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Student-athletes and leadership: a case study of the impact of collegiate athletics on social change behavior and leadership development

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Student-athletes and leadership: a case study of the impact of collegiate athletics on social change behavior and leadership development

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Content STUDENT-ATHLETES AND LEADERSHIP

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STUDENT-ATHLETES AND LEADERSHIP: A CASE STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF
COLLEGIATE ATHLETICS ON SOCIAL CHANGE BEHAVIOR
AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

Janiece Richard

_______________________
A dissertation presented to the

faculty of the USC Rossier School of Education

University of Southern California

in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

Doctor of Education
_______________________

December 2019

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Copyright by Janiece Richard 2019
All Rights Reserved

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COMMITTEE MEMBERS
Committee Co-Chair: Margo Pensavalle, Ed.D.
Professor of Clinical Education
University of Southern California
Committee Co-Chair: Angela Hasan, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Clinical Education
University of Southern California
Committee Member: Cathy Creasia, Ed.D.
Director of Accreditation, Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California

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ABSTRACT

Given the financial challenges facing higher education institutions, there is a need to
evaluate the value of collegiate athletics and its impact on the educational process of student-
athletes. As higher education institutes continue to focus on leadership development in their
mission statements, athletics has become top-of-mind as a co-curricular activity that provides
opportunities for students to develop their leadership skills. These issues make this study both
timely and worthwhile. This study seeks to understand the impact of collegiate athletics on
leadership development and social change behavior through a qualitative study of 12
participants. Two of the participants are athletics department program administrators and 10 of
the participants are current female student-athletes at a west coast Division I institute. Results of
the study indicate both leadership development and social change behavior were enhanced
through participation in collegiate athletics. The findings of this study contribute to current
literature related to women and leadership, and will also add to the limited research regarding the
relationship between participation in collegiate athletics, social change behavior, and female
leaders. The findings also suggest how athletics departments can be more intentional with
leadership development opportunities, such as workshops and community service. This study
speaks to all those involved in undergraduate education and collegiate athletics, including
coaches, administrators, faculty, staff, and students; the findings suggest that participating in
collegiate athletics does advance the mission of leadership development.

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DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to four individuals in my life as I experienced
several life-changing events while pursuing my degree: the death of my father, the death of my
mother-in-law, and the birth of my first child. First, I would like to dedicate this dissertation to
the loving memory of my daddy, George Lee Gatson Sr., and my mother-in-law. My daddy, who
passed away during my first year in the program, was extremely proud of me for pursuing this
degree and always offered unwavering support throughout the application process and first year
of the program. I know he and my mother-in-law are proud of this accomplishment.
And undoubtedly, I would like to also dedicate this dissertation to my beloved husband,
Stéphane, and our son, Pierre. Whether discussing my dissertation topic ideas, being a shoulder
to lean on during times of frustration, taking on more than his share of household duties, and so
much more, my husband has encouraged and supported me every single step along this journey.
His support and love have sustained me throughout the process. And Pierre, I hope I make you
proud! I love you both!

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Achieving this degree has been a dream of mine for many years, and it took the support,
love, and mentorship of many individuals in my life. First and foremost, I would like to express
my deepest appreciation to my committee. To my co-chairs, Dr. Margo Pensavalle and Dr.
Angela Hasan, I am so thankful for your relentless support, unwavering guidance, invaluable
feedback, and patience along the way. To Dr. Cathy Creasia, thank you so much for your
insightful suggestions and advice as a member of my dissertation committee.
Dr. Alan Green, I am eternally thankful for your mentorship, thought partnership, and
constructive criticism. I am so appreciative of the time you spent helping me throughout the
process. The completion of my dissertation, as is, definitely would not have happened without
your mentorship.
To my mom, brother, family, and friends, thank you for your ongoing support and
encouraging words. You all always knew exactly what to say when I needed to hear it the most!

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Table of Contents
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………..….…iv
Dedication…………………………………………………………………………………..……..v
Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………..............vi
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………..............xi
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………............xii
Chapter One: Overview of The Study…………..………………….…...………………………...1
Background of the Problem…………………………………………………………….....1
Statement of the Problem…...……………………………………………………………10
Purpose of the Study…….……………………………………………………………….11
Research Questions………………………………………………………………………11
Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………………………..12
Significance of the Study.………………………………………………………………..13
Limitations and Delimitations..…………………………………………………………..14
Key Terms……………….…..…………………………………………………..……….14
Organization of the Study…………..……………………………………………………15
Chapter Two: Literature Review……………………………...….…………………….………..17
Leadership Development.……………………………………………………….……….17
Higher Education and Athletics………………………………………………………….28
Leadership for Social Change……………..…………………………………..…………39
Ecological Approach………….……………………………………………………….....50
Summary..………………………………………………………………………………..54

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Chapter Three: Methodology………………..………………………………………...…………56
Rational for Design Choice….……………………………………………….……….….57
Role of the Researcher……….……………………………………………………….….59
Setting……………….……….……………………………………………………….….59
Sample and Population……….………………………………………………………….60
Instrumentation.………………………………………………………………….………61
Interviews with Athletics Department Program Administrators..………….....…63
Interviews with Current Female Student-Athletes…………….…………...…….64
Data Collection…….…………………………………………………………….………64
Interviews with Athletics Department Program Administrators..…….…………65
Interviews with Current Female Student-Athletes………………...………..……65
Data Analysis...…….…………………………………………………………….………66
Threats to Validity……………………...…………………………………………..……67
Ethical Consideration…………………..…………………………………….……..……67
Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………….….68
Summary….....…….…………………………………………………………….……….69
Chapter Four: Findings……………………………………………………….…………….……70
Report of Findings……………………………………………………………………….73
Research Question One…………………………………………………………………..73
Social Influence………………………………………………………………….74
Community Service…………………………………………..………….83
Diversity….………………………………………………………………………88
Sexual Orientation…………………………………………………….....90
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Socioeconomic Status…………………………………...…………….....92
Privilege……...……………………………………………………………...…...94
Research Question One Summary…….……………………………………..…..96
Research Question Two…………………………………………………………….....…98
Relational Influence..……………………………………………………...…….99
Coach as Mentor……………………………………...…………...……100
Culture Class……………………………………………………………102
Hierarchy of Teammates…………………………………...…………...104
Gender Differences……………………………………………………………..107
Relationship with Teammates……………………………………...…...109
Leadership Qualities……....……………………………………………………110
Perceptions of Self as a Leader………………………………….…...…111
Pivotal Experiences……………………………………………………..113
Career Success………………………………………………………….114
Leadership Characteristics………………………...……….…...........…116
Research Question Two Summary…….………………………………….…….119
Final Summary…………………..…….………………………………………..121
Chapter Five: Conclusions……………...………………………………….………………...…128
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..128
Background………………………………………………….………………………….128
Discussion of Findings………………………………………………………………….129
Implications…………………………………………………………………………..…132
Areas for Future Research……………………………………………………...………135
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Recommendations...…………………………………………………………………….136
References………....…………………………………………………………….……...………139
Appendix A: Invitation To Participate – Interview With Athletics Department Program
Administrators………………………...………………………………………………….……..163
Appendix B: Interview Protocol – Athletics Department Program
Administrators...…………….……………………………………………………………….….165
Appendix C: Invitation To Participate – Interview With Current Female Student-Athletes..….167
Appendix D: Interview Protocol – Current Female Student-Athletes……………………...…..168
Appendix E: Consent To Participate……………………...………………….…………………170

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Definition of Key Terms………….……………………………………………….……14
Table 2: Literature Review Table………………………..………………………………………51
Table 3.1: Methodology Overview …………………………….…………......…………………58
Table 3.2: Female Student-Athletes’ Pseudonyms and Year of Athletic Eligibility ….……...…60

Table 3.3: Links Between Instruments, Research Questions and the Literature….……...……...62

Table 3.4: Links Between Instruments and Population Sub-groups ……………….……………63
Table 3.5: Schedule of Data Collection and Analysis ……………………….…….……………65
Table 4.1: Summary of Methodology….………….………………………......…………………71
Table 4.2: RQ1 Themes and Sub-themes...………….………………………......………………74

Table 4.3: Community Service Events……………………………..……………………………83
Table 4.4: RQ 2 Themes and Sub-themes...………….………………………......………...……99

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List of Figures
Figure 1: The Social Change Model of Leadership……………………………………….……..43
Figure 2: Explanatory Sequential Approach to Data Analysis………………....……………..…67
Figure 3: Top Three Leadership Qualities…………………...…………………………………111

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CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY

Background of the Problem

Prior to the women’s movement in the 1960, words like “sexual discrimination,”
“sexism,” and “sexist” did not exist; yet they were part of women’s realities (Sandler, 2007). In
fact, it was a known fact that women “needed higher grades and test scores in order to be
accepted” into colleges (Sandler, 2007, p. 473). In June 1972, Title IX was passed; the enabling
clause reads: “No person shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied
the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program receiving
Federal financial assistance” (Sandler, 2007, p. 479). This bill was considered a historic victory
for women in education and continues to impact college admissions, sports, and other facets of
collegiate life (Burton & Leberman, 2017; Carpenter & Acosta, 2007; Hultstrand, 1993; Sandler,
2007; Walker, Schaeperkoetter & Darvin, 2017).
The passage of Title IX was the start of a fundamental shift for women and athletics that
has provided a platform to create new opportunities for women to fight for a more equitable
society. Former National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) President Myles Brand said
intercollegiate athletics and universities share a commitment to social justice by having several
common goals, including: advancement in spite of class, providing opportunities for women and
ethnic minorities and providing access to higher education (NCAA, 2008). Intercollegiate
athletics provides the power of sport to produce positive social change because of its unique
platform afforded to athletes. From Billy Jean King, to Tommie Smith and John Carlos, to Colin
Kaepernick, and to most recently, the 2018 gold medal winning US Women’s National Hockey
Team, sport has taken a powerful stand for social justice causes, equality, and the advancement
of traditionally marginalized groups.
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As a former college athlete, with a diverse background, the researcher of this study
strongly believes the participation in and the socialization through athletics has uniquely shaped
and prepared her for the challenges of leadership.
Growing up playing sports, we aspired to be like the strong female athletes who were
able to conquer their fears, compete, sweat, scream and be their full selves on the court,
fields, track and pools. As young girls, we sat transfixed as the US Women’s National
teams converged in Atlanta for the Summer Olympics in 1996. We took pride in being
athletes. We all wanted to be Jackie Joyner-Kersey going over the hurdles with her quad
heavily bandaged in the rain, with a look of determination cemented onto her face. We
all wanted to be Kerri Strug when she stuck the landing on one foot. We all wanted to be
on teams like the women’s soccer team, which inspired us and gave us the courage and
conviction that even as women, we could boldly proclaim “anything you can do, I can do
better!” We all wanted to be like those women: invincible leaders.

There have been countless stories from former female athletes about the important role
athletics has played in their lives. Yet, there is a dearth of scholarly research to determine the
truth of those sentiments and answer the question of whether participation in sports helps
develop leaders? This study seeks to uncover the potential link between sport and leadership, and
the role the collegiate athletic experience has played in creating successful female leaders.
Leadership is “...a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to
achieve a common goal” (Northouse, 2016, p. 6). The relationship between the leader and their
followers is a key component of this definition. Leadership theory and research is based upon the
experiences of men. Early conceptions of leadership left women out, focusing on the traits of
great men (Northouse, 2016). Recent scholarship has sought to be more inclusive. Day and
Harrison (2007) describe the evolution of leadership as moving from “role-based authority” to
shared, collaborative models. The more collaborative models allow more room for women and
meet a wider range of leadership needs. However, despite the fact that the definition is not in
gender binary terms, research finds that many leadership characteristics are still thought to be
masculine traits (Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, & Ristikari, 2011; Rhode, & Kellerman, 2007). The
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ascription of masculinity to leadership creates a barrier to women who pursue leadership
positions.
Many reasons related to why women are not attaining leadership positions, especially in
male dominated industries, have been pursued and studied (Salas-Lopez, Deitrick, Mahady,
Gertner & Sabino, 2011). One argument is that there are not enough qualified and interested
women in the pipeline to take on leadership positions. However, research has found many
counterarguments to that deficiency argument. At the start of the women’s movement in 1962,
the percentage of women who attended four or more years of college was 6.7% compared to the
almost double amount for men at 11.4% (Statista, 2018). Since then, that number has continued
to rise for women; in 2016, women enrolled in college at a rate of 71.9 percent compared to 67.4
percent for men (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). Currently, women outpace men in the
attainment of bachelor’s, master’s, and doctor’s degrees from postsecondary institutions (Digest
of Education Statistics, 2017). Professionally, women comprised 51.5% of all workers in high-
paying management, professional and related occupations in 2015 (Bureau of Labor Statistics,
2017).
Despite holding key management roles, women across industries, from business, to
sports, to Congress, are severely underrepresented in upper level leadership positions (Burton &
Leberman, 2017; Lang, 2017; NCAA, 1998b; Seo, Huang, & Han, 2017; Women in the U.S.
Congress, 2016). Women occupy approximately 28% of chief executive positions (5.2% at S&P
500 companies). They represent 19.6% of the members of Congress; there are 29.6% female
head coaches for all NCAA men’s and women’s Division I sports; and only 24.3% of 2016
NCAA Division I athletics directors were women (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018; Catalyst,
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2018). These disparities show there are educated women and even women in the leadership
pipeline, yet they are still not obtaining top leadership positions.
Another common explanation for the underrepresentation of women in top leadership
positions is due to women’s traditional responsibility as the familial caregiver. Past discussions
have centered on the women’s decision to leave professional positions. However, these
discussions often overlook familial obligations and policies of employers that influence the
decision (Kellerman & Rhode, 2007). Despite the reason, leaving professional positions are not
evidence of women’s desire to stay out of the workforce. In a survey conducted by Hewlett
(2007), 93% of the women who left the workplace want to return, but only 74% are able to do so
- 40% of the 74% return to mainstream, full-time employment. In their desire to simply reenter
the workforce, some women are forced to settle for jobs that they are overqualified to hold and
lose ambition to pursue leadership positions (Hewlett, 2007). They are further penalized in the
form of lost earning power. The loss of talented women due to society’s inability to re-
incorporate them into the workplace has implications on leadership.
Having women in leadership is more than a politically correct aspiration. Economically,
the lack of diversity in leadership positions excludes multiple viewpoints, innovations, and
experiences that enrich organizations. Studies have shown companies with more women in top
level management have positive impact on performance in Fortune 500 companies as well as
initial public offering (IPO) firms (Catalyst, 2018; Welbourne, Cycyota, & Ferrante, 2007).
Culturally, the absence creates a void for young girls seeking role models and perpetuates
stereotypical thinking amongst men and women regarding gender norms. Having women in
leadership positions increases the probability of reshaping societal ideas regarding gender roles
and combating the hidden discourse that reinforces the status quo (Ayman & Korabik, 2010;
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Grappendorf & Burton, 2017; Kellerman & Rhode, 2007; Seo et al., 2017; Walker et al., 2017).
Proscriptive societal norms, the reaction of men and women to stereotype threat and the resulting
backlash due to the unconscious desire to maintain the status quo, create barriers that women
seeking leadership positions must overcome (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Rudman, Moss-Racusin,
Phelan, & Nauts, 2012; Ridgeway, 2001). As women continue to obtain advanced degrees as
well as secure valuable positions in the workplace, the leadership development of young women
will be crucial to the continued ascension of women to leadership positions and economic
progress.
The college years (17-22 years old) correlate with a period of development in which the
brain development significantly impacts adolescent and early adulthood cognitive and social
development (Crone & Dahl, 2012). Adolescents have a decreased sense of “self-oriented
thoughts” and place more importance on “other-oriented behavior,” that is “the ability to
consider other people’s feelings, thoughts, intentions and actions” (Crone & Dahl, 2012, p. 643).
Albert, Chein, and Steinberg (2013) found that during the decision-making process, adolescents
“showed greater activation of brain structures implicated in” reward calculations when peers
were present versus not; evidencing the importance an adolescent brain places on peer approval
(p. 117). Adolescents are also transitioning into early adulthood, thus evaluating their possible
selves and developing their sense of purpose (Malin, Reilly, Quinn, & Moran, 2013; Oyserman,
Terry, & Bybee, 2002). School, family, and sports have the potential to help or hinder
adolescents’ and early adults’ ideas of who they can become in the future and the contributions
they can make to society (Malin et al., 2013; Oyserman et al., 2002). The college years are a
pivotal time frame in cognitive and social development; athletics is one possible avenue to
encourage leadership development in collegiate women.
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Day (2000) makes a distinction between leadership development and leader development.
He states that leader development is focused on individual skills, knowledge and abilities. Self-
awareness, self-regulation and self-motivation are competencies he ascribes to the leader
development process. Leadership development is defined as an integration strategy that helps
people understand how they interact and relate to others (Day, 2000). Leadership is a skill that
must be developed over time through experience (Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, &
Fleishman, 2000). Self-efficacy theory can also be applied to the leadership development
framework (McCormick, 2001). Leadership self-efficacy is one’s belief in their ability to lead.
Individuals with higher self-efficacy are more willing to take risks, cope and persist through
obstacles and engage in new behaviors; in the leadership context, it is a willingness to engage in
leadership behaviors (Bandura, 1977; McCormick, M. J., 2001).
Studies have found a correlation between participation in sport and the development of
skills that may enhance leadership. Problem solving, planning, inhibition, and decision making
are cognitive processes that collectively are defined as executive function (Jacobson &
Matthaeus, 2014). Executive function have been positively correlated with the participation in
sport (Barker & Munakata, 2015; Jacobson & Matthaeus, 2014; Keating, Castelli, & Ayers,
2013). Higher executive function is linked to goal setting and self-directed behavior promoting
greater academic success, and long-term benefits such as health, wealth, and social outcomes
(Barker & Munakata, 2015; Moffitt et al., 2011). Furthermore, Jacobson and Matthaeus (2014)
found that athletes outperformed non-athletes in tasks involving problem solving, planning, and
decision making, suggesting that there may be a link between sport and skills necessary for
successful leaders (Ramchandran, Colbert, Brown, Denburg, & Tranel, 2016).
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In addition to leadership skill development, the dynamic nature of competition, reliance
on productive social interactions, and the structure of a team make sport the perfect vehicle for
leadership development (Kerwin & Bopp, 2013). Division I student-athletes spend roughly 38.5
hours a week on athletics (NCAA, 2017). Much of their time is spent with teammates at practices
and competitions, as well as team events outside of practice. During adolescence and early
adulthood, athletes are more reliant on teammates and seek social acceptance from individuals
within important social groups (Crone & Dahl, 2012). Thus, teammates shape the social contexts
in which an athlete participates in and are influential in cognitive, social, and ultimately
leadership development (Agans, Su, & Ettekal, 2018). These social relationships are mediated by
coaching influences, steering overall team climate and culture (Kerwin & Bopp, 2013).
A coach is the designated, formal leader of a team who can have a significant impact on
team cohesion as well as an athlete’s self-conceptualization and self-efficacy (Feltz & Lirgg,
2001). Coaches are often focused on teamwork and cohesion as an antecedent to success
(Carron, Bray, & Eys, 2002; Weinberg & Gould, 2003). Coaches, given their position as trusted
advisors and experts, have the ability to impact student-athletes’ self-efficacy through verbal
persuasion by reframing situations and providing encouragement (Feltz, & Lirgg, 2001).
Coaches’ guided feedback on team cohesion help athletes reflect and evaluate teammate
relationships to enhance social and interpersonal skill (Feltz & Lirgg, 2001; Immordino-Yang,
Christodoulou, & Singh, 2016; Weinberg & Gould, 2003). Constant interaction and reflection of
relationships teach women how to interact in team settings toward a common goal, a skill critical
and necessary for successful leadership (Northouse, 2016; Weinberg & Gould, 2003). Through
the process of reflection, interaction, and feedback, female student-athletes develop a sense of
self-efficacy in their leadership abilities (Feltz & Lirgg, 2001). Hence, sport is an avenue for
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young women, at a critical time in their development years, to create a supportive network of
influencers that enhance their leadership development.
While growing up, I was heavily involved with sports, whether watching
my hometown NFL team play every Sunday, staying up all hours of the night to
watch the Olympics every four years or participating in sports all year round.
Watching Marion Jones win five medals at the Olympics inspired me to strive to
compete at the next level, which for me was collegiate athletics (I was extremely
disappointed to learn that Marion Jones was indeed on performance enhancing
drugs). I was fortunate enough to have a track scholarship to an out-of-state
Midwest Division I Institute. Without this scholarship, I would not have been able
to attend this specific university. My parents couldn’t afford the cost of
attendance and I didn’t want to start my life after college with six figures worth of
debt. My only options without this scholarship would have been either to attend a
community college then transfer to a four-year college or attend a small in-state
college. This scholarship provided access to educational opportunities I would
never have been able to afford otherwise.
While a collegiate student-athlete, I was heavily involved with the Student-
Athlete Advisory Committee (SAAC). I was greatly affected by SAAC and the
development programs it offered. Within SAAC, I began engaging in community
service. Most of the community service opportunities offered were either
volunteering at local elementary schools to read to or tutor children, or hosting
on-campus events curated for young children or those with disabilities. First and
foremost, being involved with community service in college allowed me to give
back to the community whom I felt provided so much for me in the form of a
tuition-free education. Not only did my involvement with SAAC allow me to give
back to the community, it allowed me to be more involved with social change, and
provided the platform for me to be involved with social change even after college.
Now, I specifically volunteer with organizations that create opportunities for
underserved children in an educational setting. And, my career of working in
advancement allows me to take my involvement with social change a step further
by fundraising specifically for scholarships to aid underserved college students
and fundraise for societal issues such as fighting hatred, intolerance, and
prejudice. The importance of community service and giving back to those in need
is something that remains near and dear to my heart. In addition to volunteering
with educational organization serving underserved children, I also financially
support these organizations.
Lastly, SAAC allowed me to improve my leadership skills and also paved
the way for my future career. As a senior and graduate student, I was one of the
student leaders of SAAC. Experiences such as working with other SAAC members
to run meetings, coordinate service projects and interface with senior
administrators, including athletics directors and the chancellor, allowed me to
improve my interpersonal skills. Interacting with athletes from all over the world
allowed me to enhance my multicultural awareness. And, giving back to the
community increased my societal awareness and feeling of civic responsibility.
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Little did I know, I was developing leadership skills that would assist me in my
personal and professional life. My involvement as a collegiate student-athlete and
with SAAC will forever have an impact on me personally and professional.

Engagement in social change behavior influences self-identity and leadership
development in current female student-athletes (Antonio, 2001; Dugan & Komives, 2010; Soria,
Nobbe & Fink, 2013). Social change behavior is defined as an individual creating “positive
changes in their community - through service, community building, raising awareness, educating
the public about issues or advocating for policy change” (Komives, Wagner, & Associates,
2009b, p. 8). Athletics department programs, such as SAAC, host opportunities for student-
athletes to shape their leadership development and self-identity, such as community service.
Research has found a positive association with increased self-confidence and efficacy through
community service engagement (Perry & Katula, 2001).
Another opportunity for student-athletes to further their leadership skills is as a student
senate representative for the athletics department. Byers (1998) found involvement with student
governance contributed to college students’ leadership skills. These skills included public
speaking, effective goal setting, time management skills and interpersonal skills.
An indirect result of being a student-athlete is interactions with international students on
a regular basis. The potential closeness of collegiate athletic teammates and amount of time spent
on athletics can create an environment for discussions across and about differences. These
discussions can provide new perceptions about social issues like race, inequality, poverty, or
politics (Nesbitt & Grant, 2015). Furthermore, Komives, Lucas, and McMahon (2013, p. 196)
point out the importance of these conversations in leadership development, indicating that
“effective leaders need to develop an appreciation for multiculturalism to build inclusiveness,
collaboration, and common purposes.” Whether learning collaborative methods, practicing
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effective civil discourse or developing an appreciation for multiculturalism, engagement in social
change behavior influences leadership development and self-identity.
Statement of the Problem

Women are underrepresented in senior and executive leadership positions in male
dominated industries such as the military, business, and sports. There is a growing body of
research that points to cultural and societal issues as unconscious barriers to women’s ability to
attain leadership positions. Leadership is not gendered by nature; it is society that has
engendered our conceptualizations of leadership as masculine, as men are most often equated as
leaders because most leader characteristics are considered masculine (Kellerman & Rhode,
2007). Peter Northouse writes, “Women are no less effective at leadership, committed to their
work, or motivated to attain leadership roles than men” (Northouse, 2016, p. 419). Barnett
(2007) contends, society continues to gender leadership due to a presumed “natural order in
which males are innately and uniquely endowed to take charge…” (p.151). Eagly and Karau
(2002) contend leadership roles for females are a violation of women’s gender roles. This
incongruity is based upon the societal perception that leadership is a male role; therefore the
traits associated with a leader are inherently masculine (Eagly & Karau, 2002).
In fact, research does not support the notion that there are gender differences in terms of
leadership style or effectiveness (Rhode & Kellerman, 2007). The consequences of this are the
creation of prescriptive norms and backlash against women who violate these norms (Pittinsky,
Bacon, & Welle, 2007). De-gendering leadership and leading in an androgynous manner, a style
that values effective traits typically associated with men and women, may give women more
opportunities (Ayman & Korabik, 2010).
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Another way for women to have more opportunities in attaining leadership positions may
be having had participated in sports. Of the women in C-suite leadership positions, 94% of them
played a sport and 52% were former collegiate athletes (Ernest & Young, 2015). There is a
dearth of research addressing this influence on leadership development of student-athletes.
However, anecdotally, there are former female athletes who speak to how the roles and skills of
being a collegiate athlete were strategic in helping them develop leadership skills.
This study will explore the societal perception that leadership is a male attribute, and how
being perceived as such simultaneously constructs barriers for women as they develop their
leadership skills in college. Will findings suggest a connection between actions that male athletes
are perceived to inherently know and females athletes must learn? Do these actions impact
success in the collegiate athlete role and leadership development? Therefore this study seeks to
explore the influence of female collegiate athletic participation on leadership development.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to extend research and knowledge on leadership development
and the attainment of leadership positions through the lens of the collegiate athletic experience.
The researcher will investigate the role society has played in the continued underrepresentation
of women in leadership roles. Specifically, the study will investigate how collegiate sports
participation and interactions within that setting impacts the leadership development of current
female athletes; also investigating the impact of social justice issues related to current female
student-athletes’ leadership development.
Research Questions
This study is guided by the following research questions:
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1. How does the culture of collegiate sports contribute to current female student-athletes
engaging in social change behavior?
2. How does the collegiate athletic experience influence current female student-athletes’
leadership development?

Theoretical Framework

The researcher has chosen an ecological approach based on the work of Bronfenbrenner
(1977) to frame the study, as well as the Social Change Model of Leadership Development
(SCM).
The ecological approach allows the researcher to account for the campus environment,
more specifically, the environment that is created by collegiate athletics, on the promotion or
inhibition of student-athletes’ development (Patton, Renn, Guido & Quaye, 2016).
Bronfenbrenner’s theory proposes four ecological systems: microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem and macrosystem; a fifth stage known as the chronosystem was added later. Four
components: process, person, context and time, were also added (Strorberg-Walker & Haber-
Curran, 2017). The research surrounding both research questions will focus on the micro-,
meso-, and macrosystems.
The SCM is a guiding model for RQ #1 of this study. The SCM describes leadership as a
collaborative, values-based, purposeful process, instead of a position or title (Astin, 1996). A
leader, in this context, is a college student who wants to learn to work effectively with others to
create social change (Astin, 1996). The SCM is rooted in two principles: social responsibility and
change for the common good (HERI, 1996). The principles are assessed through seven values
grouped into three dimensions: individual (consciousness of self; congruence; commitment),
group (collaboration; common purpose; controversy with civility) and society/community
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(citizenship). The way in which all seven values interact with and impact one another creates the
eighth value and ultimate goal of the SCM: change (HERI, 1996). The model’s focus on the
individual, group, and the community aligns particularly well with the ecological approach.
Significance of the Study

Previous explanations of barriers that women face in attaining leadership positions have
offered many deficit-based explanations. Yet, there appears to be a connection between the
collegiate athletic experience and women who have successfully attained leadership positions.
This research seeks to explore the experiences of women currently engaged in this athletic
experience. The study will not only contribute to the current literature related to women and
leadership, it will also add to the limited research regarding the relationship between the
participation in collegiate athletics, social justice issues, and female leaders. This study is also
significant given the conversation surrounding the cost of collegiate athletics and its impact on
the educational process of student-athletes and the reputational cost to universities. Furthermore,
this study is significant because of the limitations on charter school students’ access to sports.
With California having the most charter schools and charter school students (California Charter
Schools Associations, n.d.), this lack of access to sports penalizes children and parents for
choosing an alternative to a traditional public school. Thus, charter school attendees are not
afforded the opportunity to gain real or perceived benefits from participating in sports, including
the possibility of earning a scholarship to a college they may not have been able to attend or
afford otherwise.
The goal is for this study to be used as a tool for administrators, coaches, and athletes to
expose the benefits to building healthy, strong, confident and powerful women.

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Limitations and Delimitations

Validity has been a common criticism of qualitative research. For one, the researcher is
an integral part of the study. The experiences, background and identities of the researcher cannot
be disentangled from the study (Maxwell, 2013). However, the elimination of these factors is not
necessary; an awareness and transparency of those innate biases is most important (Maxwell,
2013). The researcher is also cognizant that there are threats to validity due to the reliance on
self-reported data (Maxwell, 2013).
As such, the study does not necessarily intend to be able to generalize their experiences
on a mass scale. Although the research is looking for women who meet certain criteria, in as
much as possible, the researcher will look for diversity of previous experiences and other unique
qualities that will make the group less homogenized.
Table 1: Definition of Key Terms
Term Definition
Adolescence A period of development, generally spanning the biological ages of 10-
20-years-old (Santrock, 2015)
C-Suite A term used to describe corporate officers and/or business directors. The
letter C connotes “most high-level positions, such as Chief Operating
Officer” (Business Dictionary, 2017)
Collegiate
Student-Athlete
For the purpose of this study, collegiate student-athletes will refer to
students who compete in NCAA-sanctioned sports at a Division I institute
Ecological
Approach
Bronfenbrenner’s theory proposes four ecological systems: microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem; and a fifth stage known as the
chronosystem was added later. Environment is used to explain
socialization of individuals (Patton et al., 2016)
Emerging
Adulthood
Emerging adulthood is a distinct transitional period between
18-25 years of age, in which an individual undergoes unique development
during a period of change and exploration (Arnett, 2000)
Executive
Function
“Mental capacities [that include]...problem solving, planning, inhibition,
and decision making” (Jacobson & Matthaeus, 2014, p. 521)
Leadership “An individual who influences a group of individuals to achieve a
common goal.” Leadership is a complex process with multiple
dimensions, many definitions, and has been socially engendered as
masculine (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Northouse, 2016)
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Leadership
Development
A social process that involves developing individuals’ leadership
competence and identities, as well as emphasizing social relationships
and interpersonal communication (Day, 2000)
NCAA The National Collegiate Athletic Association is a rules-making and
governing body dedicated to the management and success of collegiate
athletics
Other Oriented
Behavior
“The ability to consider other people’s feelings, thoughts, intentions and
actions (Crone & Dahl, 2012, p. 643)
Possible Selves A concept of a future-self; or thoughts about who or what a person can
become later in life. These ideas develop in late adolescence and
continue through early adulthood (Oyserman et al., 2002)
Redshirt “Redshirting refers to someone who is enrolled full-time at a school, but
does not play for an entire academic year for the sole purpose of saving a
season of competition. A redshirt does not play in any college games or
scrimmage in a given sport for an entire academic year, even though that
student is otherwise eligible” NCAA (n.d., d)
Social Change
Model of
Leadership (SCM)
A theoretical model that “approaches leadership in a dynamic,
collaborative, and value-based process grounded in relationships and
intending positive change (Komives et al., 2009b, p. 72)
Socially
Responsible
Leadership
“An approach to leadership that maintains a sense of responsibility for the
welfare of others as the group goes about its business” (Komives, et al.,
2009b, p. 33)
Student-Athlete
Advisory
Committee
A committee of student-athletes who serves as the governance for
student-athletes, organizes community service efforts and supports the
department’s Life Skills program (NCAA, n.d., a)
Title IX A bill passed in June 1972 that reads: “No person shall, on the basis of
sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be
subjected to discrimination under any educational program receiving
Federal financial assistance” (Sandler, 2007, p. 479). This bill was
considered a historic victory for women in education and was not
originally considered to have an impact on sports. The benefits for sport
participation in high schools and colleges are undeniable, however
unintended consequences of the bill continue to be felt in collegiate sports
administrative positions
West Coast
University (WCU)
For the purpose of this study, West Coast University (WCU) refers to the
study setting at a west coast Division I institute

Organization of the Study

The first and second chapters of this study were co-authored by three researchers who
conducted individual, yet complementary studies. Chapters three, four, and five were written
independently. The two researchers’ work will be presented in separate studies. A similar
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research question was examined in all three studies. Each researcher had their own research
question for their subsequent study, which necessitated differing populations and samples.
Chapter two focuses on key literature regarding leadership development, history of
college athletics, socially responsible leadership, and student-athlete development. Chapter three
provides the methodology for this case study. Participants were identified through a purposeful
sample based upon criteria that align with the study objectives. Interviews began with two
athletics department program administrators, followed by interviews with eight current female
student-athletes. In total, 12 participants were interviewed.
Chapter four discusses the themes and findings of this study, which are presented by
research question. Chapter five discusses the findings and expounds upon key revelations.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter two is a comprehensive review of literature relevant to how participation in
intercollegiate athletics relates to leadership development of current female student-athletes. The
literature review will begin with an overview of leadership and leadership development. This
will be followed by a discussion of society’s influence on leadership attainment, cognitive
development and college student leadership development. This chapter will then present research
about the impact of participating in collegiate athletics on leadership development, followed by
an overview of leadership for social change. Finally, an overview of the theoretical framework
used in this study, the ecological approach, will be discussed.

Leadership Development

It is very difficult to define leadership or even who a leader is. Original definitions of
leadership originated from observing and studying “great” men (Northouse, 2016). Early
leadership scholars focused on traits and believed leaders were born (Northouse, 2016). These
conceptions of leadership left out women and notable past female leaders were framed as
exceptions. Recent scholarship has sought to be more inclusive. Yet, a troubling trend has
emerged in the wake of women’s initial exclusion from the leadership discussion—the “great
woman” theory. The great woman theory relies on positive stereotypes about women and
attempts to position these stereotypes as ideal leader characteristics (Pittinsky et al., 2007).
Stereotyping of any type inherently leads to exclusionary practices given the uniqueness of
individuals. Like men, different women have and rely on different leadership styles and
approaches given the context (Keohane, 2005). Furthermore, by espousing the “great woman”
theory, the notion that leadership is gendered is reinforced. In fact, research does not support the
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notion that there are gender differences in terms of style or effectiveness (Rhode & Kellerman,
2007). The resultant consequence of that reinforcement is the creation of prescriptive norms and
backlash against women who violate these norms (Pittinsky et al., 2007). De-gendering
leadership and leading in an androgynous manner, a style that values great traits typically
associated with men and women may give women more opportunities (Ayman & Korabik,
2010). Northouse (2016) defines leadership as “...a process whereby an individual influences a
group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (p. 6). Mumford et al. (2000) defined leadership
as “a complex form of social problem solving (p. 14). Neither definition is gendered and both
reflect the relational aspects of leadership fundamental to this study.
Leadership development is a process influenced by self-perceptions and group identity
(Lord & Hall, 2005). In order to develop expertise, leaders must be motivated and able to
practice necessary leadership skills; it is a proactive process (Mumford et. al, 2000).
Furthermore, an individual’s efficacy toward leadership impacts their leadership development.
Self-efficacy is an individual's belief in their own ability to execute behaviors necessary to
successfully accomplish a task (Bandura, 1977). Efficacy expectations are based upon four
sources: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion and
physiological states. McCormick (2001) defines leadership self-efficacy as an individual's belief
in their ability to lead. A leader’s level of efficacy toward leadership impacts their willingness to
engage in leadership behaviors.
Society’s influence on leadership attainment. Over the years, many different
explanations have been offered to explain the leadership gap between men and women in senior
positions, from women choosing to prioritize their family to a lack of qualified women. Women
were traditionally the caregivers in household. Even today, women often take on a
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disproportionate amount of the housework even if they are the primary earners in the household
(Hewlet, 2007; Thomas, Yee, Cooper, Krivkovic, Konar, Starikova & Valentino, 2017).
According to a Pew Research Center 2015 release, 22% of people believe women’s familial
responsibilities is a major reason why they do not become top business executives (Parker,
Horowitz, & Rohal, 2015). Women also must contend with public policies and structures in the
workplaces that are generally unsupportive of either gender attempting to balance familial roles
and their careers (Rhode & Kellerman, 2007).
In terms of qualifications, recent research shows women have higher attainment rates of
bachelor’s, master’s, and doctor’s degrees from postsecondary institutions (Digest of Education
Statistics, 2017). Yet, the gap persists.
A March 2018 byline in the New York Times by Heather Murphy read, “Picture a
Leader. Is She A Woman?” This question speaks to the standards imposed by society based upon
gender and its impact upon our concept of who a leader can be.
Leadership is influenced by one’s position within a social group (Hogg, 2001). Emergent
leaders are impacted by the group’s perception and acceptance of their leadership and also
influence which skills are deemed necessary to be a successful leader in their group. Hence,
prototypical leaders are seen as those most congruent with the group and more effective leaders
(DeRue & Ashford, 2010).
Aside from a group’s perception, gender stereotypes can also influence leadership
attainment as gender stereotypes regarding women and leadership can be an impediment to
women attaining leadership positions. Social categorization, gender being one example,
depersonalizes individuals leading to stereotyping based upon group affiliation (Hogg, 2001).
Stereotype threat occurs when an individual is in a situation where there is a possibility of being
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judged or stereotyped while performing an activity in a certain domain (Steele, Spencer, &
Aronson, 2002). Stereotype threat is moderated by: the degree of negativity associated with the
stereotype; the amount of association to the domain and the group; and one’s ability to cope with
the stereotype (Steele et al., 2002).
Gender stereotypes are descriptive and prescriptive. Descriptive gender stereotypes refer
to differences between women and men. Prescriptive gender stereotypes refer to how men and
women should be and should not be (Heilman, 2001; Prentice, & Carranza, 2002). Men are often
labeled as agentic; they are attributed characteristics, such as forceful and decisive. Women are
often labeled as communal; those with communal characteristics are seen as kind and sensitive to
the needs of others (Heilman, 2001). Prentice and Carranza (2002) conducted a study based on
the foundational work of Bem’s 1974 Sex Role Inventory. The study had an evenly divided
group of 208 men and women undergrads to determine desirable traits in women and men. The
researchers proposed four different categories to classify whether the trait was considered
desirable by society: intensified prescriptions, relaxed prescriptions, relaxed proscriptions, and
intensified proscriptions. Intensified prescriptions was defined as “the qualities women and men
are supposed to have by virtue of their gender…” (p. 271). Relaxed prescriptions are high in
general desirability, but low for that gender. Relaxed proscriptions were defined as “the flaws
women and men are allowed to have by virtue of their gender” (p. 271). Intensified proscriptions
are low in general desirability and even lower in desirability for the gender. Results from the
study found traditional traits such as warm, kind, patient and cooperative were classified as
intensified prescriptions for women. For men, traits classified under intensified prescriptions
included business sense, athletic and leadership ability (Prentice & Carranza, 2002). When
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women and even men violate prescriptive and proscriptive norms, they will face negative
reactions.
Some of these negative reactions include prejudice. Eagly and Karau (2002) assert
incongruities between the way society stereotypes female gender roles and leadership roles leads
to prejudice. Prejudice occurs when individuals perceive women’s leadership behavior as
contradictory to their role as females. Furthermore, when there are few members of a subgroup
represented, such as women in a male dominated field, then those present from the poorly-
represented subgroup will be more susceptible to automatic stereotyping based upon gender
(Eagly & Karau, 2002). The role congruity theory proposes women face two kinds of prejudice
based on agency: a devaluing of leadership potential due to an incongruence related to
descriptive norms and a less favorable evaluation of actual leadership behaviors due to
prescriptive and proscriptive norms. Rudman and Glick (2001), argue that agency consists of two
components, competence and dominance. Each component has a different impact on a woman’s
ability to obtain leadership positions.
The first form of prejudice, which underestimates women’s leadership potential, is
heightened when the role is considered masculine. Agentic competence is tied to the belief that
an individual can perform the tasks required of the position (Rosette, Koval, Ma, & Livingston,
2016). Women who are perceived to be low in agentic competence will be viewed as having a
deficiency and thus unable to perform the task. This dynamic not only reduces the amount of
opportunities perceived to be appropriate for women, but also inadvertently increases the amount
of positions appropriate for men given the congruence of gender role with the leader role.
The second form of prejudice influences the evaluation of women’s leadership behaviors
and results in harsher criticisms (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Women who display agentic dominance
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and violate prescriptive and proscriptive norms will be penalized (Rosette et al., 2016). Eagly
and Karau (2002) note the degree of prejudice would be determined by the perceiver’s beliefs on
gender roles and the leadership role, and how incongruous the perceiver believes the two roles to
be. Women who hold or aspire to leadership positions are more susceptible to prejudice when the
leadership positions are seen as either masculine or requiring more agentic qualities.
The women who do hold leadership positions may have had to violate societal norms
along the way. Violation of societal norms leads to backlash. The lack of social acceptance and
approval due to the backlash from the violation of norms mean workplace peers are looking to
invalidate performance or undervalue the performance (Heilman, 2001). Women who violate an
intensified prescription or proscription will face social and professional repercussions (Heilman,
2001; Prentice & Carranza, 2002). However, individuals whose violations are not seen as deviant
behavior, but as androgynous behavior, are able to escape the backlash (Prentice & Carranza,
2002). Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs, and Tamkins (2004) conducted a study to investigate reactions
to women who worked in positions considered masculine. The researchers conducted a series of
three studies with a total of 242 participants. Study one confirmed women were perceived in a
less hostile manner when there was ambiguity as to their success level; they were also seen as
less competent and less achievement oriented when there was ambiguity regarding their success
level. When a woman’s success was undeniable, the women were seen as more unlikable. Study
two confirmed the results of study one and expanded upon the understanding that the backlash
occurred when women were successful in masculine positions. Study three found likeability
had a significant impact in the workplace. Disliked competent individuals can impact evaluations
and also foster feelings that the individual is not worthy of promotions or raises.
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Although research is lacking regarding how women successfully violate these societal
norms in obtaining leadership positions, a 2015 EY study found 94% of women in C-suite
leadership positions played a sport and 52% were former collegiate athletes. As C-suite leaders,
these women are outliers and seemingly violated the common image of the C-suite leader.
Although this study does not prove causality it seems to point to a correlation between sport and
leadership development that facilitates attainment of leadership positions, or to the fact that those
who play sports tend to be leaders.
Karelaia and Guillén (2014) propose that women who have favorable conceptions of a
social identity, in this case gender, will experience less conflict in their conception of themselves
as leaders. During the course of three studies, the researchers were able to support their
hypothesis.
Rosette et. al (2016) argue when women are categorized as a homogenized group,
subgroups that may be held to different societal standards can be overlooked. They posit the
experiences of Asian American, Black and White women may be different from the overarching
women categorization. According to their study, the stereotypes held regarding Asian, Black and
White women are different and the consequences of those stereotypes impact leadership
attainment differently. Asian women are seen as competent, yet passive; if Asian women were to
act in a dominant manner, they would incur a penalty for violating a prescriptive norm. Black
women, on the other hand, are stereotyped in ways that allow them more leeway to be dominant;
however, they are not perceived as having the intellectual competence to perform the role.
Hence, for Asian women, they may be perceived as able to do the job, but not able to be the type
of leader capable of leading. On the other hand, Black women, according to the stereotypes, can
be the forceful leader but are not able to do the mental tasks of the job.
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Livingston, Rosette, and Washington (2012) conducted a small study exploring the
dynamics of race and backlash toward agentic behaviors that those leaders would face. Of note,
the researchers surmised that Black women faced a weaker prescriptive norm regarding
dominance than White women and Black men. The results found no evidence of agency penalty
against Black female leaders. However, the researchers did note there are few Black female
leaders, and it is highly likely there are other confounding factors that influence their attainment
of leadership positions aside from race. Although this was a small study whose findings require
future study, it raises the possibility that certain groups of women may have more freedom to
violate societal norms without traditional backlash.
Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is a well-established concept in which individual holds beliefs
in their abilities to accomplish a task and successful outcome of their efforts (Bandura, 1977).
Many studies have successfully applied self-efficacy concepts outside of just the classroom
(Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2014). Epel, Bandura, and Zimbardo (1999) looked at homelessness
with respect to self-efficacious beliefs and found those who had higher beliefs in themselves
spent more time searching for housing and stayed in shelters for a shorter period of time. The
opposite was true of those with lower self-efficacy. Those individuals were more likely to “seek
for extensions to stay longer at the shelter” (p. 590). Though this study did reveal positive results
for self-efficacy, complications of the constraints surrounding homelessness challenged
predictions regarding future orientations as those individuals who believed they would obtain a
better future and set goals still failed to secure stable housing. Additionally, self-efficacy has
been linked to successful leadership performance. In McCormick’s (2001) social cognitive
model of leadership, the central mediating factor of good leadership is a “person’s confidence in
his or her ability to successfully lead a group” (p. 30). Reviewing this from an ecological
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perspective, with the leader at the center, her goals are influencing the outer environmental rings
which also influence the leader herself (McCormick, 2001).
In the ecological model, the person remains in the center of her own world
(Bronfenbrenner, 1977). In this approach, the person is not only influenced by her environment
but simultaneously influencing it as well (Gardiner & Kosmitzki, 2005). Positive or attainable
possible selves are not just abstractions of who we want to be in the future, but
conceptualizations of who we can become based on “experience…past behavior or
accomplishments” (Oyserman & Fryberg, 2006). Ideas of who we can become in the future are
influenced by past ecological experiences as well as future constructs of where we believe we fit
into the future (Seginer, 2009). Possible selves is a social construct, therefore social contexts,
culture and environment all help shape who we see ourselves in the future (Oyserman & Fryberg,
2006).
Interestingly, prosocial behavior has also been tied to self-efficacy, which is also tied to
many leadership qualities (Bandura, 1977; McCormick, 2001). Individuals who were more self-
efficacious, specific to empathetic-self-efficacy as opposed to social-self-efficacy, were strong
predictors of prosocial behavior (Caprara, Alessandri, & Eisenberg, 2012). Self-efficacy is linked
to the conceptualization of the self in which individuals develop identity, self-representations and
ultimately their possible selves (Arnett, 2015; Malin et al., 2013; Mrazek, Harada, & Chiao,
2015; Oyserman et al., 2002).
Student leadership development in higher education. Given the role higher education
institutions have in preparing future leaders in many career and business sectors, leadership
development of college students has increasingly become the focus of research. From student
affairs staff to leadership development programs, many higher education institutes hold student
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leadership development central to their mission, vision, and values (Dugan, 2006a). Efforts to
implement and increase formal leadership programs on college campuses have not gone
unnoticed. By 2003, more than 1,000 formal student leader development programs had been
created (Riggio, Ciulla, & Sorensen, 2003). The number of these programs has since continued
to rise (Dugan & Komives, 2010).
These programs and higher education’s structure may be ideal for gains in leadership
development. Through the curriculum and co-curricular activities on campus, higher education
institutes provide rich opportunities for developing leaders (Astin & Astin, 2000). One of the
most comprehensive explorations of student leadership development programs was conducted by
Cress, Astin, Zimmerman-Oster, and Burkhardt (2001). The study collected longitudinal data
from 875 students at 10 institutions. The purpose was to assess whether participation in formal
leadership training programs had an impact of the students’ leadership development. Results
indicated positive gains in leadership development by participating in formal leadership training
programs. Specifically, participants showed increased gains in areas designed to assess
leadership: skills, values, and cognitive understanding. Furthermore, participants reported higher
scores than non-participants in developing social and personal values, leadership ability and
skills, civic responsibility, multicultural awareness and community orientation, and leadership
understanding and commitment.
Additional research indicates leadership development increases while in college. Dugan
(2006a) found college students increase their leadership development; Buschlen & Johnson’s
2014 study also found experiences in college are most beneficial to developing students’
leadership development. Studies have indicated a positive connection between experiences such
as community service engagement and increased leadership development of college students.
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Soria, Nobbe, & Fink’s (2013) study found students increased their socially responsible
leadership when engaging in community service. The more hours students spend volunteering,
the more likely they are to increase their development in leadership skills (Dugan & Komives,
2010). Each time students engage in community service, the more opportunities there are to
increase their socially responsible leadership and overall leadership development. And this hasn’t
been lost on higher education institutions as they have made community service more common
place in the undergraduate students’ experience (Flanagan & Bundick, 2011). Furthermore,
college students’ leadership development has been linked to further development outcomes, such
as multicultural awareness, self-awareness, societal awareness and civic responsibility (Cress et
al., 2001).
College students are in a period of change and exploration in life called emerging
adulthood. Emerging adulthood is described as the development period from the late teens
through the twenties, with a focus on ages 18-25. During this period, college students often
explore love, work, and worldviews (Arnett, 2000). It is a transitional period where brain
development occurs not only in areas of executive function but with social development and
conceptualizations of the self and future selves (Arnett, 2013; Crone & Dahl, 2012).
Additionally, during emerging adulthood, individuals are achieving relative autonomy from
guardians, experiencing shifts in social roles and normative expectations for their behavior,
pursuing higher education or vocational training, and delaying marriage or a serious relationship
(Sussman & Arnett, 2014). Peer pressure and risk-taking behaviors is higher during adolescence
and tapers off as students begin to enter adulthood (Albert et al., 2013; Arnett, 2013; Farrell,
Thompson, & Mehari, 2017; Saxbe, Del Piero, Immordino-Yang, Kaplan, & Margolin, 2015).
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The period of growth and identity exploration allows emerging adults to establish stable choices
by the end of their 20s (Schwartz, Côté, & Arnett, 2005), which can lead to life-long habits.
The higher education environment reinforces both short- and long-term goals of
leadership development efforts (Cress et al., 2001). Thus, emerging adults begin to cultivate their
own values, self-identity, and commitment to socially responsible leadership during their college
years (HERI, 1996). College students are more likely to increase gains in socially responsible
leadership development by engaging in community service; sociocultural conversations with
peers; mentoring relationships; and memberships in off-campus organizations (Dugan, Kodama,
Correia, & Associates, 2013; Fuller et al., 2015; Melton, 2015). Emerging adulthood being a
distinct developmental period in which individuals explore and develop future habits and
behaviors (Arnett, 2000) further supports the notion that the college environment may be an ideal
place for increasing leadership capacity.
Higher Education and Athletics
Collegiate athletics has long been an integral part of higher education. “The integration of
higher education and athletic programs began as a positive form of entertainment for students
that helped build character and school spirit” (Saffici & Pellegrino, 2012). This integration has
not come without criticism. The list of criticism includes overpaid coaches, the exploitation of
student-athletes, lack of minority coaches, and use of performance enhancing drugs (Brand,
2006). Despite this, Brand (2006), the former NCAA president, goes on to say, at its best,
intercollegiate athletics demonstrates positive values: “striving for excellence, perseverance,
resilience, hard work, respect for others, sportsmanship and civility, and losing – and winning –
with grace.”
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Furthermore, these positive values can indeed lead to increased leadership development.
“The environment in which athletes work and compete resembles a social situation where action
learning and collaborative leadership are important, thereby setting conditions that enhance one’s
leadership” (Huntrods, An, & Pascarella, 2017). Additionally, the pressure of competition,
commitment to one’s sports, and special living arrangements create a unique environment for
collegiate student-athletes, which Ryan (1989) believes can also add to their personal growth.
The Female Athlete. Prior to the 1960s, competitive sports programs for women simply
did not exist at most colleges and universities (Hultstrand, 1993). The researcher goes on to say
some national associations discouraged women from competition in sports. Concurrent to
Congress developing Title IX in the early 1970s, a group of women leaders in higher education
physical education were developing an organization that would organize and host championships
for college female athletes (NCAA Office of Inclusion, 2017). The AIAW was officially formed
in 1971 by the same group of women. Just a short nine years later in 1980, the AIAW had
become the largest United States sport governance association, with more than 1,000 members
(Cain, 2001).
The AIAW’s impact went further than simply hosting athletic events for collegiate
women. When Title IX was first drafted, the main focus was creating legislation that would
allow equal access into schools and programs regardless of gender (Hultstrand, 1993). Athletics
was not originally included. The AIAW leaders, along with leaders from the National
Association of Girls and Women in Sport, testified for the inclusion of athletics in Title IX
(Hultstrand, 1993). In 1972, Title IX of the Education Amendments was enacted by President
Nixon, which drastically changed who could access college campuses while increasing
opportunities for women and girls, not only in terms of playing sports but also educational
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access; Female athletes playing college sports increased from 16,000 prior to the enactment of
Title IX to more than 200,000 in 2012 (Acosta and Carpenter, 2012).
With more opportunities in terms of playing sports, female athletes are consistently
reminded of their otherness and must adapt (Krane, Choi, Baird, Aimar, & Kauer, 2004). There
are a wide range of positive and negative stereotypes about female athletes, all of which serve to
distinguish them from the normative female identity construct (Kauer & Krane, 2006). Some
athletes countered negative stereotypes by trying to distance themselves from their athletic
identities or other avoidance strategies. Over time, many female athletes learned to cope and
ignore negative stereotypes (Kauer & Krane, 2006). Krane (2001) states “being emotional,
passive, dependent, maternal compassionate and gentle” are all characteristics of hegemonic
femininity (p. 117). In a study conducted by Ross and Shinew (2008), the collegiate female
athletes in the study refused to embrace or conform to stereotypes that portrayed women as the
weaker sex. Despite the ostracism the female athletes faced while in high school for being more
muscular or for other traditionally masculine behaviors, these young women embraced their
strength and their physical power. The female athletes in a Krane et al.’s (2004) study stated
being feminine, which they defined in terms of the opposite of who they were (i.e. not loud, not
sweaty, not aggressive), simply was not essential to being great athletes. Furthermore, they also
were aware and had learned when it is most appropriate to conform to society by acting more
feminine (Ross & Shinew, 2008). The authors surmise that this dualism is not a display of
conformity but a new understanding of femininity. “Their ability to develop themselves as
athletes, their navigation of the sport environment, and their desire to de-emphasize traditional
femininity (if only at certain times and in particular contexts) may allow them to resist
constraining dominant ideologies” (Ross & Shinew, 2008). Of great significance Kauer and
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Krane (2006) found, “Sport became a place where the athletes could transgress feminine and
heteronormative social conventions.”
Impact of collegiate athletics. Research examining collegiate athletic participation and
leadership development is scarce and often conflicting; and understanding development in the
context of gender or the NCAA Division I setting is even more sparse (Anderson, 2012;
Hoffman, Hoffman, & Suggs, 2013; Huntrods et al., 2017; Ryan, 1989; Thompson, 2006). The
aspirational goal for collegiate student-athletes, as espoused by the national governing body that
oversees a vast majority of collegiate athletics, the NCAA, is the lifelong success of student-
athletes. Although the NCAA primarily focuses on athletic competition and related issues, it also
has academic standards for all athletes. The NCAA imposes minimum eligibility standards based
upon academic qualifications on incoming freshmen; tracks every team’s APR, a measurement
that evaluates every scholarship student-athletes’ retention and ability to remain eligible; and
Graduation Success Rates. While these rates are not infallible, they do provide built in tracking.
And, coupled with enhanced resources set aside for universities to provide further academic help
to student-athletes, the rates assist collegiate athletics departments in being more responsible and
cognizant of the academic success of their student-athletes. Academic counselors are responsible
for tracking academic standards and providing guidance in achieving these standards.
In addition to mentorship from academic counselors (Martin & James, 2012), athletics
provides an environment for frequent mentoring relationships (Nesbitt & Grant, 2015). These
mentoring relationships can develop into relationships that move beyond sport between coaches
and athletes or teammate to teammate (peer mentors). Mentoring relationships are important in
developing leadership capacity. The Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership (MSL) found “the
degree to which students reported being mentored was directly related to gains in leadership
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capacity” (Dugan et al., 2013, p. 12). Furthermore, students who indicated that their mentor
helped them develop personally (e.g. identify areas for self-improvement) were more likely to
have higher socially responsible leadership capacities (Campbell, Smith, Dugan, & Komives,
2012, p. 614).
Student-athletes are from different diverse backgrounds, and must come together to work
collaboratively to achieve a common goal of winning (Huntrods et al., 2017), which results in
frequent and sometimes intense interactions. These interactions allow teammates to get to know
one another better, and the common goal of winning requires each student to strategically utilize
each other’s strengths (Flanagan & Bundick, 2011). Because collegiate sports teams have a
diverse roster of student-athletes who commit, collaborate, and share a common goal, all social
change values, collegiate athletics may be uniquely effective in increasing socially responsible
leadership development.
A number of studies have focused on participation in a variety of co-curricular activities
related to leadership development. Student involvement in co-curricular activities has been
shown to positively impact college students’ leadership development (Astin, 1993; Cress et al.,
2001; Soria et al., 2013). While the significance of this participation on development varies from
study to study, Astin (1993) conducted a longitudinal study on the impact of four years in
college. Students rated themselves on leadership ability, social self-confidence, and popularity.
He found participation in co-curricular activities, such as fraternity or sorority, volunteering, and
participation in intramural sports contributed to above average increases in students’ leadership
scores. Furthermore, he found the more time students spent engaging in co-curricular activities,
the higher correlation they would have with self-assessed growth in leadership ability.
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In addition to co-curricular activities, peer influences are a critical component in the
leadership identity development model (Komives, Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella, & Osteen,
2005). Komives et al. (2005) state that during early development stages, “same aged peers served
as friends and older friends served as role models (p. 597). Peer engagement also served as a way
for athlete self-reflection and conceptualization of their own leadership identity (Komives et al.,
2005). Research of peer leaders often focus on formal programs, such as leadership programs or
team captains. However, Loughead, Hardy, and Eys (2006) found team captainship was not
always a signifier of a team leader. Similarly, Fransen, Vanbeselaere, De Cuyper, Vande Broek,
and Boen (2014) in their study of 3,193 players and 1,258 coaches, confirmed that multiple
athletes served in many different leadership roles, not just the team captain. Actually, only 1% of
players stated their team captain was the best leader in all four leadership roles as task leader,
motivational leader, social leader, and external leader. Furthermore, Fransen et al. (2014) found
“almost half of the participants did not perceive their captain as the most important leader,
neither on, nor off the field (p. 1394). The diversity and number of roles (both formal and
informal) on a sports team may offer leadership opportunities that other co-curricular group
experiences lack (Duguay, Loughead, & Munroe-Chandler, 2016).
Another finding of Fransen et al.’s (2014) study was that participating in college athletics
positively impacted leadership development. Additional research found positive results from
participating in collegiate athletics on the development of skills and an environment that fostered
leadership practice (Hoffman et al., 2013; Ryan, 1989). Prior research also shows participating in
athletics has been linked to positive social development, empowerment, discipline, persistence,
as well as leadership skills (Bailey, 2005; Bailey, 2006; Bray, 1988; Giulianotti, 2011; Morris,
Sallybanks, Willis, & Makkai, 2003). Thompson (2006) found participation in athletics was
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positively correlated with opportunities to practice leadership, which could translate to future
endeavors. Others either show the collegiate athletic experience has no influence on leadership
development (Grandzol, Perlis, & Draina, 2010) or participation actually has a negative effect on
development (Huntrods et al., 2017). These studies point to a need of understanding how
relationships in the collegiate athletic experience influence leadership development.
Recently, universities and the NCAA have adopted more formal approaches to leadership
development (Navaro, 2015; NCAA, 1998a; Voight & Hickey, 2016). Navarro’s (2015)
phenomenological study of 29 NCAA Division I athletes found that peer mentors helped student-
athletes clarify personal identities, to decide on a future major, and helped clarify and prepare
them for roles in life after sport. Additionally, Navarro (2015) found outside of the participation
in the formal peer mentorship program, student-athletes “expressed overwhelming sentiments”
that the college athletic experience and balancing the dual roles of student and athlete helped
them develop invaluable leadership skills (p. 24). In this study, interviews revealed the mere
participation in college athletics was more important to the development of leadership skills than
the formal program, again suggesting that peers and participation in collegiate athletics is
involved in the development of leadership skills (Navaro, 2015).
Student-athlete development. As young adults, student-athletes face many challenges
while participating in collegiate athletics. Student-athletes must delicately balance their personal
life along with performing well in their chosen sport while also performing well in the
classroom. To help student-athletes better manage this balance, intercollegiate athletics have
expressed a commitment to personal development, career development and service, through
student-athlete development programs (NCAA, n.d., a). Some of these programs include the
Student-Athlete Advisory Committee and CHAMPS/Life Skills program.
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The mission of the NCAA is to “be an integral part of higher education and to focus on
the development of our student-athletes” (NCAA, n.d., b). With this in mind, many NCAA
member institutes provide student-athletes opportunities to foster their personal development.
One such way is through involvement in the Student-Athlete Advisory Committee (SAAC).
SAAC provides opportunities for student-athletes to be involved at both the national and campus
level. According to the NCAA (NCAA, n.d., c), on the national level, student-athletes can
recommend potential NCAA legislation, review and comment on the governance structure, and
actively participate in the NCAA administrative process. Within the campus setting, SAAC is the
conduit between student-athletes and administration, creating an opportunity for a representative
to serve on campus-wide committees (such as the Chancellor’s Committee on Athletics and
student government), as well as organize community efforts.
Another way many athletics departments provide student-athlete development
opportunities is through community engagement. While some athletics departments employee a
single person to cultivate and provide opportunities for students-athletes to engage in community
service opportunities, almost all athletics departments have staff members or administrators who
have both connections to the surrounding community and have job responsibilities, on top of
their formal job responsibilities, to share these duties to create community service opportunities.
As community service continues to grow on college campuses, athletic administrators
and NCAA staff encourage student-athletes to participate in community service. The
encouragement seems to be paying off. According to the GOALS study (NCAA Research,
2016), nearly 50% of Division I athletes completed a few hours or more of community service
each month.
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Research has found a positive impact between leadership development and community
service. Soria et al. (2013) conducted a study using the MSL survey to examine the relationship
between engaging in community service and the impact on students’ socially responsible
leadership development. The researchers controlled for demographic and personal characteristics
and the following factors: sociocultural discussions, college leadership experiences, pre-college
leadership antecedents, pre-college leadership self-efficacy, and pre-college socially responsible
leadership. The study found students increased their socially responsible leadership when
engaging in community service. When students engaged in community service on their own and
not through formal avenues (classes or student organizations), they made gains across all seven
values of the SCM. Students who engaged in community service through a student organization
increased the collaboration and common purpose values of the SCM. Students who engaged in
community service both on their own and with a student organization made gains in six of the
seven SCM values. While the afore-mentioned study did not discuss the differences between
men and women, Hoffman, Kihl & Browning (2015) found women are more likely to engage in
community service than men.
The research above details the ways in which engaging in community service in college
increases opportunities for students to develop the values leading to positive social change. Each
time student-athletes engage in community service, the more opportunities there are to increase
their socially responsible leadership and overall leadership development. Thus, the more hours
student-athletes spend volunteering, the more likely they are to increase their development in
leadership skills, civic responsibility, further awareness of their personal and social values, and
awareness of both multicultural and community issues (Dugan & Komives, 2010).
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Research is contradictory in regard to student-athlete community service engagement as
opposed to non-athletes. Hoffman et al. (2015) found student-athletes were 2.2 times more likely
to engage in service than students who were non-athletes. On the contrary, Andrassy, Bruening,
Svensoon, Huml, and Chung (2014) found student-athletes were less involved in community
service activities. And, it appears the more well-known one is the less likely he/she is to
participate in community service as Andrassy et al. (2014) found high-profile athletes were the
least involved.
Teammates’ and coaches’ influences on student-athlete leadership development.
Since the NCAA began governing collegiate athletics, the landscape has changed immensely. As
a result of the structure, coupled with legal mandates, social pressures, and changing
demographic trends, student-athletes have grown increasingly diverse. Diversity is relevant in
regard to socially responsible leadership because research has shown diversity has a positive
impact on leadership development (Chang, Astin, & Kim, 2004). And research has shown both
positive and negative links between diversity and athletics. For example, Wolf-Wendel, Toma
and Morphew (2001) contend the diverse nature of athletics allows for better interactions
between athletes. On the contrary, Bowen and Levin (2003) suggests student-athletes are allowed
to create their own subculture within each institute, isolating themselves from the student body
and inhibiting their leadership development.
Although previous studies have utilized the MSL to explore influences on students’
growth in socially responsible leadership, little research utilizing the MSL has been completed
regarding the effects of diverse campuses on leadership development (Riutta & Teodorescu,
2014). For the purpose of their study, Riutta and Teodorescu (2014) framed diverse campuses as
those with minorities (American Indian/Alaska Natives, Asians, African-Americans, Hispanics,
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and students who declared themselves as more than one race) accounting for more than 40
percent of the student population. In their study, the campus was 45 percent minorities (27
percent Asians, 13 percent African-Americans and 5 percent Hispanics). The findings show
relationships with college peers were more influential on leadership development than the
number of clubs or organizations the student was involved in. Furthermore, the quality of these
relationships and talking with people who have different values was more important than the
frequency of interactions. Chang et al. (2004) also found interactions with students from
different racial groups had a positive effect on students’ leadership development, specially
intellectual, social, and civic development.
One diverse subgroup within athletics is international students. While laws were once
unsuccessfully introduced to limit the recruitment of international student-athletes (Foo, Wells,
& Walker, 2015), enrollment numbers of international student-athletes continue to rise. In just
six years, from 2009-2010 to 2015-2016, the overall percentage of international students at
Division I institutes rose from 8.5% to 10.6% (NCAA, 2018). Interactions with international
students, and specifically their teammates, allow student-athletes opportunities to have socio-
cultural conversations. The MLS found socio-cultural conversations with peers to be the single
strongest predictor of socially responsible leadership capacity for college students (Dugan et al.,
2013, p. 9). In this context, sociocultural conversations “consist of formal and informal dialogues
with peers about differences (i.e., topics which elicit a wide range of perspectives) as well as
interactions across differences (e.g., with people who have different backgrounds and beliefs
than oneself)” (Dugan et al., 2013, p. 9). Findings from Dugan and Komives (2010) suggest peer
conversations, not just interactions, can contribute to gains in socially responsible leadership.
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The researchers go on to say these conversations may provide opportunities to development
leadership skills, in addition to clarifying personal values and perspectives.
Coaches also have an impact of student-athletes and their leadership development.
Coaches emphasize strong values and culture, teamwork, group cohesion, create positive
climates, and empower athletes to form successful teams (Carron et al., 2002; Gould, Collins,
Lauer, & Chung, 2007; Schroeder, 2010). Successful buy-in from athletes to these environments
allow them to thrive and grow from these experiences (Komives et al., 2005). Komives et al.
(2005) posit athletes not only increased their own self-awareness but engaging in groups helped
them develop their self-concept and efficacy to lead. Hoffman et al. (2013) found, through
qualitative interviewing of students at West Point, that sports gave them an outlet to practice
“leading by example” (p. 89). West Point is a military academy where students have an arguably
higher leadership awareness as leadership courses are part of the curriculum. Students are taught
leadership in the classroom, and student-athletes then have the opportunity to put those skills to
the test in real life situations (Hoffman et al., 2013). Through observations of their peers,
student-athletes were able to build self-conceptualizations and then lead teammates in practice
and games (Hoffman et al., 2013).
Leadership for Social Change
A review of the literature pertaining to leadership for social change resulted in many
parallels between leadership development in college and desired outcomes of social change
behavior. The literature focused on leadership and social change for the betterment of society
(Astin & Astin, 2000; HERI, 1996; Dugan, 2006b). This section of the literature review will
focus on the literature and empirical studies about leadership for social change.
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Socially responsible leadership. As previously discussed, social change and leadership
development have been a focus of leadership development programs in higher education
institutions. Socially responsible leadership can be defined as individuals and groups working for
the betterment of others (Komives et al., 2009b). Socially responsible leadership is a key element
in college students’ development and the focus of contemporary leadership development
curriculum and co-curricular programs (Komives et al., 2013). Astin and Astin (2000) believe
American higher education institutes have a responsibility for creating leaders for social change.
This desire to develop socially responsible leaders was the guiding force behind the development
of the Social Change Model of Leadership Development (HERI, 1996). This model is grounded
in social responsibility and change for the common good, and was developed to guide programs
in which college students would develop leadership for social change (Astin, 1996).
The literature regarding leadership and social change centers on working collaboratively
with others to enact common good (Astin, 1996; HERI, 1996; Dugan, 2006a). The Social
Change Model of leadership development (SCM) is among the most widely-used leadership
development models for college students. Recognizing the need for colleges and universities to
develop the next generation of leaders after the 1988 presidential election, Alexander Astin and
Helen S. Astin decided to design a leadership development program specifically for college
students that would instill a strong sense of civic responsibility and desire for social change
(Astin, 1996).
The model’s conceptual base was derived from leadership and college development
studies and was developed to characterize engaging in leadership with others toward social
change (Buscheln & Johnson, 2014). Komives et al. (2009b, p. 8) define social change behavior
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as an individual creating “positive changes in their community - through service, community
building, raising awareness, educating the public about issues or advocating for policy change.”
Paramount in the development of the SCM was the following assumptions:
· Leadership is socially responsible in that it impacts change on behalf of others
· Leadership is collaborative
· Leadership is a process and not necessarily a position
· Leadership is inclusive and accessible to all people
· Leadership is values-based
· Community involvement/service is a powerful vehicle for leadership (HERI,
1996; Astin, 1996; Komives et al., 2009b)
The SCM seeks to facilitate student learning and development in both self-knowledge
and leadership competence. Self-knowledge is described as “understanding of one’s talents,
values, and interests, especially as these relate to the student’s capacity to provide effective
leadership” (HERI, 1996, p. 19). Leadership competence is the “capacity to mobilize oneself and
others to serve and to work collaboratively” (p. 19).
Because of the model’s focus on leadership development and social change, the SCM
consists of seven values (Figure 1) (HERI, 1996). The values are identified as consciousness of
self, congruences, commitment, collaboration, common purpose, controversy with civility, and
citizenship, and are often referred to as the “7 C’s of leadership development for social change”
(HERI, 1996). The values are organized under three levels: Individual, Group, and
Society/Community Values.
Each of the seven values are described further below:
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Consciousness of Self: Awareness of the values, emotions, attitudes and beliefs that
motivate someone to take action
Congruence: Thinking, feeling and behaving in a consistent, genuine, authentic and
honest way toward others
Commitment: An investment of one’s time and energy to a person, idea or activity.
Collaboration: Utilizing each team member’s talents to generate solutions and actions
toward a common goal
Common Purpose: Working with others and having a shared set of goals and values
Controversy with Civility: Recognizing that differences in viewpoint are inevitable and
that these differences must be handled with respect and courtesy
Citizenship: One’s active engagement in an effort to serve the community (HERI, 1996).
All seven of these values lead to an eighth value: change (HERI, 1996). Change is depicted as
the overall desired outcome of engaging in the leadership process
These values interact with one another in dynamic ways, which influences the way in
which leadership is developed in relation to social change. The individual values are developed
while functioning in a group, while the group needs individuals to exhibit personal values to
function properly (Astin, 1996). The arrows in Figure 1 symbolize the ways in which the seven
values connect and interact with one another.

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Figure 1: The Social Change Model of Leadership

Reprinted from HERI (1996). A social
change model of leadership development,
version III. Los Angeles, CA:
Higher Education Research Institute.

The SCM is symbiotic on all levels. Service is process-driven. Service is intended for an
extended time and not just once. The model emphasizes social responsibility, inclusivity, self-
reflection and collaboration for the greater good. The outcomes are both gains in leadership skills
and self-awareness, as well as tangible social change. The SCM is now being utilized to create
ways to measure the constructs of leadership outlined in the SCM.
Together, the values of the SCM contribute to one’s total capacity for socially responsible
leadership. The development of a scale to measure the values outlined in the SCM was originally
created by Tracy Tyree (1998) for her dissertation a couple of years after the SCM was
developed in 1996. The scale was called the Socially Responsible Leadership Scale (SRLS).
Tyree started with a 291-item scale but eventually scaled it down to 104 items after three phases
of data collection. The SRLS’ Likert scale allows students to characterize their perceived
leadership values.
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The development of this scale created further enhancement of the SRLS to specifically
examine socially responsible leadership behaviors and skills in college students around the
world. Dr. John Dugan has been the lead researcher who has further enhanced the SRLS and
broadened the literature regarding its use. Dugan and Dr. Cara Appel-Silbaugh created what is
now known as the SRLS – Version 2, reducing the number of questions in the SRLS to 68, while
retaining validity and reliability (Slack, n.d.)
Using the original SRLS, Dugan (2006a) conducted a study to examine the differences in
leadership styles in men and women. There were several differences, which are particularly
important to this study. Women scored higher than men on all seven of the leadership values, in
addition to change. Additionally, there were differences across six of the eight values between
men and women. While this provides insight into the differences that exist between men and
women and their socially responsible leadership development, it also highlights the need for
controlling for gender when using the SRLS.
While the literature regarding the SRLS use and collegiate student-athletes is limited,
Huntrods et al. (2017) say this scale fits well within the intercollegiate athletic context: “The
SRLS allows us to analyze directly leadership in the context of intercollegiate athletics, because
it fits within the inherent nature of athletics, particularly team sports.” The researchers go on to
say the SRLS is applicable to sports as athletes are working toward achieving a common goal
larger than themselves.
Because the SRLS is an ideal instrument for higher education research, the National
Clearinghouse for Leadership Program (NCLP) utilizes it to conduct research on leadership
programs.
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The NCLP developed a large scale MSL (Komives, Longerbeam, Mainella, Osteen, &
Owen, 2009a). The MSL measures the eight values of the SCM as previously discussed. It also
assesses a broader range of leadership outcomes and the experiences that influence college
students. It began in 2006 as a national research program (Johnson & Mincer, 2017), and
expanded into countries around the world for its second round of data collection in 2009. From
2010 to 2012, the MSL was conducted on an annual basis, but began a three-year cycle of data
collection in 2015. The studies conducted throughout the MLS have evaluated several factors in
college students, including how student engagement activities contribute to socially responsible
leadership development.
The findings from the MSL have found the following to be strongly associated with
leadership development growth: Sociocultural conversations with peers; mentoring relationships;
community service; and memberships in off-campus organizations (Dugan et al., 2013). These
are particularly important to this study and the parallel to collegiate athletics regarding
previously mentioned opportunities for sociocultural conversations with teammates from diverse
backgrounds, possibility of mentorships between coaches and athletes or between teammates,
and community service engagement opportunities for college student-athletes.
Effects of engagement in social change behavior. The cumulation of engaging in social
change behavior can have lasting effects on leadership development in college students. There is
a gap in the literature regarding how intercollegiate athletics participation directly impacts
student-athletes’ social change behavior. This is unfortunate, because athletes can be effective
advocates for social change (Edwards, 2015) because of their increased credibility and trust
within society (Burnett, 2006). There is however literature regarding the positive effects of sport
for development on social change (Edwards, 2015; Peachey, 2015; Spaaij, Oxford, & Jeanes,
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2016). Most of this literature is not inclusive of intercollegiate athletics, although Melton (2015)
researched the outcomes of social change initiatives in intercollegiate athletics at the macro,
meso, and individual level. This is particularly relevant to the current study and use of the
ecological approach.
Meso-level factors, including support of others and collaborations, can have an influence
on social change behavior and leadership development in collegiate athletics. Melton (2015) says
those who engage in social change can influence the attitudes, behaviors and policies others
follow. She goes on to say the support from others who are a part of the collegiate athletes’ meso
level, such as teammates, co-workers, family and friends, have a considerable influence on social
change behavior within collegiate athletics, both positive and negative. This further highlights
the importance of peers. Because of this, Melton (2015) says whether a teammate expresses
implicit support or outright disapproval of social change initiatives, others likely will express the
same sentiment. Research conducted by Saxbe et al. (2015) also found students were more
influenced by peers during their college years. On the contrary, Fuller et al.’s (2015) study found
students who experienced negative feedback from peers after advocating for social change as
their peers did not express the same sentiment. Instead of experiencing the same sentiments,
these students showed signs of resilience by showing a sense of pride and commitment to their
actions.
Another finding in Fuller et al.’s (2015) study was the importance of collaboration.
Collaboration, along with utilizing partnerships to meet goals and effect change, provided
opportunities for college student-athletes to not only increase their gains in common purpose,
one of the seven values of the SCM, but also aid the student-athletes beyond intention to actual
action, in college and for life.
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Individual-level factors, such as perspective-altering experiences, can have an influence
on social change behavior and leadership development in collegiate athletics. Fuller et al. (2015)
also found engaging in social change behavior increased one’s self-awareness. Participating in
social change allows participants to develop an understanding of what may push them to take
action, because one must first recognize a social injustice and then deliberately work toward
creating social change (Peachey, 2015). Additionally, Curtin, Stewart, & Cole (2015) found
when individuals are aware of structural inequalities, they are more likely to engage in social
change behavior.
Another individual level outcome of engaging in social change behavior is positive
impact on future professional and personal success. Ballard, Hoyt, & Pachucki (2018) found
engagement in civic engagement in late adolescence and early adulthood has a positive impact
on higher educational attainment and income in adulthood. Furthermore, Malin, Ballard, &
Damon (2015) found civic engagement may have an important function in social mobility by
helping young people develop skills that enhance job performance.
Sport is viewed as an inclusive environment where individuals from diverse backgrounds
can come together, learn from one another, and strive to achieve common goals (Melton, 2015).
Athletes spend more than twice the amount of time on athletics-related activities than college
peers in other extracurricular activities (Bowen & Levin, 2003). Thus, engagement in
intercollegiate athletics allows student-athletes to enhance their self-awareness. One participant
in Fuller et al.’s (2015) study found himself realizing the way in which sport gave him a way to
connect with young people and make a difference in their lives. Additionally, participants in
Fuller’s study expressed an increased self-awareness regarding their privileged social status,
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sense of empowerment and an increase in cultural competence – a skill that is vital to effective
management in a diverse workforce (Bennett, 2014).
The participant from Fuller et al.’s (2015) study saw the power of inclusion despite
differences. Along the same lines, Kaufman and Wolff (2010) contend that social change
through sport “may help foster an integrative orientation by helping to level off differences in
gender, race, class and religion” by creating an inclusive environment. Other researchers agree,
with Rossi and Rynne (2013) saying social change behavior in sports can provide an opportunity
for feelings of social inclusion for both individuals and groups. Peachey, Cunningham, Lyras,
Cohen, & Bruening (2015) say social change behavior facilitates social inclusion. Furthermore,
Huntrods et al. (2017) found “the extent to which diversity experiences occur during students’
college career bears on their ability to lead others.”
Despite the research above highlighting the positive effects of social change behavior for
student-athletes, Huntrods et al. (2017) found athletes who were part of a team decrease their
gains in socially responsible leadership during college compared to non-athletes. The researchers
attribute this to herd mentality. They say large sports teams have fewer leaders and thus more
followers. Their research suggests there is no correlation between participating in collegiate
athletics and a positive impact on socially responsible leadership development.
Contemporary collegiate student-athlete social change behavior. Despite student-
athletes’ involvement in volunteering and participating in community service activities, student-
athletes’ involvement in activism in non-normative behavior (Kaufman & Wolff, 2010).
However, in late 2013, there was a rise in student-athletes engagement in activism (Hoffman et
al., 2015), most notably at Northwestern University and at the University of Missouri in
Columbia (MU). At MU, after a string of “overtly racist incidents – including racial slurs hurled
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at black students and feces smeared into the shape of a swatiska on a dormitory bathrooms,”
students began protesting in the fall of 2015. Their aim was for a change in administrative
leadership and improving race relations on campus. The protests persisted for more than a month
with little movement from MU. That was until a football player tweeted:
The athletes of color on the University of Missouri football team truly believe
“Injustice Anywhere is a threat to Justice Everywhere” We will no longer participate in
any football related activities until president Tim Wolfe resigns or is removed due to his
negligence toward marginalized students’ experiences. WE ARE UNITED!!!!!!
(Gleeson, 2015)

With 24 hours, more than 30 black football players announced they would no longer
practice or complete in games until the University of Missouri system president, Tim Wolfe,
resigned (Epstein & Kisska-Schulze, 2016). This brought national attention to the matter. And
two days later, Tim Wolfe resigned. After that, Chancellor of the MU campus, R. Bowen Loftin,
was forced out (Tompkins, 2017). The players received praise for their devotion to a cause
greater than college sports.
The student-athletes’ actions pushed for social change, and MU’s governor-appointed
Board of Curators approved initiatives intended to improve MU’s overall racial climate, which
included a $1.1 million diversity audit.
The damage the University would have felt had the protests continued and the football
players stuck to not competing would have been felt deeply financially. For example,
contractually, MU would have had to pay their next opponent, Brigham Young University $1
million in damages due to lost profits. Furthermore, the impact could also have had financial
implications for the Nike apparel deal, ticket sales and TV rights. The addition of the MU
football players to the protests showed how sport can increase public awareness of societal
issues.
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While the football players at MU utilized their powers for non-labor related change,
Northwestern football players unsuccessfully attempted to unionize one year earlier. Tompkins
(2017) believes this effort failed because it had direct ties to labor-related change and lacked a
sense of political urgency or moral authority that fighting against racism has. It is yet to be seen
if current student-athletes will continue engaging in social change behavior.

Ecological Approach

Bronfenbrenner (1977) developed the ecology of human development in response to
research that ran experiments to explain “strange” behavior or observed individuals in snap shots
of time. In attempting to explain the behavior, Bronfenbrenner sought to understand it in relation
to the immediate environment and also the collective environment, including the larger society
and culture, in which individuals live (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The ecology of human
development “views behavior and development as a shared function of the characteristics of the
individual and the environment along with the larger contemporary and historical contexts of
which these are an integral part” (Gardiner & Komitzki, 2005, p. 20). Bronfenbrenner’s (1977;
1979) theoretical perspective surmised that the individual is constantly influenced by the
environment as the environment is being influenced by the individual. These dynamic and
constantly evolving interactions are not just impacted by their immediate environment but
through multiple layers of “nested systems” (Gardiner & Komitzki, 2005, p. 21).
Nested systems are external environments; the interactions that are closets to an
individual is called the microsystem and it expands out to the macrosystem. Microsystems are
the relationships between the developing person and the immediate environment
(Bronfenbrenner, 1977; 1979; Gardiner & Komitzki, 2005). These relationships are the face-to-
face interactions that a person is exposed to on a daily basis (Gardiner & Komitzki, 2005). The
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mesosystem is the second level in which two or more microsystems, such as athletic teams,
school and family, influence one another and the developing individual (Gardiner & Komitzki,
2005). It is the second nested system “that links or ties together information, knowledge and
attitudes from one setting that help to shape behavior or development in another setting”
(Gardiner & Komitzki, 2005, p. 22). The third system of the ecology of human development is
the exosystem. This nested system are the social settings or environmental aspects of the social
setting in which the developing individual may not be directly involved with, but are still
influenced by (Gardiner & Komitzki, 2005). These environments may include social media,
friends of the family or university policies. The macrosystem is the overall customs, values, or
laws that are embedded in the individual’s culture. Later added, although not completely adopted
by Bronfenbrenner, is the chronosystem, which emphasizes time as part of an individual’s
development (Gardiner & Komitzki, 2005; Strorberg-Walker & Haber-Curran, 2017).
The use of the ecological model has been used to study the contexts of leadership in an
effort to understand how leadership identity is formed and the social construction of identities
(Komives et al., 2005; Patton et al., 2016).
Table 2: Literature Review Table
Topic Research
Question
Highlights Findings Article

Leadership
Development
RQ1, 2 Leadership definitions
defer. It was once
thought that leaders
were born. De-
gendering leadership
gives women more
opportunities.
Leadership is a
proactive process
influenced by self-
perception and group
identity.
Original definitions of
leadership focused on
men and did not
include women. There
are not gender
differences in regard
to leadership
effectiveness. Level of
efficacy toward
leadership impacts
leader's willingness to
Northouse (2016);
Ayman & Korabik
(2010); Lord &
Hall (2005);
McCormick
(2001); Pittinsky
et al. (2007);
Keohane (2005);
Hogg (2001);
Eagly & Karau
(2002); Rosette et
al. (2016); Rhode
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engage in leadership
behaviors.
& Kellerman
(2007); Mumford
et. al (2000);
Bandura (1977)
Society's
Influence on
Leadership
Attainment
RQ 2 Societal norms have a
negative impact on
women attaining
leadership positions.
Gender stereotypes
can also influence
leadership attainment.
When gender norms
are violated, there are
negative reactions.
Women believe their
familial
responsibilities deter
them from becoming
top business
executives. Workplace
structure and policies
are not supportive of
balancing family roles
and careers. Gender
stereotypes are both
prescriptive and
descriptive. Effects of
violated norms include
stereotyping, prejudice
and harsher criticisms.
Hewlet (2007);
Thomas et al.
(2017); Parker et
al. (2015); Rhode
& Kellerman
(2007); Heilman
(2001); Digest of
Education
Statistics (2017);
Hogg (2001);
DeRue & Ashford
(2010); Steel et al.
(2002); Prentice &
Carranza (2002);
Eagly & Karau
(2002); Rudman &
Glick (2001);
Rosette et al.
(2016); Prentice &
Carranza (2002);
Heilman et al.
(2004); Karelaia &
Guillén (2014);
Livingston et al.
(2012)
The Female
Athlete
RQ1, 2 Women did not always
have access to
collegiate athletics.
Women athletes are
associated with both
positive and negative
stereotypes.
Competitive sports
programs did not exist
in higher education
prior to the 1960s.
Title IX was enacted
in 1972, and increased
opportunities for
women. Some athletes
distanced themselves
from their athletic
identities to counter
negative stereotypes.
While other women
athletes coped by
knowing when it's
most appropriate to
Hultstrand (1993);
NCAA Office of
Inclusion (2017);
Cain (2001);
Acosta and
Carpenter (2012);
Krane et al.
(2004); Kauer and
Krane (2006);
Krane (2001);
Ross and Shinew
(2008)
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conform and act more
feminine.
Impact of
Collegiate
Athletics
RQ1, 2 Views regarding the
impact of participation
in collegiate athletics
is conflicting
Participating in
athletics has been
linked to discipline,
persistence and
increased leadership
skills. Athletics
provides frequent
mentoring
opportunities, which is
important to
leadership
development.
Athletics has no
influence on
leadership
development or can
even have a negative
effect on development.
Anderson (2012);
Hoffman et al.
(2013); Ryan
(1989); Thompson
(2006); Bailey;
Martin & James
(2012); (2005);
Bailey (2006);
Bray (1988);
Giulianotti (2011);
Morris et al.
(2003); Nesbitt &
Grant (2015);
Dugan et al.
(2015); Campbell
et al. (2012);
Huntrods et al.
(2012); Grandzol
et al. (2010)
Student-
Athlete
Development

RQ1, 2 Collegiate athletics
has expressed a
commitment to
personal and career
development and
service.
Mentorship, peer
influence, diverse
teammates and
opportunities to lead
contribute to student-
athlete leadership
development.
Athletics departments
provide opportunities
for student-athletes to
foster their personal
development through
SAAC, community
service and
opportunities to
engage with campus
entities as an athletics
department
representative.
NCAA (n.d., a);
NCAA Research
(2016); Huntrods
et al. (2017); Ryan
(1989); Nesbitt &
Grant (2015);
Hoffman et al.
(2015); Dugan &
Komives (2010);
Dugan et al.
(2013); Campbell
et al. (2012);
Astin, 1993; Cress
et al. (2001); Soria
et al. (2013);
Fransen et al.
(2014); Andrassy
et al. (2014)
Engagement
in Social
Change
Behavior
RQ 1 Socially Responsible
Leadership has
become the focus of
contemporary
leadership
development
Sociocultural
conversations with
peers, mentoring
relationships and
community service
were found to enhance
Astin & Astin
(2000); Komives
et al. (2009a);
Dugan et al.
(2013); Melton
(2015); Komives
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curriculum in higher
education. Engaging in
social change behavior
can have lasting
effects on leadership
development.
socially responsible
leadership. Meso-level
factors such as
supporting others and
collaboration
influence social
change behavior.
Peers have a
considerable influence
on social change
behavior within
collegiate athletics,
both positive and
negative. Increased
self-awareness,
engagement in civic
engagement and
inclusiveness enhance
social change
behavior.
et al. (2013);
Saxbe et al.
(2010); HERI
(1996); Fuller et al
(2015); Astin
(1996); Dugan,
2006b); Curtin et
al. (2015); Ballard
et al (2018);
Bennett (2014);
Kaufman and
Wolff (2010)

Summary

In reviewing the literature, it is apparent that both societal norms and gender stereotypes
negatively influence women attaining leadership positions. These is a need for more research
regarding the ways in which women can successfully violate these norms in their pursuit of
leadership positions. Existing research does find a link between women in C-suite positions and
sports participation. Despite this, it is difficult to pinpoint the impact of participating in collegiate
athletics and leadership development. The research examining the impact of participating in
collegiate athletics is scarce and often conflicting. Overall, there is very little research regarding
leadership development in the context of gender or leadership development specific to the
Division I setting.
Historically, higher education has been tasked with developing future leaders. As such,
higher education institutions have continued to offer more and more formal leadership training
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55

programs. Little information exists on the quality and developmental effects of these programs.
The Social Change Model of Leadership Development is the first model designed specifically for
college students. The model highlights the importance of civic responsibility, creating change for
the betterment of society, and non-hierarchy.
In closing, the need for additional research examining the impact of participating in
collegiate athletics is preeminent. There is a need to examine how collegiate athletic
environmental factors impact leadership development and social change behavior. Few existing
studies speak to the intersection of social change behavior and leadership development in
collegiate athletics. This gap in the literature and the resulting need for further study is
compounded by the fact that leadership development continues to be a relevant issue within
higher education today. As a result, this study seeks to study this phenomena, therefore
addressing the existing gap in literature.

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

This qualitative case study explored the experiences of current female student-athletes at
WCU. This purpose of this study was to understand the impact participation in collegiate
athletics has on social change behavior and socially responsible leadership. Additionally, this
study sought to understand female student-athletes’ views and perspectives regarding their
experience developing leadership skills by participating in collegiate athletics. This includes the
experiences as a college student and athlete, such as dialogue and discussions across and about
differences with teammates and community service opportunities, and how these interactions
support their leadership skills and developments. The methodology was guided by the problem
statement associated with this study: Women are underrepresented in senior and executive
leadership positions in male dominated industries. Leadership is not gendered by nature yet
society has engendered our conceptualization of leadership as masculine, which has limited
opportunities for women.
Collegiate athletic participation was selected as the focus for this study because athletic
participation is widely assumed to play a significant role in leadership development, but is
unproven. Johnson (2014) explored the factors that contribute to the development of students’
capacities to engage in social change, and found four important factors: involvement in student
organizations, community service involvement, discussions about and across differences, and
formal leadership training programs. These four factors are inherent in collegiate athletics. In
many athletics departments, community service is mandatory or at the very least recommended
for each sports team. Additionally, because there are athletes from all different backgrounds,
whether race, nationality, political views, sexuality, etc., many times, there are discussions about
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and across differences. Considering these exchanges, the researcher investigated if they
contribute to student-athletes’ involvement in social change.
The information found in this study is intended to provide a better understanding of
connections to social change behaviors, which will help educators structure curricular and co-
curricular experiences designed to increase students’ likelihood to engage in social change. The
study also intends to further the knowledge on leadership development and the attainment of
leadership positions through the lens of collegiate athletics. Ultimately, this study made meaning
of current female student-athletes’ experiences, and analyzed the possible value of collegiate
athletics participation on leadership development and social change behavior.
This study was guided by the following research questions:
1. How does the culture of collegiate sports contribute to current female student-
athletes engaging in social change behavior?
2. How does the collegiate athletic experience influence current female student-
athletes’ leadership development?
Data collection consisted of interviews, which were utilized to examine female student-
athletes’ views and perspectives about leadership development and social change behavior from
participating in collegiate athletics. This chapter describes the study’s sample and population,
instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis.
Rational for Design Choice
A qualitative approach allows for in-depth analysis of the perceptions of the impact of
collegiate athletic participation on social change behavior and leadership development, through
interviews (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Therefore, the qualitative approach is best for this current
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study. The diversity of information sources, including athletics department program
administrators and student-athletes, helps triangulate the data.
Due to the unique dynamics of individual universities’ sport and academic structure, as
well as differences between sports teams at each university, this study followed a case study in
order to capture the in-depth and rich information pertaining to the relationship between sports
participation and leadership development and social change behavior of current female student-
athletes on one sports team at WCU. Additionally, because social change behavior is mostly an
unexplored area in collegiate athletics, it is best to first develop an adequate explanation of this
case to a particular sports team before attempting to generalize the research results through a
purely qualitative research study.
Table 3.1: Methodology Overview
Data
Collection
Method
Research
Question
Method of Analysis Rational Pertinent
Literature
Implementation

Interviews RQ 1, 2 Narrative Analysis:
Responses
transcribed,
analyzed and coded
to find emergent
themes that correlate
to research questions
Data
Triangulation
Patton,
2002;
Merriam &
Tisdell,
2016
Purposeful
selection of
participants
Qualitative One-on-one
interviews; two
athletics
department
employee and 8
female student-
athletes
No longer than
one hour
Internal
Validity
Conducted
October 2018,
January 2019,
and February
2019
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Role of the Researcher
As a former female collegiate student-athlete, the researcher’s personal experiences in
athletics do influence her views on the role of athletics in the study of leadership. As the main
instrument of data collection in a qualitative study, the research is aware that her biases may
have influenced how data was interpreted and significance was determined (Creswell, 2014). The
elimination of these biases is unrealistic (Maxwell, 2013). The researcher strived to maintain
neutrality during the interviews with participants, as well as transparency with regard to any
influencing biases (Maxwell, 2013). Furthermore, the researcher ensured the lived experiences of
participants were accurately reported.
Setting
This study took place at a west coast Division I institute (WCU). The NCAA is a
governing organization regulating athletes of 1,217 institutions and conferences, including 351
Division I schools (NCAA: Our three divisions, n.d.). Division I member institutions offer the
most competitive athletic competition, biggest budget and places a great emphasis on spectators
and the general public and its entertainment needs. While there are three divisions within the
NCAA, Division I student-athletes were chosen to most accurately show the demanding athletic
experience. This university has a total of 19,000 undergraduate students and 21 sports teams. Of
the 19,000 undergraduate students, 650 are student-athletes.
This institute has won 126 NCAA team national championships and produced more than
400 Olympians who have brought home more than 450 Olympic medals. The undergraduate
estimated cost of attendance for the 2018-2019 school year is more than $65,000. Because of this
cost of attendance, the cost of athletic scholarships make up a significant portion of this
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institute’s athletics department’s operating expenses. The athletics department pays more than
$18 million annually to cover scholarships.
Sample and Population
The research questions focus on current female student-athletes. Therefore, the sample
was purposefully, consisting of current female student-athletes on one sports team. The sample
was as follows: eight student-athletes, and two athletics department program administrators were
interviewed who work most closely with student-athletes regarding personal, leadership, and
career development.
Current female student-athletes
The researcher was introduced to a team manager who works directly with the student-
athletes on the sports team chosen for this study. The researcher provided the team manager with
a flier to email to each student-athlete so they could self-identify as a participant. With the help
of the team manager, an email was sent to athletes in their second-, third-, fourth-, or fifth-year
of eligibility. These athletes were chosen to ensure participants have had significant involvement
with collegiate athletics. It is also assumed upper year student-athletes have more awareness of
their athletic, psychosocial, and leadership development. Additionally, Johnson (2014) found
students become more involved with social change behaviors with each year of college
attendance. The team manager also helped schedule and confirm interviews with participants.
Table 3.2: Female Student-Athletes’ Pseudonyms and Year of Athletic Eligibility

Pseudonym

Year of Athletic Eligibility

Fleur Fifth Year

Angelica Fourth Year

Destiny Redshirt Third Year

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Genie

Third Year

Bella Third Year

Heidi Redshirt Second Year

Carol

Second Year

Everest

Second Year

Athletics Department Program Administrators
Two athletics department program administrators were interviewed to ensure university
employees who have the most interaction with student-athletes regarding leadership development
were chosen. Outside of teammates and coaches, academic staff and program administrators
interact with student-athletes the most, as academic staff offer guidance regarding academic
matters but also personal and professional opportunities. The program administrators at WCU
are responsible for student-athlete personal, leadership, and career development programs, in
conjunction with other athletics department staff members.
Interviews with two athletics department program administrators were conducted for this
study. The following criteria was used for selecting the interview participants: (a) participant is a
fulltime employees employed at the University for a minimum of one year; (b) has contact with
second-, third-, fourth- or fifth-year student-athletes; (c) is responsible for interacting with
student-athletes’ regarding their personal, leadership, and career development; and (d) was
willing and able to participate in this study.
Instrumentation
This study used interview protocols in order to obtain participants’ experiences and
perspectives regarding the research questions. There were two interview protocols: one for the
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athletics department program administrators and another for the current female student-athletes.
The program administrator interview protocol had 10 questions and the student-athlete interview
protocol had 11 questions. The interview protocols were constructed ahead of time to serve as an
interview guide in a semi-structured approach (Patton, 2002). This approach and open-ended
questions allowed each participant flexibility in explaining, describing, and expanding on their
experiences and perspectives. Below is a framework detailing current literature on student-
athletes, leadership development, and social change, and how the research questions correlate to
each instrument (Table 3.3). Table 3.4 outlines the links between instruments and population
sub-groups.

Table 3.3: Links Between Instruments, Research Questions, and the Literature
Data
Collection
Instrument
Research Question
Components
Research Literature

Interviews Environmental factors leading
to engagement in social change
behavior (RQ1)

Socially responsible leadership is a focus of
leadership development (Komives et al.,
2007). College students collaborate to enact
common good (Astin, 1996; HERI, 1996).
Social Change Model of Leadership
Development is great fit within athletics
(Huntrods et al., 2017). Athletics departments
offer opportunities for student-athletes to
engage in social change behavior (NCAA, n.d.,
c; Soria et al., 2013). Diversity within
intercollegiate athletics provides opportunities
for socio-cultural conversations and inclusion
(Dugan et al., 2013)
Interviews Influences on collegiate female
student-athletes leadership
development (RQ2)

Higher education institutes hold student
leadership development central to their mission
(Dugan, 2006a). Curriculum and co-curricular
activities associated with leadership
development (Astin & Astin, 2000; Dugan,
2006a; Buschlen & Johnson, 2014).
Mentorship and community service enhance
leadership development (Melton, 2015; Dugan
et al., 2013). Formal leadership training
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63

increase skills, values and cognitive
understanding (Cress et al., 2001)

Table 3.4: Links Between Instruments and Population Sub-groups
Data Collection Instrument Population Sub-group

Interviews with Athletics Department
Program Administrators
Two WCU athletics department program
administrators
Interviews with Female
Student-Athletes
Eight second-, third-, fourth-, or fifth-year current
female student-athletes at WCU

Prior to collecting any data, participants were provided an overview of the study,
including the purpose and data collection methods. Interviews provided connections between the
literature review and athletics department employee interviews, and took place where it was most
convenient for the participants. The interview transcripts were reviewed and coded for themes
across all interviews with the student-athletes.
Interview with Athletics Department Program Administrators
A semi-structured interview protocol was used in this study. A total of 11 questions were
asked to examine the leadership development opportunities offered within the athletics
department, and the department’s perceived impact on social change behavior and leadership
development of current female student-athletes. The interview questions were created based
upon the need to gather information regarding the leadership development opportunities offered
to current student-athletes, opportunities for them to engage in social change behavior, and
literature regarding the influence of specific athletics department employees. The interviews
allowed the researcher to gather descriptive data that we couldn’t directly observe (Patton, 2002).
The participant were asked questions from the predetermined protocol, which allowed for
probing questions. The protocol included both the instructions and questions. An audio-recording
device was utilized in order to transcribe the interview. The interviews were conducted in
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October 2018. To respect the time of the program administrators, the interview did not exceed
one hour, and took place on campus at WCU where it was most convenient for the participant.
Interviews with Current Female Student-Athletes
A semi-structured interview protocol was used in this study to examine participants’
perceptions of social change behaviors, leadership development opportunities within the athletics
department, and the impact of intercollegiate athletics participation on leadership development.
The interview questions were created after analyzing the athletics department program
administrators’ interviews.
Each participant was asked the same questions from the protocol, which allowed for
probing questions when needed. The protocol included instructions and predetermined questions.
An audio-recording device was utilized during each interview to allow the interview to be
transcribed later. Interviews were conducted in January 2019 and February 2019. To respect the
time of each student-athlete, interviews did not exceed one hour. Each interview took place on
campus at WCU where it was most convenient for the participant.
Data Collection
Before collecting data, approval was granted from the Institutional Review Board (IRB)
at WCU to ensure ethical standards of conduct and participant confidentiality were maintained.
Additionally, permission was obtained to conduct interviews with current female student-athletes
from both the athletics director and head coach of the sports team. The athletics director and
head coach were provided the research questions, purpose of the study, and interview protocols
for both review and approval. Once IRB approval and permission from the athletics department
were granted, data collection began. Below is a schedule of the data collection sequence.

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Table 3.5: Schedule of Data Collection and Analysis
Instrumentation 2018 2019
Interviews Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar
Athletics Department Program
Administrators
Current Female Student-Athletes

Qualitative methods have limitations and strengths. The strengths provide a stronger
understanding of the research question (Creswell, 2014). Data collection began with an interview
with two athletics department program administrators and completed with student-athlete
interviews. The interviews with the athletics department program administrators provided
background information regarding student-athlete development opportunities offered in WCU’s
athletics department. Data collection was not cross-sectional. Once inferences were made from
the athletics department employee interviews, interviews of student-athletes followed in order to
collect data about behavior, feelings, and past events that can’t be replicated (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016).
Interview with Athletics Department Program Administrators
Interviews were conducted with two participants during October 2018. The interviews
were recorded by a recording device. The participants were asked to sign a consent form
explaining the study, interview process, and recording of the interview. Open-ended questions
were used to elicit responses from the participant, which allowed the participant to offer their
most salient responses (Patton, 2002).
Interviews with Current Female Student-Athletes
To accommodate both the team’s athletic and academic schedules, interviews were
conducted with the eight participants during January 2019 and February 2019. All interviews
were recorded by a recording device. Participants were asked to sign a consent form explaining
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the study, interview process, and the recording of the interviews. Open-ended questions were
used to elicit responses from the participants. Open-ended questions allowed the participants to
offer their most salient responses (Patton, 2002).
Data Analysis
In this study, the researcher utilized thematic analysis to analyze the data. Thematic
analysis allows the researcher to search for themes that emerged while interpreting the narrative
data of the interviews. To begin, once raw data from the two athletics department program
administrators was collected and transcribed using Trint.com, the researcher analyzed the data in
order to revise the student-athlete interview protocol. Data was then collected from student-
athletes, which was also transcribed using Trint.com. Once all data was transcribed and
organized, as outlined in Figure 2 below, the researcher looked at the convergence and
divergence between what was learned from the athletics department program administrators, as
well as the data collected from the student-athlete interviews.
The researcher used ATLAS.ti to facilitate analysis of the data from interviews. It began
with open coding, which is the process of identifying themes from the raw data (Strauss &
Corbin, 2015). During the open coding process, the researcher identified conceptual categories
by grouping together words, phrases, activities, and events that were similar. These categories
were revised and replaced during the analysis process.

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Figure 2: Explanatory Sequential Approach to Data Analysis

Threats to Validity
The researcher acknowledges there were threats to validity within this study. First and
foremost, all data were self-reported. This presents problems regarding truthfulness,
exaggeration, and forgetfulness among participants. Because of the interaction of selection and
treatment, or the narrow characteristics of these specific student-athletes, the results of this study
cannot be generalized (Creswell, 2014). Additionally, as this study focuses on one west coast
Division I university and one division of the NCAA, the results cannot be generalized to
individuals in other settings because of the interaction of setting and treatment. Lastly, there was
the possibility for design contamination if either the athletics department program administrators
or student-athletes informed later participants of the questions or nature of the instrument.
Ethical Consideration
There were no substantive ethical concerns with the study. The researcher did not ask the
participants to disclose any information detrimental to their privacy. The researcher did not break
any policies or procedures within the athletics department or the NCAA. There were no sensitive
matters discussed at any time between the research and any of the participants. All steps were
taken to ensure participants and data collected in this study were treated in an ethical and
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professional manner. All identifiers have been carefully removed to protect participants’ identity.
And, data was kept in a password protected file.
Theoretical Framework
This research used a qualitative approach with influences from the ecological approach
based on Bronfenbrenner’s work and the Social Change Model of Leadership Development. The
ecological approach allowed the researcher to account for the campus environment, more
specifically, the environment that is created by collegiate athletics, on the promotion or
inhibition of student-athletes’ development (Patton et al., 2016). The SCM describes leadership
as a collaborative, values-based, purposeful process, instead of a position or title (Astin, 1996). A
leader, in this context, is a college student who wants to learn to work effectively with others to
create social change (Astin, 1996). The SCM is rooted in two principles: social responsibility and
change for the common good (HERI, 1996). The principles are assessed through seven values
grouped into three dimensions: individual (consciousness of self; congruence; commitment),
group (collaboration; common purpose; controversy with civility) and society/community
(citizenship). The way in which all seven values interact with and impact one another creates the
eighth value and ultimate goal of the SCM: change (HERI, 1996). The Model’s focus on the
individual, group, and the community aligns particularly well with the ecological approach.
Thus, the intent of this study was to find out how the environment (collegiate athletics)
influences the individual’s (current student-athletes) socially responsible leadership. Ultimately,
this study sought to understand this influence through interviews. The interviews also deciphered
the meanings athletes ascribe to and relationship between the collegiate athletic experience,
leadership development, and self-identity, and the corresponding relationship.

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Summary
The methodology presented in this chapter followed a qualitative case study approach
that investigated current female-student-athletes’ attitudes and opinions regarding collegiate
athletics participation and leadership development, as well as environmental factors within
athletics that influenced their social change behavior. Two athletics department program
administrators participated in one-on-one interviews, which were not longer than one hour. The
analysis of these interviews informed the student-athlete protocol. Eight student-athletes
participated in one-on-interviews, which were also less than one hour. All data collected was
transcribed, analyzed for emergent themes, and underwent an inductive process. Then a
deductive process was used to determine if more evidence supported these established themes
(Creswell, 2014). The chapter provided the sample, population, instrumentation, data collection,
and data analysis methods.

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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
In this chapter, the findings of this study will be presented, as they pertain to the unique
leadership development experiences of its participants: current female student-athletes. Included
are their personal perceptions regarding leadership development and social influence as
outcomes of collegiate athletic participation. Additionally, it is important to understand how
student-athletes’ leadership and personal growth is impacted by their ecological system of
teammates, coaches, athletics department staff, the NCAA, and social media.
This research relied upon interviews to provide answers to several semi-structured questions,
such as: In what ways do student-athletes feel they have social influence? How have
relationships with teammates and/or coaches influenced your leadership development? How has
collegiate athletic participation changed your life? The following research questions framed the
study and provided a foundation for interviews of both current female student-athletes and
athletics department program administrators:
1. How does the culture of collegiate sports contribute to current female student-athletes
engaging in social change behavior?
2. How does the collegiate athletic experience influence current female student-athletes’
leadership development?
Interviews were conducted in person with two athletics department program administrators
and eight current female student-athletes from WCU. To aid in the interpretation and
organization of information collected, responses from all participants were analyzed using
specific components derived from the two research questions and literature review guiding this
study. This chapter discusses data collected from interviews and the process of analysis. Each
interview followed an interview protocol (Appendix B and Appendix D), which was comprised
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of 10 questions for program administrations and 11 for the student-athletes. The questions were
derived from the literature review. Each interview lasted no more than one hour and took place
on the WCU campus. Athletics department program administrators’ and student-athletes’
interview responses address research questions one and two, as outlined in Table 4.1 below.
Table 4.1: Summary of Methodology
Data Collection
Instrument
Participants Research Question
Interview Two athletics department
program administrators
RQ 1, 2

Interview

Eight current female student-
athletes

RQ 1, 2

Student-athlete respondents are referred to by pseudonyms and the program
administrators are referred to as Program Administrator 1 and Program Administrator 2 to
protect their privacy.
These findings will be divided into three sections and a final summary. The findings for
Research Question One will be divided into three distinct subheadings and will examine the
themes that emerged through the interviews: social influence, diversity, and privilege. The
findings of Research Question Two will be divided into three subheadings and will examine the
themes that emerged through those interviews: relational influence, gender differences, and
leadership qualities. Many of the themes and sub-themes of the interviews are reflected in the
Social Change Model and align with Bronfenbrenner’s ecological approach. Sub-themes will be
discussed within each research question.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological approach (1977) and the Social Change Model of
Leadership Development (SCM) (Astin, 1996) are the theoretical frameworks guiding this study.
The SCM describes leadership as a collaborative, values-based, purposeful process, instead of a
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position or title (Astin, 1996). The SCM is rooted in two principles: social responsibility and
change for the common good (HERI, 1996). The principles are assessed through seven values
grouped into three dimensions: individual (consciousness of self; congruence; commitment),
group (collaboration; common purpose; controversy with civility), and society/community
(citizenship). The way in which all seven values interact with and impact one another creates the
eighth value and ultimate goal of the SCM: change (HERI, 1996). The model’s focus on the
individual, group, and the community aligns particularly well with the ecological approach, and
is perfectly formulated to understand how a current female student-athlete’s participation in
collegiate athletics affects her leadership development and social change behavior.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological approach allows the researcher to account for the campus
environment, more specifically, the environment that is created by collegiate athletics, on the
promotion or inhibition of student-athletes’ development (Patton, Renn, Guido & Quaye, 2016)
for both research questions and both categories of respondents. This “ecology” consists of four
components: person, process, context, and time. The student-athletes are the focus of the
development. Student-athletes develop through interactions that enhance or deter their
development. All of this takes place through time and context.
In this study, context is the component that is of most interest. As such, the data analysis
focused on four of Bronfenbrenner’s contextual ecological systems: microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, and macrosystem. For collegiate student-athletes, the on-campus microsystems may
consist of teammates, classmates, academic advisors, athletic trainers, coaches, and professors,
which may be specific to either the student or their athlete role independently, or both roles
simultaneously. The mesosystem is the result of microsystem contact and/or overlap. For
example, in this study, the microsystem components of coach/sport psychologist/team manager
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create a mesosystem. The exosystem is an entity that influences student-athletes but does not
directly include them, such as the NCAA, financial aid policies, or institutional policies. Lastly,
the macrosystem is the overarching cultural norms and expectations, and is shaped by conditions
or events over time such as social media norms (Bronfenbrenner, 2009).
Report of Findings
Research Question One
The purpose of this research question was to determine the specific contributions
collegiate sports has on social change behavior of current female student-athletes. Interviews
were conducted with two athletics department program administrators and eight current female
student-athletes. All data was collected through interviews. The length of each interview was
about an hour, and they were conducted in a library on WCU’s campus. The interview protocols
(Appendix B and Appendix D) were created to answer both research questions guiding this
study, and to address gaps in the literature review.
Coding and analysis of the interviews were used to understand how and if participation in
collegiate athletics enhances social change behavior. The research utilized ATLAS.ti to code
interviews. Three themes emerged during the data analysis of the interviews: social influence,
diversity, and privilege.
The first theme, social influence, refers to student-athletes’ perceived capacity of causing
an effect, intentionally or unintentionally, on another person’s actions, reactions, or thoughts.
One sub-theme, community service, became clear in the interviews and is reflected in the SCM.
The second theme is diversity. The participants discussed how diversity within the team,
including race, nationality, socioeconomic status, and sexual orientation impacted their personal
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growth, including social change behavior. Two of those differences, sexual orientation and
socioeconomic status, are sub-themes and will be further discussed.
The final theme, privilege, reveals how several participants understood their privilege
through the culture of community service at WCU and interacting with teammates of lower
social privilege.
Table 4.2: RQ1 Themes and Sub-themes
RQ1 Themes Sub-theme
Social Influence 1. Community service
Diversity
1. Sexual orientation
2. Socioeconomic status
Privilege [none]

Social Influence
In recent years, sports has once again become a stage for professional athletes to protest
social injustices (Hall, Marach, & Reynolds, 2017). From Colin Kaepernick kneeling during the
national anthem, NFL St. Louis rams players showing support to slain teenager Michael Brown,
and the United States women’s national soccer team fighting for pay equity, there has been a re-
emergence of the athlete-activist. While this is at the professional level, Program Administrator 1
said the following about WCU’s athletics department’s efforts to nurture student-athletes’
personal growth and corresponding social change behavior:
Our goal is to help them [student-athletes] develop as holistic people, not just students not
just athletes, but well-informed human beings that know their values and their belief
system and is willing to, especially in the current [political] climate across the nation, to
stand up when they see something that isn't going with what they believe in…I think that
the goal is really just to get them to figure out what they believe in and figure out what
they're willing to do to get there.
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Similarly, study participants discussed the social influence they have as collegiate student-
athletes. All eight participants agreed that collegiate student-athletes do have social influence.
Everest succinctly said, “I think there's a lot of influence that we have just because we're on such
a high stage.”
What the participants did not come to a consensus on is the degree to which collegiate
student-athletes exercise social influence. Some participants believe they have a large platform,
and therefore social influence, simply by being a collegiate student-athlete. Bella said, “I think
the stage in which to act and engage in social change is substantial. We’re lucky enough to be
able to do that as a student-athlete with the platform we are given.” Although Angelica agreed
with this sentiment, she said it may be hard for some student-athletes to recognize it. She
explained, “I personally think we do [have influence]. It's hard to see it when you're around top-
notch athletes. It becomes normalized.”
Several participants discussed having conversations with their parents and/or coaches
regarding their social influence as collegiate student-athletes. One participant, Bella, said both of
her parents discussed social influence with her. Her parents pointed out that student-athletes have
a lot to lose as individuals, telling Bella to “hold [yourself] to a higher standard.” As a result, she
would “influence people, not just [your] teammates but other people in the community.” Bella’s
coaches took a different approach, focusing more on the team. In describing how the coaches
indirectly expressed how the team has social influence, Bella said:
Like, we've been told that we've had social influence, but… our coaches are so adamant
about the way we represent ourselves, and the way we also represent the program, which
is also the way we represent the athletics department of WCU as a whole. And I think
that that… shows and tells us that the way we act is a representation of ourselves and our
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community and our program. So I think that indirectly is showing that we have social
influence.
In addition to the coaches creating a culture of acknowledging the student-athletes’ social
influence, five of the eight participants felt as if the athletics department’s culture was one in
which student-athletes were encouraged, or at the very least supported, in engaging in social
change behavior. One participant said she’s never felt like she couldn’t engage in social issues
because she is attending a “liberal institute that is generally more socially conscious.”
WCU’s athletics department curates programming addressing social issues. One example
is the mandatory welcome-back picnic for all student-athletes. The 2018 picnic was facilitated by
members of the Ross Initiative in Sports for Equality (RISE). As such, the athletics department
made diversity and inclusion an overt theme of the picnic through facilitated discussions and
activities.
There are very few programs that student-athletes must attend, but almost all of them
address social issues. These mandatory programs, called Power Programs at WCU, are hosted
about once a month. One Power Program event featured a mental health speaker and a financial
literacy workshop.
Participants discussed many voluntary athletics department programs that focused on
social justice issues and/or student-athletes’ social influence. In regard to social justice issues,
Bella said, “I think the athletics department does a really good job of bringing up the
conversation of those specific issues in a way that’s comfortable and casual for people to talk
about.” Bella mentioned specific topics discussed during the voluntary programs, including
gender equality and pay in the workplace.
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The programs, whether voluntary or mandatory, seem to be more prevalent at WCU than
other universities in spite of research showing an increase of formal student leader development
programs in higher education (Riggio et al., 2003; Dugan & Komives, 2010). In speaking about
the opportunities at WCU, Bella said: “I think this university, in comparison to what I've heard
from my friends who are athletes at other schools or non-athletes at other schools, does go above
and beyond in terms of diversity and bringing attention to them.” Bella also said “WCU is doing
a great job of exposing student-athletes to diversity and other similar issues.”
On the contrary, Carol said she doesn’t feel the WCU athletics department puts an
emphasis on social issues. She shared, “I wouldn’t say it [the athletics department] does anything
to be unsupportive of it [student-athletes’ social change behavior] but I don’t think there is a
huge emphasis on it.” Student-athletes’ involvement in activism is non-normative behavior
(Kaufman & Wolff, 2010), which may explain the differing opinions regarding support from the
athletics department.
Along the same lines as Carol, Fleur said WCU isn’t unsupportive of its student-athletes
engaging in social justice issues, in that she isn’t censored, but it all depends on emotions:
I think if you go about it in the right way [and] not make it emotional. You really have to
handle that if you do speak out in a way that can be supported, you know, because I feel
like in terms of university and in academia and athletics like you can't be too far
emotional on either side. You know you have to come from a place of grounding.
This support was acknowledged by Program Administrator 1. While Program Administrator 1
didn’t feel comfortable describing the athletics director’s views on student-athletes’ engagement
with social justice issues, Program Administrator 1 said the athletics department has been
intentional about offering programming addressing social justice issues, such as voter
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registration drives. Ensuring the drive was non-partisan and “not telling the student-athletes who
to vote for but just figure out what you believe in and take a stand on something,” the voter
registration drive was through a partnership with RISE.
In addition to the voter registration drive, WCU partnered with RISE on several different
events to address gender equity, sexual orientation, and other social justice issues. One was a
panel of professional athletes who identify as LGBTQ or allies discussing sexuality in sports.
Another was at a basketball game where attendees signed a pledge saying they’ll take a stand
against social justice issues and will address said issues if they encounter them.
Two participants felt strongly that they have a duty to engage. Fleur said athletics and
engaging in social justice issues “go hand in hand.” Another participant took it a step further,
saying, “I always think sports should have some sort of meaning behind it. Social issues— for
me, it’s definitely something that’s larger than the game.”
Conversely, from an administrator’s viewpoint, Program Administrator 1 has been
surprised by student-athletes’ interest in social justice issues. She said “some of the students care
but a lot of them just don’t.” Even though she knows the personal opinions of some student-
athletes and identified several whom she thought would champion social justice issues, she said
they’re still “apathetic about it.” As an example of this apathy, she described an interaction with
one student-athlete whom she noticed wearing a T-shirt with a picture of a Ku Klux Klan
member holding a baby on it. The caption said “Future LAPD Officer.” When the athletics
department was organizing a social justice panel, Program Administrator 1 went straight to this
student-athlete to see if he would like to be a part of the panel. To her surprise, he said he wasn’t
really interested but would participate if the program administrator really wanted him to.
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Despite all eight participants feeling as if they have social influence, and two feeling a
duty to positively use this influence to engage in social justice issues, several expressed
hesitancy in regard to how big of an impact they could have. Whether having a smaller platform
because of being a collegiate athlete as opposed to a professional athlete, or the role of gender
within athletics, the participants had a breadth of reasons for believing they lacked as much
social influence as other athletes. This aligns with research; in most settings, women possess
diminished levels of status and power than men do (Carli, 1999). Additionally, women are more
likely to be ignored when attempting to exert influence (Carli, 2001).
As the participants compared themselves to professional athletes and their subsequent
involvement with social justice issues, one athlete’s name was mentioned time and time again:
LeBron James. Miller and Laczniak (2011) posit that professional athletes can be very influential
with fans and the public in general; given their visibility and notoriety, this often allows them to
be “agents of social change” (Pelak, 2005). As such, Lebron James’ name was also mentioned
when participants discussed their potential impact compared to professional athletes’ impact.
For example, Bella said, “You’ve seen, in the media, professional athletes and their acts
to make impacts on social change. It’s so big. And our stage is smaller.”
Both Destiny and Heidi agreed with this sentiment. While Destiny believes she has
influence as a collegiate student-athlete, she said she doesn’t think about it much because “I’m
not at a high enough level that people will listen and hear me. Because I feel like in the
professional leagues and national teams, you have a lot more people looking at you than fans at
WCU.” Similarly, Heidi said “people at a higher level have more influence than me.” Heidi said
if she were able to become a professional athlete, she would become more involved with social
issues. She explained her desire to get more involved at the next level, saying “I think that’s the
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beauty of sports. If you’re not doing something with your platform, why are you really doing it?”
But Heidi believes there is a caveat in a professional athlete’s social influence:
It’s also a matter of [whether] you’re good enough to speak or not, because I think that
sometimes if you’re not good enough [in your sport], you don’t feel like you have a
right…There’s reward that comes with being good enough to just say whatever you want.
In addition to the skill level of an athlete in their chosen sport, several participants
discussed the difference between male and female athletes’ social influence. Five of the eight
participants discussed how they believe male athletes inherently have more social influence than
female athletes. Reasons included the size of the male athletes’ platform, the number of fans, and
self-expectations. Men having more influence than women aligns with Carli’s (2001) findings,
although she clarifies that the “gender difference in influence depends on the context of the
interaction and the behavior displayed by the influence agent.”
All five participants who believe male athletes have more social influence specifically
mentioned football, with one participant saying football players have “a ton of influence because
they have a lot of people watching them.” Along the same lines, Heidi believes football and male
basketball student-athletes “expect themselves to have influence.”
What the football players do or don’t do with this social influence was mentioned by
several participants. In describing how they use their influence to be outspoken and pander to
their followers, Heidi said, “These guys on the football team will be preaching on Instagram
because they know they have this huge following and a lot of people want to hear what they’re
saying…It all seems very surface-level.” Societal ideals point to a socialization difference of
males and females, with the celebration of distinctly masculine qualities such as being outspoken
and assertive. If women display what are considered to be masculine leadership traits, she will
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face negative reactions, including social and professional repercussions (Prentice & Carranza,
2002).
The participants in this study were decidedly neither outspoken nor assertive with regard
to their social media accounts. While several participants suggested the football players use
social media to connect with their fans, superficially or otherwise, several participants described
their hesitancy about posting on social media.
One participant was recently featured on a sports-related social media account that posts
a compilation of athletes’ best performances. Initially she was confused by all of the new
followers she gained overnight but soon realized it was because of this feature. She said she’s
now in a “spot where you have a bunch of people that you’ve never met in your life that are now
looking at all of your personal information and pictures.” This has put her at a standstill as she
decides whether to lead a public or more private life via social media as she continues in her
athletic endeavors. One part of her wants to fight for the things she’s passionate about, including
women’s rights and LGBTQ rights. In describing this internal struggle of whether to let the
world in on her passions, and in turn her self-identity, this participant said:
The women's rights part I feel a little bit more comfortable engaging in, but the LGBTQ
part not as much, only because I personally relate to it. So I think that's the part where
you're like I don't know if I want this to be a public part or private part yet.
This participant isn’t sure if she wants to engage in LGBTQ rights via social media because of
her admitted fear of coming out to the world on social media. She said the “political climate right
now makes it really scary to put yourself out there.”
The fear of negative feedback prompted her parents to discuss a specific post with her:
one of her and her girlfriend, in celebration of their one-year anniversary. While her parents are
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“super supportive,” both of them were afraid this post would allow others to make “mean”
comments. She didn’t take the post down but the lingering thought of its potential future impact
stays with this participant: “Like, my relationship and other things like that— you get scared
about how that may affect you down the line…I feel like there are a lot of consequences for
speaking one way or another.”
Social media, such as Twitter, has become the vehicle to bring fans closer to athletes
while allowing athletes to communicate “openly and honestly as they wish without any third-
party mediation” (Pegoraro, 2010). Social media does not come without pitfalls. Research points
to missteps and disasters, including posting inappropriate pictures, being fined for criticizing
referees, and an athlete getting fired after a “tweet tirade” against his coach (Pegoraro, 2010;
Sanderson, 2011).
Along these lines, two participants discussed restraints they feel, whether external or
internal, when posting on social media. One said she watches what she posts because it’s a
reflection of her and how she presents herself to the world. Another participant is more worried
about how her posts would impact the youth who look up to her and those close to her, saying
the following about her struggle:
I still don't feel comfortable. As a student-athlete representing people, I feel like I have to
represent my sport, WCU, and as a Californian. If I want to speak out, then I feel like that
puts out a message for everyone. And you know, there might be ramifications of that.
…I've always struggled with this because I do want to speak out; I do have a platform.
But at the same time, it's like I if I speak out, you know I'm putting words in people's
mouth and hundreds of— thousands of people's mouths, you know?
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Community Service. Community service is very important within the athletics
department at WCU, and all student-athletes are encouraged to participate in community service.
While it is not mandatory, the athletics department staff members have attributed the success of
the community service program to the culture of the department. “It is not mandatory for any
student-athlete to do community service. However, we have built a culture where it is very much
a part of their welfare and well-rounded curricula,” Program Administrator 2 said. The culture,
according to Program Administrator 2, was enhanced within the last 10 years by a football player
rallying his teammates to join him in giving back to the surrounding communities.
Currently, the goal for WCU’s student-athletes is to volunteer 5,000 hours of community
service every fiscal year with local non-profits. While this goal is aspirational, a large majority of
student-athletes engage in community service throughout the academic year. Program
Administrator 2 acknowledged this by saying, “We have a 90 percent participation rate… that
means every student-athlete has done at least one hour.” The hope is that each student-athlete
completes a total of eight community service hours each academic year by engaging with each
type of community service event, as outlined in Table 4.3 below.
Table 4.3: Community Service Events
Type of Event Event Example Open to Whom Hours Volunteered
Kick-off Event Learn About the
Year’s Events at
Welcome Back BBQ
and Engage With a
Local Non-Profit

All Student-Athletes 1
Signature Event Give On-Campus
Tours on Fan Day

All Student-Athletes 3
Team Event Serve Meals During
Thanksgiving
Student-Athletes on
One Sports Team
4

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The athletics department plans roughly 40 community service events each academic year:
one kick-off event, one service project for each of the 21 sports teams, and several signature
events. While the event size dictates the amount of engagement with the community members
and therefore potentially the outcome, Program Administrator 2 asserted:
Every [community service] opportunity has an outcome, an opportunity for our student-
athletes. It might be the ability to get exposure to a new community that they don't know
about. It could be putting them in contact with a nonprofit that they have interests in
working with down the road. Every opportunity has the possibility for the student-
athletes to gain knowledge, insight, and connections beyond that day… I mean they're
only here for four years and I want to make sure that every one of these student-athletes
walks away better.
Community service is a powerful vehicle of leadership development (HERI, 1996; Astin,
1996; Komives et al., 2009b). As such, in terms of outcomes, four of the eight participants
described specific community service outcomes that have impacted their personal ideology.
Outcomes that emerged in the interviews include recognizing privilege through self-reflection
after a community service opportunity, developing what one cares about outside of sport, and a
shifted perspective regarding engaging in community service. The participants’ outcomes from
engaging in community services aligns with research that states the more hours student-athletes
spend engaging in community service, the more likely they are to increase their awareness of
their personal and social values and awareness of multicultural and community values (Dugan
and Komives, 2010).
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Bella spoke about another personal outcome from participating in community service.
Before college, Bella confessed to believing community service akin to a job. Now, she
articulated the following view of community service:
I think the job that [named redacted] does in encouraging student-athletes to participate in
a way that's fun and engaging and doesn't make it feel like it's work, you know, has really
impacted— I just think that my outlook has shifted [from] doing something that's more
like a job to something that you want to go out and do, for fun, to give back. That's more
sincere or genuine [than] I would have maybe been doing it in the past.
Research shows nearly 50% of Division I student-athletes engage in a few hours of
community service each month (NCAA Research, 2016). Comparatively, at WCU, six of the
eight student-athlete participants engage in community service through the athletics department
or an on-campus organization. With 75% of the participants involved in community service,
many claimed their restrictive schedules impacted their ability to participate as much as they
desired. Because of their academic and athletic workload, often the participants could not engage
with community service opportunities of interest. Three participants attributed their busy
schedules or the effects of their schedules, such as fatigue, as deterrents to pursing more
opportunity.
Destiny noted, “I feel like for a lot of people, it's so busy and you're so tired after
workouts. I go to workouts, and then I go to class, and then I just lay in my bed, then I can't get
up.” Fleur, too, noted her busy schedule as a student-athlete as a deterrent to participant in
community service: “We don't have a lot of extra time. So [community service] is something we
kind of forget about.”
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These statements demonstrate the limitations academic and athletic workloads impose on
the community service opportunities student-athletes can pursue. This is not lost on student-
athletes, nor on the athletics department, as they discuss ways to further ensure all student-
athletes participate in community service each academic year. Angelica said this was addressed
in a recent SAAC meeting, stating, “That’s another thing we talked about in SAAC: forcing
people to do community service. There were people all over the board.” Although there was not
a consensus among the participants on whether or not community service should be mandatory,
Angelica does not buy into time restraints as a student-athlete. Even though student-athletes have
a busy schedule, she says “the excuse of being too busy is lame. Everyone has the same amount
of time during the day. What it comes down to is what you prioritize.”
Furthermore, the NCAA limits the number of hours student-athletes can engage in
athletic-related activities to 20 hours per week while in season and eight hours out of season
(NCAA, 2009). There seems to be a grey area of whether or not community service counts
toward the weekly limits, depending on whether the community service is completed with or
without the supervision of a coach and/or administrator. Program Administrator 2 discussed how
the NCAA limits has made it challenging for the athletics department:
It's really made it hard for me to do this work with all of the limitations of the NCAA
because community service falls under the parameters of activities. So you know student-
athletes are only available for so many hours every week. So it really has made it hard.
Program Administrator 2 acknowledges that WCU includes community service as a countable
athletic related activity. In addition to contending with NCAA limitations and the afore-
mentioned restricted schedules, the athletics department also has to deal with student-athletes
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who simply don’t make an effort to engage in community service. Destiny confessed that she
believes her team as a whole needs to make more of an effort to engage:
If we saw five other girls on the team going to Reading to Kids, then I think everyone
would be like, “Oh yeah I have nothing to do so I'm going to do that.” So maybe because
we haven't collectively made an effort to do it. It would be like, “Oh everyone's going, I
am going to be the one that doesn't go”? And then you get a lot out of it too.
Destiny’s statement sheds light on the influential nature of relationships with teammates.
This aligns with Melton’s (2015) research, which found teammates implicit support or outright
disapproval will likely be mirrored by other teammates, indicating that microlevel factors
influence social change behavior and leadership development in collegiate athletics.
Along the same lines, Heidi talked about the social aspect of community service and how
it could further push student-athletes to get more involved. For instance, she spoke about two
teammates who regularly volunteer with causes meaningful to them. Each time they volunteer,
they invite their teammates to go with them. Heidi said, “So it's more like a social thing, which I
love. It makes it very encouraging to go to things like that.” Heidi also said the encouragement to
engage, and the conversations regarding teammates’ community service opportunities, make her
want to be more involved with her closest teammates’ causes.
While none of the participants quantified how involved they are with regard to community
service, Dugan and Komives (2010) found the more hours student-athletes spend volunteering,
the more likely they are to increase their development in leadership skills, civic responsibility,
further awareness of their personal and social values, and awareness of both multicultural and
community issues. The findings from Dugan and Komives’ 2010 study align with six of the
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seven SCM values and are analogous to participants’ anecdotes of increased personal growth and
social change behavior through community service engagement.
Despite the curated service opportunities for each team, individual opportunities, and
opportunities presented by teammates, two participants complained about the lack of viable
opportunities, saying either there simply weren’t enough opportunities in which to engage or
there weren’t enough out-of-season opportunities. Fleur says a dearth of community service
opportunities is “one of my biggest complaints.” She continued, “I would like to see drastic
improvement in that area [community service opportunities].” While Everest acknowledged the
athletics department sends “quite a few emails” about community service opportunities, she feels
most of the opportunities are during her season and she’d “like more opportunities when we have
more time.”
Diversity
All eight participants spoke about the diversity on the team, including racial,
socioeconomic, and sexual orientation. Huntrods et al. (2017) found “the extent to which
diversity experiences occur during students’ college career bears on their ability to lead others.”
Seven of the eight participants acknowledged the impact these differences have had on them,
which aligns with Chang, Astin, and Kim’s (2004) research that as the diversity within collegiate
athletics continues to increase, there is a positive impact on leadership development. For
instance, Heidi said that in sports she’s “always been with people that I wouldn't necessarily be
friends with.” This also seems to be the case with Bella: she was raised Catholic and attended a
private Catholic high school. Bella did not experience much racial, cultural, or sexual orientation
diversity during her high school year days, and she is “eternally grateful” for the impact of her
college teammates’ diversity. Not only has she said she’s become more open-minded, she shared
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the following about her changed perspective regarding others’ lifestyles because of her exposure
to diverse teammates:
Over the course of my three years, the team has been very diverse, coming from different
backgrounds or different cultures even different religions or different sexualities. And I
think that it is more impactful when it's someone close to you that you can relate to more.
Whereas, like, you might see someone on TV or hear about this and you may make
assumptions…I know I'm guilty of doing that. But when it's someone you love and
respect, who is like your family, then maybe that changes your outlook so much more.
And I think that just being able to see things [from] a different perspective. Like for
someone that's so close to you, it really makes you change the way you see those people
that might be on TV.
Based upon her experience interacting with those closest to her, her teammates, their differences
have helped change her perspective regarding people she doesn’t know, such as celebrities. Peer
conversations contributing to both socially responsible leadership and clarify personal values and
perspectives (Dugan & Komives, 2010).
Another participant, Heidi, also discussed how diversity among her teammates has
impacted her personally. While the ethnic diversity of the team has decreased year to year since
Heidi has joined, she said other kinds of diversity, including sexual orientation and
socioeconomic status, has persisted. In Heidi’s opinion this allows unlikely friendships to
flourish: “I’ve always been [on a team] with people that I wouldn’t necessarily be friends
with…[as an athlete] you come in contact with someone you might not [have] before.” This
sentiment of inclusion despite differences (Fuller et al., 2015) is analogous to Kaufman and
Wolff’s (2010) contention that social change through sport “may help foster an integrative
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orientation by helping to level off differences in gender, race, class and religion” by creating an
inclusive environment.
Sexual orientation. Aside from race and religion, seven of the eight participants brought
up sexual orientation as another difference among teammates. From the athletics department
planning a mandatory diversity and inclusion event for all student-athletes to having an LGBTQ-
specific committee, several participants commended the athletics department for embracing
diversity, specifically sexual orientation.
Despite the support from the athletics department, there seemed to be a discrepancy
regarding the level of support from teammates when one teammate came out by disclosing her
relationship with a fellow teammate. Answers varied, from all teammates being supportive the
moment they found out or some teammates needing time to “come around.” Bella mentioned
several teammates who “religiously disagree” with the sexual orientation of their teammates, but
also said the same teammates “would never not be friends with them or think anything different
of them.” Conversely, Everest said, “Everyone knew and it was not a big deal at all. I'm glad that
they got to come out, as they wanted to just be accepted by our whole team.” The recognition of
differing viewpoints aligns with one of the SCM’s seven values: controversy with civility, which
is “recognizing that differences in viewpoints are inevitable and that these differences must be
handled with respect and courtesy.” (HERI, 1996).
The participant who is in the same-sex relationship with a teammate described the
disclosure of her relationship:
Initially people just found out. And this was kind of the first. It's not like a regular thing
on our team. Some teams it's like totally normal. But this was kind of like the first time it
happened on our team. And it was like a total shock to people at first. Not a lot of people
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knew how to deal with it. Just because I don't think our team had ever really been
exposed to it before. And so that could be said something about like our team not being
diverse, it was kind of like the worst team for us to come out into. But, we're also like
very close with our team. So it was really easy to like step by step kind of. It was never
something where we all sat down like ‘listen, everyone, like, this is this.’ But, it was
something, group by group, we addressed.
While some teammates initially disapproved for one reason or another, several
participants discussed the impact this experience with their teammates had on them. This
outcome is consistent with Komives et al’s (2005) research that peer engagement serves as a
conduit for athlete self-reflection and conceptualization of their own leadership identity. While
she did not disclose whether she disapproved of the team’s same-sex couple’s sexuality or not,
Genie admitted she was raised religiously, and was very opinionated. Despite this, she now has
the following mindset when it comes to her gay teammates: “If you're not hurting me, then why
should I have an opinion on what you do with your….” Genie trailed off and continued, “I think
it's even a situation now where if someone was to oppose it, the whole team would back these
two people. That's the point where we're at.”
Another participant confessed to being more comfortable with engaging in conversation
about differences with her teammates because the friendship is already established, saying,
“Talking to different people about [a difference in sexuality] is good because you have a more
open perspective. So, I think it's important. It's nice having people on the team who you can talk
to because you know you’re friends already.” Consistent with Dugan and Komives’ (2010)
research, sociocultural conversations provide opportunities to increase socially responsible
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leadership, as well as opportunities to clarify personal values and perspectives, and provide new
perceptions about social issues like race, inequality, poverty, or politics (Nesbitt & Grant, 2015).
Furthermore, Komives et al. (2013, p. 196) point out the importance of these
conversations about and across differences in leadership development, indicating that “effective
leaders need to develop an appreciation for multiculturalism to build inclusiveness,
collaboration, and common purposes.” As such, both collaboration and common purpose are two
of the seven values of the SCM.
This same-sex relationship and seeing the two women “not get treated right because
they’re different” prompted several of the teammates to be more involved in LGBTQ causes,
according to one participant. Not only are the teammates more aware of and involved with
LGBTQ causes, they’ve become allies and have started standing up for their LGBTQ teammates.
Bella said she corrects athletics department members when she hears them using “words that are
not okay” because hearing these words affects her even more now that “these [teammates] are
the people that are closest to me.” Whether becoming more involved in LGBTQ causes or
confronting LGBTQ slurs, this aligns with social change behavior: “positive changes in their
community—through service, community building, raising awareness, educating the public
about issues or advocating for policy change” (Komives et al., 2009b, p. 8). Through this social
change behavior, the participants have facilitated social inclusion of their diverse teammates
(Cohen & Bruening, 2015).
Socioeconomic Status. One difference many of the participants were aware of but said
they do not discuss among themselves is socioeconomic status. While no one talks about wealth
or scholarship money because they “don’t want anyone to feel uncomfortable about the situation
they might be in” the consensus seemed to be “you just kind of figure it out.”
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One participant shared details of her socioeconomic status and growing up poor. She said
her sport is “very selective as it can be expensive.” Despite her low socioeconomic status
growing up, she was still able to play sports and earn a scholarship to compete in collegiate
athletics. Once she was in college, she said her low socioeconomic status was isolating. She
explained: “I couldn’t relate to anyone and no one could relate to me.” And yet she did not want
to share this feeling of isolation with anyone.
Along the same lines, several participants spoke about the impact wealth has had on their
teammates’ ability to compete in college. Fleur said, “You have athletes from extreme poverty
situations, and competing so well got them out [of the poverty situation] and got them an
opportunity.” She said she had no idea of the extreme poverty some endure until meeting some
of her international teammates.
Angelica said she has had several discussions about wealth with two teammates. While
she didn’t want to mention names when discussing wealth, she was aware one of her teammates
grew up poor. The two had a discussion about their parents’ jobs, the perceived prestige or lack
thereof associated with each job, and how their views regarding money were shaped by their
upbringing. The second teammate with whom she discussed wealth has a “really wealthy family
business.” As such, she is able to “give trips to her friends and cool opportunities like that.” This
participant said these conversations have “shifted my views on money” by increasing her
awareness of the “importance of time with family.”
On the contrary, one participant spoke about the negative effect of family wealth on some
of her teammates. She said WCU “is a little special with regard to the lack of awareness of
what’s going on…I think they’re definitely wealthier here and I think that kind of gives you the
ability to not be as aware of issues going on.”
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Whether international teammates, teammates with a different sexual orientation, or
teammates with different socioeconomic circumstances, the diversity within the team allowed for
conversations about these differences. Research shows there is a positive link between diversity
and athletics (Wolf-Wendel, Toma and Morphew, 2001). This was echoed by participants, as
Heidi summed up the impact diversity in sports has on athletes, saying:
It for sure teaches you not only about social justice issues that you might not have cared
about before, but you come into contact with someone you might not come into contact
before. And then like you care about them enough that their problems become your
problems. So I think that sports in general gives you an extra reason to care for more
people, which like well obviously broaden your horizons about what you really care
about in the world too.
Privilege
Three of the eight participants described realizing their privilege, and the consequent
effect on their personal ideology, as a specific outcome from engaging in community service. In
describing this realization of privilege through self-reflection after volunteering at an elementary
school and learning of the local crimes, Angelica stated:
When you're around the same kind of people it's hard to recognize the differences and
when you're at WCU, you're in this little bubble but right outside the bubble is such a
different life…And just like talking with this one girl, and her being like, yeah, these blue
houses around us? This is the projects. And I'm like, ‘oh, I'm in the projects.’ Whoa.
Like, that's sketch. It just opens your eyes. I recognized a lot of my privilege.
When asked what privilege she has recognized she has, which shape her experience as a
collegiate athlete, Angelica shared:
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I would say the big ones, like: being white; my financial situation; the safety where I
grew up; … education, my public schools being just as good as my private schools; being
in Southern California, the hub for athletics; …I think that's even a privilege for me,
getting on the team here.”
Everest echoed this experience of personal growth, stating, “You don't realize how privileged
you are until you see what is happening around you. I think it's just amazing to have the
opportunity to give back to people who deserve it.” Likewise, Bella, who described it a different
way, stated, “It's fun to interact with the kids and it puts so much in perspective. We are so lucky
and blessed. It's very humbling to participate and give back in such a little way but [one that] has
an impact.” The three participants’ self-realization of privilege aligns with Fuller et al.’s (2015)
research, which found study participants increasing self-awareness regarding their privileged
social status and increased cultural competency through interactions with youth through sport.
Angelica said recognizing and acknowledging this privilege has made her want to take
action. She shared, “Reflecting on my years [as a student-athlete], I recognized a lot of my
privilege. And so for me personally, acting on that privilege and getting opportunities to do that
[engage in social justice issues] is like a way that I want to contribute.” The desire to take action
aligns with the SCM as the model highlights the importance of civic responsibility and creating
change for the betterment of society.
Unbeknownst to the participants, the athletics department makes a concerted effort to
address social issues through community service engagement. When asked if the athletics
department utilizes community service to participate in social justice issues, Program
Administrator 2 said:
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Yes and No. We don't lead with that [social justice in community service]. However, our
programming is designed to address said issues…And whether or not student-athletes
fully comprehend all of the aspects of said social justice movement, I want them to get
involved and just expose them to it, but I'm not asking them to necessarily take a stance.
Program Administrator 2 further detailed social issues addressed through community service:
Racism, sexism, you know, the -isms of the world, classism, we address them but not
head on. You know you never, you'd never see us go to a Me Too rally. But that doesn't
mean we don't address issues that affect women. You would never see us go to a Black
Lives Matter rally, but that doesn't mean we're not addressing the needs of black and
brown children.
Regardless of what social issues, if any, are addressed through community service, engaging in
community service increases students’ socially responsible leadership (Soria et al., 2013).
As more professional sports teams take a stance and support specific social movements
and/or take a stand against acts of hatred (Hall et al., 2017), the athletics department continues to
lead with a softer stance. One reason for this is that student-athletes may be approached by media
to speak about specific social justice issues. Program Administrator 2 noted the need to then
educate student-athletes about how to answer these questions if approached by the media. In
reasoning why the athletics department leads with a softer stance, Program Administrator 2 said,
“We don't have the bandwidth to educate them on how to answer these questions in the media.”
Research Question One Summary of Data
While there is a gap in the literature regarding how intercollegiate athletics participation
directly impacts student-athletes’ social change behavior, the data suggest there is clear intent at
WCU to support and encourage student-athletes to engage in social change behavior. All eight
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participants discussed workshops, community service opportunities, or other ways they have
unknowingly engaged in social change behavior.
Both program administrators laid out ways in which the athletics department curates
opportunities to help the student-athletes “develop as holistic people, not just students, not just
athletes.” This sentiment aligns with Edwards’ (2015) position that athletes can be effective
advocates for social changes.
While participants praised WCU and its efforts to address social justice issues, many
participants compared themselves unfavorably to professional athletes in regard to social
influence, as did Program Administrator 2. Program Administrator 2 said the athletics
department would be more aggressive in addressing social issues if the athletes were
professional.
Whether international teammates, teammates with a different sexual orientation, or
teammates with different socioeconomic circumstances, the diversity within the team allowed for
conversations about these differences and more open perspectives. This finding corresponds with
Wolf-Wendel et al.’s (2001) study, which found a positive link between diversity and athletics.
Research is contradictory in regard to student-athlete community service engagement as
opposed to non-athletes (Hoffman et al., 2015; Andrassy et al., 2014). Despite this, six of the
eight participants recalled their engagement in community service as collegiate student-athletes.
Even with 75% of this study’s participants engaging in community service, it is unsure if the data
aligns with Hoffman et al.’s finding (2015) that women are more likely to engage in community
service than men, as this study did not interview men. Several participants discussed their
personal growth through their experience engaging in community service, with one recognizing
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her privilege. Engaging in community service fits within the SCM, as one of the values is
citizenship: one’s active engagement in an effort to serve the community (HERI, 1996).
The culture within the WCU athletics department, whether indirectly or directly
acknowledging student-athletes’ social influence, diversity, or the campus culture of community
service, nurtures curiosity about and engagement in social change behavior.
Research Question Two
The purpose of this research question was to determine the impact participants in
collegiate athletics have on student-athletes’ leadership development. The interviews were
conducted with two athletics department program administrators and eight current female
student-athletes. The length of each interview was about an hour, and they were conducted in a
library on WCU’s campus. The interview protocols (Appendix B and Appendix D) were created
to represent both research questions guiding this study.
Three themes emerged during the data analysis of the interviews: relational influence,
gender differences, and leadership qualities. Relational influence refers to the role, intentional
and unintentional, the athletics department, the head coach, and teammates have on participants’
leadership development. Three sub-themes fall under the relational influence theme: coach as a
mentor, culture class, and hierarchy of teammates. The “culture class” refers to a one-hour
weekly team gathering led by a sports psychologist, in which individual and team leadership is
discussed.
The second theme, gender differences, refers to participants’ perceptions of how being
female student-athletes did or did not impact their leadership development. Additionally, how
gender affects their relationships with teammates, a sub-theme of gender, will be discussed.
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The final theme, leadership qualities, reveal how participants view themselves as leaders,
what leadership characteristics have been enhanced through collegiate athletic participation, and
what characteristics the participants believe effective leaders have. The sub-themes include
perception of self as a leader, pivotal experiences that enhanced their leadership development,
how the participants believe collegiate athletic participation will cultivate career success, and the
characteristics, competency, and skills participants believe effective leaders possess.
Table 4.4: RQ 2 Themes and Sub-theme
RQ2 Themes Sub-theme
Relational Influence
1. Coach as a mentor
2. Culture class
3. Hierarchy of teammates
Gender Differences 1. Relationships with teammates
Leadership Qualities
1. Perceptions of self as a leader
2. Pivotal experiences
3. Career success
4. Leadership characteristics

Relational Influence
At WCU, the athletics department offers opportunities for student-athletes to increase
their leadership development, whether through leadership groups, workshops, and/or team
programming. Within the athletics department, participants named several folks who have had
and continue to have a clear hand in helping them increase their leadership, including their head
coach, team manager, team trainer, and sport psychologist. For example one participant said her
coach, sport psychologist, and athletics director all “play a huge role in setting an example of
what it means to be a leader or what leadership means by definition” and seeing “how they treat
their staff and our players has had a huge impact on me personally, because you see how that
leadership creates a successful environment, and that's something that they have done to impact
my idea of leadership.”
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Coach as a mentor. Half of the participants specifically discussed the impact their head
coach has had on them from a leadership perspective. Consistent with research discussing the
impact coaches have on athletes (Gould, Collins, Lauer & Chung, 2007; Komives et al. 2009a),
several participants mentioned their head coach as a mentor because the head coach cares “a lot
more about the important things and who we are, as opposed to only caring about how [we]
perform.”
Most spoke about how their head coach displays leadership qualities. Everest spoke
highly of her head coach’s inclusivity, saying, “It’s just been really great for me and my
teammates because we’re able to talk to [our head coach] freely, without judgement.” She
believes this shows the team how much the head coach cares about each person as an individual
and not just as a member as the team. She explained, “[Our head coach] cares, I think, a lot more
about the important stuff and who we are more than ‘Oh you played great in that game.’”
The mentorship of their coach, and being hand-picked or chosen for leadership
opportunities, has had a big impact on two of the participants. Bella said she was chosen to be
part of a leadership committee during her sophomore year. She explained how this helped her
personal growth: “It was my coaches and teammates electing me because they saw in me what it
takes, and that confidence has really helped me change my leadership role and established me as
a leader.” Another participant, Angelica, felt empowered simply by her coach asking for her
opinion. Also, seeing herself in the team photo on the team poster made her feel like more of a
leader. She said the following about being included on the team poster: “I’m around these top
athletes, like two of my teammates are going pro, and I think that simple thing [of being on the
poster] just makes you feel important and gives me more responsibility.”
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This wasn’t the only opportunity Angelica was handpicked for. Despite not being a
SAAC member, because she “didn’t want to overcommit” to attending the weekly meetings, she
was chosen to represent SAAC at an out-of-town conference meeting. Angelica was also invited
to be part of Captain’s Corner, a leadership group of team captains.
Bella’s and Angelica’s mentoring experiences align with Nesbitt and Grant’s (2015)
research that athletics provides an environment for frequent mentoring relationships. These
mentoring relationships can develop into relationships that move beyond sport between coaches
and athletes or teammate to teammate (peer mentors). Mentoring relationships are important in
developing leadership capacity. The Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership (MSL) found “the
degree to which students reported being mentored was directly related to gains in leadership
capacity” (Dugan et al., 2013, p. 12). Furthermore, students who indicated that their mentor
helped them develop personally were more likely to have higher socially responsible leadership
capacities (Campbell et al., 2012, p. 614).
Program Administrator 1 also gave praise to the participants’ head coach, saying she
believes some leadership development “comes intrinsically with their involvement in sport” but
“some coaches like [this head coach] do a really great job of building those skills just throughout
their daily training sessions and stuff with their teams.” The coach’s effect on student-athletes
aligns with Bandura (1971), that coaches, intentionally or unintentionally, serve as influential
models for athletes through their example.
Despite Program Administrator 1 praising the head coach, and her teammates looking up
to their head coach as a mentor, Genie had more of a cynical take on her head coach and athletics
as a whole. She said:
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If you’re a good player and you can produce results for that coach and play how they
want to play, then they’re going to love you. I don't like that way of thinking even if it
means being the coach's favorite and not, I won't do that because I pride myself too much
on who I am. Basically I think about athletics as a business, like, I enjoy it a lot but really
the coaches aren't your friends. We are what helps them to get an income, really, at the
end of it. So. Yeah, it's kind of a cynical way to think of things, but it, like, protects
myself.
Culture class. One thing the head coach and sport psychologist implemented was a
culture class, to emphasize strong culture, teamwork, and group cohesion (Carron et al., 2002;
Gould et al., 2007; Schroeder, 2010). During the off season, the team has limited hours for team-
related activities. Instead of practicing, one hour per week is spent in culture class, which is led
by the team’s sport psychologist.
Each week, a different topic is discussed. In describing some of the sessions, one
respondent said, “There are certain [session topics] that will bring the team together, but there
are also ones that focus on you as an individual.” Example of session topics include acting out
different conflicts and discussing how they should and would respond; choosing team values;
discussing personal legacy; reflecting on what can be done better as a team; and reading and
discussing leadership books. Destiny said the following about the culture class: “A lot of it does
relate back to leadership…We have different class topics but it always kind of relates back to
leadership.”
Despite most participants offering positive feedback regarding the culture class, Heidi
said, “It’s kind of silly that we even have a culture class, but making it [leadership development]
so direct, it’s not something I’m just learning through experience, it’s something that is being
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taught to me and it’s very applicable.” Conversely, Fleur spoke about the focus and intention of
her teammates in the culture class, saying this was the first time she’s been in an out-of-
competition situation where people are actually putting in the work and “not just going through
the motions.”
Another participant took it a step further, saying the culture class is the foundation for
leadership within the team. She said,
I say that because that's where you can practice it. That's where ideas of leadership aren't
just like ideas…If you're going to practice action steps, this is how we're going to treat
each other, like this is how we're going to lead. To me that's where it should start.”
Outside of the culture class, the sport psychologist meets with individuals on an as-
needed basis. As one of five psychologists at WCU, each psychologist is paired with a few teams
to create an ongoing relationship. Each sport psychologist travels with their team(s) during the
team’s season and is available by text any other time. From leadership to legacy to mental
toughness, the student-athletes discussed the impact their team’s sport psychologist has had on
them.
One participant said she spoke with the sport psychologist once a week, in addition to the
team meeting, and found him to be “a really beneficial resource.” She said she “started to grow”
by learning to accept being uncomfortable both in and out of competition, thanks to her
interactions with the sport psychologist. Conversely, another participant had a hard time
accepting a sport psychologist in her life. She said her family is very proud and she didn’t want
to be seen as weak. This is why she told the sport psychologist to his face that she wouldn’t come
to him during a preseason trip. She explained this interaction, saying, “I said ‘not because I don't
think you'd good at what you do.’ I said, ‘I just, I don't like associating myself with that because
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I associating seeing a sports psychologist with weakness and vulnerability.’” It took two things
to change her mind: her dad disclosing that he saw a counselor during a “bad phase,” and an
invitation from the sport psychologist to further discuss questions she asked him during this
initial conversation. Eventually, she relented and made an appointment. The first appointment
turned into a standing weekly appointment during the fall semester. Seeing a sport psychologist
regularly has changed her perspective on vulnerability and opening up. She shared: “I've realized
that talking to someone shouldn't be— like you shouldn't not talk to someone because you're
scared of what other people think. That's literally what I was thinking and it feels silly now.”
Not only did she admit meeting with the sport psychologist regularly helped her because
“it just gives me confidence,” she had an epiphany after speaking with him several times. She
began to realize the impact these conversations have had on her, as she is an admitted
overthinker: “I think he's really helped me because it just gives me confidence. He doesn't tell
me— he'll never say what I'm doing is right, but allows me to figure that out for myself. So I
think it's been really helpful.” When discussing the impact of not seeing him one week, she
shared, “I was really down last week. I haven't seen him since I've come back [from break] and I
wonder if that's why [I was down] because I haven't had that continuity of seeing him.”
The athletes appreciated being able to talk to the head coach about personal matters and
overcoming obstacles in competitions, which has led the team to be more comfortable with
discussing a multitude of things with their coach while simultaneously forming a close
relationship with their coach (Becker, 2009).
Hierarchy of teammates. In addition to coaches and the sport psychologist, teammates
themselves were no exception as one of the microsystem that had an impact on participants.
Specifically, the relationship between teammates who were older or younger than the
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participants was a recurring discussion among participants. Some participants mentioned
surface-level influences from older teammates, such as having someone guide them through
academic- and athletic-related situations, while other participants spoke about deeper influences,
such as how they want to lead in the future. Everest said she looked up to older teammates “the
minute I got here” and now feels others are starting to look up to her, give her respect, and ask
her for advice because she’s an upperclassman. Sentiments of their peers helping student-
athletes’ personal growth aligns with Navarro’s (2015) study of Division I athletes, which found
that peer mentors helped student-athletes clarify personal identities.
The upperclassmen are also the discipliners of their teammates. Angelica recalled a time
when the seniors on the team disciplined a younger teammate, who was displaying
characteristics that did not fit within the team’s chosen and agreed-upon team values. According
to Angelica, there were a handful of times when this younger teammate was being extremely
rude. The seniors set up a meeting to discuss how to handle this teammate’s behavior, and come
to an agreement on who is best suited to address the teammate. In deciding how to handle this
situations and others like it, Angelica said the seniors will have a discussion, saying, “Alright,
you are better with confrontation, you go talk to her. Hey, you’re more respected, or even, hey,
this is what I think, can you guys back me up?”
When asked if the coach allows the seniors to do this, Angelica exclaimed, “Oh yeah!”
and proceeded to outline the coach’s thoughts regarding the upperclassmen’s leadership:
It's kind of like a hierarchy, but our coach explains it is more of a hierarchy of
expectations. So he said it's like when you're a freshman, he doesn't really mind that
you're kind of all by yourself, like you're figuring it out, you're still learning [from] these
people that you're surrounded by, you're learning how to do all this stuff. [You] came
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from being a hot shot to now maybe not as much…As you become a senior, he's like, not
only expectations higher because you should know how we do our drills, you should
know what the rules are. But also…you're expected to look out for the best interest of the
team. So, freshmen breaking a certain rule, showing up late, whatever, is going to be very
different than a senior. So you should know better. That's more of how I see it. And I
think how you're speaking up, like, hey guys, like, why aren't we picking up weights?
You know the rule. When you take a weight, you put it back. …I think as you get older
the seniors, like, the discipline is important to our coach. …Relaying that message
because we're the ones that are there. So it's kind of like our coach shares like this is our
vision so we even talk about what are our values like what's important to us. And I think
part of giving back [is] making sure those values, our team values, are kept.
Year in school also corresponded with years competing in collegiate athletics. The notion
of years in school or years of playing experience in college having an impact on who can be/is a
leader was mentioned by the participants. Genie said, “My freshman year, I didn’t understand
that there really is a hierarchy from freshman to seniors. Seniors are meant to be the overriding
group, to be the leaders. It’s like you can’t come in as a freshman and be a leader.”
Other participants echoed this sentiment that year in school both empowered and
hindered their leadership development. For example, Bella said, “I think as a freshman it’s kind
of hard to establish a leadership role because you’re the youngest.” And Destiny said, “Through
sport, I’ve been able to learn more about leadership because I’ve been forced into those
positions, to step up, because now I’m older.” While Destiny felt forced into a leadership
position, Bella welcomed a leadership role as an upperclassman. She also drew upon her time as
a freshman to reflect on what kind of leader she wanted to be as an upperclassman. She shared:
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When I was a freshman, freshmen were like the lowest of the totem pole. And I think
being an upperclassman now I see how important it is to make the freshmen and
underclassmen feel respected and appreciated, because ultimately you need them to be
successful. So that's something that I want to emulate. Being able to bring people up
instead of keeping them down.
Along with year in school, one participant described how the amount of playing time
aligned with their display of leadership. On this team, year in school often correlates with
competing; many freshman either sit out their freshman year (and focus solely on training) or at
least they do not compete often. Because she didn’t compete much as a freshman, Carol said she
was complacent, wasn’t very vocal, and took her freshman year to “just learn.” Similarly, Genie
also said, “I think actually playing and being successful on the field has an impact on how I feel
like I can be a successful leader.”
Year in school and opportunities to compete on the field seemed to go hand in hand,
although with regard to prestige among younger players, year in school seemed to supersede
playing time. According to Angelica, “I wasn’t the star player; I wasn’t able to lead by example
all the time during competition…You don’t have to say anything, but just by being there and
already being an older person or respected, that in itself is leading.”
Gender Differences
The participants had differing opinions on whether or not gender had an impact on their
leadership development. Heidi shared her insecurities regarding feminine versus masculine
leadership stereotypes. Sharing her experience about the effect gender stereotypes have had on
her confidence, she said, “I think it’s [gender] impacting my leadership development but only in
the ways that I don’t feel very confident being…” She trailed off, then began again:
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It’s really easy to be my natural type of leader for a woman. It’s really easy because I am
a very typical woman [in regard to] relationships. But I'm trying to develop more of a
masculine kind of [leadership style]. And so, I think my gender hinders me in that way
because part of the reason I don't feel comfortable adopting that type of leadership is
because it's seen more as masculine, and even if I'm in a relationship with a girl, I don't
care about being seen as masculine, but it's just these norms that kind of come down on
you like pushback. You know. I don't even like looking at pictures from competitions.
There's a picture of me yelling! I'm like, oh God, I look so scary, whereas guys post
pictures of that all the time and it's totally a celebrated thing.
Rhode & Kellerman (2007) emphasize that there are not gender differences in terms of
leadership style or effective leadership. Furthermore, Ayman & Korabik (2010) found that de-
gendering leadership and leading in an androgynous way, as the participant above is striving for,
may give women more opportunities.
Along the same lines, Carol also spoke about her understanding of what it means to be a
strong female athlete in reference to comparing women to men in athletics. She specifically
spoke about her frustration with gender disparity in college athletics vs. pro athletics. She said
she felt as if male collegiate athletes were “undermining everything you do because I’m probably
not going to go pro.” She said the football players make her feel “like I’m less of an athlete than
you are because you’re going to go play in the NFL.”
On the other end of the spectrum, Angelica said gender and the fact that she’s a woman
does not affect her leadership development. In explaining why she feels this way, Angelica said
she doesn’t “like to see myself as a different gender” because “conversations about women in the
workforce is different, in my opinion, in my generation.”
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Relationships with teammates. In addition to the disparity of post-collegiate athletic
career opportunities for women, half of the participants spoke of the relationship side of athletics
as a female student-athlete. Fleur joyously spoke of the “amazing relationships” she’s made as a
student-athlete, saying the following about her competitiveness and relationship with her
teammates: “Whether you’re conscious or not, I think it’s an innate drive to be competitive, win,
and develop these relationships.” Comparatively, although this study did not look at male
student-athletes and relationships, Fleur addressed what she believes differs between male and
female athletes in regard to these friendships with teammates. She said that, as female collegiate
athletes, “we’re comfortable saying ‘I love you, you’re my best friend.’ We’re able to display our
emotions and affection for each other.”
One participant, Carol, reiterated the impact close relationships with her teammates has
had on her, specific to her leadership development. She said, “The closer you get with people,
the more comfortable you feel in a leadership role.” She later continued, “Having a pretty good
relationship with almost every individual makes it OK, like I can yell [at my teammates].”
Conversely, Genie admitted friendships with her teammates is a hinderance for her. She
acknowledged the desire to “always want to be the good cop,” saying, “I want to be friends with
everyone. I want everyone to…” her thought trailed off. She picked back up, saying, “I value
relationships and that sometimes hindered me a little bit because I can became too attached with
people…and I wouldn’t ever want to upset anyone.”
In addition to opportunities to go pro or to make a living as a professional athlete,
leadership style, and focus on relationships with teammates, another athletic-related difference
among female and male athletes is perception. For example. Heidi discussed gender norms in
regard to body image during and outside of competition. She said:
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I viewed gender norms and how I view myself within them. I compare myself to girls that
don't play sports. I am so much more confident in being muscular now, even, which I was
never okay with before. But like college athletics specifically has given me this new
purpose…and focus on not really thinking about what I look like but making sure that I
feel the right way that I need to feel.
Although Heidi was the only participant to discuss body image, research posits there is conflict
between athletic body image and social expectations of femininity (Krane et al., 2004).
A dichotomy of communication styles with teammates was also mentioned, in reference
to during and outside of competition. For instance, Everest said, “Having pretty good
relationships with almost every individual makes it OK to yell [at teammates] and it’s not taken
out of context, like ‘she doesn’t like me,’ because they know [that] off the field I have this
relationship with them.” Making the distinction clearer, Everest also said, “Obviously there’s a
difference in your attitude in and out of competition, but there is no difference in the intention
that you have, like you’re not trying to tear this person down, because they know you’re their
friend.”
Leadership Qualities
Consistent with Fransen et al.’s (2014) findings, all eight participants acknowledged
personal growth in regard to leadership development through participation in collegiate athletics.
The participants’ perceptions about leadership were gleaned from the way they defined
leadership, their opinions about the key qualities leaders have, and their perceptions of
themselves as leaders, with the top three leadership characteristics for each category outlined
below in Figure 3. Participants discussed their leadership development in terms of leadership
characteristics, including persistence, confidence, and time management, to name a few.
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Northouse (2016) describes persistence is an attribute that allows leaders to “persevere in the
face of obstacles.” As such, participants also spoke about pivotal experiences that have impacted
their leadership development, and how they believe their collegiate athletic experience will
impact their career success.
Figure 3: Top Three Leadership Qualities
Note: Blue bars represent leadership qualities recognized by the participants in themselves.
Green bars represent leadership qualities that the participants believe effective leaders have.

Perceptions of Self as a Leader. Without exception, all eight participants considered
themselves leaders. It was how each participant affirmed this notion that sheds light on their
perceptions of their credibility of leaders. Two of the participants were self-assured in their
answer, answering with an assertive “Yes” or “Yes, I do.” The other six participants either
sounded as if they were unsure or were qualifying their leadership. These participants’ answers
ranged from “I’d like to think so. Yeah,” to “I do, that in the circumstances that I think everyone
can be a leader,” to “I do, I mean, I kind of think everyone on my team can say yes to that in
some capacity.” Although the two who confidently affirmed their belief in themselves as leaders
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were upperclassman, there wasn’t a pattern associated with seniority, as both underclassmen and
upperclassmen were unsure and hesitant when answering the question.
Notwithstanding, confidence was mentioned as a leadership characteristic enhanced
through collegiate athletic participation by more than half of the participants. Northouse (2016)
posits self-confidence as a “trait that helps one to be a leader” (p.24). One participant said, “Oh,
yeah, that’s huge” when she mentioned confidence. She continued, “I learned confidence by
being pushed into it basically. But it’s definitely something that has made a huge difference in
my life.” Along the same lines, Genie spoke about the impact her increased confidence has had
on her life: “Being in sports has put me in situations where I’ve had to get comfortable with the
uncomfortable. Now I am better at adapting, becoming more confident in who I am. And then,
making that translate to actually the competition part.”
On the contrary, another participant spoke about collegiate athletics as having a negative
effect on her confidence, initially, because she did not compete her freshman year. Thus, she was
unable to partake in her team’s post-season activities. In explaining how exclusion from
competition affected her, she shared, “It was definitely challenging and miserable because I
never had to go through having a lack of confidence to get back up.”
In addition to increased confidence, the participants discussed their ability to both
prioritize and balance multiple responsibilities, which was seen as an essential part of their
leadership development and overall well-being. Participants stated time management, planning,
and prioritization were key in their everyday lives as collegiate student-athletes. One participant,
Destiny, discussed how she is extremely organized, utilizing a planner to help her stay atop of
everything. She shared, “I have this planner. I feel like everything is exactly how I need it to be
[in there]. I spent my whole class writing next week’s plan.” While Destiny plans weekly,
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Everest said she prioritizes her day every morning. She said she plans her day to see if she can
return home before her next class, which has helped her “be better in the classroom” and allot
time to “do homework and study.” Angelica, on the other hand, says she prioritizes her time for
everything ahead of time. She said she is often asked how she does it. She simply said, “You
learn to say no.”
While increased confidence and time management were seen as individual attributes,
more than half of the participants mentioned the importance of teamwork as another leadership
characteristic, one that improved through collegiate athletic participation. Teamwork was
mentioned in the context of being inclusive, empowering others, and working together to
accomplish one goal. One participant said she is able to practice teamwork by “looking at the
best interest of the group” since she didn’t compete as much as her teammates. Another
participant said, “I think that being a part of a team and working toward something bigger than
yourself is a lesson that you can't really replicate.” Leadership as a collaborative process,
inclusive and accessible to all, are guiding assumptions in the SCM (HERI, 1996; Astin, 1996;
Komives et al., 2009b).
Pivotal experiences. As participants discussed their collegiate sports experiences, there
were several pivotal experiences they had to confront and overcome that influenced their
leadership development. Injuries and desires to quit or transfer caused participants to mature or
change in some way. One participant said her lingering tendinitis in her knees made her realize
nothing is guaranteed. It prevents her from taking things for granted: “I could be playing for a
few more years. That’s why it really fuels my motivation, determination and commitment just
because it’s never guaranteed.” Another participant played an entire season with a leg injury.
Playing through the pain made her realize several things about herself: “It’s really helped me
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understand what I can take and, like, no matter what pain comes, you’ll get through it.”
Unfortunately, an injury one participant experienced was career-ending. According to this
participant, this injury forced her to be both vulnerable and self-reflective. While breaking down
in tears when talking about this career-ending injury, she gave praise to the lessons she’s learned
as a result, saying, “I think going through these challenges has been very key to my awareness
[of others’ situations] and ability to have empathy. So I wouldn’t change it for the world.” An
exclusion from competing was in fact a critical experience for many of the participants.
Several participants acknowledged their desire to transfer or quit as a freshman, either
because they weren’t competing as much as they had hoped, or they felt that being a college
athlete was too challenging.
Carol overcame the desire to transfer and said this made her more resilient and pushed
her to work harder. “Once I did have a fresh start after the season my freshman year, I was like,
‘I’m going to work my ass off.’” She was able to compete more after her freshman year. She
explained the impact this experience had on her, saying, “Overcoming those things helps you
fight. I’m so much better than I was when I came in [as a freshman]. I guess that kind of pushed
me to develop in competition and develop as a leader.” The participants used these pivotal
experiences to learn, grow in confidence, and build grit throughout their collegiate career.
Career Success. More than half of the participants discussed how their leadership, their
relationship with teammates, and further experience as a collegiate athlete, will help them in their
career endeavors. For instance, Angelica said being a collegiate athlete not only shaped her
expectations of career success but also shaped what type of environment she’d like work in after
college. She said, in jest, that she feels as if she “worked for a 30-person company for four
years.” Continuing, Angelica said, “I think anyone that comes out of this environment has some
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sort of experience of leadership and can translate that into the workforce for sure.” Fleur agreed,
saying, “I think you can get a lot of these situations to help promote you and whatever you do
next.”
Destiny said athletics taught her how to work efficiently with others, while Everest took
it a step further, saying working with athletics department staff, coaches, teammates, and tutors,
student-athletes “have to learn how to be respectful and deal with other people in our
environment every day. So, I think that’s really going to help me in the real world when I get
there and have to be in a real job.”
While the participants recognized the impact collegiate athletic participation may have on
their future career, it’s as important for future employers to recognize the potential student-
athletes can bring to their team. Two participants harped on this, with one assuming athletes have
bad reputations, saying, “Not only do I feel like I have gained qualities and a bunch of growth
through sports, but I think other people recognize it, like employers. And I think everyone’s
worked with one athlete who has kind of like changed their perception of what an athlete is and
what they gain from a college athlete experience.”
Bella spoke highly of her collegiate athletic experience correlating to her future work
habits. She was excited to hear an employer at a career fair give credibility to student-athletes
believing their characteristics enhanced through collegiate athletic experience will transfer well
to a work environment. In sharing her experience at the career fair, Bella said:
One of the people told me that they would rather hire someone who has been a part of a
sports team in college over someone who might have perfect grades, because they think
that someone who has participated in college athletics has learned so many more life
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lessons and how to work with a team, and as a team, than someone [who] doesn't have
that experience.
Bella found this interaction comforting to hear, as she said student-athletes “don’t really have
time to do internships or work jobs.”
Bella continued to discuss how she believes her experience will contribute to her career
success. In talking about her biggest takeaway, resiliency, she said, “That's one of the biggest
things that I think will be contributing to my career as well: the way that you work as a collegiate
athlete, in terms of giving 110 percent, is unmatched.”
Leadership Characteristics. Participants described the characteristics, competencies,
and skills they believe effective leaders possess. Terms used by participants to describe these
characteristics include: lead by example, support others, respect others, be authentic, vocal,
humble, consistent, and work hard. Despite the abundance of expressions used to describe the
qualities of good leaders, several trends emerged. Participants focused on the individual and
group, and discussed the role of the leader in relationship to the followers.
For example, Genie said leadership is “influencing others in a positive way,” while
Everest said, “How you get people to come with you as you go through your journey; no matter
what, you're just always trying to do the right thing and get people to do the right thing with
you.”
Along the same lines of the leader in relationship to followers, participants discussed
leading by example. Seven of the eight participants specifically mentioned “leading by example”
as a quality of effective leaders. One participant said effective leaders go “above and beyond in
terms of setting an example and setting a standard.” Two participants took it step further in that
they believe leaders should not only be willing to lead by example but by actually doing the
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work themselves if needed. Angelica said, “So you should be one that would be willing to serve;
you should not ask… an employee to do something that you wouldn't be willing to do yourself.”
Destiny agreed: “I mean, I always like the lead-by-example type of leader, because if someone's
just like telling me to do these things and I don't see them doing anything, I don't have any
motivation to do it.”
Aligning with the participants’ sentiment that leading by example is a quality of a leader,
three participants spoke directly about a former teammate, Isla, who emulated this in their eyes.
One mentioned Isla as “one of the amazing leaders” because of her willingness to engage in
activities usually reserved for younger teammates, such as putting the equipment away at the end
of practice. The other teammate who also spoke about Isla said she was “a role model by the way
she did things” but also said she “came across as mean in the way she translated some of her
opinions and spoke to some people during competitions.” From what the three participants said,
Isla, a graduating senior, seemed to be respected because she ignored the notion that freshman
have to do certain lowly team responsibilities while seniors don’t –the structural hierarchy of the
team. The opportunity to be “a role model by the way she did things” confirms analogous
assertions by Hoffman et al. (2013) who posit that sports gives athletes an outlet to practice
leading by example (p. 89).
The participants also suggested that leadership is not position-based, but is inclusive and
collaborative. As one participant concisely stated, “I see leaders in the smallest ways. I think
anyone can be one.” Other participants agreed. Genie said, “I don't feel like there's one particular
leader; I feel like everyone has the capability to be their own leader.” Athletics may be uniquely
positioned to offer leadership development, as the number of formal and informal roles on a
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sports team may offer leadership opportunities that other co-curricular group experiences lack
(Duguay et al., 2016).
Along with the observation that multiple athletes serve in many different leadership roles
(Fransen, 2014), the participants also discussed the types of different leaders and how each type
displays his/her qualities. Fleur shared:
There's different types of leaders, you know, and in sport you kind of put on a pedestal
the competitive leader, the one that's successful on the field. …It's easy to point out and
be like ‘Oh that's our leader.’ … And I think there's room in programs, like the ones I've
been in, for someone to have a leadership role that might not necessarily be that
competitive leader that we all kind of assume [they should be]. So I think a leader is
someone that is able to listen, and able to promote others to lead as well, because I don't
think it's just one leader in any type of situation.
Angelica agreed:
I would say there's different types of leaders in the sports context. I think you can have
the background leaders. I think you're even a leader by supporting the leaders, because
people will look up to the way that you're following the leaders. And I think it's not just
like ‘here's the top people and then there is everyone else.’ I think there's people that can
step into roles that are not defined by them and still have leader-like qualities.
Conversely, one participant did mention leadership in the context of a position, specifically
mentioning “team captain or a group from the leadership committee” when discussing her view
of leadership. However, Loughead et al. (2006) found team captainship was not always a
signifier of a team leader.
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No matter what one’s leadership style is, the participants believe effective leaders are
authentic to themselves and to their leadership style. In describing how leaders need to be
authentic in spite of others’ opinions, Genie said, “I think if you're a vocal leader then you need
to be willing to give your opinion and say things up front whenever they need to be said, not
being afraid of what other people are going to think.”
Describing an effective leader, Angelica summed up her thoughts as follows:
You should not be a leader because you want to be a leader. Because I don't think you're
leading yourself. I don't think you would lead very well if you're just trying to look out
for your best interests. The whole point of it is that you're taking an extra load of
responsibility, and power if you want to put it that way, to make the whole thing work.
Research Question Two Summary of Data
Data shows that experience in collegiate student-athletics increased the leadership
development of all the participants. Interviews revealed similarities in the ecological approach in
that the development, in this case leadership development, is a result of reciprocal effects
between the student-athlete and their environment. While the participants’ microsystem had the
most impact on their development, the head coach and teammates also seemed to deter
leadership development at times. This deterrence is analogous with Bowen and Levin’s (2003)
findings, which suggests the collegiate athletic environment allows student-athletes to create
their own subculture within each institute, isolating themselves from the student body and
inhibiting their leadership development.
In this study, members of the student-athletes’ microsystem, including teammates,
coaches, team manager, team trainer, and sport psychologist, were dedicated to creating an
environment that pushed participants out of their comfort zone yet encouraged their personal
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growth. From this environment, participants enhanced their leadership characteristics. One
participant, Fleur, summed up her leadership development and overall personal growth as a
student-athlete as follows:
I always consider it kind of like a Petri dish of growth, college athletics, if you take it the
right way. I have grown and learned about myself, and so many different lessons in such a
short amount of time, [growth and lessons] that people have to spend years doing. We're
just in such a hyper environment.
Several participants attributed their personal growth to their head coach. They mentioned
their head coach as a mentor because their coach cares “a lot more about the important things
and who we are, as opposed to only caring about how [we] perform.” The coach emphasized
strong values and culture, teamwork, and group cohesion, and empowered athletes to form
successful teams (Carron et al., 2002; Gould, Collins, Lauer, & Chung, 2007; Schroeder, 2010).
Most of the athletes bought into this environment, which allowed them to thrive and grow from
these experiences (Komives et al., 2005).
Along the same lines, participants also looked up to their coaching staff, team manager,
and athletic trainer. For instance, Bella said her coach, sport psychologist, and athletics director
all “play a huge role in setting an example of what it means to be a leader or what leadership
means by definition.” Genie had more of a cynical stance on athletics as a whole, as well as her
head coach’s motivation regarding team cohesion.
Time and time again, teammates were deemed an integral part of participants’ leadership
development. Specifically, year in school was a reoccurring notion brought up by several
participants. Year in school both helped and hindered leadership development. Within this team,
participants who were younger did not believe they could be leaders until they competed a
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decent amount of time during one season, and had completed at least two seasons at the
collegiate level. Furthermore, the participants only looked up to upperclassmen as leaders. This
notion of only upperclassmen serving as mentors aligns with Komives et al.’s (2005) research,
which states that older friends serve as role models while same-aged peers serve as friends.
While the participants could not come to a consensus about whether or not gender had an
impact on their leadership development as collegiate athletes, all eight participants believe
participating in collegiate athletics has both enhanced their leadership and set them up for
success in their career endeavors.
The most enhanced leadership characteristics that participants mentioned were
persistence, time management, confidence and teamwork, all of which participants believed
would serve them well in a professional setting. The experiences the student-athletes had with
their coach, sport psychologist, team trainer, and teammates, all members of their microsystem,
helped them broaden their self-awareness and understanding of leadership.
Final Summary
It would seem that the data for RQ1 suggests the culture within collegiate athletics does
contribute to female student-athletes engaging in social change behavior. And the data for RQ2
suggests that the collegiate athletic experience does influence current female student-athletes’
leadership development. At WCU, there seems to be a clear intent to encourage and support
student-athletes to engage in social change behavior, as well as an intent to create and offer
opportunities for student-athletes to enhance their leadership development. The athletics
department shows its dedication to cultivating a community where all student-athletes have the
opportunity to engage in social change behavior through creating a culture of community service,
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fielding diverse sports teams, and offering workshops and programming that specifically address
social justice issues.
Throughout the data, the athletics department, a part of student-athletes’ mesosystem,
appeared to be a recurring variable, making an effort to increase student-athletes’ personal
growth. From offering workshops, career fairs, community service opportunities and leadership
groups, many participants believed they increased their leadership development and were
encouraged to engaging in social change behavior. This development aligns with the ecological
approach in that development is an evolving function of the interactions between the student-
athlete and environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1993). Additionally, the student-athletes’ development
proved to be evolving and aligned with the ecological approach’s four main components
(process, person, context, and time) because this development occurred through face-to-face
interactions (process), within various settings (context), and increased over time as the
interactions grew more complex (Bronfenbrenner, 2009). Context is the component of the theory
that was most interesting in this study as the student-athletes’ microsystem and mesosystem were
the most impactful on their social change behavior and leadership development.
Whether this personal growth is intrinsic with participation in collegiate athletics or if the
microsystem is the clear enhancer was discussed in regard to both social change behavior and
leadership development. Program Administrator 1 admitted she does not believe the department
is doing a “fantastic job” of helping student-athletes development but praised the head coach for
weaving leadership development throughout daily training sessions and team activities. The head
coach empowers the student-athletes to practice their leadership skills (Gould et al., 2007). The
head coach was revered by most participants as both a mentor and someone they looked up to.
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Mentoring relationships allow the mentee to increase leadership capacity as well as socially
responsible leadership (Dugan et al., 2013, p. 12; Campbell et al., 2012, p. 614).
The head coach both instituted a hierarchy of expectations based on seniority and had the
team’s sport psychologist create a weekly culture class. One participant said freshmen are
learning from those around them but expectations are higher for seniors as they are “expected to
look out for the best interests of the team.” Although contradictory to the SCM highlight of non-
hierarchy (HERI, 1996), the seniority system and its hierarchy of expectations, and
corresponding leadership opportunities, is not surprising, as this is something that is pervasive in
most levels of sports.
From discussing personal legacy to establishing team values, the culture class is both
unique to this team at WCU and seems to have a lasting effect on the participants. The
implementation of the culture class aligns with the SCM assumption that leadership is values-
based (HERI, 1996; Astin, 1996; Komives et al., 2009b) and further posits the importance of the
microsystem component of coach/sports psychologist/student-athletes, which creates an effective
mesosystem. One participant said the culture class is where the team can really explore and
practice leadership, as opposed to waiting for the athletics department to do more in terms of
leadership development.
Participants also mentioned the coach’s impact when discussing culture and team
leadership, specifically how their leadership within the team can further help the team. For
example, participants spoke of an end-of-year conversation with their coach, which included
discussions about filling the shoes of departed teammates in regard to both competitions and
team leadership. The coach made a concerted effort to discuss leadership with each student-
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athlete, a clear indication that his approach aligns with the SCM in that leadership is inclusive
and accessible to all people (HERI, 1996).
Despite many of the participants—as well as an athletics department employee—giving
accolades to the head coach for having such a positive influence on the student-athletes’ social
change behavior and leadership development, one participant was self-admittedly cynical about
her head coach and collegiate athletics as a whole. She described athletics as “a business” and
said the student-athletes simply help the coaches earn an income. This may surprise some, as this
sentiment is being expressed by a non-revenue sport athlete. Had this been expressed by a male
basketball or football player, it may not have been as surprising.
Gender was a commonality between both research questions. Despite participants
affirming the impact the team’s diversity has had on them, including a more open perspective
(Nesbitt & Grant, 2015), increased empathy, and becoming friends with those they may
otherwise not have come in contact with, less than half of the participants indicated that gender
had an impact on their leadership development. For example, one participant expressed that the
opportunity to establish leadership roles and develop leadership is equal for all student-athletes at
WCU, regardless of gender.
Those who believed gender impacted their leadership development mentioned gender
norms in regard to leadership style and body image. Additionally, gender came up time and time
again in regard to social influence. All eight participants believed they have social influence as
collegiate student-athletes, but not as much as professional athletes or male collegiate student-
athletes (Carli, 1999). Only one participant mentioned a female professional athlete when
comparing the size of collegiate student-athletes’ platforms to professionals’. LeBron James’
name is by far the professional athlete’s name mentioned most. Speaking about the overlap
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between social influence, leadership, and gender, one participant believed male athletes have
more influence whether they are good leaders or not. There is independent evidence for this
(Carli, 2001).
Although all eight participants acknowledged they have social influence as collegiate
student-athletes at a Division I institute, only two said they felt as if they had a duty to use this
social influence to engage in social issues. Whether hesitancy to engage in social issues stems
from the “current political climate,” or lessened impact because of gender or not being a
professional athlete, or simply from “apathy to social issues,” or combinations of these factors,
six participants felt as if they do not have a duty to engage.
One way the athletics department is intentionally encouraging student-athletes to engage
in social issues while increasing their leadership development is through community service.
Soria et al. (2013) found students who engaged in community service, both on their own and
with a student organization (as several of the participants mentioned), made gains in six of the
seven SCM values. Furthermore, Dugan & Komives (2010) found the more hours student-
athletes spend volunteering, the more likely they are to increase their leadership development.
Program Administrator 2 acknowledged the athletics department indirectly addresses “the -isms
of the world.” Additionally, Program Administrator 2 said every community service opportunity
has an intended outcome, whether it is for the student-athlete to gain knowledge, insight, or
connections. Several participants echoed this notion of outcomes from engaging in community
service. Some were not surprising, such as a change in perspective about giving back or being
involved in causes important to them or their teammates. One outcome was unexpected by the
researcher, in that two participants became aware of their racial and socioeconomic privilege
through engaging in community service. And another participant became aware of her privilege
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simply through her experience as a collegiate student-athlete. Race, socioeconomic status, and
educational attainment are a few privileges the participants mentioned.
College students are more likely to increase socially responsible leadership by engaging
in community service; sociocultural conversations with peers; mentoring relationships; and
memberships in off-campus organizations (Dugan et al., 2013; Fuller et al., 2015; Melton, 2015).
Because the participants in this study engaged in community service, sociocultural conversations
with peers, and cultivated mentoring relationships, it can be said these student-athletes increased
their socially responsible leadership. This is in direct contradiction to Huntrods et al.’s (2017)
finding that team sports decreases student-athletes’ socially responsible leadership.
Another unexpected variable that came up was the fact that participants discussed
intangible advantages gained from sport, such as persistence, time management, and teamwork,
that will prepare them for a professional work setting. One participant made the connection
between being part of a team and “working toward something bigger than yourself.” Working
toward a common goal is one of the seven values within the SCM. And the common goal of
winning requires each student to strategically utilize one another’s strengths (Flanagan &
Bundick, 2011). Collaboration, along with utilizing partnerships to meet goals, provides
opportunities for college student-athletes to increase their gains in common purpose, one of the
seven values of the SCM (Fuller et al., 2015). In addition to collaboration, all of the other six
values of the SCM were discussed in some nature: consciousness of self in regard to what
motivates their teammates to take action, congruence in leading authentically during and outside
of competition, commitment to winning; common purpose in sharing values outlined during the
culture class; controversy with civility in regard to teammates’ sexual orientation, and citizenship
in engaging in community service. The individual values of the SCM are developed while
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functioning in a group, while the group needs individuals to exhibit personal values to function
properly (Astin, 1996). Furthermore, as evident by the findings of this study, collegiate sports
teams have a diverse roster of student-athletes who commit, collaborate, and share a common
goal, all of which are social change values. Thus, it appears collegiate athletics is uniquely
effective in increasing both socially responsible leadership and leadership development.
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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS
Introduction
The following chapter concludes a qualitative methods study to gather information from
current female student-athletes regarding their perceptions about participating in collegiate
athletics and its effect on their socially responsible leadership and leadership development. This
chapter presents analysis and discussion of all findings as related to the literature and research
questions, as well as the implications and areas for future research surrounding leadership
development, social change behavior, and collegiate sport participation influence on women in
the work place.
Background
Women are underrepresented in senior and executive leadership positions in male
dominated industries such as the military, business, and sports. While women face cultural and
societal issues as barriers to attaining leadership positions, men are often equated as leader
because most leader characteristics are considered masculine (Kellerman & Rhode, 2007). Eagly
and Karau (2002) contend leadership roles for females are a violation of women’s gender roles.
This incongruity is based upon the societal perception that leadership is a male role; therefore the
traits associated with a leader are inherently masculine (Eagly & Karau, 2002).
While research does not support the notion of gender differences in terms of leadership
style or effectiveness (Rhode & Kellerman, 2007), women face backlash for violating
perspective norms associate with leadership (Pittinsky, Bacon, & Welle, 2007). There are several
ways women may be given more opportunities to attain leadership position, which include: De-
gendering leadership, leading in an androgynous manner, and participating in sports. Of the
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women in C-suite leadership positions, 94% of them played a sport and 52% were former
collegiate athletes (Ernest & Young, 2015).
There is a dearth of research addressing the influence of sports participation on student-
athlete leadership, therefore, the purpose of this study was to extend research and knowledge on
leadership development and the attainment of leadership positions through the lens of the
collegiate athletic experience. The researcher investigated the impact of collegiate sports
participation on social change behavior as well as how collegiate sports participation and
interactions within that environment impact the leadership development of current female
athletes.
Discussion of Findings
Understanding current female student-athletes’ participation in collegiate athletics shed
light on social change behavior and leadership development. The findings align with the seven
values of the Social Change Model of Leadership Development (SCM) (HERI, 1996) as well as
within the ecological approach (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). Furthermore, since the collection and
analysis of data, social context regarding athletes and social change is different, as well as social
context regarding collegiate athletics. How the two theoretical frameworks link to findings, and
changes in social context since data collection are explained in more detail below.
Social Change Model of Leadership Development. Experiences of the current female
student-athletes provided insight into the parallels between participation in collegiate athletics
and the SCM. As all seven values associated with the SCM were anecdotally discussed by
participants, two major themes emerged. They are: Gender and amateur status within collegiate
athletics effected internal and external efficacy regarding social influence; and self-awareness in
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regard to realized privilege and acceptance of diversity was further developed as a result of the
collegiate athletic environment.
Since the collection and analysis of data, general data has contributed to the body of
knowledge regarding social change. Most notable, the United States women’s national soccer
team (USWNT) sued the U.S. Soccer Federation in March 2019. At the forefront of athlete
activism is a member of the USWNT, Megan Rapinoe. Before, during, and since winning the
Women’s World Cup (WWC), Rapinoe has made headlines for her outspoken nature, including
becoming the first white athlete to take a knee in support of Colin Kaepernick’s protest as well a
viral video with her declaration that she would not go to the White House if the USWNT won the
WWC (Gomez, 2019). Duped as the “walking protest,” Rapinoe, who now stands for the anthem
but doesn’t sing or bring her right hand to her heart, said “It would take a lot” for her to stop
protesting, including criminal justice reform and progress in regard to LGBTQ rights (Gomez,
2019).
More recent, two American athletes at the Pan Am Games protested. Despite signing an
agreement to not make any political, religious, or racial remarks at the 2019 Pan Am Games,
gold medalist fencer Race Imboden knelt during the national anthem while gold medalist
hammer thrower Gwen Berry raised her fist in the air at the end of the national anthem
(Levenson & Sterling, 2019). To explain why he knelt, on August 9, 2019, Imboden tweeted the
following alongside the picture of him kneeling:
We must call for change. This week I am honored to represent Team USA at the Pan Am
Games, taking home Gold and Bronze. My pride however has been cut short by the
multiple shortcomings of the country I hold so dear to my heart. Racism, Gun Control,
mistreatment of immigrants, and a president who spreads hate are at the top of a long list.
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I chose to sacrifice my moment today at the top of the podium to call attention to issues
that I believe need to be addressed. I encourage others to please use your platforms for
empowerment and change.
The USWNT, Rapinoe, and Imbolden are using their platforms to address issues. Not
only do their efforts align with all seven values of the SCM, they are attempting to positively
effect society. They are attempting to enact the eighth value of the SCM: change (HERI, 1996).
In doing so, these athlete activist are allowing others to find their voice. As such, if a similar
study is carried out in the future, the next phase of findings may be women have parity and no
longer have to fight for pay equity; there are equal rights for all LGBTQ members; and the
criminal justice system and process is reformed.
In considering the way in which the video of Rapinoe went viral and how she
subsequently was featured on myriad of television news outlets, the researcher believes had the
current female student-athlete interviews taken place after the USWNT won the WCC, the
findings may have been different in that participants may have mentioned Rapinoe in talking
about social influence or reconsidered the way in which gender impacts social influence.
Ecological Approach. Current female student-athletes’ positive and challenging
experiences revealed insight into their leadership development and psyche. The collegiate
athletic environment proved to be perfectly aligned with the ecological approach. In this
approach, as within the collegiate athletic environment, the person is not only influenced by her
environment but simultaneously influencing it as well (Gardiner & Kosmitzki, 2005). Four major
themes emerged related to findings connecting leadership development and participation in
collegiate athletics. They are: Collegiate student-athletes are cultivating what is meaningful for
them outside of athletics, including values, perspectives about diversity, and success in their
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future careers; Whether overcoming challenges or enhancing individual growth, collegiate
student-athletes felt supported and encouraged by those in their microsystem and mesosystem;
The majority of leadership development happened outside of competition; and Perceptions of
leadership, both positive and negative, were shaped as a result of participation in collegiate
athletics.
Since the collection and analysis of data, general data has contributed to the body of
knowledge regarding the collegiate athletic environment. The most salient recent general data is
the college admissions scandal. Many of the scandal students were admitted to exclusive
universities and colleges after their parent and a for-profit college counseling organization
fabricated their high school and club sports teams accolades. Additionally, both coaches and
administrators were bribed, and subsequently fired if there were still employed by the college or
university when the scandal broke. As such, the impact on the student-athletes currently on those
sports teams is staggering. How many of them considered their coach or even the administrator a
mentor, only to find out the coach or administrator was involved in illegal activity? How would
that shape the student-athletes’ perceptions of leadership?
Implications
By studying the influence of participation in collegiate athletics on current female
student-athletes through this qualitative case study, a better understanding was gained regarding
social influence, leadership and sports, social change behavior, leadership development, and
ecological influences. The results revealed that female collegiate student-athletes were able to
discern the impact of leadership development. These results can highlight the value of athletics
given the conversation surrounding the cost of collegiate athletics and its impact on the
educational process of student-athletes and the reputational cost to universities.
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As most higher education institutes hold student leadership development central to their
mission, vision, and values (Dugan, 2006a), this study’s results indicate that athletics aligns with
these missions, visions, and values. Additionally, this study can contribute to evidence based
research regarding leadership development of student-athletes.
Research varies regarding the effect of participating in collegiate athletics. Some studies
have found participation has a negative effect on development (Huntrods et al., 2017) or no
effect (Grandzol, Perlis, & Draina, 2010), while others found a positive results from participating
in collegiate athletics (Bailey, 2005; Bailey, 2006; Bray, 1988; Fransen et al., 2014; Giulianotti,
2011; Hoffman et al., 2013; Morris et al., 2003; Ryan, 1989). This study adds to the current
research indicating collegiate sports as a positive influence on leadership development. This
study expanded upon the previous research and helped clarify what influences and specific
experiences impact a student-athlete’s leadership development, including socially responsible
leadership.
The study’s outcome may be particularly valuable to athletics directors, life skills staff,
coaches, and athletics department administrators. One of the major findings from this study was
the significance current student-athletes placed on how the coaching staff encouraged athletes to
thrive in an hierarchical environment. Athletics directors can mirror the programming and
opportunities implemented by the head coach in this study to foster student-athlete growth
outside of competition. The coach placed a considerable emphasis on encouraging athletes to
develop interpersonal skills and teamwork, skills that can help student-athletes flourish in future
professional environments.
Additionally, athletics departments can tailor opportunities that prepare student-athletes
to be successful leaders in their sport and chosen career field by offering long-term leadership
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enhancement programs, character development workshops, and financial literacy workshops. An
emphasis should be placed on opportunities to network with local career professional and others
in their chosen career path through community service, career fairs, alumni panels, university
events, and internships. In addition to life skills programming for the entire department, there
could be specific leadership development programming on a team-by-team basis. College
students’ leadership development is important as it has been linked to further development
outcomes, such as multicultural awareness, self-awareness, societal awareness, and civic
responsibility (Cress et al., 2001).
This study’s outcomes may also have implications for charter schools. While most
charter schools limit students’ access to sports, the link between sports participation and
leadership development may influence schools to implement sports teams in order to expose
students to the benefits of athletic participation, including enhanced multicultural awareness,
confidence, and leadership development.
Finally, this study found that student-athlete recognize their privilege through
participation in collegiate athletics and engagement in community service. The findings add to
the dearth of research regarding student-athletes’ increased self-awareness regarding privileged
social status (Fuller et al., 2015). Experiences shared by the student-athletes on the impact that
engaging in community service had on their self-awareness regarding privileged social status
have implications for the NCAA. The NCAA should reconsider its placement of community
service within the countable athletically related activities. As of now, any require activity with an
athletics purpose involving student-athletes must be counted toward the 20 hours per week of
athletically related activities. Community service, as it’s voluntary, does not count toward the 20
hour in-season limit of eight hour out-of-season limit (NCAA, 2009). The NCAA should
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consider making 1) community service mandatory and 2) making mandatory community service
a non-countable athletically related activity. Not only would this allow all student-athletes to
further develop self-awareness and socially responsible leadership skills, this would position
athletics departments to be more intentional about exposing all student-athletes to specific social
issues, such as local educational initiatives and diversity-specific opportunities.
Areas for Future Research
This study represents one of the few empirical attempts to explore the relationship
between socially responsible leadership, leadership development, and female student-athletes.
Additional research is needed to confirm the findings of this study. While findings indicate the
relationships formed within the microsystem and culture of collegiate athletics positively impact
female student-athletes, additional efforts should be taken to further confirm these results and
understand the relationship between the above-mentioned relationship.
Additional research would help determine if similar results would be found, indicating
there is in fact a link between sport participation and leadership development. Additional
research could explore the dynamics of different sport teams, both team sports and individual
sports, as well as other universities, conferences, and NCAA divisions. In addition, comparisons
between collegiate student-athletes and other extracurricular activities (e.g., sororities) may
provide insight into different impacts on leadership development of women.
Additionally, future studies could include male athletes, to determine if there are
differences between leadership development of female and male collegiate student-athletes.
There could be studies with more athletes so that the research can be generalized; the research
could compare revenue generating sports to non-revenue generating sports, and compare non-
athletes to athletes. More research regarding the impact of collegiate athletics on leadership
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development is needed, which could lead to new theories about the impact of collegiate athletics,
and leadership development.
It may be insightful to examine the influence of collegiate sport on the leadership
development of C-Suite male and female leaders to determine if participation in collegiate
athletics further prepares employees or enhances their ability to ascend the corporate ladder. It
would also be interesting to conduct a study of C-Suite leaders to determine if leadership
development is the same, regardless of gender.
Lastly, additional research could include a longitudinal study exploring the socially
responsible leadership of professional athletes. There are many avenues that such a study could
take, including exploring the influence professional athletes have on collegiate athletes in regard
to socially responsible leadership, and exploring the influence of the microsystem, mesosystem,
and macrosystems of professionally athletes’ who are nominated for their leagues community
impact award, such as the NBA or WNBA Cares Community Assist Award or The Walter
Payton NFL Man of the Year Award.
Recommendations
This study revealed current female student-athletes’ participation in collegiate athletics is
a highly influential factor in their social change behavior and leadership development. This
finding is significant given the conversation surrounding the cost of collegiate athletics and its
impact on the educational process of student-athletes and the reputational cost to universities. As
participants have shared how participation in collegiate athletics has increased their self-
awareness, competence in interpersonal relationship, and teamwork (Cress et al., 2001; Komives
et al., 2005; Fuller et al., 2015), there are still areas where improvements need to be made. It is
critical for the NCAA, conferences, and athletics departments to offer professional development
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opportunities for coaching staffs to learn how to implement opportunities for student-athletes to
develop leadership skills outside of competition. As coaches focus on the wins and losses in
collegiate athletics, more emphasize needs to be placed on comprehensive development of
student-athletes. Instead of relying on the intrinsic leadership development associated with
collegiate athletics, coach should be held accountable to create a safe space for their student-
athletes to grow as individuals. For example, in lieu of practice time, coaches could implement a
class for their team where leadership topics could be discussed, such as values, legacy, and
teamwork.
On a national level, the NCAA needs to restructure its off-season community service
policies. In relation to engaging in community service, whether recognized privilege, increased
self-awareness, enhanced socially responsible leadership, and leadership development, this study
may be useful in affirming the personal and professional benefits of student-athletes engaging in
community service (Perry & Katula, 2001; Soria et al., 2013; Dugan et al., 2013; Melton, 2015).
As such, the NCAA should consider removing any stipulations regarding countable athletic-
related hours via community service during the off season, or setting parameters to make
community service mandatory.
Lastly, the NCAA should mandate that athletics departments provide student-athletes
with leadership training and development opportunities. And if the athletics department is
unable to do so because of budgetary restrictions, the NCAA should mandate the conference
office provide these opportunities. In addition to career fairs and SAAC, athletics departments
should offer opportunities leadership academies, mentoring roundtables, and culture classes. It
would be imperative to implement these opportunities around student-athletes’ schedules and
interests. These opportunities would be ongoing throughout student-athletes collegiate careers,
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which would allow them the opportunity to continuously enhance leadership skills while
building self-efficacy and confidence.

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Appendix A
Invitation to Participate – Interview with Athletics Department Program administrators
Dear Participant,
My name is Janiece Richard and I am a doctoral candidate in the Ed.D. program at the
University of Southern California in Los Angeles, California. I am conducting a research study
for my dissertation about the impact of collegiate sports on social change behavior of current
female student-athletes as well as the leadership development of current female student-athletes.
I am reaching out as I am aware that you’re the person responsible for managing the personal,
leadership, and career development activities and opportunities for student-athletes. Specifically,
my study will work with you, as a potential participant, on how the athletics department handles
personal, leadership, and career development through programs offered by the Student-Athlete
Academic Services department. Completion of this study will fulfill part of my requirements for
an Ed.D. in Educational Leadership with a concentration in Higher Education Administration.

Eligibility criteria for participation in this study include:
1. Employed as fulltime employees at the University for a minimum of one year
2. Currently working with third-, fourth- or fifth-year female student-athletes; and
3. Be willing and able to participate in this study

Should you meet the criteria above and choose to participate, I will conduct an in-person
interview with you regarding your experiences in addressing social change behavior and
leadership development with college student-athletes. Participation will take approximately one
hour. This study has been approved by the University of Southern California Office of Research
(IRB # ) and there are minimal to no risks for participation. All interviews will be recorded and
transcribed for accuracy, but will be kept confidential and secure. Your name will not be
attached to any data and any identifying information revealed in the interview will be deleted or
concealed before data analysis. Participation in this study is voluntary and you may withdraw at
any time or decline to answer any questions I may ask.

Currently, research examining collegiate athletic participation and leadership
development is scarce and often conflicting; and understanding development in the context of
gender or the NCAA Division I setting is even more sparse, so your participation will help
further the literature.

Thank you for your time and consideration in both assisting me with my professional
endeavors and providing the counseling field with this useful information. If you are willing to
participate or have additional questions, please contact me via email at janiecer@usc.edu.
Additionally, my dissertation chairs, Dr. Margo Pensavalle and Dr. Angela Hasan, can be
reached at pensaval@usc.edu and hasana@rossier.usc.edu, respectively.

Warm regards,
Janiece Richard
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Doctoral Candidate
University of Southern California

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Appendix B
Interview Protocol – Athletics Department Program administrators
Date:
Thank you for participating in this research study. Leadership development is an important
outcome for many NCAA student-athletes. The purpose of this study is to determine the impact
of collegiate sports on social change behavior of current female student-athletes as well as the
leadership development of current female student-athletes. During this one hour interview,
please consider your role as an Athletics Department Employee who is responsible for student-
athletes’ personal, leadership, and career development.
To protect your identity, I will not use any information that would give away who you are,
such as your name, specific department or job title. Although I plan on using the information
from our interview as direct quotes in my report, I will not identify you in any way. I would be
happy to share my final report with you if you’d like.
Do you have any questions before we get started?
I would like to record our interview to help me accurately capture what you share with me
today. This information will not be shared with anyone other than the research team. Do I have
your permission to use a recorder?
You may choose to end your participation in this study any time and you are free to choose
whether or not to answer any questions.
Let’s start with some background questions:

1. How long have you worked at this university?
a. How long have you worked in student-athlete academic services?

2. What are your responsibilities in your current role?
3. What sports teams do you work with?
Ok, now we’ll jump into the questions:
4. Why was your role created within the student-athlete academic services department?

5. What is the department’s philosophy regarding student-athletes’ involvement in social
justice issues?

6. Does the department support student-athletes to be social change agents?
a. Is this important to the departmental ethos? Please describe.

7. In your opinion, what role has the athletics department played in developing leadership
among its student-athletes?
a. How has this changed over time?
b. Why did this change?
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c. Are there future plans for departmental programming for student-athlete
leadership development?

8. In what ways has the department supported student-athletes to develop or increase their
leadership development?
a. How are student-athletes notified of these opportunities?
b. Are any of these opportunities mandatory?
c. Are there desired outcomes of participation in these opportunities?

9. How has the department encouraged student-athletes to be involved in making a
difference in their community? Please provide examples.

10. Do you keep statistics regarding participation in leadership development opportunities
and community service opportunities?
a. If so, would you be willing to share that with me?

Ok, thank you so much. Is there anything else you’d like to add to our conversation about
student-athletes, social change behavior and leadership development we may not have covered?
Thank you so much for your participation in this study. Thank you for making time to
visit with me, and for sharing your experiences with me. I sincerely appreciate it. If I do have a
follow up question or two, is it ok for me to call you with these questions?
Great! Thank you so much!!
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Appendix C

Invitation to Participate – Interview with Student-Athletes

Dear Participant,

My name is Janiece Richard and I am a doctoral candidate in the Ed.D. program at the
University of Southern California in Los Angeles, California. I am conducting a research study
for my dissertation about the impact of collegiate sports on social change behavior of current
female student-athletes as well as the leadership development of current female student-athletes.
The study will include interviews with eight current female students-athletes from your team,
and will be approximately one hour each in length and at a location most convenient for each
participant. The reason I am reaching out to you is you were identified as a potential participant
by being a current female student-athlete on your respective sports team, and being a second-,
third-, fourth-, or fifth-year student athlete

Eligibility criteria for participation in this study include:

(1) Are over the age of 18;
(2) Be a third-, fourth- or fifth-year student-athlete;
(3) Be willing and able to participate in this study.

The information obtained from you will remain confidential, and in the final report of the
research study, there will be no identifiers that will link your name to the data. Subjects do not
receive any economic or other incentives for participation in this study. There are no specific
benefits that the individual participants will receive. By studying the culture of collegiate sports’
impact on social change behavior and the influence on participating in collegiate sports, a better
understanding can be gained of how your leadership skills develop. With this information, it will
help clarify what impacts your leadership development, as well as the specifics of the culture of
sports that impact your social change behavior.
If you would be willing to participate in this study, please email me back with the best
way to contact you moving forward. Thank you for your time, and I look forward to working
with you.

Warm regards,
Janiece Richard
Doctoral Candidate
University of Southern California

STUDENT-ATHLETES AND LEADERSHIP

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Appendix D

Interview Protocol – Student-Athletes

Thank you for participating in this interview. The purpose of this study is to determine how
the culture of collegiate sports impacts social change behavior as well as how participation in
collegiate athletics impacts leadership development. During this one hour interview, please
consider your role as a current female student-athlete.
To protect your identity, I will not use any information that would give away who you are,
such as your name. Although I plan on using the information from this interview as direct quotes
in my report, I will not identify you in any way. I would be happy to share my final report with
you if you’d like.
Do you have any questions before we get started?
I would like to record our interview to help me accurately capture what you share with me
today. This information will not be shared with anyone other than the research team. Do I have
your permission to use a recorder?
You may choose to end your participation in this study any time and you are free to choose
whether or not to answer any questions.
To begin, can you state your name, sport and year in school?
Ok, now we’ll begin with the questions:
1. What does leadership mean to you?

2. Has participating in collegiate athletics impacted your leadership development in any
way? Please provide examples.
a. Has the department had an influence on encouraging or supporting your
leadership development? Please provide examples.
b. How familiar are you with the leadership development opportunities within the
athletics department? (Have you participated in any of them?)
c. Are there any opportunities the athletics department or university could provide to
better assist you in your leadership development?

3. In what ways, if any, do you feel you have social influence?
a. With this social influence, do you feel you have a duty to engage in social justice
issues?
b. Why or why not?
c. In your opinion, do you feel that the athletics department’s culture supports
student-athletes’ involvement in social justice issues?
d. Has your coach, athletics department staff or teammates influenced your desire to
be involved in social justice issues?
e. Have you influences teammates to be involved in social justice issues?
f. In what ways do you give back to your community? Why do you do that?

4. Has the diversity of your teammates impacted you in any way? This includes sexuality,
culture, race, socio-economic status, etc.
a. Do you have conversations about these differences?
STUDENT-ATHLETES AND LEADERSHIP

169

5. Has gender impacted your leadership development? Please provide examples.
a. In your opinion, does participating in college sports have an influence on your
development as a female leader? How?

6. Have your relationships with teammates had any influence on your leadership
development? Please describe and give examples.

7. Has anyone in the athletics department had an influence on your leadership development?
Please describe and provide examples.

8. Do you consider yourself a leader? Why or why not?

9. Do you think your participation in collegiate athletics will contribute to your career
success? Please give me examples.

10. Are there any challenging experiences you’ve faced in sports?
a. How did these experiences influence your leadership development?

11. Have your experiences as a student-athlete changed you as a person? Please describe and
provide examples.

Ok, thank you so much. Is there anything else any of you would like to add to our
conversation about student-athletes, social change behavior and leadership development we may
not have covered?
Thank you so much for your participation in this study. Thank you for making time to
visit with me, and for sharing your experiences with me. I sincerely appreciate it. If I do have a
follow up question or two, is it ok for me to call or email you with these questions? Thank you so
much!

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170

Appendix E

Consent to Participate in Research

You are being asked to participate in a research study conducted by Janiece Richard. I am
a student completing the Ed.D. in Educational Leadership at the University of Southern
California. The results of this study will contribute to my dissertation. You were selected as a
possible participant in this study because you were identified as a current female student-athlete
who is a second-, third-, fourth-, or fifth-year on your respective team or responsible for student-
athletes development.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative study is to explore sport experiences that may influence
leadership development and social change behavior. Findings will be examined for the
influences of collegiate sport participation contributing to leadership development of current
female student-athletes and the culture of collegiate sports contribution to engagement in social
change behavior.

Procedures
If you agree to participate in the study, you will be asked to participate in an interview that will
be conducted in person. A recording device will be used to capture the full duration of the
interview. You may be asked to answer follow up questions by telephone for clarification or
expansion on information shared during the initial interview (only if needed).

Potential Risks and Discomforts
There are no direct benefits to participation in this study. Indirectly this study has the potential to
enhance future social change behavior and leadership development opportunities offered to
athletes in the collegiate setting.
Risks and discomforts resulting from participation in this study are expected to be minimal. It is
possible that information could be compromised. Generic position titles will be used in the study
report. All attempts will be made to keep participants’ identities anonymous. Further, no names
will be included in the final study. It is possible that participants might feel uncomfortable
answering questions.

Potential Benefits to Participants and/or Society
All participants will be given a summary of research findings (on request). Although no direct
benefits are available to the participants, findings may be beneficial to participants for enhancing
social change behavior, as well as sport leadership through a greater understanding of leadership
development for female collegiate student-athletes.

Payment for Participation
Participants will not receive any form of payment for participation in the study.

Confidentiality
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study that can be identified with
participants will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with their permission or
STUDENT-ATHLETES AND LEADERSHIP

171

as required by law. The names of participants will not be used in this study.
All data will be stored in a secure location during the research process. All identifiable
electronically stored information and audio recordings will be erased when the final
version of the dissertation is completed. Finally, all results will be analyzed as a whole
rather than per participant.

Participation and Withdrawal
As mentioned, your participation in this study is completely voluntary. At any time you
may choose not to answer a question or to withdraw from this study without penalty.

Identification of Investigators
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Janiece
Richard: Principal Investigator at janiecer@usc.edu or 816-682-8664, or my dissertation chairs:
Dr. Margo Pensavalle at pensaval@usc.edu and Dr. Angela Hasan at hasana@rossier.usc.edu.

Rights of Research Participants
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. You
are not waiving any legal claims, rights, or remedies because of your participation in this
research study. If you have questions regarding your rights as a research participant, contact
Kristin J. Craun, IRB Senior Director at, 323-223-2340, (irb@usc.edu). University of Southern
California, Institutional Review Board, 1640 Marengo Street, Suite 700, Los Angeles, CA
90033.

Signature of Research Participant
I understand the procedures described above. My questions have been answered to my
satisfaction, and I agree to participate in this study. I have been given a copy of this
form.

________________________________________
Printed Name of Participant

________________________________________ ______________
Signature of Participant Date

SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR (If required by the IRB)
In my judgment the participant is voluntarily and knowingly giving informed consent and
possesses the legal capacity to give informed consent to participate in this research study.

________________________________________ ______________
Signature of Investigator

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Richard, Janiece (author)

Core Title Student-athletes and leadership: a case study of the impact of collegiate athletics on social change behavior and leadership development

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 11/20/2019

Defense Date 08/29/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag coach as a mentor,co-curricular activity,college athlete,collegiate athletics,diversity within athletics,ecological approach,female leaders,hierarchy of teammates,Higher education,higher education and athletics,leadership,leadership development,leadership for social change,leadership qualities,National Collegiate Athletic Association,NCAA,OAI-PMH Harvest,SAAC,social change behavior,social influence,Sports,student-athletes,Women,women and leadership

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Hasan, Angela (committee chair), Pensavalle, Margo (committee chair), Creasia, Cathy (committee member)

Creator Email janiecer@usc.edu,janiecerichard@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-238621

Unique identifier UC11675382

Identifier etd-RichardJan-7944.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-238621 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-RichardJan-7944.pdf

Dmrecord 238621

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Richard, Janiece

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA