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International school director tenure: an evaluation study
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International school director tenure: an evaluation study
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Content
Running head: INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE 1
International School Director Tenure:
An Evaluation Study
by
Wallace Ting
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2019
Copyright 2019 Wallace Ting
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
2
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to international school directors worldwide and the schools
that they lead. Very few people understand the enormous pressure and responsibility
international school directors face in leading some of most prestigious K-12 institutions around
the world. I would also like to dedicate this work to the students of these international schools,
the ones that all educators serve and those in which we place our hopes, trust, and dreams for the
future.
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My deepest gratitude and thanks go to my dissertation committee which is comprised of
Dr. Monique Datta, Dr. Kimberly Ferrario, and Dr. Emmanuel Bonin. Thank you for
volunteering and giving your time, energy, and focus to help sharpen my thoughts and strengthen
my research. You have pushed me to get better and have always provided feedback in a
constructive, collaborative, and respectful manner. I would especially like to thank my
dissertation chair, Dr. Datta, for your guidance and support through this dissertation process. I
couldn’t have done it without you. I cannot put into words how much I appreciate not just your
guidance through the dissertation itself, but through the ups and downs of my life during these
past few years. I am truly grateful to have had such an understanding and perceptive chair.
To my Cohort 6 classmates: this is a journey that will bind us together for life. This is a
special group that was always positive, supportive, and helpful to each other when needed, and
always focused on making sure that everyone in the group crossed the finish line together. Thank
you.
To my family: my sister Alice, my brother Joseph, and my Mom and Dad. Alice, you
have helped me through so many resume revisions and essay edits that I’ve lost count. Not to
mention pulling me out of some dicey situations and throwing me a lifeline when I’ve needed it
the most in my lowest moments. But somehow, this dissertation I did completely on my own. I
hope that I’ve made you proud, and I want you to know that I will forever be grateful to you for
showing me what it means to be focused, goal-oriented, and unapologetically pragmatic. You’ve
taught me what tough love means and I’ll always appreciate that. Joseph, you are the best older
brother anybody could ask for. You’ve been my moral compass throughout the years and have
shown me what it means to be a good husband, father, and most importantly, man. I’ve always
looked up to you for guidance and you’ve always been there for me when I’ve needed it. I’ll
always aspire to be as good of a person that you are, both personally and professionally. To my
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
4
Mom and Dad, with whom I’ve been estranged since from 2015: Part of my reconciliation and
personal healing process has been completing this doctorate degree, because I wanted to
accomplish something completely on my own without any influence or pressure from anyone
other than myself. I know that the two of you have always meant well and have always tried to
help, even though the outcome hasn’t always turned out that way. I’ve spent the last few years
trying to get my life back in order, and I hope that you understand that I needed to do it alone and
do it my way. I still have things I need to finish, but I hope you know that I miss the two of you.
Finally, to my son, Phillip: When I started this doctorate program, our familial
circumstances were much different; most notably, your mother and I were still married and we
were all living together. Unfortunately, your mother and I decided to separate, and that left you
caught in the middle for something that was never your fault. I’m sorry. One of the biggest
regrets that I have in my life is bringing a child into this world who will have to grow up without
both his mom and dad constantly by his side, and I want you to know that this is one of the
biggest reasons that I will always feel a tremendous amount of responsibility to always be there
for you no matter the circumstance. I also want you to know that you are the reason that I did not
quit this doctoral program although there were many times that I seriously contemplated it.
Between moving to a different country, going through a divorce, working full time, launching a
business, and being a responsible father, I often wondered if the late night dissertation writing
sessions or doctoral class assignments would ever end and if it would be better to simply
abandon this endeavor. I remember several times where I would just sit down and cry out of
sheer desperation and exhaustion, but wanting to set a good example for you as a father and
helping you understand the significance and value of a good education is ultimately what kept
me going. I hope that you’ll read these words one day, and I hope that I’ll always do you proud
as a father. I love you. 我爱你.
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9
Chapter One: Introduction 10
Introduction of the Problem of Practice 10
Organizational Context and Mission 10
Organizational Goal 12
Related Literature 13
Importance of the Evaluation 13
Description of Stakeholder Groups 14
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals 15
Stakeholder Group for the Study 16
Purpose of the Project and Questions 17
Methodological Framework 17
Definitions 18
Organization of the Project 19
Chapter Two: Review of Literature 20
Influences on the Problem of Practice 20
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational 28
Influences Framework
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 28
Conceptual Framework: Interaction of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization 37
Conclusion 39
Chapter Three: Methods 40
Participating Stakeholders 40
Data Collection and Instrumentation 43
Data Analysis 45
Credibility and Trustworthiness 46
Validity and Reliability 46
Ethics 47
Limitations and Delimitations 48
Chapter Four: Results and Findings 50
Participating Stakeholders 50
Findings for Research Question 1 53
Findings for Research Question 2 62
Chapter Five: Discussion and Recommendations 79
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences 79
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
6
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan 89
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach 98
Future Research 98
Conclusion 99
References 101
Appendices 109
Appendix A: Survey Protocol 109
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 114
Appendix C: Survey Results 115
Appendix D: Immediate Evaluation Instrument 164
Appendix E: Participant Pulse Check 165
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Organizational Mission and Goals 16
Table 2. Survey Respondent Nationality 51
Table 3. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 79
Table 4. Summary of Motivational Influences and Recommendations 83
Table 5. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations 86
Table 6. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes 91
Table 7. Critical Behaviors, Metrics, and Timing for International School 92
Directors
Table 8. Required Drivers to Support International School Directors’ Critical 93
Behaviors
Table 9. Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program 94
Table 10. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program 95
Table 11. Possible Key Performance Indicators for Internal Reporting and 97
Accountability
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
8
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Interaction of Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation within 38
Organizational Cultural Models and Settings
Figure 2. Survey Participant Years in Education and Years in International 52
Education
Figure 3. CSA International School Director Current Tenure 54
Figure 4. If I am offered an extension at my current position, I would like 55
continue at my current position
Figure 5. I make an effort to regularly attend regional association meetings 56
Figure 6. Regional association meetings are helpful and informative 56
Figure 7. Regional association meetings are a good opportunity to network, 57
meet new people, and exchange ideas
Figure 8. My participation in regional association meetings and activities helps 57
me perform my job better as an international school director
Figure 9. Respondent school student enrollment 59
Figure 10. I have received adequate training and professional development to be 63
prepared for my current assignment
Figure 11. Respondent school governance models 65
Figure 12. Most important factor when considering an international school 68
assignment
Figure 13. Quality of life satisfaction levels 68
Figure 14. International School Director Relationships with School Governance 74
Bodies
Figure 15. School Director Performance Feedback 75
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
9
ABSTRACT
This study employed a mixed methods approach to evaluate the reasons why international school
directors ultimately decide to continue or leave their overseas assignments. International school
directors at member schools belonging to a regional, continent-based international school
association were sent an electronic survey and participated in follow-up interviews regarding
their job-related and quality of life perceptions. Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis
Framework was utilized to assess knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences on
international school directors’ longevity and tenure in their positions. The study revealed the
importance of international school directors’ knowledge of organizational history and
understanding of school governance best practices. The study also revealed the importance of the
regional association and its central role of bringing international school directors together to
network and learn from each other, providing focused professional development to a diverse
spectrum of school stakeholders, and collaboratively producing framework documents for
schools to use as foundational resources. The study revealed particular sensitivity to familial
happiness and organizational factors such as school board member turnover and
micromanagement as factors that may push international school directors to seek job
opportunities elsewhere. Notable recommendations to close knowledge, motivation, and
organizational gaps include a thorough leadership transition process, ongoing professional
development, opportunities to network with counterparts, and maintaining a positive and
effective relationship with school board members. The development and implementation of an
effective plan that addresses these issues could positively improve international school director
tenure and ultimately improve student learning outcomes.
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
10
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
International schools represent one of the fastest growing markets in the education sector.
Over a five-year period, the number of international schools worldwide has increased by more
than 40% (Morrison, 2016). Already a $39 billion annual market, this growth expected to
continue and by 2026, the international school market is projected to reach $89 billion
(Morrison, 2016). International schools are loosely defined as either institutions that serve
globally mobile parents, espouse a specifically international mission or objective, or serve an
aspirational middle or high class local host country population (Fertig, 2016). The demographics
of international schools have changed considerably over the past thirty years, when international
school enrollments were comprised of 80% expatriate children, versus 80% of local host country
children enrollment today (Brummitt & Keeling, 2013).
Despite the rapid growth of the international education sector, schools often struggle to
retain the leaders that have been hired and entrusted with providing direction, sustainability, and
growth to these organizations, as international school directors’ average tenure has been reported
to be 3.6 years (Benson, 2011). When heads of international schools have such short tenure, this
can lead to a host of issues within the organization such as high teacher turnover, unsustainability
of educational initiatives, loss of organizational history, and lack of student achievement.
Organizational Context and Mission
The Continental School Association (CSA) is a pseudonym for an association that offers
membership to international schools across a geographic region that spans one of the major
continents of the world. Its mission is to transform student learning by leading and supporting
strategic thinking, professional growth and school effectiveness. In total, there are 81 member
schools across 34 countries and the total combined student enrollment of member schools in
CSA is approximately 27,000. Besides operating and falling under the jurisdiction and laws of
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
11
the various countries across the continent, the characteristics of member schools are quite
diverse. Schools in CSA may be non-profit, proprietary, religious or secular. Schools also vary
greatly in terms of student enrollment, with some schools as large as 2000 students but others
with enrollments of less than 100.
Membership in CSA has several requirements. First, schools must have an explicit
reference to international-mindedness and intercultural competence in its mission. Second,
schools must hold accreditation or authorization by several agencies that have been recognized
by CSA. Some of these recognized agencies include Advanc-ED, Council of International
Schools, Middle States Association, International Baccalaureate, Association of Christian
Schools International, and the Council of British International Schools.
CSA funds a number of activities and events in order to keep stakeholders in member
schools connected. Two yearly conferences are held at locations across the continent in which all
teachers, administrators, board members, and other stakeholders are invited. In addition, the
association holds a yearly School Heads Retreat, a three-day event in which only international
school directors in the association are invited for several days of rigorous professional
development and networking. Finally, CSA runs a number of professional learning institutes
(PLI). There are approximately 20-30 PLIs held over the course of a school year at various
schools and locations throughout the continent on very specific issues such as strategies for
executive assistants, school safety, school governance, service learning, and more.
CSA is governed by a nine-member board. These members are nominated and voted by
the international school directors of member schools for two-year terms, making the CSA board
comprised by current international school directors in the region. The board employs the
association’s executive director, who oversees the office staff and all other employees.
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
12
Organizational Goal
CSA’s organizational goal is to improve international school head tenure. Although the
organization does not keep current international school director statistics, the CSA executive
director, executive committee, and board believe that the fulfillment of specific stakeholder goals
targeted towards supporting international school directors will ultimately improve student
learning and improve international school director tenure. This goal aligns with CSA’s stated
objectives of supporting professional growth, developing and implementing strategic thinking,
and increasing the effectiveness of member schools.
The goal of improving international school director tenure will be achieved through
several ongoing and new initiatives that CSA supports. First, CSA has started a new School
Heads Retreat that takes place several months after the start of each school year. The School
Heads Retreat is a new initiative that started only several years ago in an attempt to provide more
opportunities for international school directors to attend professional development conferences
directly related to their roles and to allow school directors to network and interact with each
other more. Second, the regional association will increase the number of yearly conferences from
one to two and hold both conferences in geographically distinct locations. The purpose of this
decision is to provide greater opportunities for educators and school board members to attend,
given that geographic distance and scheduling constraints often prevent interested parties from
attending. Third, CSA has been implementing and increasing smaller professional learning
institutes across the region that are targeted towards specific topics and school stakeholders such
as school board members, security managers, and literacy coaches. Finally, CSA has developed
and is continuing to develop several framework documents for schools use a guide when
implementing new policies or projects. Examples of these framework documents include child
protection guidelines and a school governance framework document.
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
13
Related Literature
Several studies have established a positive correlation between student achievement and
chief administrator longevity. In general, student achievement improves when chief
administrators of schools have longer tenures, as this provides more stability, allows deeper
relationships to develop, and ensures that certain initiatives will reach maturity (Libka, 2012;
Waters & Marzano, 2006). As a rapidly expanding market, the international education sector
continues to see greater student enrollment and more schools opening each year (Hayden, 2011).
The U.S. Department of State (2016) estimates that nearly 137,000 American school-aged
children reside overseas and officially supports 193 schools in 134 countries. As an overall sum
of all schools classified as international, approximately 4.2 million children are estimated to
currently attend these schools, which this number projected to reach 8.26 million in 2025
(EducationInvestor, 2015).
Several investigations have examined the longevity and tenure of international school
educators. In these studies, yearly turnover rates have been found to be as high as 60% in
international schools in the Asian region (Mancuso, Roberts, & White, 2010). Latin American
region international school educator turnover was calculated at 28% (Desroches, 2013).
International school director average tenure has been found to be between 3.6 years (Benson,
2011) and 4.9 years (Harris, 2013). Another study found that the majority of international school
directors (65%) have served in their current positions four years or less (Palsha, 2017). Research
suggests that international school directors often leave their positions due unclear division of
roles and responsibilities in governance and a lack of support from the school board (Grissom &
Anderson, 2012; Hayden & Thompson, 2016; Palsha, 2017).
Importance of the Evaluation
It is important to evaluate the organization’s performance in relationship to the
performance goal of improving international school director tenure for a variety of reasons.
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
14
When international school directors leave abruptly or after a short period of time, student
learning is negatively impacted (Libka, 2012), highlighting the importance of school leader
stability and longevity. However, as international schools continue to grow in both number and
student enrollment, both teaching and administrative positions are likely to become increasingly
difficult to fill, which in turn will negatively affect stability and long-term planning in schools
(Hayden & Thompson, 2008). With student achievement largely dependent upon teacher
turnover (Ronfelt, Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2011) and also affected by chief school
administrator tenure (Libka, 2012; Waters & Marzano, 2006), this highlights the critical role that
international school educators play in facilitating high student achievement and learning
outcomes. Evaluating the organization’s performance will enable stakeholders to gather
formative data that can be used to assess the organization’s programming decisions that will
positively affect international school director longevity.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
CSA has four stakeholder groups that directly contribute to and benefit from the
achievement of the organization’s goal: international school directors, the CSA leadership
committee and board, international accreditation bodies, and the U.S. Department of State Office
of Overseas Schools.
The group of international school directors is the largest stakeholder group of CSA.
Because international schools are largely independent from each other, CSA serves as an
important platform for international school directors to share experiences, attend common
professional development, and stay attuned to the latest body of educational research as it
pertains to international education. A second stakeholder group is the leadership committee and
board. Led by an executive director, CSA is governed by an executive committee and board
comprised of current international school directors within the region. Because the governing
board is comprised of international school directors within the region, it is beneficial to have a
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
15
governing body that is aware of the challenges facing these schools in a regional context.
Another important stakeholder group of CSA are the regional international accrediting bodies.
As a membership requirement, CSA member schools must have obtained accreditation from an
approved list of accrediting bodies such as Advanc-ED, Middle States Association, International
Baccalaureate and Council of International Schools. In total, there are 10 approved accrediting
bodies that CSA recognizes. These accrediting agencies are an important stakeholder group in
the sense that they provide a common denominator and standard for member schools in the
association. A fourth and final important stakeholder group is the U.S. Department of State
Office of Overseas Schools. Because many international schools follow an American curriculum
and are accredited by American bodies, the Office of Overseas Schools serves as an important
link to the U.S. Department of Education. The Office of Overseas schools provides information
to prospective U.S. government employee families looking to relocate abroad for an international
assignment and a healthy, high-functioning school makes families more likely to accept an
international relocation offer. The Office of Overseas schools provides financial funding to CSA
on a yearly basis and also generally has a representative present at its major events.
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals
Though a variety of support mechanisms directed at international school directors, CSA’s
mission is to ultimately improve and positively affect student learning. By engaging key
stakeholder groups with realistic, attainable targets, CSA hopes to ultimately increase the
longevity and tenure of international school directors, which in turn should lead to better student
learning outcomes (Libka, 2012; Waters & Marzano, 2006). Table 1 illustrates the organizational
mission, performance goal, and key stakeholder group goals.
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
16
Table 1
Organizational Mission and Goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of the Continental School Association (CSA) is transform student learning by
leading and supporting strategic thinking, professional growth and school effectiveness.
Organizational Performance Goal
Increase international school director tenure.
International School
Directors
Executive
Director and
Governance
Regional
International
Associations
Office of
Overseas Schools
By July 2019, all CSA
international school
directors will report current
tenure and complete
organizational climate
survey related to job
satisfaction.
By December
2020, CSA
association
membership will
increase by 20%.
By July 2020,
attendance at yearly
regional association
conferences will
increase by 30%
By July 2019,
100% of new
school directors
will participate in
the CSA heads
retreat.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
Although a complete analysis would involve all stakeholder groups, it is important to
study the group of international school directors as they are the group most directly related to the
organizational goal of improving international school director tenure and longevity. Out of the
four major stakeholder groups in the organization, international school directors also have the
greatest amount of direct interaction with students and make the greatest number of decisions on
a day-to-day basis which affects schools and students, which corresponds to CSA’s
organizational mission of improving and transforming student learning.
Aligned with the organizational goal, the stakeholder goal is to report current
international school tenure and complete an organizational climate survey related to job
satisfaction. This will allow CSA to obtain important demographic and tenure information of
international school directors in the association by which to analyze, synthesize, and ultimately
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
17
take action. The collection and tabulation of tenure statistics and international school directors’
job satisfaction will allow trends and themes to be identified so that CSA can formulate
improvement plans to address any identified challenges. The net effect of achieving the
stakeholder and organizational goals is a more connected, educated, and supported international
school director community that ultimately improves student learning outcomes and has the
resiliency and motivation to stay longer in their organizations.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to evaluate and understand why international school
directors at CSA member schools decide to stay or leave their positions. The analysis focused on
the knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements related to achieving the organizational
goal. While a complete evaluation project would have focused on all stakeholders, for practical
purposes the stakeholders focused on in this analysis were the international school directors of
member schools that belong to the CSA association. As such, the questions that guided this study
were the following:
1. To what extent is CSA meeting its goal of increasing international school director tenure?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements related to achieving
this organizational goal?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Methodological Framework
The Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap model is an analytic model that utilizes systematic
evaluation to identify causes of gaps and to apply appropriate solutions. According to this model,
the three key areas in this analysis include knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
(Clark & Estes, 2008). The Clark and Estes (2008) gap model states that for an effective
analysis, all three of these factors should be present and aligned in order to adequately identify
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
18
the presence and causes for performance gaps in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences.
Through a review of the literature, assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences were developed that account for the gaps that prevent the attainment of the
organizational goal. Within the context of this methodological framework, surveys and
interviews were performed in order to assess these influences. International school directors at
member CSA schools were surveyed, and the results of these surveys, along with literature
review and content analysis, were used to determine the CSA’s current performance in relation
with achieving its organizational goal. Qualitative, one-on-one interviews were also conducted
with survey participants who agreed to be interviewed personally. Research-based solutions are
recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive manner in Chapter Five.
Definitions
CSA: The Continental School Association is a pseudonym for a continent-based association of
international schools.
International school: A school that serves globally mobile parents, espouse a specifically
international mission or objective, or serve an aspirational middle or high class local host country
population (Fertig, 2016).
International school director: Heads of international schools who are appointed and hired to
lead these institutions. International school directors are also known as heads of schools and
typically report to a school board in the case of a non-profit or an owner in the case of a
proprietor school (Benson, 2011).
Regional Association: Educational bodies of schools linked together through geographic
proximity as well as curriculum and staffing models (Ortloff & Escobar-Ortloff, 2001).
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
19
Organization of the Project
This study is organized into five chapters, the first of which provided the reader with the
key concepts, terminology, and background related to international school education and the
directors that head these institutions. The organization’s mission, goals and stakeholder groups
were introduced, and Clark and Estes’ gap analysis methodological framework was presented as
a basis for analyzing assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences.
Chapter Two reviews the current literature relevant to and surrounding the scope of the
study. Topics of international school structure and governance will be addressed, as will the
staffing models and strategies used to attract international teachers and administrators. Chapter
Three analyses the knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements pertinent to the research
questions. Additionally, this chapter details the research design methodology with respect to
choice of participants, data collection, and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data from the research
is presented, studied and analyzed. Finally, Chapter Five reviews the organization and
stakeholder group for the study, suggesting potential solutions rooted in literature and data to
close perceived gaps and recommendations for future study and evaluation.
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
20
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This literature review examines the root causes related to low longevity and tenure of
international school directors at CSA. The review begins with general research on the history of
international education and the challenges these institutions face. This overview is then followed
by an examination the role of an international school director and a review of a data surrounding
both teacher and director turnover at international schools. The correlation between teacher and
superintendent turnover and student achievement is reviewed, before finally reviewing current
literature on international school directors and their reasons for staying or leaving their
assignments. Following the general research literature, the review then turns to the Clark and
Estes Gap Analytic Conceptual Framework, and specifically, assumed knowledge, motivation,
and organizational influences that affect international school directors’ tenure.
Influences on the Problem of Practice
In order to understand the influences on the problem of practice, it is necessary to
understand the context and role of international schools throughout the world and how they have
developed over the past several decades. After a review of the history and development of
international schools, the role and responsibilities of the international school director are
examined, which is the key stakeholder group of focus. International school director longevity
and tenure statistics from various studies are reviewed, followed by a discussion of the principal
reasons for their turnover and departure. Finally, the international school director’s impact upon
student achievement and teacher longevity, two other important factors in school organization
and achievement, are studied.
History and Development of International Schools
International schools are independent, self-contained school districts that operate as
autonomous entities with English used as the primary language of instruction. Although in theory
international schools could offer education in any language, English has traditionally been the
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
21
most popular medium of instruction due to English-speaking expatriates living abroad and host
country families believing that learning English will provide future professional and educational
opportunities in life (Hayden & Thompson, 2008). These schools as often only associated
through regional or international affiliations and accreditation status serving as a common
denominator (Ortloff & Escobar-Ortloff, 2001). In these schools, approximately half of the
teachers are Americans or educated in U.S. colleges and universities (U.S. Department of State,
2016) and are typically signed to two year contracts (Odland & Ruzicka, 2009).
Hayden and Thompson (2013) classify international schools as either Type A, Type B, or
Type C. Type A international schools refer to schools established for globally mobile parents. In
these schools, there is typically a large variety of demographic diversity as well as student
turnover, as their parents typically accept temporary assignments on fixed-term labor contracts.
These schools, although usually privately funded, run on a non-profit model, with any proceeds
re-invested in the school or placed aside for future school expansion. Type B international
schools are schools that espouse a truly international mission and ethos. Type B international
schools are very few in number. Schools such as United World Colleges and the International
School of Geneva are examples of Type B international schools in that they have an international
mindedness philosophy and may adopt curriculums such as the International Baccalaureate (Hill,
2014). Type C schools, the fastest growing classification of international schools in recent times,
serves an aspirational middle class comprised of students mostly from the host country
population. Many of these schools are privately owned and follow a for-profit model. The rise of
Type C international schools contrasts to the number of parents being offered and accepting
international overseas assignments, thus reducing the number of Type A international schools
(Shortland, 2013).
The rapid rise of the international school market, and in particular, Type C international
schools, has given birth to dedicated organizations that study this enterprise, such as
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
22
International Schools Consultancy Research (ISC Research, 2018). ISC Research was founded in
1994 and touts itself as the leading provider of international school intelligence, trends, and data.
Using a very broad and loose definition of international school as a school that delivers any or
part of its curriculum to students in English in a non-English speaking country, ISC Research
indicates that there are almost 9000 international schools worldwide serving 4.85 million
students, with the majority of these students (approximately 80%) host-country nationals
(International Schools Consultancy Research, 2018). The country most primed to capitalize on
the expansion of Type C international schools is China, with predictions that by 2022 the country
will become the dominant sponsor of international schools (Pearce, 2013).
Whereas school districts in the United States must answer to state and federal regulations
(Ortloff & Escobar-Ortloff, 2001), independent international schools voluntarily join regional
and accreditation associations (Slough-Kuss, 2014). This voluntary association provides
international schools a greater degree of autonomy than their American-based counterparts,
although international schools are almost always subject to the laws and regulations of their host
country. Sometimes, particularly in developing countries, these laws and regulations are
sometimes inconsistent with the academic programs and initiatives that an American
international school director is attempting to implement (MacDonald, 2006).
The Role of the International School Director
The majority of international schools employ a single individual, often referred to as the
superintendent, director, or head of school, to oversee and lead all aspects of the school.
Depending upon the ownership status of the school, leaders of international schools report to
school boards and other governing bodies that consist of a wide range of members, from elected
parents and alumni to appointed local business leaders (Keller, 2015). The global nature of
international schools implies that each school has unique cultural, legal, and educational aspects
that must be taken into consideration by its governance structure, which sometimes creates
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
23
unintended conflicts of interest and misunderstanding (Chuck & Hodgson, 2015). Because there
is such diversity and heterogeneousness in international schools, finding the right fit among the
international school director, school governance, and school community is an exceptionally
difficult challenge (RSAcademics, 2016).
Although international school directors face a particular set of circumstances that are
unique to this position, perhaps the most comparable educational positions in the United States
would be that of a district superintendent or independent school head. Independent school heads,
U.S. district superintendents, and international school directors typically are required to possess
skill sets and knowledge related to human resource management, budget development and
implementation, community relations, strategic planning, and more. Perhaps most importantly,
all three leadership positions report to a similar governance structure and model. Although there
are a number of international schools that are governed under a proprietorship model,
international school directors, U.S. district superintendents, and private school principals mostly
report to a governing body typically referred to as the school board. There are, however,
substantial differences within the structure of these bodies. In international schools, school
boards generally consist of 7-12 parents elected at an annual assembly. By contrast, independent
day schools in the United States typically have school boards which include a mixture of parents,
alumni, and “outsiders” with no direct connection to the school (Littleford, 2015). Research has
shown that the least effective school board model is one comprised only of parents, as they often
have difficulty separating their own personal interests as parents from those of the school (Chuck
& Hodgson, 2015). The difference in school board composition is an important point of
emphasis and concern for international schools given their relative isolation and the potential
negative effects on the school of poor governance.
Although expatriate teachers in international schools may be able to work effectively
without much knowledge or ability of host-county language, culture, and customs, there is a
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
24
greater necessity for international school directors to possess this knowledge and skill set
(Hayden, 2006). The need to effectively communicate and interact with parents and external
agencies such as the local ministry of education and ministry of labor necessitates at the
minimum a working understanding of host-country language and cultural issues. While many
expatriate international school directors do in fact learn the basics of the host-country language,
their generally short tenure precludes their ability to effectively participate in high-level meetings
held in the host-country language (Hayden, 2006). Approximately 25% of international school
directors are in their first overseas position, adding to the difficulty in adapting and adjusting to
both their new school and host-country environment (RSAcademics, 2016).
International School Director Tenure
Benson (2011) conducted a study in which 165 international school directors participated.
From this pool of participants, nearly 50% (82 of 165) reported that they were in their first
position as an international school director. From the remaining 83 respondents, the average
tenure was 3.7 years. In another study, Harris (2013) surveyed 171 international school directors
and found that the average number of years served as a school head was 4.86 years. Although
this study did not directly study international school director tenure, but rather their perceptions
towards the identification of quality principal candidates, it is nevertheless a valuable source of
information from which to cross-reference average tenure. RSAcademics (2016) estimates that
the typical tenure of an international school director is under three years. In a study of 267
American Sponsored Overseas Schools (ASOS), average tenure ranged from 4.2 to 4.6 years in
these international schools, with distinct differences in tenure among small schools (3.7 years),
medium schools (4.9 years), and large schools (5.6 year) (Mott, 2011).
Although there is some level of variety with respect to independent school head and US
superintendent tenure, reported averages in general are higher than average international school
director tenure. The National Association of Independent Schools (2015) reports that
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
25
independent school heads in the United States have an average tenure of 12.6 years. Another
U.S. independent school organization representing 375 schools, Serving and Accrediting
Independent Schools (SAIS), reports a median tenure of five years (Serving and Accrediting
Independent Schools, 2016). U.S. superintendent tenure is generally with in the same range as
US independent school heads. Cooper, Fusarelli, and Carell (2000) performed a nation-wide
study of superintendents in the United States and determined the average tenure to be 7.25 years.
Another recent study found average superintendent tenure to be approximately six years (Broad
Center, 2018). Littleford (2015) studied both international and U.S. independent schools and
found that U.S. independent school heads have an average tenure of 5.5 years whereas their
international counterparts had an average of only 3.4 years.
Reasons for International School Director Turnover
Despite a difference in average tenure between international school directors and U.S.
superintendents and independent school heads, poor school board-superintendent relations have
been identified as the primary cause of turnover. In the case of international schools, these
institutions have been characterized as “destabilizing,” with the school director’s tenure in a
constant state of “precariousness” (Zilber, 2011, p. 33). This instability is mostly attributed to
school boards’ high level of turnover, over-involvement in school issues, and the challenges in
maintaining the relationship between the director and board (Zilber, 2011).
International school directors surveyed and asked for the reasons why they left their
previous international school director assignment overwhelmingly report their departure
ultimately had to do with a negative relationship with the school board or governance structure
(Hayden, 2006; Palsha, 2017; RSAcademics, 2016). These factors can be further classified and
subdivided as issues pertaining to a lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities, an unclear formal
evaluation process, school board member turnover, and disagreements about decision-making
processes. International school directors report that governance is described as “the biggest
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
26
challenge” and “seen as the number one reason that Heads leave earlier than anticipated… and
seems to be the biggest issue facing international schools” (RSAcademics, 2016, p. 27). Of 77
international school directors surveyed, 32 indicated kind of issue with the governance structure,
ranging from a change in board membership, micromanaging, differences with the board, or
board behavior (Benson, 2011). It seems evident that there is a strong correlation between the
construction of a positive relationship between the school director and school board and the
school director’s length of tenure at the organization, as over half of international school
directors (56%) who left their position in the past four years reported a negative relationship with
the school board (Palsha, 2017).
It is interesting to note that despite similar overall responsibilities, international school
director average tenure is significantly less than U.S. superintendents and international school
heads (Littleford, 2015). While part of this discrepancy can likely be attributed to the fact that
most international school boards are comprised of parents, thus highlighting the differences in
governing structures, there are also important differences with respect to geography, culture, and
host-country environment that are unique to the sphere of international education. Underlining
the significance of cultural factors, international school directors stay in their positions on
average 4.5 years if the language of the country where they work is the same as their native
language, as opposed to 3.1 years if the language is different (Benson, 2011). It is also
worthwhile to note that many international school directors often travel with their spouses and
have school-aged children that attend the school that they work at. In this scenario, with the
international school as the sponsoring group, the school becomes the focal point not only for
professional fulfillment and satisfaction, but also the happiness and adaptability of their children
and spouses (Zilber, 2011). When asked to identify factors related to leaving their previous
international schools, 41.0% of international school directors identified family issues and 29%
identified host country environment (Benson, 2011). In many respects, an international school
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
27
services as a closed community, accessible only by those who are capable of paying the school
fees or the expatriate community who are sponsored by their organizations. Often, the lines
between personal and professional relationships become blurred, which can create a very
isolating effect on the international school director, as he or she strives to maintain professional
boundaries yet has very few opportunities or connection to any stakeholder groups outside the
school community (RSAcademics, 2016).
School Leader Effect on Student Achievement
Although many studies that affirm a positive correlation between a superintendent’s
leadership capacity and student academic performance, several more recent empirical studies
have also determined a direct link between superintendent longevity and student academic
achievement. Leadership characteristics such as sound decision-making, personnel evaluation,
and articulating a vision in superintendents have been proven to be positively correlated with the
academic success of a district (Peterson, 2002). Another study, which analyzed 2,817 school
districts and the academic achievement of 3.4 million students, concluded the same thing: strong
district leadership is positively correlated to student achievement (Waters & Marzano, 2006).
The Waters and Marzano study also stumbled upon what they described as a “bonus” finding,
something that was not an initial focus of the study – a positive correlation between
superintendent tenure length and student achievement. Several years later, another study
investigated the issue of superintendent tenure as it related to high school student achievement
across 440 Illinois school districts. This study concluded and affirmed the positive relationship
between superintendent longevity and student achievement (Libka, 2012). It is worthwhile to
note that Marzano and Waters’ study focused on three large urban school districts while Libka
focused on all Illinois school districts with the exception of the Chicago Public School system,
yet both arrived at essentially the same conclusion. It seems plausible to also conclude that these
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
28
findings are significant to international schools and the effect that an international school
director’s tenure has on student achievement.
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Framework
The Clark and Estes framework (2008) is a construct and model suitable to study
stakeholder performance within an organization. This problem-solving process is based on 1)
understanding stakeholder goals with regard to the organizational goal and 2) identifying
assumed performance influences in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organization based
on general theory, context-specific literature, and an existing understanding of the organization.
In the following section, stakeholder-specific assumed influences in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors will be examined. The Clark and Estes framework utilizes
a three-pronged approach in which knowledge barriers are identified and motivation and
organizational issues are analyzed through the context of various theories (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Stakeholder, Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
This section will identify the key knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that
influence international school director tenure and turnover. The first section identifies knowledge
and skills of international school directors that impact the achievement and attainment of the
organizational goal. The second section pinpoints motivational factors that may affect
international school director tenure and turnover. Finally, the third section reviews organizational
factors that contribute toward the attainment of the organizational goal. The knowledge,
motivation, and organizational factors identified below are key factors that help explain the gap
that affects current international school director tenure.
Knowledge and Skills
Knowledge influences. In this section, literature that is relevant to CSA’s stakeholder
goal of increasing international school director retention by 2020 will be examined. Several
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
29
different knowledge influences exist, of which can be categorized as declarative (factual or
conceptual), procedural, or metacognitive (Krathwohl, 2002). Factual knowledge is defined as
basic terminology or elements one must possess in order to solve problems, whereas conceptual
knowledge relates to the understanding of how different basic elements interact and relate to
each other in order to function together properly. Procedural knowledge refers to the ability to
follow an algorithm, technique, method, or process to solve problems, and metacognitive
knowledge refers to the ability to reflect on one’s thinking and a general awareness of one’s
cognition (Krathwohl, 2002). International school director knowledge influences are categorized
into two main types. Organizing knowledge gaps in this manner is helpful for organizations to
develop training plans and direction of resources to close this gap and improve international
school director tenure.
Knowledge Influence 1. When an international school director is newly appointed to a
position, he or she must develop the proper knowledge base that solidifies their understanding of
the organizational history and context. Based in this knowledge, the role of an international
school director requires constant course correction and a combination of smaller, formative
decisions and larger, more organizational decisions on almost a daily basis (Benson, 2011).
These decisions are informed through a variety of mechanisms: interactions with stakeholders,
local and federal regulations, student achievement results, and fiscal constraints. In addition to
having strong appraisal models, professional learning communities, and collaborative planning,
RSAcademics (2016) identifies reflection as a key skill for international school directors to
possess. In their guide Overseas Learning Experiences for Students: A Resource for Schools, the
State of Victoria (2015) categorizes six critical elements for school success (leadership, school
culture, curriculum, professional learning, monitoring, student/parent/community involvement)
under the umbrella of school reflection, highlighting the need for international school directors to
engage in regular periods of review and analysis. Perhaps the most important context in which to
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
30
reflect is having a strong sense of an organization’s history in terms of previous decisions,
accomplishments, and challenges. This organizational knowledge is a critical perspective for a
new incoming international school director to acquire so that subsequent decisions can be made
with a clear understanding of the previous events that led the school to its current state. The skill
of actively reflecting in order to lead school improvement efforts and make decisions can be best
described as metacognitive and the act of acquiring organizational history and context
procedural.
Knowledge influence 2. The second knowledge influence that affects the organizational
stakeholder goal relates to international school heads having an understanding of best school
board practices. Benson (2011) and Palsha (2017) identify school director to school board
relationships as one of the principal reasons of international school director turnover, so it is
reasonable to assume that international school directors must have a strong knowledge of best
school board practices as it relates to composition, roles, responsibilities, and governance
procedures. Incoming international school directors seldom receive formal training on school
governance best practices and how to effectively manage the relationship between the head of
the school and the governance structure and he or she reports to (Benson, 2011). Although many
international schools have different governance characteristics such as school board size,
composition, and policies, the lack of formalized training at a broad level suggests that
international school directors with this knowledge set would be better equipped to lead schools
and manage relationships with their school boards.
One of the key relationships that international school directors must learn to develop is
with the chair of the school board or the owner of the school (Chuck & Hodgson, 2015). This is a
very complicated partnership to cultivate and requires consistent effort and time. On one hand, a
close relationship can ensure that candid discussions take place and potential issues are
proactively dealt with. However, too close of a relationship (or the perception of one) can breed
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
31
discontent with other board or community members, creating fractions and divisions in the
school governance team. International school directors must often strike a delicate balance
between convincing their school boards of the importance of regular training and proposing
agendas while at the same time taking direction from the chair of the board as a whole (Chuck &
Hodgson, 2015). The consistent management of these relationships is a critical knowledge skill
set for international school directors, especially so in an international context with greater
diversity and therefore the need for skillful communication and relationship development
(RSAcademics, 2016). The set of these knowledge skills fall under the category of a declarative
conceptual knowledge influence.
Motivation
In this section, literature relating to motivation-related influences pertinent to the
achievement of the organizational goal of improving international school director tenure is
examined. According to Clark and Estes (2008), motivation is one of the fundamental aspects of
identifying reasons for gaps in organizational performance. Motivation refers to how employees
within an organization persist to achieve both individual and organizational goals and the degree
to which they apply effort to achieve these results (Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011). The
identification of motivational gaps that affect international school director tenure is an important
part of the gap analysis process. Motivational influences serve as a distinct factor from
knowledge influences, as motivational gaps cannot be simply addressed by strategies to fill
knowledge gaps.
Because an international school position can be a life-changing decision both
professionally and personally, there is a potential for an even greater motivational effect on the
organizational goal. There are generally stark differences in host-country customs and laws,
precipitating a steep learning curve for new international school directors. Parallel to this, a new
environment can also present personal challenges, particularly if an international school director
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
32
has relocated with family and there are cultural challenges such as a foreign language and
different behavioral and attitudinal customs.
Self-Efficacy Theory. Self-efficacy in the context of social cognitive theory refers to
individuals’ belief that their actions have the ability to produce the outcomes they desire
(Pajares, 2006). When an individual has a high level of self-efficacy, they have a fundamental
belief that they are capable of completing a particular task. This belief inspires positive behaviors
and motivation, which in turn feeds into an individual’s desire to start, continue, or complete a
task (Bandura, 1991).
International School Director Self-Efficacy. International school directors often face a
host of new factors in their international positions, such as adapting to new host country
regulations or dealing with being far away from their families back home. Several of the key
characteristics identified in international educators are increased susceptibility to relocation
stress (Powell, 2001), higher disposition to travel, change, and risk (Savva, 2015), and host
country satisfaction (Chandler, 2010), highlighting the importance of self-efficacy in
international positions. With each international school director assignment subject to unique
factors such as governance model, local laws, and cultural customs, it is sometimes easy for new
school directors to feel a sense of cultural shock and that certain factors are out of their control
(Hayden, 2006).
Parents at international schools generally join the community one of several ways:
affluent families of local children, employer-sponsored, or faculty at the school (Fertig, 2016).
For parents of local students or employer-sponsored ones, the school receives revenue associated
with tuition and other fees, while children of school faculty pay little to no school fees as a result
of their parents’ employment status with the school (Zilber, 2011). Students of faculty at
international schools often report a sense of embarrassment and scorn for accomplishments such
as getting good grades or being selected to represent the school in athletic competitions or
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
33
presentations, with greater negative feelings for “higher” positions such as Secondary teacher,
school principal, or school director (Zilber, 2011). The combination of the general over-
involvement of parents in international schools, social isolation for the international school
director, and negative feelings associated by children of international school faculty formulate a
very complicated culture that contributes to the longevity of the school director and highlights
the importance of an international school director’s self-efficacy with respect their family’s
happiness in the host country and at the school.
Attribution Theory. Another prominent motivational construct as part of social
cognitive theory is attribution theory. Attribution theory functions on the assumption that
individuals are more likely to achieve desired outcomes if they personally feel good about
themselves and their ability to accomplish a task, with four major factors that individuals use to
attribute success: ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck (Vockell, 2008). A locus of control is
often contextualized and used by individuals to explain results (Anderman & Anderman, 2006).
The more individuals can attribute outcomes to internal factors such as self-esteem, ability, and
effort as opposed to external factors such as luck or fate, the greater the likelihood that the
individual will experience future success.
International School Director Attribution. In the context of international schools, a
variety of environmental factors determine an international school director’s success. These
factors include school board composition, student demographics, finances, and host country
culture and laws. An important attribution theory that affects international school directors,
therefore, is the degree to which they attribute their success or failure, and whether or not they
conceptualize these factors as internal or external. For example, many international school
directors attribute the ability to recruit high quality expatriate teachers as a function of the host
country in terms of its quality of life, cost of living, and safety (Odland & Ruzicka, 2009).
International school directors who attribute the ability to successfully hire quality expatriate staff
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
34
to external factors versus internal factors such as school mission and vision, culture, salary, and
benefits may struggle to find the motivation to persist when faced with a lack of qualified or
acceptable candidates. Additionally, many international school directors are hired to enact
specific initiatives or solve a particular issue that the school is facing. Whether it is the
construction of a new building facility, the implementation of an educational program, or the
restructuring of a department or personnel, international school directors must feel that they have
the adequate resources, support and decision-making ability to see these projects to their
successful completion. The absence of attributing the success of these projects to internal factors
is likely to cause international school directors to lose interest, motivation, and ultimately decide
to not continue at their current positions, whereas their recognition that the successful completion
or implementation of a project depends on their determination will likely result in greater effort
towards accomplishing these goals.
Organization
General Theory. Cultural settings and models serve as helpful and important tools that
can be used to measure an organization’s culture. These cultural settings refer to and include an
organization’s employees, their tasks, how and why tasks are completed, and the social context
in which the work is completed. Cultural models signify the various cultural practices within an
organization and the mental schema which is shared. Even when employees within an
organization are knowledgeable and motivated, a lack of well-developed processes within the
organization can hinder the attainment of an organizational goal (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Therefore, the alignment of organizational culture with goals and policies is an essential factor in
international schools to ensure that organizational objectives are being met.
Although international schools largely operate as independent schools, there are many
commonalities among cultural settings within these international schools (Mancuso et al., 2010).
Specifically, the lack of well-articulated and defined support systems for international school
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
35
heads contributes to international school director turnover (Benson, 2011). Additionally, the lack
of clearly defined roles and responsibilities between the international school director and school
board often contributes to an environment of mistrust both within the boardroom and in the
school environment (Keller, 2015). From a cultural setting perspective, two specific factors may
be at work to explain why international school directors’ tenure is negatively affected: (a)
international schools’ relative isolation due to their school’s unique characteristics in the host
country and (b) the structure and operating norms of the school’s governance body.
Cultural Model Influence. International schools operate as independent organizations
within their countries, with little to no support from other organizations. Thus, international
schools must internally develop their own policies and procedures. Often, international school
directors and boards lack the experience and knowledge to develop consistent and fair policies
surrounding expatriate relocation, visas, and home leave in conjunction with policies centered
around local staff benefits and compliance with local laws (RSAcademics, 2016). Many
relationships between the international school director and school board sour over a
disagreement about policy decisions and how resources are allocated, creating a difficult
conundrum of whether to prioritize pushing a policy forward or appeasing the individual agendas
of board members (Benson, 2011; Palsha, 2017).
There are several resources for international schools to turn toward for support in the
event that they need assistance with policy development or navigating through a difficult
situation. Several schools hire and bring in external consultants to help train staff or give
guidance on the implementation of a specific initiative; however, bringing in consultants on an
ongoing basis for the ongoing support that is needed is typically cost prohibitive. Some
international schools are directly affiliated with the U.S. Office of Overseas Schools and can
contact Embassy officials for support, but these personnel are typically not professional
educators and their domain experience is usually limited to security, health, and financial
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
36
support. Additionally, not all international schools are affiliated with the U.S. Office of Overseas
Schools, meaning that only a small fraction of international schools are able to access the
Embassy expertise and network. The regional association is likely the best source of support that
international schools can turn toward for assistance and guidance. Member schools in CSA share
several common characteristics, including accreditation from a list of approved agencies and a
curriculum that is majority taught in English. However, member schools still vary greatly with a
wide array of school governance structures, religious affiliations, and student enrollment size.
These differences, combined with the inherent geographical differences and country-specific
issues, create a challenging cultural model of isolation for international schools.
Cultural Setting Influence. International schools are managed through a wide array of
governance models. Some schools are governed by a school board, whereas other international
schools may operate under a proprietorship model (Shortland, 2013). School boards themselves
also have great variety with respect to structure and composition. School boards can consist of
anywhere between three and twelve members (but sometimes as many as twenty) of whom are
either elected from the parent association, selected from the local community, or appointed by
diplomatic embassies or local businesses for a typical term of two years (Littleford, 2015). Some
boards have several board seats consisting of a mixture of appointed and elected members, and
other boards have nationality requirements for board members.
International school directors often leave their positions due to an undefined and unclear
division of roles and responsibilities (Grissom & Anderson, 2012; Hayden & Thompson, 2016)
or lack of support from the school board (Palsha, 2017). Because of the fundamental differences
in school governance models, it is very difficult for a regional association such as CSA to
identify best board practices that will fit a school’s specific governance model and host country
considerations. Therefore, the day-to-day interactions and relationships that are cultivated
between international school directors and their school boards are important to the extent that
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
37
their success largely depends upon finding a sustainable structure and maintaining positive,
respectful relationships both within the school board and with the international school director.
Conceptual Framework: Interaction of Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization
A conceptual framework is an element that seeks to explain the interactions and
relationships among different factors represented in a study (Maxwell, 2013). Because of the vast
amount of literature associated with a topic, both theoretical and empirical, a conceptual
framework is particularly helpful in arranging these different ideas and thoughts in an organized
fashion so that it is easier to understand the relationships at play and tentative theory regarding
these interactions (Slayton, n.d.). Upon the construction of this conceptual framework, this can
then be viewed in the context of previous research so that a clear determination can be made as
to how the study can either further existing research or contribute to what has already been done
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The conceptual framework presented here considers the previous body of research on
international school director tenure and the conditions that encourage or inhibit international
school directors from staying longer at their schools. This research is then placed in context with
different initiatives through the CSA organization, such as the heads retreat for international
school directors, annual CSA conference, and professional learning institutes in an attempt to
further inform the study.
Assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences are previously presented
as separate elements, but in reality operate in conjunction as part of a larger organizational
framework. In fact, Clark and Estes (2008) assert that organizational goals can only be achieved
if knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements are addressed simultaneously.
The conceptual framework below displays how motivational and knowledge factors interact
together within the network of CSA and the support and advocacy it provides to international
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
38
school heads to achieve the goal of increasing international school director longevity. Figure 1
illustrates this conceptual framework.
Figure 1. Interaction of Stakeholder Knowledge and Motivation within Organizational Cultural
Models and Settings
The figure outlines and attempts to explain the relationship between the factors that
influence international school director tenure, both within the context of the schools in which
they work as well as their association with the CSA organization. In the figure, the large dotted
circle represents the coalition of international school directors, who are connected and affiliated
through the CSA organization despite each working at independent schools in different
countries. CSA is the organization of study and the cultural models that exist within the
organization and the network of international schools. Cultural influences represented include
fostering an environment of trust and clearly defined roles and responsibilities of the
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
39
international school director (Keller, 2015). Other cultural issues identified that exist within the
organization include support systems for international school directors, the relationship with
school boards, and improving organizational culture (Benson, 2011).
Within the organization, a global goal exists to increase the level, frequency, and
participation of international school training, sessions facilitated by CSA at various points of the
year and in different geographic locations. Within this global goal lie knowledge and motivation
factors that influence international school director longevity. Knowledge influences include best
school board practices, developing positive relationships with stakeholders, and using multiple
sources of data to reflect and make sound decisions. Motivation influences include seeing the
opportunity as a continuous personal and professional improvement endeavor (Savva, 2015),
alignment with professional goals and growth plans, and the ability to adapt to a new culture and
environment. The interaction of these elements within the context of the organization support the
overall stakeholder goal of improving average international school director longevity. These
influences interact with each other simultaneously and in parallel to support the attainment of the
stakeholder goal. As a result of the interaction of motivational and knowledge influences within
the context of the organization, a phenomenon exists in which international school directors are
likely to renew and extend their tenure at their current position.
Conclusion
In this chapter, the purpose of this study and the root causes related to the low tenure of
school directors at international schools in the world were examined. Both the history of
international schools as well as research on international school director turnover was examined
through a comprehensive review of the associated literature. Through this review, key
stakeholder influences as they relate to knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps were
presented. Chapter Three will present the study’s methodological approach.
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
40
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
In this chapter, the research design and methods for data collection and analysis
surrounding this study’s research questions regarding international school director tenure and
longevity are presented. As presented in Chapter One, the purpose of this project was to evaluate
and understand why international school directors at CSA member schools decide to stay or
leave their positions. The questions that guided this study were the following:
1. To what extent is CSA meeting its goal of increasing international school director tenure?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements related to achieving
this organizational goal?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
This chapter begins with a review of the participating stakeholders identified in Chapter
One and the sampling criteria used to identify them. Rationale and criterion for surveys and
interviews, the two methodologies that were used for this study, are described. Next, protocols
and procedures regarding data collection and instrumentation are presented. The chapter
continues with a discussion on credibility, trustworthiness, validity, and reliability. Finally,
Chapter Three concludes with an identification of ethical issues, limitations, and delimitations of
the study.
Participating Stakeholders
International schools are staffed by a variety of important roles critical to each
institution’s success, such as teachers, counselors, and administrative support staff. Additionally,
there are many interested parties in the success of CSA, from school accreditation bodies, the
CSA board, and governmental offices of education such as the U.S. State Department Office of
Overseas Schools. However, international school directors are most likely responsible for the
overall oversight and direction of each individual school, as they are entrusted with hiring staff,
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
41
budget allocation, program selection, and more. Therefore, international school directors were
the stakeholders of focus for this study.
The stakeholder population of focus was set of international school directors at CSA
member schools. Although there are a number of international school directors at non-member
schools within the region, focusing on institutions registered with the organization allowed for
more consistency with respect to the classification of international school and also assured that
the results were consistent and aligned with the organizational performance goal.
Survey Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. The individual must be an international school director at a member school
of CSA. CSA is one of the major regional international school associations and spans an entire
continent, giving a wide range of international schools that fit distinct criteria in terms of
accreditation, international-mindedness, and majority English instruction.
Criterion 2. The individual must be an CSA member school international school director
that does not hold host-country nationality. Geographic and cultural factors have been identified
as possible reasons for international school directors leaving their positions; therefore, selecting
CSA international school directors who are not host country nationality ensures that this is a
relevant factor.
Survey Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
For the survey portion of the study, the entire database of international school directors
was contacted with an invitation to participate in the survey. An introductory phone call was held
with the Executive Director of CSA to explain the nature of the project, and the initial electronic
correspondence was sent by the Executive Director to international school directors of member
schools in order to provide a sense of trust and confidence to participate in the survey. The
number of participants in the survey was constrained by the number of registered schools in
CSA, which numbered 81 at the time that the survey was sent. In order to secure as high of a
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response rate, a reminder email was sent two weeks after the initial survey was sent by the
Executive Director. From this population, a cluster sampling strategy was employed based on the
geographic location of the school, organized by the geographic location of the school (Northern,
Western, or Eastern part of the continent). The survey was administered at the beginning of the
data collection process via Qualtrics. The initial survey was sent in late November with a
reminder in December in the hopes that international school directors would have the time to
complete the survey as they ended the semester at their schools, but prior to them heading off on
Winter vacation.
Interview Group Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. The first interview group sampling criteria was that they completed the
survey and expressed willingness to participate in the interview. The last question in the survey
took them to a separate Google Form where they could provide their contact information to be
followed up with for an interview.
Criterion 2. The second interview group sampling criteria was that they met the same
criteria defined for survey participants. Interview participants must be international school
directors at CSA member schools and do not hold host-country nationality in the country that
they are currently employed.
Interview Group Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
At the end of the electronic survey, participants were be asked if they would be willing to
participate in a one-on-one Skype conversation to further expound upon their responses.
Participants who answered yes to this question were taken to a separate Google Form where they
could provide their email address. The Google Form was purposely kept independent from the
Qualtrics survey to ensure that survey responses would be kept anonymous for participants who
chose to provide their contact information. Emails were sent to all participants who provided
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
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their email address via the Google form, thanking them for their participation in the survey and
extending an invitation for a follow-up interview.
A total of six individuals ultimately agreed to participate in a follow interview. These six
individuals represented diverse backgrounds, with each of the six working in different countries
across the continent and having varied tenures from two years to seven years. This diversity
provided two-tier sampling and in-depth data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) and was also a realistic
number given the limited study window.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
This study utilized surveys and individual interviews to collect data on international
school directors’ tenure and longevity. These methods were selected because they revealed
meaningful data about how international school directors ultimately decide to pursue a career in
international education and the reasons why they choose to continue or resign at their current
positions. Information gathered in surveys were used to formulate and inform interview
questions, which yielded more in-depth data.
Surveys
Survey Protocol. There were a total of 35 questions in the survey, organized into five
sections (See Appendix A). The first section asked participants’ demographic and background
information such as the number of years of experience and nationality. The second section asked
participants’ feelings and attitudes towards the regional association in terms of the helpfulness
and usefulness of conferences, meetings, and other events. The third section asked questions
about their current international school with respect to governance, structure, enrollment, and
other characteristics. The fourth section surveyed international school directors regarding their
perceptions about working conditions at their current school in terms of their job responsibilities,
satisfaction and relationships. The last section gathered information about participants’ career
aspirations and reasons behind their entry into the international school field. The questions in
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these sections were specifically chosen in order to obtain information regarding international
school directors’ knowledge, motivation, and organizational practices related to the
administration of an international school with an overall goal of using this sample to generalize
the results to the international school community at large (Creswell, 2008).
Survey Procedure. Surveys were administered online through the Qualtrics platform.
Surveys were written in English with a link to participate and were emailed to all CSA
international school directors by the Executive Director. The beginning of the survey explained
the purpose of the study and informed participants that their responses would be anonymous and
that they could cease their participation at any time.
Interviews
Interview Protocol. For this study, a semi-structured interview protocol was used (see
Appendix B). Semi-structured interviews provide greater flexibility, as substantial prior
structuring of interviews can lead to inflexibility and tunnel vision and unstructured approaches
sacrifice generalizability and comparability (Maxwell, 2013). By using a semi-structured
interview structure, the best benefits of each model were utilized, allowing for a degree of
consistency and ability to compare responses across interviews while at the same time giving the
opportunity to individually tailor questions and provide greater contextual understanding. The
results of these semi-structured interviews provided important information regarding
knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors that directly affect international school
director longevity and tenure and can be cross-referenced with other sources of data.
Interview Procedures. Interviews were conducted one at a time with participants.
Because international school directors were located in various countries across the globe, an
online, one-on-one interview approach was the most realistic and efficient manner to conduct
these interviews. Interviews were conducted via Skype during the months of November,
December, and January and ranged anywhere from 45 to 70 minutes.
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Data Analysis
Analysis of data was performed over three main phases. First, the raw data was
processed, reviewed, and organized. Second, the organized data was then analyzed, filtered, and
coded. Finally, the analysis of data sets across multiple types was synthesized into key findings.
Processing the data with this systematic and procedural approach allowed for easier
identification of key themes and common responses.
From the raw survey results, the data was reviewed and cleaned to ensure consistency of
responses and to eliminate or discount for any non-responses or questionable entries (Alkin,
2011). Frequencies for each survey item were then calculated and tabulated. Because the
response count of the stakeholder group was sufficiently large, means and standard deviations
were calculated to identify average levels of responses. International school director average
tenure was calculated by taking the mean of all responses relating to the number of years each
respondent had served in his or her current position. Descriptive statistical analysis was
conducted once all survey results were submitted. These statistics included measures of central
tendency and the weighted mean to ensure fair representation of Likert scale responses (Salkind,
2016).
For interviews, data analysis began during data collection. Analytic memos were written
after each interview. Thoughts, concerns, and initial conclusions about the data in relation to the
conceptual framework and research questions were documented. Upon leaving the field,
interviews were transcribed and coded, which allowed for raw data to be moved to a conceptual
level (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). In the first phase of analysis, open coding was employed,
looking for empirical codes and applying priori codes from the conceptual framework. A second
phase of analysis was conducted where empirical and priori codes were aggregated into analytic-
axial codes. In the third phase of data analysis, pattern codes and themes that emerged in relation
to the conceptual framework and study questions were identified (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
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Credibility and Trustworthiness
Several strategies were employed in order to increase and maintain the credibility and
trustworthiness of the study. First, the data collected was filtered and reviewed to ensure
“richness,” meaning that the information collected contains great detail and variety in order to
paint a complete picture (Maxwell, 2013). Additionally, because interview participants were
selected with intention as a subset of survey participants, this also provided the opportunity to
gather very pertinent and deep information regarding the research questions. Detailed note-taking
and recorded transcripts of interviews were used during the interview process to ensure depth
and profoundness of data. The multiple methods of survey and interview analysis helped ensure
a degree of credibility and consistency to ensure that the study measured what it was intended to
measure (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Finally, a system was implemented in the research
collection process to incorporate respondent validation. Respondent validation occurs when the
individuals being researched are regularly and systematically consulted for feedback about the
data and conclusions of the study (Maxwell, 2013). As international school directors were
interviewed, the results were shared with them formatively in order to receive feedback and
establish respondent validation. At the conclusion of each interview question, a summarized
version was shared with each respondent and they were asked if the characterization of the
summarized response adequately captured the idea they wished to express.
Validity and Reliability
Validity within a study cannot be established unless reliability is first established
(Salkind, 2016). In this study, several strategies were used to improve study reliability. First,
surveys were written in a manner in which the instructions were clear and standardized, as this
eliminated uncertainty and inconsistency in responses. Additionally, the number of items within
the survey were also increased, as a greater number of survey items increases the likelihood that
the data is representative and reliable. Finally, the effects of external events were minimized in
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order to ensure that survey responses were of a high percentage and thorough. For example, the
survey was not administered during the first several weeks of the school year, as this would have
likely not yielded a high response rate nor quality responses due to the busy nature of the
beginning of the school year.
Given an acceptable degree of reliability, validity will be improved by carefully
measuring the nature of the items of the survey and ensuring a strong correspondence to the
criterion that has been selected to study. Survey responses were openly disclosed as anonymous,
thereby encouraging respondents to be more truthful and open with their responses.
Ethics
Glesne (2015) states that when conducting a survey for research purposes, informed
consent is necessary. In this manner, participants’ involvement was voluntary, discussions were
kept confidential, and participants were allowed to withdraw from the survey at any point in
time. Any interviews conducted were preceded by a written request to record the conversation
and reconfirmed at the beginning of the video call prior to recording. The recordings were then
transcribed by a third party service to ensure accuracy. After the conclusion of the study, all
transcripts and recordings of interviewed were deleted and any remaining documents were
revised in order to remove any identifiable information.
The organization of focus for this study was the Continental School Association (CSA),
which is a network of international schools geographically located across one of the major
continents. Though a common bond of international accreditation by recognized bodies and a
commitment to international-mindedness and education, CSA attempts to connect international
schools and international school directors through a variety of conferences, learning institutes,
forums, and document frameworks. The researcher was an international school director at a CSA
member school from August 2014 until July 2017. While an international school director, the
researcher participated in the yearly regional association conference and took an active role in
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association meetings to discuss strategic issues and vote for new CSA board members. The
researcher also sent staff members from his school to several of the professional learning
institutes throughout the region. In order to maintain as much transparency and avoid any
potential conflicts of interest, the researcher obtained permission from the executive director of
the organization to conduct the study and for him to send an email to members on the
researcher’s behalf before the administration of the survey to explain the nature and purpose of
the study. The initial email to international school directors asking them to participate disclosed
the fact that the researcher was a former international school director in the region.
Limitations and Delimitations
Some of the limitations of the study included the level of participation of respondents and
the truthfulness of their responses. Because international school directors have a wide variety of
responsibilities and scheduling constraints, it was difficult to predict a response rate with great
accuracy and to ensure that all questions were answered in an honest and forthcoming manner.
A conscious choice was made to focus on CSA as the organization of study due to the
high school membership status and diversity of schools across the region. However, although
CSA is an extremely reputable organization and has a high level of sustained membership across
its member schools, there are a number of international schools that fit the membership
characteristics that are not part of CSA. It is therefore plausible that the international school
directors at CSA member schools are not representative of the region at large or the international
school community worldwide. There are several other international school associations that are
bound by geography but with slightly different membership requirements and regional events.
The difference in geography, membership requirements, international school characteristics, and
association events between CSA and other regional associations is limitation of the study.
The conceptual framework in this study sought to bound the meaning of international
school directors’ choices with respect to knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
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and factors. Although international school directors were the stakeholder group of focus in this
study, further research is recommended to understand assumed influences of other stakeholder
groups, such as such as school boards members, school owners, teachers, accreditation agencies,
and governmental departments of education. This choice of stakeholder group focus represents a
delimitation of the study and an opportunity for further investigation.
One of the likely biases resulting from this study is the fact that the researcher is part of
the international school director community, having served in two different international schools
across two different continents and regions. Therefore, it is possible that the researcher comes
into the study with preconceived notions regarding what makes an international school director
successful or unsuccessful, and the usefulness and value of a regional association. Additionally,
the majority demographic of international school directors is generally White males over 50. As
the researcher is an Asian male in his 30s, this may also represent a form a potential bias and
assumptions that may affect the study. Although these factors were consciously considered when
formulating survey questions and engaging in interviews, this background represents another
delimitation factor of the study.
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS
This chapter presents the study’s results and key findings within the framework of the of
the research questions. The analysis focused on the knowledge, motivational, and organizational
influences related to international school director longevity and tenure at schools affiliated with
the Continental School Association (CSA), a region-specific network of international schools.
The questions that guided this study were the following:
1. To what extent is CSA meeting its goal of increasing international school director tenure?
2. What are the knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements related to achieving
this organizational goal?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
In order to answer the research questions, both qualitative and quantitative data were
collected through surveys and interviews. This chapter begins with a description of the
stakeholder group that participated in the survey and interview protocols. Study results and
synthesis are used to answer the first two research questions regarding improving international
school director tenure within CSA and the knowledge, motivation, and organizational elements
related to improving international school director turnover. Chapter Five presents research-based
solutions and recommendations for closing gaps discussed in this chapter.
Participating Stakeholders
The primary stakeholder group for this study was the group of international school directors
at CSA member schools who met the sampling criteria outlined in Chapter Three. Survey criteria
included that individuals must be an international school director of a CSA member school and
that the international school director not hold host country nationality. Interview criteria included
survey participants who met the survey criteria and volunteered to be interviewed.
Survey
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An online survey was sent to all 81 international school directors at schools affiliated with
CSA. This survey was sent by the association’s Executive Director via email with a link to access
the survey. One week before closing the survey, a follow-up email was sent to remind and
encourage international school directors to participate. Over a three-week period, 19 responses
were recorded, representing a 23.5% response rate. Of the 19 responses, 15 responses were male
(78.9%) versus four responses from females (21.1%). The majority of the respondents were of
American nationality (36.8%), followed closely by British (21.1%). Table 2 shows the breakdown
of survey participants by nationality.
Table 2
Survey Respondent Nationality
Nationality
Percentage of
Respondents
Number of
Respondents
American 36.8% 7
British 21.1% 4
Canadian 10.5% 2
Australian 10.5% 2
South African 10.5% 2
Irish 5.3% 1
French 5.3% 1
Most survey respondents were experienced educators, with 13 of 19 (64.4%) respondents
indicating that they have had more than 20 years of experience in the education sector. Nearly
half of the respondents (42.1%) also indicated that they have more than 20 years of experience in
the international education sector. Figure 2 illustrates the respondents’ overall and international
educational experience.
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Figure 2. Survey Participant Years in Education and Years in International Education
Interviews
At the end of the survey, participants were offered the opportunity to express willingness
to participate in a follow-up interview by providing their email address. From the 19 survey
participants, 12 individuals provided their email addresses and messages were sent in order to
coordinate a follow-up conversation. Ultimately, a total of six interviews were conducted,
ranging from 42 to 70 minutes. The other six participants who provided their email addresses
never responded to both the initial email and a subsequent follow-up email. The section that
follows is a summary of the participants’ profiles, using pseudonyms as identifiers.
George. An international school director of a school of approximately 500 students.
George is currently in his third year as the director of the school. James is White male. His wife
previously worked at the school but is currently pregnant with plans to return to work at the
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school. They currently have two elementary-aged children who attend the school. Both George
and his spouse are from the United States.
James. An international school director of a school of approximately 610 students. James
is currently in his fifth year as the director of the school. James is a White male. His wife works
at the school and their two children attended the school and have since graduated. Both James
and his spouse are from the United States.
Ryan. An international school director of a school of approximately 65 students. Ryan is
currently in his third year as the director of the school. Ryan is a White male. His wife works at
the school and they do not have any children. Both Ryan and his spouse are from the United
States.
Peter. An international school director of a school of approximately 210 students. Peter is
currently in his third year as the director of the school Peter is a White male. His wife does not
work at the school and they have two school-aged children who attend the school. Peter is from
France and his wife is from the host country.
Chris. An international school director of a school of approximately 150 students. Chris
is currently in his second year as the director of the school. Chris is a White male. He is
unmarried and does not have any children. Chris is from Australia.
Matthew. An international school director of a school of approximately 580 students.
Matthew is currently in his third year as the director of the school and sixth overall. Matthew is a
White male. His wife currently works at the school and they have two elementary-aged children
who attend the school. Both Matthew and his spouse are from the United States.
Findings for Research Question 1
This section addresses the study’s first research question: To what extent is CSA meeting
its goal of increasing international school director tenure? This section begins with a review of
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the current international school director tenure statistics, followed by a summary and analysis of
CSA’s efforts to engage and support international school directors.
From the 19 respondents of the survey, the current average tenure of international school
directors in CSA is 3.26 years with a median of 3.00 years and standard deviation of 1.76. Figure
3 shows the breakdown of respondents’ current tenure at their international schools.
Figure 3. CSA International School Director Current Tenure
The majority of the respondents (7) indicated that they were in their third year and five
respondents indicated that they were in their current positions four or more years. This
information is significant because international school directors typically sign initial contracts for
three years and renew every year thereafter, meaning that these are critical points for both
schools and international school directors to determine if they will continue at the school. When
asked if they would like to continue at their current school if offered an extension, the majority
of respondents (63.2%) responded yes. Figure 4 indicates respondents’ answers to whether they
would like to continue at their current school if offered an extension.
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Figure 4: If I am offered an extension at my current position, I would like continue at my current
position
Survey participants were asked to characterize their relationship with the CSA regional
association and whether they felt that the association helped them perform their job better, is an
important resource to turn to when they need support, whether they found regional association
meetings informative and helpful, and if they believe that regional meetings are good forums to
network and connect with other people. Figures 5, 6, 7, and 8 illustrate participants’ responses to
questions regarding the regional association.
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Figure 5. I make an effort to regularly attend regional association meetings.
Figure 6. Regional association meetings are helpful and informative.
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Figure 7. Regional association meetings are a good opportunity to network, meet new people,
and exchange ideas.
Figure 8. My participation in regional association meetings and activities helps me perform my
job better as an international school director
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The results of the survey clearly show that international school directors overwhelmingly
make an effort to attend regional conferences, find the regional association meetings valuable
and informative, and find these meetings a good opportunity to connect and network with
others. One-hundred percent of respondents either strongly agreed or agreed that they make an
effort to attend regional association meetings, 84.2% strongly agreed or agreed that regional
association meetings are helpful and informative, and 94.7% strongly agreed or agreed that
regional association meetings are good opportunities to network and exchange ideas. However,
despite 68.4% of respondents strongly agreeing or agreeing that their participation in regional
association meetings helps them perform their job as an international school director better, a
significant portion of respondents (31.6%) disagreed.
The follow-up interviews provided greater insight and detail on the majority positive
sentiment towards the regional association and the minority who felt that the regional association
did not help them perform their job better. Several common themes emerged, one of which is the
logistical challenge of physically meeting across a large continent and the inherent differences
between schools of drastically different enrollment numbers and local regulations and laws. In
describing the challenges of different schools in the region, James noted that that “yes it’s a
continent, but we’re not of the same ilk. We all run and operate differently, so when we come
together our issues are not always the same.” This statement was supported by Chris, who said
that “sometimes the time that you might miss or the expense in traveling across the continent to
meet with schools who are facing very different issues than yours makes things challenging.”
Despite most international school directors acknowledging during interviews the
challenges related to distance and different characteristics of schools, most also agreed that CSA
had taken positive steps do the best that they could do address this reality. For example, George
stated that “for having people spread out over a vast continent, they do a good job connecting the
various international schools and making it not feel so large.” This sentiment was echoed by
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
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Peter, who praised the regional association for its efforts to create smaller professional learning
institutes that would allow stakeholders from different schools with similar issues to meet and
learn from each other.
The diversity of school geography and size was reflected in the survey demographic
responses, with a broad distribution of student enrollment sizes. Figure 9 illustrates the
breakdown of respondent student enrollment at their schools.
Figure 9: Respondent school student enrollment
Another theme that specifically became clear during the follow-up interviews, and
generally supported by the survey results, was the usefulness of the heads retreat, a yearly
gathering of international school directors in the region. Eighteen of 19 survey participants
(94.7%) strongly agreed or agreed with the statement that regional associations are a good
opportunity to network, meet new people, and exchange ideas. While the regional association
runs a number of conferences and events throughout the course of the year, the heads retreat is
the only event that specifically focuses on providing professional development to school
directors and providing opportunities for school directors to network and interact with their
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counterparts. Multiple interviewees expressed how they found the retreat useful, particularly
with regard to the ability to connect and network with other international school directors in the
region. Peter, an international school director at a small school in the region, summarized his
experience at the retreat by saying “I attend the heads retreat, because it is always in nice places,
but also because it is a way to be in contact with people that I’ve known for years and network
with them.” Peter also mentioned that the governance structure of CSA made it helpful for the
association to plan relevant topics at the heads retreat. “The board of CSA is made of heads of
various international schools, so that makes the board very aware of who we are as schools and
heads,” he said. Ryan, another international school director of a smaller school in the region,
shared that he did not attend the retreat his first year at the school due to several reasons, such as
believing that the cost outweighed the potential benefits as well as wanting to spend more time
on campus his first year. Ryan did, however, attend the retreat his second year and expressed his
regret for not having attended the first year. “I was skeptical of how much I was going to learn at
the retreat, and I felt that it was more important for me to be at the school the first month. So I
didn’t go to the heads retreat the first year, but wish I had, because I went to the retreat the
second year… and it was a really good experience.” As a result of Ryan’s attendance at the heads
retreat, he shared that he was able to connect with other international school directors of
similarly sized small schools. The heads retreat provided an important initial connection for these
schools with similar characteristics to meet and as a result of this encounter, a small network of
small schools was created that regularly communicate and support each other.
Finally, there have been a number of small to large workshops that have helped CSA
adapt to the needs of their different schools, but more importantly, create a number of key
framework documents that are not only used within the association but are now being adopted on
a worldwide level. As an example, the regional association spent several years working with
schools over a number of committee, board, and regional association meetings at various
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physical locations on a child protection policy. This child protection policy takes into account
issues such as prospective employee background checks and reporting procedures for suspected
child abuse. Because the development of the child protection policy included stakeholders from
various countries, the framework that was ultimately developed proved to be useful to schools
despite differences in student demographics, enrollment, and local laws. Another document
developed by CSA is a framework for school boards, a guiding document for international
school directors regarding best school board practices which is applicable despite various
different types of governance models and board composition policies throughout the region. In
the follow-up interview session, George stated that he believed that CSA has done a good job of
providing useable documentation for international school heads to take and adapt to their own
situations which has been helpful given the continent’s diversity and logistical challenges, stating
“what I really like about CSA is that I think that they are at the forefront of creating very usable,
friendly documents for heads to take and incorporate into their own structures.” In addition to the
child protection and school governance documents, CSA is currently in the process of creating a
document that gives advice and suggestions for new school directors about the different
structures that are recommended to have in place. Given the level of turnover in the region,
particularly at smaller schools, a document of this nature is not only a good foundational
document but also a helpful exercise to review and refer to at conference meetings and events.
Summary
The survey demographics revealed that although most international school directors in
the CSA region are fairly experienced, they work in schools with very different characteristics
such as enrollment size and governance structure. This diversity was also acknowledged in
interviews. However, despite these challenges, it appears that CSA has managed to implement
several initiatives that have allowed international school directors to network with each other,
receive professional development, and access broad literature on general best practices.
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Findings for Research Question 2
The second research question in this study explored what knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences impacted the achievement of the organizational goal as defined by
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model. Knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences were either validated, partially validated, or not validated by the study. A validated
gap is one in which 50% or more of the responses in one or both instruments agreed that some
kind of intervention to address the assumed influence was necessary, or some level of agreement
that a particular aspect was not working and needed to be adjusted. A partially validated gap is
one in which there is a conflict between the two instruments in terms of one instrument showing
50% or more agreement but the other instrument showing less. A gap that is not validated is
when there was not sufficient evidence or information to determine the existence of a gap. This
section reviews and details the study’s findings related to knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences.
Results for Knowledge Influences
Two knowledge influences were identified in Chapter Two, both of which were validated
by the study. First, international school directors must understand the organizational history of a
school and constantly reflect in order to build upon successes and learn from failures. Second,
international school directors must have a clear understanding of school board and governance
best practices.
School organizational history and reflection. When asked whether they received
adequate training and professional development in order to prepare them for their current
international school assignment, the study found this to be generally true, with 15 of 19
respondents (78.9%) strongly agreeing or agreeing with the statement. Four respondents (21.1%)
disagreed with this statement, while no respondents strongly disagreed. Figure 10 illustrates the
breakdown of this survey question.
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Figure 10: Respondent school student enrollment
Most follow-up interviews revealed that the main sources of preparation for a new
international school director assignment could either be traced to their own prior experience as a
school administrator, a focused transition visit to the school before officially assuming their new
duties, or an internal promotion in which they already understood significant elements of the
organization. When asked about the reasons that James had enjoyed such a long tenure at the
school, he credited his former supervisor for providing him with additional and advanced
leadership responsibilities. “I had a boss who delegated a lot… things from dismissing people, to
managing the budget, to being the chief education officer… I think it well prepared me” James
said. “I was able to sit on board meetings and even lead a board committee.” The exposure to
these opportunities ultimately allowed James to develop crucial knowledge and skills that would
help him achieve success at his first international school director appointment. In addition to a
supportive prior supervisor who facilitated leadership opportunities, James also attributed his
preparation to a longer than normal leadership transition process. All six international school
directors indicated that that when they were hired, they were able to spend approximately time at
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the school prior to officially assuming their duties and that this was an extremely important
learning piece in the transition process. In addition to this traditional transition visit, James was
also afforded the opportunity to spent two weeks traveling with the outgoing director at
recruiting conferences. The ability to spend a significant amount of time with the outgoing
director was an invaluable experience both in terms of recruiting and shaping the team for the
following year as well as spending focused time with the outgoing school director. “When I was
appointed for my new job, the school paid for me to recruit for the next school year with the
current interim head, so I spent two weeks on the road with him, which was a great transition
piece,” James said. He summarized his transition process by expressing “I think I was as well
prepared as I could have been could have been.”
Another international school director, Matthew, had been promoted internally to the
school director role after serving for three years as the high school principal. Like James, he had
a boss who delegated and gave a large degree of autonomy, helping Matthew learn key skills and
knowledge related to the role of an international school director. “I had a great mentor here,”
Matthew said. “In my time as Principal, I had been heavily involved in governance and a lot of
the larger school leadership issues that a Principal might not normally be involved with.”
Because Matthew able to experience these leadership opportunities at his current school, this
made him an extremely viable candidate when the director at the time announced that he would
not be returning after the conclusion of the school year. His involvement in governance and
strategic planning at the school gave him an ideal window from which to evaluate the school’s
strengths and weaknesses, as well as the potential effectiveness of his leadership. Matthew
expressed his thought process in apply for the school director position by saying, “when the
school director decided to leave, it was a no-brainer for me to in my mind to step up and to land
significant consistency to a school that I had already come to know and love.”
Both James and Matthew are strong case studies of how they came to prepare their new
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65
appointment due to the fact that they are the two interview participants with the longest tenure.
Both individuals shared that a prior supportive supervisor provided opportunities to participate in
key decisions and governance meetings which helped provide the necessary knowledge and
skills in order to be successful. Both individuals were also exposed to a longer transition period
in which they were able to not only spend time with the outgoing director, but understand the
school on a deeper and more profound basis. In the case of James, he was able to spend
significant time away from the school with the outgoing director in addition to a lengthy school
visit; Matthew was able to understand the school culture due to his appointment as an internal
promotion. These two cases studies would seem to suggest the importance of international school
directors acquiring fundamental knowledge and skills about school leadership and having an
opportunity to learn about the school and its organizational history.
School board best practices. Most respondents work in schools in which a majority of
the school board members are elected from the parent community. However, there are several
different governance models that exist, such appointed school board representatives, a direct
report to a school proprietor, and a hybrid blend of appointed and elected members. Figure 11
illustrates the breakdown of governance models at the respondents’ schools.
Figure 11. Respondent school governance models
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Although the majority of respondents work in schools with a school board comprised
mostly of elected parents from the parent community, nearly half (42.1%) work under another
governance model. Additionally, there are many differences between the bylaws of school
boards even if the majority of the members are elected from the parent community. Nationality
requirements, term limits, number of member seats, and other factors may affect the participation
and composition of school boards.
The variety of different school governance models would suggest that each have their
relative strengths and weaknesses in a specific context or environment. Yet, most international
school directors mentioned that they had received little to no formal training on school board
best practices and how to navigate the idiosyncrasies of these different models. Ryan, an
international school director at a small school, summarized his professional development as
“almost none” and described his experience at the school as a result as “a very big learning
curve.” A training that he was sent on prior to beginning his new assignment in Washington,
D.C. at the Office of Overseas School “was almost exclusively about filling out paperwork and
about having a good relationship with the management officer at the US Embassy” as Ryan
described. Peter, another international school director at a small school, characterized the
professional development he had received as “non-existent,” saying “When I arrived to the
school, all of the board members were new and there was no one around. I needed to prepare for
board meetings without any formal training or support.”
One of the reasons identified in Chapter Two regarding international school director
turnover relates to an unclear formal evaluation process (Palsha, 2017). Despite some
international school directors expressing a lack of formal training opportunities on school board
best practices, most international school directors (84.2%) did report that they felt that clear
goals and objectives were developed in collaboration with the school governance body. Only
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three of the 19 participants (15.8%) felt differently. Although the positive sentiment regarding
clear goals and objectives is encouraging, a lack of knowledge concerning school board
governance best practices is an important gap to be addressed to address this particular influence.
Results for Motivation Influences
Two motivation influences were identified at the onset of the study. First, international
school directors needed to have a sense of self-efficacy when dealing with the personal and
professional changes associated with moving to a new country. Second, international school
directors needed to be able to attribute successes and progress to their own efforts rather than
factors out of their control. The findings revealed that international school directors feel a degree
of self-efficacy when it comes to professional decisions, but often are constrained by the
happiness of their families. The findings also revealed a strong sense of attribution of the
school’s success to their own longevity and efforts at the school.
Challenges adapting to a new country. When asked to rank the most important
characteristics to consider when accepting a new international school director assignment,
quality of life was tied with progress towards goals and objectives (21.1%) behind school
reputation (31.6%). When presented the statement of whether they or their family were satisfied
with the quality of their personal lives in the host country, 14 of 19 (73.7%) international school
directors strongly agreed or agreed with this statement, while 11 of 15 (73.3%) strongly agreed
or agreed on their family members’ behalf. Figure 12 illustrates the different factors that
respondents felt was the most important factor when considering a position at an international
school, and Figure 13 illustrates quality of life satisfaction levels for international school
directors and their families.
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
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Figure 12: Most important factor when considering an international school assignment
Figure 13: Quality of life satisfaction levels
Follow-up interviews revealed more detailed information to support the importance of
both host country desirability and family happiness. Ryan admitted that he would have been
open to staying at the school beyond his third year despite some of the challenges he had faced,
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
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but ultimately acknowledged that this would be difficult without the support of his spouse,
stating, “I’ve taken a lot of challenges… but probably not because my partner would probably
not be convinced of staying longer. If not for her there may have been things that could have
convinced me to sign on for longer.” On the other hand, several international school directors
stated that their family’s happiness has been what has motivated them to stay at the school
despite its challenges. Peter, whose spouse is from the host country and has two children who
attend the school, said that one of the main reasons for having extended his contract past the
initial three-year commitment was due to his family’s happiness. “On a personal line, my two
boys are still young, so it’s good to spend a number of years of their childhood in the country of
their mother, visit their grandmother, and learn the local language” Peter said. “An extra year is
also good for their identity and understanding.” George’s search for job stability due to his
family situation and desires happened to align with the school board’s search criteria, and
George ended up signing a five-year contract at the school instead of the customary two to three
year contract. In this particular case, both George and the school were looking for increased
stability. The school had recently had several directors leave abruptly or not renew their
contracts, and with a young family and another child one the way George was also looking for
professional stability. Currently in his third year, George stated that he is very happy
professionally, but a large part of his decision whether to leave or continue depends on his
family. George expressed, “A lot is dependent on my family. My wife loves the city here. I ask
my daughter if she wants to live any place else and she says that she’ll move somewhere else
when she finishes school, so she wants to graduate from the school.”
The only international school director who was working without any family, Chris,
approached the quality of life issue from another angle, focusing on the life and his family back
in his home country that he had left behind. With his mother in frail health and a number of
financial commitments back home, Chris talked about the difficulty of having “two lives
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running,” one professional in the host country of the international school and another back home.
Expounding upon the issue further, Chris also expressed that there sometimes seems to be a lack
of understanding from local staff and a lack of support network locally due to the isolating role
of an international school head. “Many local staff don’t understand that we’ve given up our
lives,” Chris said. “We’ve actually uprooted everything and are moving completely to a new
location. That doesn’t mean our life our home country has stopped… and I don’t have the
support network in school because a head of school can’t share down.”
The survey results revealed that quality of life for both the international school director
and his or her family is one of the most important factors when considering a position. The
anecdotal cases of three survey participants clearly illustrate that familial factors place a
tremendous amount of strain or provide a great deal of relief independent of the working
conditions at the school. Thus, an international school director’s self-efficacy is an important
motivational factor that contributes to their overall job satisfaction and one of the key factors in
their tenure.
Attributing success and progress to internal or external factors. As shown in Figure
12, the ability to make progress towards goals and objectives was tied as the second most
important factor international school directors identified when considering a job position. Survey
questions that related to international school directors’ ability to make decisions and attribute
their success to internal factors were positively affirmed by respondents. For example, 12 out of
19 (63.2%) participants disagreed or strongly disagreed with the statement “I have difficulty
recruiting and retaining qualified expatriate staff,” suggesting that they feel that they have the
proper tools and skills in order to attract adequate teaching talent to the school. Eighteen out of
19 (94.7%) participants strongly agreed or agreed with the statement “I have the appropriate
autonomy to make decisions as the school director.”
A common theme of wanting to stay at the school to complete certain projects and
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initiatives was mentioned by nearly all of the school directors in follow-up interviews. The desire
to successfully implement initiatives and leave them in a sustainable, functioning form validates
and affirms the high relevance of making progress towards and objectives indicated in the
survey. Ryan, for example, indicated that he would have been willing to extend his contract for
another year had it not been for his spouse’s unhappiness if the school was willing to pursue
initiatives such as implementing the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme, something
that he considered to be a professional challenge and something that the school would also
benefit from. Matthew, who recently signed an extension for an additional two years at the
school, said it was an “easy decision” and that he was just beginning to feel comfortable with his
responsibilities and the direction of his school in his third year. He also mentioned, “I started
some projects that I’d like to see through… I don’t really want to start again and I’m quite happy
to see these initiatives through.”
James had originally signed a four-year contract with his school and renewed for a fifth
year. Similar to Matthew, James described his third year as crucial, stating that “by Fall of year
three, we were just starting to see momentum. It takes a while to see things you want to change
get moving.” By the time his contract came up for renewal, both of his children had already
graduated from the school and were studying university in the United States. When asked why he
decided to extend his contract when offered since his children were no longer at the school, he
responded by saying, “For me, I wanted to stay because I was turning over Principals and staff
and working on the strategic plan, and the reason I originally decided to stay is because I wanted
to see progress on the plan and to see it through.”
Both Matthew and James’ comments are indicative of the general sentiment expressed by
other international school directors in the follow-up interview process. These responses, along
with how progress towards goals and objectives ranked in the survey, suggest that a significant
motivating factor for international school directors is their attribution that progress is largely
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dependent upon their tenure and effort, and thus are motivated to stay in their positions longer.
Results for Organizational Influences
This study investigated two organizational influences, one of which was a cultural model
and the other which was a cultural setting. The cultural model was based upon the fact that many
international schools operate as the only or very few schools with unique characteristics in the
country, so there was a feeling of isolation among international school directors. The study was
not able to fully validate this influence. The cultural setting assumed that positive school board
governance was crucial to an international school director’s success and longevity. This cultural
setting was validated by the study.
International school directors develop policies and procedures in isolation due to the
school’s unique characteristics. This organizational influence was unable to be validated for
the international school director stakeholder group of CSA. As a general response, 18 of 19
(94.7%) respondents strongly agreed or agreed with the statement “I have the appropriate
resources to achieve the goals and objectives of the school.” Although this is a fairly broad
statement, it suggests that international school directors may have the connections, resources,
and tools to accomplish goals and tasks despite their relative isolation.
Peter, who has had several previous experiences on the continent, asserted that many of
the challenges international schools director face at are very similar across the continent, and that
many schools have in fact benefited from CSA’s strategy of holding several smaller professional
learning institutes at various times throughout the school year for different stakeholders ranging
from business managers, teachers, administrators, and security staff. “Everything that I’ve told
you about people management, local regulations, laws, and everything is very common amongst
schools in the continent” said Peter. Peter shared that just in this school year he had sent his head
of security, information technology manager, and several teachers to regional association
professional learning conferences in order to network and learn information.
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
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Ryan also had very positive experiences to share about the regional association,
describing the network as “extremely helpful.” Ryan attributed part of the regional’s association
success in connecting schools and international school directors to the executive director, saying
“the director of CSA really makes the effort to be figuring out what you need and supporting
you. He clearly wants to do that.” Early in his tenure, the host country was facing a number of
serious political and security situations, which was extremely challenging as a new international
school director. Compounding to this situation, his school board president left the country due to
this instability, leading Ryan with a partial school board and very little support. In the absence of
any local support, Ryan found that he was able to consult with and count on the regional
association. “While we were going through the political crisis and things were really uncertain
here, he reached out to me very clearly to let me know that there thinking of me and they were
there for me if I needed anything,” Ryan said. “That meant a lot.”
It appears that some of the trainings and initiatives that have been offered by the regional
association have played a significant role in connecting schools and their staff members. The
CSA heads retreat mentioned earlier was a common theme that international school directors
spoke about during the follow-up interviews and how it allowed them to maintain a sense of
connection and networking. Other school directors mentioned CSA’s child protection documents
and school board framework documents, pointing out their utility over a broad spectrum of
school sizes, demographics, and governance structures. These initiatives would seem to suggest
that CSA has taken active efforts to mitigate some of the challenges caused by working in
countries with distinct laws, regulations, cultures, and languages.
International school directors’ success is largely dependent upon school board
governance structure and relationships. This cultural setting was validated by the study. In
general, when international school directors felt a positive relationship with the school board in
terms of consistency, communication, and alignment, job satisfaction seemed to improve, and
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there was greater receptiveness to staying longer in the position. Seventeen of 19 respondents
(89.5%) strongly agreed or agreed with the statement “I feel that I have a positive relationship
with the school governance.” Only two participants (10.5%) disagreed with this statement and no
participants strongly disagreed. Striking a similar tone, 14 of 19 respondents (73.7%) strongly
agreed or agreed with the statement “I have received adequate and fair feedback regarding my
performance as the school director.” Figures 14 and 15 illustrate the breakdown of survey
responses to these two questions.
Figure 14. International School Director Relationships with School Governance Bodies
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
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Figure 15. School Director Performance Feedback
The follow-up interviews helped to future reinforce the importance of positive
relationships between school boards and international school directors. Several related themes
emerged from these discussions. First, although relationships with school directors and all school
board members is important, there is a special relationship with the school board president or
chair. Matthew was fortunate to have worked in a school with a tradition of strong board
leadership. “The last three board chairs were strong individuals” he said. “They were highly
competent, professional, and worked at the department chair level at the Embassy. They
understand what it’s like to be an executive and so are therefore willing to keep discipline on the
board and are willing to do that.” James also discussed the importance of strong board leadership
in his interview, even going as far as saying “I would attribute my success with the board to the
two board chairs.” Because James’ school had stability issues and turnover with previous
international school directors, James expressed that he needed to develop a level of trust with his
school board chair. “When I first came in, the board chair kept really close to me. We met
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
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weekly. But finally when I think I earned her trust, and she knew we were moving in the right
direction, she started to back off” James said. Because of the trust that was developed, James felt
that he could have honest, two-way conversations about school matters and in particular, when
he perceived that a member may have been overstepping the roles and boundaries of the school
board.
The second important theme about school boards that became evident through the follow-
up interviews is regular school board training. The most effective board trainings seem to be
when there can be a sustained, consistent interaction with a third party that includes all school
board members as well as the school director. Although Ryan did conduct school board trainings
over his three years at the school, he is leaving at the end of the school year and each of the
school board trainings was conducted by a different individual. Due to a lack of ability in finding
a consultant willing to travel to such a remote country, Ryan even needed to facilitate and lead
one of the board trainings himself. He described the two board trainings facilitated by others as
“definitely a lot more successful” but said that he had difficulty with the board training he led,
expressing “I think that they just didn’t want to hear it because it was coming from me, and they
assumed that I was saying certain things in because it was in my interest.” Matthew, on the other
hand, had a completely different experience by attending a two-day governance workshop hosted
by the CSA regional association. He was able to get nearly his entire board to attend the two-day
workshop with him and characterized this experience as a “game changer.” James is another
example of a school director who benefited from consistent training. Prior to his arrival to the
school, school board had hired an interim school director for a year who he called a “yearlong
board trainer” and had previously employed the same board trainer for the previous five
consecutive years.
The third theme that emerged about school boards was the importance of continuity.
Besides his spouse’s unhappiness in the host country, one of the primary reasons that Ryan
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decided to not continue at the school was the constant rotation of the school board members. Due
to a political crisis in the country, Ryan’s school board chair ended up leaving the country, along
with several other board members, and he was left to run the school without the support of a
school board for a significant period of the school year. Peter also had a board with high
turnover, saying “There is very high turnover. The board is comprised of parents, and because
there is high parent turnover, there is high board turnover. I am currently in only my third year
but on my fourth board chair.” On the other hand, James and Matthew, two directors with longer
experience, have indicated some level of board continuity which has helped them achieve
success at their schools. James indicated that in the history of the school board at his school,
there was a conscious effort to improve best practices, saying “at that time, there were probably
four key people who had been here for a little bit and were going to be here for a little bit, and
they continued with the same board trainer for a period of time.” Matthew also benefited from
school board member continuity at his school by having the same board members his first and
second year. He commented that,
I brought in a board trainer my first year, who did a really good job… I was lucky enough
to have the exact same board the following year as well. We didn’t have any turnover,
and so I had two full years to practice and develop the things that we had learned in that
board training.
School governance structures and relationships with international school directors is one
most important organizational influences that affect international school director tenure. When
school boards are able to provide stability in membership and attend regular training, this
provides an important support mechanism for school directors. Additionally, a strong board
president or chair can make the difference between harmony and dysfunction on a board.
Summary
The study was able to validate both assumed knowledge and motivation influences, as
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78
well as the assumed cultural setting. However, the study was unable to validate the assumed
cultural model of developing a school’s policies and procedures in isolation due to the school’s
unique status in the host country. Based on the study’s findings and results, Chapter Five will
provide recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In Chapter Four, the first and second research questions regarding international school
director tenure were answered through the results of qualitative and quantitative data analysis.
These two research questions were analyzed through the context of the Clark and Estes’ (2008)
framework of knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. Chapter Five will discuss
the importance and significance of these findings in order to address the final research question
and provide recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge, motivation,
and organizational resources. Context-specific recommendations for knowledge, motivation, and
organization solutions are provided, and an implementation plan is presented that follows the
New World Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The chapter concludes with
strength and weaknesses of the approach and recommendations for future research.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
Table 3 represents the assumed knowledge influences and indicates whether these
influences were validated through the information gathered in the surveys and follow-up
interviews. Both assumed knowledge influences were validated by the study.
Table 3
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
International school
directors need to be able
to understand and reflect
upon their
organization’s history.
(P)
Yes Procedural knowledge
increases when
declarative knowledge
required to perform the
skill is available or
known. (Clark & Estes,
2008).
Provide in-depth
induction sessions,
connect new hires
with their
replacements, and
provide access to
key school
documents.
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
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Performance levels
increase
and completion times
decrease with increased
self-regulation skills
(Clark
& Estes, 2008).
International school
directors need to
understand best school
board and governance
practices. (D)
Yes Increasing germane
cognitive load by
engaging
the learner in
meaningful
learning and schema
construction facilitates
effective learning
(Kirschner, Sweller, &
Clark, 2006).
Creating schemata
helps learners to
organize declarative
knowledge in a domain
(Schraw, Veldt, &
Olafson, 2009)
Provide training
opportunities that
allow international
school directors to
learn about various
school governance
models and their
best practices.
Procedural knowledge solutions. Procedural knowledge refers to the comprehensive
steps of knowing a process or procedure, knowing when to decide to apply that knowledge, and
knowing how to perform the task (Krathwohl, 2002). According to social cognitive theory, self-
directed learning and performance can be improved when the strategies or behaviors that should
be learned are modeled (Denler, Wolters, & Benzon, 2009). In addition, information processing
theory states that individuals must acquire component skills, practice integrating them, and know
when to apply what they have learned in order to develop mastery (Schraw & McCrudden,
2006). These principles would suggest that providing focused induction and training sessions
would support their learning. The recommendation, then, is to provide in-depth induction
sessions, connect new hires with their replacements, and provide access to key school
documents.
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According to Clark (2008), the acquisition of skills for expertise often begins with
learning declarative knowledge about procedural steps, which would suggest that key
organizational procedures and timelines should be communicated to new international school
directors. Additionally, providing key information such as organizational history, meeting
procedures, student achievement data, and key school documents would aid in the leadership
transition process for newly appointed international school directors. A more focused leadership
transition process would allow international school directors to quickly ascertain critical
knowledge, skills, and organizational history that will allow them to be more successful in their
job. In follow-up interviews, several international school directors made reference of the fact that
they were afforded the opportunity for a transition visit and to spend time with the outgoing
director. While each transition visit was different in terms of length, format, and topics, all
international school directors who mentioned the transition visit expressed that it was extremely
helpful and a critical part of their acquisition of the organizational history. The school director
with the longest tenure of all interview participants described how his new school afforded him
the opportunity for an extended transition period, allowing him to spend time at recruitment fairs
and conferences with the outgoing school director. A longer and more focused transition period
would therefore seem to correlate with more future success and longevity at a new position.
Declarative knowledge solutions. Declarative, conceptual knowledge is based on the
interrelationships of information that result in how an individual creates classifications,
generalizations, models, and structures regarding people and concepts (Krathwohl, 2002). As
indicated in Table 3, researchers found that the creation of schemata influences help learners to
organize declarative knowledge in a domain (Schraw et al., 2009). This research suggests that
new information can influence the creation of new schemata regarding school governance.
Therefore, it is recommended that international school directors are provided training
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opportunities that allow them to learn about various school governance models and their best
practices.
According to Clark and Estes (2008), facilitating job-related information that is critical
for success is a key component for knowledge and skill development. Additionally, Schraw and
McCrudden (2006) found that breaking down complex tasks into individual steps, such as the
multi-step learning design process, can be beneficial in helping individuals understand concepts
and ideas. The importance of breaking down tasks into smaller, more digestible steps suggests
that the understanding and knowledge of various school governance models is an endeavor that
spans multiple steps. Schools should then facilitate various opportunities for international school
directors to learn how the most effective schools are governed in an attempt to bring these
elements to their current school. If international school directors had greater knowledge on these
best practices, they would be able to distill this information to current and prospective school
board members, the parent community, and faculty in order to improve transparency and school
governance outcomes.
The study revealed that although CSA serves member schools across a diverse set of
school characteristics, several foundational documents such as the school governance framework
had been particularly useful in providing general guidelines on best governance practices. The
study also revealed that initiatives such as the heads retreat were key opportunities for
international school directors to not only network with each other, but also learn from successes
and challenges with respect to school governance. Finally, learning appears to be enhanced when
school board members have the opportunity to participate alongside school directors in
governance training, as several international school directors had mentioned the usefulness of
school board members’ interest and commitment to participate in professional development.
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Motivation Recommendations
The study investigated and validated motivational factors and influences deemed as
important in order for the organization to achieve its stated performance goal. Clark and Estes
(2008) identify choice, persistence, and effort as three key indicators of motivation in task
performance. Table 4 identifies the identified motivation influences of the study and whether
they have been validated.
Table 4
Summary of Motivational Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
International school
directors need to feel a
sense of self-efficacy
when dealing with
personal and
professional
challenges associated
with moving to a new
country.
Yes Individuals with higher
self-efficacy, great
belief in their own
competence, and higher
expectancies for
positive outcomes will
be more motivated to
engage in, persist at,
and word hard at a task
or activity (Rueda,
2011).
Individuals who do not
perceive any support in
their environment “tend
to be hopeless”
(Ambrose, 2010).
Provide training
sessions to
understand how to
navigate and
understand
cultural, legal, and
other aspects
unique to the host
country. Follow up
with regular check-
in sessions to see
how both the
international
school director and
his/her family are
adapting both
personally and
professionally.
International school
directors need to
attribute successes at
the school to their own
internal efforts within
their locus of control.
Yes Internal attributions to
success (internal locus
of control) can cause of
sense of pride and
accomplishment,
whereas factors in the
external locus of
control can cause
disappointment
(Bandura, 1991).
Provide attribution
retraining that
includes: feedback
on knowledge and
skills lacking for
greater internal and
controllable locus
over factors such
as teacher
recruitment and
implementation of
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educational
initiatives.
Training should
include
opportunities to
link specific
knowledge and
skills with
international
school directors’
ability to complete
certain projects.
Self-Efficacy. International school directors often doubt their ability to achieve success
in their jobs given their sense of isolation from the international school and host country
community. Ambrose (2010) found that individuals who do not perceive any support in their
environment “tend to be hopeless” (p. 57), suggesting that providing the proper support structure
around the international school director would increase self-efficacy and the individual’s feelings
of usefulness and hopefulness. This self-efficacy has two elements: personal and professional.
From a personal standpoint, an international school director and his or her family must have a
certain support structure and lifestyle that can be facilitated by the host country. In addition, they
must feel a certain sense and ability to manage any affairs they have in their home country
remotely. Zilber (2011) describes the role of an international school director as extremely
isolating, with a professional distance and boundary that must be maintained with the school
community. International school directors also often have difficulty establishing personal
relationships with host-country individuals given differences in culture, language, and customs.
International school directors often report difficulty establishing social relationships since most
of their community is linked to the school (RSAcademics, 2016). From a theoretical perspective,
increasing international school director self-efficacy would increase performance and tenure.
From a professional context, international school directors must quickly not only learn important
cultures, customs, and laws specific to a host country, but feel that they are able to navigate these
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
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different processes with success. The recommendation, therefore, is to provide training sessions
to understand how to navigate and understand cultural, legal, and other aspects unique to the host
country, and to follow up with regular check-in sessions to see how both the international school
director and his/her family are adapting both personally and professionally.
Attribution Theory. Attribution theory relates to how an individual explains the cause or
causes of certain events (Anderman & Anderman, 2006). These causes can generally be
categorized into an internal or external locus of control, stability, and controllability (Anderman
& Anderman, 2006). Bandura (1991) identifies an internal and external locus of control as
something whereby feelings of pride and accomplishment occur when an individual attributes
their performance to internal factors. The more accomplishments that can be attributed to an
internal locus of control drives further effort, whereas a lack of accomplishment attributed to an
external locus of control can breed hopelessness (Anderman & Anderman, 2006; Rueda, 2011).
Ultimately, the net result of considering all of these factors results in whether an individual
decides to pursue a goal and persist towards it or not.
The study revealed that one of the most important factors that international school
directors identified when choosing a new position or staying at their current position is their
progress towards goals and objectives. Many international school directors expressed in follow-
up interviews a sense of responsibility and personal motivation to see certain projects they had
started through. This desire to see projects through suggests that they largely attribute the success
of these initiatives to their own efforts and persistence, highly validating this particular
motivation influence. Interviews also revealed that international school directors feel a sense of
connectedness in the region, and despite acknowledging inherent differences among schools due
to geographic, cultural, governance, and enrollment factors, were able to find a sense of common
ground that ultimately served as a platform to share successes and for others to believe that they
could also navigate through the challenges of their schools. Most international school directors
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
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also reported that they felt that they were able to recruit and retain quality expatriate staff, which
suggests that they are able to attribute this task to their internal locus of control. Therefore, the
recommendation is to provide attribution retraining that includes feedback on knowledge and
skills lacking for greater internal and controllable locus over factors such as teacher recruitment
and implementation of educational initiatives. The training should include opportunities to link
specific knowledge and skills with international school directors’ ability to complete certain
projects.
Organization Recommendations
The study explored two organizational influences as they pertain to the stakeholder and
organizational goals. Rueda (2011) emphasizes the importance of clearly defining cultural
models and settings, and these organizational influences are listed in Table 5 and represent the
list of assumed influences and whether they were validated or not. Table 5 also identified
context-specific recommendations to address these organizational issues, as organizational and
stakeholder goals are frequently not achieved when there is a misalignment between the
organization and stakeholders.
Table 5
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed
Organization
Influence: Cause,
Need, or Asset*
Validated Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
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International school
directors often work in
isolation due to their
school’s unique
characteristics in the
host country.
No Organizational
performance increases
when individuals
communicate
constantly and candidly
to others about plans
and processes (Clark &
Estes, 2008)
Not a priority.
International school
directors’ success is
largely dependent
upon school board
governance structure
and relationships.
Yes Organizational
performance increases
when processes and
resources are aligned
with goals established
collaboratively (Clark
& Estes, 2008)
Job satisfaction
increases when all
organization
stakeholders agree on
culture, mission, goals,
and resources required
to achieve goals (Clark
& Estes, 2008)
Ensure that there
is a clear and
transparent review
process for the
international
school director.
Develop
opportunities for
key members of
the board to meet
with the
international
school director in
both formal and
informal settings
and that there is
two-way
communication.
Ensure that school
boards have a
strong leader who
will speak to other
members in the
event that the
overstep their
responsibilities or
engage in
micromanagement
.
Cultural Model. A cultural model is described as a shared mental schema that helps to
shape an organization’s structure, values, practices, and policies (Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001). When policies and procedures are aligned within an organization and communicated at all
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
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levels, organizational performance increases (Clark & Estes, 2008). Therefore, the assumed
organizational influence was that the development of school policies and procedures would be
difficult based on international schools’ relative isolation and lack of similar counterparts within
the same country.
The study was unable to validate this cultural model as an organizational influence. Many
international school directors readily admitted the challenges of the regional association in terms
of getting together across a large continent, differences between countries’ laws, cultures, and
regulations, and challenges between managing schools of different sizes; however, these
challenges appear to be mitigated by the strong leadership of the regional association. Specific
programs such as professional learning institutes that target specific school stakeholders such as
security managers, the yearly annual school director retreat, and document framework
development such as the child protection policy have all served to counter the effects of country
isolation and help schools develop sound policy and procedures.
Cultural Setting. When individuals have constant and open communication regarding
plans and processes, Clark and Estes (2008) found that organizational performance increases.
Organizational performance is also driven by having an organizational map, in which goals are
clearly defined in terms of a starting point, desired destination, and path between (Lewis, 2011).
The school governance structure, usually a school board, and the school director are typically the
two most important stakeholders in terms of decision-making at the school. The decision-making
ability of these two stakeholder groups would suggest that the performance of an organization is
largely dependent upon their ability to have constant and open communication and to also
develop and communicate an organizational map to other school stakeholders. The
recommendation, therefore, is to ensure that there is a clear and transparent review process for
the international school director. Additionally, it is recommended that opportunities are
developed for key members of the board to meet with the international school director in both
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
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formal and informal settings and that school boards have a strong leader who will speak to others
in the event that members overstep their responsibilities or engage in micromanagement.
The study validated the importance of positive relationships between the international
school director and school board. There are several key elements of this positive relationship and
dynamic. First, school boards must ensure that they work collaboratively with international
school directors to define clear goals and objectives that are in turn communicated to the school
community. Second, school boards must ensure consistency by strategically selecting members
who are committed to serving on the board and anticipate being in the host country for a
considerable amount of time. Third, school boards must select a leader who is able to openly
communicate and listen to the international school director as well as the other school board
members. This designated individual serves a very important role and balance to ensure that any
grievances or concerns have an opportunity to be heard and that course corrections can be made
if necessary. Finally, the school board and international school director should facilitate regular
opportunities for training and professional development. The participation of all school board
members and the international school director is critical to ensure that a consistent message is
heard and that the effort is taken to learn about best school governance practices.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
The implementation and evaluation framework is informed by the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). This model is based on the original
Kirkpatrick Four Level Model of Evaluation (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). The main tenet
of this model is for evaluation plans to begin with the goals of the organization and work
backwards, because in this manner “leading indicators” are clearly identified that bridge
recommended solutions to the organization’s goals. This order of identification also helps to
ensure that solutions are more closely aligned with organizational goals. The “reverse order” also
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serves to facilitate a sequence of three other actions: a) the development of solution outcomes
that focus on assessing work behaviors, b) the identification of indicators that learning occurred
during implementation, and c) the emergence of indicators that organizational members are
satisfied with implementation strategies. Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) assert that designing
an evaluation and implementation plan in accordance with this process forces connection
between immediate solutions and larger goal, which in turn facilitates buy-in from stakeholders
to ensure success.
Organizational Purpose, Need, and Expectations
CSA is a network of international schools across one of the major continents. Its mission
is to transform student learning by leading and supporting strategic thinking, professional
development, and school effectiveness. CSA is a non-profit organization and governed by a nine-
member board of directors. The members are school directors in international schools that are
members of CSA. CSA is led by a full-time executive director.
The average tenure of 19 international school directors in CSA was 3.06 years. This study
examined the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that contribute to
international school directors within the association to ultimately continue or leave their current
positions. One recommendation to address the problem is to conduct more training for
international school directors, both in a transitionary and ongoing context; additionally, it is
recommended that opportunities are facilitated to network and interact with other international
school directors across the region, check in regularly on personal and familial satisfaction, and
create structure that will allow for greater stability, communication, and delineation of
responsibility within school boards. These proposed solutions should produce the desired
outcome, which is greater international school director longevity at schools in CSA.
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Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
Table 6 indicates the proposed Level 4 results and leading indicators for international
school directors at schools affiliated with CSA. These results and leading indicators note internal
and external outcomes, metrics, and methods. Internal indicators indicate changes within an
organization that will occur in order to achieve the organizational goal, while external leading
indicators refer to how an external group or body will respond to successful implementation
efforts within an organization (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
Table 6
Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome
Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
1. Improved relationships and
interactions with other
international school directors
within the regional
association
The number of regional
association events
attended
Annual development of conference
schedule and quarterly check-in
between school board and
international school director
2. Improved attendance at
regional association events
The number of regional
association events
attended
Follow-up from regional
association to international school
directors
3. Improved international
school director evaluation
results
10% increase year-on-
year on employee
evaluation rubric
Compare annual evaluation results
that are fed into a dashboard that
contains anonymous and generic
employee evaluations from board
members
Internal Outcomes
1. Increased international
school director employee
satisfaction
10% year-on-year
increase on
international school
director survey
Compare annual survey results
2. Decrease reasons for
international school director
departure related to
governance, salary, or benefit
issues
10% decrease for
turnover reasons related
to governance, salary,
or benefit issues
Compare annual exit interview
results
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Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. The stakeholders of focus are the international school directors that
attend the regional conference training program. These stakeholders must exhibit several critical
behaviors, which are aligned with the knowledge and motivation influences, in order to achieve
the performance goal. These critical behaviors include increasing the number of interactions with
other international school directors, identifying and analyzing the success of strategic goals from
the previous year, and generating key reports such as Board reports within the given timeframe.
Table 7 illustrates the specific metrics, methods, and timings for each of these outcome
behaviors.
Table 7
Critical Behaviors, Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Teachers
Critical Behavior
Metric(s)
Method(s)
Timing
1. International school
directors increase the
number of interactions
with other international
school directors.
Number of
interactions with
other international
school directors.
International school
directors will choose a
colleague to act as a
peer coach during the
course of the school
year.
Within the first two
months of the school
year, with monthly
follow-ups.
2. Identify and analyze
the success of strategic
goals from the
previous school year.
The number of
successful
initiatives from
the previous
school year.
International school
directors will form an
evaluation committee
that will assist with this
task.
Before the end of the
school year, the
analysis is completed
and shared with the
school community.
3. Generate key reports
such as School Board
report and annual
reports within
established
timeframes.
Whether or not
reports are
generated on time.
School Board members
will identify the scope
and format of the
Board report.
Submitted on a
monthly basis.
Required drivers. International school directors need the support of the school
community, and in particular, school boards to support their training and learning in order to
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
93
achieve the organizational performance goal. The implementation of behavioral drivers will help
monitor, encourage, reinforce, and reward individuals. Table 8 outlines these behavioral drivers.
Table 8
Required Drivers to Support Teachers’ Critical Behaviors
Method(s)
Timing
Critical Behaviors
Supported
1, 2, 3 Etc.
Reinforcing
Job Aid including best school governance and
operation practices
Ongoing 1, 2, 3
Team meetings with senior leadership team Weekly 2
Encouraging
Feedback from school board Monthly 3
Feedback from peer-mentor Monthly 1
Rewarding
Recognition from school board members Monthly 3
Performance incentive for completion of strategic
tasks
Project-
based
2, 3
Monitoring
Creation of evaluation committee Monthly 2
Organizational support. Performance goals will ultimately prove to be successful or
note based on early accounting for the impact of the organizational culture (Clark & Estes,
2008). This early accounting suggests that the organization as a whole and the school governance
structure must support the proposed recommendations in order for the desired results to be
achieved. Creating awareness of these goals, attending meetings, and volunteering for
committees are all strategies that are needed from the organization to support these critical
behaviors.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. After the completion of the recommended solution, stakeholders will be
able to:
1. Understand best school governance and board practices (D).
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2. Cultivate and develop positive relationships with different stakeholders in the school
community (P).
3. Network with other international school heads in the region and with the regional
association itself (P).
4. Reflect upon their decision-making, using prior experiences, outcomes, and reactions to
formulate and guide their decisions (M).
5. See the successful realization of projects and initiatives, thereby building confidence and
motivation (M).
Program. The learning goals in the previous section will be accomplished by holding a
training program and professional development session that discusses critical skills necessary for
international school directors and also gives an opportunity for individuals to create connections
and network with others.
The program is projected to take place over a four-day retreat, within the first month of
the school year so that international school directors can take these learnings and apply them
immediately at their schools. Each day is expected to carry a different theme, and the total
professional development time will be 32 hours (eight hours per day for four days).
Evaluation of the Components of learning. The ability to apply knowledge to solve
problems is typically demonstrated by an individual’s ability to display declarative knowledge.
In addition to acquiring these knowledge skills, they must also have the motivation and
confidence that they will be able to adequately apply these skills in their organizational contexts.
Table 9 lists the evaluation methods and the timeframes for these components.
Table 9
Evaluation of the Components of Learning for the Program.
Method(s) or Activity(ies) Timing
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Declarative Knowledge “I know it.”
Knowledge checks using multiple choice During the workshop
Knowledge checks through discussions and pair sharing Periodically during the
workshop
Procedural Skills “I can do it right now.”
Quality of feedback from peers during group sharing During the workshop
Application of learned skills in authentic exercise At the end of the workshop
Attitude “I believe this is worthwhile.”
Discussions with other school directors on job
responsibilities
During the workshop
Attitudinal surveys After the workshop
Confidence “I think I can do it on the job.”
Retrospective pre and post workshop reflection Before and after the workshop
Commitment “I will do it on the job.”
Create an individual action plan During the workshop
Retrospective pre and post workshop reflection Before and after the workshop
Level 1: Reaction
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2016) assert that both formative and summative evaluation
methods are necessary to measure learner reactions to a specific program initiative. Table 10
below illustrates the various components and assessments that will measure international school
directors’ reactions to the proposed program.
Table 10
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program.
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement
Attendance During the workshop
Course Evaluation Two weeks after the course
Observation by instructor/facilitator During the workshop
Relevance
Pulse check during discussions
After every module in initial workshop and at
dedicated points in the follow-up meetings
Pulse check during discussions
After every module in initial workshop and
at dedicated points in the follow-up
meetings
Course evaluation Two weeks after the course
Customer Satisfaction
Course evaluation Immediately after the course
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Ongoing observation After each unit/module
Evaluation Tools
Data will be collected to ascertain participants’ perceptions and attitudes immediately
after and during the program implementation (Appendix D). Qualitative data will be collected
via observations by the facilitator on an ongoing basis during the program implementation
session. Specific “pulse checks” will ensure that these qualitative observations occur with regular
frequency and are noted by the facilitator (Appendix E). Immediately upon completion of the
course, participants will be invited to complete a survey course evaluation, which will provide
important quantitative data regarding attitudes and reactions to the program.
Two weeks after the conclusion of the course, an additional survey will be sent via
Google Forms to assess all four aspects of the New World Model: whether the policymakers are
making progress toward their identified outcomes, whether they have identified and implemented
critical behaviors, whether they have experienced an increase in their knowledge, skills,
confidence and commitment for the initiative, and whether they believe the learning program
helped them achieve their previously identified learning goals. This survey will also specifically
target engagement, attitude, skill, knowledge, and commitment factors that will be necessary for
the program to be implemented successfully. All survey results will be anonymous and
individuals will have an opportunity to participate in small focus groups to share their feedback
in a small group setting.
Data Analysis and Reporting
In order to have accurate and timely reporting modules, a blended approach could be
utilized to illustrate key performance indicators (KPIs). Table 11 lists these key performance
indicators, along with metrics, frequency of measurement, and a potential dashboard
representation for clear reporting.
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Table 11
Possible Key Performance Indicators for Internal Reporting and Accountability
Key Performance
Indicator (KPI)
Metric Frequency Dashboard
Representation
International School
Director School
Board Relations
Satisfaction Survey Quarterly Table (International
school director
attitudes towards
school governance)
Voluntary Turnover
Reasons
Exit Surveys Annually Bar Chart (Categories
for turnover and
retention)
International School
Director Quality of
Life
Quality of Life
Survey
Bi-Annually Bar Chart (Categories
of quality of life
factors and
percentages)
International School
Director Progress
Towards Goals
Progress Compared
to Goals Report
Quarterly Table (Degree to
which progress is on
track to meet goals)
Regional Association
Training Usefulness
Engagement Survey Bi-Annually Table (Participant
satisfaction and
reaction based on
training)
Summary
The New World Kirkpatrick Model (2016) was used as a framework to plan, implement,
and evaluate recommendations for CSA to achieve its goal of increasing international school
director tenure. This model contains four levels, starting with the end result and desired outcome
(Level 4). Once desired outcomes have been established, the model calls for the identification of
critical behaviors and required drivers that will help the organization achieve the desired
outcomes (Level 3). Level 2 of the New World Kirkpatrick Model measures the degree to which
participants develop additional knowledge, improved skills, positive attitudes, and increased
confidence and commitment to achieve their goals. Finally, Level 1 assesses participant reaction
in terms of engagement, satisfaction, and relevance.
The New World Kirkpatrick Model is particularly useful and pragmatic in that data is
collected in an ongoing, formative, and systematic manner. The method of data collection
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ensures that efforts and trainings can be constantly monitored and if necessary, modified to
ensure that expectations are being met and are aligned with the desired outcomes. For example,
when participants’ reactions are measured during Level 1 and Level 2, program facilitators have
an immediate opportunity to analyze these results and take the appropriate steps to modify
subsequent interactions and activities prior to the completion of the full implementation program.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
All methodological approaches have strengths and weaknesses. For this study, the Clark
and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework was used to identify knowledge, motivation, and
organizational gaps that influence the international school director longevity at CSA. The
strength of this framework has been the ability to integrate these influences into the New World
Kirkpatrick Model (2016) and into specific, actionable items that will result in desired outcomes
that directly influence the stakeholder and organizational goals.
CSA is an association of international schools within a geographic region in which
member schools must pay an annual membership fee and fit certain characteristics. Besides
limiting membership and creating membership criteria, CSA does not exert any supervisory or
decision-making authority over its member schools, which possibly calls into question whether
the gap analysis model is appropriate for this organization and whether recommended solutions
can be implemented with uniformity and consistency across member schools. Another potential
weakness of the study is whether or not findings can be generalized across other similar regional
association of international schools. Although there are several other regional associations of
international schools that operate under a similar premise, different geographic regions of
international schools have unique and separate challenges that may compromise the effectiveness
of recommended solutions.
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Future Research
There are several recommendations for future research and investigation that would
contribute to the general knowledge base and extend the understanding of the factors that
contribute to international school director tenure. First, future research could focus on a broader
set of stakeholder population. The stakeholder group for this study was the group of international
school directors at CSA member schools. Expanding the study to include international school
directors at other regional associations and school board members would allow for a richer and
more complete set of data with which to analyze and synthesize. A large part of the study
focused on international school directors’ perspectives and sentiments toward the regional
association and school board members. Providing an opportunity to listen to stakeholders
representing school boards and the regional association would allow greater triangulation of data
to validate assumed influences. Second, the study was limited by relatively low participation. Of
81 total member schools in CSA, only 19 international school directors responded to the survey,
representing a 23.5% response rate. Six international school directors of the 19 survey
participants volunteered for a follow-up interview. Future research opportunities that are able to
secure greater participation rates would ensure that the results are more generalizable and
representative of the stakeholder population. Third, future research could include an analysis and
evaluation of the implementation of recommended solutions at a regional association level to
improve international school director tenure. The evaluation of implemented solutions would
allow the impact of the regional association on school improvement via the international school
director to be measured and for the validity and effectiveness of recommended solutions to be
verified.
Conclusion
The study sought to understand the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influence
that affect international school director tenure at schools in CSA. With previous literature
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determining international school director tenure to be approximately three years, this average
tenure was affirmed by the study and represents an important problem to address in order for
international schools to have the stability and leadership necessary to ultimately improve student
outcomes. A mixed-methods approach consisting of surveys and follow-up interviews with
international school directors revealed several themes, including the need for more training
before and during an international school director’s appointment, sensitivity to familial happiness
and host-country adaptability, and the importance of positive school board relationships.
International school director relationships with the school board is of particular importance, with
factors such as member turnover, a strong board president, and ongoing training important
factors uncovered by the study. These findings highlight an international school director’s
susceptibility to leave their position due to a number of different factors and the importance of
implementing an ongoing plan that monitors and supports the factors listed above. By
implementing the recommended solutions, CSA may begin to effectively address international
school director turnover in its member schools and ultimately help improve student outcomes
and learning.
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APPENDIX A
SURVEY PROTOCOL
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey. The purpose of this study is to assess the
factors the inform and motivate international school directors to ultimately remain or leave their
international school assignment.
Your responses will be anonymous and any questions that ask for identifiable information are
purely for analysis purposes and will not be published. You may choose to stop your
participation in this survey at any time if you choose to do so.
This survey should take approximately 20-25 minutes to complete. Thank you again for
completing this survey and for furthering the body of research in international education.
Background Information
1. How many years have you worked in education?
a. 0-4
b. 5-9
c. 10-14
d. 15-20
e. more than 20
2. How many years have you worked in international education?
a. 0-4
b. 5-9
c. 10-14
d. 15-20
e. more than 20
3. Are you male or female?
a. Male
b. Female
4. What is your nationality?
a. American
b. British
c. Canadian
d. Australian
e. Irish
f. German
g. French
h. Other: please specify
5. Including your current position, how many appointments as an international school
director have you had?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
e. Other: please specify
6. If you worked as an international school director at another school immediately prior to
your current position, how many years did you work there?
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a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
e. 5
f. 6
g. 7
h. 8
i. 9
j. 10
k. Other: please specify
l. NA: My current position is my first international school director appointment
7. How many years have you been at your current position?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
e. Other: please specify
Regional Association
8. I make an effort to regularly attend regional association meetings.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
9. Regional association meetings are helpful and informative.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
10. Regional association meetings are a good opportunity to network, meet new people, and
exchange ideas.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
11. My participation in regional association meetings and activities helps me perform my job
better as an international school director.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
12. The regional association is an important resource to turn to when I have questions or need
support in my role as an international school director.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
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Current International School
13. Where is your current international school located?
a. Northern part of the continent
b. Western part of the continent
c. Eastern/Southern part of the continent
14. What is the governance structure of your current school?
a. Majority elected school board from parent community
b. Majority elected school board from outside community
c. Appointed school board by designated representatives
d. Proprietorship-Owner
e. Corporate governance as part of international school group
f. Other: please specify
15. How many students are currently enrolled at your school?
a. 1-299
b. 300-599
c. 600-899
d. 900-1199
e. 1200 or more
16. What percentage of your teaching staff is expatriate?
a. 0-24%
b. 25-49%
c. 50-74%
d. 75-100%
17. What accreditation(s) does your school currently hold (choose all that apply)
a. Advanced Placement
b. International Baccalaureate
c. AdvancED
d. Council of International Schools
e. Middle States Association
f. New England Association of Schools and Colleges
g. Western Association of Schools and Colleges
h. Other: please specify
Perspectives
18. I have received adequate training and professional development to be prepared for my
current assignment.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
19. I have difficulty recruiting and retaining qualified expatriate staff.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
20. I have the appropriate autonomy to make decisions as the school director.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
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c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
21. I feel that I have a positive relationship with the school governance.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
22. Clear goals and objectives of the school are developed in collaboration with the school
governance.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
23. I have the appropriate resources to achieve the goals and objectives of the school.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
24. The compensation and benefits package I have is competitive.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
25. I have received adequate and fair feedback regarding my performance as the school
director.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
26. I feel that I receive adequate support from the school community.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
27. I am satisfied with the quality of my personal life in the host country.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
28. My family is satisfied with the quality of my personal life in the host country.
a. Strongly Agree
b. Agree
c. Disagree
d. Strongly Disagree
e. Not applicable
Career Aspirations
29. The most important factor when considering an international school assignment is:
a. Compensation and benefits
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b. School reputation
c. Available resources
d. Progress towards goals and objectives
e. Geographic location
f. Quality of life
g. Other: please specify
30. The second most important factor when considering an international school assignment
is:
a. Compensation and benefits
b. School reputation
c. Available resources
d. Progress towards goals and objectives
e. Geographic location
f. Quality of life
g. Other: please specify
31. The third most important factor when considering an international school assignment is:
a. Compensation and benefits
b. School reputation
c. Available resources
d. Progress towards goals and objectives
e. Geographic location
f. Quality of life
g. Other: please specify
32. The fourth most important factor when considering an international school assignment is:
a. Compensation and benefits
b. School reputation
c. Available resources
d. Progress towards goals and objectives
e. Geographic location
f. Quality of life
g. Other: please specify
33. If I am offered an extension at my current position, I would likely continue at my current
position:
a. Yes
b. No
c. Unsure
34. I envision continuing my career in international education for the next:
a. 0-2 years
b. 3-5 years
c. 6-8 years
d. More than 8 years
35. I would be willing to speak over Skype regarding my experience as an international
school director further.
a. Yes
b. No
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APPENDIX B
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Thank you for volunteering to speak with me regarding your experience as an international
school director. Your time and effort is appreciated. My name is Wallace Ting and this project is
part of my doctoral dissertation at the University of Southern California. Your input and
feedback is crucial to the study and will help elaborate upon the perspectives of international
school directors.
If at any time you wish to stop participating in the interview, you are free to do so. I will be
recording today’s conversation for the sole purpose of collecting an accurate record of your
responses. The data will be transcribed and all identifiable information will be scrubbed from the
transcript to protect your anonymity. Do you have any questions?
1. What made you decide to pursue a career in international education?
2. To what extent did you feel prepared for your first international school director position
and why?
3. What were the factors that came into play when you decided to accept your current
position?
4. How would you describe your relationship with your faculty?
5. How would you describe your relationship with your school board (or governance
structure)?
6. How would you describe your relationship with the parents of the school?
7. Under what circumstances did you leave your previous position?
8. Under what circumstances do you see yourself leaving this position?
9. What are your long-term career aspirations?
10. What are some of the accomplishments you are most proud of at your current position?
11. What are some of your biggest frustrations at your current position?
12. Tell me about how decisions are made at the school.
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APPENDIX C
SURVEY RESULTS
Q1 - How many years have you worked in education?
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
How many years have you
worked in education?
3.00 5.00 4.58 0.67 0.45 19
# Answer % Count
1 0-4 0.00% 0
2 5-9 0.00% 0
3 10-14 10.53% 2
4 15-20 21.05% 4
5 More than 20 68.42% 13
Total 100% 19
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Q2 - How many years have you worked in international education?
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
How many years have you
worked in international
education?
2.00 5.00 3.95 1.10 1.21 19
# Answer % Count
1 0-4 0.00% 0
2 5-9 15.79% 3
3 10-14 15.79% 3
4 15-20 26.32% 5
5 More than 20 42.11% 8
Total 100% 19
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Q3 - Are you male or female?
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation Variance Count
1 Are you male or female? 1.00 2.00 1.21 0.41 0.17 19
# Answer % Count
1 Male 78.95% 15
2 Female 21.05% 4
Total 100% 19
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Q4 - What is your nationality?
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
What is your nationality? -
Selected Choice
1.00 8.00 3.00 2.34 5.47 19
# Answer % Count
1 American 36.84% 7
2 British 21.05% 4
3 Canadian 10.53% 2
4 Australian 10.53% 2
5 Irish 5.26% 1
6 German 0.00% 0
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7 French 5.26% 1
8 Other: please specify 10.53% 2
Total 100% 19
Data source misconfigured for this visualization
# Answer % Count
african african 50.00% 1
south south 50.00% 1
Total 100% 2
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Q5 - Including your current position, how many appointments as an
international school director have you had?
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
Including your current position,
how many appointments as an
international school director have
you had? - Selected Choice
1.00 5.00 2.05 1.00 1.00 19
# Answer % Count
1 1 31.58% 6
2 2 42.11% 8
3 3 21.05% 4
4 4 0.00% 0
5 Other: please specify 5.26% 1
Total 100% 19
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Data source misconfigured for this visualization
# Answer % Count
5 5 100.00% 1
Total 100% 1
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Q6 - If you worked as an international school director at another school
immediately prior to your current position, how many years did you work
there?
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
If you worked as an international
school director at another school
immediately prior to your
current position, how many years
did you work there? - Selected
Choice
2.00 12.00 6.89 4.08 16.62 19
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# Answer % Count
1 1 0.00% 0
2 2 10.53% 2
3 3 26.32% 5
4 4 10.53% 2
5 5 0.00% 0
6 6 5.26% 1
7 7 5.26% 1
8 8 5.26% 1
9 9 0.00% 0
10 10 0.00% 0
11 Other: please specify 5.26% 1
12 NA: My current position is my first international school director appointment 31.58% 6
Total 100% 19
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Data source misconfigured for this visualization
# Answer % Count
2 2 7.69% 1
before before 7.69% 1
but but 7.69% 1
director director 7.69% 1
for for 7.69% 1
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i i 7.69% 1
job job 7.69% 1
primary primary 7.69% 1
principal principal 7.69% 1
that that 7.69% 1
this this 7.69% 1
was was 7.69% 1
years years 7.69% 1
Total 100% 13
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Q7 - How many years have you been at your current position?
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
How many years have you been
at your current position? -
Selected Choice
1.00 5.00 3.00 1.12 1.26 19
# Answer % Count
1 1 5.26% 1
2 2 31.58% 6
3 3 36.84% 7
4 4 10.53% 2
5 Other: please specify 15.79% 3
Total 100% 19
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Data source misconfigured for this visualization
# Answer % Count
5 5 33.33% 1
7 7 33.33% 1
8 8 33.33% 1
Total 100% 3
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Q8 - I make an effort to regularly attend regional association meetings.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
I make an effort to regularly
attend regional association
meetings.
1.00 2.00 1.63 0.48 0.23 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 36.84% 7
2 Agree 63.16% 12
3 Disagree 0.00% 0
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 19
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Q9 - Regional association meetings are helpful and informative.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
Regional association meetings
are helpful and informative.
1.00 3.00 1.68 0.73 0.53 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 47.37% 9
2 Agree 36.84% 7
3 Disagree 15.79% 3
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 19
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Q10 - Regional association meetings are a good opportunity to network, meet
new people, and exchange ideas.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
Regional association meetings
are a good opportunity to
network, meet new people, and
exchange ideas.
1.00 3.00 1.37 0.58 0.34 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 68.42% 13
2 Agree 26.32% 5
3 Disagree 5.26% 1
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 19
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Q11 - My participation in regional association meetings and activities helps
me perform my job better as an international school director.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
My participation in regional
association meetings and
activities helps me perform my
job better as an international
school director.
1.00 3.00 2.05 0.76 0.58 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 26.32% 5
2 Agree 42.11% 8
3 Disagree 31.58% 6
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 19
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Q12 - The regional association is an important resource to turn to when I have
questions or need support in my role as an international school director.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
The regional association is an
important resource to turn to
when I have questions or need
support in my role as an
international school director.
1.00 4.00 2.21 0.95 0.90 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 21.05% 4
2 Agree 52.63% 10
3 Disagree 10.53% 2
4 Strongly Disagree 15.79% 3
Total 100% 19
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Q9 - Regional association meetings are helpful and informative.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
Regional association meetings
are helpful and informative.
1.00 3.00 1.84 0.67 0.45 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 31.58% 6
2 Agree 52.63% 10
3 Disagree 15.79% 3
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 19
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Q13 - Where is your current international school located?
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
Where is your current
international school located?
1.00 3.00 2.58 0.59 0.35 19
# Answer % Count
1 Northern Africa 5.26% 1
2 Western Africa 31.58% 6
3 Eastern/Southern Africa 63.16% 12
Total 100% 19
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Q14 - What is the governance structure of your current school?
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
What is the governance structure
of your current school? -
Selected Choice
1.00 6.00 2.42 1.87 3.51 19
# Answer % Count
1 Majority elected school board from parent community 57.89% 11
2 Majority elected school board from outside community 0.00% 0
3 Appointed school board by designated representatives 15.79% 3
4 Proprietorship-Owner 10.53% 2
5 Corporate governance as part of international school group 0.00% 0
6 Other: please specify 15.79% 3
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Total 100% 19
Data source misconfigured for this visualization
# Answer % Count
and and 13.33% 2
appointed appointed 13.33% 2
elected elected 13.33% 2
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asdfasdf asdfasdf 6.67% 1
board board 6.67% 1
from from 6.67% 1
hybrid hybrid 6.67% 1
majority majority 6.67% 1
members members 6.67% 1
minority minority 6.67% 1
of of 6.67% 1
parents parents 6.67% 1
Total 100% 15
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Q15 - How many students are currently enrolled at your school?
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
How many students are
currently enrolled at your
school?
1.00 4.00 2.16 0.87 0.76 19
# Answer % Count
1 1-299 26.32% 5
2 300-599 36.84% 7
3 600-899 31.58% 6
4 900-1199 5.26% 1
5 1200 or more 0.00% 0
Total 100% 19
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Q16 - What percentage of your teaching staff is expatriate?
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
What percentage of your
teaching staff is expatriate?
1.00 4.00 3.26 0.78 0.61 19
# Answer % Count
1 0-24% 5.26% 1
2 25-49% 5.26% 1
3 50-74% 47.37% 9
4 75-100% 42.11% 8
Total 100% 19
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Q17 - What accreditation(s) does your school currently hold (choose all that
apply)?
# Answer % Count
1 Advanced Placement 9.09% 4
2 International Baccalaureate 18.18% 8
3 AdvancED 0.00% 0
4 Council of International Schools 27.27% 12
5 Middle States Association 34.09% 15
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6 New England Association of Schools and Colleges 2.27% 1
7 Western Association of Schools and Colleges 2.27% 1
8 Other: please specify 4.55% 2
9 Other: please specify 2.27% 1
Total 100% 44
Other: please specify
Other: please specify - Text
Western Cape Education Department
Other: please specify
Other: please specify - Text
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Q18 - I have received adequate training and professional development to be
prepared for my current assignment.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
I have received adequate training
and professional development to
be prepared for my current
assignment.
1.00 3.00 1.84 0.74 0.55 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 36.84% 7
2 Agree 42.11% 8
3 Disagree 21.05% 4
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 19
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
143
Q19 - I have difficulty recruiting and retaining qualified expatriate staff.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
I have difficulty recruiting and
retaining qualified expatriate
staff.
1.00 4.00 2.63 0.93 0.86 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 15.79% 3
2 Agree 21.05% 4
3 Disagree 47.37% 9
4 Strongly Disagree 15.79% 3
Total 100% 19
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
144
Q20 - I have the appropriate autonomy to make decisions as the school
director.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
I have the appropriate autonomy
to make decisions as the school
director.
1.00 3.00 1.58 0.59 0.35 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 47.37% 9
2 Agree 47.37% 9
3 Disagree 5.26% 1
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 19
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
145
Q21 - I feel that I have a positive relationship with the school governance.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
I feel that I have a positive
relationship with the school
governance.
1.00 3.00 1.58 0.67 0.45 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 52.63% 10
2 Agree 36.84% 7
3 Disagree 10.53% 2
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 19
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
146
Q22 - Clear goals and objectives of the school are developed in collaboration
with the school governance.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
Clear goals and objectives of the
school are developed in
collaboration with the
school governance.
1.00 3.00 1.74 0.71 0.51 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 42.11% 8
2 Agree 42.11% 8
3 Disagree 15.79% 3
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 19
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
147
Q23 - I have the appropriate resources to achieve the goals and objectives of
the school.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
I have the appropriate resources
to achieve the goals and
objectives of the school.
1.00 3.00 1.68 0.57 0.32 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 36.84% 7
2 Agree 57.89% 11
3 Disagree 5.26% 1
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 19
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
148
Q24 - The compensation and benefits package I have is competitive.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
The compensation and benefits
package I have is competitive.
1.00 4.00 2.05 0.69 0.47 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 15.79% 3
2 Agree 68.42% 13
3 Disagree 10.53% 2
4 Strongly Disagree 5.26% 1
Total 100% 19
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
149
Q25 - I have received adequate and fair feedback regarding my performance
as the school director.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
I have received adequate and fair
feedback regarding my
performance as the school
director.
1.00 3.00 2.21 0.52 0.27 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 5.26% 1
2 Agree 68.42% 13
3 Disagree 26.32% 5
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 19
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
150
Q26 - I feel that that I receive adequate support from the school community.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
I feel that that I receive adequate
support from the school
community.
1.00 3.00 1.89 0.55 0.30 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 21.05% 4
2 Agree 68.42% 13
3 Disagree 10.53% 2
4 Strongly Disagree 0.00% 0
Total 100% 19
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
151
Q27 - I am satisfied with the quality of my personal life in the host country.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
I am satisfied with the quality of
my personal life in the host
country.
1.00 4.00 2.05 0.83 0.68 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 26.32% 5
2 Agree 47.37% 9
3 Disagree 21.05% 4
4 Strongly Disagree 5.26% 1
Total 100% 19
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
152
Q28 - My family is satisfied with the quality of my personal life in the host
country.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
My family is satisfied with the
quality of my personal life in the
host country.
1.00 5.00 2.63 1.46 2.13 19
# Answer % Count
1 Strongly Agree 26.32% 5
2 Agree 31.58% 6
3 Disagree 15.79% 3
4 Strongly Disagree 5.26% 1
5 Not applicable 21.05% 4
Total 100% 19
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
153
Q29 - The most important factor when considering an international school
assignment is:
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
The most important factor when
considering an international
school assignment is: - Selected
Choice
2.00 7.00 4.16 1.90 3.61 19
# Answer % Count
1 Compensation and benefits 0.00% 0
2 School reputation 31.58% 6
3 Available resources 10.53% 2
4 Progress towards goals and objectives 21.05% 4
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
154
5 Geographic location 0.00% 0
6 Quality of life 21.05% 4
7 Other: please specify 15.79% 3
Total 100% 19
Data source misconfigured for this visualization
# Answer % Count
and and 16.67% 2
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
155
being being 8.33% 1
community community 8.33% 1
feel feel 8.33% 1
mission mission 8.33% 1
of of 8.33% 1
positive positive 8.33% 1
school school 8.33% 1
supportive supportive 8.33% 1
the the 8.33% 1
vision vision 8.33% 1
Total 100% 12
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
156
Q30 - The second most important factor when considering an international
school assignment is:
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
The second most important
factor when considering an
international school assignment
is: - Selected Choice
1.00 7.00 3.74 2.15 4.61 19
# Answer % Count
1 Compensation and benefits 31.58% 6
2 School reputation 5.26% 1
3 Available resources 0.00% 0
4 Progress towards goals and objectives 21.05% 4
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
157
5 Geographic location 10.53% 2
6 Quality of life 26.32% 5
7 Other: please specify 5.26% 1
Total 100% 19
Data source misconfigured for this visualization
# Answer % Count
board board 16.67% 1
insight insight 16.67% 1
into into 16.67% 1
relationship relationship 16.67% 1
the the 16.67% 1
with with 16.67% 1
Total 100% 6
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
158
Q31 - The third most important factor when considering an international
school assignment is:
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
The third most important factor
when considering an
international school assignment
is: - Selected Choice
1.00 6.00 3.21 1.99 3.96 19
# Answer % Count
1 Compensation and benefits 36.84% 7
2 School reputation 10.53% 2
3 Available resources 0.00% 0
4 Progress towards goals and objectives 15.79% 3
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
159
5 Geographic location 21.05% 4
6 Quality of life 15.79% 3
7 Other: please specify 0.00% 0
Total 100% 19
Q32 - The fourth most important factor when considering an international
school assignment is:
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
The fourth most important factor
when considering an
international school assignment
is: - Selected Choice
1.00 7.00 3.42 1.98 3.93 19
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
160
# Answer % Count
1 Compensation and benefits 26.32% 5
2 School reputation 15.79% 3
3 Available resources 10.53% 2
4 Progress towards goals and objectives 5.26% 1
5 Geographic location 26.32% 5
6 Quality of life 10.53% 2
7 Other: please specify 5.26% 1
Total 100% 19
Data source misconfigured for this visualization
# Answer % Count
board board 33.33% 1
of of 33.33% 1
reputation reputation 33.33% 1
Total 100% 3
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
161
Q33 - If I am offered an extension at my current position, I would likely
continue at my current position:
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
If I am offered an extension at
my current position, I would
likely continue at my current
position:
1.00 3.00 1.53 0.75 0.57 19
# Answer % Count
1 Yes 63.16% 12
2 No 21.05% 4
3 Unsure 15.79% 3
Total 100% 19
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
162
Q34 - I envision continuing my career in international education for the next:
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
I envision continuing my career
in international education for the
next:
1.00 4.00 3.16 1.09 1.19 19
# Answer % Count
1 0-2 years 10.53% 2
2 3-5 years 21.05% 4
3 6-8 years 10.53% 2
4 More than 8 years 57.89% 11
Total 100% 19
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
163
Q35 - I would be willing to speak over Skype regarding my experience as an
international school director further. When the survey is submitted, a page
will display with a link to include your email address to be contacted for a
follow-up conversation. Your submission of your email address, should you
choose to do so, is independent of this survey and your survey results will
remain anonymous.
# Field Minimum Maximum Mean
Std
Deviation
Variance Count
1
I would be willing to speak over
Skype regarding my experience
as an international school director
further. When the survey is
submitted, a page will display
with a link to include your email
address to be contacted for a
follow-up conversation. Your
submission of your email address,
should you choose to do so, is
independent of this survey and
your survey results will remain
anonymous.
1.00 2.00 1.47 0.50 0.25 19
# Answer % Count
1 Yes 52.63% 10
2 No 47.37% 9
Total 100% 19
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
164
APPENDIX D
IMMEDIATE EVALUATION INSTRUMENT
Strongly
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Neutral Somewhat
Agree
Strongly
Agree
1. I found the topic relevant
and interesting
1 2 3 4 5
2. The pace of the training was
just right.
1 2 3 4 5
3. I will be able to bring these
strategies back to my current
school.
1 2 3 4 5
4. I have a better
understanding of the critical
skills and knowledge necessary
for my job.
1 2 3 4 5
5. I believe that this was time
well-spent.
1 2 3 4 5
6. I have sufficient contacts
and resources to turn to if I
need additional support.
1 2 3 4 5
7. What are your biggest takeaways from the training program?
8. What would you still like to learn more about in greater depth?
INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR TENURE
165
APPENDIX E
PARTICIPANT PULSE CHECK
Strongly
Disagree
Somewhat
Disagree
Neutral Somewhat
Agree
Strongly
Agree
1. I feel good about today’s
session thus far.
1 2 3 4 5
2. The information covered is
applicable to my job.
1 2 3 4 5
3. I find the pace acceptable. 1 2 3 4 5
4. The facilitator is
knowledgeable about the
topic.
1 2 3 4 5
5. I have people to turn to in
the event I need assistance or
support.
1 2 3 4 5
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This study employed a mixed methods approach to evaluate the reasons why international school directors ultimately decide to continue or leave their overseas assignments. International school directors at member schools belonging to a regional, continent-based international school association were sent an electronic survey and participated in follow-up interviews regarding their job-related and quality of life perceptions. Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis Framework was utilized to assess knowledge, motivational, and organizational influences on international school directors’ longevity and tenure in their positions. The study revealed the importance of international school directors’ knowledge of organizational history and understanding of school governance best practices. The study also revealed the importance of the regional association and its central role of bringing international school directors together to network and learn from each other, providing focused professional development to a diverse spectrum of school stakeholders, and collaboratively producing framework documents for schools to use as foundational resources. The study revealed particular sensitivity to familial happiness and organizational factors such as school board member turnover and micromanagement as factors that may push international school directors to seek job opportunities elsewhere. Notable recommendations to close knowledge, motivation, and organizational gaps include a thorough leadership transition process, ongoing professional development, opportunities to network with counterparts, and maintaining a positive and effective relationship with school board members. The development and implementation of an effective plan that addresses these issues could positively improve international school director tenure and ultimately improve student learning outcomes.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Ting, Wallace Cho-Chung
(author)
Core Title
International school director tenure: an evaluation study
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Publication Date
03/11/2019
Defense Date
02/19/2019
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
chief administrators,international school director turnover,international school directors,international schools,OAI-PMH Harvest
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Datta, Monique (
committee chair
), Bonin, Emmanuel (
committee member
), Ferrario, Kimberly (
committee member
)
Creator Email
wallace.ting@gmail.com,wallacet@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-132244
Unique identifier
UC11675430
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etd-TingWallac-7143.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-132244 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-TingWallac-7143.pdf
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132244
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
application/pdf (imt)
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Ting, Wallace Cho-Chung
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(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Tags
chief administrators
international school director turnover
international school directors
international schools