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Effective coaching of teachers to support learning for English language learners

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Effective coaching of teachers to support learning for English language learners

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Content EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 1

EFFECTIVE COACHING OF TEACHERS TO SUPPORT LEARNING FOR ENGLISH
LANGUAGE LEARNERS

by

Armando T. Zúñiga, M.Ed.

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2019

Copyright 2019 Armando T. Zúñiga, M.Ed.

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The undertaking of a doctoral program is no small endeavor and my journey throughout the
process has been supported and guided by many people that I wish to acknowledge.
I would like to acknowledge and thank my dissertation committee: Dr. Artineh
Samkian (Chair), Dr. Maria Ott (Faculty Member), and Dr. Carlos Dominguez (Outside
Member). The support and suggestions proffered by this amazing group of professionals
helped to shape this research, and this researcher, into something that I could have only
envisioned in a daydream. Dr. Samkian, in particular, pushed me through this process and
through many emotional periods of doubt, realization, panic, and joy.
The members of the Fifth Cohort of the Organizational Change and Leadership
Doctoral Program in the Rossier School of Education at the University of Southern
California will forever be in thoughts and I wish to acknowledge their support and friendship.
I would like to acknowledge my friend and mentor, Lynn, who has never doubted by
potential and who encouraged me to attend the doctoral program in the Rossier School of
Education at the University of Southern California above the others. Also, Phil, whose
kindness knows no bounds and whose patience I wish to emulate.
Samuel, my Godson, I hope that, in accomplishing this endeavor, you can see a
pathway to your dreams and know that they are possible. You inspired me to clear this path
for you.
Mother, I remember being a sickly child and missing out on many educational
opportunities that should have shaped and launched my educational career toward this
moment. Reflecting back now, I am glad that I missed them because it was you who taught
me those many months I had to stay home from school. Thus, it was you shaped and
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 3
launched my educational career and it is with you that I share this doctoral dissertation and
degree. Thank you. I love you.
I would like to acknowledge my wife, Holly. Many years ago, we began a life
together and were inspired to dare and dream by a coupon that allowed us to share a bargain
meal in fast food chain. Audere est Facere, Holly. I am glad that we still dare and do for one
another. I couldn’t have done this without your support and encouragement. I love you.
Finally, I wish to acknowledge all of the students who go to school each day with a
desire and hope to learn English. Let us not forget that we work on their behalf and are the
humble caretakers of their dreams until we can provide them with the language they need to
express them, fight for them, and achieve them.

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................... 2
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................... 6
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. 7
ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................................. 8
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 10
Introduction of the Problem of Practice .................................................................................. 10
Organizational Context and Mission ....................................................................................... 12
Organizational Goal ............................................................................................................... 13
Related Literature .................................................................................................................. 14
Importance of the Evaluation ................................................................................................. 16
Description of Stakeholder Groups ......................................................................................... 17
Stakeholder Group for the Study ............................................................................................ 17
Purpose of the Project and Questions ..................................................................................... 18
Methodological Approach and Rationale ................................................................................ 21
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ................................................................... 23
Stakeholder Knowledge and Skills .......................................................................................... 23
Effective Instruction for ELLs ........................................................................................................ 23
Effective Instructional Coaching ................................................................................................... 25
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences Framework ...... 28
Stakeholder Knowledge Influences ......................................................................................... 29
ELL TOSAs and Declarative Factual Knowledge ............................................................................ 30
ELL TOSAs and Procedural Knowledge ......................................................................................... 31
Stakeholder Motivation Influences ......................................................................................... 33
ELL TOSAs and Self-Efficacy .......................................................................................................... 33
ELL TOSAs and Attribution ............................................................................................................ 34
Stakeholder Organizational Influences .................................................................................... 35
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and the
Organizational Context .......................................................................................................... 38
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 41
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS ........................................................................................... 43
Participating Stakeholders...................................................................................................... 43
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale ....................................................... 43
Criterion 1 ..................................................................................................................................... 44
Data Collection and Instrumentation ...................................................................................... 45
Data Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 47
Credibility and Trustworthiness .............................................................................................. 48
Researcher Bias...................................................................................................................... 49
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 5
Ethics ..................................................................................................................................... 50
Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................................. 52
Limitations .................................................................................................................................... 52
Delimitations ................................................................................................................................ 53
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS .............................................................................................. 55
Theme 1: The Interaction Between ELL TOSA’s Knowledge and The Organization .................... 57
Knowledge of Collaboration as An Effective Coaching Strategy .................................................. 58
Organization Providing Professional Development for Coaches ................................................. 63
Knowledge of Modeling as An Effective Coaching Strategy......................................................... 67
Knowledge of Feedback as an Effective Coaching Strategy ......................................................... 70
Theme 2: The Interaction Between Motivation (Self-Efficacy) And the Organization ................ 74
Motivation (Self-Efficacy) and Conflicting Priorities .................................................................... 74
Motivation (Self-Efficacy) and Workload ..................................................................................... 76
Theme 3: The Interaction Between the Organization and Motivation (Attribution) .................. 80
Organizational Influence: Perceived Roles and Responsibilities of the ELL TOSA ....................... 80
Organizational Influence and Attribution .................................................................................... 82
Synthesis ............................................................................................................................... 88
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION ........................................................................................... 89
Implications and Recommendations for Practice ..................................................................... 89
Implications for Professional Development to Support ELL TOSA Knowledge ........................... 90
Recommendation for Supporting ELL TOSA Knowledge ........................................................... 90
Implications for Supporting ELL TOSA Self-Efficacy .................................................................. 91
Recommendations for Supporting ELL TOSA Motivation—Self-Efficacy .................................... 92
Conflicting Priorities ..................................................................................................................... 92
Workload ...................................................................................................................................... 93
Implications for Supporting ELL TOSA Motivation—Attribution ............................................... 94
Recommendation for Supporting ELL TOSA Motivation—Attribution ....................................... 94
Implications for Supporting ELL TOSA Access to Classroom Teachers ....................................... 95
Recommendation for Supporting ELL TOSA Access to Classroom Teachers ............................... 95
Future Research ..................................................................................................................... 95
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 97
References ............................................................................................................................. 102
Appendix ............................................................................................................................... 112

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 6
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Organizational Mission, Organizational Global Goal, Stakeholder Goal……...22
Table 2. Knowledge Influences and Knowledge Types……………………………………33
Table 3. Motivation Influences……………………………………………………………...35
Table 4. Organizational Influences……………………………………………………….....38

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 7

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Affecting ELL TOSA
Goal Attainment…………………………………………………………………..41

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 8

ABSTRACT

As the number of English Language Learners (ELLs) in public schools continues to
grow, so does the achievement gap between ELLs and other student populations. In an effort to
support classroom teachers with effective instructional strategies for this student population, the
Seafarm School District created instructional coaching positions specifically to support
classroom teachers of ELLs—ELL Teachers on Special Assignment (ELL TOSAs). This study
employed a gap analysis framework to examine knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences (KMO) on the ELL TOSAs’ goal of supporting classroom teachers of ELLs.
Three themes emerged as a result of data analysis. First, there was evidence to illustrate
the interaction between knowledge and the organization. Data from five ELL TOSAs indicated
an understanding of the role that collaboration plays in coaching and how to operationalize it in
their support of teachers. Further, all five of the ELL TOSAs indicated they have received
professional development on effective strategies for instructional coaching. Additionally, three of
the ELL TOSAs indicated a knowledge of modeling as an effective coaching practice.
Accordingly, all five of the ELL TOSAs indicated that they had knowledge of feedback as an
effective coaching strategy. However, there was not sufficient evidence to support that they
learned the latter two strategies through professional development. Next, a second theme
surfaced as there was evidence to illustrate an interaction between motivation and the
organization. Two ELL TOSAs indicated that their sense of self-efficacy was affected by
conflicting roles and expectations for the job. Three ELL TOSAs indicated that their sense of
self-efficacy was affected by an increased workload brought about by fiscal decision making.
Finally, there was evidence illustrating the interaction between the organization and motivation.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 9
Four out of five of ELL TOSAs indicated that there is confusion about how their roles are
perceived, leaving the ELL TOSAs to feel that their actions did not contribute to instructional
change.
In closing, five, research-based recommendations to support ELL TOSA goal attainment
are offered. Additionally, considerations for future research on instructional coaches for
classroom teachers of ELLs—ELL TOSAs—are also provided.

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 10
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
There were 50 million students enrolled in public schools—grades Kindergarten through
Grade 12—nationwide during the 2014/2015 academic year (NCES, 2016a). The most current
available data show that there were 4.6 million (approximately 9.4%) students identified as
English Language Learners (ELLs) in the 2014/2015 academic year (NCES, 2017). In fact, the
number of students identified as ELLs has steadily increased over the previous 10 years by more
than 300,000 students (NCES, 2017). An ELL is a student who speaks a language other than
English as their primary language.
As the number of ELLs in public schools continues to grow, so does the achievement gap
between ELLs and other student populations. Research indicates that students who enter
Kindergarten identified as ELLs score lower in Reading/English Language Arts and Math
assessments than other groups of students who are identified as proficient in English (Barrow &
Markman-Pithers, 2016; Fry, 2008). By eighth-grade, 51% of students identified as ELLs across
the nation score behind students identified as “White” in both Reading and Mathematics (Fry,
2008). Finally, as ELLs progress to high school they have a 61.1% graduation rate (USDOE,
2015). This is a graduation rate that leaves them 9.6% behind their Black peers and 25.5%
behind their White peers. These data illustrate consistently low achievement for ELLs from
Kindergarten through Grade 12.
There is extensive research to link ELL achievement with the quality of instruction they
are receiving (Calderón, Slavin, & Sánchez, 2011). Consequently, there is a large body of
research pointing to instructional strategies that are effective in improving ELL achievement.
Those strategies include providing ELLs with intentionally planned vocabulary instruction; using
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 11
gestures, visual cues, or realia; providing opportunities for ELLs to practice using language;
activating prior knowledge; and linking content to language instruction (Calderón et al., 2011;
Gersten & Baker, 2000; Facella, Rampino, & Shea, 2005; Lake & Pappamihiel 2003; Haynes &
Zacarian, 2010).
Several studies indicate that in spite of the growing numbers of ELLs across the
country—and extensive research in effective strategies for the instruction of ELLs—many
teachers feel unprepared to teach ELLs and indicate a need for both effective and relevant
professional development (Batt, 2008; Elfers & Stritikus, 2014; Molle, 2013). One specific
example is the work of Zehler et al. (2003) who conducted a descriptive study of the
backgrounds and the instructional services received by Limited English Proficient (LEP)
students—Kindergarten through Grade 12—in public schools throughout the United States. They
found “teachers who worked with three or more LEP students reported a median of 4 hours of
training related to LEP students over the past five years” (p. vi). This is training that would
ground them in effective pedagogy for teaching language minority students. Moreover, only “40
percent of teachers who worked with at least three LEP students reported ‘significant LEP
training’, i.e., ESL certification, or bilingual education certification, or 20 hours or more of in-
service training (within the past five years) related to the instruction of LEP students” (p. vi).
Clearly, more training is needed to better prepare teachers of ELLs. Moreover, state and federal
policy have provided recommendations for providing effective professional development for
teachers including that professional development be “high quality, sustained, intensive,
classroom focused” (No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 2002).
This study addressed the problem of providing effective professional development and
instructional support to teachers of ELLs. Specifically, this study focused on instructional
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 12
coaches whose role it is to support teachers of ELLs in a “high quality, sustained, intensive,
classroom focused” way. The focus on these professionals is of particular importance as research
highlights the positive potential for ELL-focused teacher leaders in instructional coaching roles
to support classroom teachers, and school leadership in the area of effective instruction for ELLs
(Russell, 2016).
Organizational Context and Mission
The Seafarm School District (pseudonym) is a comprehensive local education agency
(LEA) located in Southern California. The district is comprised of 20 schools total. The district
student enrollment for the 2015/2016 academic year was approximately 17,000 students. Data
from the 2015/2016 academic year illustrates that the two largest population of students
identified as “Hispanic or Latino of Any Race” with 15,663 students—approximately 92% of the
student population—followed by “White, Not Hispanic” with 516 students—approximately 3%
of the student population (CDE, 2016). The remaining populations were 1.6% Filipino, 1.2%
African-American, and 0.8% Asian (CDE, 2016). Of those students, 9,025 are classified as ELLs
(CDE, 2016)—approximately 50% of the district’s student population.
The population of the school’s surrounding community at the time of the most recent
census in 2010, was 197,899. Within the community, 73.5% of residents identified as “Hispanic
or Latino” and 14.9% as “White alone, Not Hispanic or Latino” on the 2010 U.S. Census (U.S.
Census Bureau, 2010). Of the residents, 16.2% possessed a college degree and had an average
median household income of $60,621 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).
The mission of the Seafarm School District is to ensure that all students have a diverse,
safe and healthy climate that supports their college and career goals. To help achieve the
organizational mission, there were six departments within the district administration building at
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 13
the time of the study: Office of the Superintendent, Business and Fiscal Services, Educational
Services; Human Resources and Support Services, Education Technology Services and Facilities
and Operations. Each department aligns its departmental goals with the mission and goal of the
organization.
Organizational Goal
The Seafarm School District has established several organizational goals in support of
their mission (see Table 1). However, as a district with a majority population of ELLs, a main
goal is that by the end of the 2018/2019 academic year, 70% of all ELLs will demonstrate annual
progress toward English proficiency by 5% in English Language Arts on the California
Assessment of Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP). This organizational goal was
established to address the performance of ELLs as they are underperforming their grade-level
peers. For example, CAASP results for the 2016/2017 academic year show that 31.68% of
students identified as “English-only” scored “met standard” or “exceeded standard” in English
Language Arts/Literacy. However, only 7.29% of students identified as “English Learners”
scored “met standard” or “exceeded standard” in English Language Arts/Literacy. To support
this organizational goal, the Educational Services Department has created a departmental goal to
staff five English Language Learner (ELL) Teacher on Special Assignment (TOSA) positions.
Each one of the five ELL TOSAs is assigned to at least four school sites across the district to
support the effective instruction of ELLs. This departmental goal is directly aligned to the
organizational goal. The specific performance goal for the ELL TOSAs was that by June 2018,
all of them will have provided instructional support in the area of effective instructional
strategies for ELLs to classroom teachers at each of their assigned sites.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 14
Finally, while the Seafarm School District granted permission for this research and was
interested in the findings, they did not articulate specific plans to implement any changes or
recommendations based on this study.
Related Literature
In this section, I will briefly examine research on the elements of effective professional
development models for teachers and what the positive implications of this support are for
teachers and ultimately for their students. Specifically, focus will be given to research related to
professional development coaching models that support instruction of ELLs.
There is a large body of extant literature on the role professional development (PD),
particularly instructional coaching, has on building teacher efficacy in support of student
learning. Unfortunately, research illustrates the lack of effective professional development
programs for teachers (Batt, 2008; Elfers and Stritikus, 2014; Molle, 2013). More disconcerting,
and specific to support of teachers of ELLs, research suggests that many teachers do not read the
research or receive professional development on effective teaching of ELLs (Orosco &
O’Connor, 2013). This is of some concern as many studies in the field suggest that the biggest
predictor of student achievement is the quality of the student’s teacher (Borman & Kimball,
2005; Darling-Hammond, 2000; Haycock, 1998; Stronge, Ward, & Grant, 2011).
Soine and Lumpe (2013) underscore the importance of professional development by
suggesting that professional development contributes to teacher effectiveness and continuous
improvement for individuals and the organization. Additionally, a mixed methods study of 22
(sixth- and ninth-grade) teachers who participated in a combination of professional development
with coaching of literacy instruction found an increase in both teacher- and collective-efficacy—
both of which have a direct impact on student achievement (Cantrell & Hughes, 2008). Another
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 15
mixed-methods study by Teemant (2014) of one instructional coaching model (Five Standards
Instructional Coaching model) provided to 36 K-6 elementary teachers within a diverse school
population that included 35% ELLs found that participation in the instructional coaching model
“accelerates urban teacher growth” (p. 600). Moreover, participants cited having a better focus
on student learning and, as a result, better student outcomes (Teemant, 2014).
State and federal policy require “effective” professional development for teachers. Both
policy and research are in agreement on this need. Research, however, helps us determine the
characteristics that make professional development effective. For example, research recommends
that professional development be focused on the classroom, have effective learning
environments, give teachers control of learning, build content knowledge, create a safe learning
environment for the learner, and build collegiality (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000;
Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2005).
Specific to the role of the ELL TOSA, Russell (2015) conducted a qualitative case study
of an ELL Facilitator (coach) and a teacher she was assigned to support in the area of instruction
of ELLs. Results showed that this type of professional development and coaching support
“…connected the novice teacher to resources and practices across the school’s teacher
community, thereby potentially increasing the consistency in EL[L]’s opportunity to learn across
the school” (p. 10). That is to say, consistent professional support for these teachers from an
instructional coach helped to improve the teaching of ELLs.
Extant research on instructional coaching illustrates myriad strategies required for
coaches to be successful while working with teachers to reform their classroom practice and
increase their efficacy. However, the majority of the literature reviewed highlights the
importance of collaboration skills, modeling, and providing feedback (Czajka & McConnell,
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 16
2016; Joyce & Showers, 1995; Knight, 2009; Kretlow et al., 2011; McCollum, Hemmeter, &
Hsieh, 2013; Reddy, Dudek, & Lewka, 2017).
While there are a number of terms and roles that label and inform the work of these
professionals—including ELL Coach, ELL Facilitator, ELL Teacher Leader, or ELL TOSA—
this dissertation uses the term “ELL TOSA” and focuses on the evaluation of their role in
supporting teachers of ELLs.
Importance of the Evaluation
It was important to evaluate the performance goal set forth by the Educational Services
Department of having 100% of the ELL TOSAs provide instructional support in the area of
effective instructional strategies for ELLs to classroom teachers of ELLs at each of their assigned
sites by June 2018. First, and foremost, it is critical to meet the needs of the 92.71% of ELL
students that have not met nor exceeded grade-level standards on the English Language
Arts/Literacy section of the CAASP. As research suggests student achievement is tied to teacher
efficacy, the ELL TOSA role is essential as they work toward supporting ELL in effective
instruction of ELLs and to support the organizational goal that all ELLs will demonstrate annual
progress toward English proficiency by 5% in ELA as demonstrated on the 2017/2018 CAASPP
results.
Further, the district Local Control and Accountability (LCAP) plan has described the
goals, actions, services, and expenditures to support student outcomes and document their course
of action. If these plans, as documented in the LCAP do not yield results, the department risks
losing political and fiscal support of the ELL TOSA positions.
The resulting data from this evaluation informs the future professional development plans
for the ELL TOSA, the Educational Services Department, and the entire Seafarm School District
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 17
as they work toward building internal capacities that support the needs of the teachers of ELLs
and, by extension, this significant population of students in their district.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
There are many different stakeholder groups in any school district. First, one group of
stakeholders who will directly contribute to, and benefit from, the achievement of the ELL
TOSA goal will be the 16,918 students across 20 schools throughout the district. The students—
specifically, the 8,771 students identified as ELLs—will receive instruction from more
efficacious teachers who will use appropriate instructional strategies if the TOSA goal is met.
Accordingly, ELL in the schools will benefit as the recipients of instructional support from the
ELL TOSAs. The Educational Services Department will also benefit by the ELL TOSAs
achieving their goal by keeping their positions and funding for the TOSA positions as they will
have shown to be supportive of teacher development in the area of ELD which aligns to a
Seafarm School District LCAP goal. Finally, the ELL TOSAs will benefit from achieving their
goal of supporting the instruction of all teachers of ELLs by June 2018, because they will have
further developed the knowledge and motivation necessary to grow as professionals and will
have the opportunity to remain in their positions and continue the work of supporting teachers.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
It is important for all stakeholders to work toward achieving individual-, departmental-,
and organizational goals for an organization to be successful. Further, to support this success it is
important that the goals at each one of those organizational levels be aligned (Clark & Estes,
2008). The stakeholder group of focus for the purpose of this study were the ELL TOSAs housed
in the Educational Services Department of the Seafarm School District. Their goal was that by
June 2018, 100% of the ELL TOSAs will have provided instructional support in the area of
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 18
effective instructional strategies for ELLs to classroom teachers of ELLs at each of their assigned
sites. Research indicates that this support should be delivered by using effective coaching
strategies such as collaborative skills, modelling, and feedback to support teacher
implementation of effective instruction for ELLs (Czajka & McConnell, 2016; Gleason & Hall,
1991; Joyce & Showers, 1995; Kretlow, Wood, & Cook, 2011; McCollum et al., 2011; Reddy et
al., 2017). Further, research illustrates that effective instruction for ELLs includes intentionally
planned vocabulary instruction; using gestures, visual cues, or realia; providing opportunities for
ELLs to practice using language; activating prior knowledge; and linking content to language
instruction (Calderón et al., 2011; Facella et al., 2005; Gersten & Baker, 2000; Haynes &
Zacarian, 2010; Lake & Pappamihiel, 2003). Their ability to achieve this goal will ensure that
classroom teachers of ELLs are more efficacious and successful in their teaching of ELLs,
support the Educational Services Department goal of providing support to classroom teachers of
ELLs at every school site in the district, and contribute to a portion of the organization’s global
goal that by June 2018, all teachers of ELLs will have received support for their instruction. Not
meeting this goal could result in reorganization of the Educational Services Department to better
align it to meet the organization’s global goal which includes reallocation or reassignment of
personnel (including the ELL TOSAs) and changes in funding to the Educational Services
Department. Moreover, failure to attain this goal will further contribute to the lack of teacher
efficacy in instruction of ELLs and, consequently, further impact low ELL student achievement.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
This research addressed the problem of ELL Teachers on Special Assignments’ (ELL
TOSAs)—also known as Instructional Coaches—ability to provide effective professional
development and instructional support to classroom teachers of ELLs. While the ELL TOSA
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 19
personnel were effective teachers of ELLs in their classrooms, the positions are new and all are
new to instructional coaching.
According to Krathwohl (2002) it is important that the ELL TOSAs possess specific
knowledge to accomplish their goal. First, I examined the types of knowledge influences that
facilitated and/or impeded the ability of the ELL TOSAs from meeting their goals. Specifically,
it is important for them to have declarative factual knowledge regarding their position (For the
ELL TOSAs this would constitute knowledge of the scope, sequence, and purview of their job
responsibilities as defined by the Human Resources Department. Additionally, the ELL TOSAs
need declarative conceptual knowledge. This would apply to the ELL TOSA having an
understanding of their position and its relationship to district administration, school-site
administrations, and the classroom teachers that they support. Moreover, the ELL TOSAs require
procedural knowledge as they attempt to operationalize their understanding of the existing
instructional framework and its relationship to the standards as they support teachers with the
effective instructional practices for ELLs. Accordingly, ELL TOSAs need to know how to
collaborate and convey their knowledge in order to support instruction and build the capacity of
teachers of ELLs.
These collaborative skills lead to real-time support of colleagues wherein the ELL
TOSAs will rely upon metacognitive knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002; Baker, 2006). This
knowledge influence is important for ELL TOSAs as they problem solve the unexpected
challenges with the teachers of ELLs whom they support. For example, many classroom teachers
face unexpected challenges that the ELL TOSAs may have already faced when they were in the
classroom. It is important for them to be able to recall this knowledge and the ways in which
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 20
they addressed instructional challenges to be able to offer support to the classroom teachers who
might be experiencing these challenges for the first time.
In addition to examining the specific knowledge of the ELL TOSAs, I examined the
motivation of the ELL TOSAs in engaging in practices that meet their goals. One assumed
motivational influence is ELL TOSAs sense of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). ELL TOSAs must
believe they are capable of effectively providing instructional support to classroom teachers of
ELLs. Also, it is important that the ELL TOSAs see the value in effectively providing
instructional support to classroom teachers of ELLs—or, utility value (Eccles, 2006). Last, it is
important that the ELL TOSAs have a sense of attribution (Eccles, 2006). That is, they should
feel that the instructional support they are providing to classroom teachers of ELLs is increasing
teacher quality because of their efforts.
Finally, in this study, I examined the organizational influences upon the ELL TOSAs.
First, ELL TOSAs need to understand how the organization’s professional development systems
and structures support them as they work toward attaining their goal. Next, ELL TOSA must feel
supported by administrators who provide direction and build their capacity.
In order to ascertain the aforementioned, the following research questions will drive this
research:
1. What is the ELL TOSAs’ knowledge and motivation related to providing support to
teachers in effective instructional strategies for ELLs?
2. What is the interaction between the organization’s current systemic practice and fiscal
support for delivering professional development and the ELL TOSAs’ knowledge and
motivation to provide instructional support to classroom teachers?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 21
Methodological Approach and Rationale
As I examined the knowledge, motivation, and the organizational influences on the ELL
TOSAs in order to understand their ability to meet their goals, this dissertation employed a
qualitative research approach. I purposefully sampled ELL TOSAs for this research.
Accordingly, I attempted to explore and understand the meaning and interpretations that the ELL
TOSAs ascribe to their experiences supporting teacher efficacy as their experiences inform their
knowledge, motivation and interactions with the organization and speak to their goal attainment
and—ultimately—student performance (Creswell, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). In
accordance with qualitative research characteristics outlined by Creswell (2014), the sample data
was collected in the Seafarm School District, the natural setting of the ELL TOSAs; I was the
key instrument of data collection and the data collected through interviews of the ELL TOSAs.
Given that there are only five ELL TOSAs, it provided an opportunity for me to conduct lengthy
and in-depth interviews about their knowledge, motivation and the organization. Additionally,
with such a small number, surveys would not have provided a large data pool. Further, it would
have been difficult to ensure anonymity of the participants who completed the survey within
such a small sample size. Additionally, while observations would have been a useful method to
allow first hand data collection of the ELL TOSAs interactions with teachers, there are union
restrictions placed on outsiders observing, which would have made this data collection effort not
feasible.

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 22
Table 1
Organizational Mission, Organizational Global Goal, Stakeholder Goal
Organizational Mission
The mission of the Seafarm School District is to ensure that students have a diverse, safe, and
healthy climate that supports their college and career goals.
Organizational Global Goal
By the end of the 2018/2019 academic year, 70% of all ELLs will demonstrate annual progress
toward English proficiency by 5% in English Language Arts on the California Assessment of
Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP).
Stakeholder Goal
By June 2018, 100% of the English Language Learner Support Teachers on Special
Assignment (ELL TOSAs) will have provided instructional support in the area of effective
instructional strategies for ELLs to classroom teachers of ELLs at each of their assigned sites.

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 23
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter will provide a review of extant literature on the role of the instructional
coach for classroom teachers of ELLs (ELL TOSA) as they support effective instruction for
classroom teachers of ELLs. The first section will focus on the literature that defines effective
practices for the instruction of ELLs. Next, I will focus on the literature examining the origins
and defining the specialized role of the ELL TOSA as a support provider for teachers of ELLs
within the context of K-12 education. Finally, I will conclude this chapter examining the
concepts used in a gap analysis, specifically the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences on the ELL TOSAs vis-à-vis the prevailing literature on learning and motivation
theory.
Stakeholder Knowledge and Skills
Effective Instruction for ELLs

There is a large body of research pointing to instructional strategies that are effective in
improving ELL achievement. Those strategies include providing ELLs with intentionally
planned vocabulary instruction; using gestures, visual cues, or realia; providing opportunities for
ELLs to practice using language; activating prior knowledge; and linking content to language
instruction (Calderón et al., 2011; Facella et al., 2005; Gersten & Baker, 2000; Haynes &
Zacarian, 2010; Lake and Pappamihiel, 2003).
Vocabulary instruction. Research on vocabulary instruction for ELLs is consistent
about the intentionality of the pedagogical design and supports that implementation of evidence-
based strategies within the language pedagogy of teachers of ELLs will promote language
acquisition. First, effective vocabulary instruction requires teachers to be explicit about teaching
structural analysis of words and morphemes—that is, parts of words (Calderón et al., 2011;
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 24
Cardenas-Hagan, 2015; Short & Echevarria, 2004). Along with dissecting words into parts,
teachers should promote the use of the students’ native language and encourage the use of
cognates for ELLs to identify and define the words they are using (Cardenas-Hagan, 2015).
Further, ELLs should be exposed to words of varying complexities and from diverse lexicons—
these can be words from what Beck, McKeown, and Kucan (2013) define as multiple tiers.
Finally, vocabulary should be offered multiple times within the context of student learning
(Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2013; Wessels, 2011) for ELLs to build their vocabulary base.
Visual cues, gestures, and realia. To further promote contextualization of language,
research points to the use of visual cues, gestures, and realia as effective in supporting language
acquisition for ELLs. For example, this includes the use of visual cues such as pictures, gestures,
and realia into daily pedagogy to help ELLs contextualize words and facilitate language
development and engagement (Facella, et al., 2005; Gersten & Baker, 2000; Slavin & Cheung,
2005; Walquí, 2004).
Opportunities to practice using language. Engagement with the language includes the
use of English in conversations about the new learning. Several studies support teachers
providing intentionally planned opportunities for English Language Learners to practice the new
language in the classroom (Cardenas-Hagan, 2015; Facella et al., 2005; Gersten & Baker, 2000;
Short & Echevarria, 2004). This includes structuring conversations for students to practice with
peers and/or in small groups (i.e., reciprocal teaching or cooperative learning groups) to use the
new language to make meaning of what is being taught (Cadeiro-Kaplan et al., 2011; Gersten &
Baker, 2000; Walquí, 2004). These opportunities will also help students build upon their prior
knowledge.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 25
Activating prior knowledge. Literature on language acquisition encourages building on
ELLs’ prior knowledge to promote language development. Specifically, research recommends
that teachers ask questions or elicit discussion, use pictures or videos, act or demonstrate
concepts, or provide anticipatory guides to help ELLs activate prior knowledge (Harper & de
Jong, 2004; Haynes & Zacarian, 2010; Short & Echevarria, 2004; Walquí, 2004). Embedding
these specific strategies into lessons will promote meaning making of concepts for ELLs as they
approach deeper learning of content.
Linking language to content. Harper and de Jong (2004) argue that a reductive approach
to the effective teaching of ELLs that defines it as “just good teaching” fails to address the
specific language demands of the content areas. In the content-area classroom, ELLs are
completing two tasks—the learning of the content and the learning of the language of that
content. Research concedes that this is challenging but argues that this is possible for ELLs
(Gersten & Baker, 2000). Further, research supports linking language with content to promote
learning of content while building academic language (Short & Echevarria, 2004). This includes
having content-area teachers surface the language demands of their content and embedding
language objectives into their daily content-area pedagogy.
Effective Instructional Coaching

Extant research on instructional coaching illustrates myriad strategies required for
coaches to be successful while working with teachers to reform their classroom practice and
increase their efficacy. However, the majority of the literature reviewed highlights the
importance of collaboration skills, modeling, and providing feedback (Czajka & McConnell,
2016; Gleason & Hall, 1991; Joyce & Shavers, 1995; Kretlow et al., 2011; McCollum et al.,
2011; Reddy et al., 2017).
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 26
Collaboration. Extant research on instructional coaching illustrates myriad attributes
required for coaches to be successful while working with teachers to reform their classroom
practice and increase their efficacy. The majority of the literature reviewed highlights the
importance of instructional coaches possessing effective collaboration skills (Czajka &
McConnell, 2016; Gleason & Hall, 1991; Knight, 2009; McCollum et al, 2011; Reddy et al.,
2017). Initially, coaches will apply these skills as they collaborate to pre-conference and/or plan
lesson objectives and activities with classroom teachers (Czajka & McConnell, 2016; Joyce &
Showers, 1995; McCollum et al., 2011). It is recommended that collaborative skills are
employed during lesson delivery, as well. This manifests in real time during a lesson via side-by-
side prompting, side-by-side coaching and/or co-teaching (Gleason & Hall, 1991; Joyce &
Showers, 1995, McCollum et al., 2011). While collaboration is an essential skill for instructional
coaches, it is only one of the effective attributes identified in the literature.
Modeling. Another effective coaching skill is the ability to model effective teaching
practices. This can be done in pre-planning or via the delivery of demonstration lessons. (Knight,
2009; Reddy et al, 2017). However, building upon the collaborative process, Knight (2009)
suggests that it is important for the instructional coach and the classroom teacher to co-construct
an observation form that identifies one key aspect of the lesson for teachers to focus upon and
observe rather than the classroom teacher observing every aspect of the lesson. Here, the
instructional coach would be modeling the construction of a lesson wherein the observable
strategy is embedded. Modeling may also be employed as a scaffold or supplement to support
understanding of a particular instructional strategy or practice (Gibson, 2011; McCollum, et al.,
2011; Reddy, et al., 2017).

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 27
Providing feedback. Finally, successful coaches possess the ability to provide feedback.
Research has identified feedback attached to ongoing coaching as an important factor in
promoting application of new learning by classroom teachers (Czajka & McConnell, 2016).
Additionally, Czajka and McConnell (2016) propose feedback be provided to the classroom
teacher immediately after a lesson to ensure successful implementation of instruction. Finally,
feedback provided to the classroom teacher should be in the form of a supportive conversation
about what occurred and offer refinements to their practice (Gibson, 2011). According to Gibson
(2011), these “coaching conversations” would involve the coach and teacher examining and
having a conversation about the students’ response to instruction to make informed instructional
decisions together. The intention is that this scaffolded approach to coaching would be
internalized by the teacher and they would embed similar processes into their pedagogy (Gibson,
2011).
Further, ELL TOSAs must operationalize this knowledge to support and coach classroom
teachers. Makibbin and Sprague (1997) conducted a survey of teachers, principals, and
instructional coaches participating in an instructional coach pilot program across four
Department of Defense Dependents Schools (DoDDs). In their research, they defined
instructional coaches as “educator[s] who act as a resource at the school level to assist the
principal and the faculty with efforts to improve instructional practices for the purpose of
improving student learning” (Makibbin & Sprague, 1997). Research by Neufeld and Roper
(2002) further defines instructional coaching as “embedded and situated work that includes
observations of classroom teaching, demonstrations of model practices, and cycles that include
pre- and post-conferences with practitioners” (as cited in Gallucci, Van Lare, Yoon, &
Boatright, 2010).
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 28
These definitions are consistent with the role of the ELL TOSA. In a qualitative case
study of the role of an ELL Instructional Coach, Russell (2016) develops this role further. She
defines coaches of teachers of ELLs as educators with “the task of developing capacity in
content teachers and how they meet the instructional needs of EL[L] students in their content
classrooms.” Findings by Brooks (2010) revealed that the role of English learner facilitators is
“complex” and “on school-level leadership of ESL teachers with expertise in language
acquisition and development holds promise for developing the necessary skills in content
teachers” (as cited in Russell, 2016). As such, it is important to the organizational and
departmental goals to examine if the ELL TOSAs have the requisite expertise to meet their
individual performance goals.
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences Framework
In order to examine the role that knowledge, motivation, and the organization have on the
ELL TOSA performance toward achieving their goals, I employed a gap analysis framework as
explained in the work of Clark and Estes (2008). The authors have drawn on the literature to
design a system for diagnosing and analyzing performance gaps related to knowledge,
motivation, and organizational causes. Clark and Estes (2008) define “knowledge” as the “how
(and when, what, why, where, and who)” necessary to achieve a performance goal (p. 44).
Krathwohl (2002) further identifies four types of knowledge critical to goal attainment: factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. I examined the aforementioned as related to the ELL
TOSAs goal attainment. Additionally, I examined ELL TOSA’s motivation. Research on
motivation defines it as an internal, psychological, willingness to attain a goal (Pintrich and
Schunk, 1996 in Clark and Estes, 2008; Robins and Coulter, 2005). Last, I examined the internal
systems that “must cooperate effectively to handle events that occur in an organizational
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 29
environment” such as the influences that facilitate and/or impede the ELL TOSA’s goal
attainment (p. 44).
The following sections will address the assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences on the ELL TOSAs goal of providing instructional support in the area
of effective instructional strategies for ELLs to the classroom teachers at each of their assigned
sites by June 2018.
Stakeholder Knowledge Influences

The following review of literature will focus on knowledge-related influences relevant to
the positions of English Learner (ELL) Teachers on Special Assignment (TOSAs) within the
Educational Services Department of the Seafarm School District. The Seafarm School District
organizational goal is that all English Language Learners (ELLs) will demonstrate annual
progress toward English proficiency. In support of the organizational goal, the Educational
Services Department has created five ELL Teachers on Special Assignment (TOSAs) positions.
Specifically, the Educational Services departmental goal, as per the Seafarm District Local
Control and Accountability Plan (LCAP), is to assign one ELL TOSA for each of four school
sites to support the effective instruction of ELLs by the beginning of the 2017/2018 academic
year. Accordingly, by June 2018 all teachers of ELLs will receive support for their instruction.
As such, the performance goal for the ELL TOSAs was that by June 2018, 100% of the ELL
TOSAs will have provided instructional support in the area of effective instructional strategies
for ELLs to classroom teachers of ELLs at each of their assigned sites (see Table 1).
To accomplish their goals, it is important that the ELL TOSAs possess specific
knowledge. For the purpose of this section, we will define “knowledge” as the “how (and when,
what, why, where, and who)” necessary to achieve a performance goal (Clark & Estes, 2008).
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 30
Specifically, this section will examine the knowledge influences and the types of
knowledge required of the ELL TOSA critical to attaining their individual performance goals:
declarative factual knowledge and procedural knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002).
ELL TOSAs and Declarative Factual Knowledge

The ELL TOSA positions are relatively new roles in the organization and knowledge
influences play a significant role in their goal attainment. Specifically, it is important for the ELL
TOSA to have declarative factual knowledge of English language acquisition processes and of
effective instructional practices that promote language development for ELLs. Krathwohl (2002)
defines declarative factual knowledge as knowledge of basic elements and facts. For the ELL
TOSAs this would constitute knowledge of effective instruction of ELLs in both Designated
ELD and Integrated ELD as outlined in the literature. For example, The California English
Language Arts/English Language Development Framework for Instruction: Kindergarten
through Grade Twelve outline 10 essential features of Designated ELD instruction. That is, “a
protected time during the regular school day when teaches use the [California] ELD Standards as
the focal standards in ways that build into and from content instruction ” (CDE, 2010).
Designated ELD is intended to build ELLs’ English-language skills. As such, the framework
recommends lessons that are of high intellectual quality and have academic English as a focus.
Further, they recommend that lessons have embedded opportunities for ELLs to engage in
extended language opportunities that focus on the meanings and forms of the English language.
Instructionally, the framework suggests that all of the aforementioned be planned and sequenced
within a lesson that has clear objectives with opportunities for the scaffolding of instruction,
corrective feedback, and formative assessments. The remainder of the instructional day—outside
of Designated ELD—is defined by the framework as Integrated ELD. That is, “ELD taught
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 31
throughout the day and across the disciplines” (CDE, 2010). During this time, the framework
suggests effective instructional experiences for ELLs should be engaging, scaffolded, develop
content knowledge and academic English, and build upon the student’s primary language (CDE,
2010). Strategies that support the aforementioned instruction for ELLs—both in Integrated ELD
and Designated ELD—include providing ELLs with intentionally planned vocabulary
instruction; using gestures, visual cues, or realia; providing opportunities for ELLs to practice
using language; activating prior knowledge; and linking content to language instruction
(Calderón et al., 2011; Gersten & Baker, 2000; Facella et al., 2005; Lake & Pappamihiel, 2003;
Haynes & Zacarian, 2010). Possessing the declarative factual knowledge of the context for this
specific type of effective instruction of ELLs and how the strategies that support this instruction
manifest in daily pedagogy are essential knowledge elements if the ELL TOSAs are to provide
instructional support to classroom teachers. As such, this knowledge will also influence the ELL
TOSAs’ success in attaining their goal. Taking the declarative factual knowledge and
operationalizing it in the field with classroom teachers also requires procedural knowledge. This
is another knowledge type that will influence ELL TOSAs success.
ELL TOSAs and Procedural Knowledge

ELL TOSAs will need to operationalize their understanding of the existing instructional
framework and its relationship to the standards. They will also need to be able to enact the
practices of effective coaches. These will require procedural knowledge. That is, an
understanding of “how to do something” (Krathwohl, 2002). For the ELL TOSAs, they will need
to know how to communicate their declarative factual knowledge of instruction for ELLs via
effective collaborative, modelling, and feedback procedures for the classroom teachers they
support.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 32
Research on social cognition finds that knowledge is collaboratively constructed. Given
that, beyond the declarative factual knowledge that collaboration is an important element in
coaching, the ELL TOSAs must possess the procedural knowledge of how to employ effective
collaboration techniques as important tools to use with classroom teachers as they work with
them to make meaning of effective practices and build their capacity (Youniss, 2011; Russell,
2016). As outlined above in this chapter, this would include the knowledge of how pre-
conference and/or plan lesson objectives, provide side-by-side prompting and offer feedback in
post-lesson deconstruction or analysis activities with classroom teachers (Czajka & McConnell,
2016; Gleason & Hall, 1991; Joyce & Showers, 1995; McCollum et al., 2011).
In summary, both declarative factual knowledge—the knowledge of something—and
procedural knowledge—the knowledge of how to do that something—are critical knowledge
influences for the ELL TOSAs as they strive to attain their individual stakeholder goal as aligned
to the organization’s global goal, and the organizational mission (see Table 2).

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 33
Table 2
Knowledge Influences and Knowledge Types
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type (i.e., declarative (factual
or conceptual), procedural, or
metacognitive)
ELL TOSAs need to know effective instructional
strategies for the instruction of ELLs such as
intentionally planned vocabulary instruction; using
gestures, visual cues, or realia; providing
opportunities for ELLs to practice using language;
activating prior knowledge; and linking content to
language instruction.
Declarative (conceptual)
ELL TOSAs need to know how to convey their
knowledge of effective classroom strategies for
ELLs to teachers using the effective coaching
strategies of collaboration by conducting pre-
conferences and/or planning lesson objectives;
modeling a demonstration lesson or lesson
construction; and providing feedback in a post-
lesson conference.
Procedural
Stakeholder Motivation Influences
Robins and Coulter (2005) defined motivation as a “willingness to exert high level of
inspiration to reach organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some
individual need” (p. 424). In education, “the most important reason for a lack of success in
schools is low motivation among teachers and pupils” (Brophy, 1983 in Gokce, 2010, p. 487).
The following review of literature focuses on motivation and the assumed motivational issues of
the ELL TOSAs to achieve their goal that by June 2018, 100% of the ELL TOSAs will have
provided instructional support in the area of effective instructional strategies for ELLs to
classroom teachers at each of their assigned sites (see Table 3).
ELL TOSAs and Self-Efficacy

One assumed motivational influence upon the ELL TOSAs is their sense of self-efficacy.
Bandura (1997) defines self-efficacy as an individual’s belief in their capacity to perform an
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 34
action or task. Further, Bandura (1997) contends that increasing self-efficacy has an impact on
one’s effort, persistence, and resilience as they work toward the attainment of their goals.
Therefore, it is important for ELL TOSAs to believe that they are efficacious in providing
instructional support to classroom teachers of ELLs. There is a dearth of literature that
specifically addresses the self-efficacy of instructional coaches for teachers of ELLs. However,
one study on instructional coaches for various content areas found that their sense of self-
efficacy increased when they received training and feedback (Tschannen-Moran & Carter, 2016).
The training and feedback proved to coincide with successes in their coaching relationships and
provided them with mastery experiences that reinforced their sense of self-efficacy (Tschannen-
Moran & Carter, 2016).
Another study that included 38 literacy coaches from across 21 school districts in one
Southeastern state revealed the positive and negative influences on the self-efficacy of literacy
coaches. Positive influences included mastery experiences and social supports such as positive
feedback from peers and administrators (Cantrell, Madden, Rintamaa, Almasi, & Carter, 2015).
Negative influences on the self-efficacy of literacy coaches included a perceived lack of
competence and stress derived from competing responsibilities and/or their workload (Cantrell et
al., 2015). Accordingly, if the ELL TOSAs did not have opportunities that provided them with
mastery experiences, their sense of self-efficacy would diminish and their effort, persistence, and
resilience toward goal attainment would diminish.
ELL TOSAs and Attribution

Attribution is the perception an individual has about his/her control to bring about
outcomes (Weiner, 1986 in Pintrich, 2003). For the ELL TOSAs, it is important for them to
perceive that their actions increase teacher efficacy and student achievement. Research on
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 35
instructional coaching defines the role of a coach to be a learning relationship between an
instructional coach and a classroom teacher that is predicated upon student outcomes and where
both parties have a shared ownership of those outcomes (Knight 2006; Kurz, Reddy, & Glover,
2017). Unfortunately, much like the literature on the self-efficacy of instructional coaches for
teachers of ELLs, there is also a lack of literature on attribution theory as it relates to
instructional coaches for teachers of ELLs. However, survey results from one descriptive mixed-
methods study of 38 literacy coaches found among its major themes that growth in student
achievement had a positive influence and supported the effort and persistence of the literacy
coaches (Cantrell et al, 2015). Further, Pajares (2006) suggests that unless individuals believe
that their actions will have the desired consequences, they have little motivation to engage in
those actions (Pajares, 2006). Given the aforementioned, the ELL TOSAs’ sense of attribution is
inextricably linked with student outcomes and as a result, affects their motivation.
Table 3
Motivation Influences
Motivational Indicator(s)
Assumed Motivation Influences
Self-Efficacy—ELL TOSAs must believe they are capable of effectively providing instructional support
to classroom teachers of ELLs.

Attribution— ELL TOSAs should feel that the instructional support they are providing to classroom
teachers of ELLs is increasing instructional quality because of their efforts.

Stakeholder Organizational Influences
Finally, there are organizational influences that may support or impede the ELL TOSAs
in their goal attainment. First, ELL TOSAs must be situated within a cohesive district-wide
professional development systems and structures that support the organization’s learning goals.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 36
One study by Mangin and Dunsmore (2015) highlighted the importance of cohesion between
district goals, coach training, and coaching practices. Specifically, the authors suggest that a lack
of cohesion between those endeavors will pose a challenge to coaches’ efforts to do their jobs in
ways that they perceive to be effective (Mangin & Dunsmore, 2015). For example, if a district’s
goal is to have their coaches support classroom teachers to increase the reading achievement of
ELLs but their coaches have been sent to training on supporting classroom teachers with
effective math instruction for ELLs, there is a lack of cohesion of efforts that will influence the
ELL TOSAs efficacy toward goal attainment. Accordingly, an additional component to consider
when referring to the cohesion of an organization’s professional development systems and
structures is the teacher’s professional association or union. Research confirms the influence that
teachers’ unions have upon professional development opportunities. Bascia (2000) contends that
unions set the terms for work and learning, including opportunities for professional development,
and often reinforce “restrictive notions” of what is permissible for teachers to “know and do.”
Finley (1984) contends that teachers of “low-status” student populations (i.e., ELLs) are often
sensitive to policies about professional development. Given the aforementioned, it is essential to
note this component of the district-ELL TOSA-teacher relationship as it can have an impact on
ELL TOSA goal attainment. Consequently, as the literature suggests, it is critical that the ELL
TOSAs are part of an organizational culture that supports their endeavors within a system that is
aligned with their goals and is moving in the same direction toward those goals.
This coincides with an extensive review of coaching literature by Devine, Meyers, &
Houssemand (2013) that concludes a district can establish a learning culture if the essential
elements that make instructional coaching effective are replicated at scale across the institution’s
practices. This is supported by Knight (2006) who contends that coaches should participate in
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 37
professional development to inform them on how to coach and, also, what to coach with
teachers. More specifically, Gibson (2011) outlines some of the key elements for successful
professional development that will contribute to the success of instructional coaches and,
consequently, support district-wide goals for effective teaching. She recommends instructional
coaches receive professional development opportunities that illustrate and explain how coaching
sessions should look, provide opportunities for coaches to evaluate their practice (including
video review of their sessions), and reflect on the pedagogical techniques they utilized in their
sessions with classroom teachers. Overall, Knight (2006) contends that, without professional
development of their own, instructional coaches may be ineffective and/or misinform classroom
teachers resulting in coaching endeavors that waste both time and money.
Moreover, along with the alignment of professional development initiatives within a
school district, research suggests that a district’s financial and programmatic resources have an
impact on reform efforts like the creation and support of instructional coaching positions
(Mangin, 2009). In her qualitative study, Mangin (2009) examined factors that influenced the
implementation of literacy coaches across 20 school districts. Her interviews with participating
district administrators indicated that finances—or lack thereof—was a limiting factor in
their ability to support the implementation of coaching positions. The significance of this
barrier to coaching positions and the benefits these positions yield is highlighted by the
research. Odden and Archibald (2009) found that schools that invest in professional
development and teacher leaders to lead these initiatives positively affect student
outcomes. As such—assuming that the ELL TOSA positions are situated within and
systemically aligned to system of supports and practices—the ELL TOSA positions and
professional needs should be financially supported by administrators to build teacher efficacy
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 38
and, accordingly, student outcomes. This is of particular interest as the ELL TOSA positions are
a new initiative for the Seafarm District. In closing, if adequate funding is not allocated to the
positions, instructional coaching will not take place, making their knowledge and motivation to
reach their stakeholder goal irrelevant.
Table 4

Organizational Influences

Organizational Influences
ELL TOSAs must be situated within cohesive, district-wide professional development systems
and structures that support the organization’s learning goals

ELL TOSA positions must be financially supported by administrators to build teacher efficacy

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context

Maxwell (2013) stresses that a key part of research design is the conceptual framework.
The author defines this as a visual or written conception that is illustrative of what you plan to
study and why you plan to study it. Although, the review of literature above outlined several
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that facilitate and/or impede the ELL
TOSAs from attaining their goal of supporting classroom teachers, the following conceptual
framework focuses solely on those knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that
were most prominent in the extant research—that is, they surfaced in several studies.
With regard to knowledge influences, the conceptual framework in this section examines
two specific knowledge influences for the ELL TOSAs as outlined in the review of literature.
First, TOSAs need knowledge of effective instructional strategies that promote and support
language acquisition for ELLs. Second, the ELL TOSAs knowledge of effective coaching
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 39
strategies is essential. Both of the aforementioned have within them a unique and embedded
skillset important to the success of the instructional coach. However, these skillsets can be
independent of one another. For example, there may be an ELL TOSA who is very
knowledgeable in effective instructional strategies that promote and support language acquisition
for ELLs but that does not have knowledge of effective coaching strategies. Conversely, there
may be an ELL TOSA who is very knowledgeable in effective coaching strategies but does not
know the effective instructional strategies that promote and support language acquisition for
ELLs. To be effective, however, it is important that the ELL TOSAs possess the knowledge of
both.
Motivational Influences are also included in my conceptual framework. Specifically, The
ELL TOSAs’ sense of self-efficacy is critical in their ability to coach. “Efficacy expectations are
a person’s expectations about his or her own abilities to influence or achieve a desired outcome”
(Cantrell & Hughes, 2008). ELL TOSAs must believe they possess the knowledge of effective
instructional strategies for ELLs and that they possess the procedural knowledge to provide
classroom teachers support. The ELL TOSAs’ belief in their knowledge affects their sense of
efficacy. Additionally, ELL TOSAs’ sense of utility value is another important motivational
factor. ELL TOSAs need to see the value in effectively providing instructional support to
classroom teachers of ELLs.
Finally, the organizational influences that support or impede the ELL TOSAs are
represented in the conceptual framework. ELL TOSAs must be situated within cohesive district-
wide professional development systems and structures that support the organization’s learning
goals (Mangin & Dunsmore, 2015). Additionally, ELL TOSA positions must be financially
supported by administrators as it influences ELL TOSA motivation and, ultimately, teacher
efficacy.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 40
Further, it is important to recognize the alignment amongst these influences. The
knowledge of effective instructional strategies that promote and support language acquisition for
ELLs will affect the ELL TOSAs sense of self-efficacy. Given this, when ELL TOSAs feel
efficacious, they are more likely to believe that they can achieve their goal (Cantrell & Hughes,
2008).
Last, when ELL TOSAs feel that there is value in effectively providing instructional
support to classroom teachers of ELLs, they will be more motivated to continue to support
teachers. Employees that are motivated are supported within a system situated within a cohesive
district-wide professional development systems and structures (see Figure 1).

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 41
Figure 1: Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences Affecting ELL TOSA
Goal Attainment

Conclusion
The review of literature in this chapter contextualized the problem of ELL Teachers on
Special Assignments’ (ELL TOSAs)—also known as Instructional Coaches—ability to provide
effective professional development and instructional support to teachers of ELLs. Research
supports that to accomplish their goal of providing instructional support in the area of effective
instructional strategies for ELLs to classroom teachers of ELLs at each of their assigned sites, it
SEAFARM SCHOOL DISTRICT

Organizational Influences:
o ELL TOSAs must be situated within a cohesive, district-wide professional development system and
structure that support the organization's goals
o ELL TOSAs positions must be financially supported by administrators
o

Organizational Global Goal
By the end of the 2018/2019 academic year, 70% of all ELLs will demonstrate annual progress toward
English proficiency by 5% in English Language Arts on the California Assessment of Student Performance
and Progress (CAASPP)
Organizational Mission
The mission of the Seafarm School District is to ensure that students have a diverse, safe, and healthy
climate that supports their college and career goals.

EDUCATIONAL SERVICES DEPARTMENT

Knowledge Influences:
o ELL TOSAs will need to know effective classroom strategies for the instruction of ELLs such
as intentionally planned vocabulary instruction; using gestures, visual cues, or realia; providing
opportunities for ELLs to practice using language; activating prior knowledge; and linking content to
language instruction.
o ELL TOSAs will need to know how to convey their knowledge of effective classroom strategies for
ELLs to teachers using the effective coaching strategies of collaboration, modelling, and feedback.

Motivation Influences:
o ELL TOSAs must believe they are capable of effectively providing instructional support to classroom
teachers of ELLs.
o ELL TOSAs should feel that the instructional support they are providing to classroom teachers of ELLs
is increasing instructional quality because of their efforts.

ELL TOSA GOAL
By June 2018, 100% of English Language Learner Support Teachers on Special Assignment (ELL
TOSAs) will have provided instructional support in the area of effective instructional strategies--as
defined by the research literature--for ELLs to classroom teachers of ELLs at each of their assigned sites.

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 42
is important that they possess specific knowledge, have motivation, and are supported by
organizational systems.
Although some of the research centers around instructional coaches in content areas
outside of ELD, the requisite knowledge of their content and coaching skills, motivational
influences such as self-efficacy and belief that their support has an impact, and organizational
structures that support their positions systemically and financially have an influence the ELL
TOSAs ability to achieve their goal in the same way as all instructional coaches.
In Chapter Three, I will provide an explanation of the methods and research design I will
use to examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences and how they support
and/or impede the ELL TOSAs from attaining their goal as illustrated in the conceptual
framework.

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 43
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
In this study, I examined the knowledge, motivation, organizational influences upon the
ELL TOSAs goal attainment. This chapter will outline the research design and methods for data
collection and analysis. Included are an explanation of participating stakeholders and the
sampling strategy employed, how I addressed credibility and trustworthiness, data collection and
instrumentation, data analysis procedures, my ethical responsibilities as a researcher, and the
limitations/delimitations of the study.
Participating Stakeholders
The stakeholder group of focus for this research was the ELL TOSAs housed within the
Educational Services Department of the Seafarm School District. Their goal was that by June
2018, 100% of the ELL TOSAs will have provided instructional support in the area of effective
instructional strategies for ELLs to classroom teachers of ELLS at each of their assigned sites.
Their ability to achieve this goal will ensure that classroom teachers of ELLs are more
efficacious and successful in their teaching of ELLs, support the Educational Services
Department goal of providing support to classroom teachers of ELLs at every school site in the
district, and contribute to a portion of the organization’s global goal that by June 2018, all
teachers of ELLs will have received support for their instruction. Given that Seafarm School
District has a small number of ELL TOSAs (n=5), all individuals in this stakeholder group were
approached for inclusion in this study and all agreed to participate.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The ELL TOSAs are a purposeful sample chosen for the type of instructional coaching
they deliver (see Criterion 1 below). While there are approximately twelve TOSAs in the district,
only five provide instructional support to teachers of ELLs and are titled as “ELL TOSA.” As a
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 44
result, these five participants were sampled and recruited to complete the study by both an email-
and verbal-invitation during a visit to the Educational Services Department meeting. I obtained
verbal permission to conduct my research and the interviews of the ELLs TOSAs from their
immediate supervisor—the Director of ELL Services. I also obtained verbal permission to
conduct my research and conduct interviews of the ELL TOSAs from the Assistant
Superintendent of Educational Services who attended the meeting. At that time, the specific goal
for the ELL TOSAs was discussed and determined. This was significant as he/she is the
supervisor of the Director of ELL Services. During the meeting, I provided a short presentation
to the ELL TOSAs about the study, its purpose, and their role as participants.
Criterion 1

Participants had to be an ELL TOSA within the Educational Services Department of the
Seafarm School District. The ELL TOSAs were best positioned to speak to their own knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences and how each of these shapes their goal attainment.
This was the one and only criterion for sampling participants for this study given that the
study’s stakeholders of focus were ELL TOSAs. Specifically, their knowledge of the essential
features of ELD, effective coaching strategies, their sense of efficacy, and how their position is
supported by current systemic practice and fiscal support for delivering professional
development to classroom teachers were the focus of this study. ELL TOSAs were the best
positioned to answer my research questions by reflecting on what they know and are motivated
to do in relation to their role, and how the organization does or doesn’t support them in achieving
their goal. This was further supported during the interviews as all of the ELL TOSAs shared that
they were, prior to becoming ELL TOSAs, classroom teachers of ELLs. Their combined years of
classroom teaching experience totaled 82 years. The ELL TOSA with the highest amount of
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 45
classroom experience prior to moving into the position had been teaching for 25 years. The ELL
TOSA with the least amount of classroom experience prior to moving into the position had been
teaching for 10 years. Additionally, all of them shared that they actively applied for ELL TOSA
position in spite of the fact that it would remove them from their classroom teaching
responsibilities. Given that, they were eager to share about their roles and responsibilities as
related to the influences I examined in the study.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
To collect data from the ELL TOSAs, I conducted interviews. At the time of the study,
there were five ELL TOSAs in the Seafarm School District. Because of the small sample size
and the need to deeply examine ELL TOSA influences, I met with each ELL TOSA twice. The
length of time to complete both interviews was between 60- and 90-minutes. During the
meetings, I employed a semi-structured interview protocol and used an outline of issues that I
wanted to explore in the interview more deeply. According to Merriam and Tisdell (2016), an
interview is used to obtain the special knowledge possessed by the interviewee. I was seeking to
obtain the special knowledge that the ELL TOSAs possess in relation to the research questions
outlined earlier in this dissertation. Specifically, I was seeking to obtain data about the
influences on the ELL TOSAs knowledge, motivation, and understanding of how they perceive
their roles in the organization. The semi-structured interview protocol provided me with a
structure that kept me—as the interviewer—focused on questions related to the specific data I
was seeking about the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that are outlined in
my conceptual framework and that affect their goal attainment. Moreover, as initial answers
were provided, this protocol enabled me to react to responses, ideas, and viewpoints as they were
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 46
presented by the interviewees and to facilitate opportunities for them to provide deeper and more
meaningful responses.
The interviews were held in the Student Support Services Department Conference Room
within their district office. This room is located in a different department than where their
positions are housed. I chose this location by considering the ELL TOSAs’ comfort during the
process. This room is in the building where the ELL TOSAs collaborate and brainstorm on how
to provide support to teachers and it is an environment wherein they have taken risks, feel
empowered, and have deep meaningful conversations about their practice on a regular basis.
Further, I wanted the ELL TOSAs to be in a location that would remind them of any support,
background, or context of their work in order to facilitate their providing of the most detailed and
complete answers. In spite of this, I was aware that the ELL TOSAs may have felt more
comfortable in an alternative setting. However, I corresponded with each ELL TOSA
individually to inform them of the interview protocols and to establish meeting times and none of
them objected to the location during those correspondences. The interviews were scheduled
during times that were convenient to their schedules using a shared Google calendar. The Google
calendar had several dates and times from which they could choose to schedule both their first-
and second-interview. Further, in my email invitation to them to view the calendar, I assigned
them a code name to protect their anonymity. The names were selected from local street names
that were named after trees in the neighborhoods surrounding the schools that they support. After
each interview, I recorded notes in a personal notebook that is kept on my person or in a locked
cabinet in my home office. In total, over 330 minutes of interviews were recorded and
transcribed into 108 pages. Last, all of the interview recordings were labeled by the participants
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 47
code names and were transcribed for accuracy using a secure, online transcription service. In all,
there were 108 pages of transcription data.
Finally, it is important to note that while observations would have been useful, they were
not conducted due to the district’s cultural climate as engendered by contractual considerations
between the district and the teacher’s union. Additionally, survey distribution was considered,
however, this option was not feasible due to both the number of ELL TOSAs and the
organizational roles of the principals. The limitations of both of these data collection options are
described in further detail below.
Data Analysis
Before I analyzed the data collected from the two interviews I conducted with each of the
five ELL TOSAs, the recordings were transcribed. Subsequent to their transcription, I applied the
use of qualitative analytic tools to generate findings that have substance and contribute to
knowledge development in the field (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Application of tools such as
questioning and looking at the language in the interviews assisted with a priori coding that, in
turn, facilitated axial coding to determine patterns that related to the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational factors that influence the goal attainment of the ELL TOSAs. Data were analyzed
across five categories and 15 codes.
Specifically, data were organized according to knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences. For example, categories related to the knowledge of the ELL TOSAs included
Knowledge of Coaching, Knowledge of Teaching, and one solely labeled Knowledge. Beneath
each category, I assigned a code for the data specific to knowledge influences in each category.
Knowledge of Coaching, for example, had three codes. It had one code each for the practices of
Modeling, Providing Feedback, and Use of Collaboration. The category titled, Knowledge of
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 48
Teaching, had five codes. It had one code each for Strategies for Providing Language Practice,
Strategies for Activating Prior Knowledge, Strategies for Linking Language to Content,
Strategies for Using Visual Cues, and Strategies for Vocabulary Instruction. The final category,
Knowledge, was assigned two codes. The first code was titled, Standards and Framework, and
the second, Teaching Experience. In total, there were 10 codes related to the knowledge
influences on the ELL TOSAs.
Motivation influence categorizing and coding was completed in the same manner.
Motivation was the category. In this category were two codes. One code labeled, Attribution.
The other code, Self-Efficacy. There were two codes specific to the motivation influences on the
ELL TOSA.
Last, I created a category titled, Organizational Influences. This category had three codes.
These codes were titled, Financial, Systemic, and Work Load. The Organizational Influences
category had three codes.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The credibility and trustworthiness of my research were important to establish in order to
ensure my findings were accurate (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). I worked with the respondents
after the interviews in order to rule out misinterpretation and misunderstanding of the data
collected. Maxwell (2013) identifies this method as “respondent validation.” I did this by
concluding each of the first interviews by asking each participant if any of my questions were
unclear or if they would like to change or retract any of the answers that they gave. I encouraged
them to think on this question in the time between the first and second interview. Since I had the
opportunity to conduct two interviews with each participant, I began each of the second
interviews with the same question before we proceeded. Further, the robust interview protocol I
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 49
established (see Appendix) ensured that the interview process was intensive. This enabled me to
collect rich data that was captured in my notetaking and reaffirmed in the transcription process as
recommended by Maxwell (2013). Additionally, as an educator in the same field of expertise as
the ELL TOSAs, it was important to discipline my biases. To do so, I employed peer-debriefing
processes with a colleague in my cohort and with my dissertation chair. First, within my cohort I
identified a K-12 educator who works within a public-school district but with a different area of
expertise not related to ELLs. This person agreed to review and/or discuss my dissertation upon
completion of the research questions, before proposal defense, and after the data analysis writing,
with a critical eye toward any bias I may have inadvertently interjected. Additionally, my
dissertation chair had five predetermined review meetings with extended periods throughout the
writing process for review and reading of the dissertation to help guide the research and check
for bias. These periods included, at least, 10 readings with constructive feedback on the
dissertation and research process throughout various stages toward its completion.
Researcher Bias
I first became connected with the Seafarm School District in my capacity as a county
specialist for English Language Development (ELD) within the county wherein the district
resides. While in this position I had no oversight authority, but was seen as an expert in the field
that could support district-, site-, and classroom-initiatives in the area of ELD. This was an
upward accountability relationship wherein I was directly accountable to them to provide a
contracted service. This prior relationship was helpful to gain access to the district as they were
familiar with my professional work and interested in the potential of the study. However, with
that prior relationship in mind, I was intentional in defining my role as a researcher in this study
and explicit in distancing myself from my prior relationship with them wherein I provided
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 50
support, feedback, and recommendations as a contracted service provider. Moreover, to manage
expectations, I informed them that my findings and recommendations were part of my research
and that there was no intention, on my part, to distribute the findings as being specific to any
Seafarm School District professional development or support plan.
As a researcher with a background in Kindergarten through Grade 12 (K-12) education, I
had to account for biases I have with respect to coaching and providing professional
development to classroom teachers in K-12 settings. This was particularly true, because I was a
classroom teacher of ELLs, a district-level coach, and a county specialist in the area of effective
programs and instruction for ELLs. Given these past roles and responsibilities within the area of
study, it was important for me to remember that as the primary data collector the data is
examined through the lens of my past experiences—theoretical position and biases—as noted in
Merriam and Tisdell (2016). Keeping this in mind facilitated maintenance of objectivity and
facilitated ethical decision making.
Further, in the professional role that I had at the time of the research as a university
administrator in a research and policy center for issues surrounding ELLs, I was aware of any
bias I might bring to the study as an advocate of quality instruction for ELLs. As Glesne (2011)
suggests, I have positions on what effective instruction, coaching of teachers of ELLs, effective
curriculum and programs for ELLs, and on policies for ELLs that surface as a direct result of my
background in the field and prior research. Given the aforementioned, I was aware and strove not
to be an interventionist nor an advocate and “champion a cause” as noted in Glesne (2011).
Ethics
Inherent in the interview process are risks and benefits for the interviewees (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). For my research, the interviews were scheduled confidentially and at the
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 51
convenience of each ELL TOSA. Further, the interviews were held at the Seafarm School
District office in the Student Support Services Department conference room. This room is
located in a different department than where their positions are housed. Nonetheless, I was aware
that the location may affect anonymity as it is in the same building where they work. However,
none of the participants objected to the location nor expressed the need to change the location
upon scheduling.
I was also aware that regardless of interview location, the ELL TOSAs participation in
the interview process may surface feelings of anxiety. Given that, they were informed that their
participation in the study was voluntary and that there was no reciprocity of any kind. This
safeguarded that the data collected was not influenced nor biased and that the ELL TOSAs did
not feel coerced into participating. Moreover, for their protection, I informed them of any risks
involved in their participation. For example, since there were only five people in their positions,
there was a possibility for them to be identified by their responses, even though I endeavored to
put procedures in place to keep their thoughts and responses confidential. This was because the
amount of district personnel was small and employees knew and could easily recognize each
other. As such, employees who did not know the context of the study could have perceived that
the ELL TOSAs were talking about them and may have felt threatened. This had the potential to
cause some workplace anxiety within the district office. However, as indicated above, none of
the participants objected to the location nor expressed the need to change the location upon
scheduling
Next, I explained that data was to be collected through an interview process, kept
confidential, and stored in a file within my password protected computer. After explaining the
aforementioned, I provided them with an informed consent document, as approved by the
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 52
Institutional Review Board at the University of Southern California. As part of this process I
followed the guidelines recommended by Glesne (2011) and informed participants “(1) that
participation is voluntary, (2) of any aspects of the research that might affect their well-being,
and (3) that they may freely choose to stop participation at any point in the study” (p. 166).
These guidelines helped the participants to feel more comfortable during their participation.
They also served to further support my working relationship as a researcher with the participants
whom I had already met in another context as I described above.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations

One of the limitations of this research was the sample size of the participants as there are
only five ELL TOSAs within the district. Because of the small sample size, quantitative data
collection was not possible, and this study did not intend to generalize findings to all TOSAs or
instructional coaches. Additionally, qualitative data collection only occurred through semi-
structured interviews.
In an effort to add to the qualitative data collection effort, I made inquiry into the
possibility of observing the ELL TOSAs while they supported teachers in their classrooms. The
ELL TOSAs reported that there are few opportunities for them to exclusively provide one-to-one
coaching throughout the year. Moreover, I was informed that, as a general rule, ELL TOSAs
must be invited into the classroom by the teacher. Further, without invitation, there was a clearly
articulated request protocol to follow in advance of a visit into a classroom. Therefore, given the
cultural climate of the district—including the local teacher’s union contractual agreement—
access to in-class observations would not have proven feasible.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 53
Finally, as noted above, surveys were considered for distribution. However, the small
number of study participants ruled them out of the survey because it would not have yielded
enough data and any survey data had the potential of compromising their anonymity. Given the
limited access to classroom teachers, as described above, they were ruled out as survey
participants. Last, it was suggested that school-site principals participate in a survey about the
support that ELL TOSAs provide to their school site. In pursuing this as an option, I learned that
the ELL TOSAs often do not coordinate their support visits through the principal. What is more,
the ELL TOSAs confirmed that, more often than not, the school site principal is not aware that
the ELL TOSA has visited his/her school site. Additionally, ELL TOSA visits to support
classroom teachers are not generate by the school site principals. They are either directly sent by
their supervisor (Director of ELL Services) to a site to generate interest for support or are
requested by an individual teacher. Given this information, participant size and/or knowledge
prohibited the distribution of a survey that would yield reliable data for this study.
Another important limitation to note is that the ELL TOSAs have been chosen for their
positions through an interview process that sought specialized classroom practitioners who were
successful in working with ELLs in their school sites. With this in mind, it is important to
consider how truthful they may have been in the interviews about their efficacy in these positions
and about the challenges or successes they faced while working with teachers. This study is,
thus, limited to the self-reports of the participants.
Delimitations

There are several delimitations to this research. There were myriad research avenues to
pursue where effective instruction for ELLs and ELL academic success are concerned. For this
study, I narrowed the topic to the role of the instructional coach—known as the ELL TOSA
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 54
within the context of this study—for classroom teachers of ELLs. Accordingly, there was a large
breadth of literature on instructional coaching for teachers across many content areas. However,
there was only a small amount of research directly related to coaches who support teachers of
ELLs with effective practices specifically for ELLs. Additionally, there was literature to support
the impact that the role of the school-site principal, working in conjunction with an instructional
coach, has an upon student achievement. However, the delimitations of this research serve to
focus it solely on the roles of the ELL TOSA and the classroom teacher of ELLs.
Another delimiting factor to this research was the Knowledge, Motivation, and
Organizational (KMO) Influence theoretical framework (Clark & Estes, 2008). The KMO
framework is not the only framework illustrated in the literature on workplace performance and
goal attainment. However, for this research, and to help answer the research questions, I chose
the KMO theoretical framework.

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 55
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS

This research addressed the problem of ELL Teachers on Special Assignments’ (ELL
TOSAs) ability to provide effective professional development and instructional support to
teachers of ELLs. While the ELL TOSAs—also known as Instructional Coaches—were effective
teachers of ELLs in their classrooms, the positions are new and all of them are new to
instructional coaching. As such, it was important to examine their knowledge related to their role
as well as their motivation to fulfill their responsibilities and meet their goals. As well, the
newness of the role necessitated an examination of how the organization within which they work
supports their work.
According to Krathwohl (2002) it is important that the ELL TOSAs possess specific
knowledge to accomplish their goal. First, I will examine the types of knowledge influences that
facilitate and/or impede the ability of the ELL TOSAs to meet their goals. Specifically, it is
important for them to have declarative factual knowledge regarding their position. For the ELL
TOSAs this would constitute knowledge of the scope, sequence, and purview of their job
responsibilities as defined by the Human Resources Department. Additionally, the ELL TOSAs
need declarative conceptual knowledge. This would apply to the ELL TOSA having an
understanding of their position and its relationship to district administration, school-site
administrations, and the classroom teachers that they support. Moreover, the ELL TOSAs require
procedural knowledge as they attempt to operationalize their understanding of the existing
instructional framework and its relationship to the standards as they support teachers with the
effective instructional practices for ELLs. Accordingly, ELL TOSAs will need to know how to
collaborate and convey their knowledge in order to support instruction and build the capacity of
teachers of ELLs.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 56
These collaborative skills will lead to real-time support of colleagues wherein the ELL
TOSAs need to rely upon metacognitive knowledge (Krathwohl, 2002; Baker, 2006). This
knowledge influence is important for ELL TOSAs as they problem solve the unexpected
challenges with the teachers of ELLs whom they support. For example, many classroom teachers
face unexpected challenges that the ELL TOSAs may have already faced when they were in the
classroom. It is important for them to be able to recall this knowledge, and the ways in which
they addressed instructional challenges, to be able to offer support to the classroom teachers who
might be experiencing these challenges for the first time.
In addition to examining the specific knowledge of the ELL TOSAs, this chapter also
examines the motivation of the ELL TOSAs in engaging in practices that meet their goals. One
assumed motivational influence is ELL TOSAs’ sense of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). ELL
TOSAs must believe they are capable of effectively providing instructional support to classroom
teachers of ELLs. Also, it is important that the ELL TOSAs have a sense of attribution (Eccles,
2006). That is, they should feel that the instructional support they are providing to classroom
teachers of ELLs is increasing teacher quality because of their efforts.
Finally, this study examined the organizational influences upon the ELL TOSAs. First,
ELL TOSAs need to understand how the organization’s professional development systems and
structures support them as they work toward attaining their goal. Next, ELL TOSA must feel
supported by administrators who provide direction and build their capacity.
In order to ascertain the aforementioned, the following questions guided this research:
1. What is the ELL TOSAs’ knowledge and motivation related to providing support to
teachers in effective instructional strategies for ELLs?
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 57
2. What is the interaction between the organization’s current systemic practice and fiscal
support for delivering professional development and the ELL TOSAs’ knowledge and
motivation to provide instructional support to classroom teachers?
3. What are the recommendations for organizational practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
The following sections present the findings as a result of two, semi-structured interviews
with each of the five ELL TOSAs designed to ascertain the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences on their goal of providing instructional support in the area of effective
instructional strategies for ELLs to classroom teachers of ELLs at each of their assigned sites by
June 2018. Several emergent themes surfaced as a result of the data analysis process that are
related to the research questions driving this dissertation. First, evidence regarding interactions
between knowledge and organizational influences surfaced as a theme. This evidence is
important as it provides insight into both Research Question #1 and Research Question #2
(above). Another emergent theme brought to light by the data was the interactions between
motivation and organizational influences. This evidence is important as it provides insight into
Research Question #1 and Research Question #2 (above).
Theme 1: The Interaction Between ELL TOSA’s Knowledge and The Organization
The interactions that surfaced between the knowledge and organizational influences
helped to provide insight into both Research Question #1 and Research Question #2 (above).
Specific data from the interviews related to Research Question #1 illustrated the ELL TOSAs’
knowledge related to providing support to teachers in effective instructional strategies for ELLs.
Additionally, interview data provided insight into Research Question #2 regarding the interaction

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 58
between the organization’s current systemic practice for delivering professional development and
the ELL TOSAs’ knowledge as they provide instructional support to classroom teachers of ELL.
The following sections will explain the prevalent themes as they emerged from the
interview data. First, the interaction between the ELL TOSAs knowledge of collaboration as
shaped by the professional development opportunities afforded them by the organization. All
five of the ELL TOSAs that were interviewed defined their coaching style as collaborative and
were able to proffer examples of their collaborations with teachers as they worked to support
them. They also indicated they have received professional development on effective strategies
for instructional coaching. Next, the interaction between ELL TOSA motivation. Three of the
five interviews surfaced self-reported concerns about the ELL TOSAs’ sense of self-efficacy. In
particular, the organizational influences of competing priorities and workload as assigned to the
ELL TOSAs that shape their sense of self-efficacy. Finally, the interaction between ELL TOSA
motivation (attribution) and how the organization communicates and defines their role.
Specifically, how teacher perceptions of ELL TOSAs within the organization affect their sense
of attribution. In fact, four out of five ELL TOSAs did not attribute their attempts to support
classroom teachers as making a difference toward instructional change because of teacher
resistance to their ill-defined role.
Knowledge of Collaboration as An Effective Coaching Strategy

All five ELL TOSAs in the Seafarm School District indicated an understanding of the
role that collaboration plays in coaching and how to operationalize it in their support of teachers.
This is an important finding as research undergirds the importance of collaboration in
instructional coaching (Czajka & McConnell, 2016; Gleason & Hall, 1991; McCollum et al.,
2013; Reddy et al., 2017).
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 59
All of the ELL TOSAs that were interviewed defined their coaching style as collaborative
and were able to proffer examples of their collaborations with teachers as they worked to support
them. Specifically, when asked to define what they believed their coaching style to be, two ELL
TOSAs provided supporting evidence of their understanding of this collaborative coaching style.
One ELL TOSA, Walnut, defined her coaching by stating: “I would say collaborative. I feel like
to me I always try and take the approach of the collegial coaching….” Walnut continued by
providing evidence of how this style operationalizes. She stated:
I think with collaboration it's important because they want to know that you're there to
support them and that you have an equal voice just like them. A lot of times now when I
go into grade-level meetings it's very collaborative in a sense where they'll ask me,
‘You've taught first grade for a majority of your career. What were the ELL strategies
that you used?’ And I can share that.
In this follow up to her reply, Walnut provided an example of the collaborative process. She
shared that she “goes into grade-level meetings” to collaborate with teachers who ask her about
the “ELL strategies that [she] used” when she was a classroom teacher. Knight (2006) writes that
an effective coach/teacher partnership is based on similar factors that can influence collaboration
as those shared by Walnut such as when the teacher asked for “the strategies that you used” to
apply while instructing ELLs in the First Grade.
Another ELL TOSA, Maple offered an example of the collaborative process.
So, with working with teachers, it's listening, reading their style, and not offering
solutions but more of, "This is what I learned about the student, here it is," and more of
working together to create a plan.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 60
Research aligns with the collaborative approaches outlined by Maple of “listening, reading their
style…” when working with classroom teachers of ELLs. In particular, when Maple referred to a
process of “listening, reading their [teachers’] style, and not offering solutions” it parallels what
research defines as a situated instructional coaching process. One example of this is when Maple
stated that she and the teachers spend time “working together to create a plan.” This
collaborative model and process are supported by research. A mixed-methods study of a situated
instructional coaching process by Czajka and McConnell (2016) found that teachers who have a
collaborator (coach) who can help them with lesson planning are left without the often-cited
barrier of not having enough time to plan for new instructional practices. This is important as
they continue to explain that a collaborative coaching model, that includes processes similar to
those described by Maple, was helpful in supporting teachers to overcome barriers to
instructional change (Czajka & McConnell, 2016).
Willow, a third ELL TOSA, defined her coaching style as follows:
My style. It was more like ... It was collegial coaching, I feel. I definitely believe in that
I'm not the master of knowledge. When I would meet teachers, have that conversation,
start to build a rapport, start to build trust….
Here, Willow called it “collegial coaching” further describing it as her not being the “master of
knowledge” which demonstrates her understanding of collaboration. She also recognized the
need to “build a rapport, start to build trust.” Willow’s comment aligns with the research of
Knight (2006) who states coaches should be “highly skilled” at relationship building. Further,
Knight (2006) contends that changes in a teacher’s instructional practice are equally influenced
by both the coach’s communication style as by the intervention the coach shares with the teacher
because a teacher is more likely to employ a strategy if s/he likes the coach. The example shared
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 61
by Willow of her conversational style illustrates the building of the “rapport” and “trust”
necessary for collaboration and, ultimately, instructional change in the classroom.
Similar to Willow, Elm described her coaching style as one that prioritizes rapport. She
explained her style as follows:
I think my approach was to...to build rapport and try to understand where they're coming
from. And I went out, and I showed them how they were going to teach their teachers
how to log in, and to show them how to [log in], give them an overview of Elevations’
[curriculum], and bookmark their thing, and show them the forms, talk them through
doing the forms.
In this excerpt, Elm described the initial building blocks to collaboration in explaining that her
initial approach when working with a teacher is to “build rapport” and “understand where they’re
[teachers] coming from”. Research by Zuspan (2013) parallels Elm’s statement outlining a need
for an instructional coach to communicate to build relationships (rapport) and present themselves
a “collaborative colleague.” The description by Elm of an initial exchange between her and a
classroom teacher—and her purpose behind it—resonates with the work of Zuspan (2013).
Finally, the thoughts offered by a fifth ELL TOSA, Pine, parallel those of Walnut, Maple,
and build upon the extant research on collaboration. First, Pine defined her style as follows:
I don't think I judge. I listen to them. I'm able to listen, but then we get to
what we're supposed to be doing. What strategies should we use…?
Pine later added more evidence to shape her definition:
Once you sit down and do the pre-planning and the pre-conference, you really get to
know the teacher and see, and kind of guide them to where you think maybe is the
biggest need for them, so that you can work on that.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 62
Pine explained how she begins with listening to the teacher and follows that by engaging them in
collaboration around strategy implementation. Further, she described the role that the
collaborative practice of “pre-planning” or “pre-conferencing” has in her role of supporting
classroom teachers. Research by Showers and Joyce (1996) supports Pine’s example of a
conversation around practice leading to planning or conferencing to plan for classroom
implementation. Showers and Joyce (1996) reiterate the results of their studies over the years on
coaching and define “coaching relationships” as those that share aspects of teaching, including
the practice of strategies. The “coaching relationship” defined by Showers and Joyce (1996)
parallels both the coaching style and the collaborative pre-lesson process described in the
example proffered by Pine.
The manner in which all of the ELL TOSAs defined their styles as collaborative is a
significant finding as it relates to their goal of supporting classroom teachers of ELLs and the
Seafarm School District goal of increasing ELL student achievement. In their case study of
professional development, Czajka and McConnell (2016) share that professional development
models that use some form of collaboration result in being drivers for instructional change.
Further, research supports that these collaborative relationships were important in improving
instruction (Baker & Showers, 1984). Specifically, for teachers involved in a coaching
relationship, teacher implementation of effective skills and strategies increased more than for
those teachers not involved in a coaching relationship (Baker & Showers, 1984).
All of the ELL TOSAs defined their coaching style as collaborative and were able to
provide specific examples as evidence to support that they understood the role that collaboration
plays in the coaching of teachers. This is in keeping with the literature on effective coaching
strategies and supports the importance of the ELL TOSAs possessing the conceptual knowledge
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 63
of effective collaboration techniques as important tools to use with classroom teachers as they
work with them to make meaning of effective practices and build their capacity (Russell, 2016;
Youniss, 2011).
Importantly, all of the ELL TOSAs shared this knowledge. Further, all of the ELL
TOSAs shared an example of the learned knowledge of collaboration and the role that it plays in
their work with classroom teachers.
Organization Providing Professional Development for Coaches

The ELL TOSA’s knowledge of collaboration did not acquire in a vacuum. Interviews
with the ELL TOSAs surfaced collaboration as an effective coaching strategy that was learned
through professional development paid for by the Seafarm School District and provided by their
local county office of education. All five of the ELL TOSAs indicated they have received
professional development on effective strategies for instructional coaching. This is an important
finding as extant research on instructional coaching stresses the importance of professional
development for coaches who work with classroom teachers (Gibson, 2011; Heineke, 2013;
Knight, 2006). Additionally, four of the five ELL TOSAs mentioned attending the same
particular instructional coach training provided by their local county office of education.
However, Elm provided details about the ELL TOSAs’ work within the county-led professional
development opportunity. When asked about any professional development opportunities that
she felt were most valuable, Elm stated:
I attended another part of the Year-Two Coaching, but in the Year-One Coaching, we
worked on how to approach people and how to talk to people and how to use the different
coaching methods. While I may not be able to tell you all the names of them, I got a
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 64
feeling for what was my style and that was nice. We got an idea about what was
effective.
The detail in Elm’s statement about working on “how to talk to people and use different
coaching methods” is significant. Her statement speaks not only to receiving professional
development but conveys the specific evidence about receiving training on how to collaborate
(“talk”) to people (“classroom teachers”) while coaching. Research on instructional coaching
supports providing professional development to coaches, including on aspects of collaboration
(Gibson, 2011; Heineke, 2013; Knight, 2006).
Maple offered evidence of receiving professional development, as well. She stated:
I'd say the [county office] trainings with the coaching and the EL[L] Network. We get to
read a lot of articles that have recent information on things that we should know because
they're occurring now. We look at that, and we always take ideas from the [county office
of education].
In her statement, Maple provided evidence of receiving professional development in current
coaching practices. The provision of current practices is important according to research on
coaching indicates a need for coaches to receive professional development (Knight, 2006).
Willow provided evidence of receiving professional development from the local county
office of education in effective coaching strategies, as well. She stated:
For me, I've gotta say there was a couple. One of them was, of course, getting an
opportunity to look in depth at the standards, purpose and then the second one was…I
went at the county…was on coaching, what coaching looks like. What coaching should
look like. How to approach it. There's some teachers that are ready, willing, and able to
accept the coaching, some teachers that definitely don't want it, and those that are on the
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 65
fence. And so, to me, that was very helpful to be able to just sit at a training, and take a
look at what research says coaching should look like,
and being able to digest it with my colleagues.
Willow described two professional development scenarios that provided support for content-area
knowledge and for coaching. Participation in several professional development opportunities that
cover the aforementioned topics are identified as important in coaching research (Heineke, 2013;
Knight, 2006). While the two professional development opportunities Willow described
supported the development of knowledge of effective coaching strategies, her description did not
illustrate embedded opportunities within those sessions to practice those strategies. The
opportunities to practice coaching strategies are important and explicitly called for in the
research on coaching. Knight (2006) states that coaches should participate in various
professional learning activities to improve their coaching practices, delivery of those practices,
coaching dialogues and deepen content-area knowledge.
The professional development provided by the local county office of education surfaced,
again, in a statement by Walnut. She shared:
I could probably say at least there's three different ones, I think that have been continuous
as last year. The EL[L]- and DL-Network at the county level, I have found that probably
to be one of my most favorite PDs I've had, because we get to interact with people at the
county level, but most importantly, people and surrounding districts and get ideas off one
another.
In this statement, Walnut discussed receiving professional development that provided an
opportunity to interact with surrounding districts and collaborate. Research supports this type of
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 66
interaction. In fact, one practice outlined in the research as being helpful is providing coaches
with regular coach-to-coach collaboration opportunities (Knight, 2006).
Another, ELL TOSA, Pine added:
The most beneficial trainings for me in terms of professional development have been the
ones that have been follow ups, and not just a one-time thing. Then they're actually
focused on what our need as a TOSA is, and what the organization focus is, and allowing
us to continue to go to that type of training.
This statement by Pine illustrates the supporting role that the organization plays in providing
professional development to the ELL TOSAs. Further, it shows that, as supported in the
literature, professional development opportunities that focused on the coaching needs of the ELL
TOSAs are more useful for coaches than those that are “one time” sessions. Additionally, Pine’s
comment regarding professional development opportunities that are “actually focused on what
our need as a TOSA is” parallels research that supports providing professional development to
instructional coaches in areas important to their specific contexts (Heineke, 2013).
Overall, the data from the ELL TOSA interviews facilitates the understanding of
Research Question #1 and part of Research Question #2 related to ELL TOSA knowledge.
Specific to Research Question #1, data from the interviews provides insight into one aspect of
the ELL TOSAs’ knowledge. Specifically, knowledge related to providing support to teachers in
effective instructional strategies for ELLs. Further, with regard to Research Question #2,
interview data provided a view of how the organization’s current systemic practice for delivering
professional development partially supports the ELL TOSAs’ knowledge as they provide
instructional support to classroom teachers of ELLs.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 67
More importantly, data from the ELL TOSA interviews helped to outline the interaction
between the knowledge influences and organizational influences on the ELL TOSAs. With
specific regard to this, Elm stated:
I guess I would say we get a lot of professional development. That's one of the really
wonderful things about working in [the district]. Pretty much, there's very little that is off
limits to me, far as training… doing these professional developments ourselves made us
really dig deep and have to learn [coaching] things better.
Her statement, in particular, articulates the interaction between the ELL TOSA awareness of
effective coaching strategies (collaboration) and how the organization facilitated the learning of
these strategies by sponsoring professional development opportunities to build their capacity.
Further, the data reflects the interactions as illustrated in the conceptual framework for this
research where the organizational influences directly impact the knowledge influences and,
eventually, the goal attainment of the ELLs TOSAs as they work to support all classroom
teachers of ELLs at their assigned school sites.
Knowledge of Modeling as An Effective Coaching Strategy

Three of the ELL TOSAs in the Seafarm School District indicated a knowledge of
modeling as an effective coaching practice. This is consistent with extant research on effective
coaching practices. One example of this knowledge is in the coaching session described by Elm:
In the room that I was doing the takeover, the teacher was given a choice of how much he
wanted to be there during that time. And what I did was, he was a very experienced
teacher who'd been teaching a long time and knew his topics, but his technique was still
the sage on the stage type of thing. And he was doing pair-share, but what I did was, by
modeling in his classroom, I took him and his students out, and he got to see me model
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 68
different strategies for involving more students [in academic discourse] at a time. And
after we did that, we sat and we talked about how well we thought it went… So, we
debriefed on why, and talked about ways that he could implement things [strategies that
promote discourse].
The techniques outlined in Elm’s comments are consistent with the research on modeling as an
effective coaching technique. For example, Elm was invited to do an instructional takeover and
work with the teacher. In this case, the teacher was employing a “sage on the stage” method of
instructional delivery—direct instruction—despite the occasional use of the “pair-share” strategy
promote student discourse. As the instructional problem of practice in focus for the takeover was
to provide more opportunities for students to engage in discourse, she modeled “different
strategies for involving more students [in discourse] at a time.” Further, she and the teacher
“debriefed on why, and talked about ways that he could implement things.” In her statement,
Elm illustrated a research-based example of how to employ modeling as a scaffold or supplement
to support understanding of a particular instructional strategy or practice (Gibson, 2011;
McCollum et al., 2011; Reddy, et al., 2017).
Another ELL TOSA, Pine, went farther by outlining the modeling process that she
employs:
Let's plan the lesson, let's look at where you're at in your curriculum, and let's see how I
can incorporate that strategy using your exact manual, your curriculum," so it's a thing
that I'm having time to do, "and let's plan it together." Kind of like a fishbowl. Look and
see how I'm thinking, this is where I got this, this is where I'm going to put this, this is
why I'm doing this. Then going through the lesson and saying, "Do you have any
questions in terms of what you think you're going to see, or maybe you're not sure?" Then
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 69
actually going into the classroom and modeling the lesson where the teacher is just there,
not disciplining, not getting involved, but just taking notes.
Pine stated that she worked with the classroom teacher to “plan the lesson” and “look at where
[they are] at in [their] curriculum to “incorporate that strategy.” Research is consistent with the
processes that she describes. Knight (2009) suggests that it is important for the instructional
coach and the classroom teacher to co-construct an observation form that identifies one key
aspect of the lesson for teachers to focus upon and observe rather than the classroom teacher
observing every aspect of the lesson much like the process described by Pine.
Willow, too, described a coaching session similar to those of Elm and Pine. She stated:
So, we would start to analyze groups, and then we, strategizing, and then some of the
teachers took me up on it, modeling lessons, but it was more like, I would go in, we
would plan, I'd go in and model, but then I would observe them as well, and so give
feedback.
Willow described analyzing student data, strategizing with teachers, and modeling. Specific to
modeling, she shared about “modeling lessons, but it was more like…go[ing] in and planning.”
This, too, is consistent with research on modeling as an effective practice for the coaching of
classroom teachers that suggests modeling can be done in pre-planning or via the delivery of
demonstration lessons—both of which are described by Willow in her statement (Knight, 2009;
Reddy et al., 2017).
While all of the ELL TOSAs indicated receiving their knowledge of collaboration
through professional development, there was no specific evidence in the interview data to
support that their knowledge of modeling as an effective coaching strategy derived from any
organizational influence.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 70
Knowledge of Feedback as an Effective Coaching Strategy

Data from the ELL TOSA interviews indicated that all five of the ELL TOSAs had
knowledge of feedback as an effective coaching strategy. Research suggests that successful
coaches possess the ability to provide feedback. According to Gibson (2011), feedback is defined
as “coaching conversations” that involve the coach and teacher examining—and having a
conversation about—the students’ response to instruction to make informed instructional
decisions together.
Elm, provided evidence of this type of “coaching conversation” in the following
example:
Well, you have to be very careful with it [feedback], that it's constructive, and that it's
something that the teacher wants. And that's one thing we've been learning in these
trainings, that the feedback, a lot of times is being metacognitive. They have to think
themselves, [we have to ask] “how do you think your lesson went?” rather than [us]
giving [them] an opinion ourselves.
Elm described her thought process behind scaffolding the metacognitive process with a question
for the classroom teacher. She asked, “how do you think your lesson went?” This is to support
the lesson reflection and is consistent with the research on providing feedback. The intention of
this question is to provide a scaffolded approach to coaching that would be internalized by the
teacher in the hopes that they would embed similar processes into their own pedagogy (Gibson,
2011). So, Elm demonstrated here her developing knowledge of how to provide feedback in a
constructive and safe way through questioning.

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 71
Pine goes further by describing how the feedback process and conversation evolved
during her support of one particular teacher. She shared:
I went in with this one teacher who at first wasn't too sure, but because I was able to say,
"I want to try this strategy. If you do the favor it's just really for me. Then I want you to
take notes and tell me what I can do better, and see how the students are doing." Because
I was able to do that, then the teacher felt comfortable where I was able to approach and
observe that one teacher do a different lesson but using the same strategy, and being able
to debrief and say, "I really like what you did here, and this is what the students said, but
maybe let's come back and focus. Because I saw that you were going maybe a little bit
off topic, let's focus. What is it that you want the students to learn, if you can get back to
that?"
In her description, Pine’s illustrated how she began with describing the feedback process in a
way that “the teacher felt comfortable.” This enabled her to “approach and observe” that teacher
employing “the same strategy” in a later lesson and to provide her feedback on its
implementation. She continued to share about her approach to providing feedback:
It has to be really carefully thought out how it's going to be presented. One of the things I
like to do is, I always try to put in some positives before, of what I saw and how students
were reacting or incorporating, or acting in the lesson. If I'm able to tell a teacher, for
example, "I saw that by using this strategy that the students were really engaged, and this
is how they were engaged, and this is what I saw," and then maybe get to, by looking at
my notes and saying, "In this area this is what this one child, why do you think this one
child said that? What's your opinion?" I kind of gear them towards maybe where they
might need a little bit of extra support in changing the way they presented their lesson.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 72
In her conversation with the classroom teacher, Pine began by providing positive comments to
set the tone of the conversation immediately after observing a lesson. She admitted that “it
[feedback] has to be really carefully thought out, how it's going to be presented” and said she
begins her feedback conversation by saying how she “really like[d] what you [the teacher] did
here.” From this comfortable vantage point in the feedback conversation, she can move into
questions related to instructional practice more easily. She continued, by saying, "in this area this
is what this one child [said], why do you think this one child said that? What's your opinion?"
and then “kind of gear[s] them towards maybe where they might need a little bit of extra support.
Willow described a similar feedback conversation process during one of her coaching
opportunities with a classroom teacher. She shared:
I start by giving positive [feedback], based on observations, and it mostly centers around
how students reacted to instruction, so taking the personal aspect out. Were they
engaged? Were they motivated? Did they really learn the standards that were targeted?
So, looking at those pieces, so focusing my feedback specifically on lesson effectiveness.
Willow, also, said she begins by “giving positive [feedback]” to the classroom teacher to remove
the “personal aspect” and professionalize the feedback conversation. Much like Pine and Elm,
she asks questions to the classroom teacher that promote reflection on her lesson: “Were they
engaged? Were they motivated? Did they really learn the standards that were targeted?”
Additionally, Maple, provided an account of a time when she engaged in a reciprocated
feedback process with a classroom teacher after she and the teacher both presented a lesson.
"I model a lesson, and you give me feedback, and then you model a lesson, and I give
you feedback." We have a focus. So, let's say, for example, the focus is a strategy that
talks about actively listening and speaking skills. We'll talk about what strategies we're
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 73
going to use. The teacher will give me feedback as far as how much of the lesson the
students understood. If the lesson went well, by that meaning if the students learned it,
and any modifications that had to be done during the lesson that weren't planned because
we needed to go back, check for understanding, and reteach ... Then we would then
switch it with a teacher, and she would focus on the same thing.
Her account of the feedback process mirrors that of her colleagues. Similarly, she prompts
reflection on the lesson by asking about “how much of the lesson the students understood.”
Then, moves into promoting lesson refinement and “any modifications that had to be done
during the lesson that weren't planned” to support future planning of instruction.
Finally, Walnut shared about a feedback conversation that she had with a classroom teacher with
home she shared a reciprocated feedback process. She described the following:
We [ELL TOSA and classroom teacher] talked about what we saw, what we thought
worked really well and what we thought we both could work on. I've made myself very
human because I know my lesson wasn't perfect.
Research on effective coaching strategies resonates with how the ELL TOSAs described
their use of feedback with the classroom teachers that they support. First, it is in agreement with
the timing of the feedback process. Four of the five ELL TOSAs described scenarios that
occurred immediately after the delivery of a lesson. Czajka and McConnell (2016) propose
feedback be provided to the classroom teacher immediately after a lesson to ensure successful
implementation of instruction. Thus, the majority of the teachers in this study had knowledge of
good feedback practices. Additionally, Pine described offering feedback that is “carefully
thought out,” Willow described “giving positive feedback,” and Walnut discussed making
herself “very human” as they engaged in the feedback conversation process to improve
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 74
instruction. Accordingly, Gibson (2011) recommends that feedback that is provided to the
classroom teacher should be in the form of a supportive conversation about what occurred and
offer refinements to their practice.
Finally, only one ELL TOSA, Elm, made reference to learning about feedback as a
coaching strategy from training. Given this, there was not enough evidence to support that the
ELL TOSA knowledge of feedback as an effective coaching strategy was due to an
organizational influence.
Theme 2: The Interaction Between Motivation (Self-Efficacy) And the Organization
The interactions that surfaced between the motivation influences and the influences of the
organization helped to address Research Question #1 and Research Question #2 (above).
Specifically, self-reported data provided insight into the ELL TOSAs’ motivation related to
providing support to teachers in effective instructional strategies for ELLs (Research Question
#1) in relation to both ill-defined roles that cause competing priorities. Additionally, interview
data provided insight into Research Question #2 regarding the interaction between the
organization’s current systemic practice for delivering professional development and the ELL
TOSAs’ knowledge as they provide instructional support to classroom teachers of ELLs while
assuming a heavy workload.
Motivation (Self-Efficacy) and Conflicting Priorities

Interview data revealed insight into the ELL TOSAs motivation and its interaction with
an organizational factor. Specifically, the data from three of the five interviews surfaced self-
reported concerns about the ELL TOSAs’ sense of self-efficacy. Further, the data illustrated that
the ELL TOSAs do not feel efficacious in their assignments for two reasons. First, they indicated
that they are given other duties to perform that take time away from supporting teachers of ELLs.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 75
Further, they indicated that they have a large workload. These findings are important as research
suggests the importance of self-efficacy to instructional coach goal attainment (Cantrell et al.,
2015). Bandura (1997) defines self-efficacy as an individual’s belief in their capacity to perform
an action or task. Further, Bandura (1997) contends that increasing self-efficacy has an impact on
one’s effort, persistence, and resilience as they work toward the attainment of their goals.
Pine expressed the following concerns about other duties when asked about her self-
efficacy as related to job performance. She states:
I think the reality is that there has to be more TOSAs. Especially just focused on EL[L]s,
not ‘I’m going to do EL[L]s but I’m also going to do math, I’m going to do science,’ and
all that. That is really difficult, and trying to be an expert in all the areas.
Pine’s sense of self-efficacy was affected by an additional weight of losing time for supporting
teachers of ELLs because of a need to support other content areas—math and science. By saying
“that is really difficult, and trying to be an expert in all the areas,” she was alluding to her lack of
confidence in being able to do that. Pine suggested that this is primarily due to the lack of TOSA
positions in the Seafarm District when she said, “there has to be more TOSAs.” While working
with over 300 instructional coaches over the course of one year, Knight (2006) found that the
schedules of instructional coaches are more flexible than most other district personnel.
Consequently, their time gets reassigned to other areas. However, Knight (2006) argues that
coaching requires a trust and, relevant to Pine’s concerns, time to be effective. Being pulled
away to support teachers in other content areas takes away from the time she has to build trust
with, and support, the teachers of ELLs to whom she is assigned.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 76
Pine was not alone in feeling this way. Willow spoke to how her sense of efficacy is
directly affected by being given other duties to perform that take time away from supporting
teachers of ELLs:
…Part of my duties were to focus on compliance. Other duties were to help on district
projects as assigned. And then the third part of it was to support teachers and there was
just not enough time.
Willow’s response was similar to that of Pine as she indicated a feeling of inefficacy as she
attempted to support classroom teachers of ELLs. Willow was effective in communicating her
frustrations about having multiple responsibilities and how her work to support teachers of ELLs
was complicated by having to work on “other duties” like “compliance” and “district projects.” It
is documented in the research that instructional coaches’ self-efficacy is affected by competing
priorities (Cantrell et al., 2015). This practice is contrary to practices outlined in the research.
Although many districts ask coaches to complete clerical or non-instructional tasks, it is a “poor
way to spend money” and time while being an ineffective organizational practice toward
improving instructional practice (Knight, 2006; Fullan & Knight, 2011). In this study, too, being
split between many varied responsibilities contributed to a feeling of low self-efficacy among the
ELL TOSAs.
Motivation (Self-Efficacy) and Workload

Interactions between the organization’s practice for delivering professional development
and the ELL TOSAs’ motivation also surfaced in three ELL TOSA interviews. The data revealed
one reason the ELL TOSAs do not feel efficacious was their workload. This barrier is different
from working on other duties assigned to them as described in the above section. In this
situation, ELL TOSAs expressed concerns about the number of schools and teachers they have
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 77
been assigned to support. Three of the five ELL TOSAs indicated that being given additional
schools sites to support this year contributed to their inefficacy.
For example, Walnut offered the following:
Two of us having seven school sites, and the other person having six, it's not really
manageable. It's a lot, and I think maybe if it was like how it was in years past where we
didn't start at schools, one day a week, maybe the six or seven schools would have been
manageable, but for example, the four schools I had last year I have this year. They're
kind of like, ‘Well, we want to see you. We saw you once a week.’ But then how having
seven school sites, and two of them are the highest populated EL K-8 schools… a lot of
my support have been to those two new schools for two reasons. I think time
management has been pretty difficult for me, because I want everyone to be happy, and I
want to help and support as many people as I could. I just don't have the time to do that.
So, I think that's what's been very difficult with the reorganization of us this past year,
getting almost double the number of schools.
She continued to describe how this new workload affected her efficacy:
But the school sites we had last year, they were used to a certain
type of practice, and I think they liked seeing us because they knew we
were there to support them. I felt like I was part of their staff. I was just
one of them, even if I was just there one day a week, and this year I don't
get that same feeling because I can't be in six other places at one time.
In her statement, Walnut described how things [providing support] have been “difficult with the
reorganization of us this past year” because schools “were used to a certain type of practice.”
Further, she referenced a “certain type of practice” that speaks about a level of quality support
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 78
that teachers were expecting. However, keeping the quality of her support has proven difficult
for Walnut. She recognized the difference in the quality of her support and proffered a reason for
the difference stating that this year she didn’t “get that same feeling because [she] can't be in six
other places at one time.” The aforementioned statements illustrate that the reconfiguration of
ELL TOSA assignments has had an impact on Walnut’s sense of self-efficacy as she struggled to
provide consistent quality and support to the classroom teachers of ELLs at her assigned school
sites. Her feelings are significant as research on self-efficacy informs that increasing a sense of
self-efficacy is important to increasing the effort, persistence, and resilience brought to a task
(Bandura, 1997).
Pine also expressed concerns about her workload:
Currently, six schools…No, it's really difficult and you know, I was
thinking about all weekend in terms of how successful can I be as a
teacher, having five, six schools is very difficult.
By asking “how successful can I be?” Pine was alluding to her lack of self-efficacy in doing a
good job. The concern expressed by Pine regarding ELL TOSA efforts spread across different
schools and, more importantly, areas of focus is supported in the research. Mangin and
Dunsmore (2015) highlighted the importance of cohesion between district goals, coach training,
and coaching practices. Specifically, the authors suggest that a lack of cohesion between those
endeavors will pose a challenge to coaches’ efforts to do their jobs in ways that they perceive to
be effective (Mangin & Dunsmore, 2015).
Willow also spoke of those challenges. She stated:
In my case, I was spread thin, a lot of schools, a lot of students, and so managed to make
some connection, but I don't know that I was truly as effective as I would have liked,
because I wasn't in there as much to change, really, the practice.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 79
Willow’s response was similar to that of Walnut and Pine as she explained how she attempted to
support classroom teachers of ELLs across all of the schools to which she was assigned. Willow,
however, was perhaps the most direct about how the workload affected her sense of self-efficacy
when she stated that she didn’t “know if she was truly as effective as [she] would have liked”
because she wasn’t able to “be there [at school sites] as much to change, really, the practice.”
This is contrary to prevalent practices outlined in the research that call for instructional coaches
and teacher to have sufficient and/or dedicated time and space for collaboration (Knight, 2006;
Fullan & Knight, 2011; Steckel, 2009).
The aforementioned statements illustrate how increased workload has affected ELL
TOSA self-efficacy based on their self-reports. However, while not directly commenting on the
effect of her new workload, a fourth ELL TOSA made a connection between the new workload
placed upon the ELL TOSAs and the organization’s current systemic practice for providing
fiscal support to the positions. Elm shared:
One of the difficult things is at one time, there were five of us covering 20 schools. Now
there's three. So, we have seven schools. I'd like to see that they thought we were so
valuable that they had to have one of us at every school. But I don't think that's going to
happen anytime soon. Not unless there's money…Well, every year, you wonder, are they
going to approve us again?
In her comment, Elm references that at one time there were more ELL TOSAs funded by the
Seafarm School District but that those positions were eliminated or vacancies not filled. This
added to the current ELL TOSA workload. Her comment is significant as research suggests that
a district’s financial and programmatic resources have an impact on reform efforts like the
creation and support of instructional coaching positions (Mangin, 2009). Moreover, research has
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 80
found that schools that invest in professional development and teacher leaders to lead these
initiatives positively affect student outcomes (Odden & Archibald, 2001).
Theme 3: The Interaction Between the Organization and Motivation (Attribution)
The interactions that surfaced in the ELL TOSA interview data between the motivation
influences and the influences of the organization helped to inform Research Question #2 and
Research Question #2 (above). Specifically, the ELL TOSAs indicated how organizational
influences, such as how they are perceived, influence their goal attainment. Additionally, in
relation to Research Question #1, data provided insight into the ELL TOSAs’ motivation related
to providing support to teachers in effective instructional strategies for ELLs. The ELL TOSAs
interviewed stated how teachers’ perceptions about their role affect their sense of attribution.
Organizational Influence: Perceived Roles and Responsibilities of the ELL TOSA

Four out of five of ELL TOSAs in the Seafarm School District indicated that there is
confusion about how their roles are perceived. This is consistent with the literature on
instructional coaching positions as they are often ill-defined and are relied upon to fill multiple
roles in school districts because of their expertise and flexible schedules (Knight, 2006). Because
of the murky definition of the role and where the positions are housed, many classroom teachers
view the ELL TOSAs as having an administrative role. Thus, affecting the ELL TOSAs coaching
relationship with the teachers that they support. For example, Elm described one interaction that
occurred while coaching a classroom teacher:
Maybe there's a fear of it [coaching support], just a natural fear. And maybe it's our
connection with the district office, a fear that it's evaluative, or somebody's gonna
criticize their teaching. I don't know.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 81
Elm’s use of the word “fear” and “connection with the district office” speaks to how she
perceived teachers see her and her role. There is evidence from the field that suggests that
teachers do perceive the instructional coach role as that of a critic or evaluator, especially if their
roles are not clearly defined and articulated (Guiney, 2001; Vermont Agency of Education,
2016). This study parallels the statement that “Elm” provided.
Maple had a similar example of the misperception of her role and how it affected the
coaching scenario:
Under those situations, it's difficult because it's almost like it's a battle within the
administrator and the teacher. There's always something usually going on when the
outcome is not positive because now they're sending me, the person might think that I'm
going in as a spy, telling the principal, and there really isn't much that I can do with the
teacher because they don't want anyone to tell them that their lesson didn't teach the
students anything.
Here, Maple used the word “spy” which, if correct, means the teachers don’t trust the coaches, a
prerequisite for a productive coaching relationship. Maple’s statement is reflected in the research
by Fullan and Knight (2011). They contend that lack of clarity on instructional coaches’ roles
often prompts resistance. These “situations,” as referred to by Maple, occur as a result of staff
and faculty perceptions about the ELL TOSA role. The aforementioned being a direct result of
the ill-defined roles of the ELL TOSAs in the Seafarm School District that is contrary to research
on best practices.
Walnut also indicated similar sentiments. She stated:
Well, I think last year part of the reason why it was difficult—and something I wasn't
expecting to happen—was many of my colleagues looked at me differently. I had worked
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 82
with many schools—my first five years I was at five different schools because that was
just something that ended up happening if you're lower on the list of teachers. But, I was
really surprised where teachers I have known for many years looked at me differently. I
would ...we were encouraged to drop by classrooms and see how things were going and
for some teachers they appreciated that, but a majority of them felt kind of intimidated
and didn't see me as a teacher anymore, but saw me as an administrator or someone from
the district that was popping in and seeing if they were doing their job, which wasn't our
intention, but I think that was something that was really hard for me to overcome.
Here, Walnut was surprised to find that the teachers “didn’t see me as a teacher anymore” and
that they were “intimidated” by her presence. The comment by Walnut illustrates a
misperception about ELL TOSA motives because of a false association between TOSAs and
administrators. Guiney (2001) found that teachers feel anxiety about an instructional coach's role
and about them being in their classrooms. Additionally, if the instructional coach role is not
clearly defined, teachers perceive instructional coaches to be in an evaluative role, which as
Walnut said, “wasn’t our intention.” This perception can present as a barrier to the ELL TOSAs
goal of supporting them.
Organizational Influence and Attribution

Attribution is the perception an individual has about her control to bring about outcomes
(Weiner, 1986 in Pintrich, 2003). Additionally, Pajares (2006) suggests that unless individuals
believe that their actions will have the desired consequences, they have little motivation to
engage in those actions. The lack of clarity regarding the roles and responsibilities of the ELL
TOSA position was reported to have fostered teacher resistance to support, leaving the ELL
TOSAs to feel that their actions did not contribute to instructional change. Fullan and Knight
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 83
(2011) contend that effective instructional coaching programs have clearly defined roles within
the coaching model. Research by the Vermont Education Agency (2016) suggests that teachers
should perceive their instructional coaches as peers, rather than administrators for instructional
change to occur. This places the ELL TOSA position in a non-evaluative role making it easier to
build a coach to teacher relationship and alleviate teacher resistance against instructional change.
Data from the interviews indicated that four out of five ELL TOSAs did not attribute their
attempts to support classroom teachers as making a difference toward instructional change
because of teacher resistance to their ill-defined role.
In one example, Elm described her efforts to train a school-site coach and how she
questioned whether those efforts served to accomplish change:
So, this is coach-to-coach training…they really dug in their feet, and they didn't wanna
do it. And it got to the point where the superintendent was in there in it too and saying,
they still are working, they need to do this. Yet, one of my sites, the coach didn't wanna
do it. So, I went to my boss, and I'm like, ‘Okay, can I give them some options?’ And
that's what we did. We basically said, we finally relented a little bit and said that I could
do the training, and this person had to watch and learn, or that I come train her, and then
she would do the training later. So, they opted for the first, and she sat through the
training, never got up, never interacted with any teachers, and so what did I accomplish
with that?
This statement illustrates how Elm was left questioning the impact that her support had toward
changing instructional practice. She said, “so what did I accomplish with that?” This is
significant for the ELL TOSAs, as it is important for them to perceive that their actions increase
teacher efficacy, instruction, and ultimately student achievement. Research on instructional
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 84
coaching defines the role of a coach to be a learning relationship between an instructional coach
and a classroom teacher that is predicated upon student outcomes and where both parties have a
shared ownership of those outcomes (Knight 2006; Kurz et al., 2017). If only the coach is
expending effort, as in this illustrative case, then there is no “shared ownership” of the process or
the outcomes.
Pine described a similar scenario between herself and the teachers:
I think sometimes teachers will want you in there just so that you can show what you do
know or don't know. They don't want to be coached, they want to judge and say, "See, it's
not that easy." It's not really where they want to be engaged in a coaching mode for them.
I went in there and we talked about, with one teacher, the lesson we were going to do, the
strategy we were going to use, and how I was going to model then the teacher was going
to model. But we got to the point where we did all the debriefing with me modeling the
lesson, but when it came down to that teacher to do her modeling it was, "I can't, have to
postpone," cancel, cancel, cancel. Then, by the time we would set it up again, it was
already too big of a window. For me that wasn't successful at all in terms of what the
teacher wanted.
Pine’s statement illustrates an interaction wherein, again, the teacher was resistant to the ELL
TOSA support. Her statement about the teacher not wanting to be engaged in a “coaching mode”
speaks to teacher resistance due to a lack of understanding of the ELL TOSAs role. She indicated
that the teacher expected her to go to her classroom so that she can “show what you [ELL TOSA
can] do or don't know” and then “judge and say, ‘See, it's not that easy’” rather than participate
in a coaching model. In the end, Pine perceived that the interaction “wasn’t successful.” Pine’s
perceptions about this teacher’s resistance to coaching and the outcomes are substantiated in the
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 85
literature. Fullan and Knight (2011) found that ill-defined roles for coaches and their efforts
foster teacher resistance and do not yield significant change in the classrooms.
Willow shared an example when a teacher perceived herself as more knowledgeable than
the ELL TOSA. This perception caused resistance for Willow as she worked to support the
teacher. She recounted,
There was, definitely, times when I felt like the teacher was going through the motions,
but not really looking to improve their craft. We revisited, went over some of the points,
modeled a few more lessons, but it almost seems like the teacher needs to be willing to
grow, to look to somebody else for advice. I guess I would say advice. There was
instances where teachers felt like they were doing the best they can, and they knew more,
or there was nothing more to be learned, or learned from me, for example.
Here, as with Pine’s example, the teacher was simply “going through the motions” which again
points to the teacher not being in the “coaching mode.” What’s different here is Walnut’s
comment that the teachers “knew more, or there was nothing more to be learned, or learned from
me.” The research of Knight (2000) found similar instances as the one described in the statement
from Willow. Many teachers do not believe in the qualifications of instructional coaches
(Knight, 2000). An understanding of the qualifications necessary to become an ELL TOSA
within clearly defined roles would alleviate the tensions and resistance outlined above by Pine
and Willow.
A fourth ELL TOSA, Walnut described an instance where a lack of understanding
regarding the work experience and daily role of the ELL TOSAs created resistance from one
teacher. Walnut shared:
I figured I had to pick my battles and she [classroom teacher] was at least willing to meet
with me next week and then I would meet with her next week. So, when I asked her what
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 86
she saw, did she see anything that could work for her and her teaching practice? She said,
"Well everything you did was really great, but I don't have the time to plan." And this
was her first time, she said, teaching ELD because usually they have another teacher that
was a four-hour teacher to teach it for many years…So I had just a lot of resistance and
she, basically, didn't say ... didn’t say the words, but she pretty much hinted that I have a
lot of time to plan for lessons and doing dog and pony shows and not for a real classroom
teacher. It wasn't manageable. So, I said, "Okay. Well that's your opinion and I hope you
could take at least one thing from this lesson that you did." So, I talked to my director. I
said, "What do I do now? Do I try and check in?" She's like, "Pop in, email her. See how
it goes from there." And I tried emailing her. I never got a response and I do see her when
I go on campus and it's a simple hello, but that ... And that was a learning experience for
me because I can't meet every teacher's needs and I can't change their opinion about a
subject that they're not comfortable teaching.
The teacher in the scenario shared by Walnut did not understand the full scope of work and time
commitment required for the ELL TOSA position, which created the perception that the TOSAs
have much more time to plan and for “dog and pony” shows. Here, too, the teacher sent the
message that the TOSA was not considered a teacher anymore, but one that had much more free
time. This is yet another example of the lack of knowledge and understanding of the ELL
TOSAs roles and responsibilities at the school sites. Moreover, Walnut’s admission of not being
able to meet teacher needs nor change teacher opinions regarding teaching regardless of her
efforts as an ELL TOSA illustrates her lack of attribution. Moreover, while she didn’t say it
explicitly, Walnut’s comment alluded to the fact that while she would try the strategies suggested
by her director, she would not go out of her way to help someone who was resistant to receiving
her help. Fullan and Knight (2011) suggest defining instructional coach roles within system-wide
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 87
change initiative that combines their recognized knowledge and expertise at an instructional level
with recognized knowledge and expertise of district-wide initiatives. In one study, Fullan and
Knight (2011) have found that teachers’ positive experiences contributed to a positive shift in
culture and student achievement. As such, clearly defining the ELL TOSA role and positioning
them as both a classroom- and district-level change agents would support ELL TOSAs and
Seafarm School District.
The aforementioned examples outline how the ill-defined roles and responsibilities for
the ELL TOSAs led to teacher resistance that affected the TOSAs’ attribution. Examples of
teacher resistance based on the uncertainty of the ELL TOSA roles were shared by four out of
the five ELL TOSAs. This finding speaks to the interaction motivation and organizational
influences upon the ELL TOSAs as they work to try to support classroom teachers of ELLs.
This section has provided evidence and supporting research to illustrate the interactions
between the Seafarm School District and the motivation (self-efficacy and attribution) of the
ELL TOSAs. Data from the ELL TOSA interviews about these interactions helped to answer
Research Question #1 and Research Question #2.
With respect to Research Question #2, data revealed that according to them, ELL TOSA
workload and systemic- and financial-support, or lack thereof, for the ELL TOSA positions
affected their self-efficacy. Also, the organizational influences such as lack of clarity about the
ELL TOSAs’ roles affected their sense of attribution because teacher resistance made it
impossible to feel successful as supportive coaches who shared ownership of the instructional
change efforts. These motivational influences affected the ELL TOSAs as they worked to
provide support to teachers in effective instructional strategies for ELLs. Additionally, the data
provided insight into Research Question #2 and illustrates the interaction between the Seafarm
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 88
School District’s systemic practice and fiscal support for delivering professional development
and the ELL TOSAs’ motivation to provide instructional support to classroom teachers.
Synthesis
This chapter presented the findings from two, semi-structured interviews with each ELL
TOSAs designed to ascertain the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on their
goal of providing instructional support in the area of effective instructional strategies for ELLs to
classroom teachers of ELLs at each of their assigned sites by June 2018. Several emergent
themes surfaced and specific evidence was presented to address the research questions. First,
evidence regarding interactions between knowledge and organizational influences were
explained and supported by current research on effective coaching strategies and professional
development for instructional coaches. Further, evidence was presented to illustrate the
interactions between motivation and organizational influences. This evidence was supported by
research on instructional coaching and motivation. Overall, the findings from the interviews
directly informed Research Question #1 and Research Question #2 (above).

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 89
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
The purpose of this research was to ascertain the assumed knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that affected the performance of the ELL TOSAs in the Seafarm
School District as they worked toward achieving their goal of supporting 100% of classroom
teachers of ELLs within each of their assigned school sites. The assumed influences were
identified and examined through qualitative research methodology that included two semi-
structured interviews with each ELL TOSA and extensive data analysis protocols. This chapter
will address the third project question: What are the recommendations for organizational practice
in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational resources? I will provide a grounding
principle from the literature and a research-based, context-specific, recommendation to address
each of the influences on ELL TOSA goal attainment.
Implications and Recommendations for Practice
As a result of the findings in this study, several implications for practice in the area of
providing effective instructional coaching for teachers of ELLs have surfaced. The Clark and
Estes (2008) gap analysis was the conceptual framework for this study. Given the
aforementioned, the following sections will outline research-based recommendations to address
the gaps in knowledge, motivation, and the organization’s cultural-models and cultural-practices
based on the findings from interviews with the ELL TOSAs. Further, they will provide an
overview of each of the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences along with
grounding principles from the literature that inform research-based, context-specific
recommendations.

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 90
Implications for Professional Development to Support ELL TOSA Knowledge
This research found that systems of support such as professional development for the
ELL TOSAs had an effect on ELL TOSA performance. Further, the data reflected the
interactions between ELL TOSA knowledge and the influence the organization has on ELL
TOSA knowledge as illustrated in the conceptual framework for this study. Specifically,
reflected in the interview data are where the organizational influences directly influenced the
TOSAs’ knowledge. One specific example shared by the ELL TOSAs was about the district’s
sponsorship of their attendance at professional development opportunities. Additionally, the
interview data illustrated the influence of professional development on some of the declarative
knowledge of ELL TOSAs as they described their use of effective coaching strategies. However,
this study also surfaced the importance of a professional delivery model that is ongoing and
includes opportunities for the ELL TOSAs to gain procedural knowledge specific to performing
their job tasks. This has implications on professional development programs that support
instructional coaches, or ELL TOSAs, as both the content and delivery model of the professional
development support declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge, respectively.
Recommendation for Supporting ELL TOSA Knowledge
Interview data illustrated that all of the ELL TOSAs possessed knowledge of both
collaboration and feedback as effective coaching strategies. Further, three of the ELL TOSAs in
the Seafarm School District possessed knowledge of modeling as an effective coaching practice.
However, while all of the ELL TOSAs indicated developing their knowledge of collaboration
through professional development, there was no specific evidence in the interview data to
support that their declarative knowledge or procedural knowledge—for those who possessed it—
of modelling or feedback derived from any organizational influence.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 91
This is significant as research suggests that to develop mastery, individuals must acquire
component skills, practice integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned
(Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). Accordingly, Clark and Estes (2008) specify that training
individuals with the “how to” knowledge and providing guided practice and feedback helps
individuals achieve their goal. Therefore, in order to ensure that all of the ELL TOSAs possess
the declarative knowledge of effective coaching strategies and the procedural knowledge of how
to operationalize them effectively, it is recommended that the Seafarm School District continue
professional development opportunities for ELL TOSAs. Specifically, it is important that they
receive professional development that focuses on practicing those effective coaching practices
during professional development sessions that are ongoing and include intentional opportunities
for the ELL TOSAs to practice those skills.
Implications for Supporting ELL TOSA Self-Efficacy
ELL TOSA interview data identified conflicting priorities as influences on their self-
efficacy toward goal attainment. Consequently, this has implications on a systemic level. With
regard to ELL TOSA data surrounding conflicting priorities, research suggests that instructional
coaches, such as the ELL TOSAs, must be situated within cohesive, district-wide professional
development systems that support and align with clearly-articulated organizational goals to be
effective (Mangin & Dunsmore, 2015; Clark & Estes, 2008). Further, the lack of cohesion
between those endeavors will pose a challenge to coaches’ efforts to do their jobs in ways that
they perceive to be effective (Mangin & Dunsmore, 2015). This, in turn, will have an impact on
the efficacy of classroom teachers of ELLs and ELL-student achievement.
Additionally, interview data identified an increased workload, influenced by decreasing
numbers in the position and fiscal support, influenced the ELL TOSAs’ sense of self-efficacy
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 92
and attribution toward goal attainment. This data has implications on a systemic- and
programmatic level. Systemically, it is important that the ELL TOSAs operate within a system
that allows for instructional coaches and teachers to have sufficient and/or dedicated time and
space to work with teachers and employ effective coaching practices as supported by prevalent
practices outlined in the research (Knight, 2006; Fullan & Knight, 2011; Steckel, 2009). When
teachers have a heavy workload, there is little time left for collaboration. On a programmatic
level, research indicates that stress derived from competing responsibilities and/or their workload
is a negative influence on the self-efficacy of coaches (Cantrell et al., 2015).
Recommendations for Supporting ELL TOSA Motivation—Self-Efficacy
Conflicting Priorities

ELL TOSAs must believe they are capable of effectively providing instructional support
to classroom teachers of ELLs (Self-Efficacy). Bandura (1997) defines self-efficacy as an
individual’s belief in their capacity to perform an action or task. According to Pajares (2006),
high self-efficacy can positively influence motivation. Four out of five of ELL TOSAs in the
Seafarm School District indicated that there was confusion about how their roles were perceived.
Moreover, because of the murky definition of the role and where the positions were housed
(district office), many classroom teachers viewed the ELL TOSAs as having an administrative
role. Thus, affecting the ELL TOSA-to-teacher coaching relationship. Given this finding, to
support ELL TOSA self-efficacy as they work toward their goal attainment, it is recommended
that the Seafarm School District clearly articulate the ELL TOSAs’ specific roles,
responsibilities, and time schedules within the purview of their positions as related to the
organization’s goals and professional development. This is consistent with research that suggests
effective organizations ensure that organizational procedures that govern the work of the
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 93
organization are aligned with or are supportive of organizational goals and values (Clark &
Estes, 2008). Further, it is recommended that those clearly defined roles, responsibilities, and
time schedules be communicated by the district to the ELL TOSAs, school-site administrators,
and classroom teachers of ELLs. These recommendations will clarify confusion about their roles
and motives for support, ease teacher resistance, and increase ELL TOSA self-efficacy.
Workload

Data from interviews with the ELL TOSAs revealed one reason the they did not feel
efficacious was their workload. Three of the five ELL TOSAs indicated that being given
additional schools sites to support this year contributed to their inefficacy. Accordingly, while
only mentioned by one ELL TOSA, a connection between the new workload placed upon the
ELL TOSAs and the organization’s current systemic practice for providing fiscal support to the
positions warrants documenting as they are interconnected.
With regard to both, if fiscal support for the positions wanes and some ELL TOSA
positions are eliminated, the remaining ELL TOSAs will have to add more teachers into their
coaching and support calendars. Therefore, it is recommended that the Seafarm School District
clearly articulate a multi-year plan outlining funding and hiring considerations for the
implementation and support of more ELL TOSA positions as they relate to one of the district’s
improvement goals to increase ELL student achievement. Articulating a funding plan will help
prioritize the ELL TOSA positions and ensure that they are funded according to district goals.
Further, a clearly articulated multi-year plan will support a work environment without the
limitations of financial unrest and further increased workload—both of which have had an
influence on ELL TOSA self-efficacy.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 94
Implications for Supporting ELL TOSA Motivation—Attribution
Attribution is the perception an individual has about his/her control to bring about
outcomes (Weiner, 1986 in Pintrich, 2003). ELL TOSAs need to attribute the increase in
instructional quality to the instructional support they are providing to classroom teachers of
ELLs. As a result, both teacher and student outcomes can affect ELL TOSA motivation—
particularly, their sense of attribution. ELL TOSA interview data illustrated that the lack of
clarity regarding the roles and responsibilities of the ELL TOSA position was reported to have
fostered teacher resistance to support, leaving the ELL TOSAs to feel that their actions did not
contribute to instructional change. This finding has implications on coaching positions as
research indicates that a coach’s sense of attribution is defined by the link between their support
of teachers and teacher and student outcomes. As such, if the ELL TOSAs do not attribute the
increase in instructional quality to the instructional support they are, they will have little
motivation to engage in those actions (Pajares, 2006). Thus, this will result in falling short of
their goal to support classroom teachers of ELLs and negatively impacting any progress toward
the improvement in classroom instruction and ELL-student achievement.
Recommendation for Supporting ELL TOSA Motivation—Attribution
In addition to the research outlined by Clark and Estes (2008) above, effective
organizations ensure that organizational messages that govern the work of the organization are
aligned with or are supportive of organizational goals and values (Clark & Estes,
2008). Therefore, it is recommended that the Seafarm School District communicate the roles,
responsibilities, and rationale for the ELL TOSA positions to all stakeholders—especially
classroom teachers of ELLs—in an effort to limit resistance to the positions, and the support that
they offer, as a result of misperceptions regarding their role within the organization.
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 95
Implications for Supporting ELL TOSA Access to Classroom Teachers
While it was not reported during the formal interviews with the ELL TOSAs, union
influence on the organization’s cultural models and cultural settings proved to have an effect on
their sense of self-efficacy and goal attainment. The ELL TOSAs reported that there were few
opportunities for them to exclusively provide one-to-one coaching throughout the year. In part
because of conflicting responsibilities but also because, as a general rule, ELL TOSAs must be
invited into the classroom by the teacher. This has implications for the organization and for the
ELL TOSAs because if they do not have access to the classroom teachers who they are assigned
to support, they cannot do their job nor attain their goals.
Recommendation for Supporting ELL TOSA Access to Classroom Teachers
Bascia (2000) contends that unions set the terms for work and learning, including
opportunities for professional development, and often reinforce “restrictive notions” of what is
permissible for teachers to “know and do.” Therefore, in order to remove these “restrictive
notions” it is recommended that the district work to establish an agreement with the teacher’s
union that will explain the benefits of receiving support from ELL TOSAs and permit them to
observe and support the classroom teachers as needed to promote ELL student achievement.
Future Research
Findings from the research in this dissertation have provided an understanding of the
assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences affecting performance gaps for
the ELL TOSAs as they worked toward goal attainment. However, future research specifically in
the area of instructional coaches for classroom teachers of ELLs is recommended and would
contribute to gaps in the literature.

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 96
Those recommendations are as follows:
1. Future studies should consider conducting observations and gathering observational data
related to the knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences on instructional
coaches of ELLs during coaching sessions with classroom teachers of ELLs.
2. Future research on professional development exclusively for instructional coaches of
ELLs would contribute to a gap in the literature.
3. Further research focused exclusively on the perceptions, and causes of the perceptions,
that classroom teachers of ELLs have of instructional coaches who support them would
be useful to the field.
4. Research on the influences on self-efficacy of instructional coaches would contribute to a
gap in the literature.
5. Research on the effect of the recommendations offered to close the performance gaps of
the ELL TOSAs in the Seafarm school district would support the other organizations with
similar coaching positions.
Research on ELL TOSAs that includes observations of them in-practice while providing
coaching support to classroom teachers of ELLs would add to the findings in this study.
Observations would give better insight into the procedural knowledge of the ELL TOSAs as the
operationalize effective coaching strategies beyond the self-reported accounts in this study.
Coinciding with the aforementioned, additional research on the content and frequency of the
professional development that the ELL TOSAs receive contribute to this research. Specifically,
research on the professional development that ELL TOSAs receive to support their procedural
knowledge and declarative knowledge of both effective instructional practices for ELLs and
effective coaching strategies would contribute to the understanding of the interaction between the
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 97
organizational influences and the knowledge influences on the ELL TOSAs. Additionally,
research on teacher perceptions of ELL TOSA job responsibilities, and the motivations behind
them, would provide more data to further understand one of this organizational influence on ELL
TOSA motivation (self-efficacy) and its effect on their goal attainment. Also, with regard to ELL
TOSA motivation, additional research on factors beyond those represented in this study that
influence ELL TOSA self-efficacy would add to our understanding of additional motivational
influences that may impact job performance. This robust list could serve to inform organizations
who have, or are considering, ELL TOSA positions to serve them in their planning or
maintenance of such positions as they work to remove performance barriers. Finally, to ensure
accuracy of the recommendations offered in this chapter, this research would be supported if a
study were completed on the impact of those recommendations. All of these recommendations
for research would support the sharpening and deepening of more robust picture of the ELL
TOSAs knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences.
Conclusion
The purpose of this research was to address the problem of ELL Teachers on Special
Assignments’ (ELL TOSAs)—also known as Instructional Coaches—ability to provide effective
professional development and instructional support to classroom teachers of ELLs. The ELL
TOSAs within the Educational Services Department of the Seafarm School District were the
stakeholder group for this study. In order to examine the role that knowledge, motivation, and the
organization have on the ELL TOSA performance toward achieving their goals, I employed a
gap analysis framework as explained in the work of Clark and Estes (2008). The authors have
drawn on the literature to design a system for diagnosing and analyzing performance gaps related
to knowledge, motivation, and organizational causes. Clark and Estes (2008) define “knowledge”
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 98
as the “how (and when, what, why, where, and who)” necessary to achieve a performance goal
(p. 44). Within this framework, the ELL TOSAs were best positioned to speak to their own
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences and how each of these shapes their goal
attainment. Specifically, their knowledge of the essential features of ELD, effective coaching
strategies, their sense of efficacy, their sense of attribution, and how their position is supported
by current systemic practice and fiscal support for delivering professional development to
classroom teachers were the areas of focus in this study. Accordingly, the ELL TOSAs were the
best positioned to answer my research questions by reflecting on what they know and are
motivated to do in relation to their role, and how the organization does or doesn’t support them
in achieving their goal.
The findings as a result of two, semi-structured interviews yielded several emergent
themes as a result of the data analysis process that are related to the research questions driving
this dissertation. First, evidence regarding interactions between knowledge and organizational
influences surfaced as a theme. Specifically, ELL TOSAs in the Seafarm School District
indicated an understanding of the role that collaboration plays in coaching and how to
operationalize it in their support of teachers. This is an important finding as research undergirds
the importance of collaboration in instructional coaching (Czajka & McConnell, 2016; Gleason
& Hall, 1991; McCollum et al., 2013; Reddy et al., 2017). Another finding from the ELL TOSA
interviews was their knowledge of collaboration as an effective coaching strategy that was
learned through professional development paid for by the Seafarm School District. All five of the
ELL TOSAs indicated they have received professional development on effective strategies for
instructional coaching. This is an important finding as extant research on instructional coaching
stresses the importance of professional development for coaches who work with classroom
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 99
teachers (Gibson, 2011; Heineke, 2013; Knight, 2006). This has implications on professional
development programs that support instructional coaches, or ELL TOSAs, as both the content
and delivery model of the professional development support declarative knowledge and
procedural knowledge, respectively.
Another emergent theme brought to light by the data was the interactions between
motivation and organizational influences. First, interview data from two of the ELL TOSA
interviews revealed insight into the ELL TOSAs motivation and its interaction with an
organizational factor. Specifically, the data from three of the five interviews surfaced self-
reported concerns about the ELL TOSAs’ sense of self-efficacy. Further, the data illustrated that
the ELL TOSAs did not feel efficacious in their assignments for two reasons. First, they
indicated that they are given other duties to perform that take time away from supporting
teachers of ELLs. Further, they indicated that they have a large workload. These findings are
important as research suggests the importance of self-efficacy to instructional coach goal
attainment (Cantrell et al., 2015). Consequently, this has implications on a systemic level. With
regard to ELL TOSA’s conflicting priorities, research suggests that instructional coaches, such as
the ELL TOSAs, must be situated within cohesive, district-wide professional development
systems that support and align with clearly-articulated organizational goals to be effective
(Mangin & Dunsmore, 2015; Clark & Estes, 2008). Moreover, on a systemic level, it is
important that the ELL TOSAs operate within a system that allows for instructional coaches and
teachers to have sufficient and/or dedicated time and space for collaboration as supported by
prevalent practices outlined in the research. (Knight, 2006; Fullan & Knight, 2011; Steckel,
2009). On a programmatic level, research indicates that stress derived from competing
responsibilities and/or their workload is a negative influence on the self-efficacy of
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 100
coaches (Cantrell et al., 2015). Additionally, four out of five of ELL TOSAs in the Seafarm
School District indicated that there was confusion about how their roles were perceived. This
finding has implications on coaching positions as research indicates that a coach’s sense of
attribution is defined by the link between their support of teachers and teacher and student
outcomes. Thus, misperceptions about ELL TOSA motivations to support teachers fosters the
perception that they lack control to bring about outcomes.
In closing, the importance of these roles continues to increase with some urgency as the
number of ELLs in public schools continues to grow along with the achievement gap between
ELLs and other student populations. Moreover, the focus on these professionals is of particular
importance as research highlights the positive potential for ELL-focused teacher leaders in
instructional coaching roles to support classroom teachers and school leadership in the area of
effective instruction for ELLs (Russell, 2016). This is even more significant at present when data
illustrate consistently low achievement for ELLs from Kindergarten through Grade 12. For
example, students who enter Kindergarten identified as ELLs score lower in Reading/English
Language Arts and Math assessments than other groups of students who are identified as
proficient in English (Barrow & Markman-Pithers, 2016; Fry, 2008). Also, by eighth-grade, 51%
of students identified as ELLs across the nation score behind students identified as “White” in
both Reading and Mathematics (Fry, 2008). Finally, ELLs who progress to high school have a
61.1% graduation rate (USDOE, 2015). This is a graduation rate that leaves them 9.6% behind
their Black peers and 25.5% behind their White peers. These data are of some concern. However,
many studies in the field suggest that the biggest predictor of student achievement is the quality
of the student’s teacher (Borman & Kimball, 2005; Darling-Hammond, 2000; Haycock, 1998;
Stronge et al., 2011). Thus, implementation of effective, research-based classroom instruction of
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 101
ELLs can impact student achievement. It is for this reason, that the role of the ELL TOSAs—
also known as Instructional Coaches—is ever more important to school districts and classroom
teachers of ELLs. But, most notably, they are important to students for whom, through their
support of their classroom teacher, they provide educational opportunity and a language identity
in our schools and society.

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 102
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EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 112
Appendix

Interview Protocol

I. Introduction (Appreciation, Purpose, Line of Inquiry, Plan, Confidentiality, Reciprocity,
Consent to Participate, Permission to Record):

Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate the time that you have set aside
to answer some of my questions. The interview should take about an hour, does that work for
you?

Before we get started, I want to provide you with an overview of my study and answer any
questions you might have about participating in this interview. I am currently enrolled as a
student at USC Rossier School of Education in the Organizational Change and Leadership
doctoral program. I am conducting a study on instructional coaches for teachers of English
Language Learners—known in your district as ELL TOSAs. I am particularly interested in
understanding how ELL TOSAs support teachers of ELLs and how successful they are in
attaining their professional goals to that end. I am conducting several interviews to learn more
about this

I want to assure you that I am strictly engaging in this process through the lens of researcher
today. What this means is that the nature of my questions are not evaluative. I will not be
making any judgments on how you are performing as an ELL TOSA. This interview is also
confidential. What that means is that your name and the perspectives you provide will not be
shared with anyone outside of the research team. I will not share them with other teachers, the
principal, or the district.

The data for this study will be compiled into a report and while I do plan on using some of what
you say as direct quotes, none of this data will be directly attributed to you. I will use a
pseudonym to protect your confidentiality and will try my best to de-identify any of the data I
gather from you. I am happy to provide you with a copy of my final paper if you are interested.
As stated in the Study Information Sheet I shared with you, I will keep the data in a password
protected computer and all data will be destroyed after 3 years.

Might you have any questions about the study before we get started? If you don’t have any
(more) questions I would like to have your permission to begin the interview. I have brought a
recorder with me today so that I can accurately capture what you share with me. The recording
is solely for my purposes to best capture your perspectives and will not be shared with anyone
outside the research team. May I also have your permission to record our conversation?

II. Setting the Stage (Developing Rapport and Priming the Mind, Demographic items of
interest (e.g. position, role, etc.))
I’d like to start by asking you some background questions about you.
• First, could you tell me about your background in education?
o How did you become interested in the field of education?
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 113
o How long have you worked in the field?
o What roles or positions have you held?
• How did you become involved in instructional coaching teachers of ELLs?
o Tell me about your role in the department.
o Can you provide a specific example that best demonstrates your role in the
program?
• What are your thoughts about instructional coaching programs?
o What do you think are strengths of ELL TOSA programs?
o What do you think are areas for improvement for ELL TOSA programs?

III. Heart of the Interview (Interview Questions are directly tied to Research Questions):
Now I’d like to ask you some questions about being an ELL TOSA.

1) Tell me about your instructional coaching style?
2) How would you describe yourself as an instructional coach of teachers of ELLs?
3) If you were giving advice to a new ELL TOSA about what strategies to use while coaching
teachers of ELLs, what would you say?
4) What are the most effective ways to coach teachers of ELL students? (probe for the elements
you have in your effective coaching strategies section).
5) Why are these strategies the most effective coaching strategies? What is your source of
information about this?
6) Describe a typical coaching session with teachers of ELLs?
7) Tell me about a time when you worked with a teacher to pre-conference or plan the lesson, if
at all.
8) Tell me about a time when you modeled for the teacher, if at all.
9) How does a typical feedback sessions sound, if you have those? When do you provide
feedback?
10) Tell me about a time when you successfully provided feedback to an ELL teacher.
11) Tell me about a time when you don’t feel confident your feedback was effective.
12) Thinking about your job as an ELL TOSA in general, tell me about a time you thought to
yourself “I can do this!” What happened? Why did you think this way?
13) Thinking about your job as an ELL TOSA in general, tell me about a time you didn’t feel so
sure that you could effectively support the teacher. What happened? Why did you think this
way?
14) Some people say that coaching doesn’t really help. What would you say to them?
15) If you were asked by an aspiring coach what you think your greatest contribution is, what
would you say? Can you provide evidence of that? OR what makes you say that?

Now I’d like you a few questions about ELD instruction.

16) Can you tell me about the ELA/ELD Framework for Instruction?
17) How do you use the ELA/ELD Framework for Instruction while coaching teachers of ELLs, if
at all?
18) Can you tell me about California ELD standards?
EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 114
19) How do you use the California ELD standards when coaching teachers of ELLs, if at all?
20) If I were to walk into the classroom of a highly-effective teacher of ELLs what should I expect
to see?
21) Tell me about a time when you walked into such a classroom. What did you see? What was the
teacher doing? What were the students doing?
a) How was vocabulary being taught?
b) How were visual cues being used?
c) How about realia?
d) Tell me about how the students practiced using the language, if at all?
e) How did the teacher use students’ backgrounds or prior knowledge to connect the lesson
to them?
22) If I were to walk into the classroom of an ineffective teacher of ELLs what might I see?
23) Tell me about a time when you walked into such a classroom. What did you see? What was the
teacher doing? What were the students doing?
24) How do you know when a teacher is using effective strategies?

I’d like to ask you some questions of your role in the larger context of your organization
25) What role do ELL TOSAs have within your organization?
26) What does the organization expect of ELL TOSAs?
27) In your opinion, how do instructional coaches contribute to the organizational goals of
improving instruction?
28) How does the district support instructional coaches?
29) Tell me about the most useful professional development offered to you. What was the topic of
the PD? How long was it for? What factors made it the most useful for you?
30) Tell me about the least useful professional development offered to you. What was the topic of
the PD? How long was it for? What factors made it the least useful for you?
31) Some people say there isn’t enough professional development for coaches. What would you
say?
32) How does the district show the value it places on you, if at all?
33) What are ways the district could better show it values you, if anything?
34) What are ways the district supports your work, if at all?
35) What are ways the district could better support your work, if anything?
36) What are some concerns you may have about your position as an ELL TOSA within the
organization?

IV. Closing Question (Anything else to add)
I am wondering if there is anything that you would add to our conversation today that I might not
have covered?

EFFECTIVE COACHING FOR TEACHERS OF ELLS 115
V. Closing (thank you and follow-up option):
Thank you so much for you sharing your thoughts with me today! I really appreciate your time
and willingness to share. Everything that you have shared is really helpful for my study. If I
find myself with a follow-up question, I am wondering if I might be able to contact you, and if
so, if email is ok? Again, thank you for participating in my study. As a thank you, please take
this notebook.

VI. Post interview summary and reflection

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Zúñiga, Armando Thaddeus (author)

Core Title Effective coaching of teachers to support learning for English language learners

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 02/13/2019

Defense Date 11/06/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag ELL,English as a second language,English language acquisition,English Language Development,English language learners,instructional coaching,OAI-PMH Harvest,professional development,teacher efficacy,teacher on special assignment

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Samkian, Artineh (committee chair), Dominguez, Carlos (committee member), Ott, Maria (committee member)

Creator Email armandozuniga@sbcglobal.net,atzuniga@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-118184

Unique identifier UC11675412

Identifier etd-ZunigaArma-7058.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-118184 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-ZunigaArma-7058.pdf

Dmrecord 118184

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Zúñiga, Armando Thaddeus; Zuniga, Armando Thaddeus

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA