chaplain, Student Health Services professionals, and Counseling
Center staff as outlined in the “Dear Colleague” letter are exempt from mandatory reporting and
should be considered Title IX non-mandatory reporters (Ali, 2015). The Office of Civil Rights
respects the therapeutic relationship that students have with professionals who support their
MANDATORY REPORTING 19

mental, physical, and spiritual health and seeks to avoid causing harm by interfering in those
relationships (Ali, 2015). Non-mandatory reporters are required to report to the Title IX
Coordinator when an incident of sexual violence is reported to them; however, they are not
required to release any identifiable information pertaining to said sexual assaults. The purpose
of the notification is purely for record-keeping. At Hometown University, there are seven
faculty and staff members who are classified as Title IX non-mandatory reporters.
Stakeholders’ Performance Goals
Table 1 describes the organizational mission, global goal, and the goals outlined for individual
stakeholders. The table below describes the individual stakeholder goals that contribute to the
overall organizational performance goal. Further, it demonstrates the connection between the
global goal of creating a safe living and learning environment to develop the ethical and mental
understanding of its students.

MANDATORY REPORTING 20

Table 1. Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of Hometown University is to develop the ethical and mental understanding of its
students.

Organizational Performance Goal
By May of 2021, Hometown University will create a safe living and learning environment for all
students.
Title IX Mandatory Reporters Title IX Non-Mandatory
Reporters
Students
By May 2021, Title IX
mandatory reporters at
Hometown University will
report 100% of incidents of
sexual misconduct.
By May 2021, Title IX non-
mandatory reporters will report
100% of incidents of sexual
misconduct; however, they
will not reveal information that
would identify the victim or
assailant to the Title IX
Coordinator unless asked to do
so by the student.

By May 2021, students
participating in the Step Up!
Bystander Intervention
program will pass an
evaluation with a score of 80%
or better.

Stakeholder Group for the Study
A comprehensive performance study would involve all stakeholders; however, in order
create a more focused and concise assessment, this evaluation study focused on Title IX
Mandatory Reporters as the key stakeholder. Title IX Mandatory Reporters were selected,
because the United States Office of Civil Rights stated that requiring responsible individuals to
report at universities and colleges would ensure appropriate support for victims of sexual
violence and promote a safe campus environment (Ali, 2015). Further, Title IX Mandatory
Reporters make up over 90% of the faculty and staff at Hometown University all of whom have
MANDATORY REPORTING 21

contact with students and are likely to receive reports of sexual violence. As HU seeks to create
a safe living and learning environment for all students, it is important for Title IX Mandatory
Reporters to report 100% of incidents of sexual violence or misconduct to the Title IX
Coordinator. Failure to do so will result in Hometown University not being compliant with the
guidance from the United States Office of Civil Rights and potentially creating a hostile or
unsafe living and learning environment for students.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to evaluate the degree to which Hometown University
has achieved its goal which states that HU will create a safe living and learning environment for
all students by May 2021. The evaluation focused on knowledge, motivation and organizational
influences related to achieving the prior named organizational goal. While a complete
performance evaluation would focus on all stakeholders, the stakeholder of focus in this analysis
was Title IX Mandatory Reporters to create an intentional and manageable evaluation study.
The following questions guided this evaluation study concerning the knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organization influences for Title IX Mandatory Reporters.
1. To what extent has the organization met its goal?
2. What was the stakeholder knowledge and motivation related to the stakeholder goal of
having Title IX Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University report 100% of incidents
of sexual misconduct by May 2021?
3. What was the interaction between organizational culture and context and stakeholder
knowledge and motivation?
4. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
MANDATORY REPORTING 22

Methodological Approach and Rationale
Clark and Estes (2008) asseverated that knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences are the three performance factors that either support or hinder organizational success.
Further, they postulate that gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences are
responsible for the majority, if not all, of the problems that organizations face as they work to
enact their missions and visions (Clark & Estes, 2008). This evaluation study used a modified
version of the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework to determine if gaps were present
in knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences related to Title IX Mandatory Reporters
at Hometown University. In a complete gap analysis, the study would seek to identify and
determine the causes of gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organization influences across all
stakeholders in an organization; however, this study focused solely on determining the presence
of gaps among Title IX Mandatory Reporters (Clark & Estes, 2008).
A qualitative methodology consisting of semi-structured interviews was employed to
evaluate if potential gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences identified in
the extant literature concerning Title IX Mandatory Reporters were present among this
stakeholder group at Hometown University. Further, this study also presents recommendations
for solutions to knowledge, motivation, and organizational influence gaps uncovered during the
completion of this study. Finally, the researcher lays out a plan for evaluating research-based
solutions in an effort to provide Hometown University with the tools necessary to tackle any
assumed gaps in knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences discovered during the
course of this study.

MANDATORY REPORTING 23

Definitions
“Dear Colleague Letter”: in political parlance, a “Dear Colleague” letter is official
correspondence for a government department and/or the Congress. For the purposes of this
study, the term refers to the April 2011 letter issued by the United States Department of
Education Office of Civil Rights that defined sexual violence as a form of gender discrimination.
Sexual violence: Sexual violence is an umbrella term that most often denotes non-
consensual sexual intercourse, non-consensual sexual contact, sexual exploitation, sexual
harassment, dating violence, intimate partner violence, and stalking. The exact definition of the
term elucidates a complex typology explored further in Chapter Two.
Title IX: a portion of the United States Education Amendments passed in 1972 that
prohibits gender discrimination in educational programs and activities receiving federal funding.
Title IX Mandatory Reporter: faculty, staff, or para professional staff members identified
as parties who have contact with students and who are required to report instances of sexual
violence under the guidance provided by the United States Department of Education Office of
Civil Rights and or other state laws such as Virginia Senate Bill 712.
Organization of the Project
A traditional five-chapter dissertation model was used as the organizational structure for
this study. The first chapter elucidates the key concepts and terminology about sexual violence
and mandatory reporting of sexual violence. The mission of Hometown University, their goals,
and stakeholders are introduced, and a review of the evaluation framework is provided. Chapter
Two provides a review of the current extant literature impacting Title IX Mandatory Reporters
on college and university campuses in the United States today, focusing on the typology of
sexual violence, its prevalence, and the theories of accountability related to the reporting of
MANDATORY REPORTING 24

sexual violence. Chapter Three describes, in detail, the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences examined, as well as the methodology of the study in terms of
participant sampling, data collection, and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and results are
presented and analyzed. Finally, Chapter Five provides recommendations for practice, based on
the data and literature. Subsequently, it presents recommendations for implementation and
evaluation.
MANDATORY REPORTING 25

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
This literature review will present the extant literature explaining the challenges
associated with creating safe campus living and learning communities. Equally important, the
review will illuminate the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that the literature
describes as impacting the performance of Title IX Mandatory Reporters as they play their parts
in stopping sexual violence on college and university campuses in the United States. By way of
introduction to the topic, the review will operationalize sexual violence and describe the
prevalent typology that researchers have developed to describe this complicated construct.
Similarly, an overview of the prevalence of sexual violence on college campuses including a
discussion of sexual violence in terms of race and ethnicity, gender expression, and sexual
orientation will be presented. Next, the review will examine common factors related to the
perpetration of sexual violence. This section will explore campus cultures, characteristics of
perpetrators, and experiences associated with sexual violence. Also, an in-depth discussion of the
literature describing Title IX and the accountability theories of action that guide sexual violence
prevention strategies, including mandatory reporting policies, will be included in this review.
Finally, a gap analysis, as described by Clark and Estes (2008) of the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences on those identified as Title IX mandatory reporters and their
capacity or motivation to report incidents of sexual violence concludes the review.
Typology and Prevalence of Sexual Violence on College Campuses

Typology of Sexual Violence

The typology of sexual violence is nuanced, and understanding it is critical to the success
of the efforts of Hometown University and their Title IX Mandatory Reporters to create safe
living and learning environments on the university campus. Sexual violence is an umbrella term
MANDATORY REPORTING 26

encompassing a great number of acts and concepts and was described, in terms of the college
campus, by seminal studies sponsored by the Centers for Disease Control and the National
Criminal Justice Reference Service (Black et al., 2011; Fisher et al., 2000). In general, sexual
violence can be defined as non-consensual sexual intercourse and/or penetration as well as non-
consensual oral-genital contact and/or manual-genital contact (Fisher et al., 2000; Krebs et al.,
2007). Carey et al. (2015) did not include non-consensual sexual contact in their definition of
sexual violence focusing primarily on the traditional definition of rape as vaginal penetration.
Johnson et al. (2016) rejected the heteronormative assertion that vaginal penetration is the
primary mode of sexual violence noting that non-consensual sexual contact of all kinds is
commonly reported on college campuses.
Additionally, sexual coercion, sexual exploitation, sexual harassment (Zinzow &
Thompson, 2017), groping, fondling, other non-consensual contact, and intimidation are all
modes and methods whereby students may be victimized sexually (Forsman, 2017). Although a
consensus on the specifics of sexual violence is not readily apparent in the literature, the clearest
definitions possess two common factors: the behavior is sexual in nature and is non-consensual
(Krebs et.al. 2009). Further, Carey et al. (2015) and Krebs et al. (2007) described sexual
violence dichotomously as either forcible or incapacitated. Although forcible sexual violence
does occur on college campuses, researchers indicate that most instances of sexual violence are
incapacitated in nature and are facilitated through voluntary consumption of alcohol and other
drugs (Johnson et al., 2016; Krebs, 2009).
The primary cause of sexual violence on college campuses is a lack of consent and
respect for another individual not the consumption of alcohol despite the fact that alcohol and
other drugs may facilitate sexual violence (Johnson et al., 2016). Care must be taken not to
MANDATORY REPORTING 27

inadvertently blame survivors of sexual violence for their trauma (Armstrong, Hamilton, &
Sweeny, 2006). Instead, blame must be focused on those who commit such acts, and colleges
and universities must understand the prevalence and causes of these acts on the university
campus if they are to be curtailed.
General Prevalence of Sexual Violence

Examining the prevalence of sexual violence at four-year universities in the United States
paints a conflicting, unclear, and complex portrait of young adults experiencing trauma that has
significant impacts on their lives in both the short and the long term. It is commonly accepted
that 20% of women and 6% of men will experience sexual violence during their college or
university career (Fisher et al., 2007; James & Lee, 2015; Krebs et al., 2007). However, the
picture is a bit messier than it may first appear as some studies report women experiencing
sexual violence at rates of 33.8% or greater (Holland & Cortina, 2017; Sorensen, Joshi, & Sivitz,
2017) and men experiencing sexual violence rates as low as 3.2% (Edwards et al., 2015) or
greater than 28.7% (Sutherland, Amar, & Sutherland, 2014). Fisher et al. (2000) report in their
seminal study that rates of sexual violence could be as high as 27 per 1000 students per year.
The statistics concerning sexual violence often present the problem in a sterile impersonal
manner, and the data fails to characterize the scope of the challenge accurately. Sexual violence
is chronically underreported with only 10% of sexually violent acts being recorded annually
(Black et al., 2011). In fact, students were significantly less likely to report sexual violence
when alcohol was involved for fear of being blamed for their assault (Budd, Rocque, & Biere,
2017). Consequently, students who experience sexual violence report that they encounter long
and short-term impacts such as pregnancy, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (Black et
al., 2011).
MANDATORY REPORTING 28

Further, freshmen and sophomore students are, disproportionately, victimized with most
incidents being reported between the beginning of the academic year and October (Budd et al.,
2017). Sorensen, Joshi, and Sivitz (2014) indicated that 64.4% of the students participating in
their study knew a woman who had been a victim of sexual violence and, they also reported that
52.4% of the students they studied knew at least one male who had committed sexual violence.
The issue is further complicated by the cultural myths that women do not commit sexually
violent acts and that men cannot experience sexual violence (Budd et al., 2017). In fact, student
identities must play a significant part in the way that universities, particularly Title IX
Mandatory Reporters understand the impact of sexual violence in higher education.
Prevalence of Sexual Violence and Complex Student Identities
Studies of sexual violence on college and university campuses have often ignored male
identifying students, race and ethnicity, and sexual minorities, thus presenting the white
cisgender female as the only victim of sexual violence; however, the complex identities that
define students are important to understanding the prevalence of sexual violence in higher
education. Many early studies of sexual violence paid little attention to the unique identities of
students (Fisher et al., 2000). Forsman (2017) expressed that men have been under accounted for
in terms of sexual violence, because the studies did not adequately account for victimization
sources for men. As noted earlier, Budd et al. (2017) described the cultural misconception that
men cannot be victimized as a reason for the lack of resources and effort spent on assessing
sexual violence among men. Men, however, are more likely to experience sexual violence in
college than those who do not attend college (Forsman, 2017). Also, sexual violence in males is
most often, though not exclusively perpetrated, by other males and includes fondling (64%) and
MANDATORY REPORTING 29

sodomy (25%) (Budd et al., 2017). The picture changes at the intersections of race and ethnicity
and gender.
Johnson et al. (2016) found that Black and biracial men and women were more likely to
report victimization. A study of sexual violence among undergraduate students revealed that the
prevalence of sexual violence was greatest among black students (8.7%) and students who
identified as other or biracial (8.6%) while Latino/a, Asian, and Pacific Islander students had the
lowest incidents of sexual violence reported, if only by two percentage points (Coulter et al.,
2017). These findings are contrary to those of a study conducted in the same year reporting that
the majority sexual violence victims are white (80%) (Budd et al., 2017). Discrimination and
bias account for the devaluing of specific groups of people and may increase their risk of sexual
violence particularly when considering the intersectionality of race, sexual orientation, and
gender identity (Coulter et al., 2017).
Examining the prevalence of sexual violence perpetration against sexual minorities at
colleges and universities provides insight into the unique challenges of an often--forgotten
population of students. Duncan (1990) reported in his seminal study on sexual victimization
among university students that life-time incidents of sexual violence were much higher among
all sexual minorities, which was reinforced by later studies (Edwards et al., 2015; Johnson et al.,
2016). Walters et al. (2013) reported that lesbians are less likely to be victims of sexual
violence, but this was disputed by Balsam, Lehavot, and Beadnell (2011) who noted that lesbians
may experience fewer incidents of sexual penetration but significantly higher rates of domestic
and relationship violence. Researchers criticize the aggregation of data into male and female
without regard to sexual orientation and gender expression in most studies as it prevents a clear
understanding of the impact of sexual violence on sexual minorities (Menning & Holtzman,
MANDATORY REPORTING 30

2014; Porter & Williams, 2011; Walters et al., 2013). Coulter et al. (2017) asserted that sexual
violence disproportionately affects specific sexual and gender identities finding that gay men
experienced sexual violence at rates similar to heterosexual females, that bisexual males and
females experienced greater rates of sexual violence than heterosexual females, and that
transgender students faced the most significant rates of sexual violence. In fact, Johnson et al.
(2016) reported that transgender students are up to five times more likely to report sexual
violence than cisgender students. Moreover, homosexual and bisexual students are less likely to
report sexual violence for fear of being outed and ostracized (Balsam et al., 2011). All sexual
minorities are more likely to experience re-victimization and higher instances of substance abuse
and other mental and physical health concerns (Hequembourg, Bimbi, & Parsons, 2011;
Kalichman et al., 2001; Walters et al., 2013). The rates of perpetration of sexual violence on
college campuses are undoubtedly high, and the scope of the problem is not fully understood due
to the complexity of the identities of the students that it affects. Title IX Mandatory Reporters,
however, must understand the types of sexual violence occurring on college campuses and the
prevalence of the problem in addition to the contexts in which sexual violence occurs.
Campus and Environmental Factors Related to the Perpetration of Sexual Violence
Perpetration of Sexual Violence on College and University Campuses
Perpetrators of sexual violence on college campuses are predominately acquaintances,
peers, colleagues, and other community members. Budd et al. (2017) observe that approximately
50% of the perpetrators in their study were known to their victims. Men are consistently shown
to be more likely to commit sexual violence than women (Black et al., 2011); however, when
women are the perpetrators, they are likely to do so against men (Budd et al., 2017). Men are
more likely to experience sexual violence perpetrated by someone of the same sex (83%) (Budd
MANDATORY REPORTING 31

et al., 2017; Forsman, 2017). Consequently, researchers cite hostility toward women (Zinzow &
Thompson, 2015), strict gender roles, and other sexually aggressive behaviors (Loh et al., 2005)
as predictors of sexual assault perpetration. Additionally, Narcissistic Personality Disorder is a
common factor associated with perpetrators of sexual violence (Mouilso & Calhoun, 2016).
Lisak and Miller (2002) observed that race and ethnicity are not significant predictors of sexual
violence perpetration. Budd et al. (2017), however, asserted that 75% of the perpetrators in their
study were white. Lisak and Miller (2002) stated that 85% of the 1225 acts of sexual violence
cited in their study were perpetrated by the 120 participants identified as serial offenders.
Zinzow and Thompson (2015) indicated that 30% of the 796 males in their study had committed
at least one act of sexual violence, and they remarked that single offenders presented significant
child hood adversity while multiple offenders exhibited higher levels of risky behavior such as
alcohol and drug use. Perpetrators of sexual violence are members of the college and university
community, and they are often indistinguishable from friends and colleagues, because they most
often fill those roles as well (Budd et al., 2017). Moreover, perpetrators inhabit classrooms,
student organizations, fraternities, and athletic teams, and Title IX Mandatory Reporters need to
understand the interplay between the perpetrators and the cultural spaces that they occupy.
Fraternities and Athletics
Fraternities and athletic teams are frequently identified as aspects of campus culture that
promote sexual violence; however, the reality is significantly more complicated. Humphrey and
Kahn (2000) found that although fraternity men and athletes are frequently cited as perpetrators
of sexual violence, when ranked by their peers two distinct groups emerged. Some athletic
teams and fraternities were viewed by their peers to be high-risk and some to be low risk, with
the prevailing differences being their attitudes toward high-risk drinking, drug use, and sexually
MANDATORY REPORTING 32

aggressive or permissive behaviors (Humphrey & Kahn, 2000). Fraternity men experience
greater pressure to have sex and receive supportive messages from peers concerning the use of
adverse tactics to acquire sex (Franklin, Bouffard, & Pratt, 2012). Moreover, 49.3% of fraternity
men report engaging in sexual deception on at least one occasion which has a strong correlation
to sexual violence and rape myth acceptance (Seabrook, Ward, & Giaccardi, 2016). Krebs et al.
(2007) reported that 25% of incapacitated sexual assaults were perpetrated by members of
fraternities. Similarly, McCarthy (2017) reports that 19% of sexual assault perpetrators and 38%
of domestic violence perpetrators were male student-athletes, which comprise only 3.3% of all
college students. Consequently, Seabrook, Ward, and Giaccardi (2016) cited toxic masculinity
and the pressure to view others as sexual conquests combined to precipitate a climate that
promotes sexual violence. Further, higher levels of drug and/or alcohol consumption correlate
with fraternity members who reported committing at least one act of sexual violence (Franklin et
al., 2012).
Fraternities often control access to alcohol and social opportunities for underage students
which increases contact with males who are disinhibited by alcohol consumption (Armstrong et
al., 2006). Mustaine and Tewksbury (2002) noted that increased proximity to males with
sexually aggressive attitudes might increase the likelihood of sexual violence. Humphrey and
Kahn (2000) state decisively that not all organizations and teams have sexually aggressive or
permissive attitudes. In fact, Seabrook et al. (2016) specifically state that some fraternities and
athletic teams are models of positive masculinity that others should emulate. An exploration of
the perpetrators of sexual violence and the organizations and teams most closely associated with
them on college campuses leads the researcher to conclude that Title IX Mandatory reporters
also require an understanding of the social context in which these organizations, teams, and
MANDATORY REPORTING 33

individuals operate, because although Title IX Mandatory Reporters work on campus few ever
see or experience what occurs after 5:00pm each day.
Social Events and Party Culture
Understanding campus climate and party culture is pivotal to studying sexual violence
and operationalizing the environment in which sexual violence occurs. Boyle and Walker (2016)
describe the positive correlation between the party environment and the definitions and attitudes
of sexual violence presented by participants. They also suggested that students who do not
participate in party culture were less likely to be victims of sexual violence. In fact, Johnson et
al. (2016) stated that alcohol use in party contexts may facilitate as much as 25% of sexual
assaults on college campuses, while Krebs et al. (2007) specified that between 84% - 90.2% of
sexual assaults on college campuses are alcohol or drug enabled. As discussed earlier, toxic
masculinity and contact with males who have sexual aggressive or permissive attitudes have
been cited as predictors of sexual violence perpetration (Mustaine & Tewksbury, 2002; Seabrook
et al., 2016). The “college experience”, in popular culture, is framed as participating in college
parties and gaining social capital through that participation; however, younger and more
vulnerable students may experience sexual violence at greater rates as many incidents of sexual
violence devolve from social celebrations (Armstrong et al., 2006). Forsman (2017) explains that
excessive drinking and exposure to party culture may explain increased victimization of men as
well.
Social events, in general, are controlled by men on college campuses, which means that
they are the gatekeepers to attaining social capital and creating a power dynamic that some will
take advantage of to perpetrate sexual violence (Armstrong et al., 2006). Further, Mustaine and
Tewksbury (2002) declare that the feminist approach to routine activity theory as it is applied to
MANDATORY REPORTING 34

the college party scene would imply an increase in sexually violent incidents due to the
proximity and contact with males with sexually aggressive attitudes and peer support. Social
events are easily identified as key locations in which sexual violence occurs or is facilitated;
however, in addition to understanding what sexual violence is and how and where it occurs, Title
IX Mandatory Reporters must understand the guidance and accountability theories that created
their role and the expectations that come with it.
Accountability and Title IX
Title IX: Governmental Guidance and Accountability
The Title IX guidance issued by the United States Department of Education’s Office of
Civil Rights and its accompanying follow-up addenda as well as a flurry of state laws have
created a miasma of uncertain and unclear mandates. The intention of the guidance and its
subsequent addenda was to “help schools live up to their obligation to protect students from
sexual violence” (The White House, 2014, p. 2). Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972
prohibits gender discrimination in education, and the guidance received in the subsequent Dear
Colleague letters extended that definition to define sexual violence as gender discrimination (Ali,
2015; Jackson, 2017). Moreover, the SAVES Act extends the reach of the provisions of the
Clery Act through an assertion that sexual violence denies equal access to education (Harper et
al., 2017). In addition, the campus SAVES Act creates transparency mandates surrounding the
reporting of sexual violence across the country (Mancini et al., 2017). Eventually, legislatures
took up the call for action as well, and states passed legislation codifying the Title IX guidance
into law as with Virginia Senate Bill 712 and House Bill 1930 in July of 2015 (Brubaker &
Mancini, 2017).
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Title IX guidance, at its core, establishes a requirement for timely investigation and
adjudication of complaints; eliminates student hearing panels; establishes that processes must be
fair in terms of due process and reciprocity; requires the creation of the Title IX Coordinator
position on each campus; and established the burden of proof for campus hearings (Ali, 2015;
Jackson, 2017). However, the most important guideline for this study was the requirement that
institutions of higher education designate faculty and staff as mandatory reporters (Ali, 2015).
Holland and Cortina (2017) describe the requirement as applying to any faculty or staff member
whom a student would reasonably believe has the ability to remedy a complaint. The guidance
and the associated state laws did provide provisions exempting university chaplains, counselors,
and medical personnel from the requirement (Ali, 2015). Brubaker and Mancini (2017) found
that 60% of the participants in their study believed that mandatory reporting mandates would
increase reporting and victim support services.
The primary criticism of the Title IX guidance is that it offers unclear structures and
creates mandates with no mechanism for uniform application or implementation (Moylan, 2017).
In fact, Mancini et al. (2017) suggested that a lack of clarity in the expectations of the
implementation of the guidance might negate its perceived gains. Additionally, critics also
describe the guidance as paternalistic in scope noting that it equates young adult students with
children and the elderly (Weiss & Lasky, 2017). Moylan (2017) states that victim’s rights
advocates worry that the desire to end gender discrimination in the form of sexual violence is
being eclipsed by compliance fears at institutions of higher education. OCR has continued to
revise and update the Title IX Guidance and several institutions have experienced the terror of a
Title IX investigation by OCR in the time since the practice began in 2011; however, the Trump
administration has reduced the number of investigations and entered into a review phase to
MANDATORY REPORTING 36

assess the effectiveness of the current guidance and to formulate new comprehensive guidelines
which they state will include clear expectations for implementation (Jackson, 2017). The
complex pushes and pulls of the market in the form of parents and students, institutions of higher
education, and state and federal governments are evident as all parties seek to establish a theory
of action that promotes adequate accountability and ends sexual violence (Burke, 2004).
Although the complex and multifaceted Title IX guidance is important, mandatory reporting
mandates may have widespread implications impacting campus stakeholders and the larger issue
of sexual violence.
Mandatory Reporting and its Perceived Impacts and Reception
Mandatory reporting is a mandate designed to increase institutional response and
accountability for sexual violence prevention and remediation that has been variably
implemented at institutions of higher education. Mandatory reporting mandates stem from the
belief that institutions of higher education have not adequately responded to incidents of sexual
violence (Mancini et al., 2016). Further, Brubaker and Mancini (2017) assert that mandatory
reporting mandates are constructed on the premise that they will increase reporting and
adjudication. As stated earlier, the mandates do not stipulate if they should be broadly or
narrowly applied resulting in a menagerie of configurations at institutions across the United
States (Mancini et al., 2017). Consequently, Holland et al. (2018) found that of the colleges and
universities in their study, 69% had designated all faculty and staff as mandatory reporters; 19%
had designated most employees; 4% had named a few; and 8% were ambiguous in their
application of the mandate. Moreover, Brubaker and Mancini (2017) stipulate that Virginia law
requires all faculty and staff be named as mandatory reporters with limited exceptions as
described in House Bill 1930 and Senate Bill 712 which is of particular interest as Hometown
MANDATORY REPORTING 37

University is located in the Commonwealth of Virginia. While mandatory reporting mandates
are intended to increase reporting and in some cases are law, reception of these mandates is often
dependent on their perceived impacts and outcomes for students.
Few people will dispute the need to tackle sexual violence at colleges and universities;
however, the opinions of various stakeholders concerning mandatory reporting mandates is
substantially less concordant. As is evident by the significant number of laws being passed in the
United States codifying mandatory reporting mandates, there is significant wide-spread public
support (90% of respondents) for mandatory reporting (Brubaker & Mancini, 2017).
Additionally, most students (66% of respondents) support the mandates as well; however, many
students (62% of respondents) also believe that their peers will be less likely to report which is
antithetical to the aims of the mandate (Mancini et al., 2016). By comparison, faculty members
and some college and university staff report significant concerns with mandatory reporting
mandates referring to them as forced betrayal of students (Holland et al., 2018). Moreover,
Brubaker and Mancini (2017) described the concerns that campus personnel have about the loss
of confidential spaces for disclosure and the potential unintended impacts on LGBTQ+ students.
Holland and Cortina (2017) concluded that resident assistants might not report, despite the
mandate, if they perceived a negative outcome for their peers. Additionally, faculty and staff cite
a strong belief that mandatory reporting will deter actual numbers of reports (Holland et al.,
2018); however, Mancini et al. (2016) discovered that 59% of students said that mandatory
reporting would increase their likelihood to report as a victim or bystander and that 85% of
faculty would comply. Conversely, Weiss and Lasky (2017) noted that faculty and staff
expressed dismay over the potential for secondary victimization and the mandates seeming
MANDATORY REPORTING 38

disregard of the legitimate reasons why a victim may choose not to discuss an instance of sexual
violence with anyone beyond a trusted advisor or mentor.
Further, Holland et al. (2018) asseverated that loss of control for the victim is the primary
objection of most opponents of mandatory reporting mandates. Similarly, opponents of Title IX
and particularly mandatory reporting argue that the burden of reporting falls disproportionately
on female faculty and staff who by reporting damage their relationships with students, thereby
creating a discriminatory system within a policy designed to create equity (Weiss & Lasky,
2017). The veracity of the various arguments for and against mandatory reporting mandates are
likely to continue for years to come and may be little more than a philosophical debate over the
right course of action; however, mandatory reporting mandates are guidance at a minimum and,
in many states like Virginia, they are law. Therefore, it is imperative that the experiences of
mandatory reporters be understood to facilitate the best outcomes for both mandatory reporters
and victims of sexual violence.
Role of the Stakeholder Group of Focus
Colleges and universities are investing substantial time and resources into efforts
designed to create safe living and learning environments in a climate of uncertainty and
competing accountabilities. With the publication of the April 2011 “Dear Colleague” letter,
colleges and universities were given guidance and expectations related to sexual violence
prevention, adjudication, and education by the United States Office of Civil Rights (OCR; Ali,
2015). Among those expectations provided by OCR was a requirement that colleges and
universities designate mandatory reporters who would be responsible to report, to the Title IX
Coordinator on each campus, any incident of sexual violence reported to them (Ali, 2015). The
definition of who should be designated as a mandatory reporter, however, was not clear (Ali,
MANDATORY REPORTING 39

2015). As a result, many colleges and universities chose to clarify the definition of mandatory
reporters and ensure compliance by naming all faculty, staff, and some paraprofessional students
as mandatory reporters (Moylan, 2017). Hometown University, like 69% of colleges and
universities in the United States, followed suit naming all faculty and staff members Mandatory
Reporters except for university chaplains and student health and counseling staff members
(Moylan, 2017). Additionally, student resident assistants and orientation student staff members
employed by the institution were also identified as mandatory reporters. Holland and Cortina
(2017) found that paraprofessional student staff being identified as mandatory reporters created
unique challenges in terms of accountability and enforcement. Consequently, the literature
suggests that some Title IX Mandatory Reporters resent being asked to report, because they view
the role as depriving the survivor of sexual violence of choice or potentially being an agent of re-
victimization not because they do not think reporting sexual violence is important (Holland &
Cortina, 2017; Moylan, 2017). The conflicting portrait of Title IX Mandatory reporters painted
by the literature as desirous to help but reticent to cause harm by reporting (Moylan, 2017) is in
stark contrast to the public view of reporting as a near universal good (Brubaker & Mancini,
2017). A more nuanced approach to understanding the particular knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors impacting sexual violence on college and university campuses seems to be
necessary and appropriate, and this study will accomplish that task for Hometown University.
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Framework
Performance is a key concern of any organization, and it is imperative that leaders
identify and understand any gaps that exist between actual performance and the selected
performance goal or goals prior to selecting solutions. Clark and Estes (2008) developed a
framework that allows organization leaders to evaluate performance goals and to pinpoint and
elucidate gaps in terms of three influences: knowledge, motivation, and organizational. Further,
MANDATORY REPORTING 40

Clark and Estes (2008) cited these three influences as the principal culprits for performance gaps
in organizations, either individually or in any number of configurations. As an influence on
performance, knowledge refers to the skills and information needed to perform a task or function
optimally, and it is divided into a typology which additionally describes knowledge as factual;
conceptual; procedural; or metacognitive (Clark & Estes, 2008; Krathwohl, 2002). Motivation
was identified by Clark and Estes (2008) as perhaps the most influential factor that creates
performance gaps. Additionally, motivation is affected by emotions, expectancy values, self-
efficacy, and attributions as each of these either motivates or demotivates an individual from
beginning a task; persisting to completion of a task; or exerting the mental effort to reach the
goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Moreover, Clark and Estes (2008) cited
organizational influences as the final factor that creates performance gaps by describing internal
work processes; cultural and contextual concerns; and insufficient resources as significant causes
of organizational barriers to goal achievement (Clark & Estes, 2008). Consequently, the section
that follows will illustrate the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that
affect Title IX Mandatory Reporters as they seek to meet their goal of reporting 100% of sexual
violence incidents at Hometown University by 2021 (Clark & Estes, 2008). Finally, the assumed
influences will be evaluated using the methodology detailed in Chapter Three.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
Knowledge is a key factor in reaching organizational goals and objectives and in
overcoming organizational challenges and problems. Clark and Estes (2008) identified
knowledge as one of the cornerstones of their gap analysis model which provides organizations
with a framework from which to evaluate organizational goal achievement potential. Moreover,
MANDATORY REPORTING 41

organization leaders must understand the degree to which the stakeholders in their respective
organizations possess the skills and acquired schema to adequately reach the goals of the
organization and to tackle problems (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). Research shows that
learning is not one-dimensional (Alexander, Schallert, & Reynolds, 2009) and requires that
previous information and experiences be ordered and reordered into schema that can be recalled
forming what we call knowledge and learning (Carpenter, 2002; Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011).
Knowledge gaps are present when stakeholders lack information or know-how to
accomplish organizational goals or when the field is changing in such a way as to create the need
for innovative solutions (Clark & Estes, 2008). Further, organizational leaders must understand
the nature of the knowledge or skill gap to develop the right solution to move the organization
forward (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). In addition to understanding the role of knowledge
in accomplishing organizational goals, it is also crucial to explain the types of knowledge that
stakeholders must possess.
Knowledge influences. The typology of knowledge can be distilled into four general
areas, including procedural knowledge, factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, and
metacognitive knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). A stakeholder demonstrates mastery
of procedural knowledge by showing their ability to complete a process (Krathwohl, 2002;
Rueda, 2011). A mandatory reporter correctly and accurately completing a sexual violence
reporting form in the presence of an evaluator would be an example of a mastery of procedural
knowledge. Further, an example of the mastery of factual knowledge is exhibited when a
stakeholder can accurately recall vocabulary related to sexual violence, because factual
knowledge is characterized as basic knowledge such as terminology (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda,
2011). According to Krathwohl (2002) and Rueda (2011), conceptual knowledge pertains to
MANDATORY REPORTING 42

broad concepts, models, and areas of knowledge. Consequently, understanding and being able to
synthesize the broad concepts incorporated in the term sexual violence accurately during an
interview or in an essay would be an example of conceptual knowledge mastery. Finally,
metacognitive knowledge is defined by Krathwohl (2002) and Rueda (2011) as pertaining to the
stakeholder’s knowledge of their own thought processes and understandings. An example of
metacognitive knowledge attainment would be a stakeholder’s ability to articulate, to an
interviewer their thoughts and self-talk when reporting sexual violence.
Identifying missing knowledge types is a vital part of conducting a gap analysis (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Specifically, the works of Krathwohl (2002) and Rueda (2011) allow researchers to
understand the type of knowledge deficits that may be identified through a gap analysis study
(Clark & Estes, 2008). This study will focus on three knowledge influences including a)
mandatory reporters need to understand the typology of sexual violence (conceptual), b)
mandatory reporters need to know how to report incidents of sexual violence (procedural), and c)
mandatory reporters need to know how to reflect on their conversations with students about
university policy concerning sexual violence and mandatory reporting (metacognitive).
Conceptualization of the typology of sexual violence. For mandatory reporters to report
100% of the incidents of sexual violence disclosed to them, they must understand the complexity
of the term sexual violence. Black et al., (2011) and Fisher et al., (2002) describe sexual
violence as encompassing any non-consensual sexual act or contact including oral sex,
intercourse, or the penetration of any orifice. In essence, mandatory reporters must be able to
classify specific situations disclosed to them as fitting within this rather disparate list of acts that
are termed sexual violence due to their non-consensual nature and the traumatic impact they have
on the victim (Black et al., 2011; Zinzow & Thompson, 2015).
MANDATORY REPORTING 43

The ability to classify incidents as sexual violence correctly would demonstrate a mastery
of conceptual knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Further, Holland and Cortina (2017)
learned that mandatory reporters who had more accurate knowledge were more likely to report
incidents of sexual violence. They did, however, note that knowledge and motivation may have
a multiplicative effect and that knowledge alone may not be sufficient to inspire reporting.
Finally, mandatory reporters must not only be able to classify incidents of sexual violence, but
they must understand how to report those incidents as well.
Reporting incidents of sexual violence. As stated prior, the United Stated Office of Civil
Rights required that colleges and universities name mandatory reporters (Ali, 2015) and 69% of
United States colleges and universities have designated all faculty and staff members, save those
in medical and spiritual support roles, as mandatory reporters in an effort to maintain compliance
(Holland, et al., in press). Krathwohl (2002) and Rueda (2011) define procedural knowledge as
knowing how to complete a designated task. Further, mandatory reporters demonstrate mastery
of the procedural knowledge necessary to report incidents of sexual violence accurately by
correctly submitting the appropriate documentation online while being observed by the
investigator. Moreover, research demonstrates that confidence in campus response protocols
and procedures is generally high (Amar et al., 2015; Streng & Kamimura, 2016) and that correct
knowledge of how to report along with trust in campus processes reinforces the reporting
mandate and generates more reports (Holland & Cortina, 2017). In addition to a solid body of
knowledge pertaining to sexual violence typology and reporting procedures, mandatory reporters
must be able to reflect on their own thought processes as they fulfill their roles reporters.
Reflection on the role of the mandatory reporter. Meta-cognitive knowledge is key for
strategic planning, contextual analysis, and reflection (Baker, 2006; Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda,
MANDATORY REPORTING 44

2011). Baker (2006) noted that overall performance is improved through meta-cognitive
knowledge. In addition, he hypothesized that increased self-awareness and meta-cognitive
control positively affects knowledge transfer from one context to another. Meta-cognitive
knowledge is critical to the strategic implementation of mandatory reporting, because it improves
the ability of mandatory reporters to understand their own perspective and to order and re-order
schema in such a way as to improve overall performance (Baker, 2006; Mayer, 2011).
In a study by Holland and Cortina (2017), a significant three-way interaction was found
to exist between knowledge of sexual violence and reporting procedures, institutional trust, and
perceptions of mandatory reporting. Further, research shows that all three vary significantly by
individual (Holland & Cortina, 2017; Moylan, 2017; Weiss & Lasky, 2017). By engaging in
self-reflection, mandatory reporters will be able to articulate their perceptions of mandatory
reporting (Baker, 2006; Holland & Cortina, 2017). Moreover, they will be able to help
Hometown University to identify potential barriers to compliance, ways to increase institutional
trust, and knowledge of sexual violence and reporting procedures (Baker, 2006; Holland &
Cortina, 2017).
Table 2 contains three knowledge influences, one of which focuses on conceptual
knowledge, one of which focuses on procedural knowledge, and one of which focuses on
metacognitive knowledge. These motivational influences will be used as part of an abridged
Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis to determine how knowledge impacts mandatory reporters at
Hometown University.

MANDATORY REPORTING 45

Table 2.
Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Types, and Knowledge Assessment
Organizational Mission
The mission of Hometown University is to develop the ethical and mental understanding of its
students.

Organizational Global Goal
By May 2021, Hometown University will create a safe living and learning environment for all
students.
Stakeholder Goal

By May 2021, Title IX Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University will report 100% of
incidents of sexual misconduct.
Assumed Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence Assessment
Mandatory reporters need to
understand the typology of sexual
violence.
Conceptual Mandatory reporters were asked to
summarize in their own words the
typology of sexual violence in an
interview.
Mandatory reporters need to know
how to report incidents of sexual
violence.
Procedural Mandatory reporters were asked to
describe the procedure for reporting
incidents of sexual assault.
Mandatory reporters need to be
able to reflect on their thought
processes as they complete their
roles as mandatory reporters.
Metacognitive Mandatory reporters were asked, in
an interview, to reflect on their
thought processes as they complete
their roles as mandatory reporters.

Motivation
According to Mayer (2011), “motivation is an internal state that initiates and maintains
goal directed behavior” (p. 39). Likewise, Clark and Estes (2008) and Rueda (2011) indicate that
the three common motivational challenges agreed upon by researchers include a lack of active
choice, persistence, and/or mental effort. They explain that active choice is initiating a task rather
than putting it off until later, while persistence refers to the ability to eliminate distractions and
MANDATORY REPORTING 46

less important competing tasks to reach an ultimate organizational or personal goal; finally,
mental effort describes the necessary concentration and focus needed to complete the desired
task or goal. Further, Rueda (2011) states that motivation is cultural and learned through our
interactions with others. In terms of reporting sexual violence, mandatory reporters must
believe that there will be a positive outcome for victims, that reporting is beneficial to the victim
and the institution, and that reporting will not be detrimental to any of the actors involved.
Beliefs, although not always accurate, are vital to understanding motivation and its impact on
effectiveness (Clark & Estes, 2008).
This literature review will examine two motivation theories and three motivational
influences. First, attribution theory suggests that people want to understand why specific events
occur (Anderman & Anderman, 2006) and the degree of control that they can exercise over those
events (Rueda, 2011). Research shows that mandatory reporters who attribute positive outcomes
for victims are more likely to be motivated to report incidents of sexual violence (Holland &
Cortina, 2017). Second, expectancy value theory asks if a person believes that they can
accomplish a task or goal and if they want to accomplish said task or goal (Eccles, 2006). The
limited research available shows that mandatory reporters who view reporting in a positive light
and believe in a positive outcome for victims are more likely to report (Holland & Cortina, 2017)
while those who perceive negative outcomes or impacts for victims are less likely to report
(Holland & Cortina, 2017; Moylan, 2017; Weiss & Lasky, 2017). Finally, this literature review
will examine three motivational influences: a) mandatory reporters should feel that reporting will
result in a positive outcome for the victim, b) mandatory reporters should see how students and
the institution benefit from reporting incidents of sexual violence, and c) mandatory reporters
should see little cost in terms of negative impacts on victims.
MANDATORY REPORTING 47

Attribution theory. At its core, attribution theory examines success and failure and
attempts to explain the reasons for both as well as to clarify the degree of control a person has in
relation to success and/or failure (Rueda, 2011). Anderman and Anderman (2006) and Rueda
(2011) state that individuals who encounter success or failure in achieving a goal or completing a
task will seek the cause through attribution. They also discuss that the precise attribution is not
as significant as the causal dimensions identified by the individual, which are identified as locus,
stability, and control (Anderman & Anderman, 2006).
The causal dimensions define the type of attribution and how the defined attribute
impacts behavior. Anderman and Anderman (2006) noted that locus refers to whether the
individual believes the attribution is internal or external. Further, they state that stability refers
to the likelihood that that situation or attribution will change if presented with a different
situation or a change in timing. In addition, they also describe control as the ability of the
individual to command or change the situation. Finally, it is important to point out that research
shows that attributions impact behavior because of the effect they have on the beliefs and
motivation of the individual (Anderman & Anderman, 2006; Rueda, 2011).
Mandatory reporter attribution. Attribution theory plays a significant role in
determining mandatory reporter attitudes, perceptions, and motivations for reporting. Holland
and Cortina (2017) determined that mandatory reporters who attributed reporting with a positive
outcome for students were more likely to report. Conversely, faculty and staff named as
mandatory reporters sometimes attributed negative outcomes to their role as a mandatory
reporter and viewed their role as forced betrayal (Holland et al., 2018). Further, campus officials
report that mandatory reporting policies are often broad and vague and re-victimize students by
removing their choice to take actions that they deem appropriate (Moylan, 2017; Weiss & Lasky,
MANDATORY REPORTING 48

2017). These findings are in sharp contrast to Amar et al. (2014) who state that campus officials
report relatively positive opinions of campus policies and procedures. The change in the three
years between the two studies may be due, in part, to growing campus regulation and pushes for
compliance (Moylan, 2017) and the attributed belief by campus mandatory reporters that
students are not receiving positive outcomes (Anderman & Anderman, 2006; Holland & Cortina,
2017; Weiss & Lasky, 2017).
Hometown University must understand if their mandatory reporters attribute reporting
with positive outcomes for students. As noted earlier, research has held that the positive or
negative attribution of the student’s experience as a result of reporting influences their
motivation to report (Holland & Cortina, 2017; Holland et al., 2018). Anderman and Anderman
(2006) state that the causal dimensions of attribution are connected to emotions. In this case, the
attribution is highly related to whether the mandatory reporter feels or experiences positive
emotions such as hopefulness and pride in relation to the student’s outcome following reporting
(Anderman & Anderman, 2006; Holland & Cortina, 2017). The value that mandatory reporters
place on their role as mandatory reporters versus the cost of fulfilling that role are also key
components to understanding the motivation of this critical stakeholder group.
Expectancy value theory. Expectancy value theory attempts to explain whether an
individual feels capable of reaching a goal or completing a task and if they choose to reach or
complete said goal or task (Eccles, 2006). Like attribution theory, Eccles (2006) linked
expectancy value theory to beliefs about achievement. Further, individuals who have high
achievement expectancy are likely to be more motivated and to persist in more difficult
challenges (Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Individuals are more likely to actively choose to begin
MANDATORY REPORTING 49

a challenge, goal, or task if they see a high level of value in its pursuit (Clark & Estes, 2008,
Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011).
Eccles (2006) states that the four value dimensions are a) intrinsic value, b) attainment
value, c) utility value, and d) cost. First, intrinsic value is endemic in activities, challenges, and
goals that an individual is interested in or enjoys (Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Second,
attainment value is found in goals and challenges related to an individual’s identity and their
perceptions of the importance of success in meeting those goals and challenges (Eccles, 2006;
Rueda, 2011). Next, utility value is related to an individual’s belief that a task or challenge is
useful or necessary for reaching some future objective either as an individual or as an
organization (Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Finally, Eccles (2006) and Rueda (2011) state that
cost is associated with what the individual or organization must give up or sacrifice to reach a
stated goal or objective. They further suggest that a perceived high cost affects whether an
individual will choose to accomplish a goal or task. Expectancy value theory explains if
someone believes they can achieve a goal and whether they value it enough to see it through to
completion (Eccles, 2006). For Hometown University to realize its goal of creating a safe living
and learning community for all students, they must understand if a) mandatory reporters see how
students and the institution benefit from reporting incidents of sexual violence (utility value), and
b) mandatory reporters should perceive little cost in terms of negative impacts to victims from
reporting incidents of sexual violence (perceived cost).
Perceived utility value of mandatory reporting. Holland and Cortina (2017) found that
mandatory reporters who have positive views of their role are more likely to comply with policy
and to report incidents of sexual violence. Conversely, Holland et al. (2018) asserted that
mandatory reporters who had negative views of their role as mandatory reporters would be much
MANDATORY REPORTING 50

less likely to comply and report incidents of sexual violence to campus authorities. More
research is needed to see if mandatory reporters who perceive their role in a positive way place
primary value on creating a safe campus and whether they see the utility value in compliance as
a way to accomplish that goal.
Campus administrators, faculty, and responsible students such as resident assistants are
all unique populations that share the designation of mandatory reporters on 69% of United States
colleges and universities (Holland et al., 2018). Many campus administrators report strong
beliefs that policies and procedures, including mandatory reporting, are creating safer campuses
(Amar et al., 2014). However, the results for faculty and resident assistants are mixed. Some
faculty report being skeptical of the usefulness of mandatory reporting (Holland et al., 2018;
Weiss & Lasky, 2017). Meanwhile, resident assistant results are significantly tied to their
perceptions of their role and their individual level of confidence that reporting will create a
beneficial outcome for the victim (Holland & Cortina, 2017). As stated earlier, more research is
needed to disaggregate these populations from the broad mandatory reporter stakeholder group to
assess their individual beliefs about the utility value of mandatory reporting.
Perceived cost of mandatory reporting. The goal of mandatory reporting policies is to
create safe campuses and to remove threats to student safety once identified (Ali, 2015).
Expectancy value theory tells us that perceived cost, when it is too great, can have a negative
impact on choice (Eccles, 2006). It is, therefore, vital that Hometown University understand the
perceived costs related to mandatory reporting in terms of negative impacts on victims if they are
to reach their stakeholder goal of having mandatory reporters disclose 100% of incidents of
sexual violence by 2020.
MANDATORY REPORTING 51

Holland and Cortina (2017) maintain that mandatory reporters who perceive a negative
impact on the victim may choose not to disclose despite being directed to do so by policy which
is congruent with perceived cost (Eccles, 2006). Further, some mandatory reporters and campus
advocates believe that compelled disclosure re-traumatizes victims and delays recovery, because
it takes away the victim’s ability to control who know what and when about their experience
(Holland et al., 2018; Moylan, 2017; Weiss & Lasky, 2017). Moylan (2017) further cautioned
that the desire of campuses to force disclosure and to pursue each incident even without the
consent of the victim may inhibit overall reporting. These findings are consistent with Holland
and Cortina’s (2017) study, which noted that outcomes perceived by victims and others to be
negative due to the actions or inaction of the institution impact the likelihood of resident
assistants to comply with mandatory reporting. Finally, Weiss and Lasky (2017) postulate that
mandatory reporting policies may cause students to avoid conversations with otherwise trusted
members of the faculty or staff. The unintended consequence is to potentially further traumatize
a victim of sexual violence by removing a trusted source of comfort and support at a time when
the victim feels most vulnerable.
Table 3 contains three motivational influences one of which focuses on attribution theory
and two on expectancy value theory. These motivational influences will be used as part of an
abridged Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis to determine how motivation impacts mandatory
reporters at Hometown University.

MANDATORY REPORTING 52

Table 3
Motivational Influences and Motivational Influence Assessments
Organization
The organization exerts considerable influence on performance, and a gap analysis
focusing only on the internal motivation and knowledge of individuals would be incomplete
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Clark and Estes (2008) note that organizational barriers to change are
usually linked to a lack of resources; ineffective, inefficient, or unclear work processes; and/or
value chains and streams issues. Further, organizational culture defines the context of the
organization in terms of its values and operational practices (Clark & Estes, 2008). Schein
(2004) and Bolman and Deal (2013) asseverated that organizational culture is the product of the
shared learning of an organization, as well as the process by which an organization teaches those
Organizational Mission
The mission of Hometown University is to develop the ethical and mental understanding of its
students.

Organizational Global Goal
By May 2021, Hometown University will create a safe living and learning environment for all
students.
Stakeholder Goal
By May 2021, Title IX Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University will report 100% of
incidents of sexual misconduct.
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Attributions – Mandatory Reporters should feel
that reporting will result in a positive outcome
for the victim.
Assessed by interview protocol
Sample – Describe what happens when a
student reports sexual violence?

Utility Value – Mandatory Reporters should see
how students and the institution benefit from
reporting incidents of sexual violence
Assessed by interview protocol
Sample – Describe the benefits, if any, of
reporting sexual violence?
Cost – Mandatory Reporters should perceive
little cost in terms negative impacts to victims
from reporting incidents of sexual violence.
Assessed by interview protocol
Sample – What is the typical outcome from a
report of sexual violence?
Describe the costs, if any, of reporting sexual
violence?
MANDATORY REPORTING 53

experiences to new members. Clark and Estes (2008) described the conflicting views of culture
within an organization by noting that some scholars see culture as the organizational
environment while others view it as either a function of groups or individuals within the
organization. Consequently, organizations develop unique ways of doing things and beliefs
about their work and work processes (Bolman & Deal, 2013; Schein, 2004). Moreover,
organizational culture is the filter through which all change initiatives must pass (Clark & Estes,
2008). All change must be enacted within the context of the organization and is, therefore,
subject to the influences of organizational culture (Clark & Estes, 2008; Schein, 2004). To
implement successful initiatives, the organizational culture must be clarified and analyzed.
Cultural models and settings. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) framed the concept of
organizational culture dichotomously as cultural models or unseen ways of thinking within an
organization and cultural settings or the shared processes by which organizations work to
accomplish their goals. These two concepts allow researchers to classify organizational
influences and to more accurately describe the influences in an organization while still exploring
the complexity of organizational culture (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001; Schein, 2004).
Further, cultural models and settings crystalize the often vague descriptions of organizational
culture and provide a clear way to explain the organizational influences on Title IX Mandatory
Reporters at Hometown University (Clark & Estes, 2008; Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
Consequently, cultural models and settings serve as the primary framework for analyzing
organizational influences on the primary stakeholder in this study (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
Cultural model 1: trust in institutional procedures and policies. Title IX Mandatory
reporters must trust institutional procedures and policies for investigating and adjudicating
MANDATORY REPORTING 54

incidents of sexual violence on campus to accomplish Hometown University’s stakeholder and
organizational goals. Bolman and Deal (2013) noted that when organizational participants have
trust in processes and procedures, they are more likely to accept and support directives and
change initiatives. Perceptions of the fairness of organizational policies and procedures are
shown to have significant impacts on compliance and motivation (Korsgaard, Brodt, &
Whitener, 2002). Consequently, Holland and Cortina (2017) speculated that trust in
organizational policies and procedures related to sexual violence on campus predicted whether
resident assistants identified as mandatory reporters would carry out their responsibility to report.
Faculty members were also less likely to report if they perceived a negative outcome for students
(Holland et al., 2018). Amar et al. (2014) stated that administrators in their study possessed a
high level of trust and confidence in their policies and procedures. Similarly, support for
mandatory reporting policies and trust in their ability to reduce sexual violence on college
campuses are evident in another study, with 66% of students supporting mandatory reporting as
well as 85% of faculty complying with a mandatory reporting directive (Mancini et al., 2016).
The conflicting results in the extant literature concerning support and compliance with
mandatory reporting directives can be traced to whether a mandatory reporter believes that the
organization is trustworthy and fair, and that it will create a positive outcome for both the
complainant and the respondent (Holland & Cortina, 2017; Holland et al., 2018; Mancini et al.,
2016; Mancini et al., 2017; Moylan, 2017; Weiss & Lasky, 2017).
Title IX Mandatory Reporters were created by the United States Office of Civil Rights
due to a broader lack of trust in the policies and practices that institutions of higher education
were using to investigate and adjudicate incidents of sexual violence (Ali, 2015; Brubaker &
Mancini, 2017). Colleges and universities created Title IX Mandatory Reporters and revised
MANDATORY REPORTING 55

college policies and procedures to respond to the Title IX Guidance as well as claims of
institutional disinterest and betrayal (Burke, 2004; Moylan, 2017). The debate over the
effectiveness of these changes continues as presidential administrations change the Title IX
guidance (Ali, 2015; Jackson, 2017) and researchers produce conflicting reports (Holland &
Cortina, 2017; Mancini et al., 2017; Weiss & Lasky, 2017). As the discussion continues
nationally, Hometown University must evaluate its organizational culture to determine if there is
trust in their policies and procedures if they hope to accomplish their stakeholder and
organizational goals (Clark & Estes, 2008; Holland & Cortina, 2017).
Cultural setting 1: intentional selection of mandatory reporters. Work processes
define how people and resources interact to achieve a desired outcome (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Part of improving performance is correctly identifying problems in work processes and
remediating those problems (Clark & Estes, 2008). Schein (2004) articulated that failure to
understand how role realignment will impact the greater organization creates resistance and a
lack of organizational trust. Change is more difficult to embrace when members of the
organization do not feel that they are participants in the process of change (Schein, 2004).
Accordingly, the creation of Title IX Mandatory Reporters occurred as a consequence of
the Title IX guidance issued by the Dear Colleague Letter issued in April 2011 (Ali, 2015) and
has been continued by the Trump administration in its revised guidance (Jackson, 2017). The
original Dear Colleague letter conjectured that increased reporting of sexual violence by faculty
and staff would create safe living and learning environments (Ali, 2015; Brubaker & Mancini,
2017). As part of the Title IX guidance, colleges and universities were required to identify
mandatory reporters, identified as anyone that a student believed would have the ability to
address and remedy a claim of sexual violence (Ali, 2015; Brubaker & Mancini, 2017). Notably,
MANDATORY REPORTING 56

the guidance was vague and provided unclear instructions on how to identify mandatory
reporters. Holland, Cortina, and Freyd (2017) outlined the response of college and universities
and found that of the 150 schools studied 69% had named all faculty and staff as mandatory
reporters, 19% had named most faculty and staff, and 4% had named only a few faculty and staff
members. Further, para professional student staff such as resident assistants were in many cases
named as mandatory reporters (Holland & Cortina, 2017). The impact of broadly identifying
mandatory reporters has produced mixed results in the literature.
The creation and implementation of mandatory reporters on college and university
campuses was done quickly and in many cases encompassed the majority of faculty, staff, and
some para professional student workers. Moylan (2017) characterized the implementation and
selection of Title IX Mandatory reporters as seeking to decrease institutional liability and
provide maximum accountability compliance without considering the impact on survivors.
Moreover, researchers report that college and university faculty worry about the impact that
mandatory reporting has on their relationships with students and survivor recovery due to re-
victimization (Holland et al., 2018; Weiss & Lasky, 2017). Other researchers have found that
mandatory reporting directives are highly supported by the public (Mancini et al., 2017) and by a
majority of students (Mancini et al., 2016). Consequently, mandatory reporters must be selected
to meet conflicting accountabilities while not including unnecessary faculty/staff/student
members of the college community to meet Hometown University’s stakeholder and
organizational goals.
Cultural setting 2: clear guidelines and feedback. Title IX mandatory reporters need
clear goals and feedback to improve performance. Schein (2004) declared that simply stating
goals and a mission is not adequate to generate performance, because subcultures within the
MANDATORY REPORTING 57

organization may attempt to reach those goals in vastly different ways. Further, when
performance goals are ambiguous, Title IX mandatory reporters may not understand expectations
or pursue a course of action that best addresses personal needs or career advancement (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Only by setting clear performance and organizational goals and by providing
frequent feedback and clarification can organizations expect to reach their goals (Clark & Estes,
2008; Schein, 2004). Schein (2004) articulates that “feedback is not any old comment or
observation of ‘how things are going’; feedback is specific information on whether the results are
on target or are deviating from the target” (p.160). Without proper goal setting and feedback, no
degree of knowledge or motivation can produce the desired outcome (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Title IX mandatory reporters were created to promote safe living and learning
environments through increased reporting and adjudication of sexual violence (Brubaker &
Mancini, 2017). However, Moylan (2017) reports that the focus of Title IX mandatory reporting
seems to have shifted from its purpose of assisting survivors and halting gender discrimination
toward managing institutional liability through rigid compliance without consideration for the
survivor. Researchers acknowledge that the ambiguous guidance provided by the Office of Civil
Rights has created a climate in which colleges and universities must develop policies,
procedures, goals and expectations for mandatory reporters in non-uniform ways (Harper et al.,
2017; Holland et al., 2018; Holland & Cortina, 2017). As the guidance from the Office of Civil
Rights continues to change, colleges and universities struggle to adapt and to create measurable
performance goals, policies, and work processes that meet the disparate calls for accountability
(Ali, 2015; Clark & Estes, 2008; Harper et al., 2017; Moylan, 2017). Finally, feedback, though
vital, is something that colleges and universities are failing to provide Title IX mandatory
reporters (Moylan, 2017). Moylan (2017) discusses the fear that campus leaders possess of OCR
MANDATORY REPORTING 58

investigation and posits that fear of liability and lack of compliance prevents campus leaders
from creating a better environment for students and for Title IX mandatory reporters. To create a
cultural setting in which organizational and performance goals are articulated, institutions of
higher education must conquer their fear of liability (Moylan, 2017). Further, colleges and
universities must set and communicate clear goals and develop systems and work processes that
provide clear and supportive feedback to Title IX mandatory reporters (Clark & Estes, 2008;
Schein, 2004).
Table 4 contains one cultural model and two cultural settings. These organizational
influences will be used as part of an abridged Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis to determine
how organizational culture impacts mandatory reporters at Hometown University.
Table 4.
Organizational Influences and Organizational Assessment
Organizational Mission
The mission of Hometown University is to develop the ethical and mental understanding of its
students.

Organizational Global Goal
By May 2021, Hometown University will create a safe living and learning environment for all
students.
Stakeholder Goal
By May 2021, Title IX Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University will report 100% of
incidents of sexual misconduct.
Assumed Mandatory Reporter
Organizational Influences
Assumed Mandatory Reporter
Organizational Influences Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 2:
Mandatory reporters must trust institutional
procedures for investigating and
adjudicating sexual violence.
Interviews conducted to determine the level of
trust that mandatory reporters have in
institutional procedures for investigating and
adjudication sexual violence.
Sample – Describe your level of confidence in
institutional procedures for investigating and
adjudicating sexual violence.
Cultural Setting Influence 1:
Mandatory reporters must be selected to
Interviews conducted to determine if mandatory
reporters believe they should be mandatory
MANDATORY REPORTING 59

meet conflicting accountabilities while not
including unnecessary faculty/staff/student
members of the college community
reporters based on the Title IX guidance
definition.
Sample – What does it mean to you to be a
Mandatory Reporter?
Cultural Setting Influence 2:
Mandatory reporters need clear goals and
feedback to improve performance.
Interview conducted to determine if goals and
feedback for mandatory reporters are adequate.
Sample – Describe the feedback you are
provided as a mandatory reporter.

A Conceptual Framework of the Study Integrating Knowledge, Motivation, and
Organizational Influences
The conceptual framework is the architecture upon which a study is elucidated, built, and
clarified. Maxwell (2013) defined that a conceptual framework is the summation of the
theoretical and empirical research about a topic, thought exercises, and personal experiences.
Although Merriam and Tisdale (2016) used the term theoretical framework, they ultimately
discuss the same fundamental ideas. The conceptual framework is a tool that allows the
researcher to connect their understanding or experience surrounding a phenomenon to theoretical
and empirical research to identify past findings and theories and potential new avenues of
research (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdale, 2016). Consequently, the conceptual framework
serves to position the current study within the extant body of knowledge surrounding the topic
(Merriam & Tisdale, 2016). Further, the conceptual framework presents the research theory or
theories that drive a study. (Maxwell, 2013).
Merriam and Tisdale (2016) state unequivocally that all research has a theoretical base;
however, researchers often do not take adequate time to develop their conceptual framework in
such a way that it is able to facilitate the clarification of their implicit and explicit theories. The
development of a conceptual framework is a key factor in making sense of the connections that a
study tries to draw between various theories, concepts, and findings (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam &
MANDATORY REPORTING 60

Tisdale, 2016). Finally, the development of the conceptual framework is guided by our own
experiences or worldviews as they allow us to make sense of the prevailing literature and provide
context to our theoretical understanding (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdale, 2016). Merriam
and Tisdale (2016) note that many researchers conducting qualitative research, like the study
presented here, struggle to develop a conceptual framework, because the researchers view the
role of qualitative research as inductive and evolving not as hypothesis and theory testing. As
previously stated, all research begins with theories either implicitly or explicitly; therefore, a
conceptual framework can be iterative and developed inductively along with the research design
and study (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016).
The conceptual framework presented in this work positions the current study in the extant
body of literature concerning sexual violence on college campuses and presents a model for
evaluation. The general literature reviewed in Chapter Two describes the body of literature
pertaining to sexual violence on college campuses including the typology and prevalence of
sexual violence, the perpetration of sexual violence, and the role of campus climate including,
party culture, the role of fraternities and athletics, and a review of Title IX accountability. The
current study is positioned at the confluence of the literature pertaining to sexual violence on
campuses and the accountability theories derived from the literature on Title IX accountability.
In fact, Title IX mandatory reporters did not exist as a stakeholder until 2011 (Ali, 2015).
The conceptual framework, then, allows the researcher to understand not only the
position of the current study in the literature pertaining to sexual violence but to connect the
concepts in the literature with the researcher’s personal experiences. With the researcher being
the primary instrument, personal experiences working with Title IX mandatory reporters and
being a Title IX mandatory reporter facilitates the creation of a theoretical framework that
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describes the relationships between these interactions and influences to inform the current study
(Merriam & Tisdale, 2017). Further, the assumed knowledge, motivation, and organization
influences, were presented individually in Chapter Two; however, Clark and Estes (2008)
explicitly note that these three types of influences do not exist alone, and their interactions are
fundamentally tied to organization and stakeholder performance. Consequently, the conceptual
framework presented in Figure 1 describes the interaction of Title IX mandatory reporter
(stakeholder) knowledge and motivation influences with Hometown University (organization)
cultural models and settings (Clark & Estes, 2008). Finally, the conceptual model demonstrates
that the interaction of these knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences affect
Hometown University’s ability to reach its organizational and stake holder goals, which is
congruent with the model presented by Clark and Estes (2008).

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Figure 1. An integrated conceptual framework illustrating the interactions of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences.
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The conceptual framework of the study presented in this work is outlined in Figure 1 and
describes the relationships between and interactions among the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational (KMO) influences on Title IX mandatory reporters at Hometown University.
Further, the conceptual framework elucidates the connections between KMO influences and the
accomplishment of both stakeholder and organizational goals. The organization, Hometown
University, is depicted as a large blue circle. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) describe cultural
models as unseen yet shared ways of thinking about how an organizational works, and cultural
settings as the observable and practical experiences shared by members of an organization. These
cultural models and settings describe the organizational culture in which faculty and staff at
Hometown University who are also Title IX Mandatory Reporters work and perform their duties
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Institutional trust in the processes and procedures surrounding
Title IX reporting and adjudication is the primary cultural model that impacts Title IX
Mandatory Reporters (Ali, 2015; Amar et al., 2014; Bolman & Deal, 2013; Brubaker & Mancini,
2017; Holland & Cortina, 2017; Holland et al., 2018; Mancini et al., 2016). Moreover,
appropriate selection of mandatory reporters (Ali, 2015; Burke, 2004; Brubaker & Mancini,
2017; Moylan,2017; Weiss & Lasky, 2017), and clear guidelines and feedback (Brubaker &
Mancini, 2017; Harper et al., 2017; Holland & Cortina, 2017; Mancini et al., 2017; Moylan,
2017; Weiss & Lasky, 2017) are the cultural settings that describe the remaining organizational
influences on Title IX Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University. The cultural models and
settings are depicted in the conceptual framework surrounding the knowledge and motivation
influences of the Title IX Mandatory Reporting, because they describe the organizational
environment in which the Title IX Mandatory Reporters must operate (Clark & Estes, 2008).
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The knowledge and motivation influences on Title IX Mandatory Reporters are shown
within the larger blue circle denoting Hometown University, because Title IX Mandatory
Reporters exist and work within the organization. Further, the knowledge and motivation
influences are represented by two equal and parallel circles with two black arrows denoting the
interconnectivity of knowledge and motivation in accomplishing both the stakeholder and
organizational goals. The knowledge influences are shown within a red circle and represent the
knowledge that a Title IX Mandatory needs to adequately accomplish the stakeholder and
organization goals. The knowledge influences that impact Title IX Mandatory Reporters are a
conceptual knowledge of the typology of sexual violence (Black et al., 2011; Fisher et al., 2000;
Forsman, 2017; Holland & Cortina, 2017; Mayer, 2011; Moylan, 2017; Rueda, 2011; Streng &
Kamimura, 2016; Zinzow & Thompson, 2015); knowledge of the procedures for reporting
(Fisher et al., 2000; Holland & Cortina, 2017; Rueda, 2011); and the understanding of their own
thoughts as they execute their duties as a Title IX Mandatory Reporter (Holland & Cortina, 2017;
Mancini et al., 2016; Mancini et al., 2017; Mayer, 2011; Moylan, 2017; Rueda, 2011). Similarly,
the motivation influences are shown within a purple circle and denote the assumed influences
and theories that impact whether a Title IX Mandatory Reporter will be willing to engage in the
mental effort to report, choose to report, or persist with reporting sexual violence (Rueda, 2011).
The motivation influences that have been identified for this study are attributing reporting with a
positive outcome for students/survivors (Anderman & Anderman, 2006; Rueda, 2011; Holland,
et al., in press); expecting a useful benefit for students/survivors from reporting (Eccles, 2006;
Rueda, 2011; Holland, et al., 2018; Moylan, 2017; Weiss & Lasky, 2017); and expecting few
negative impacts or costs to survivors/students from reporting (Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011;
Holland, et al., 2018; Moylan, 2017; Weiss & Lasky, 2017).
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The knowledge (red circle) and motivation (purple circle) influences are predominately
internal to the individual and describe whether a Title IX Mandatory Reporter has the necessary
training and skills or motivation to report 100% of the incidents of sexual violence to the Title IX
Coordinator (Clark & Estes, 2008). The organizational influences surround the Title IX
Mandatory Reporter at Hometown University (blue circle) and are external to the individual and
describe the cultural models and settings necessary to create an organizational culture conducive
to the completion of the stakeholder and organizational goals (Clark & Estes; Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). Therefore, the assumptions presented in the conceptual framework are that
if a Title IX Mandatory Reporter has the appropriate knowledge, is motivated to report, and
operates in an environment where the cultural models and settings are conducive to reporting that
Hometown University will meet its stakeholder goal (green box) of 100% of incident of sexual
violence reported to a Mandatory Reporter being, then, reported to the Title IX Coordinator by
May 2021. Further, the conceptual model posits that if the stakeholder goal is met that the
organizational goal (orange box) of creating a safe living and learning environment for each
student at Hometown University by 2021 will also be met. Consequently, the connection of
these assumptions is illustrated by the black arrows moving in sequence through each phase of
the figure. Finally, they return from the box denoting the organizational goal back to the blue
circle demonstrating the cyclical nature and continued work necessary to create safe living and
learning environments.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Chapter Two presents the extant literature concerning sexual violence on
college and university campuses in the United States as it relates to and impacts Title IX
Mandatory reporters. First, a review of the general literature describing the typology and
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prevalence of sexual violence on college and university campuses is explored. Next, the
collegiate experience and social factors related to sexual violence are presented to contextualize
the environment in which sexual violence occurs. Further, the chapter describes the Title IX
guidance and accountability theories that precipitated the creation of mandatory reporting
directives and in turn inspired this study. Finally, the chapter concludes by presenting the
assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that affect mandatory reporting of
sexual violence on college campuses, which will be validated according to the methodological
approach delineated in Chapter Three.
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Chapter Three: Methodology
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences on mandatory reporters of sexual violence at Hometown University. Further, the study
sought to elucidate how the stakeholder’s experiences impacted HU’s global goal of creating
safe living and learning communities. The methodology included in the chapter used the
following questions to provide structure and guidance for this evaluation study:
1. To what extent was the organization meeting its goal?
2. What was the stakeholder knowledge and motivation related to the stakeholder goal of
having Title IX Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University report 100% of incidents
of sexual misconduct by May 2021?
3. What was the interaction between organizational culture and context and stakeholder
knowledge and motivation?
4. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Chapter Three explains the methodological approach of the study and provides
significant information concerning a) the stakeholder of focus in the study; b) the sampling
strategy and rationale; c) data collection and instrumentation; d) data analysis; e) ethical
considerations for the study; f) the considerations of the researcher in protecting the credibility
and trustworthiness of the data; and e) the limitations and delimitations presented by the study.
Participating Stakeholders
In keeping with the purpose of the study, mandatory reporters were the primary
stakeholders and the focus of this study. Mandatory reporters are the over 375 faculty and staff
members who have been identified by HU according to the university’s interpretation of the Title
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IX guidance provided by the United States Office of Civil Rights (Ali, 2015; Brubaker &
Mancini, 2017). A qualitative design was chosen, as explained in the earlier conceptual
framework, to elucidate the experiences of mandatory reporters, the implications of those
experiences, and the relationships between their experiences and the implications (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). Merriam and Tisdell (2016) note that interviews are sources of abundant
information and allow the researcher to explore the research questions and search for meaning.
Conversely, a quantitative design would pose and answer completely different questions such as
why the phenomenon happens, and in the case of this study, would not achieve the desired depth
of understanding (Johnson & Christianson, 2015; McEwan & McEwan, 2003). Therefore,
qualitative interviews and documents were appropriate to both the research questions and to the
intent of the study, and were in keeping with the conceptual framework. The following criteria
informed the selection of an appropriate sample.
Interview Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Faculty and staff members identified as mandatory reporters of sexual
violence at Hometown University comprised the sample. The Title IX guidance delineates that
colleges and universities must select from their faculty and staff those individuals that would be
named mandatory reporters (Ali, 2015; Brubaker & Mancini, 2017). The literature is clear that
not all mandatory reporters support the practice; however, most students, parents, and
community members do support mandatory reporting directives (Brubaker & Mancini, 2017;
Moylan, 2017; Weiss & Lasky, 2017). This study evaluated the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences on mandatory reporters at Hometown University and painted a portrait
of their experiences and the meaning that they ascribed to mandatory reporting.
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Criterion 2. Identified mandatory reporters employed at Hometown University for six
months or more comprised the sample. All faculty and staff members who are named as
mandatory reporters at Hometown University are required to receive Title IX and mandatory
reporter training within the first six months of their employment with the institution.
Criterion 3. Student Affairs staff members who directly or indirectly report to the
researcher were not included in the sample. Members of the Student Affairs staff who report to
the researcher either directly or indirectly were excluded from the sample to avoid selection bias
and improve the validity of the study.
Interview Group Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
For this study, a purposeful, stratified, random sample was used. A purposeful sample is
one that uses a specific set of criteria to select the participants in the study (Creswell, 2014;
Johnson & Christianson, 2015; Merriam & Tisdale, 2016). Merriam and Tisdale (2016) noted
that a purposeful sample allows the researcher to explore their research questions in-depth and to
delve into the meanings and topics uncovered during the study. Further, the literature points out
distinct differences in the way that new professionals and faculty view mandatory reporting
directives versus their more senior counterparts (Brubaker & Mancini, 2017; Moylan, 2017;
Weiss & Lasky, 2017). Therefore, it was best to select the sample from three strata based on the
mandatory reporter’s term of service. Johnson and Christianson (2015) said that a stratified
sample divides the possible participants into groups or strata based on a criterion or variable
which in this case was term of service. The three strata used in this study were six months to
five years of service, 6 to 10 years of service, and 11+ years of service. Finally, Johnson and
Christianson (2015) stated that “the optimal situation would be for the researcher to specify the
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criteria that potential participants must meet to be included in a research study but then attempt
to obtain a random sample of these people” (p. 265).
The sample was selected and recruited by first acquiring a list of all faculty and staff and
their terms of service from the Human Resources Repartment at HU. Then, the list was sorted
by years of service and any faculty and staff not named as mandatory reporters and student
affairs staff members who directly or indirectly report to the researcher were removed. Next,
each individual within each stratum was assigned a number. A random number generator was
used to select three participants from each stratum. The participants were then invited to
participate in the study via an e-mail letter which outlined the purpose of the study and offered
the opportunity to schedule an interview or decline participation in the study. In any case where
participation was declined, a random number generator was used to select another participant to
invite. The total sample selected was nine individuals. Merriam and Tisdale (2016) stated that
the goal is to reach saturation which is described as not hearing any new ideas or themes being
discussed by the participants. Also, Merriam and Tisdale (2016) posited that the researcher
should engage in data analysis and collection simultaneously to understand when saturation has
been achieved. Fifteen individuals were invited to participate in the study according to the
procedure delineated earlier in order to reach the desired sample size of nine interviews. Further,
saturation was achieved after the initial nine interviews. As Merriam and Tisdale (2016) noted,
the qualitative researcher must be comfortable with the ambiguity of the sample size as it may
change. Although Merriam and Tisdale (2016) stated that it is unnecessary to have a random
sample in a qualitative study, Johnson and Christianson (2015) extolled the virtue of the random
selection of participants in a purposeful sample. For the researcher in this study, random
selection served an additional purpose by eliminating the propensity to select a convenience
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sample (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016) from faculty and staff members as the researcher works with
faculty and staff across the organization in many capacities.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
This study used semi-structured qualitative interviews to explore the experiences of Title
IX Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University. Qualitative interviews were used as the
primary method of data collection in this study, because the type of data needed to understand
the experiences of Title IX Mandatory reporters is not readily observed (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016; Patton, 2002). Weiss (1994) noted that interviews allow the researcher to view the
perceptions and lived experiences of participants. Moreover, interviews are particularly useful
when attempting to elucidate past events that cannot be repeated (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
research questions in this study explored the perceptions and experiences of Title IX Mandatory
reporters with particular attention to the interactions between knowledge; motivation; and
organizational factors. Qualitative interviews are particularly useful in allowing the researcher to
understand the ways that participants construct the reality of their experience (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016).
Interviews
As stated earlier, qualitative interviews were selected as the method of data collection in
this study. Interviews were selected primarily because they allowed the researcher to explore
data that was not able to be observed (Patton, 2002). Further, interviews allowed the researcher
to glimpse how the participants in the study constructed and viewed their own experiences to
collect of rich descriptive data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Weiss, 1994). Nine participants were
selected using the sampling strategy described earlier in this chapter, and individual semi-
structured interviews were conducted in a location of their choice. Merriam and Tisdell (2016)
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noted that there is no specific number of participants to interview in qualitative studies; however,
the number of interviews must be selected and adjusted as data is collected and analyzed to
produce data that answers the research questions as was the case for this study. Each interview
participant was asked to participate in an interview lasting approximately one hour. Interviews
were conducted in a mutually agreed upon location that was appropriate to the subject matter of
the study and placed the participant at ease (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Consequently, a
conversational interview using a semi-structured protocol was used to establish rapport and to
allow the researcher the flexibility to respond to the lived experiences of the participant and
emergent themes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Weiss, 1994). A semi-structured interview protocol
(Appendix A) allowed for consistency in thematic questioning and probing while not limiting the
ability of the respondent to describe their experiences in an authentic way or for the researcher to
adjust the protocol to allow for the collection of the richest data possible (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016; Weiss, 1994).
Additionally, the interview protocol consisted of open-ended questions that allowed the
respondent to provide answers that reflected their personal experiences and did so in their own
words (Patton, 2002). Prior to the commencement of data collection, the interview protocol was
administered by a peer to the researcher. Further, the pilot administration of the protocol allowed
the researcher to review the pace and sequence of the interview questions as well as to record the
researchers own assumptions and opinions as a Title IX Mandatory reporter (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). As will be discussed later in the subsequent section on credibility and trustworthiness, the
pilot interview served as a baseline record of the researcher’s biases on each study topic allowing
a more reflective analysis of the data and protecting the analysis from researcher bias (Merriam
& Tisdell, 2016). Finally, Patton (2002) suggested that at the conclusion of an interview, the
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researcher should record notes about what they observed during the interview in relations to the
participant and the space. Therefore, the researcher recorded observations and reflections
immediately following each interview.
Documents
The use of documents in qualitative research is a very common practice. Documents
often exist prior to the inception of a study or they can be produced during the study (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). In this study, the researcher sought to understand the knowledge; motivation; and
organizational factors that impact Title IX Mandatory Reporters. The researcher invited each
interview participant to write a reflection and return it to the researcher after the interview. The
reflections were personal documents, because they contained a personal account from one author
about an incident or situation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Only the four reflections generated by
Title IX Mandatory Reporters who participated in the interview process were analyzed. Merriam
and Tisdell (2016) posited that documents can provide significant information about what the
author views as important; however, they also cautioned that the limitation of using documents is
that the author decides what pieces of information are relevant. The four reflections completed
by the Title IX Mandatory Reporters further elucidated the research questions by allowing the
participant to express their thoughts freely without the involvement of the researcher. However,
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) aptly observed that documents are a demonstration of the author’s
personal perspective, and the perspective of the author may not reflect reality. Consequently, the
researcher engaged in data triangulation with data collected from qualitative interviews and
closely examined negative cases to improve the credibility and trustworthiness of the data
collected from the reflections (Maxwell, 2013).

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Data Analysis
Interviews and documents produced by the interview respondents as reflections were
analyzed as they were collected. Data collection and analysis was more efficient and effective
when conducted simultaneously as emergent themes became apparent and proved useful during
future interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Each interview was conducted by the researcher,
and the researcher wrote a brief reflective memo to capture initial thoughts and connections.
Additionally, each interview recording was sent to Rev.com to be transcribed. Then, the
researcher reviewed each transcript for accuracy and made preliminary notes. Moreover,
analytical memos were used to elucidate nuances and to explore the various paths the data
presented for exploration (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014).
The coding process was conducted in three phases: open, axial, and selective (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The researcher used Dedoose as the software platform to facilitate the coding
process. First, interview transcripts and documents were reviewed, and empirical codes were
identified as they emerged from the transcripts. Also, a priori codes were developed from the
conceptual framework and attached to substantive portions of the texts of the transcripts to make
certain that they were useful later in the analysis process. Next, codes were ordered, related and
condensed during axial coding (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Prior to, during, and after each of the
phases of analysis, the researcher used analytic tools to explore the data and the themes,
concepts, connections, and ideas that emerged from the collected transcripts and documents
(Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Selective coding has been described by Merriam and Tisdell (2016) as
the phase where hypotheses and propositions are developed. The process is iterative in nature
and continues throughout the analysis of the data and the presentation of findings. The
consistent and constant comparison of ideas and emergent themes drawn from the data are the
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hallmarks of grounded theory (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). As the codes were developed, Dedoose
maintained the codebook. The software allowed the researcher to develop and combine codes.
Further, Dedoose kept a count of each time that a code was applied to an excerpt within a
transcript or document allowing for an analysis of typicality.
As themes were developed through the coding process, findings were recorded, and a
narrative developed. These findings were framed through the presentation of data and analysis
examined through the lens of grounded theory (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The process of
writing findings included developing a hypothesis, assertion, or proposition. Then, the
proposition or theme was framed, and data was presented that connects the assertion to the
conceptual framework and the research questions. Moreover, the findings concluded with a
reflective analysis describing the positionality of the researcher and the connection of the
findings and the associated data to the overall purpose of the study and the conceptual
framework (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). These findings answered the research questions as
framed in the conceptual frame work detailed earlier in this study. The findings detailed in
Chapter Four provided insight into the research questions and the assumptions the researcher had
presented through a review of the literature in Chapter Two.
Ethics
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) declare that the validity of a study is directly impacted by the
ethical decision making and practices of the researcher. Research involving human subjects
must be conducted with the highest respect for and attention to the best interests of the
individuals and communities with which the researcher engages (Glesne, 2011). Consequently,
ethical research adheres to the following principles: a) respect for the participant(s) is paramount;
b) participants are free to participate or to halt participation at any time; c) the researcher should
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limit negative consequences to participants; d) participants should not be pressured to engage in
topics that they do not wish to discuss or to begin or continue the study if they choose not to do
so; e) the researcher should honor promises made to the participant(s); and f) the researcher
should always acquire informed consent from the participant(s) (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
The study presented here produced minimal risk to the participants; however, the subject
matter is sensitive. Sexual violence has broad reaching implications in the lives of many people
in our society and so extra precautions were taken to ensure that the subjects in the study were
respected and protected (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Informed consent for this study was acquired
using an information sheet that made the participants aware of the following; a) participation in
the study was completely voluntary; b) the purpose of the study and the ways in which the data
was collected and used; c) potential impacts of participation; and d) the ability of the participant
to leave the study at any point and to request that the data collected from them not be used and be
destroyed.
Creswell (2014) suggested that institutional players should be engaged to provide
assurances of access. The study presented here was interested in the experiences of Title IX
Mandatory reporters at Hometown University, and Title IX mandates that all those faculty and
staff who are identified as mandatory reporters report 100% of the instances of sexual violence
reported to them. Holland and Cortina (2017) found that this does not always happen in cases
where Mandatory Reporters (particularly paraprofessional staff such as resident assistants)
perceive the possibility of a negative outcome for students. Therefore, the researcher in this
study worked with the Title IX Coordinator at Hometown University to receive assurances that
were included in the informed consent process (see Appendix B) that previously undisclosed
instances of sexual violence on campus revealed during this study would be presented to the
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Title IX Coordinator; however, the researcher would not be asked to disclose the individual who
did not previously report. Additionally, this was included in the informed consent provided to
participants.
In addition to other protections for study participants discussed earlier, Rubin and Rubin
(2012) stated that the researcher should remove as much identifying information as possible from
the data set. Further, the data should be protected and stored separately from code sheets and
other materials that could identify the participants (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). For this study,
interviews were recorded and transcribed and the data and code sheets were stored on different
external hard drives at the researchers’ home in two separate locked boxes not at the research
site. Interviews were transcribed by Rev.com from the recordings made during each interview
session. Further, once a participant agreed to be interviewed, they were assigned a number. No
descriptive information about the person was used in the study save the range of their years of
service (0-5, 6-10, 11+). For example, a participant may be described as faculty member with
six to ten years of service. As multiple participants were selected at random from each level,
greater protection for participants was achieved; however, Rubin and Rubin (2012) noted that it
might still not be possible to completely protect the privacy and confidentiality, which was
disclosed as part of the informed consent process, and all participants were free to continue
participation or discontinue participation at any time.
Creswell (2014) stated that a researcher should avoid selecting a site in which they have a
vested interest in the outcome of the study. The outcome of the study presented here is to
produce information to improve practice and to explore the KMO influences on Title IX
Mandatory Reporters to improve their experiences and, therefore, achieve more effective
outcomes. Further, the biases of the researcher can impact the study and must be considered by
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the researcher (Glesne, 2011; Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Researcher bias can be mitigated through
careful reflection (Cresswell, 2014). Therefore, the researcher in this study kept a reflection
journal of the ways in which their personal biases presented themselves during the study to better
understand the impact of those biases and to mitigate their effects. Additionally, debriefing notes
were recorded after each interview to analyze and identify biases that arose from the researcher’s
worldview or identities.
Credibility and Trustworthiness

The credibility and trustworthiness of the qualitative research study is tied inextricably to
the ethical approach and meticulousness of the researcher (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Although
the terminology may often be in flux, credibility refers to the rigor with which the researcher
developed a study, collected the data, and presented the findings (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Additionally, Maxwell (2013) noted that credibility is often determined by the extent to
which the researcher has accounted for the ways that they may be wrong. This study used
several methods to account for threats to credibility. First, the researcher was interviewed by a
peer prior to the start of data collection, and the results were transcribed. The researcher's own
responses allowed for an analysis of researcher bias and reflexivity and served as a basis for
ongoing reflection in the researcher’s field journal during all phases of the study. (Maxwell,
2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Moreover, the researcher examined each interview transcript
with emphasis on identifying discrepant cases (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Next,
this study utilized rich data collected from interviews that were recorded and transcribed to
provide detailed accounts of the experiences of Title IX Mandatory Reporters at Hometown
University (Maxwell, 2013). In addition to researcher bias, reactivity is a significant concern in
qualitative research stemming from the interactions between the researcher and the participant
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(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Reactivity is the product of unseen power dynamics; perceptions; the
desire to provide correct answers; and other common invisible or unapparent factors related to
human interaction (Paterson, 1994). As stated earlier, the researcher utilized reflective journal
entries and memos following each interview to record perceptions and possible instances of
reactivity. Consequently, participants were invited to review and comment on the emergent
themes that the researcher extracted from the data to ensure that the interpretations of the
researcher matched with the experiences of the participants (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
The reliability or trustworthiness of a quantitative study rests upon the ability of other
researchers to use an instrument and get the same results (Maxwell, 2013). Qualitative research
relies on the human as the research instrument, and Merriam and Tisdell (2016) stated that the
human instrument can with attention and practice can be developed as surely as a survey can be
refined to provide more reliable data. Maxwell (2013) suggested that the degree of internal
validity or trustworthiness is directly related to the degree to which the findings presented relate
to the data collected. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) suggested that a researcher should maintain a
record of their reflections and choices to demonstrate how they arrived at their conclusion. As
stated earlier, the researcher kept a research journal during the study in which the choices,
reflections, and conclusions of the study were noted. Additionally, the ability to apply the
findings of a qualitative research study more broadly is often called into question. Maxwell
(2013) indicated that the external generalizability of a qualitative study may be a moot point as it
aims to explore the contexts of a phenomenon in a singular case or setting more deeply. Finally,
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) described “reader or user generalizability” (p.256) as allowing the
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reader to determine the extent to which a study can be transferred reasonably to a new setting or
case.
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Chapter Four: Results and Findings
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the degree to which Hometown University was
meeting its goal of creating a safe living and learning environment for students by May of 2021.
Further, the study assessed the degree to which the identified stakeholder was reporting or would
report 100% of the incidents of sexual violence reported to them by students. Additionally, the
study sought to elucidate how the stakeholder’s experiences impacted HU’s global goal of
creating safe living and learning communities. Moreover, the study examined the knowledge,
motivation and organizational influences on Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University and
used the following questions to provide structure and guidance to this evaluation study as:
1. To what extent was the organization meeting its goal of creating a safe living and
learning community for students by May 2021?
2. What was the stakeholder knowledge and motivation related to the stakeholder goal of
having Title IX Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University report 100% of incidents
of sexual misconduct by May 2021?
3. What was the interaction between organizational culture and context and stakeholder
knowledge and motivation?
4. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Nine semi-structured interviews were conducted and used for this study. The stakeholders are
identified as Participants 1-9 throughout the presentation of findings of the study. Moreover,
each participant was offered the opportunity to write a reflection after their interview to elucidate
or offer any additional unsolicited comments, reactions, feelings, or insights. Four participants
opted to submit reflections; however, only three were used in this study as one of the participants
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chose to write a reflection about how pleased they were with the process of the interview and
how much they appreciated participating in the process, so it was deemed to be irrelevant to the
topic of the study. Additionally, the data from the reflections was less instructive that the
researcher had hoped. Each reflection was labelled to correspond to the number of the participant
that wrote the reflection, so Reflection 4 belongs to Participant 4.
The conceptual framework guided the development and implementation of the study and
provided a useful schematic for the exploration of the themes found during data analysis
(Maxwell, 2013). Additionally, this study used the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
framework to structure the examination of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences on the stakeholder group. The data analysis revealed four themes which examined
gaps in the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences as well as explored their
relationships to each other, the research questions guiding the study, and their positionality
within in the conceptual framework on which the study was designed and implemented. A gap
was acknowledged when the qualitative data gleaned from the interviews, reflections, or both
suggested an emergent need according to the participants.
Theme 1: Care and Responsibility Drive Compliance

The first research question in this study sought to discover the extent to which Hometown
University has met its goal of creating a safe living and learning environment. Further, the first
research questions asked to what extent Mandatory Reporters were reporting 100% of sexual
violence incidents shared with them in anticipation of meeting the compliance goal in 2021.
Interviews of the stakeholders and document analysis of short reflections provided by the same
group demonstrate that Hometown University is meeting its compliance goals; however, the
stakeholder group is driven by the desire to protect students and an abundance of care in addition
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to following the directives given to them by the institution. Additionally, the stakeholders report
concern over the degree to which they are prepared to complete the directive and their level of
comfort with and desire to do so.
Safety is an expressed goal and care is an espoused response. Mandatory reporters at
Hometown University stated that they believed that reporting incidents of sexual violence was
one way in which they created a safer community for their students. Participant 1 noted that,
“Regardless of, you know, how far the victim chooses to take it. I would say it just makes for a
safer community for everyone.” The same sentiments were expressed by Participant 4 who
asserted that “my place is – I feel like, is to just let them talk and just be the listening ear and let
them know my position and my responsibilities and my role in creating a safer community for
everyone.” Moreover, Participant 6 said, “I would offer the student something to make the
student feel safe.” The desire to create a safe and caring living and learning environment was
thematic throughout the findings from both the interviews and the reflections. As such, Refection
4 posited that the “importance of the role [Mandatory Reporters] play in making our campus and
community safer” was impacted by their knowledge and motivation, which will be discussed
later in this chapter.
In addition to creating a safe living and learning community, Mandatory Reporters
described authentic care for survivors and a desire to assist them. Participant 9 simply stated,
“We wanna get them help.” Although expressing a desire to help was prevalent in the data, not
all participants were certain as to what to do or how to proceed. Participant 6 revealed a degree
of concern and uncertainty, stating, “Oh, my gosh, what do I do? I need to help this, this
student!” Participant 6 continued, “I think, I think it’s, it’s not a, uh…It’s definitely an issue to
take seriously, and I, I think it’s important and it’s something that you don’t sit on.” Further,
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Participant 7 described a personal experience with reporting by noting, “I was kind of thinking
of, oh God, what this poor student has gone through, but at the same time poor me, because now,
I gotta decide what to do.” Additionally, Participant 5 stated, “this woman had, you know,
basically confessed a-a- deep dark secret right, and I know it was difficult for her and my first
instinct was to shut up and listen until she stopped talking.” Expressions of empathy and
sympathy were common. Participant 7 described an interaction they had with a survivor. They
stated that they said to the survivor, “Thank you for telling me. I’m so sorry you went through
that.”
Mandatory Reporters expressed that community safety was a goal of the University;
however, they also expressed an authentic desire to assist survivors as well. Many of the
participants in this study spoke candidly about their perception that safety was, in part or in
whole, a function of their positions. Additionally, they described themselves, implicitly or
explicitly, as agents of the institution and accepted responsibility for doing their part to create a
safe living and learning environment for students. Alternatively, study participants espoused a
care and compassion for students beyond the basic requirements of job performance. In addition,
stakeholders felt significant discomfort and personal anguish when addressing sexual violence as
a topic. Many mentioned a desire to assist and to help survivors and to make certain that
survivors felt safe on campus. As such, Mandatory Reporters perceived that their work would
help Hometown University reach the organizational goal of creating a safe living and learning
environment for students. Conversely, several participants cited concerns about their lack of
knowledge of how to proceed once a student did report sexual violence to them. In addition,
participants offer significant care and compassion for students which is far beyond the scope of
expected job performance. The level of care espoused may be due in part to the culture of the
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institution, as relationships are mentioned consistently and in many contexts throughout this
study.
Awareness of role and responsibility is nearly universal, but enthusiasm is not.
Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University demonstrated an understanding of their role.
However, expressions of support and dissent were noted throughout the data stemming from
their individual perception of the reporting directive. Participant 5 described Mandatory
Reporters as having a responsibility to “be like, protectors and- and defenders of our students.”
However, as Participant 5 continued, they expressed a concern that students would think, “If I
talk to this person, I’m not talking to this person. I’m talking to the institution and so I am now
kind of reporting.” Participants communicated a nearly universal understanding that their role as
a Mandatory Reporter required them to report all incidents of sexual violence. Participant 9
stated, “I, also, have become aware, over the last couple of years, that if [students] provide me
any information, I have to report.” Further, Participant 1 asserted that “If a student, fellow staff
member, um came to me and told me about, um, an act of sexual violence…I would make sure
that somebody knew about it.” Additionally, Participant 6 stated simply, “I’m gonna do it.”
Stakeholders expressed varying levels comfort with their role. Participant 7 described
their experience with a student reporting sexual violence as “um, it was a little shocking, but I
was just governed by the fact that I had to, by law, I had to report it.” Participant 3, who has not
had a student report to them, detailed, “In my position as an officer, basically of the college, I’m
obligated to help you. Whether you want the help right now- or whether you think you need the
help right now. I am obligated to help you.” Enthusiasm was not frequently conveyed by
participants despite their recognition of the need to report. Participant 8 said, “I mean, I will do
it, because it’s what – I, I’m supposed to do, but – I might not like it.” Further, Refection 5
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posited, “I know I am a Title IX Mandatory Reporter, but I don’t often think about what that
means.” Similarly, Reflection 3 expressed concern about being a Mandatory Reporter, “not
because of the concept itself or the responsibilities associated with it. Rather that term had never
been used, to my knowledge, to describe me.” Further, Participant 9 cited the potential impact
that Mandatory Reporting may have on the student and their relationship with the student as a
concern stating:
Again, if they feel like they want to open to me, I’m gonna have to tell them before they
get it off their chest, that there’s gonna be repercussions, even if they don’t want me to
say anything, I have to. I think that that hurts students, because to get it off your chest is
something at least that’s not bottling up inside and that’s something, I think it’s
detrimental to the students.
The sentiments of Participant 9 were not unique and concerns about the impact that Mandatory
Reporting has on faculty, staff, and student relationships are addressed later in this chapter. Only
Participant 2 seemed to be unclear about their role as a Mandatory Reporter stating, “I think, um,
…so everybody is a mandatory reporter here, right?” Reflection 5 stated that the discomfort that
faculty and staff feel is because “training for faculty and staff in terms of dealing with sexual
violence is pretty shallow.” Moreover, Refection 5 continued by stating, “part of the issue is that
I just don’t have much experience with reporting to know what to do.”
Mandatory Reporters described understanding their responsibility. Except for one
participant, all readily identified themselves as mandatory reporters. Additionally, most
participants indicated that they had reported 100% of the incidents of sexual violence reported to
them, or would do so in the case of those participants who had not experienced a student
reporting to them which supported positive movement toward stakeholder goal achievement.
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Alternatively, they presented a conflicted picture of their feelings on the directive. Participants
reported a lack of confidence in their ability to report, concern over the impact that mandatory
reporting has on the student and their relationship with the mandatory reporter, and uncertainty
of their own opinions regarding the directive. Although Hometown University is on track to meet
its organizational and stakeholder goals, knowledge and motivation influences on Title IX
Mandatory Reporters remain significant concerns. They affect the perceptions and abilities of
Title IX Mandatory Reporters. Further, knowledge and motivation influences interact with one
another and are impacted by organizational influences to determine the degree to which
Mandatory Reporters achieve the organization and stakeholder goals as reflected in the
conceptual framework presented earlier in this study.
Theme 2: Assumptions and Relationships Prevail Where Training and Knowledge Fail
Clark and Estes (2008) attribute stakeholder knowledge with a substantial role in goal
achievement. As such, Research Question 2 examined the relationship between stakeholder
knowledge and motivation and goal completion. Three knowledge influences were identified
during the review of the literature as impacting Title IX Mandatory Reporter achievement of the
stakeholder goal of having 100% of the incidents of sexual violence reported to identified
Mandatory Reporters by May 2021. These three influences were: 1) mandatory reporters need to
understand the typology of sexual violence, 2) Mandatory reporters need to know how to report
incidents of sexual violence, and 3) Mandatory reporters need to be able to reflect on their
thought processes as they complete their responsibilities as mandatory reporters. Interviews with
stakeholders and document analysis revealed that there were gaps present in two of the assumed
influences: 1) the ability of stakeholders to either completely understand or articulate the
typology of sexual violence, and 2) the ability to report sexual violence according to desired
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processes. Conversely, stakeholders who had previously reported sexual violence were found to
have engaged in significant metacognitive reflection related to their role as a Title IX Mandatory
Reporter and no gap was discovered for this influence.
Incomplete or inaccurate conceptualizations of sexual violence may hinder ability.
Holland and Cortina (2017) found that mandatory reporters who were able to accurately
conceptualize sexual violence as an umbrella term and classify the acts that constitute it were
better able and more likely to report sexual violence. As presented in Chapter Two, the typology
of sexual violence is very nuanced, but it consists of non-consensual acts of a sexual nature at a
bare minimum. Further, the ability to articulate a uniform conceptualization of sexual violence is
necessary for stakeholders to achieve both the organization and stakeholder goals. However,
Mandatory Reporters articulated significantly different conceptualizations of the term which
seem to be drawn from common sense, assumptions, or personal interpretation rather than a
typology presented by Hometown University. For example, Participant 1 stated, “Um, I would
define sexual violence as any, um unwanted physical, uh advance, with a carnal or sexual nature,
uh, like a feeling garnered from that.” A general sense of uncertainty was pervasive as
stakeholders tried to develop a definition of sexual violence. Participant 6 defined sexual
violence as, “something that is unwanted, and something that is not asked for. Something that
makes one feel uncomfortable.” Additionally, Participant 8 asserted, “Yeah, this is not even
something I’ve really thought about before. I guess anything that happens to you that is
unwanted.”
The lack of clarity in conceptualization of sexual violence typology extends to whether
acts must be physical, verbal, or whether contact must be present at all. Participant 9 posited that,
“I would define sexual violence as verbal assault. Doesn’t have to be physical.” Counter to that
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assertion, Participant 5 declared, “I would want to make a distinction between violence and
harassment.” Additionally, Participant 7 elucidated that sexual violence did not consist of
“inappropriate flirting or a hug or anything like that.” However, Participant 3 disagreed stating,
“When we say violence, I think that overall we think that it has to be some sort of physical-
injury that happens, and I don’t think it has to be physical.” The lack of cohesion in
conceptualization became clearer as Participant 3 stressed “that injury can be caused mentally,
emotionally, or physically.” In short, stakeholders seem to be unsure if sexual violence and
sexual harassment are the same or are separate concepts. Moreover, there seemed to be some
question about whether contact was required at all, as Participant 2 contended, “You know, it
could be just staring. Um, so again, it’s hard to define, but it depends on the person who, you
know, where the line is.” Consequently, Participant 9 proclaimed, “I’m sorry, what some would
call sexual harassment…I’m just like please, get over yourself.” The lack of a cohesive typology
of sexual violence shared by Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University may hinder some
incidents from being recognized as sexual violence and reported. Further, stakeholders will
report as discussed earlier in this chapter; however, the lack of enthusiasm expressed by some for
the directive may prevent reporting if a stakeholder feels that a situation is not included in the
typology of sexual violence. As Participant 4 affirmed, “I feel like a lot of things get, um,
brushed off by, um-staff and faculty members often, because we aren’t always in the know of
what is considered, um sexual assault or what might fall under Title IX.”
The ability to correctly identify sexual violence when a situation is presented to a
Mandatory Reporter is the first step in being able to report. The interviews conducted with the
stakeholders in this study revealed that there was not a shared typology of sexual violence among
Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University. In some cases, sexual violence was presented as
MANDATORY REPORTING 90

a form of physical assault. In others, verbal or sexual harassment was included as well. Further,
several identified situations that produce discomfort including staring as potentially being sexual
violence. According to the participants, the definitions presented by the stakeholders were drawn
from common sense or assumptions not from materials presented to them. Inconsistency in the
definitions provided by the participants may hamper the achievement of the stakeholder goal if
Mandatory Reporters encounter a situation that does not conform to their understanding of the
definition of sexual violence, as they may not believe they are required to report. Conversely,
Mandatory Reporters may report incidents that do not need to be reported due to a lack of
declarative knowledge. A shared typology is critical to achieving the stakeholder goal of having
100% of sexual violence incidents disclosed to Mandatory Reporters be reported to the Title IX
Coordinator by May of 2021.
Reporting is defined by relationships not by knowledge of procedure and protocol.
Procedural knowledge is mastered by being able to complete a task in a prescribed way or
manner (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Hometown University has a website dedicated to
reporting incidents of sexual violence, and the procedure for reporting sexual violence and
acquiring resources for students is also found there. According to the reporting protocol, the Title
IX Coordinator should be notified either through the online form or via email if an incident is
reported to a Mandatory Reporter. Stakeholders in several cases reported being unsure of how or
to whom they should report. When confronting a situation that needed to be reported, Participant
4 declared, “I didn’t know who -who to reach out to first.” Additionally, Participant 9 asked,
“What is expected of me? I’m a little bit gray on it, because I don’t know what I exactly should
do.” Most participants discussed a lack of confidence in their knowledge of how to report
incidents of sexual violence according to university procedures. Moreover, Participant 5 affirmed
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that he would indeed report despite not knowing who he was supposed to report to stating, “I
may have to tell somebody about this. I will also look that up…I don’t know what I need to
know.” Comparatively, Participant 2 correctly articulated that they would contact the Title IX
Coordinator; however, they dubiously assumed that they needed permission from the student to
do so expounding, “So I will get a permission, her permission to contact, um the right person. I,
guess, the Title IX Coordinator here.” Only Participant 1 correctly described the reporting
procedures as making certain to “connect [the student] through the online form with resources
that they would need to, um, do whatever it is they wanted to do.”
In general, stakeholders expressed a desire to help students and to execute the reporting
directive; however, the methods they expressed that they would use to do so are not always in
compliance with the procedures defined by Hometown University. In many cases, stakeholders
used existing relationships to decide how and to whom they should report. Participant 8
specified, “I would just tell my supervisor – and then, have her tell me what I need to do-
because, I, I don’t know.” Additionally, Participant 6 contended that they would refer the student
to the researcher, “I think I’ll send them to you.” Student support service providers located in the
Office of Student Conduct, the Dean of Students Office, and University Counseling were
identified as conduits for reporting. Further, Participants 3 and 9 affirmed that they would both
contact the university counseling staff citing previous relationships with those professionals.
Participant 3 asserted, “I don’t know if that is the right answer, - but I can’t think it is a bad
answer.” Similarly, Participant 9 explained, “I think the first person I would phone would be [the
director of counseling] in our counseling office.” The uncertainty expressed by participants
concerning their choice of reporting location did not seem to affect their commitment to
reporting. However, some participants, like Participant 9, elucidated their decision to refer a
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student to the counseling center stating that they were more concerned with getting the student
help than with addressing “litigious or other institutional details.” Most stakeholders expressed
either an incomplete knowledge of how to report or to whom they should report. Reflection 3
expressed a desire for “a set reporting process that is shared at point of hire” and “easily
accessible materials on Title IX and the process of reporting.”
In summary, Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University are tasked with reporting to
the Title IX Coordinator every incident of sexual violence disclosed to them. However, this study
found that only one participant was able to correctly articulate the University policy and
procedure for reporting. The remaining participants revealed that they were unsure of who to
contact or the exact procedure that they should follow. In fact, one participant, despite correctly
identifying their role as a mandatory reporter, asserted that they had to acquire permission from
the survivor to report, which runs counter to the mandatory reporting directive. However,
stakeholders did report that even when they were uncertain how to proceed, they sought help for
students usually through existing relationships on campus such as the college counseling center,
campus administrators, or supervisors. Campus health care providers, mental health counselors,
and campus ministers are not Mandatory Reporters, so there is a distinct possibility that some
incidents of sexual violence are not being reported to the Title IX Coordinator due to the
Mandatory Reporter assuming their responsibility ended with a referral to one of these support
services. Consequently, most stakeholders identified a need for further training about the overall
processes and procedures used to address Title IX incidents and the correct typology of sexual
violence.
Training is outdated, inconsistent, or non-existent. Clark and Estes (2008) and Rueda
(2011) assert that organizational leaders must be aware of the knowledge and acquired schema
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possessed by stakeholders in order to sufficiently achieve desired organizational and stakeholder
goals. Conversely, organizational leaders must also be aware of gaps in knowledge and skills
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Moreover, the lack of knowledge and a rapidly changing landscape that
requires constant schema reorganization as is the case with Title IX compliance has produced
knowledge gaps in the typology of sexual violence, the procedures to report, and a general
awareness of the Title IX investigation and adjudication process at Hometown University which
will be discussed later in this chapter.
Consequently, stakeholders at Hometown University expressed their lack of knowledge
coupled with a need and desire for training. As Participant 3 announced, “I don’t think that I’ve
ever had any Title IX Mandatory Reporter Training. We need training!” Similarly, Participant 9
contended that they did not believe that they “had the professional training on what to do on Title
IX.” Additionally, some participants could not recall what type of training they had participated
in or if they had done so at all. Participant 5 suggested that they might have done an online
module at some point; however, they stated, “I don’t remember specifically, I-I’m pretty sure we
did not go to a class or anything like that.” Despite the inability to recall specific training
initiatives, participants did convey a universal desire to be better informed and prepared to
execute their roles. Participant 4 proclaimed, “I do know that we need to be trained – I feel like
we need to be trained a little bit better, or at least have something more readily available.” In
addition, Reflection 3 stated, “additional training, conversation, and awareness campus-wide
would surely be a desirable thing.”
The need for training reported by stakeholders does not necessarily imply an absence of
training, but rather training that appears to be sporadic, inconsistent, outdated, and somewhat
ineffective. Three stakeholders employed at Hometown University for more than three years
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shared that their only training experience was at a university-wide training program conducted
three years prior. Participant 2 recounted, “I had training in…How long ago was that? I think it
was, at least three years ago. I don’t know that I can specifically tell you what I learned.”
Further, Participant 6 alluded to the same training program “when the [university] brought us all
in, and we talked about Title IX and what we should do.” Universally, participants who attended
the training program three-years ago discussed their opinions concerning the ineffectiveness of
the program curriculum and their inability to recall the information presented. Participant 6
added, “I think of course, I didn’t remember everything that came from that” or “how it worked
here on campus.” Moreover, Participant 4 indicated, “This sounds bad. I believe it was a few
years ago, we had a campus-wide Title IX Meeting. I thought it was pretty ineffective.”
Conversely, two stakeholders, who have been at the institution for less than three years described
receiving training during the on-boarding process with Human Resources. Participant 1
recounted, “Uh, the new staff orientation, um, we went over all the various scenarios for what
that looks like, and how to fill out the form.” Antithetically, Participant 1 offered that they
believed timing was a concern as they “have been working here since the end of September,” and
the training was conducted roughly nine months after their employment date. Similarly,
Participant 8 recalled, “When we first started, uh, when I first started here-, there was um, a
section that we had to read about it- and they spoke about it in the training. But, I haven’t even
given it another thought.”
Participants in this study revealed unfamiliarity with the prescribed process for reporting
sexual violence. In fact, some stated that they were not at all sure to whom to report The
common theme presented by the participants was a training deficiency. For example, some
participants could not recall if they had training or what type of training in which they had
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participated. Conversely, participants with than three years of experience recalled attending a
training where they received pamphlets and were told that they were mandatory reporters.
Additionally, Human Resources was identified by participants with less than one year of
experience as having presented information about mandatory reporting during new employee
orientation. However, the time between the hire date and the training, for at least one participant,
was around nine months. In short, most participants who attended trainings of both types
described the experience as ineffective or forgettable. From the descriptions given by
participants, the training presented seemed to be training designed to meet legal compliance not
to produce true learning and behavioral changes. Although important individually, knowledge
must interact with motivation to achieve organizational goals as described in the conceptual
framework for this study.
Theme 3: Outcome Uncertainty and Cost Versus Benefit Competition Impact Motivation
Clark and Estes (2008) described motivation as being the most significant influence on
goal achievement of the three addressed in their gap analysis model. In fact, they posited that
motivation can be responsible for as much as 50% of performance success or failure. The
conceptual framework of this study conjectured that Mandatory Reporter knowledge interacted
with motivation, and these existed within and were influenced by the organization. Rueda (2011)
asserted that motivation is cultural and is influenced by our interactions with others. The role that
culture plays in influencing motivation will be addressed later in this Chapter. Research Question
2, in part, addressed the role that Title IX Mandatory Reporter motivation played in
organizational and goal achievement. A review of the literature revealed three assumed
motivation influences: 1) Mandatory Reporters should feel that reporting will result in a positive
outcome for the victim, 2) Mandatory Reporters should see how students and the institution
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benefit from reporting incidents of sexual violence, and 3) Mandatory Reporters should perceive
little cost in terms of negative impacts to victims from reporting incidents of sexual violence.
Interviews with stakeholders revealed that there were gaps present in two of the assumed
influences :1) Mandatory Reporters should feel that reporting will result in a positive outcome
for the victim and 2) Mandatory Reporters should perceive little cost in terms of negative
impacts to victims from reporting incidents of sexual violence.
Outcomes are ambiguous, unknown, or assessed through perceptions. Holland and
Cortina (2017) found that mandatory reporters were more likely to report when they attributed
reporting with a positive outcome for students. Additionally, Clark and Estes (2008) presented
the importance of belief in motivation and goal achievement while recognizing that beliefs are
not always fact based. Hometown University does not share the detailed outcomes of Title IX
investigations and adjudications as to do so would violate federal law and the university
confidentiality policy. As such, Mandatory Reporters described a lack of knowledge surrounding
outcomes once a report is made. Participant 4 declared, “I don’t’ know what the outcomes were,
and I don’t know what-how those individuals were helped.” Moreover, Participant 1 recalled that
they only received an automated email for the university stating, “Thanks for Filling Out the
Form.” They continued describing their knowledge of what happened next as “I don’t know.”
The comments of the participants during their interviews demonstrated frustration stemming
from communication, which they perceived to be consistently unidirectional or absent.
Reflection 4 offered, “I mentioned my issues with…the lack of communication and updates I
received despite being promised that I would hear something.” These sentiments were also
expressed by Participant 2, who described their experience as, “Then we’ll pass it on, as much
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information as possible, but, like, it stopped, kind of, stops there. And then we don’t get it, like
uh actually what’s going on.”
Some participants expressed optimism and hope concerning student outcomes.
Participant 3 asserted, “I would have absolutely no qualms about reporting and believing that the
end result would be a positive result. I have none.” During their interview, Participant 6 paused
and then stated:
I just hope that the [university] as a whole manages it well, and that, that the person who
is harassed or experienced violence toward them, that they find some kind of relief and,
and a sense of community in the fact that they reported it, and it was resolved.
Moreover, Participant 7, when asked if students experience positive outcomes from reporting,
said, “oh, I think that’s probably a very strong possibility that they do.”
Perceptions of student experiences when reporting also influenced the beliefs that
Mandatory Reporters held about outcomes. Participant 7 described an encounter with a student
that they helped to report as “she did seem happy after.” As mentioned earlier, Participant 7 also
expressed an optimistic view of the probability that outcomes were positive. Further, Participant
1 detailed that they did not receive feedback from the institution about the case they reported;
however, they decried the fact that the perpetrator graduated from the institution stating, “I think
that uh, leaves a sour taste in people’s mouths about what, what do you actually stand for.”
Participants described their knowledge of outcomes as subjective and based on information
provided by survivors and perpetrators or rumors. Participant 4 lamented, “there are times when
a student speaks up about their situation and it may not end the way that they had hoped.”
Moreover, Participant 5 mentioned that, “I- I worry that it’s not like 100%, we’re gonna defend
the victim.” Unclear outcomes seem produce doubt and perceptions built on assumptions.
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Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University, in large part, reported being uncertain if
outcomes for students were positive. In fact, several revealed that they reported, but they were
unsure what happened after they did so. Students, often, chose not to share outcomes with
participants or merely expressed satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the results. Further, some
participants described a belief or a hope that the university would provide positive outcomes for
students. Moreover, some participants mentioned that their perceptions of student experiences
influenced their opinions both positive and negative. Some made decisions based on single cases,
the experiences of students they worked with, or the apparent though not confirmed results of the
case. In fact, most participants asserted that feedback received by Mandatory Reporters from the
university and students was limited or non-existent which will be addressed as an organizational
influence later in this Chapter. The conceptual framework suggests that motivation and
knowledge interact with one another and are surrounded and influenced by the organizational
cultural models and settings. Further, a lack of clear feedback represented an organization
influence gap that will be addressed later in this study, as well as an additional knowledge
influence that will need further study, as it was not present in the review of the literature.
Student and institutional benefits compete with costs to students and stakeholders.
Expectancy value theory strives to explain if an individual chooses to complete a task or feels
capable of completing a task (Eccles, 2006). Stakeholders who perceive a high level of value are
more likely to achieve a goal (Clark & Estes, 2008; Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). The four values
that Eccles (2006) described are: 1) intrinsic, 2) attainment, 3) utility, and 4) costs. The premise
presented is that when intrinsic, attainment, and utility value either individually or collectively
exceed cost the value of the task is such that an individual is more likely to begin, tackle, and
persist in the task to reach completion. As such, two expectancy values, utility and costs, were
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prevalent in the review of the literature in Chapter Two. Interviews with the stakeholders reveal
that there is no gap in utility value as Mandatory Reporters recognized the usefulness of
reporting to survivors and the institution. However, there is a gap in costs as Mandatory
Reporters also identified impacts to student on campus and to their relationships with mandatory
reporters.
Holland and Cortina (2017) found that Mandatory Reporters who viewed their role as
useful were more likely to report. Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University identified
reporting as having benefits for both students and the institution. Participant 8 declared that
students would hopefully get, “confidence that we don’t take it lightly here, and we are going to
take care of it, and they don’t have to hold it in.” Further, student support and incident resolution
were cited by Participant 5 as benefits of reporting when they stated, “They can get, uh follow
up, they can get justice...some kind of resolution or mitigation of the worst effects.” Faculty and
staff who participated in this study described a strong desire to help students acquire justice or
access to support services. Participant 1 asserted that Mandatory Reporting was “more for the
benefit of the victim and getting them, sort of the justice they deserve.” Additionally, Participant
7 responded, “I think the benefit is you do something for them that they may not have…the guts
to do.” Describing the benefits to the institution, Participant 6 articulated, “It puts the school on
notice that there is an issue on campus.” Moreover, Participant 1 recalled that even though one
student that they were aware of decided not to be involved in any conduct proceedings “the
[university] now knew about this person.” Mandatory Reporters conveyed a belief that reporting
would bring attention to the issue of sexual violence, identify perpetrators, and perhaps stop
future violence. Participant 3 posited, “I think that there are a lot of students who would
recognize that not only would this help them, but it might help others.” Finally, Participant 4
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characterized the most significant benefit of reporting as creating, “a better campus community,
a better environment for everyone.”
A review of the literature in Chapter Two demonstrated concerns about Mandatory
Reporting directives limiting survivor control of their story and re-victimization (Holland,
Cortina, & Freyd, 2017; Moylan, 2017; Weiss & Lasky, 2017). Further, the literature asserted
that Mandatory Reporters who perceive significant costs to students may not comply with
reporting directives (Eccles, 2006; Moylan, 2017). This study found that Mandatory Reporters
do perceive an array costs to students who report sexual violence. Participant 5 articulated that
the student “is sort of handing off the control and responsibility and everything to the
institution.” They continued, “They have less control over what happens once they start talking
about it.” Interviews revealed that Mandatory Reporters were emotionally conflicted about the
experiences that students may have following reporting sexual violence. Participant 2
conjectured, “if someone is already feeling uncomfortable and unsafe…that’s, like, you know
reporting would be, like, an extra step.” Moreover, Participant 9 stated that students can “easily
be ostracized, and I think they’d be very fearful about that.” In fact, social pressure, ostracism,
and retaliation were cited as concerns by several participants. Participant 3 expressed that as a
student, “I might be afraid that my confidentiality could not be respected.” Also, Participant 6
suggested, “there could be some backlash” or other retaliation. In short, Participant 7
summarized, “I think that the hard part is – is people taking sides and being judged.”
Weiss and Lasky (2017) asserted that mandatory reporting directives may cause students
to avoid seeking help from trusted faculty and staff unintentionally removing a trusted support
network. Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University expressed similar concerns about their
relationships with students. Participant 5 reported, “I worry that it makes it harder for students to
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come forward and share difficult things. It creates complications for some of us who maybe used
to be good confidants.” In keeping with the findings of Weiss and Lasky (2017), the participants
in this study described concerns that their relationships with students may be negatively
impacted by reporting. Participant 3 asserted, “It may negatively impact [the relationship].
Depending on what the relationship is, I mean…that student might feel betrayed.” Moreover,
Participant 9 expressed:
If I have to stop a student and say “Don’t tell me anymore, because I have to report this,”
then the student is gonna be less likely to open up to me or to other faculty. I think that
that’s a negative.
Also, Participant 7 described feelings of anxiety due to an interaction with a student after
reporting recounting, “I felt bad, because I was afraid she wasn’t going to wanna talk to me
anymore. I have noticed it’s been a little more business like.” As noted earlier in this chapter,
relationships at Hometown University are described by the participants in this study as very
important to the operations and success of the organization. Participant 1 aptly articulated
concern about the perceived relationship cost of reporting directives stating”:
At a small school like this, relationships are so foundational to success and, um happiness
here. Um, so I definitely think that could be, um, a significant factor in retention, and you
know, building relationships and building trust.
Alternatively, Participant 4 dissented asserting, “it really strengthens your relationship with other
students to you.”
The competing values of cost and utility, as described by Eccles (2006), were present in
the review of the literature and the findings of this study. Mandatory Reporters identified several
benefits of reporting including justice for the survivor, reassurance that sexual violence is viewed
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as serious at Hometown University, and assistance to promote healing. Additionally, institutional
benefits described by Mandatory Reporters consisted of notifying the institution of the incident
or problem, identifying alleged perpetrators, assisting other students, and creating a safer
community for everyone. Conversely, Mandatory Reporters detailed the costs of reporting sexual
violence as a lack of control for students regarding institutional response, increasing feelings of
vulnerability, peer judgement and ostracism, and retaliation from the alleged perpetrator(s).
Further, Mandatory Reporters expressed significant anxiety about the impact that mandatory
reporting directives may have on their relationships with students which seemed to support the
findings of Weiss and Lasky (2017).
The qualitative nature of this study did not allow for a comparative analysis of benefits
and costs to determine which is more influential. Only two participants made the comparison
between costs and benefits in this study. Participant 3 posited, “The benefit definitely outweighs
the cost.” However, Participant 4 dissented stating, “I feel like the cost outweighs the benefits.”
Further study is necessary to determine the precise impact that costs and benefits have on the
motivation of Title IX Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University; however, the lack of a gap
in the utility influence and the presence of a gap in the costs influence leads the researcher to
conclude that utility value may be more impactful at Hometown University than costs. Finally,
attainment value is the desire to do what an individual perceives they ought to do in relation to
their identities (Eccles, 2006). Although not revealed as an influence in the review of the
literature, attainment value may be influencing goal achievement as many stakeholders asserted
their commitment to reporting as part of their responsibilities earlier in this chapter. The
attachment of goal achievement to an identity such as being a good employee or a good advocate
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for students may increase the attainment value of reporting. Further research is necessary to
determine if attainment value is impacting goal achievement at Hometown University.
Theme 4: Complex Organizational Nuances Create Interesting Stakeholder Responses
Change is derived from the interaction of knowledge and motivation within the context of
the organization as reflected in the conceptual framework of this study. As such, a gap analysis
that looked only at the knowledge and motivation of stakeholders would be inadequate and
incomplete (Clark & Estes, 2008). Research Question 3 sought to understand the interactions
between knowledge, motivation, and organizational context and culture. Schein (2004) and
Bolman and Deal (2013) asserted that organizations develop unique beliefs and ways of doing
things, and all change must pass through the filter of organizational culture. Additionally,
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) framed organizational culture as a dichotomy noting cultural
models as the invisible ways of thinking in an organization and cultural settings as the shared
processes of goal achievement. A review of the relevant literature revealed three organizational
influences: 1) Mandatory Reporters must trust institutional procedures for investigating and
adjudicating sexual violence, 2) Mandatory Reporters must be selected to meet conflicting
accountabilities while not including unnecessary faculty, staff, or student members of the
university community, and 3) Mandatory Reporters need clear goals and feedback to improve
performance. However, the study revealed gaps in only two influences: 1) Mandatory Reporters
must trust institutional procedures for investigating and adjudicating sexual violence and 2)
Mandatory Reporters need clear goals and feedback to improve performance.
Although the literature showed that selecting Mandatory Reporters to meet conflicting
accountabilities while not including unnecessary faculty, staff, or student members of the
university community was an important cultural setting, no gap was discovered in this study for
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this organizational influence. Holland et al. (2017) found that 69% of institutions named all
faculty and staff as Mandatory Reporters to ensure compliance. Additionally, Moylan (2017)
posited that faculty and staff believed that universities, in large part, selected mandatory
reporters to reduce institutional liability. In this study, Participant 9 asserted, “I feel that I have to
be, instead of support for the student, I have to be of more support for the institution.” Aside
from this particular assertion, Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University expressed general
support for the goals of the mandatory reporting directive as discussed earlier in this chapter.
Further, none of the participants suggested that they should not have been identified as
Mandatory Reporters. Conversely, participants may believe that the Title IX Guidance from the
Office of Civil Rights in the United States Department of Education requires them to be
Mandatory Reporters since the majority of their colleagues at other universities are more than
likely also identified as Mandatory Reporters by their respective institutions and would share
similar experiences. As the Trump administration considers changes to the Title IX Guidance,
the selection for Mandatory Reporters may be clarified for colleges and universities. The study
revealed that a complete understanding of the Title IX Guidance issued by the United States
government may represent a declarative knowledge influence deficiency that needs to be
addressed either through training or further study.
Trust in people serves in lieu of trust in process and procedures. Support and
acceptance of directives such as the mandatory reporting directive are linked to trust in
organizational processes and procedures (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Additionally, Korsgaard,
Brodt, and Whitener (2002) found that the perceived fairness of organizational policies and
procedures significantly impacted compliance and stakeholder motivation. Participants in this
study described being unaware of the procedures and processes or being unsure of the degree to
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which they trust any given institution. Participant 4 stated, “I-I’m not very- I’m not aware of,
like, the ins and outs of [the processes and procedures].” Additionally, Reflection 4 described
significant “frustration” concerning that lack of knowledge about current processes and
procedures. Mandatory Reporters conveyed a general ignorance of the process and procedures
used by the institution to resolve sexual violence complaints. Participant 3 posited, “As I
expressed to you before – I don’t necessarily know what the process is.” Similarly, Participant 2
said, “Like, I just don’t’ see how it works.” Participant 5 further proclaimed, “I don’t, you know,
I don’t know how much I trust any institution.” Finally, Participant 6 presented an idea that was
expressed over and over by participants in different ways stating, “I think it depends on the
people. Who are…who are doing…who are in charge of the process.”
Trust in organizational processes and procedures derived from collegial and personal
relationships did not appear in the review of the literature as a substitute for overall trust and
confidence in established processes and procedures. However, trust in colleagues and the staff
responsible for Title IX investigations and adjudications at Hometown University was described
by many participants as the source of their confidence in the current processes and procedures.
Participant 3 asseverated, “I trust the people who I would go to” In addition, Participant 8, when
discussing the Title IX staff, noted, “I wholeheartedly trust them.” Mandatory Reporters
professed significant confidence in their colleagues and their integrity. Participant 4 explained:
We know we have such a great administrative staff that handles our judicial cases and
you know, our sexual assault cases, and we have, you know ombuds and everything like
that. We know we can trust the people that do this stuff all of the time.
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Moreover, Participant 2 posited, “I have trust in my working relationships.” Similarly,
Participant 1 communicated the importance of having confidence in the individuals who provide
oversight to sexual violence investigation and adjudication asserting:
If there were different people in those roles, I could imagine, um a scenario where you
might not feel comfortable sharing that information with those people…I can’t imagine
having that happen here with the people in those roles.
Finally, Participant 7 quipped, “the people that I know who are in charge of these- scenarios are
people that really give a shit. I mean, people that really care.”
Bolman and Deal (2013) asserted that organizational support and acceptance of policies
such as the mandatory reporting directive are connected to trust in organizational processes and
procedures. Additionally, a study of paraprofessional Resident Assistants found that trust in
processes and procedures predicted motivation and compliance with a mandatory reporting
directive (Holland & Cortina, 2017). Stakeholder interviews and document analysis revealed that
the participants in this study described being, largely, unaware of what occurs after an incident of
sexual violence is reported or being suspicious of all institutions. Therefore, the researcher
expected to discover that trust in organizational processes and procedures was low due to a
knowledge deficiency. On the contrary, participants expressed high levels of trust in the staff
responsible for the execution of investigation and adjudication procedures and processes at
Hometown University. Consequently, participants seemed to transfer trust for these individuals
to the overall Title IX processes and procedures as well. As such, a change in personnel may
result in reduced organizational trust in procedures and processes. In addition to maintaining
trust in Title IX personnel, Hometown University should increase trust in processes and
procedures independent of the personnel. Additionally, participants identified a lack of process
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and procedural knowledge related to investigation and adjudication which may be a knowledge
influence that requires further study. The conceptual framework for this study posited that
knowledge and motivation interact with each other and exist within and are impacted by
organizational culture. Accordingly, motivation and compliance are predicated on organizational
trust, which may be impacted by a lack of procedural knowledge and supplemented by trust in
colleagues and Title IX Staff (Holland & Cortina, 2017).
Clear goals but little to no feedback create frustration and some anxiety. Clark and
Estes (2008) asserted that ambiguous goals create an environment in which stakeholders pursue
what they perceive to be the best option or the option that advances their career. Additionally,
Schein (2004) stated that simply presenting the organizational mission and goals do not equate to
goal clarity as stakeholders may pursue objectives in significantly different ways if there is
uncertainty about the correct avenue to pursue. As stated earlier in this chapter, Mandatory
Reporters at Hometown University understand the goal of the mandatory reporting directive and
accept the responsibilities assigned to them. In discussing the goals of the mandatory reporting
directive, Participant 4 stated, “it’s pretty simple. Like, it’s cut and dry to me.” Similarly,
Participant 3 mentioned, “I know my responsibility, you know, and I’m not gonna ignore that.”
Moreover, Participant 5 asserted, “the role makes sense to me.” Further, Mandatory Reporters
correctly identified the organizational goal without prompting as creating a safe community for
students. Participant 1 communicated that the goal of the mandatory reporting directive was to
create “a safer community for everyone.” Likewise, Participant 8 described the goal of the
mandatory reporting directive as ensuring “the safety of our students.”
Schein (2004) asserted that feedback is precise information about whether results are on
target or deviating from the target. Participants in this study who had previously reported sexual
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violence recalled little to no feedback being provided by the institution. Participant 4 recounted
their experience after reporting recalling, “It really frustrated me, because I felt like I would be
communicated with about certain things along the way, and then, I wasn’t.” When asked what
types of outreach they received after reporting, Participant 4 continued, “None.” In Reflection 4,
Participant 4 once again expressed frustration and a “strong desire for change” in
communication. Additionally, Participant 2 reported providing “as much information as possible,
and, you know, and…but, like, it stopped there.” Several participants lamented the
unidirectional communication of reporting with no feedback. As stated earlier in this chapter,
Participant 1 recounted reporting via the online reporting form and receiving only an automated
email stating the form had been received. Conversely, Participant 7 expressed relief stating, “I
don’t remember getting a lot of follow ups from, from the school, which was fine, because, as far
as I was concerned, I really wanted to kind of be out of it.”
Mandatory Reporters articulated a universal understanding of the need for confidentiality
in Title IX incidents. However, the feedback which they reported desiring would not violate
confidentiality. In fact, the feedback they crave may improve overall goal achievement. The
three types of feedback sought by mandatory reporters can be classified as: 1) commitment to
student care and concern, 2) reinforcement of utility and goal achievement, and 3) reassurance of
process and procedure implementation. Participant 3 stated, “I don’t need detail. I don’t need,
you know personal information. Is the student doing, okay?” As noted earlier, Mandatory
Reporters at Hometown University expressed a strong desire to know that students were
benefiting and being helped by reporting. Likewise, Participant 4 expressed a desire to know
“that the student is okay. Um, that that they are receiving whatever help they needed.” Similarly,
Participant 6 suggested, “My concern is that the student is okay.”
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Mandatory Reporters also described a desire to know if they advanced the organizational
goal and if their actions were useful. Participant 3 communicated, “Did I do the right things?
Um, what should I be thinking about in a situation? What didn’t I think about in this situation?”
Mandatory Reporters conveyed a need to receive feedback that helped them master their role and
to understand its usefulness. Participant 9 asseverated, “I think follow up is very important,
because the first time, it’s a learning process, and it’s scary for me, too.” Moreover, Participant 1
articulated a desire to feel valued and a need for constructive criticism, noting, “I think, just, um
to say, thanks for the information you provided on the form. Um, if you, knew this, this, or this it
would be helpful, you know what I mean?” Alternatively, Participant 8 expressed a unique
stakeholder need stating, “if it’s, you know, really bothersome or I could talk to someone…if it
was-like counseling here or take advantage of that or my boss.”
As noted earlier in this chapter, trust in organizational procedures and processes seemed
to be derived from collegial relationships not from a clear understanding of the procedures and
processes of Hometown University. Stakeholder interviews revealed that Mandatory Reporters
are, for the most part, uncertain of what occurs after they report incidents of sexual violence. The
knowledge deficiency can be addressed by training; however, reassurances that the processes and
procedures are meeting anticipated goals through feedback may also improve stakeholder
knowledge and organizational trust as noted in the conceptual framework of this study.
Participant 4 asserted that they wanted to know that “the situation was handled in some way.”
Additionally, Participant 9 stated, “I would wanna know that the student is engaged with the
right people on campus…I just need to know this process is helping them or we’re getting a little
bit better.” Moreover, Participant 5 contended they would appreciate general notification that the
process is working noting, “I told someone higher up in the administration this thing. Uh, it’s
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being taken care of um, it has been resolved.” Overall, Mandatory Reporters professed a need for
feedback that acknowledges receipt of the information and confirms that the process is working
as intended toward a resolution.
Clear goals and feedback are crucial to the achievement of organizational goals (Clark &
Estes, 2008). As discussed earlier in this chapter, Mandatory Reporters, who were interviewed
for this study, described clear goals for the mandatory reporting directive. Participants articulated
that reporting incidents of sexual violence and student safety were the goals which Hometown
University had identified for Mandatory Reporters. Further, participants expressed a willingness
to report as outlined in their job responsibilities. However, they identified the care and protection
of students as a significant reason for their compliance as well. Alternatively, participants
lamented a lack of clear feedback. Interviews showed that participants desired feedback
confirming student well-being, recognizing and supporting the usefulness of their roles, and
reassuring them that the processes and procedures are functioning and moving Hometown
University toward goal achievement.
The conceptual framework for this study described knowledge and motivation as
interacting with one another within the context of the organization. As stated earlier, Mandatory
Reporters, in this study, reported several knowledge and motivation gaps. Additionally, several
possible knowledge gaps not reflected in the review of the literature for this study arose during
data analysis which may require further research. Moreover, compliance and support for
mandatory reporting directives is tied to organizational trust in processes and procedures as well
as clear goals and feedback. Participants reported significant trust for Title IX Staff at Hometown
University. Similarly, they described having clear goals which are to report incidents of sexual
violence and create a safe community. However, participants asserted that they did not receive
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feedback once a report was made. The lack of feedback and information produced a gap in the
organizational influence of clear feedback. Also, a lack of procedural knowledge concerning
investigations and adjudications may represent a knowledge gap as well. The knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences are all connected and impact performance and goal
achievement (Clark & Estes, 2008). As such, the types of feedback that participants contended
were absent from their interactions with Hometown University were related to the organizational
influences of trust in the processes and procedures and the motivational influences on positive
outcomes for students as well as the benefits versus costs of reporting for students.
Consequently, knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences gaps must be addressed to
ensure organizational and stakeholder goal achievement. As presented, knowledge deficiencies
and cultural nuances impacted motivation; however, motivation seemed to remain high possibly
due to faculty and staff optimism concerning the process, trust in the Title IX Staff, and a belief
that the benefits of reporting outweigh the costs. As such, overall goal achievement can be
strengthened by bridging each of the gaps identified in this study and conducting further research
to identify, address, and understand other potential gaps or influences.
Summary
Mandatory Reporters are a new stakeholder group in higher education having been
created by the Title IX Guidance of 2011 as noted in Chapter Two (Ali, 2015). This evaluation
study of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on Title IX Mandatory
Reporters at Hometown University revealed some interesting findings. In addition, the findings
of this study explored each of the identified knowledge, motivation, and organization influences
in the review of the literature in Chapter Two. Further, this study explored gaps in those
influences and sought to explain the interconnectedness of the influences and their impact on
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stakeholder and organizational goal achievement. Overall, Mandatory Reporters at Hometown
University reported that they have or would report 100% of the incidents of sexual violence
reported to them, and they acknowledged that they would do so to create a safe living and
learning community for students. Conversely, the interactions of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences paint an interesting and complex portrait of the competencies and
beliefs of the Mandatory Reporter at Hometown University as well as the culture of the
institution.
A review of the literature revealed three knowledge influences or competencies required
for Mandatory Reporters to reach goal achievement: 1) Mandatory reporters need to understand
the typology of sexual violence, 2) Mandatory reporters need to know how to report incidents of
sexual violence, and 3) Mandatory reporters need to be able to reflect on their thought processes
as they complete their roles as mandatory reporters. The findings of this study showed that
Mandatory Reporters, who had previously reported incidents of sexual violence, spent a great
deal of time reflecting on their experience, so no gap was identified in influence 3. As discussed
earlier in this chapter, Mandatory Reporters desired feedback that would confirm their
metacognitive reflections or offer alternatives. Additionally, gaps were discovered in knowledge
influences 1 and 2. Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University do not share a uniform
typology of sexual violence. Their knowledge of sexual violence is based on assumptions and
personal definitions. Further, Mandatory Reporters at Hometown University articulated that they
lacked knowledge of the official method of reporting incidents of sexual violence, but they
identified their collegial relationships as a source of knowledge and support for both themselves
and students. Moreover, the findings of the study revealed two possible knowledge influences
that were not discovered in the review of the literature that may require further research.
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Participants described a lack of procedural knowledge related to organizational processes and
procedures after an incident is reported. Also, participants stated that they did not know what the
actual Title IX Guidance required which may represent a declarative knowledge gap.
Three motivation influences were identified as being integral to stakeholder and
organization goal completion during the literature review. These influences were: 1) Mandatory
Reporters should feel that reporting will result in a positive outcome for the victim, 2) Mandatory
Reporters should see how students and the institution benefit from reporting incidents of sexual
violence, 3) Mandatory Reporters should perceive little cost in terms negative impacts to victims
from reporting incidents of sexual violence. Participants reported a gap in Motivation influence 1
describing a lack of knowledge about what happens once a report of sexual violence is made or
what processes and procedures are followed. As such, their perceptions of outcomes are unclear,
based on rumor, or perceptions from sometimes single cases shared by students with them.
Motivation influence 2 and 3 are connected as they represent components of expectancy value
theory (Eccles, 2006). The findings of the study revealed that participants recognized the benefits
of mandatory reporting; however, they also described significant costs to students. As such, no
gap was discovered for Motivation influence 1, but a gap was discovered for Motivation
influence 2. Moreover, participants in the study articulated a feeling of responsibility to do what
is right and care for students driving them to report which may allude to attainment value
(Eccles, 2006) being an important factor in Mandatory Reporter motivation that requires further
study.
Finally, Clark and Estes (2008) posited that the organization exerts significant influence
on goal achievement, so a gap analysis that focused solely on the internal knowledge and
motivation of the stakeholders would be incomplete. As such, three organizational influences
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were identified for this study: 1) Mandatory reporters must trust institutional procedures for
investigating and adjudicating sexual violence, 2) Mandatory reporters must be selected to meet
conflicting accountabilities while not including unnecessary faculty/staff/student members of the
college community, and 3) Mandatory reporters need clear goals and feedback to improve
performance. The findings of the study demonstrated a gap in Mandatory Reporter trust in the
processes and procedures for investigating and adjudicating sexual violence born from a lack of
knowing those procedures and processes. However, significant trust was expressed in Title IX
Staff and the relationships that participants had with those staff members. Consequently, trust in
the processes and procedures was imparted by relationships with the individuals not through first
hand knowledge or experience. There was no gap identified for organizational influence 2 as
participants did not seem to question their role as a Mandatory Reporter. Although, the absence
of a gap may, also, be due to a lack of knowledge surrounding the Title IX Guidance as
discussed earlier in this chapter. Moreover, participants revealed that they received clear goals
but little to no feedback concerning their roles as Mandatory Reporters. Consequently, the types
of feedback that they expressed a desire to receive do not require confidential information be
released and include: 1) student wellness, 2) process and procedure reassurance, and 3)
reinforcement of the utility of reporting and support for the reporter. In short, the feedback
participants desired were directly related to the identified motivational influences of utility value,
costs, and outcomes. Also, feedback about and knowledge of outcomes may strengthen trust in
processes and procedures independently of Title IX staff relationships. The findings of the study
revealed the need for further training and research. Chapter Five explores recommendations and
proposed solutions.
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Chapter Five: Recommendations and Solutions
Chapter Four presented the findings of this study. Those findings sought to answer
Research Questions 1 – 3. Further, the findings categorized and confirmed needs related to the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences outlined in the Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis framework using qualitative data analysis of semi-structured interviews and participant
generated reflections. Moreover, Chapter Five addresses Research Question 4 by presenting
recommendations for bridging identified knowledge, motivation, and organizational influence
gaps. In this case, a training and development program is recommended for Mandatory Reporters
at Hometown University based on the findings in Chapter Four. The program should consist of
both an asynchronous online portion and a synchronous in-person training. The asynchronous
portion of the program should consist of curriculum modules designed to meet the program goals
outlined below. Further, the synchronous portion will be designed to develop and reinforce skills,
organizational influences and to solidify the commitment of Mandatory Reporters to report as
directed. The program will be designed and evaluated using the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2016) New World Model for Evaluation. The training and development program design and
evaluation are both guided sequentially by 1) selection of program outcomes (Level 4), 2) the
identification of behaviors that Mandatory Reporters will need to change or develop to meet
those outcomes (Level 3), 3) the learning outcomes that must be achieved during the training
program to ellicit behavior changes and development, and 4) the desired reactions to the program
that will support the environment needed to achieve the learning outcomes (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2016). Specific program needs were identified based on the findings in Chapter
Four. Finally, the training and development program design and evaluation recommendations
developed using the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) model are elucidated in this chapter.
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Recommendations to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
Krathwohl (2012) and Rueda (2011) provide the framework for the knowledge influences
identified during an extensive review of the literature pertaining the to the skills and knowledge
that Title IX Mandatory Reporters need to successfully meet the goals established by Hometown
University. The two identified knowledge influences consist of declarative, procedural, and
metacognitive knowledge and are as follows: 1) Mandatory reporters need to understand the
typology of sexual violence, 2) Mandatory reporters need to know how to report incidents of
sexual violence, and 3) Mandatory reporters need to be able to reflect on their thought processes
as they complete their roles as mandatory reporters. Further, two of the three knowledge
influences were identified for inclusion in the training program through the findings in Chapter
Four. Table 5 includes a summary of the knowledge influences, the reason for their inclusion in
the recommendations, the literature demonstrating their importance, and the recommendation for
each influence.
Table 5
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation
Mandatory reporters
need to understand the
typology of sexual
violence. (D)
Conceptual knowledge describes
the ability to identify and
understand broad concepts,
models, and ideas (Krathwohl,
2002; Rueda, 2011).
Create and distribute a job aid
that explains the concepts
included in the umbrella typology
of sexual violence.

Mandatory reporters
need to know how to
report incidents of
sexual violence. (P)
A stakeholder demonstrates their
mastery of procedural
knowledge by completing or
describing a process accurately
(Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011).
Provide training in which a peer
models the procedure for
reporting sexual violence using
the online reporting form, e-mail,
a report to campus safety, or a
direct report to the Title IX
Coordinator.
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Declarative knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. Conceptual
knowledge describes the ability of the learner to understand and identify broad concepts, models,
and ideas (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Sexual violence is a topic that is highly conceptual.
Data demonstrated that mandatory reporters of sexual violence at Hometown University lacked
adequate understanding of the concepts and ideas that comprise the typology of sexual violence.
Clark and Estes (2008) posited that job aids are the recommended solution when a gap in
declarative knowledge exists. Mandatory reporters can refer to job aids during their work to
ensure that they are correctly identifying the necessary concepts and ideas in the typology of
sexual violence to facilitate reporting.
The goal of mandatory reporting of sexual violence on college campuses by faculty and
staff is to create a safe living and learning community. Mandatory reporters must be able to hear
a situation or incident described by a student and, then, understand if and how the described
situation fits within the broad concepts and models included in the typology of sexual violence
(Black et al., 2011; Zinzow & Thompson, 2015). Holland and Cortina (2017) note that
mandatory reporters who possess more accurate knowledge of the typology of sexual violence
are more likely to report. Therefore, job aids are a practical way to provide quick and easy access
to correct conceptual knowledge concerning the typology of sexual violence (Clark & Estes,
2008).
Procedural knowledge solutions, or description of needs or assets. The mastery of
procedural knowledge is assessed by a demonstration or detailed description of the process in
question (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). The data showed that mandatory reporters at
Hometown University lacked procedural knowledge concerning how to report incidents of
sexual violence to the appropriate campus authorities. Moreover, training is recommended when
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a gap in procedural knowledge is discovered as it facilitates the acquisition of how to complete
processes and procedures (Clark & Estes, 2008). Mandatory reporters need to know how to
report sexual violence according to the process outlined by Hometown University for mandatory
reporters.
Clark and Estes (2008) noted that procedural alignment and familiarity creates better
outcomes over time. Research demonstrates that confidence in campus response protocols and
procedures is high; however, confidence is not sufficient (Amar et al., 2015; Streng &
Kamimura, 2016). Correct knowledge of how to report sexual violence reinforces the reporting
mandate and generates more frequent and accurate reports (Holland & Cortina, 2017). Training
allows peers to model the procedure for reporting sexual violence using the online reporting
form, e-mail, a report to campus safety, or a direct report to the Title IX Coordinator. Repetition
and practice create an environment in which mandatory reporters can become familiar with and
practice the application of the procedural knowledge needed to improve reporting.
Motivation Recommendations
As with knowledge influences, three motivation influences were identified from the
extant literature as playing pivotal roles in the ability of Mandatory Reporters to achieve the
goals set by Hometown University. The first influence is that reporters should feel that reporting
will result in a positive outcome for the victim. Anderman and Anderman (2009) asserted that
learning and motivation are improved when stakeholders attribute a positive outcome with effort
which in this case is reporting sexual violence. The next influence is that Mandatory Reporters
should see how students and the institution benefit from reporting incidents of sexual violence.
Eccles (2006) and Pintrich (2003) discuss the importance of connecting the utility of the work to
its importance in order to promote positive value development. The final identified motivation
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influence states that Mandatory Reporters should perceive little cost in terms of negative impacts
to victims from reporting incidents of sexual violence. Perceived cost reduction and increased
value is a key to motivation (Eccles, 2006). Two motivation influences were identified by the
findings in Chapter Four as needs and should be used in the design and evaluation of the training
and development program. Table 6 includes a summary of the motivational influences, the
reason for their inclusion in the recommendations, the literature demonstrating their importance,
and the recommendation for each influence.
Table 6
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation Influence

Principle and Citation Context-Specific Recommendation
Attributions – Mandatory
Reporters should feel that
reporting will result in a
positive outcome for the
victim.
Learning and motivation
are increased when
learners attribute a
positive outcome with
effort (Anderman &
Anderman, 2009)
Provide feedback to mandatory
reporters that links positive
outcomes for survivors to the
efforts of mandatory reporters
Cost – Mandatory Reporters
should perceive little cost in
terms of negative impacts to
victims from reporting
incidents of sexual violence.
Decreasing the perceived
cost and increasing value
improves learner
motivation (Eccles, 2006)
The University should provide
opportunities for survivors to share
the positive impacts of mandatory
reporting in their cases and on their
relationship with the reporter.

Attribution. The desire of learners to understand the cause of a particular outcome as
well as their ability to influence that outcome is rooted in attribution theory (Anderman &
Anderman, 2009). Mandatory Reporters are not confident that reporting will result in a positive
outcome for the victim of sexual violence. Research shows that learning and motivation are
increased when learners attribute a positive outcome with effort (Anderman & Anderman, 2009).
As such, opportunities to link the effort of mandatory reporting with positive outcomes for
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survivors should increase reporting. Therefore, the recommendation is that Hometown
University provide feedback to mandatory reporters that links positive outcomes for survivors to
the efforts of mandatory reporters.
Anderman and Anderman (2009) stated that attribution theory is centered in the learner’s
desire to understand why things occur. Further, Rueda (2011) notes that the learner also has a
desire to understand how much control they have over the outcome. Mandatory reporters who
attribute a positive outcome for victims of sexual violence due to mandatory reporting are
significantly more likely to report (Holland & Cortina, 2017). As such, the recommendation to
provide feedback to mandatory reporters that intentionally connects their efforts in reporting to
positive outcomes for victims should produce increased reporting.
Cost. Eccles (2006) defined the cost dimension of expectancy value theory as the
perceived impact on the learner or organizations limited resources such as time or relationships.
Mandatory Reporters perceive significant cost in terms of negative impacts to victims from
reporting incidents of sexual violence. Eccles (2006) stated that decreasing the perceived cost
and increasing value perception improves learner motivation (Eccles, 2006). Increased
perception and exposure to outcomes that demonstrate decreased cost and increased value
improve motivation. Therefore, Hometown University should provide opportunities for survivors
to share the positive impacts of mandatory reporting in their cases as well as their relationship
with the reporter.
Eccles (2006) posited that expectancy value theory demonstrates that perceived cost,
when too great, can have a negative impact on choice. Moylan (2017) notes that the desire of
campuses to force faculty and staff named as mandatory reporters to disclose without the consent
of the student may impact reporting overall. The cost associated with reporting may be perceived
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as too great for both the student and the mandatory reporter. Eccles (2006) and Rueda (2011)
stated that high cost perception decreases motivation and value perception. The recommendation
to provide opportunities for mandatory reporters to discuss positive outcomes of their
relationship with the individual who reported their incident as well as positive outcomes of their
case should decrease cost perception while increasing value perception. The outcome should be
increased motivation for mandatory reporters to comply with reporting directives.
Organization Recommendations
Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) described organizational influences in terms of cultural
models and cultural settings. Cultural models are the unseen forces moving through the
organization which affect the efficiency and effectiveness of the stakeholders (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). Conversely, cultural settings are the visible processes existing in and
organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). This study identified three organizational
influences. One cultural model was identified which was Mandatory reporters must trust
institutional procedures for investigating and adjudicating sexual violence. Additionally, two
cultural settings were identified which are 1) Mandatory reporters must be selected to meet
conflicting accountabilities while not including unnecessary faculty/staff/student members of the
college community and 2) Mandatory reporters need clear goals and feedback to improve
performance. Two of the three organizational influences are included in the training and
development program design as they were identified as a gap by the findings discussed in
Chapter Four. Table 7 includes a summary of the organizational influences, the reason for their
inclusion in the recommendations, the literature demonstrating their importance, and the
recommendation for each influence.

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Table 7
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization Influence

Principle and Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Model Influence 1:

Mandatory reporters must trust
institutional procedures for
investigating and adjudicating
sexual violence.
Bolman and Deal (2013)
note that when
organizational participants
have trust in processes and
procedures, they are more
likely to accept and support
directives and change
initiatives.
Each quarter, mandatory
reporters should have the
opportunity to participate in
a forum with the Title IX
Coordinator to promote
dialogue and transparency
in the Title IX procedures.
Cultural Setting Influence 2:

Mandatory reporters need clear
goals and feedback to improve
performance.
Schein (2004) declares that
simply stating goals and a
mission is not adequate to
generate performance,
because subcultures within
the organization may attempt
to reach the goals in vastly
different ways.
Mandatory reporters who
report incidents of sexual
violence should receive
feedback from and give
feedback to the Title IX
Coordinator.

Cultural model 1. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) frame organizational culture as a
dichotomy consisting of cultural models, or unseen ways and customs in an organization, and
culture settings, or the shared processes of getting things done in an organization which are
visible. Trust is a cultural model as it exists unseen in an organization, but, when present, it
produces many valuable effects for the organization and stakeholders (Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2011). Mandatory Reporters lack trust in institutional policies and procedures for investigating
and adjudicating incidents of sexual violence. Bolman and Deal (2013) note that when
organizational participants have trust in processes and procedures, they are more likely to accept
and support directives and change initiatives. Consequently, Hometown University needs to
promote dialogue and transparency related to Title IX procedures in order to develop trust
between the University and Mandatory Reporters.
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Perceptions of the fairness of organizational policies and procedures are shown to
significantly impact compliance (Korsgaard, Brodt, & Whitener, 2002). Holland and Cortina
(2017) stated that trust in organizational policies and procedures related to sexual violence on
campus predicted whether resident assistants identified as mandatory reporters would carry out
their responsibility to report. Mandatory Reporters who perceived a positive outcome for
survivors due to fair policies and procedures were more likely to report (Holland et al., 2017).
The literature suggests support for the recommendation that, each quarter, mandatory reporters
should have the opportunity to participate in a forum with the Title IX Coordinator to promote
dialogue and transparency in the Title IX procedures as trust is facilitated through open discourse
and clarity.
Cultural setting 2. Mandatory reporters are not presented with clear goals and feedback
to improve performance. Goals and feedback are examples of cultural settings or the processes
and visible customs of the organization (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Schein (2004) noted
that simply stating goals and a mission is not adequate to generate performance, because
subcultures within the organization may attempt to reach the goals in vastly different ways.
Organizations can achieve their performance and organizational goals only by providing
frequent feedback and clarification (Clark & Estes, 2008; Schein, 2004). So, Title IX goals
should be clearly articulated to mandatory reporters each year prior to the start of the school
year. Additionally, Mandatory reporters who report incidents of sexual violence should receive
feedback from and give feedback to the Title IX Coordinator.
Clark and Estes (2008) stated that no amount of motivation and knowledge can produce a
desired outcome without proper goal setting and feedback. Schein (2004) clearly articulates that
“feedback is not any old comment or observation of ‘how things are going’; feedback is specific
MANDATORY REPORTING 124

information on whether the results are on target or are deviating from the target” (Schein, 2004,
p.160). Additionally, Clark and Estes (2008) posit that when performance goals are ambiguous
that Title IX Mandatory Reporters may pursue personal interests or career advancement in lieu of
the organizational goal. Moylan (2017) notes that universities are paralyzed by fear of liability
and are reluctant to give feedback or set clear goals for Title IX Mandatory Reporters beyond the
basic guidance provided by the Office of Civil Right. The literature demonstrates that colleges
and universities should set and communicate clear goals and develop systems and work
processes that provide clear and supportive feedback to Title IX mandatory reporters (Clark &
Estes, 2008; Schein, 2004). The findings in Chapter Four revealed that Title IX Mandatory
Reporters do not desire feedback that would conflict with institutional confidentiality policies.
Therefore, Hometown University should provide feedback to Mandatory Reporters that
acknowledges and expresses appreciation for their report, verifies that appropriate action is being
taken, and confirms that student is receiving any requested or needed support services.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016) is a revised and
flipped evolution of the original Kirkpatrick Four Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2006). The primary difference between the two models is that the New World
Kirkpatrick Model begins by evaluating and identifying the metrics that signal the successful
attainment of the organization’s goals (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Further, the model
posits that organization leaders are more readily able to identify the behaviors and necessary
learning objectives required to reach the organization’s goals by starting with the metrics that
indicate success (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The inverted nature of the New World
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Kirkpatrick Model facilitates clear choices in training and development solutions by encouraging
leaders to begin with the desired organizational outcomes unlike the former Kirkpatrick Four
Level Model of Evaluation which taught leaders to begin with the desired response and learning
outcomes of individual being trained in mind (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016; Kirkpatrick &
Kirkpatrick, 2006).
Organizational Purpose, Need and Expectations
Hometown University seeks to develop the mental and ethical understanding of its
students. To reach this mission, Hometown University adopted the greater organizational goal of
creating a safe living and learning environment for all students by May of 2021. Additionally,
sexual violence was thrust to the forefront as one of the paramount safety issues on College and
University campuses in the United States by the Title IX Guidance issued through the
Department of Education in 2011 (Ali, 2015). This study focuses on the knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences on Title IX Mandatory Reporters, which are faculty, staff, and
selected paraprofessional student staff, who are required to report instances of sexual violence at
Hometown University to the Title IX Coordinator. Hometown University seeks to reach its
stakeholder goal of having Title IX mandatory reporters at Hometown University report 100% of
incidents of sexual misconduct by May of 2021. The stakeholder goal should be attainable by
increasing stakeholder knowledge through a comprehensive training program, developing
appropriate organizational and motivational support, and building trust in the processes and
procedures used to investigate and adjudicate incidents of sexual violence at Hometown
University.

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Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 8 presents the proposed Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators expressed as
outcomes, metrics, and methods for Hometown University both internally and externally.
Improved performance of Title IX Mandatory Reporters as a result of training and support
should lead to the internal outcomes being realized. Successful internal outcomes should,
therefore, lead to successful external outcomes as well.
Table 8

Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes

Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Increased public recognition as a
safe campus
1. Ranking in US News and World
Report
1. Compare rankings each year
2. No adverse claims filed with US
Department of Civil Rights concerning
Title IX
2. Number of Reports 2. Review reporting numbers
3. No lawsuits filed against the college
for failing to adequately address Title
IX Claims
3. Number of lawsuits 3. Evaluate legal counsel data
Internal Outcomes
4. Mandatory reporters Increased
number of reports by Title IX
Mandatory Reporters
4. Number of Reports 4. The Sexual Misconduct
Reporting form and emails to the
Title IX Coordinator
5. Mandatory reporters Increased Title
IX Mandatory Reporter trust in
processes
5. Positive responses to key
indicators on an annual Title IX
Mandatory Reporters survey
5. Compare survey results
6. Mandatory reporters Increased
recognition by students of the value of
Mandatory Reporting
6. Positive responses to key
indicators on the annual safety and
security survey
6. Compare Survey results

Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are Title IX Mandatory Reporters at
Hometown University who are responsible for reporting incidents of sexual violence. The first
critical behavior is that Mandatory reporters will be able to correctly identify incidents of sexual
violence when reporting. The second critical behavior is Mandatory reporters will be able to
identify the correct method for reporting sexual violence. The third critical behavior is
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Mandatory reporters will provide resources available to survivors of sexual violence, detail how
to access those resources, and describe their purpose. The specific metrics, methods, and timing
for each of these critical behaviors appears in Table 9.
Table 9.

Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. Mandatory reporters will
correctly identify incidents as
sexual violence when
reporting
1. The number of
incidents reported
that correctly identify
an incident of sexual
violence
1a. Title IX Coordinator will
track reports via the online
Sexual Misconduct and
Harassment Reporting form
1a. Quarterly review
of incidents

1b. The Title IX Coordinator
will provide feedback to the
reporter to improve
identification ability
1b. Ongoing - Each
time a report is filed
2. Mandatory reporters will be
able to identify the correct
method and procedures for
reporting sexual violence
2. The number of
reports filed using the
officially sanctioned
methods
2. The Title IX Coordinator will
review all reports and provide
feedback to the reporter
concerning the method used to
report.
2.Ongoing- Each time
a report is filed

3. Mandatory reporters will
provide resources available to
survivors of sexual violence,
detail how to access those
resources, and describe their
purpose

3a. Number of
brochures provided to
survivors
3a. Title IX Coordinator will
count the number of brochures
that survivors receive from
Mandatory reporters during
intake.
3a. Ongoing - Each
time an intake
process is done.

Quarterly review of
total number of
brochures given
versus intake
processes completed.

3b. Number of
survivors accessing
services through
referral
3b Title IX Coordinator will
have the Deputy Title IX
Coordinator assess the number
of times services are accessed
through referral from a
Mandatory reporter
3b. Monthly - Deputy
Title IX Coordinator
will compile referral
data

Required drivers. Mandatory reporters require the support of Hometown University and
the Title IX Coordinator to reinforce what they have learned in training and development.
Further, they require support from both the Title IX Coordinator and the organization to apply
their knowledge to their roles as mandatory reporters of sexual violence. Mandatory reporters
should be supported, and rewards should be provided to enhance the organizational goals of the
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University with respect to mandatory reporting directives and creating a safe living and learning
community for all students. Table 10 shows the recommended drivers to support critical
behaviors of mandatory reporters.
Table 10
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical
Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing

Job aid that explains the concepts included in the umbrella
typology of sexual violence.
Ongoing 1
Provide training in which a peer models the procedure for
reporting sexual violence using the online reporting form, e-mail, a
report to campus safety, or a direct report to the Title IX
Coordinator.
Quarterly 2
Educate Mandatory Reporters using a formal reflection curriculum
and provide feedback to them on their performance
Monthly 1,2,3
Encouraging

Feedback provided to mandatory reporters that links positive
outcomes for survivors to the efforts of mandatory reporters
Ongoing 1,2,3
Exposed to rationales regularly during staff meetings that
demonstrate the utility value of reporting incidents of sexual
violence
Quarterly 1,2,3
Present a case study that demonstrates how mandatory reporters,
as agents of the institution, benefit from assisting students and the
university through mandatory reporting.
Quarterly 1,2,3
Provide opportunities for survivors to share the positive impacts of
mandatory reporting in their cases and on their relationship with
the reporter.
Monthly 1,2,3
Rewarding

Performance incentive when a report is completed correctly. Ongoing 1,2
Performance incentive when a referral for support services is
made.
Ongoing 3
Monitoring

Mandatory Reporters should have the opportunity to participate in
a forum with the Title IX Coordinator to promote dialogue and
transparency in the Title IX procedures and processes
Monthly 1,2,3
Title IX Coordinator can ask mandatory reporters to self-report
their confidence in identifying sexual violence, reporting sexual
violence, and referring survivors to resources.
Yearly 1,2,3
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Organizational support. Hometown University should take several steps to support the
critical behaviors of Title IX Mandatory Reporters. First, Mandatory Reporters should have the
opportunity to participate in a forum with the Title IX Coordinator to promote dialogue and
transparency in the Title IX procedures. Also, The Title IX Coordinator should reevaluate who
should be labelled as a mandatory reporter to make sure the necessary individuals are serving in
that role. Moreover, Title IX goals should be clearly articulated to mandatory reporters each year
prior to the start of the school year. Finally, Mandatory Reporters who report incidents of sexual
violence should receive feedback from and give feedback to the Title IX Coordinator.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following the completion of the recommended solutions including the
Title IX Mandatory Reporter Training, the stakeholder will be able to:
1. Identify and explain the typology of sexual violence (D)
2. Demonstrate how to report sexual violence at Hometown University (P)
3. Apply the typology of sexual violence to correctly describe an incident of sexual violence
while reporting (P)
4. Synthesize a reflection describing their understanding of their role as a Title IX
Mandatory Reporter (M)
5. Attribute Mandatory Reporting with positive outcomes for survivors (Attribution)
6. Value the usefulness of reporting in creating a safe living and learning community
(Value)
7. Value the benefits of reporting incidents of sexual violence (Value)
8. Formulate a list of be the benefits and costs of reporting incidents of sexual violence
(Value)
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Program. The learning goals, provided in the previous section, will be accomplished
through a training program that examines the accountability theories and guidance that forms the
foundations of Title IX and its connection with sexual violence as a form of gender
discrimination. The learners, Title IX Mandatory Reporters, will examine the origins of the Title
IX legislation, the series of Dear Colleague letters which provide the guidance in effect on
college and university campuses today, and a broad array of topics that support the development
of the skills and attitudes necessary to be effective Title IX Mandatory Reporters. The training
program is blended, consisting of two online modules and one in-person workshop. The training
program will last 4 hours.
During the asynchronous online modules, learners will receive a job aid that explains the
concepts included in the umbrella typology of sexual violence. The asynchronous material will
also discuss the history of Title IX and the guidance from the United States Department of
Education’s Office of Civil Rights that defines the expectations of Title IX Mandatory Reporters.
The asynchronous material will also demonstrate the appropriate procedures for reporting sexual
violence at Hometown University. The asynchronous material will include video, interactive
knowledge checks, and opportunities for feedback from the Learning Management System and
the facilitator.
The synchronous workshop will focus on application of the learning in the asynchronous
material. Also, case studies and guest lecturers will discuss the importance of reporting to
creating a safe living and learning environment and the positive impacts that reporting has on the
institution, the stakeholder, students, and survivors. Further, facilitators will provide training on
how to best support survivors of sexual violence using a reflection intense curriculum.
Synchronous concepts and applications will assist learners to synthesize their own philosophy
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and approach to supporting survivors of sexual violence within the parameters defined by the
Title IX Guidance and Hometown University.
Evaluation of the Components of learning. The learner must be able to demonstrate
declarative knowledge to apply that knowledge to problem solving. Evaluation of both
declarative and procedural knowledge is important to assess the effectiveness of any training
program. Additionally, motivation to use the skills learned is required for the commitment to
apply learned knowledge and skills on the job. The learner’s expectancy value, confidence, and
commitment are all important predictors of the actual application of knowledge to the
appropriate context with the desired effect. As such, Table 11 lists the evaluation methods and
timing for these components of learning.
Table 11
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”

Knowledge checks using multiple choice
questions
In the asynchronous portions of the program in
the LMS after videos and on the Socrates
mobile app during the synchronous
presentations and training
Knowledge checks during discussions using
liberating structures such as Troika consulting
and 10/5/25 sharing.
During the synchronous presentation
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”

Demonstrations of how to report sexual
violence in the asynchronous materials
Video in the asynchronous units in the LMS
Demonstrations of how to use the job aid to
correctly classify incidents of sexual violence
During the synchronous training
Quality of the discussions and ideas shared During the synchronous training
Individual application of the procedures to
classify and report sexual violence
Following the complete training program
Pre- and post-test to measure the difference in
ability prior to and after the training program
Following the complete training program
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”

Facilitator observations of the impressions
given by learners concerning the benefits of
During the synchronous training program
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what participants are being asked to do on the
job
Discussion of the value of mandatory
reporting following presentations of survivors
During the synchronous training program
Pre- and post-test assessment Following the complete training program
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”

Multiple choice survey items During the asynchronous units in the LMS
Create a reflection about the role of the
Mandator Reporter
Following the complete training program
Pre- and post-test assessment Following the complete training program
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”

Discussions following feedback and
demonstrations
During the synchronous training program
Create a reflection about the role of the
Mandator Reporter
During the synchronous training program
Pre- and post-test assessment Following the complete training program

Level 1: Reaction
Measuring the reactions of learners to the training program is important in determining
the engagement level, the relevance of the program, and their overall satisfaction with the
learning experience. Reactions to the training program will be measured through a training
program pre-test and post-test, an overall evaluation, data analytics available through the
learning management system and the Socrates mobile app, attendance, and completion of the
training program. Table 12 details the methods, tools, and timing used to measure the reactions
of learners participating in the training program.

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Table 12.
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement

Data analytics in the Learning Management
System
Ongoing during the asynchronous portion
of the program
Completion of modules and activities Ongoing during the asynchronous and
synchronous portions of the program
Observations by program staff During the synchronous training program
Attendance During the synchronous training program
Training program post-test and evaluation Two weeks after the program
Relevance

Participant temperature check using the LMS
(asynchronous) and Socrates (synchronous)
At the end of each unit of the training
program
Training program post-test and evaluation Two weeks after the program
Customer Satisfaction

Participant temperature check using the LMS
(asynchronous) and Socrates (synchronous)
At the end of each unit of the training
program
Training program post-test and evaluation Two weeks after the program

Evaluation Tools
The Title IX Mandatory Reporter Training Program will be evaluated immediately
following the program and again forty-five days later. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) note
that evaluation that occurs immediately after the program is useful in assessing Level 1 and
Level 2 while Level 3 and Level 4 are best evaluated later. Whereas reaction (Level 1) and
learning (Level 2) are often impacted immediately and are able to be evaluated following
training, behaviors (Level 3) and outcomes (Level 4) require more time to assess due to the time
required for behaviors to change and outcomes to be realized (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016)
Immediately following the program implementation. Initial evaluation of the program
will occur two weeks following the program. Data will include quantitative and qualitative data
drawn from the evaluation instruments, the Learning Management System, and the analysis
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memos of the instructor noting their observations during the training program. Further, document
analysis will be conducted on the reflections produced by program participants.
Level 1 will be evaluated using several methods of data collection. First, the Learning
Management System will provide quantitative data concerning the amount of time participants
engage with each module, module completion rates, and temperature checks following each
module. Additionally, the facilitator will provide observations in the form of analytical memos
following the synchronous workshop. Also, attendance will be recorded, and participants will be
asked to participate in temperature checks using the Socrates app or on paper during the
synchronous training. Finally, a post-test and evaluation instrument (Appendix C) will be
conducted two weeks after the synchronous training, and the results will be compared with the
pre-test given at registration prior to the commencement of the training program.
The assessment and evaluation of Level 2 will occur during and after both the
asynchronous and synchronous portions of the training program. First, the Learning Management
System will provide opportunities for participants to answer multiple choice questions and
respond to learning activities that will assess the impact of the asynchronous training on
declarative and procedural knowledge. During the synchronous workshop, participants will be
asked to answer questions using the Socrates app or on paper to reflect their learning. Also,
participants will be asked to demonstrate how to use the provided job aids to assist themselves
and others in identifying the typology of and the procedures for reporting sexual violence.
Moreover, participants will produce documents for analysis in the form reflections concerning
their commitment and confidence. Additionally, liberating structure documents such as Troika
consulting outcomes will be available for analysis. Finally, an evaluation and post-test
MANDATORY REPORTING 135

(Appendix C) will be given two weeks after the completion of the training to assess learning
retention which will collect both quantitative and qualitative data.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick
(2016) noted that Level 1 and Level 2 of their model are able to be assessed soon after a training
program such as the one proposed in this document; however, Level 3 and Level 4 take longer to
assess due to the need to apply learning to behaviors and the time required for behavioral change
to produce outcomes. As such, the Title IX Mandatory Reporter Training Program will be
assessed via an evaluation instrument (Appendix D) conducted via electronic survey forty-five
days to allow for behaviors to change and outcomes to crystalize after the initial training
program. The evaluation will assess whether participants were appropriately engaged in the
program (Level 1), learned the vital skills necessary to be successful in their work as a Title IX
Mandatory Reporter (Level 2), applied the critical behaviors necessary to be successful (Level
3), and accomplished the training programs goals (Level 4).
Data Analysis and Reporting
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) New World Evaluation Model is a useful
framework by which the recommended Hometown University Title IX Mandatory Reporter
Training Program has been developed. The model provides a critical understanding of the
necessary components of a successful training program beginning with the outcomes (Level 4)
and ending with the reactions to the training (Level 1) (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Data
analysis and reporting are an integral part of this process. Each level of the program has useful
benchmarks and metrics defined as part of the development process. Hometown University must
assess and track each component at each level of the program. Moreover, the pre-test at
registration, immediate evaluation, and delayed evaluation will individually and collectively
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provide useful information that will enrich and deepen Hometown University’s understanding of
the successes and challenges of the program and allow for appropriate reflection and adjustments
moving forward. Results and findings can be reported in many ways. The recommended training
program consists of both quantitative and qualitative data. As such, the example below will
demonstrate one way in which results and findings may be presented. The example provided is
not comprehensive. There are many other ways in which the data gleaned from the various
assessment methods could be reported. Table 13 consists of a score card that will present key
performance indicators at each level of the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) model and
provide the actions that Hometown University will take to close gaps in the stakeholder goal or
to acknowledge success in meeting their current goals in terms of the next steps in the project.
Table 13.
Title IX Mandatory Reporter Training Program Report Card Example
Metric Result Use of Result
Level 4 - Outcomes

US News & World Report Safe Campus Ranking X Hometown University will...
Number of adverse claims filed with US Department of Education X Hometown University will..
Number of lawsuits filed against the College concerning Title IX X Hometown University will..
Number of reports of sexual violence X Hometown University will..
Percentage of positive responses on Title IX Mandatory Reporter Survey X Hometown University will..
Percentage of positive responses on Campus Safety survey X Hometown University will..
Level 3 - Behaviors X Hometown University will..
Number of incidents identifying sexual violence correctly. X Hometown University will..
Number of reports using appropriate reporting method. X Hometown University will..
Number of brochures given to students. X Hometown University will..
Number of survivors accessing services X Hometown University will..
Level 2 - Learning X Hometown University will..
Percentage reporting increased knowledge of sexual violence typology X Hometown University will..
Percentage reporting increased knowledge of reporting procedures X Hometown University will..
MANDATORY REPORTING 137

Percentage reporting increased trust in the Title IX process X Hometown University will..
Percentage reporting usefulness of reporting in creating a safe campus X Hometown University will..
Level 1 - Reaction X Hometown University will..
Number of program participants X Hometown University will..
Percentage of modules completed (LMS) X Hometown University will..
Percentage of participants reporting program usefulness X Hometown University will..

Summary
The recommendation for the creation of a training and development program for Title IX
Mandatory Reporters is guided by needs discerned from the findings in Chapter Four which
highlight the existing gaps in the knowledge and motivation of Title IX Mandatory Reporters at
Hometown University. Additionally, gaps in identified cultural models and settings are
addressed in the training and development program as the conceptual framework for this study
asserts that the knowledge and motivation of Title IX Mandatory Reporters are intertwined with
one another and are influenced by the organization in which they function. The Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick (2016) New World Model provides a framework to scaffold and guide both the
design and evaluation of the training and development program.
As stated, the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) New World Model for Evaluation is the
framework used to both design and evaluate the recommended training and development
program. The model allows organization leaders to begin by deciding what the outcome of such
a program should be (Level 4) and to work backward to design a solution that develops or
changes the behaviors of participants (Level 3) to reach those outcomes. Further, the model seeks
to determine what skills and abilities that a participant must learn (Level 2) to develop desired
behaviors, and the type of learning environment and engaging experiences (Level 1) needed to
effectively achieve the learning outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Additionally, the
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) model requires leaders to think about assessment and
MANDATORY REPORTING 138

evaluation at each of these levels prior to the implementation of the program. The intentionality
of the model provides leaders with the information necessary to create, implement, and
systematically and systemically evaluate the impact of such a training program.
Sexual violence on college and university campuses in the United States is a significant
concern (Fisher et al., 2000). Additionally, Hometown University desires to create a safe living
and learning community in which all people are respected in accordance with institutional values
and the directives and guidance of the United States Government. Consequently, this study
provides Hometown University with information concerning the experiences and needs of
Mandatory Reporters at the university in terms of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences. Through analysis of the experiences and needs of this vital stakeholder, Hometown
University can create a training and development program that will prepare and support
Mandatory Reporters in achieving the stakeholder goal of having 100% of incidents of sexual
violence reported to the Title IX Coordinator by 2021. The accomplishment of the stakeholder
goal will, therefore, pave the way for Hometown University to create a safe living and learning
community for all students.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
As with any study or framework, the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model used to
guide this study has inherent strengths and weaknesses. First, the significant research that Clark
and Estes (2008) compiled to develop the framework lends a degree of credibility and
trustworthiness not only to their framework but to studies like this one that utilize that
framework. Moreover, the framework scaffolded all aspects of the study providing frames and
lenses through which to view and interpret the literature, data, results, and recommendations.
Additionally, the concepts of the framework are easy to understand, and the facility of
MANDATORY REPORTING 139

comprehension created, at least for this researcher, a strong degree of self-efficacy in using the
model as both a framework and a tool.
Although the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model is research based and peer
reviewed, the model has some weaknesses. The model may unintentionally skew results as the
researcher seeks to label findings of other studies as knowledge, motivation, or organizational
influences during the review of the literature. Finally, the focus on knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences may limit the scope of the study to three categories obscuring nuance
that may be important to understand the literature, the data, the results, or to propose strong
recommendations.
Limitations and Delimitations
All research has limitations and delimitations, and it is imperative that the researcher
acknowledges both in the course of their work. The design of a research study and the
methodologies selected all present limitations that are usually beyond the control of the
researcher (Simon & Goes, 2013). This study used a qualitative design. Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) state that the researcher is the primary instrument in qualitative research; therefore, a
limitation of the study was the inherent bias and subjectivity of the researcher. As described
earlier, methods were employed to limit the effect such bias and subjectivity had on the study,
but it would be impossible to eliminate them completely. Further, the researcher interviewed
participants with whom they are familiar, and the presence of the researcher may have had
unintended consequences in terms of participant response. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) referred
to this as reactivity, and steps were taken to build rapport to limit its impact on the study. Also,
participants may have provided incorrect answers or answers that they believed the researcher
wished to hear. Despite efforts to encourage participants to provide accurate answers, the
MANDATORY REPORTING 140

researcher, ultimately, had no control over the way in which the participants responded, and they
may have responded inaccurately, whether intentionally or unintentionally. Finally, the
researcher offered each participant an opportunity to write a short reflection about the topics
discussed during the interview; however, only four participants completed a reflection, and the
topics they covered were quite limited.
Simon and Goes (2013) described delimitations as the impacts of choices the researcher
makes on the study. This study took place on the campus of Hometown University and used a
limited sample of participants; therefore, it has limited ability to be generalized to other campus
and contexts. Further, this study intentionally examined the experiences of Title IX Mandatory
Reporters from the perspective of their knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. An
examination of a different stakeholder group at Hometown University or the use of a different
analytical model may have produced different results. Also, the decision to ask participants to
complete a reflection prior to the study with limited guidance also affected the ability to extract
significant salient data from those reflections.
Future Research
The role of the Mandatory Reporter in higher education is a recent addition having been
created by the Dear Colleague letter issued in April 2011 (Ali, 2015). Numerous and significant
studies exist exploring sexual violence in terms of survivors and perpetrators; however, very few
studies explore the experiences of Title IX Mandatory Reporters. Further study is needed to
determine the impact that reporting has on sexual violence prevention. More specifically,
additional study is needed to determine the impact that mandatory reporting directives have, if
any, on sexual violence prevention. Additionally, future research could explore the connections
between mandatory reporting directives, resource access, and recovery. Likewise, additional
MANDATORY REPORTING 141

research could explore the role of Mandatory Reporters across various campus sizes and
Carnegie Classes and compare the findings to produce more generalizable results.
The findings in Chapter Four of this study revealed several future research opportunities.
First, additional research is needed to determine the impact that a lack of procedural knowledge
concerning investigations and adjudications has on stakeholder motivation and organizational
trust. Moreover, additional research could be conducted to explain the impact, if any, that a
complete understanding of the Title IX Guidance would have on stakeholder motivation and the
organizational influence of mandatory reporters being correctly identified by their institutions to
serve as such. Finally, further exploration of expectancy value theory and its impact on the
stakeholder knowledge and organizational influences could be informative as participants in this
study seemed to exhibit strong attainment value (Eccles, 2006) related to their responsibility for
reporting despite attainment value not appearing as an influence in the literature review.
Conclusion
Sexual violence on college and university campuses in the United States is a significant
problem with 1 in 5 women and 1 in 16 men reporting sexual assault during their four-year
tenure (Fisher et al., 2000). Moreover, most incidents of sexual violence go unreported
negatively impacting survivors both at the time of the assault and later in life. To facilitate
change on campuses across the country, the United States Department of Education issued
guidance requiring colleges and universities to implement uniform protections for students, to
create a campus Title IX Coordinator, to reform investigation and adjudication procedures, and
to improve incident reporting by identifying faculty and staff to serve as Mandatory Reporters.
The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which Hometown University has
progressed toward meeting its goal of creating a safe learning community for students by having
MANDATORY REPORTING 142

Mandatory Reporters communicate 100% of incidents of sexual violence of which they are
informed to the Title IX Coordinator by May 2021. The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis
model served as the framework for this qualitative study which used semi-structured interviews
and document analysis of participant reflections to explore the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences impacting the organization and stakeholder goals. The study revealed
that Hometown University is making progress toward meeting its organizational and stakeholder
goals. Additionally, collegial relationships at Hometown University are impactful and play an
unexpected and unconventional role in stakeholder knowledge and organizational trust. Further,
a lack of clear feedback impacts both organizational trust and stakeholder motivation.
Consequently, training was commonly cited by participants in this study as both a need and a
priority. As such, the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) New World Model was used to develop
a recommended training and development program that will allow Hometown University to
provide Mandatory Reporters with the knowledge, motivation, and organizational support
necessary to complete their roles with confidence. Further, the study revealed that Hometown
University has faculty and staff members who are fully committed to the support and safety of
students. Implementation of a comprehensive training and development program derived from
the gaps identified in this study will prepare Mandatory Reporters to not only meet the
organization and stakeholder goals but to surpass them. Hometown University is poised to create
a safe living and learning environment for all students and to take a strong and vocal stand
against sexual violence.
MANDATORY REPORTING 143

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APPENDIX A
Interview Protocol
Thank you for participating in this interview! Your thoughts and experiences are very important.
I wanted to take a moment before we start to remind you about the informed consent document
that we reviewed. Your participation is completely voluntary, and you may ask me to stop at any
time. If it is all right with you, I will be recording this interview. The purpose of the recording is
to be certain that I accurately capture your experiences and impressions on this important topic.
Again, thank you for your time, and are there any questions that you have before we get started?
I. Tell me about a specific positive interaction that you have had with a student
during your career? (Warm-up/Rapport Question)
II. How would you define sexual violence? (K)
III. Follow-up: What acts constitute sexual violence? (K)
IV. If you noticed a student you work with regularly behaving oddly, what would you
do? Tell how you would respond if they told you they had experienced sexual
violence. (K,M)
V. During your tenure at Hometown University, have you had a student(s) report an
incident of sexual violence to you? Tell me more about that experience? What
were your thoughts? (K,M,O)
VI. Describe what it means to you to be a Title IX Mandatory Reporter? (M,O)
VII. What types of training, if any, have you received as a mandatory reporter? How
effective do you consider the training to be? (K,O)
VIII. Let’s say that a student you work with on a regular basis tells you that their
significant other had engaged in sexual activities with them over the summer. The
MANDATORY REPORTING 153

student also shares that they were not comfortable with the situation as they had
told the individual that they did not wish to engage in said activities. Describe
your thoughts? What would you do next? (M,O) Tell me about the type or types
of follow up that would be helpful to you after encountering the situation that I
described? (M,O)
IX. Tell me about the type or types of follow up that would be helpful to you after
encountering the situation that I described? (O) – If yes to V, then, what type of
follow up have you received after reporting an incident of sexual violence? (O)
X. Describe the benefits of reporting sexual violence as a student? as a faculty/staff
member? (K,M,O)
XI. Describe the costs of reporting sexual violence student? as a faculty/staff
member? (K,M,O)
XII. To what extent do you trust Hometown University to provide a positive outcome
for survivors of sexual violence? Tell me more? (O)
XIII. Describe how your role as a Title IX Mandatory Reporter impacts student’s lives
(K,M,O)
XIV. How comfortable are you with reporting sexual violence? Tell me more about
that? (M,O)
XV. Is there anything that I did not ask you that you think would be important for me
to know to understand or contextualize your experiences as a Title IX Mandatory
Reporter? (K,M,O)

MANDATORY REPORTING 154

APPENDIX B
Informed Consent Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

Information Sheet for Exempt Non-Medical Research

MANDATORY REPORTING OF SEXUAL VIOLENCE BY FACULTY AND STAFF AT
HOMETOWN UNIVERSITY: AN EVALUATION STUDY
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by James McGhee in partial
fulfillment of the completion of a doctoral degree at the University of Southern California. The
study is being conducted under the supervision of Dr. Monique Datta. Although your
participation is appreciated, it is completely voluntary, and you may withdraw at any time. This
informed consent information sheet contains relevant information and explanations of the study.
You are encouraged to ask questions about any part the information sheet or the study at any
juncture.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the study is to understand the experiences of Title IX Mandatory Reporters at
Hometown University and to explore the various influences that impact their experiences.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT – INTERVIEW
Participants in the study will be asked to meet with the researcher for one semi-structured
interviews. Additionally, you will be invited to write a reflection about the research topic after
the interview. The interviews will be conducted in person at a mutually agreed upon location
conducive to privacy and conversation. The study will include nine participants randomly
selected to be invited for participation from the total number of faculty and staff members who
meet the study criteria. The interviews will consist of guided questions and follow up questions.
The interviews will be recorded. As stated earlier, your participation is voluntary, and you may
choose not to answer any question for which you do not wish to provide an answer. You may
choose not to complete the additional reflection as well. Additionally, you may choose not to be
recorded; however, only participants who are willing to be recorded may participate in the study.
ALTERNATIVE TO PARTICIPATION
Participation in the study is completely voluntary. As such, there is not an alternative to
participation save not being a participant.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
There is no compensation or payment for participation in the study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Participant confidentiality will be respected within the limits denoted in this document.
Participant interviews will be facilitated in person and will be recorded. The interview recordings
MANDATORY REPORTING 155

and transcripts will only be seen by the researcher and the professional transcriptionist. Each
interview will be assigned a number prior to the beginning of the interview and will not contain
the participants name, department, or exact years of service. Further, no descriptive information
about the person will be used in the study save the range of their years of service (0-5, 6-10,
11+). For example, a participant may be described as faculty member with six to ten years of
service. Consequently, future publications using the data collected in this study will respect this
same commitment. The transcripts and recordings will be kept on a separate external hard drive
from the external hard drive containing the code sheet identifying the participants. Each external
hard drive will be kept in a separate locked box in the researcher’s home.
Additionally, the purpose of the study is to explore the experiences of Title IX Mandatory
Reporters. As the requirement to report sexual violence is a legal requirement for all participants
in this study, the researcher met with the Title IX Coordinator at Hometown University to
delineate what would occur should a previously unreported incident of sexual violence be
revealed during the interviews that comprise this study. The Title IX Coordinator has asked that
only the information about the incident itself be reported to her office. The identity of the
individual who disclosed the previously unreported incident will not be shared.
Data may be accessed by the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection
Program (HSPP). The HSPP is charged to protect the rights and welfare of participants in
research studies conducted under the auspices of the University of Southern California. This
mission is accomplished by reviewing and monitoring research projects that have human subjects
as participants.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
At any time during the study, you may contact the principal investigator, James McGhee, via
email at jdmcghee@usc.edu with any questions or concerns that you may have. Additionally,
you may also contact Dr. Monique Datta, research supervisor/dissertation chair, via email at
mdatta@usc.edu.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

MANDATORY REPORTING 156

APPENDIX C

Title IX Mandatory Reporter Training Program Post-Training Evaluation
Thank you for participating in the Title IX Mandatory Reporter Training Program. The brief
survey the follows is an evaluation of the training which you have just completed. The survey
uses a 4-point Likert scale in which 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, and 4 =
Strongly Agree. Additionally, space will be provided at the conclusion of the survey for you to
provide additional feedback.

Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
Engagement (Level 1)

I took responsibility for my involvement in this
learning program.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
The program maintained my interest. Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
Participation was encouraged throughout the
program.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
Relevance (Level 1)

The discussions and materials presented in this
program is relevant to my role.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
The discussions and materials in this program
have prepared me to be successful in my role.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
Customer Satisfaction (Level 1)

The program was valuable to me. Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
MANDATORY REPORTING 157

I would recommend this program to my peers. Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
Knowledge (Level 2)

I am able to identify the types of acts which
constitute sexual violences.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
I am able to report sexual violence according to
procedure outlined in the program.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
Attitude (Level 2)

Reporting sexual violence is useful in creating
a living and learning environment.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
I believe reporting sexual violence is valuable. Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
Confidence (Level 2)

I believe my role will create a safer living and
learning environment.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
I am confident in my ability to report sexual
violence.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
I understand the process for reporting sexual
violence.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
Commitment (Level 2)

I will apply the principles presented in this
program to my role as a Mandatory Reporter.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
1. Please write a short reflection defining and explaining the role of the mandatory reporter (200
word limit).
2. How could this program be improved?
MANDATORY REPORTING 158

APPENDIX D

Title IX Mandatory Reporter Training Program Follow-Up Evaluation
Thank you for participating in the Title IX Mandatory Reporter Training Program. The brief
survey the follows is an evaluation of the training which you completed forty-five days ago. The
survey uses a 4-point Likert scale in which 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Agree, and
4 = Strongly Agree. Additionally, space will be provided at the conclusion of the survey for you
to provide additional feedback.

Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
L1: Reaction

The concepts and information presented in the
program were useful have been useful to me in
my role.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
The program was a useful expenditure of time
for professional development.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
L2: Learning

The program presented important information
allowing me to better understand what
constitutes sexual violence.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
The program presented information that allowed
me to master the procedures for reporting sexual
violence.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
L3: Behavior

Hometown University has provided adequate
support to allow me to implement what I learned
in the program
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
I have successfully applied what I learned in the
program to my role as a Title IX Mandatory
Reporter.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
MANDATORY REPORTING 159

L4: Outcomes

I am using what I learned in the program to
accurately report incidents of sexual violence.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
After participating in the program, I understand
the Title IX process.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4
After participating in the program, my trust in
the Title IX process has increased.
Strongly
Disagree
1
Disagree
2
Agree
3
Strongly
Agree
4

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Sexual violence is a significant problem on college and university campuses in the United States affecting large percentages of students during their studies and later in life. To confront this alarming issue, the United States Department of Education’s Office of Civil Rights issued new guidance under Title IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to colleges and universities beginning with the “Dear Colleague Letter” in April of 2011. The guidance was broad and included a requirement for institutions to identify faculty, staff, and students to serve as Mandatory Reporters based on the types of relationships which they have with students. The purpose of this study was to determine the degree to which Hometown University is meeting its organizational goal of creating a safe learning environment for students. Knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences affecting Mandatory Reporters were identified using the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis model. Interviews and document analysis of participant reflections revealed four themes elucidating two knowledge influences, two motivation influences, and two organizational influences. Additionally, this study recommended a comprehensive learning and training program for Mandatory Reporters to address the identified knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps. The recommended training program implementation and evaluation is guided by the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) New World Model for Evaluation, and the four levels of implementation and evaluation tools are detailed. Finally, recommendations for further research are presented.

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Asset Metadata

Creator McGhee, James David, Jr. (author)

Core Title Mandatory reporting of sexual violence by faculty and staff at Hometown University: an evaluation study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 03/05/2019

Defense Date 03/04/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Higher education,Mandatory Reporters,OAI-PMH Harvest,Sexual assault,sexual violence,Title IX

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Datta, Monique (committee chair), Cash, David (committee member), Ferrario, Kimberly (committee member)

Creator Email jdmcghee@icloud.com,jdmcghee@mac.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-129030

Unique identifier UC11675640

Identifier etd-McGheeJame-7130.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-129030 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-McGheeJame-7130.pdf

Dmrecord 129030

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights McGhee, James David, Jr.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA