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Overcoming the career technical education silo: an evaluation case study
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Overcoming the career technical education silo: an evaluation case study
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Content
Running head: OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 1
Overcoming the Career Technical Education Silo: An Evaluation Case Study
By
Sue S. Key
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2018
Copyright 2018 Sue S. Key
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 2
DEDICATION
To my mom, who came to this country and unexpectedly became a widow and single
mom of two young girls. Thank you for sharing your cultural heritage, language, strength,
independence, and sense of adventure that shaped me to be the person I am today.
To my daughters, Chloe and Key, every time I look at you, you fill me with joy knowing
you have grown into unique individuals with many talents. Know that you can make a difference
in this world. Own your voice, find your path, and become leaders in any career you choose. You
inspire me on a daily basis to make a difference in education!
To my husband, Oscar, your steadfast love and support keep me strong. Thank you for
supporting me through all of my educational and career endeavors. I am truly blessed to share
our life journey together.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the support of
many through my three-year journey of learning, research, self-discovery, and growth in
professional practice.
I would like to thank two admirable innovators in higher-education STEM education, my
dissertation committee chairs – To Dr. Anthony Maddox, your otherworldly thoughts on
creativity and design thinking, and futuristic thinking is inspiring! To Dr. William Bewley, I am
thankful for your depth of knowledge on educational psychology and your honest, critical
feedback.
To Dr. Artineh Samkian, your brilliance, patience, and ongoing encouragement are
valuable assets to USC Rossier’s Organizational Leadership and Change Program. I can’t thank
you enough!
To my CTE colleagues near and far, especially those leading and participating in the
California Department of Education Career Technical Education Leadership Development
Institute, keep up the excellent work building high-quality CTE programs that prepare high
school students for college and career.
To Dr. Chang, thank you for your ongoing mentorship throughout my leadership journey.
You are a true Multiplier.
And lastly, thank you to my colleagues in OCL Cohort 5. I am thankful for pushing
through each phase of our journey with you and your priceless sense of humor. Fight-On!
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 4
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Two school site and classroom level performance elements 13
Table 2. Organizational mission, global goals, and stakeholder goals 19
Table 3. Summary Table of Assumed K-M-O Influences on Performance 48
Table 4. Participant Pseudonym and Number of Years Teaching CTE 64
Table 5. Assumed KMO Influences and Related Theme(s) in Data 65
FIGURE
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework – Knowledge, Motivation, and Organization 53
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables and Figures 4
Abstract 7
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 8
Introduction to the Problem of Practice 8
Organizational Context and Mission 9
Organizational Goals 11
Related Literature 13
Barriers to Program Improvement 13
Characteristics and Benefits of High-quality CTE Programs 15
Improving Programs 16
Importance of the Evaluation 17
Description of the Stakeholder Groups 18
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals 19
Stakeholder Group for the Study 20
Purpose of the Project and Questions 21
Methodological Approach and Rationale 21
Definitions 22
Organization of the Project 23
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 25
A Brief History of CTE 25
An Ideal CTE Program: Classroom Level Expectations 27
CTE Teacher Qualifications 28
CTE Teacher Preparation 29
Ongoing Professional Development 31
Role of Stakeholder Group of Focus 32
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences
Framework 33
Knowledge and Skills 34
Motivation 40
Organization 44
Conclusion 49
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and
Motivation and the Organizational Context 50
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS 54
Participating Stakeholders 54
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 55
Data Collection and Instrumentation 56
Interviews 57
CTE-Related Documents 58
Data Analysis 58
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 6
Credibility and Trustworthiness 59
Ethics 61
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS 64
Findings for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 65
Procedural Knowledge 66
Motivational Influences: Utility-Value 74
Organizational Setting Influence 1: Professional Development 83
Organizational Setting Influence 2: Performance Monitoring and Accountability 86
Synthesis 90
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION 94
Findings and Implications for Practice 94
Recommendations for Practice 98
Procedural Knowledge 100
Motivation Utility-Value 100
Organization Cultural Setting 101
Future Research 103
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Gap Analysis Approach 104
Limitations and Delimitations 104
Conclusion 106
References 109
Appendices
Appendix A: CDE CTE “11 Elements of a High-Quality CTE Program” 121
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 128
Appendix C: Document Record 131
Appendix D: USC Information Sheet for Research 132
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 7
ABSTRACT
“CTE programs are dynamic; curricula needs to stay current with rapid changes in the
workplace, requiring ongoing updates and learning on the part of CTE faculty.”
California State Plan for Career Technical Education, A BRIDGE TO THE FUTURE 2008–
2012.
When Career Technical Education (CTE) programs align to industry relevant standards
and incorporate current technical skills and experiences, they prepared students for a successful
transition to post-secondary college and career opportunities (Imperatore and Hyslop, 2015). The
purpose of this study was to use a gap analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) to evaluate
knowledge, motivation and organizational (KMO) influences to discover what supports or
prevents CTE pathway teachers to make necessary and ongoing changes to their CTE programs,
programs intended to introduce high school students to high-demand career and skills and better
prepare students for college and careers. Following a review of the literature, assumed KMO
influences were examined and designed into a comprehensive qualitative research study.
Through the analysis of qualitative interview data, emergent themes were identified, and KMO
influences were validated. Findings and recommendations were presented in Chapter Five for
organizations looking to increase CTE teacher knowledge and motivation and to maximize
organizational influences to improve CTE program quality and high school college and career
outcomes.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 8
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction of the Problem of Practice
According to the California Department of Education (CDE) (2008), “CTE programs are
dynamic; curricula need to stay current with rapid changes in the workplace, requiring ongoing
updates and learning on the part of CTE faculty.” When Career Technical Education (CTE)
programs are continually evaluated and aligned with industry standards and incorporate current
technological skills and experiences, they prepare students for a successful transition to
postsecondary college and career opportunities (Imperatore and Hyslop, 2015). High-quality
CTE programs increase student engagement through rigorous, academically integrated project-
based learning, technologically advanced equipment, and applications, by maintaining ongoing
collaboration with industry partners to connect learning to workforce expectations (Holzer, Lin
& Monthey, 2013). According to Dougherty (2016), participation in CTE classes increases high
school graduation rates by 3.2 percent and increases post-high school employment by 1.5 percent
and wages by 3 percent. Two-year college enrollment rates double when high school CTE
classes count as a postsecondary dual enrollment course credit. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
found of all high school graduates in 2012, those who did not pursue post-secondary education
after graduation only 45 percent were working and only 30 percent of high school dropouts aged
16-19 were employed. Although some CTE programs have evolved into comprehensive career
pathway programs that serve both college and career-bound students through a comprehensive
sequence of academically rigorous curriculum and high-demand technological skills, high-
quality CTE programs are not accessible to every student. Stand-alone vocational education
courses are still being offered in high school across the United States that lack academic rigor or
labor market relevance (Brand, 2008). For programs to be considered high-quality career
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 9
pathway programs, CTE teachers must continually evaluate and align curricula to both
postsecondary and industry expectations, incorporating current and relevant technical skills and
knowledge or risk losing student interest and the opportunity to prepare students for a successful
transition into post-secondary academic and technical education (Brand, 2008; Plank, DeLuca &
Estacion, 2005).
Organizational Context and Mission
Career Technical Education (CTE) Programs offered by Diverse Traditional School
District (DTSD) (pseudonym) provide secondary students with the opportunity to develop
technical skills and to explore potential careers through project-based learning experiences and
educational programs that specialize in modern technological skills, applied sciences, and
college and career preparation. DTSD's CTE Local Plan and vision statement share how student
participation in high-quality CTE pathway programs prepares students with industry skills for
high-tech and high-wage college and career opportunities. Opened in 1947, DTSD has 19
elementary schools, eight middle schools, four high schools, one continuation high school, one
alternative high school, and two adult school campuses. Statistical data by Education Data
Partnership (2016) showed approximately 20,000 students enrolled in DTSD preschool to Adult
programs and an Ethnic Diversity of 60. Developed and tracked by the Education Data
Partnership, the Ethnic Diversity Index measures district diversity among their student ethnic
groups and population; the highest index in California is 76 out of a scale of 100 (Education Data
Partnership, 2016).
At the four traditional secondary schools, DTSD offers eight CTE pathway programs
with courses in the following industry sectors: Arts, Media, and Entertainment Industry; Building
and Construction; Business and Finance; Fashion and Merchandising; Information and
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 10
Communication Technology; Education, Child Development and Family Services; Engineering
and Architecture; Fashion and Interior Design; Health Science and Medical Technology; and
Hospitality, Tourism, and Recreation. CTE courses were initially offered in DTSD, as early as
1947, as singleton courses that provide vocational training focused on the practical applications
of skills and were less concerned with theory or traditional academic skills to support student
transition to the workforce after high school. DTSD CTE courses have evolved over the last
century to meet local industry demand for highly skilled and technical workforce, due in part to
The California Department of Education’s increasing efforts to produce college and career ready
high school graduates. The California Department of Education expectations include multi-year
CTE course sequences that integrate core academic knowledge; industry aligned technical
training, and real-world experiential opportunities for students (California Department of
Education, 2013). Course offerings vary per school site and depend on staffing credentials and
student interest. Students enroll in CTE programs through teacher advice and counseling or by
choice.
Teachers authorized to provide CTE instruction hold either a Single Subject Credential in
Business, Home Economics, Industrial Arts or Industrial and Technical Education or a
Designated Subjects Career Technical Education Teaching Credential in one of the 16 industry
sectors. Single Subject CTE credentials are earned through the completion of a California
Commission on Teacher Credentialing (CCTC) approved university teacher preparation program
and with a passing score on a subject-matter competency examination. In contrast, the
Designated Subjects CTE Teaching Credential requires “three years of work experience directly
related to each industry sector to be named on the credential” (California Commission on
Teacher Credentialing, 2016). The Designated Subjects CTE credential was approved in 2008 by
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 11
the CCTC “with the goal to produce more teachers who are able to prepare students for careers
or advanced study” in one of the 16 industry sectors (Commission on Teacher Credentialing,
2016). DTSD teachers who hold Designated Subjects CTE credentials earned the CTE credential
after receiving a single subject credential in math, science, or health science. Of the DTSD high
school teachers providing CTE instruction, eight hold Designated Subjects CTE Credentials and
eight hold Single Subject CTE Teaching Credentials. Both Designated Subjects CTE
Credentialed teachers and Single Subject CTE Credentialed teachers are expected to provide
instruction aligned to the CTE Model Curriculum Standards and Frameworks, adopted in 2005
by the (California Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2017).
Organizational Goals
DTSD’s goal is that by June 2018, 100% of DTSD’s CTE pathway programs will provide
high-quality curriculum and instruction aligned to industry standards and post-secondary college
and career education expectations, incorporate student leadership development activities, and
provide students with the opportunity to earn industry skills certifications or dual enrollment
post-secondary college credit. High-quality CTE curricula are aligned to California Department
of Education Career Technical Education Model Curriculum Standards and Frameworks,
incorporating interdisciplinary, academically rigorous curricula with industry standards that build
technical, technological, and professional skills. The Career Technical Education Standards,
adopted by the California State Board of Education in 2013 and designed to prepare students to
be college and career ready, incorporate the Common Core State Standards, Next Generation
Science Standards, and History/Social Science Standards (California Department of Education,
2017). These programs provide students with the opportunity to explore college and career
pathways through participation in career technical student organizations and activities, work-
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 12
based learning, and internships while earning post-secondary college articulation credits or
industry skills certifications. These organizational goals align to two of the eleven elements from
the California Department of Education’s “11 Elements of High-Quality CTE Pathway Program”
self-review tool. The State Board of Education released the self-review tool to measure and
improve CTE pathway program quality (California Department of Education, 2015). The 11
elements are the result of Superintendent of Public Instruction Tom Torlakson’s California
Career Readiness Initiative that includes key objectives to support, sustain, and strengthen CTE
programs.
The self-review tool, included in Appendix A of this document, describes and evaluates
components that comprise effective, high-quality CTE programs including leadership and
systems support; high quality curriculum and instruction; career exploration and guidance;
student support and student leadership development; industry partnerships; system alignment and
coherence; effective organizational design; system responsiveness to changing economic
demands; skilled faculty and professional development; evaluation, accountability, and
continuous improvement; and CTE promotion, outreach, marketing, and communication. All
eleven elements are essential components that school districts, CTE teachers, and industry sector
partners have the capacity to use to transform student experiences and positively influence post-
secondary college and career pathway choices and outcomes. The two elements in Table 1 below
reflect school site and classroom level performance goals for program improvement based on the
influence and connection to CTE programs. Nine elements are not included in the table below as
they reflect the role of non-teaching faculty, stakeholders who are not being examined in this
case study.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 13
Table 1
Two school site and classroom level performance elements that influence organizational goals
for CTE pathway program improvement.
Element 2 - High-Quality Curriculum and Instruction
CTE Model Curriculum Standards and Frameworks are the basis for course content and
address "pathway" standards within the pathway(s) and course sequence, that students
experience all aspects of industry, instruction incorporates technology, there is collaboration
between academic and CTE teachers, and that courses offer industry certification, have been
submitted to meet high school graduation requirements, University of California a-g (UC a-g)
credit, or articulate with a community college.
Element 9 - Skilled Faculty and Professional Development
Highly qualified CTE teachers have industry experience, maintain pathway currency with the
minimum of four professional development activities annually, and hold teaching credentials
and certifications.
Note. These two elements are from the “11 Elements of High-Quality CTE Pathway Program” (California
Department of Education, 2015). A copy of the self-review tool is included in Appendix A.
Related Literature
Federal and state legislators have enacted numerous legislative acts over the years to
increase the quality of Career Technical Education pathway programs to support high school
student college and career outcomes. Three prevalent themes emerged from the literature
reviewed in regards to high-quality CTE pathway programs in secondary education. These topics
include barriers to program improvement, characteristics and benefits of high-quality CTE
programs, and strategies to improve existing programs. Examination of these themes can provide
insight for further research on how to improve CTE pathway programs.
Barriers to Program Improvement
Research studies have found barriers that create inequity and prevent CTE program
improvement thus limiting student opportunities to experience high-quality, industry-relevant
instruction. According to Brand (2008), one barrier is that many CTE teachers come into the
teaching profession from colleges of education that do not offer technical education teacher
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 14
preparation programs, programs that lack knowledge of CTE, industry sector career clusters, and
program requirements for applied technology and performance-based assessment environments.
Discrepancies in program quality are compounded once a teacher is placed in a teaching
assignment due to lack of teacher motivation and knowledge on the importance of academic
teacher collaboration to build rigorous, interdisciplinary lessons; alignment of lessons to industry
standards and the incorporation of pathway relevant skills; as well as how career exploration in
instruction increases student interest to pursue a career (Brand, Valent & Browning, 2013).
Another barrier includes the negative perception of CTE programs, as programs were historically
used to “work” track academically challenged low-income, and special needs students, to prepare
them for job-ready technical skills. This stigmatization limits student participation in CTE
pathway programs for fear of tracking and limiting the chances of higher education and career
success (Holzer, Linn & Monthey, 2013; Hu & Bowman, 2016). Because most high school
counselors are focused on making sure students are college ready, many limit student and parent
guidance of CTE course offerings as not all career pathway courses meet post-secondary college
entrance requirements (Brand, 2008). Although newer CTE programs integrate core subjects
such as Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics, educational reform typically
focuses on post-secondary education attainment, leaving CTE programs with limited resources to
sustain and improve curriculum and resources to industry standards (Asunda, 2014; Holzer, Linn
& Monthey, 2013). A research report by Independent Advisory Panel of the National
Assessment of Career and Technical Education (2014), found challenges that persist in CTE
programs including the lack of inclusion of CTE in educational reform, gaps in curriculum
needed to support student preparation for college and careers, and the need for closer
examination of student and labor market data to ensure program effectiveness. The barriers to
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 15
CTE program improvement limit access to quality instruction and career exploration that
prepares students for college and career development. Given these barriers, a review of the
characteristics of high-quality CTE programs can provide substantial direction for program
improvement.
Characteristics and Benefits of High-quality CTE Programs
Research suggests that CTE programs identified as high-quality have the characteristics
of providing rigorous, project-based learning experiences that incorporate college and career
readiness and industry-relevant technical skills that promote student success in postsecondary
education and career. High-quality programs demonstrate improved academic rigor through the
incorporation of interdisciplinary academic subjects and industry-relevant curriculum that
promote and prepare all students for college and career opportunities in high-wage, high skill,
and high-demand fields (Imperatore and Hyslop, 2015). According to the Buck Institute for
Education (n.d.), project-based instruction not only incorporates academic skills development,
but interpersonal skills including collaboration, communication, and critical thinking develop
while students produce original products. CTE pathway programs with high student engagement
and positive outcomes have a supportive school culture, and project-based learning environments
that include the integration of real-world application and career counseling (Castellano, Sundell,
Overman & Aliaga, 2012). Effective CTE programs motivate and engage students through work-
based learning experiences, participation in student career pathway organizations, mentorship,
and college course credit opportunities or industry endorsed certifications (Brand, Valent &
Browning, 2013).
Research shows that students participating in high-quality CTE programs show interest in
academics, earning higher grade point averages and have an awareness of social mobility and the
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 16
viable alternative ways to obtain life goals; resulting in a more successful transition to career and
college (Castellano, et al., 2012; Destin & Kosko, 2016). Achieve (2014), defined a college and
career ready high school student as someone who possesses the academic and technical
proficiency to succeed in postsecondary education or career. Examination of research studies
found that high-quality CTE programs advance student understanding and application of science
and mathematics through project-based learning experiences that build the technical skills
necessary to be competitive in the industry-related workforce (Brand, 2008). Furthermore,
effective CTE programs improve student retention rates through active engagement in learning,
promotion of career interest, and by adding relevance to academic courses (Brand, 2008; Plank,
DeLuca & Estacion, 2005). Research on the characteristics and benefits of effective models of
CTE programs can provide insight on how to strengthen programs. Examining effective
programs models can support the identification of program improvement strategies.
Improving Programs
Secondary education career pathways program improvement requires organizational
support and advocacy, including providing opportunities for ongoing CTE teacher professional
development to increase their knowledge on how to evaluate and align instruction and skills to
postsecondary and workforce expectations (Sass, et al., 2011). District and school leaders need to
advocate for programs and communicate the need for change, provide a comprehensive plan and
resources; mobilize and support stakeholders; and evaluate programs to monitor the effectiveness
of strategies to promote postsecondary outcomes (Fernandez & Rainey, 2006; Hu & Bowman,
2016). According to Brand (2008), professional development can provide teachers with the
support needed to create rigorous academic content, building teachers’ awareness of career
pathway curriculum and instruction. Organizational leaders must also foster collaboration and a
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 17
professional learning community as CTE state and federal funding research studies found that
standards-based curriculum provides rigorous cross-curricular instruction (Balfanz et al., 2014).
CTE teachers need the knowledge and the motivation to participate in industry-related
professional development and externships. High-quality CTE programs significantly improve
student retention rates and awareness of college and career options. Examining barriers and
characteristics of high-quality career pathway programs, along with strategies to improve
programs can provide a framework for further research on how CTE contributes to college
attainment and postsecondary career success. To address the inequitable access to high-quality
career pathway programs at the organization, district and school site administrators need to
advocate for programs, and teachers need instructional support and increased awareness of how
career pathway programs aligned curricula to the California CTE Model Curriculum Standards
and Framework and rigorous interdisciplinary curriculum enhances student learning (California
Department of Education, 2015; Hu & Bowman, 2016; Lee, Walker & Ling Chui, 2012).
Organizational stakeholders also need to continually evaluate the quality of their CTE
programming utilizing a research-based program evaluation tool, such as The California
Department of Education’s “11 Elements of High-Quality Pathway Program” self-review tool, to
guide program improvement. Career pathway programs improve student transition into post-
secondary college and career pathways when organizations support CTE teachers with the
instructional support and resources they need to improve and sustain high-quality programs.
Importance of the Evaluation
It is important to evaluate DTSD’s ability to reach the organizational performance goal of
100% of DTSD’s CTE pathway programs meeting federal and state requirements for high-
quality curriculum and instruction aligned to industry standards and post-secondary education
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 18
expectations. If the organization is not compliant with the California Department of Education’s
career technical education programs requirements and makes continuous program improvements,
it risks losing funding. Funding ensures DTSD can sustain programs that provide students with
comprehensive college and career pathway options and experiences. Although some DTSD CTE
programs demonstrate characteristics of effective programs summarized above, not all programs
have updated curriculum and included experiences to reflect 21st-century industry standards for
a technical, skilled workforce. Delays in the modernization of all programs negate the
opportunity for high school students to link classroom instructional experiences to college and
career paths during a critical period when they are exploring self-identities and potential career
paths. Evaluating the organization’s performance will enable stakeholders to gather formative
data that can be used to assess the organization’s career pathway programming decisions that
positively impact students’ college and career learning outcomes.
Description of Stakeholder Groups
Although DTSD’s CTE stakeholder groups include teachers, site and district
administration, industry partners, and post-secondary institutions, each integral to students’
college and career learning outcomes, CTE teachers are the key stakeholder group who are
expected to design and facilitate the student learning environment, align instruction to the CTE
Model Curriculum Standards and Frameworks, and connect curriculum and technical skills to
industry expectations. Furthermore, CTE teachers are expected to make sure instruction includes
rigorous, interdisciplinary and academic curriculum aligned to post-secondary college
expectations to support students who chose to pursue an academic degree path. As such, the
stakeholder focus of this study is CTE teachers in DTSD.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 19
Stakeholder Groups’ Performance Goals
DTSD's CTE Pathway Program organizational mission statement communicates the
district's expectations for all CTE pathway programs, along with the desired outcome for
participating students. The organizational performance goals identify areas for program
improvement along with a benchmark for program assessment of progress towards goals, while
individual stakeholder goals provide concrete and actionable goals unique to stakeholder level of
influence. Table 2 below provides further details on the organizational mission, global goals, and
stakeholder goals.
Table 2
Organizational mission, global goals, and stakeholder goals
Organizational Mission
The mission of DTSD’s Career Pathway Programs is to provide all students industry-
aligned, technological skills-based learning experiences.
Organizational Performance Goal
By June 2018, 100% of DTSD’s CTE pathway programs will provide high-quality
curriculum and instruction aligned to industry standards and post-secondary college and
career education expectations, incorporate student leadership development activities,
and provide students with the opportunity to earn industry skills certifications or dual
enrollment college credit.
CTE
Teachers
Industry Partners
(Various)
Post-Secondary
Institutions
DTSD District
Administrators
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 20
By June 2018, 100%
of DTSD’s teachers
will have aligned
curriculum and
instruction to the
CTE Model
Curriculum
Standards and
Frameworks and
post secondary
college and career
expectations.
By June 2018, 100%
of pathway programs
will have industry
partners and teacher
collaboration on the
alignment of
curriculum and skills
to industry standards.
Partners will be
supporting the
integration of real-
world experiences
By June 2018,
100% of CTE
pathways
concentrator and
capstone courses
will articulate to
the local
community
college.
By June 2018,
DTSD
Administrators
will have
assessed district
progress towards
CDE indicators
for high-quality
programs and
identified areas
for improvement
and provided
support for
program
alignment.
Stakeholder Group for the Study
Despite the importance of collaborative efforts of all stakeholders to achieve the DTSD
organizational goal of 100% alignment with the California Department of Education indicators
for high-quality Career Technical Education programs, it is important to evaluate where DTSD
CTE teachers are concerning performance goals. Therefore, the stakeholders I focused on in this
dissertation were DTSD CTE teachers. The stakeholder goal is that by June 2018, 100% of
DTSD’s teachers will have aligned curriculum and instruction to CTE Model Curriculum
Standards and Frameworks and post secondary college and career expectations. To effectively
design high-quality CTE curriculum and instruction, teachers must evaluate their course content
and determine whether career pathway knowledge and skills transfer to post-secondary college
and career expectations. Also, teachers must continually analyze student mastery of career
pathway knowledge and skills. High-quality CTE curriculum aligned with industry expectations
is rigorous and interdisciplinary, provides students with real-world experiences, such as guest
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 21
speakers, field trips, and mentorship opportunities. Failure to accomplish or make progress
towards organizational performance goals negatively affects DTSD's ability to provide students
with CTE pathways programs that incorporate industry-relevant technical skills and standards-
aligned curriculum. Furthermore, DTSD’s failure to provide high-quality career pathway
program will result in the potential loss of supplemental funding by the California Department of
Education and the eventual reduction of career pathway program offerings.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this case study was to discover the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that facilitated or impeded DTSD CTE teachers achieving high-quality
curriculum and instruction aligned to industry standards and post-secondary college and career
education expectations. This study sought to inquire into why career technical education courses
and program content and instructional qualities vary and discover how features of the
environment interact with features of the program, and how features of the program influence
CTE teachers in making necessary and ongoing program improvements.
Inquiry questions that guided this study include the following:
1. What knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors support and/or impede CTE
teachers to create and maintain high-quality CTE curriculum and instruction?
2. What are the recommendations for teacher practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Methodological Approach and Rationale
This study utilized a qualitative case study research approach to explore and generate
theory based on CTE teacher perceptions and challenges in regards to their role in implementing
ongoing course improvement and developing career pathway programs aligned to industry and
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 22
postsecondary expectations. According to Creswell (2014), qualitative research design based on
the social constructivist worldview seeks to discover how individuals derive meaning from
phenomena from within their environmental context. This qualitative research design draws
meaning from patterns that arise through the transcription of in-depth, face-to-face interviews
using open-ended questioning, during the review of teacher instructional artifacts, and the
interpretation of the transcript of detailed narratives (Creswell, 2014; Maxwell, 2013, McEwan
& McEwan, 2003). Due to a limited number of CTE teachers in DTSD and because CTE teacher
perceptions are complex and subjective towards objects or tasks, and formed over time by prior
experiences and interactions, a quantitative study was not selected as it would not have provided
the depth needed to reveal teacher insight. In addition to being a primary method to
understanding CTE teacher perceptions, the flexible design of qualitative research allowed for
the study to evolve from systematic data collection and was synthesized inductively (Creswell,
2014).
The examination and interpretation of issues such as CTE teacher knowledge of how to
create and maintain high-quality career pathway programs and existing attitudes and beliefs
through qualitative research provided data on factors that facilitate and barriers that prevent
program improvement and in turn an agenda for change.
Definitions
Career Technical Education (CTE): “provides students of all ages with the academic and
technical skills, knowledge and training necessary to succeed in future careers and to become
lifelong learners” (Advance CTE, 2017).
Career Pathway Programs: programs and services intended to develop students' core
academic, technical and employability skills; provide them with continuous education, training;
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 23
and place them in high-demand, high-opportunity jobs (Brand, Valent & Browning, 2013).
College and Career Readiness: the umbrella under which many education and workforce
policies, programs and initiatives thrive. From high-quality early education and strong,
foundational standards in elementary school to rigorous career and technical education programs
and college completion goals, and college and career readiness are the unifying agenda across
the P-20 education pipeline (Brand, Valent & Browning, 2013).
Project Based: a teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by
working for an extended period to investigate and respond to an authentic, engaging and
complex question, problem, or challenge (Buck Institute for Education, n.d.).
Standards-Aligned: “systems of instruction, assessment, grading, and academic reporting
are based on student demonstration, understanding, or mastery of the knowledge and skills they
are expected to learn as they progress through their education” (Education Reform, 2014).
Organization of the Project
Five chapters were used to organize this dissertation. Chapter One provides the reader
with the key concepts and terminology commonly found in a discussion about career pathway
program noncompliance. Also, the chapter discusses the organization’s mission, goals,
stakeholders, framework for the project and related literature. Chapter Two provides a review of
the current literature surrounding the scope of the study and the stakeholder group of study.
Topics include the history of CTE, the characteristics of high-quality CTE programs, the effects
of federal legislation, as well as the challenge of CTE teacher preparation and the importance of
ongoing professional development. Chapter Three details the knowledge, motivation and
organizational influences examined as well as the methods used including choice of participants,
data collection, and analysis. It presents how ethical considerations were addressed and how this
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 24
study maximized credibility and trustworthiness. In Chapter Four, the findings are presented.
Chapter Five provides solutions, based on data and literature, for addressing the problem of
practice through recommendations for practice and policy, as well as future research.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 25
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review examines topics explored in Chapter One and related in CTE
teacher ability to provide industry-sector relevant, high-skill, and high-quality career pathway
instruction. The literature review also provides a brief history of CTE, examines the
characteristics of high-quality CTE program, and includes influences on the problem of practice
such as CTE teacher qualifications and teacher preparation, and ongoing professional
development.
Research suggests a correlation between CTE teachers' preparation program and self-
efficacy in instructional practice (Brand, Valent & Browning, 2013). In this chapter, I explore the
development and maintenance of knowledge and motivation in CTE teachers and whether
teacher preparation and prior industry experience contribute to teacher value of pathway program
improvement goals. First, I use the background section of this chapter to introduce a) CTE
teachers as a specialized group of K-12 teachers and b) compare the differences between
traditional and CTE teacher education and preparation. Then, I introduce CTE teacher
knowledge of a) what comprises high-quality CTE curriculum and instruction, b) the process to
design high quality, rigorous, academic and industry-aligned pathway experiences, and c) teacher
reflection on the effectiveness of instruction and alignment to standards, post-secondary
education, and industry, as well as the incorporation of student career exploration opportunities.
Next, I turn my attention to CTE teacher motivation, specifically teacher value for an orientation
to pathway program improvement goals. Finally, organizational influences are discussed, and I
complete the chapter by presenting the conceptual framework.
A Brief History of CTE
Vocational Education of the 20
th
-century that prepared students for work after high
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 26
school has evolved over the last century to become 21
st
-century Career Technical Education
programs that prepare students for college and careers. Federal investment in vocational
education began in 1917 with the passage of the Smith Hughes Act, the direct result of
industrialization during World War I and II and the increase of the working class population in
the United States (Stern, 2016). Early federally subsidized programs prepared working class
children for a future in agriculture to promote a stable national economy; furthermore, vocational
education was not originally designed to prepare students for college (Imperatore & Hyslop,
2017). Vocational education programs expanded to meet national economic demands over time;
changes included a greater connection to community college education during the 1930s,
addressing wartime needs in the 1940s, vocational education programs reflecting emerging
workforce sectors in the 1950s, and the addition of regional occupational centers in the 1960s
(Wonacott, 2003). The 1984 Carl D. Perkins legislation focused on providing career technical
education to students with special needs and increasing gender equity, accountability,
academically rigorous curriculum, and career exploration opportunities. The Perkins Act brought
higher accountability to vocational education, promoting the integration of academic content,
career guidance and equitable access for all students including those with special needs
(Threeton, 2017). The evolution from vocational education to 21st Century Career Technical
Education was largely due to the passing of the Carl D. Perkins Act in 1984, which provided
federal funding for career pathway programs (Rojewski & Hill, 2017). Through Perkins,
vocational education of the early 20th century, which developed predictable job skills and stable
career outcomes, began to intentionally incorporate technological changes meeting workforce
and society needs, preparing youth through career navigation, work ethics, and innovation.
Perkins was reauthorized by the federal government as the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 27
Technical Act of 2006 (Perkins IV), providing an “increased focus on the academic achievement
of career and technical education students, strengthen the connections between secondary and
postsecondary education, and improve state and local accountability (United States Department
of Education, 2007). According to Plank, DeLuca & Estacion (2005), “...Vocational education
programs were designed to prepare students for work and help them enter the workforce shortly
after high school. During the past 10 to 15 years, efforts to enhance and modify vocational
education programs include student preparation for jobs and an increase in educational
attainment, both by raising students’ probability of completing high school and by increasing the
number of students entering and completing postsecondary programs” (p.1). Vocational
education has evolved to become CTE programs that prepare all students for life beyond high
school. Career Technical Education programs must continually adapt to technological workforce
trends and needs to prepare students for innovative careers yet developed.
An Ideal CTE Program: Classroom Level Expectations
Effective, high-quality Career Technical Education programs prepare students through
academically rigorous curriculum that build technical and professional skills for college and/or
career. High-quality CTE programs blend rigorous academic and technical work aligned to post-
secondary college and career expectations, preparing students for college in high demand, high
skill, and high-wage fields. These rigorous academic and technical work based programs prepare
students for college and do not solely track students into careers (Holzer, Linn & Monthey,
2013), providing students with the opportunity to consider career options through college and
career planning and exploratory activities such as work-based learning and internships. Student
achievement and motivation to learn increase when work competencies and skills develop in
technologically driven learning environments that reflect a pathway for continued education and
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 28
lifelong learning (Lynch, 2000). According to an article by Stone (2017), preparation of youth
for careers and education beyond high school requires the incorporation of academic,
employability and technical skills aligned to emerging labor markets. Programs that include
annual individual student learning plans build self-awareness in students and reflect student
interests, providing counselors and teachers the opportunity to customize learning experiences.
The instruction of high-quality CTE programs must include effective pedagogy, authentic
assessment, and career readiness (including academic, employability, and technical skills),
beginning “with a career focus coupled with the knowledge and skills for successful entry and
advancement within that career pathway” (Stone, 2017, p. 160). Furthermore, Stone (2017) states
the signature features of a high-quality, rigorous CTE program are curriculum driven by
industry-recognized standards and connected to related post-secondary programs; authentic and
real-world experiences that deepen learning and develop non-cognitive skills such as
perseverance; strategies for student mastery of math, science, technical reading and writing, and
communication skills; and the development workplace skills, such as teamwork. CTE pathway
programs of study provide students with an opportunity to explore careers while developing
career ready and practical academic and technical skills. To achieve characteristics of high-
quality programs requires qualified instructional staff, facilitators of student academic and
technical skill development that are responsible for building awareness of potential career
pathways.
CTE Teacher Qualifications
CTE teachers in the state of California are required to hold the appropriate teaching
credential, have industry experience, and complete a state-approved CTE teacher preparation
program. CTE teachers must complete more stringent teacher credentialing certification
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 29
requirements; unlike traditional core subject academic teachers, CTE teacher must first qualify
with appropriate occupational work experience and educational experience. “High school CTE
instructors must be certified (with the appropriate education foundation and content courses);
presenting the challenge of attracting industry experts to these positions” (Brand, Valent &
Browning, 2013, p. 8). According to California Commission on Teacher Credentialing (2016),
Vocational Education credentials were revised and renamed as Career Technical Education
credentials in 2006. This update by the California Department of Education included significant
changes to university career technical education preparation program standards and instructional
expectations for CTE teachers. To earn a three-year Preliminary Designated Subjects CTE
Credential requires teaching candidate submittal of evidence of industry experience and a
minimum of three years of work experience directly related to each industry sector to be named
on the career technical education teaching credential. A five-year Clear Designated Subjects
CTE Credential requires a Preliminary Designated Subjects CTE Credential, two years of
successful teaching experience, completion of a California Commission on Teacher
Credentialing approved educator preparation program, and completion of a United States
Constitution course (California Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2016). CTE teachers are
held to higher teaching credentialing requirements to ensure an individual that has experience
working in industry is providing instruction. Upon earning a preliminary credential, CTE
teachers must complete a teacher preparation program to obtain a Clear Credential.
CTE Teacher Preparation
California CTE Teacher Preparation programs vary in quality and availability due to the
changes in state funding for specialized teacher preparation programs resulting in variation in
teacher preparation, knowledge, and experiences. According to the California Commission on
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 30
Teacher Credentialing (2015), California state law authorizes the California Commission on
Teacher Credentialing to set program standards and requirements for higher education
preparation of California teachers. Program standards include ensuring CTE pathway curriculum
and instruction is accessible for all students; teachers complete a teacher preparation induction
program; the curriculum is aligned to CTE standards and incorporates effective pedagogical
strategies and industry aligned instructional materials; integrates education technology; and uses
appropriate assessment strategies. Quality university CTE teacher preparation programs ensure
state program standards and requirements are met and include teacher professional development
on CTE Model Curriculum Standards and Framework aligned lessons.
In 2001, the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 shifted governmental funding to
local control; the resulting negative impact to CTE programs included the decline of college-
based designated CTE teacher preparation programs in the 1990s and the subsequent lack of
qualified CTE teachers in the 1990s through the mid-2000 (Fletcher, 2006). NCLB was intended
to improve schools, increase academic core content learning, and place highly qualified teachers
in classrooms with the belief that higher standards and better-prepared teachers are worthy
aspirations (Camp & Heath-Camp, 2007). Although No Child Left Behind increased the focus on
science, math, and other academic subjects, it resulted in cuts to CTE teacher positions and the
reduction of CTE program offerings at school sites (Camp & Heath-Camp, 2007). As the direct
outcome of NCLB, teacher preparation programs seldom have a CTE training track, resulting in
shortages of qualified teaching candidates needed to teach in CTE project-based learning
environments; aspiring teachers committed to pursuing certification in CTE found non-CTE
teacher preparation and training to be insufficient (Brand, Valent & Browning, 2013). Once in
the classroom, CTE teachers experience difficulty keeping pace with changes in the industry
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 31
pathway and sector in which they teach; away from their industry for extended periods of time,
teachers become unaware of workplace trends, changes, and emerging career options (Brand,
Valent & Browning, 2013). No Child Left Behind contributed to the decline of CTE teacher
preparation programs and teachers earning credentials with varying levels of preparation, many
inadequately prepared to provide the high-quality CTE instruction. Therefore, school districts
need to fill potential gaps from CTE teacher preparation by providing CTE specific professional
development and support.
Ongoing Professional Development
According to Darling-Hammond, Wilhoit, and Pittenger (2014), “Critical are professional
standards of practice that should guide how educators are prepared and how they teach and
support students” (p.9). CTE teachers need ongoing and targeted professional development to
support students to meet industry and postsecondary expectations. The Carl D. Perkins Career
Technical Education Act of 2006 promotes and requires ongoing CTE teacher professional
development (Threeton, 2017); for educators to maintain a “...deeper understanding of industry
pathway and sector content, latest research, and skills aligned to workplace standards” (Reese,
2010, p. 38). This federal mandate directly aligns with Perkins and other measure of yearly
progress for school districts and includes CTE teacher demonstration CTE pathway academics,
knowledge, and technical skills. Ongoing teacher professional development is a necessary aspect
of the education field as organizations and teachers are responsible for “building their capacity
for professional practice; accountable for evaluating practice and student progress, and engaging
in continual improvement based on the results” (Darling-Hammond, Wilhoit & Pittenger, 2014,
p. 9). Effective teaching can be learned; improving the practice of teaching, learning to teach
better, does not necessarily come from teaching longer as experience does not lead directly to
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 32
better instruction. For teacher professional development to effectively influence teacher practice
requires connection to the practice of teaching, related and specific to instructional problems
faced, and feedback should be provided frequently and consistently (DeMonte, 2013). Enhancing
skills, knowing strategies, and understanding content and how to unpack that content in ways
that students can understand are aspects of teaching that can be learned and improved. Ongoing
professional development, a state and federal requirement for all CTE teachers, can effectively
improve instruction when consistently embedded in instructional environments with connections
to existing skills and understandings. CTE teachers are the key to CTE program currency and
fidelity.
Role of Stakeholder Group of Focus
In this section, I reference literature regarding industry demand for skilled labor, the need
for highly qualified CTE teachers, and the influence of CTE teacher preparation and alignment to
industry expectations on the quality of secondary career pathway instruction. According to the
2008-2012 California State Plan for Career Technical Education developed by the California
Department of Education (2008), CTE courses and pathways must be responsive to California’s
workforce demand for high-skilled labor and ensure highly-qualified instructors and technology
are accessible to all students. When CTE courses combine industry technical content with
rigorous, academic standards, results are student academic achievement and positive long-term
economic outcomes (Wilkin & Nwoke, 2011). Unfortunately, due to the closure of CTE teacher
education preparation programs over the last few decades, few colleges of teacher education
offer technical education programs resulting in the shortage of CTE teachers (Fletcher, 2006).
Furthermore, CTE teachers that completed traditional curriculum and instruction teacher
preparation programs have limited knowledge of what is needed to develop quality career
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 33
pathway instruction and overcome challenges presented in real-world and performance-based
technical learning environments (Brand, 2008). Once a CTE teacher is placed in a teaching
assignment, ongoing professional development is needed to support the design of
interdisciplinary curriculum and assessments. Teachers must align instruction to industry trends,
emerging careers, and local workforce demands, and establish partnerships with employers to
ensure industry knowledge; skills and competencies are incorporated (Brand, Valent &
Browning, 2013). Inadequate CTE teacher preparation along with the lack of instructional
alignment to industry expectations and ongoing CTE teacher professional development
contributes to differences in CTE program quality and student college and career outcomes.
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences Framework
Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis is a systematic, analytical approach that helps to
clarify organizational goals and identify the potential difference in performance goals and actual
performance levels. Once performance differences are identified, causes are examined through
an in-depth look at stakeholder knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences (Clark and
Estes, 2008). Although Krathwohl (2002), divides knowledge and skills into four specific types:
(a) factual; (b) conceptual; (c) procedural; and (d) metacognitive and each type is required to
accomplish goals, only conceptual, procedural and metacognitive knowledge were used in this
study to examine stakeholder ability to achieve performance goals in this study. Motivation
influences include active choice and action, persistence in the face of distraction, and the
investment of mental effort on goal achievement (Clark & Estes, 2008) Additional motivational
factors include interest, self-efficacy, goal orientation, and value of identified performance goals
(Mayer, 2011). Finally, organizational influences on stakeholder performance include policies,
processes, or access to necessary resources (Clark & Estes, 2008). Elements from Clark and
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 34
Estes’ (2008) gap analysis were adapted to this evaluation model and implemented as the
conceptual framework to examine CTE teacher knowledge, motivation, and organizational needs
to meet the performance goal of providing high-quality curriculum and instruction aligned to
industry standards and post-secondary education expectations by June 2018. The first section
considers assumed teacher influences on goal attainment in connection to existing knowledge
and skills. The next section discusses assumed teacher motivational influences on performance
goal outcomes. Finally, the chapter concludes with an exploration of assumed organizational
influences on teacher goal achievement.
Knowledge and Skills
Knowledge influences. Stakeholder goals identified for DTSD Career Technical
Education (CTE) teachers relate to the knowledge and skills needed to make greater connections
to postsecondary career and college opportunities. Goals include alignment of curriculum and
instruction to CTE Model Curriculum Standards and Frameworks and post-secondary college
and industry expectations. According to Clark and Estes (2008), gap analysis supports the
identification of potential performance barriers; in this case, an examination of CTE teacher
knowledge and skills is necessary to identify differences and to make recommendations for
program improvement. Research studies related to instructional effects on stakeholder
knowledge indicate that the examination of prior knowledge, instructional methods, and the
necessary supports to promote change in knowledge, along with supports for ongoing goal
mastery is needed to support performance improvement (Mayer, 2011). Stakeholders acquire the
knowledge and skills to accomplish tasks and performance goals when support and tools to
improve performance are provided (Clark & Estes, 2008). Knowledge is constructed from "facts,
procedures, concepts, strategies, and beliefs," a change in a person's knowledge and skills can
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 35
only be detected as an observable event (Mayer, 2011, p.14). A review of research studies,
included within this paper, focuses on knowledge and skills related influences of CTE teachers
with an in-depth analysis of knowledge types needed to meet performance goals.
According to the literature relevant to stakeholder performance, knowledge influences
and knowledge types support or hinder goal achievement (Rueda, 2011). The four knowledge
types include factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge; categorized from
basic to complex. An individual must be able to demonstrate all knowledge types to be
successful in accomplishing complex, challenging tasks. Identification of gaps in learner
knowledge types has the potential to improve performance outcomes when applied in learning
organizations.
Factual knowledge is knowledge of basic facts; this includes terminology, details, and
elements specific to domains of practice (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). Factual knowledge
requires low cognitive processing, typically involving the retrieval of rote memorized facts from
long-term memory (Mayer, 2011). A primary grade student example of factual knowledge is the
rote memorization of the alphabets or numbers. Another example is K-12 educator knowledge of
where to find content standards for a particular academic subject area. These examples share the
idea that factual knowledge is foundational and that knowledge accumulative.
The next level of knowledge type beyond factual knowledge is conceptual knowledge.
Conceptual is the knowledge of structures, procedures, systems, theories or models. This kind of
knowledge requires the understanding of how components that make up a whole function
together (Krathwohl, 2002). True for all knowledge types, Krathwohl (2002), the cognitive
processing required for conceptual knowledge include remembering, understanding, applying,
and analyzing; these cognitive efforts support a person's ability to construct a system from facts.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 36
A primary grade student use of the alphabets to form words and sound them out is an example of
conceptual knowledge. An example of conceptual knowledge is teacher understanding of how
the K-12 content standards and pedagogical practices are interrelated to support instruction.
During the creation of conceptual knowledge, individuals compile facts into constructs.
Procedural knowledge is more complicated than conceptual knowledge, combining
conceptual understanding and factual knowledge to create a process on how to accomplish a
task. Procedural knowledge is having the knowledge of specialized skills, techniques, and
processes along with an understanding of when it is appropriate to use them to accomplish
subject specific tasks (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011). A primary student’s ability to form
sentences using punctuation and compound sentences to convey meaning is procedural
knowledge. Teachers knowing how to use content standards to design instructional curriculum is
another example of procedural knowledge. Procedural knowledge is the application of
conceptual and factual knowledge.
The most complex form of knowledge type is metacognitive knowledge; the self-
awareness of one's cognitive processes of the how and why of problem solving (Rueda, 2011).
This type of knowledge includes not only the ability to remember, understand, apply, analyze,
and evaluate, it includes an individual's ability to combine an understanding of facts, concepts,
and processes to create and design something new. Students who can write an original story and
evaluate how their writing may influence reader opinion are exercising metacognitive
knowledge. A teacher’s awareness of the effectiveness of instruction, identification of areas for
improvement, and making necessary adjustments to instruction to support student learning
outcomes is another example of metacognitive knowledge. In an educational setting, the goal is
to achieve metacognitive knowledge and to promote long-term student retention of all four
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 37
knowledge types purposefully.
Although all four knowledge types are needed for individuals to be successful on learning
tasks (Krathwohl, 2002; Rueda, 2011), conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge are
the stakeholder focus for stakeholders to meet individual and organizational goals identified in
Table 2. The identification and examination of CTE teacher knowledge influences reveal
pertinent information for performance improvement (Clark & Estes, 2008). References to
research on K-12 teacher practice are used throughout this study; CTE teacher specific research
studies on knowledge, motivation, and organizational influencers were not found. An analysis of
what CTE teachers understand, know and reflect upon is important to identify potential gaps in
knowledge.
CTE teachers need to know the characteristics of what comprises high quality,
academic and industry-aligned CTE programs. Conceptual knowledge, described as
understanding how elements make up a system, includes how purpose, theory, and principles are
interrelated (Krathwohl, 2002). Knowledge of the characteristics high-quality CTE pathway
programs is critical for CTE teachers to properly integrate and implement effective pathway
instruction (Polikoff, 2013). Teachers need the conceptual understanding of what comprises
high-quality CTE instructional opportunities for students, including pathway related content
knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and technical skill knowledge (Polikoff, 2013).
Characteristics of high-quality, rigorous experiences in career technical education programs
include academic, employability, and technical skills; the three domains of knowledge and skills
that students need to acquire to be competitive in the emerging labor market (Stone, 2017).
According to Stone (2017), signature features of high-quality rigorous CTE programs include
industry derived curriculum, reflects qualifications for employment; projects that address
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 38
authentic problems; enhances related mathematics, literacy and science concepts; is community-
based; and structural mechanisms are in place to support student transition from secondary to
post-secondary transition. High-quality CTE programs are programs of study that build student
leadership capabilities and critical thinking and communication skills, as well as prepare students
for high-wage, high-demand careers or college opportunities (Brand, Valent, & Browning,
2013). These programs are continually aligned with technological changes and labor market
trends requiring teacher knowledge on why collaboration with post-secondary institutions and
the local industries increases student access to academic or technical post-secondary education
(Balfanz et al., 2014; Brand, Valent & Browning, 2013; Ndiaye & Wolfe, 2016). High-quality
CTE programs cannot be developed and sustained without teacher recognition of the
characteristics of those effective programs; once conceptual knowledge is obtained, teachers
must be able to apply those understandings to their programs.
CTE teachers need to know the process of how to design high quality; academic
rigorous curriculum aligned to content and industry standards. The cognitive knowledge
type, procedural knowledge, is the knowledge of the step-by-step process necessary to
accomplish a task (Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). According to the Information Processing System
Theory, knowledge needs to be assessed based on performance goals and identified knowledge
and skill gaps need to be meaningfully connected to prior knowledge for an individual to
successfully achieve goals (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). Teachers have the potential to achieve
performance goals when identified goals and the knowledge and skills of what comprises high-
quality academic and industry aligned instruction, align to instructional standards, teacher prior
knowledge, skills, abilities, and learning history (McGee & Johnson, 2015; Polikoff, 2013).
Curriculum alignment to standards is defined as a match between state standards and school
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 39
district curriculum and instructional activities (Squires, 2012). Evidence of teacher procedural
knowledge include discussion or demonstration of how curriculum, instruction, and assessments
are aligned to content standards (Lesseig, Nelson, Slavit & Seidel, 2016; Polikoff, 2013); content
standards specific to this case study are the California Department of Education’s CTE Model
Curriculum Standards and Framework (California Department of Education, 2013). Teachers
who provide high-quality instruction understand the expectations of standards-aligned instruction
and are able to apply their understanding through the identification of curricular resources and
effective implementation of concepts and resources into instruction (Polikoff, 2013). Teachers
need to continually evaluate their instruction and review instructional standards as a foundation
for curriculum and instructional design and reflect on the effectiveness of instruction to real-
world experiences inside and outside the classroom.
CTE teachers need reflection on how their programs can improve student
achievement and supports post-secondary transition to career or college. Metacognitive
knowledge is the awareness of one's consciousness, self-reflection on why and when to do
something, and the control and knowledge of how one learns (Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011).
According to the social cognitive theory, self-monitoring and the regulation of behavior are
defined as the examination of the effects of one's actions concerning individual beliefs and on
those around them (Bandura, 2005). CTE teachers need to continually reflect on the essential
career pathway knowledge and skills to integrate into instruction, determine areas of
instructional challenge, and continually update instructional alignment to standards, college, and
workforce expectations (Sass et al., 2011). Teachers learn by doing, reading and reflecting (just
like students do); meaningful reflection includes teacher collaboration, examination of students
and student work samples, and conversations surrounding student achievement (Darling-
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 40
Hammond & McLaughlin, 2011). Although teacher education and career experiences are directly
related to a teacher's ability to reflect and align instruction with content standards (Polikoff,
2013), ongoing professional development and reflective practice benefits all teachers allowing
for critical examination of knowledge and beliefs about content, pedagogy and learners (Darling-
Hammond & McLaughlin, 2011). Teacher metacognition coupled with professional development
and individualized coaching supports effective teaching, attainment of identified learning goals,
and student achievement (Polikoff, 2013; Sass et al., 2011). CTE teachers will demonstrate the
characteristic of self-regulated learners when they take responsibility and ownership of their
effectiveness and ability to align instruction to performance goals (Mayer, 2011).
Motivation
Motivation refers to an individual’s self-determination, having the personal choice,
ability, and metacognition, the reflection or evaluation of a task or behavior (Davis & Wilson,
2000; Mayer, 2011). A research study by Grossman and Salas (2011), found that motivation
influences the transfer and retention of learning into performance outcomes. Motivational
challenges include actively starting, persisting and completing a task, influenced by self-efficacy,
control, interest, values, and goals (Pintrich, 2003). For CTE teachers to create high-quality
career pathway learning environments, they need to have the belief in their ability and value a
task and be motivated by goals to be engaged and motivated to improve their professional
practice. Expectancy-value theory and goal orientation are influences that affect CTE teacher
motivation in accomplishing performance goals. Performance goals are achievable when the
teacher can identify and focus on goals and have the self-efficacy to perform tasks that they
value.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 41
Expectancy-value theory. Values influence the starting of a task, while expectancy
influences persistence (Rueda, 2011). According to the expectancy-value motivational theory,
self-efficacy and task value contribute to an understanding of behavior and goal attainment
(Eccles, 2006). Self-efficacy is an individual’s belief that they can perform a behavior or task,
whereas, task value is the value of an expected outcome. Value is the importance one places on a
task, the degree to which an individual values whether a task is worth pursuing, directly
correlating to self-efficacy, while the belief of ability is related to task outcomes (Eccles, 2006;
Rueda, 2011). Teachers need to value the expected outcome of tasks to be motivated to
accomplish them. Furthermore, for teachers to be motivated to perform tasks and accomplish
goals, purposes need to be identified. Identifiable aspects of task value include attainment, an
individual perception of task importance; intrinsic, perceived pleasure in task accomplishment;
utility, the perceived usefulness of a task; and cost value, the perceived investment of time or
effort to accomplish a task (Rueda, 2011). Because tasks are not always self-selected or desired,
utility value needs to connect to benefits for the individual to engage and sustain motivation in
completing a task (Clark & Estes, 2008; Eccles, 2006). Equally important is the role incentives
have in activating utility value of performance improvement; moreover, incentives are effective
as long as a task is challenging and attainable (Clark & Estes, 2008).
CTE teachers need self-efficacy of their ability to accomplish identified program
goals. Self-efficacy is defined as an individual’s judgment of their capability to organize,
execute, and persist at accomplishing a task (Rueda, 2011). “Both self-perception of teaching
competence (including an assessment of internal resources and constraints) and beliefs about the
task requirements in a particular teaching situation (including an assessment of resources and
constraints external to the teacher) contribute to teacher efficacy and to the consequences that
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 42
stem from efficacy beliefs” (Tschannen-Moran, Hoy & Hoy, 1998, p.233). Teachers who
anticipate failure in accomplishing a task put forth less effort in the design and delivery of
instruction when faced with challenges, even if they know of the strategies to succeed
(Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007). A research study by McKim and Velez (2015), found that
factors that build and maintain teacher self-efficacy include opportunities for mastery
experiences including the successful completion of tasks, mentoring, and vicarious experience,
such as observation of another teacher accomplishing similar tasks. Self-efficacy is a self-
fulfilling prophecy; CTE teachers must have self-efficacy in their ability to meet to goals and be
provided support to meet program goals. In addition to self-efficacy, teachers need to value tasks
as worthwhile of their efforts.
CTE teachers need to value pathway program goals. Individuals that hold high
perceived utility value for a task view the potential outcomes for accomplishing a task worthy of
effort and persistence (Grossman & Salas, 2011). To increase the utility value of a task requires
providing individuals with the opportunity to evaluate their skills and identify them as necessary,
identify the need for improvement, and develop the belief that the opportunity will improve
performance and that skills are practical and transferable (Grossman & Salas, 2011). For teachers
to value and internalize their influence on teaching and learning, organizational accountability
goals need to be clear, concise and attainable (Leithwood, Steinbach & Jantzi, 2002). Greenan,
Mustapha, Wu, and Ncube (1998), identified factors that motivate CTE teachers to improve their
programs as “…caring for students, concern for professional growth, and a desire to keep
programs current with changing technologies” (p. 11). Access to information concerning current
trends in career technical education has also been found to increase teacher value of program
goals and the desire to demonstrate competence in aligning of instruction to current professional
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 43
practice (Cannon, Kitchel & Duncan, 2010; Wash, Lovedahl & Paige, 2000). To value program
goals, teachers need to believe they can meet program and organization identified goals.
Goal orientation. Mastery and performance goal orientation are approaches to consider
in regards to an individual's goal orientation (Rueda, 2011). Mastery goal orientation is intrinsic
motivation to accomplish challenging tasks to gain skill competency, while performance goal
orientation is extrinsic motivation task accomplishment to receive recognition or reward. The
goal orientation theory states that goals need to focus individual attention on outcomes and
support self-efficacy; goals support self-regulation of behaviors to meet objectives through
monitoring and cognition of actions (Pajares, 2006). Individual self-efficacy increases when
goals provide opportunities for mastery through practice, learning and understanding (Pintrich,
2003). When goals connect to the desired outcome, they have the potential to activate and sustain
motivation and increase commitment and engagement in individuals (Leithwood et al., 2002;
Pajares, 2006). People need to be engaged in discourse about how goals work and how they
relate to personal goals, not just about the work the organization needs to accomplish (Pintrich,
2003; Clark & Estes, 2008). Individuals need to be engaged in setting achievable, and
measurable personal goals and evaluation systems need to be in place to promote reflection,
mastery, and effort (Pintrich, 2003; Yough & Anderman, 2006).
CTE teacher goal orientation needs to align to pathway goals. Many teachers teach
the same way they were taught, drawing upon their prior experiences as students, teacher, and
from life (Oleson & Hora, 2014). If individuals are not motivated to accomplish a task, it is
possible that their goal orientation may be different; they are not choosing to complete the task
even though they know how to do it or they may have low self-efficacy (Rueda, 2011). Although
organizational goals provide an initial direction and activate teacher cognition, they must be
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 44
aligned with personal goals and perceived as attainable (Thoonen, Sleegers, Oort, Peetsma &
Geijsel, 2011). For teaching staff to commit to performance improvement targets, they need to be
provided the opportunity to consider the purpose of their work and its alignment to standards and
goals (Leithwood et al., 2002). A research study by Parker, Martin, Colmar, and Liem (2012),
found that identification of teacher goal orientation supports the prediction of teacher appraisal
of goal demands and the identification of potential interventions, including professional
development, has the potential to improve differences in goal orientation. The identification of
motivational factors, beliefs, and goal orientation provides organizations with an opportunity to
utilize strategies to close motivational performance gaps (Rueda, 2011). High-quality CTE
programs are multifaceted and complex requiring teacher knowledge and motivation to maintain
academic and industry relevance; however, through organizational support and resources, CTE
teachers can create and maintain high-quality programs that promote student college and career
achievement.
Organization
General Theory. Organizational culture defines "core values, goals, beliefs, emotions,
and processes as socially learned over time" (Clark & Estes, 2008). Educational leaders must be
keen to organizational culture as an influence on stakeholder knowledge and motivation that
inhibits or promotes change. Culture is predetermining of an organization’s success and ability to
change and adapt to new situations (Schein, 2010). Leaders must understand the interplay
between the macroculture of an organization, the overarching culture, and microcultures,
subcultures existing within groups and within the broader macroculture of an organization. These
cultures are resilient through change efforts and define group identity; cultural models can adapt
and survive in their environment (Kezar, 2001; Schein 2010). Belief, values, and assumptions are
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 45
often difficult to change due to a group’s desire for stability. A balance of effective and efficient
work processes, adequate material resources, and value chains within an organization is a critical
indicator of organizational performance (Clark & Estes, 2008). Work processes are elements of
culture that link goal activities through the use of work-related techniques, equipment, and
materials. Work culture reflects work processes as a conscious and unconsciousness of employee
work identity, values, and contributions, creating a complex challenge for leaders. Leaders play a
critical role in organizational change efforts.
The organization needs to provide leadership to CTE teachers, such as goals for
program improvement. Organizational leaders must be perceptive about employee strengths
and needs, in relation to identified organization goals as employees are a catalyst for
organizational change. Effective leaders identify talented employees, define relevant outcomes,
and focus on employee strengths by determining what their employees naturally do well
(Buckingham & Coffman, 2014). These leaders also create a sense of direction through a
collaborative effort that allows stakeholders to have ownership of the change process and goals
(Schein, 2010). Drawing from employee strengths includes providing support in the selection of
a path of least resistance that includes collaborative development of goals those stakeholders
would be most comfortable accomplishing. Organizational leadership support includes proper
goal setting, communication and a clear process towards goals attainment; goals must be flexible
and aligned with stakeholder needs and capabilities.
To facilitate change within the microculture of a high school CTE department,
organizational leaders need to establish a vision of where programs need to go. Organizations
must set clear and achievable goals and provide opportunities for teachers and leaders to
collaborate on how to accomplish goals and overcome barriers (Johnson & Short, 1998). School
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 46
leaders and support staff need to be stewards of program expectations; ensuring teachers receive
adequate support and resources to achieve instructional goals (Senge, 1990). A case study by
Drape, Lopez & Radford (2016), found that CTE teachers are influenced by peer and social
persuasion, which in turn influences teacher self-efficacy; thus demonstrating the influence of
organizational culture on program improvement. Organizational direction and a collaborative
work environment provide the setting for program improvement while organizational support
facilitates CTE teacher understanding and achievement of program improvement goals. Ongoing
organizational support, including professional development and performance monitoring, and
autonomy will support CTE teachers to meet organizational and performance goals.
The organization needs to provide CTE teachers with professional development to
support understanding of what comprises high-quality programs. Seasoned CTE teachers
need professional development and support just as much as new teachers do; professional
development modified to meet teacher prior knowledge and abilities include flexibility in
content, pace and learning environment (Drape, et al., 2016). A research study of 250 CTE
teachers found that respondents rated professional development and in-service training as major
contributors to program improvement; however, those opportunities are limited in availability at
school districts (Greenan, et al., 1998). The use of differentiated professional development and
individualized coaching aligned to a teacher's prior knowledge not only enhances teacher
abilities, but also builds teacher self-efficacy (Drape et al., 2016). A supportive social
environment focused on personal goal setting aligned to performance tasks can promote positive
engagement in learning and goal attainment (Pekrun, 2011). An effective professional learning
model increases teachers’ content and pedagogical content knowledge and helps them to
integrate cross-curricular content into their lessons (Lesseig, et al., 2016). Although professional
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 47
development and organizational support build CTE teacher efficacy to meet program goals,
ongoing monitoring is necessary to sustain change efforts.
The organization needs to provide program support through performance
monitoring and accountability. Leaders need to create creative tension by communicating the
vision of where the organization needs to be and identify their organization’s reality in
comparison to the vision (Senge, 1990). Both leaders and employees need a shared
understanding of organizational goals; furthermore, accountability needs to occur at all levels
(Berger, 2014). Although supervisors are the primary mechanism of communication in an
organization, a culture of transparency and respect builds a climate for change and progress
when leaders provide trust, compassion, stability, and hope for performance success (Berger,
2014; Duhigg, 2016; Rath & Conchie, 2009). According to Langley et al. (2009), organizations
can effectively monitor and evaluate performance using an evaluation model for program
improvement. Evaluation models enable educational institutions and teachers to collaboratively
develop an action plan to address gaps in performance, implement strategies, examine progress
in performance, and continue the cycle of performance evaluation and improvement. An
effective evaluation cycle includes stakeholder collaboration to establish goals, methods to
determine whether a change is an improvement, and what additional changes will create
improvement results (Langley et al., 2009). School Administrator and CTE teacher collaboration
and agreement of school site and CTE program-specific goals are reinforced when periodic
evaluations are conducted to determine progress towards goals. These goals need to align to
school site performance indicators, to state and federal supplemental funding for CTE programs
in the effort to build the academic and technical skills of students for career and life (Brand,
Valent & Browning, 2013; California Department of Education, 2013). CTE teachers are
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 48
expected to align their instruction to the CTE Model Curriculum Standards and Frameworks and
industry expectations, and deliver instruction in a meaningful and relevant way or lose funding
and the potential loss of program relevance and course offerings. Teachers must take ownership
of their programs to make continual program improvements autonomously.
Table 3, the summary table of Assumed Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational
Influences on Performance below lists the assumed influences on CTE teacher performance.
Knowledge influences indicated include conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive knowledge
types were used for knowledge gaps analysis to determine where DTSD CTE teachers are in
their knowledge development and to identify needs to make program improvements.
Motivational influences of importance include self-efficacy, utility value, and goal-orientation as
they relate to stakeholder goal attainment. These influences were used to examine what
motivates DTSD CTE teachers to achieve their goals of aligning courses to reflect the character
of a high-quality career pathway program. Organizational influences include assumed culture
model influences and cultural setting influences as they relate to stakeholder goal attainment.
These influences were examined to comprehend how organizational models prevent CTE
teachers from creating high-quality career pathway instructional programs.
Table 3
Summary Table of Assumed Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences on
Performance
Source of
Assumed
Influences
Assumed Influences on Performance
Knowledge
Motivation Organization
Learning and
Motivation and
Organizational
Theory
Conceptual: Teachers
need to know the
characteristics of what
comprises high quality,
academic and industry-
Self-Efficacy: Teacher
need self-efficacy of
their ability to
accomplish identified
program goals
Cultural Model 1: The
organization needs to
provide leadership to CTE
teachers, such as goals for
program improvement
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 49
aligned CTE programs.
Procedural: Teachers
need to know the
process of how to design
high-quality;
academically rigorous
curriculum aligned to
content and industry
standards.
Metacognitive: Teachers
need reflection on how
their programs can
improve student
achievement and
supports post-secondary
transition to career or
college
Utility Value
(Expectancy-Theory)
CTE teachers need to
value pathway
program goals;
including the value of
ongoing alignment of
curriculum to
standards and
industry
Goal Orientation
(Mastery Goal): CTE
teacher goal
orientation needs to
align to pathway
goals.
(Leadership).
Cultural Setting 1: The
organization needs to
provide CTE teachers with
professional development
to support understanding
and the process of what
comprises high-quality
programs (Resources)
Cultural Setting 2:
The organization needs to
provide program support
through performance
monitoring and
accountability
(Performance Monitoring/
Accountability)
Conclusion
In conclusion, this literature review proposed that CTE programs need to continually
adapt to the workforce and technological trends to purposefully align to college and career
expectations. This expectation poses an ongoing challenge for CTE teachers to develop and
maintain programs that provide students with high-demand and relevant knowledge and skills.
Also, the review has revealed that reduced funding for a college-based specialized CTE teacher
preparation program over the last decade has resulted in inadequate teacher training and varying
knowledge levels of CTE teachers entering the educational profession. Regardless of state and
federal grant funding requirements imposed on CTE programs, effective and ongoing
professional development is key to teacher knowledge and effectiveness in CTE instructional
learning environments, whether teachers are new to teaching or have been teaching for numerous
years.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 50
The Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis approach was utilized in this study to examine
performance barriers resulting from organizational influences on CTE teacher knowledge and
motivation to design standards and industry-aligned instruction that incorporates technological
skills for high-demand careers. An ongoing examination of teacher conceptual and procedural
knowledge is necessary, including teacher ability to understand what comprises high-quality
CTE curriculum instruction and the process to apply and evaluate curriculum alignment to
industry expectations (Mayer, 2011, Rueda, 2011). Furthermore, CTE teacher motivation to
make program improvements is examined, including self-efficacy, the utility value of
organizational pathway program goals, along with teacher intrinsic mastery goal orientation
(Rueda, 2011). As revealed in this literature review, organizational culture and processes
including leadership, performance monitoring, and teacher autonomy to make program
improvement, along with the availability of CTE teacher professional development have the
potential to support or hinder CTE teacher knowledge and motivation.
Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
A conceptual framework shares what a researcher believes is going on through a
construction of a “system of concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs, and theories that
supports and informs” research (Maxwell, 2013). According to Maxwell (2013), conceptual
frameworks are created through a researcher’s examination of empirical and theoretical
literature, drawing from a researcher’s personal experiences and thought experiments on a
problem of practice. A conceptual framework draws upon those theories and previous research
on a topic to generate a research focus and questions, guiding the sampling, data collection, and
analysis process (Merriam and Tisdell, 2015). Also, a conceptual framework visually
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 51
communicates the relationship between theory, concepts, and variables, presenting what is
potentially going on in a phenomenon. Although each of the potential influences presented in a
concept map appears independent of each other, each is actually interconnected and will be
discussed further.
The interactive conceptual framework in Figure 1 shares the theory and potential
influences on the problem of inequitable access to high-quality career pathway programs in
secondary education. DTSD’s organizational goal is that 100% of the CTE pathway programs
will provide high-quality curriculum and instruction aligned to industry standards and post-
secondary college and career education expectations. Figure 1 explains the potential
discrepancies in CTE teacher knowledge and motivation within the context of a school district,
an organizational cultural setting and model. Through performance gap analysis (Clark and
Estes, 2008), DTSD CTE teacher knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences were
examined to determine whether they serve as barriers or are supportive of goal achievement.
Both CTE teacher knowledge and motivation were key to evaluating program
performance, as teachers are the direct link to both student career pathway education and college
and career success. CTE teacher knowledge includes the conceptual, procedural, and
metacognitive knowledge and skills needed to provide high-quality CTE instruction. Conceptual
knowledge includes teacher understanding of what comprises high-quality CTE curriculum
instruction, while procedural knowledge is CTE teacher knowledge of how to make pathway
course and program improvements. Metacognitive knowledge, a more complex cognitive
process, includes CTE teachers’ ability to reflect and evaluate whether they have effectively
aligned instruction to expectations and to make adjustment as needed. CTE teacher motivation
includes self-efficacy, utility value and goal orientation concerning improving CTE program
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 52
instructional quality and relevance. Teachers need to believe in their abilities to make program
improvement, as well as see the value in providing rigorous and relevant high-quality instruction;
why relevant instruction is important. They should also want to make continuous improvement to
their program, instead of teaching the same way they have in the past. Although CTE teacher
knowledge and motivation is central to the problem of practice, an organization’s support, or
lack thereof, has great influence on program conditions and teacher ability to make
improvements.
Organizational influences represented in the model comprise of leadership, teacher
professional development, performance monitoring and accountability, and teacher autonomy.
Leadership includes school site and district’s influence of career pathway performance through
the communication of organizational mission and goals for CTE programs, and through the
promotion of CTE learning environments. Professional development supports teacher
understanding of what characteristics comprise high-quality CTE programs and build teacher
self-efficacy through instructional support. Performance monitoring and accountability by the
school site and district leadership includes career pathway program monitoring and holding CTE
teachers accountable for the creation and maintenance of high-quality, industry-relevant
programs. The arrows in the concept map reveal a nonlinear and reciprocal relationship between
CTE teacher knowledge and motivational elements and the influence of organizational
leadership, specifically the interplay between leadership, resources, and accountability to meet
organizational goals.
It was important to note that although this research study examined all of the identified
assumed influences shown Figure 1, after data collection and thorough analysis, only some of the
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 53
influences emerged as research finding due to lack of robustness in the data collected. Those
emergent themes are identified and discussed in Chapter Four of this dissertation.
Figure 1. Interactive Conceptual Framework
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 54
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
This qualitative case study sought to inquire and explain why career technical education
courses and program content and instructional qualities vary and discover what prevents or
supports CTE teachers in making necessary and ongoing program improvements. This chapter
discusses the research design, including the sampling and methods for data collection and
analysis. First, the participating stakeholders are described along with the criteria and purpose of
selection for research study participation. Next, the data collection methods and instrumentation
are discussed along with the reason for selection and data analysis. Included in the discussion are
the strategies used to increase credibility and trustworthiness. The ethics section of this chapter
discusses researcher responsibility with respect to the ethical treatment of human subjects
throughout the study. A discussion of the limitations of research study data and collection was
included in Chapter 5.
The questions that guided this study include the following:
1. What knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors support CTE teachers to create
and maintain high-quality CTE curriculum and instruction
2. What are the recommendations for teacher practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Participating Stakeholders
This section describes the stakeholder of focus, including the type of participants who
were sampled from this population, sampling method, and the criteria used for selection.
Participants selected for this study were full-time CTE credentialed teachers who have worked a
minimum of one year as a CTE teacher at one of the four DTSD high schools. For this
qualitative case study, a nonrandom, purposeful sampling of CTE teachers was used to ensure
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 55
depth of interview responses and to discover, understand, and gain insight from the research
participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The purpose of the case study was to examine and
describe the naturally occurring phenomenon and patterns from interview data collection (Duke
& Martin, 2011). Seven career technical education (CTE) high school teachers were invited to
participate in the study; however only five agreed to be interviewed. Because qualitative research
studies allow the researcher to explore a phenomenon in depth, and given the limitations of the
study’s timeline, a recruitment of the five participants was deemed acceptable. All particular
criteria considered and associated with the stakeholder groups are included in the criteria list
below for sampling. A rationale for the interview sampling criteria was included below.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
CTE teacher research participants were recruited by email and phone contact to
participate in the research study. Interview candidates were informed research participation was
voluntary and confidential. A small incentive of a $50 gift card was offered to compensate
teachers for their time and encouraged research participation.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. The high school teacher taught in a CTE program instructional assignment.
Given that this study was intended to examine how CTE teachers align their instruction to
industry standards, provide students with career exploration, and prepare students for the
transition from secondary to post-secondary college and career, it was important that the
participants were CTE teachers at the time of the research study. These teachers provided insight
on what support and prevents course and program improvements.
Criterion 2. Although some DTSD teachers taught CTE courses outside their designated
credential, DTSD CTE teachers recruited for interviews held a Single Subject Career Technical
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 56
Education teaching credential, earned through the completion of university teacher preparation
coursework. These teachers verified their work experience in the pathway they teach in and
completed coursework for CTE credentialing. These teachers should have foundational
knowledge on how to design CTE instruction; they provided CTE instruction based on their
teacher educational preparation and training.
Criterion 3. DTSD CTE teachers interviewed designed their own curriculum. These
CTE teachers were expected to plan curriculum and align instruction to the CTE Model
Curriculum Standards and Frameworks. CTE teachers not included in this study were DTSD
Engineering and Health Science/Medical Technology teachers who completed Project Lead the
Way (PLTW) science, engineering, technology, and mathematics (STEM) teacher professional
development. These STEM pathway teachers use CTE Model Curriculum Standards and
Frameworks aligned units and lessons designed by PLTW, not curriculum designed by the
teacher.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Qualitative data collection methods for this research study included stakeholder
interviews and reference of CTE-related informational documents. Stakeholder interviews
allowed for meaningful conversations, which elicited stakeholder insight and testimony to the
phenomenon in question (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015; Patton, 2002). The collection of California
Department of Education Career Technical Education documents allowed for the examination of
tangible sources related to the phenomenon of interest (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The
stakeholder interviews allowed for the data analysis and understanding of the phenomenon
related to the research questions.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 57
Interviews
A minimum of one interview was planned with each research study participating career
technical education (CTE) teacher to collect data through interviewer led prompts regarding their
teaching assignment and instructional practice. A copy of interview questions is included in
Appendix B. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with open-ended and clarifying
questions being asked of all research participants to uncover potential patterns from interview
responses. The number of interviews depended on the quality of the initial interview, particularly
the data collected and whether follow-up conversations were needed to gather additional
information related to the research study questions. Although stakeholders were provided the
option of determining the location of the interview, all interviews were conducted through
Google Hangout out of teacher convenience and to maintain teacher confidentiality so others at
the school site wouldn’t know who was participating in a research study. Data included scripted
interview transcripts, and interview data was captured via audio recording with participant
permission for further analysis. The offer of meeting virtually increased the likelihood of
interview availability due to location and time convenience.
Over eight hours of interview data were collected over a period of five weeks; each
interview lasted one and a half to two hours. Although the interviews were conducted over
Google Hangout, they were formal, sit down interviews, but comfortable and conversational in
nature as the research participants were interviewed in their chosen environment, were familiar
with the purpose of the study, and have worked with the researcher on career technical education
projects in the past. This allowed for participant ease with the interview format and for more
reflective conversations to emerge. The interviews were semi-structured, with the use of an
interview guide to ensure research questions were answered and specific data was obtained from
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 58
all research participants. Open-ended questioning with follow-up probing questions and flexible
wording created a responsive interview conversation that drew deeper perspectives from research
participants (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015; Patton, 2002). Interview questions were formed to yield
descriptive information; interview questions focused on behavior, opinion, feeling questions,
knowledge, and demographics or background questions (Patton, 2002).
CTE-Related Documents
This study also included the examination of CTE-related information documents, the
least intrusive form of data collection and not affected by the presence of a researcher. The
researcher solely retrieved third-party documents related to this research study topic. Research
participants’ consent was not needed as only researcher-retrieved documents were used. Third-
party documents included the California Department of Education informational and reference
documents regarding the Career Technical Education Model Curriculum Standards and
Framework; CTE standards that combine technical and academic skills aligned to postsecondary
and industry pathway expectations. The purpose of these documents was to examine
instructional alignment of classroom instruction to the school district course outline and the state
standards for CTE instruction and to determine the teacher knowledge or motivational gaps.
The Appendix provides data collection instruments (Appendix B: Interview Protocol and
Appendix C: Document Record) used in this research study.
Data Analysis
For interviews and documents, data analysis began during data collection to immediately
begin making sense out of emerging data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Analytic memos were
written during and after each interview and as documents were obtained to reflect on my initial
impressions and to reflect and limit potential bias. I documented my thoughts, concerns, and
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 59
initial conclusions about the data in relation to my conceptual framework and research questions.
Recorded interviews were converted into transcriptions using Rev.com, an online audio
transcription service. I reviewed transcriptions for any conversion errors; this process also
allowed for a closer review of captured data. Clean transcriptions were imported into ATLAS.ti,
qualitative data analysis software for coding. In the first phase of analysis, open coding was used
to look for empirical codes and to apply a priori codes from the conceptual framework. A second
phase of analysis was conducted where empirical and a priori codes were aggregated into
analytic/axial codes. In the third phase of data analysis, I identified pattern codes and themes that
related to the conceptual framework and study questions. Included in the analysis of data were
participants’ physical responses during each Google Hangout interview including word choice,
phrases, gestures, volume, tone, facial and physical expressions, pauses, and clarity of
communication, consciously analyzed and memoed by the researcher to derive the themes. Also,
I analyzed interview data for evidence consistent with the concepts in the conceptual framework
and the high-quality CTE program qualities reflected in the California Department of Education
11 Elements of a High-Quality CTE Program Self-Review Tool (California Department of
Education, 2015). Finally, findings were reported from emerging themes to answer my research
study questions.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The validity of qualitative research studies was based on the possibility that descriptions
and conclusions hold credibility. To minimize potential threats to validity required researcher
acknowledgment and reflection of researcher bias and reactivity, as eliminating subjectivity was
almost impossible. To maintain integrity, credibility and trustworthiness of the research findings,
I was cognizant of and recorded any potential researcher biases, and assumptions. Research
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 60
study credibility was maintained by making sure only factual data was recorded; the importance
of recording unbiased information, the CTE teachers’ story, was also shared with research
participants. I also, examined whether my theories, goals, or data selection influenced my
research study findings. During the collection and analysis of interviews and documentation, I
included research comments to consider whether my personal biases were affecting findings.
Because my prior experience working with a stakeholder group could affect the credibility and
validity of findings, and because researcher presence will always influence participant
willingness to share information during interviews, I made sure interview questions were not
leading, and noted participant verbal and physical reactions and any differences in responses as
suggested by Maxwell (2013). Rigorous strategies were needed to support claims from data to
support validity of research conclusions.
Other strategies used to maximize the validity of the research study included rich data,
respondent validation, peer review, searching for discrepant evidence and negative cases,
triangulation of data, use of numbers, and comparisons (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell,
2015). Interviews involved extensive note taking, along with audio recordings, to make sure
descriptive and rich data was captured. Also, research participants were solicited to provide
feedback on interview transcripts to limit researcher bias and to capture participant perspectives.
The analysis and reporting of research data along with all discrepant evidence was needed to
allow reader evaluation and conclusion of findings (Maxwell, 2013). The collection and analysis
of CTE teacher interview data and CTE-related informational resources, and the review potential
researcher bias and influence, allowed for validity threats to be discovered. Although qualitative
research studies are not typically dependent on numeric data, research study conclusions were
supported by quasi-statistical information, particularly the frequency of reoccurring themes
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 61
(Maxwell, 2013). The incorporation of these rigorous strategies throughout the research study
increased the likelihood study conclusions are credible and trustworthy to share authentic
insights from the teachers on what supported them to or prevented them from creating and
maintaining high-quality CTE course content.
Ethics
In this qualitative case study, I inductively interpreted and derived meaning from research
participant responses to understand, investigate, and discover answers to a social phenomenon
(Creswell, 2014). A rigorous and thoughtful approach to research design, methods, and analysis
was used to maintain the integrity of the research study while interviewing the research
participants, a group of career technical education (CTE) teachers. During the analysis of the
research findings, the names of the teachers were changed to maintain research participant
confidentiality. Ethical decision-making was used to maintain trustworthiness and reliability of
the participant interview data collected (Johnson & Christensen, 2015). My study was submitted
to the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB), and all IRB rules and
guidelines were followed to protect the rights and welfare of my research participants.
Participants were assured confidentiality to build trust and rapport with interviewees (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2015). All efforts were made to build interviewee trust; participants were informed of
their right to privacy and confidentiality; all measures were taken to maintain confidentiality of
research participation (Glesne, 2015). Informed consent forms were provided to research
participants at the start of the study to inform them that participation was voluntary, and that they
may withdraw from participation at any time without repercussion (Glesne, 2015). Before
interviewing the research participants, I obtained permission to audio record conversations,
informing them recording was to ensure the accuracy of data collection, and that all data
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 62
collected was stored in a secure location. A copy of the audio recording transcript was offered to
the CTE teachers for review and revise disclosures. During interviews, I reminded the CTE
teachers when the recording device was activated and that all conversations would remain
confidential. Teachers were informed their identity, teaching assignment and the school location
remained confidential through the use of pseudonyms on all recorded and written documents, as
the researcher ensured informed consent and research participants awareness of their right to
privacy (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Because the meetings were virtual and all of the teachers
chose to have the interview conducted through Google Hangout in the evening from the comfort
and privacy of their home the privacy of students was maintained, only data on CTE teacher
interviews and instructional artifacts were collected. CTE teachers were treated with respect and
dignity as it relates to their time, interview space, and role as a high school teacher. During each
of the interviews, I frequent checked on participant availability to continue with answering of
questions and recording of interview data. I considered how my role might have influenced
potential research participant perception and willingness to participate and disclose information
and journaled those reflections. I held a supervisory position, as a high school assistant principal,
in the organization when the research study was conducted. To avoid the potential ethical
dilemmas of perceived power, control and exploitation (Glesne, 2015), research participants only
included CTE teacher at other high schools, teachers I did not directly supervise. Although I am
not the direct supervisor of the CTE teachers, I maintained research participant rights to privacy.
I reassured the participants that all confidential information, including interview transcripts and
documents, would not be shared with their supervisors or anyone else outside the research team.
The teachers were informed that my role was as an investigator and the research intended to
share their story. As a school site administrator, I was interested in the results of the research
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 63
study and how they can be used to inform and support CTE teachers to create industry relevant,
high-quality career pathway programs that encourage student pursuit of postsecondary education
and careers. Continual reflection on ethical considerations was needed to maintain
trustworthiness and credibility of the research study.
Although I worked as a CTE teacher in the past and had insight on what high-quality
CTE standards-aligned curriculum and instruction were, I reviewed and assessed the research
results in the context of the published literature to ensure ethical research. Also, before serving in
the position as a school site administrator, I was DTSD’s district grant coordinator supporting
some of the teachers in the research study; I ensured my relationship and interaction with the
teachers remained professional by gathering and analyzing data in a factual manner. Full
awareness of my biases and assumptions and a neutral stance was maintained during data
collection as acting on misinformation, whether gathered through interviews or by observation,
may come with the loss of trust in the research participant and potentially interferes with data
collection and data quality (Glesne, 2015). Once the research study began, I used a research
journal to continually reflect on my assumptions and biases and took precautions to maintain an
ethical research study.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 64
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
The purpose of this study was to discover what supports and prevents secondary CTE
pathways to be standards-aligned and industry-current. In particular, the research project
questions were used to determine how knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
shaped CTE pathway teacher ability to make necessary and ongoing changes to their CTE
programs intended to introduce high school students to high-demand skills and better prepare
students for college and careers. For this research study, five one and a half hour semi-structured
interviews were conducted with a purposeful, non-random sampling of CTE teachers, ranging
from 4 to 22 years of experience teaching and varying in career pathway teaching assignment.
Four participants were female; one participant was male. The actual names of the teachers and
specific CTE pathway information were not used in this chapter to maintain research participant
confidentiality. Table 4 identifies participants’ pseudonyms and the approximate number of years
each participant taught CTE.
Table 4. Stakeholder Participants
Participant Pseudonym and Number of Years Teaching CTE
Pseudonym Years Teaching CTE
Lori 13
Margaret 14
Mary 22
Stan 17
Darla 4
Interview questions (see Appendix) were derived from this study’s conceptual
framework, informational resources provided by the California Department of Education
regarding high-quality CTE programs, and driven by the following questions:
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 65
1. What knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors support and/or prevent CTE
teachers to create and maintain high-quality CTE curriculum and instruction?
2. What are the recommendations for teacher practice in the areas of knowledge,
motivation, and organizational resources?
Chapter Four presents qualitative data that addresses Research Question 1 and determines
the foundation for potential solutions to Question 2 as discussed in Chapter Five. Therefore,
Chapter Four presents findings from the data analysis phase of this research study to examine
assumed influences in the conceptual framework through interview narratives to answer
Research Question 1.
Findings for Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
The assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences, illustrated in the
conceptual framework included in Chapter Two, were used to determine factors that support or
hinder CTE teacher knowledge and motivation to create and maintain high-quality CTE
programs. Data presented in this chapter was organized by prevalent themes based on findings,
specifically CTE teacher procedural knowledge and motivation utility value, and the
organizational influences of professional development and accountability, along with the
interactions between these concepts. Table 5 below summarizes the assumed influences and
related theme(s) drawn from the data.
Table 5
Assumed KMO Influences and Related Theme(s) in Data
Assumed Influences Related Theme(s) in Data
Knowledge: Procedural
Teachers need to know the process of
how to design high quality; academically
The CTE teachers had limited access to university
CTE teacher education and professional
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 66
rigorous curriculum aligned to content
and industry standards.
development on how to create high-quality CTE
instructional lessons aligned to standards and
industry.
The CTE teachers were uncertain on the process of
how to design standards and industry-aligned
lessons.
Motivation: Utility-Value
CTE teachers need to value pathway
program goals; including the value of
ongoing alignment of curriculum to
standards and industry
The CTE teachers demonstrated having little time
for ongoing examination of lessons to standards
and industry.
The CTE teachers valued collaboration with CTE
pathway-alike teachers; they would like to learn
from high-quality program exemplars to better
align their programs.
Organization: Cultural Setting: Resources/Professional Development
Cultural Setting Influence 1. The
organization needs to provide CTE
teachers with professional development
to support understanding and the
process of what comprises high-quality
programs.
The CTE teachers viewed district professional
development as informative and valuable.
Organization: Cultural Setting: Accountability
Cultural Setting Influence 2. The
organization needs to provide program
support through performance
monitoring and accountability.
Organizational accountability of CTE programs
was variable.
Procedural Knowledge. CTE teachers need to know process of how to align instruction to
CTE Standards and Industry
The assumed procedural knowledge influence was identified as CTE teacher knowledge
of the process of how to design and align their program to be standards-aligned and industry
current. Themes found within the qualitative data highlight the gap in CTE teacher procedural
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 67
knowledge of standards and industry instructional design and the organizational factors that
made this lack of knowledge logical.
The CTE teachers had limited access to university CTE teacher education and
professional development on how to create high-quality CTE instructional lessons aligned
to standards and industry. A brief background on federal and state education accountability
over the last 20 years is necessary to set the stage for this finding. As referenced in the literature
review in Chapter Two of this dissertation, the United States Department of Education No Child
Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 placed accountability on schools to increase student
achievement in core academic subject areas. This legislative act resulted in limited resources for
CTE, including CTE teacher training and professional development at the national, state,
university, and district level. In 2015, United States shifted from NCLB to the Every Student
Succeeds Act (ESSA), expanding educational opportunities to improve student outcomes with
the goal of thoroughly preparing all students for success in college and careers (California
Department of Education, 2018). ESSA resulted in the CDE adoption of an updated
accountability model, which incorporated measures for high school student post-secondary
college and career readiness, including CTE pathway participation and completion rates. During
this shift, an increase in available CTE grant funding in the last few years, along with regional
CTE professional development sessions were offered to school districts to support high school
CTE programs to become high-skill and high-demand college and career ready programs.
As reflected in the conceptual framework and the CDE’s 11 Elements of a High-Quality
CTE Program, CTE teachers need to know the process of how to design high quality,
academically rigorous curriculum aligned to content and industry standards. This is particularly
important as four of the five teachers interviewed shared they completed a traditional university
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 68
teacher education program because CTE teacher preparation programs were not available to
them at the time. The teachers who completed traditional teacher preparation programs felt their
program did not adequately prepare them for CTE instruction and that they entered the teaching
profession without prior knowledge of CTE program expectations or the process of CTE
standards lesson design as reflected in the following data.
Lori shared that she entered the teaching profession without a clear understanding of
what represents a high-quality CTE pathway program. It wasn’t until her school district provided
training that she was introduced to this content. Lori wished this information were provided in
her teaching preparation program and said,
I didn't know much about CTE as a whole, what the requirements were at that time. I'm
learning now, but I wish I had more of that information, the implementation and the
decision-making team the past few years... I didn't know much about it at all, to be
honest, so even some basic knowledge of CTE in California, what classes counted, and
what high-quality would look like. I wish I had just some basic information. I kind of
started teaching without any knowledge at all.
By stating that “even some basic knowledge of CTE” would be helpful, Lori was demonstrating
that she really had no training in this content area before being expected to teach it. She stated
wanting to know more about CTE, including what “high-quality would look like.” Without this
knowledge, it would be hard for Lori to develop the procedural knowledge to teach CTE in a
way that reflected high quality.
Another CTE teacher, Margaret, designed her program after what she believed students
needed to know for her pathway. She shared how CTE lesson design was not taught in her
teacher credentialing or new teacher induction program. As a CTE teacher with industry
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 69
experience, Margaret depended on her prior knowledge and experience working in industry. She
said,
I didn't have [understanding of CTE programs and lesson design] until probably three or
four years into teaching. I struggled with that my first few years. In just trying to be the
strict lesson planner and this is what we have to do and then I just threw it out the
window and I said why are we fighting this? It's not worth the fight. You know what you
want your kids learn. You know and they need to learn in order to be successful outside
of this classroom. How are you going to get there? And that's kind of where I went with
my lessons and that was definitely not taught in our credentialing program or really in the
induction program either. It was kind of trial by fire kind of deal.
Margaret stated in her first few years of teaching lessons were “trial by fire,” and that she didn’t
have an understanding until a few years into teaching. Her comments share admission that she
also had no CTE training upon entering the teaching profession and had to work to figure it out
on her own. Her comment points to a lack of teacher training, particularly professional
development and support on the process of CTE lesson design that might have better positioned
her for success in her CTE classroom.
Similarly, Mary shared how her credentialing program did not adequately prepare her to
teach CTE. She described preparing herself to teach CTE content by visiting schools and
observing other CTE programs. Mary also depended on the recall of the lessons taught to her as a
high school CTE student. She explained,
My teaching credential program didn't help me at all. So, I went to a bunch of different
schools in the area, a bunch of the different high schools and middle schools and I did
many hours of observation and just kind of recalled what I was taught when I was in high
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 70
school with my CTE teacher and then watching these other teachers and what they did.
This is really how I kind of got myself ready to be a [CTE] teacher.
Mary’s statement “my teaching credential did not help me” indicated she struggled with lesson
design when she first started teaching like Margaret did, while her admission of completing
many hours of observation on her own shared she did not receive organizational support. Again,
like Margaret, she had to do the work herself, as demonstrated by her comment “I kind of got
myself ready to be a [CTE] teacher.”
The data presented in this theme shows CTE teachers who participated in this study did
not have access to a CTE-specific teacher education program or support once they got into the
teaching profession. As such, when they started their teaching careers, these teachers had a gap
in their procedural knowledge of CTE lesson and program design aligned to the CTE Standards
and industry. Teachers who completed a traditional teacher education program shared the need
for more support with CTE lesson design their first years of teaching, support they initially
lacked from their organization. Many of the teachers shared relying on what they knew from
their own formal secondary education and professional work experience in the industry sector or
by seeking out information on their own, such as through the observations of other CTE teachers.
The lack of teacher access to formalized CTE teacher preparation resulted in their uncertainty
regarding the process of standards and industry-aligned lesson design.
The CTE teachers were uncertain on the process of how to design standards and
industry-aligned lessons. Consistent with the theory of procedural knowledge acquisition,
successful task completion requires practice to be part of long-term memory and is dependent on
the organization for information for retrieval and application (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006).
Interview data showed teacher uncertainty regarding the process of how to create CTE standards
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 71
and industry-aligned instruction, likely stemming from a lack of initial formal training in it as
explained in the previous section. The CTE Standards and Framework requires that CTE
educators base their lesson design on the CTE Pathway Standards, the industry technical skills,
and the CTE Knowledge and Performance Anchor Standards, the soft-skills and dispositions for
working in a specific industry sector. When study participants were asked about their process of
lesson design, discrepancies in teacher procedural knowledge included not seeing how the
standards fit into a pathway, and looking at standards afterwards by utilizing standards as a
secondary instead of a primary point of reference for lesson design and using CTE assessments
as a primary source for lesson design.
Not seeing how the standards fit into a pathway. Lori acknowledged awareness of the
CTE Pathway Standards, but stated some are obscure to her. She said, “Um, some of them seem
kind of obscure, some of the standards. Um, like, randomly specific, so I may not actually get
stuff, all of them.” A few minutes into the interview, she stated, “I feel it's pretty easy to align
them. I might miss a couple of ... Like I said, there are some random specific ones.” These
statements indicate the Lori decided to exclude those standards from her instruction because she
felt they were “random,” in other words, she expressed lack of clarity on how those connected to
her pathway. The lack of clarity prompted her to ignore those standards outright rather than
finding out how they fit into the pathway.
Margaret described the CTE standards as theoretical compared to the applied skills being
taught in her classes. She suggested teachers in her district did not teach the theory of what they
are teaching, only the skills. She described a discrepancy between theory and the skills;
specifically how her lessons were designed based on the industry skills she believed students
should have. She explained,
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 72
CTE specifically, the standards are more theory-based rather than skill-based...a lot of us
in our school district as CTE teachers don't necessarily teach the theory behind what
we're doing...because we've been told that this is a CTE class, it's a skill-based class,
these are hands-on projects. When we have created outlines of courses based on the
standards, it's often how are we matching the skills we are teaching these students to what
the theory of the standards is. Oftentimes, when I developed a course, it is, OK, this is my
idea of what the outlines should look like and then we apply the standards, which is not
very good. We should not be doing that. But it happens because you are trying to stay
industry-aligned and you are doing what you think and what the people in the industry
say that we should be teaching our students... And you go back and apply whatever
standard it is that is there. I know that that doesn't happen in other subjects, but it is hard
because we are so skills-based and so hands-on based and a lot of the standards are
theory-based instead.
By stating, “the standards are more theory-based rather than skill-based...a lot of us in our school
district as CTE teachers don't necessarily teach the theory behind what we're doing” Margaret
demonstrated the lack of awareness of the technical skills incorporated into the Pathway
Standards and the lack of procedural knowledge on how the CDE CTE Curriculum Standards
and Framework “…offer clear guidelines for course content development and expectations for
student achievement” (California Department of Education, 2013, p.1).
If CTE teachers do not see how standards fit into a pathway, lessons could miss “critical
industry technical and academic skills that ensure students are career and college ready and
prepared for future careers” (California Department of Education, 2013, p.1). CTE teachers need
to see how the standards incorporate technical skills and to be able to use the tools in the CDE
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 73
CTE Curriculum Standards and Framework, such as the anchor standards, pathway standards,
and an academic alignment matrix, when developing CTE curricula, lessons, and assessments.
Using other means to design instruction. Darla acknowledged the CTE standards were
updated by the California Department of Education [in 2013] and she stated she compared her
existing lessons to standards. She also shared her belief that the lessons she created prior to the
release of the updated CTE standards were already aligned to standards. She stated,
I know they changed them [the CTE Standards] a few years ago. It's really easy to just...
even the things that I've done for years, it's easy to align them with the standards that are
already there. When I plan my lessons I look at the standards and it's just, its usually very
simple: "Oh, here. We've got that one, we've got that one, and we’ve got that one."
By stating, “Oh, here. We've got that one, we've got that one, and we’ve got that one,” Darla
alluded to looking at standards after designing her lessons as opposed to during the lesson design
phase; however, the preferred practice is unpacking standards to ensure high-quality standards-
aligned lesson design. Unpacking content standards is defined as the deconstruction of standards
into knowledge and skills and then the identification of learning targets that guide how students
meet learning expectations and the measurement of student learning (Konrad, et al., 2014).
Mary explained that she uses CTE exams to support lesson design, followed by looking
at CTE Standards second. However, this teacher reported the need for more practice in
standards-aligned lesson planning. Mary was aware of the discrepancy in her lesson design; she
admitted more practice is needed in lesson planning using the CTE standards. She said,
...If I created my own lesson, I went first, to CTE exams, see what they are teaching, and
it was about [certain CTE skill sets], that kind of stuff. And then, I went to the state
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 74
standards also, and looked at theirs. I feel like we, I need to do more lesson plans towards
the state standards. I feel like I now understand the [CTE exams] pretty good.
By stating, “I went first, to CTE exams … and then, I went to the state standards” Mary
demonstrated her reliance on CTE exams for CTE technical skills as opposed to looking at the
CTE Standards. This is problematic and shows a lack of knowledge about the standards, because
the Standards include the purpose, context, technical skills, and dispositions students of CTE
need to acquire to be successful in an industry pathway. This information is much more detailed
than can be gleaned from the exams.
In summary, discrepancies in procedural knowledge were revealed when the CTE
teachers described their lesson design process alignment to CTE standards and industry. One
teacher viewed the CTE standards as theoretical and indicated CTE teachers solely designed and
taught skills-based lessons. Other teachers referenced CTE standards as a secondary resource
during CTE lesson planning; their assumptions of pathway skills were based on their prior
knowledge working in industry and/or the CTE exams, which dictated course content and
lessons. Also, some of the teachers admitted the need for more practice designing lessons using
the CTE Model Curriculum Standards and Frameworks. As a result, these teachers demonstrated
gaps in the procedural knowledge of high-quality CTE lesson and program design aligned with
CDE CTE Model Curriculum Standards and Frameworks.
Motivational Influences. CTE teachers need to value pathway program goals; including the
value of ongoing alignment of curriculum to standards and industry
The assumed motivational influence in this study was that teachers need to value the
goals for program improvement, including industry and standards-aligned instruction. Themes
found within the qualitative data were related to CTE teacher utility value of program goals and
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 75
peer collaboration. CTE teachers’ statements indicated having little time for the ongoing
examination of standards and industry-aligned instruction; however, their statements indicated
high utility-value for collaboration with content-alike peers to gain insight on exemplar CTE
programs.
The CTE teachers demonstrated little time for ongoing examination of lessons to
standards and industry. Teacher goals for completing a task is influenced by their motivation
particularly value or interest; this is reflected in the investment or commitment the teacher places
on accomplishing the task (Thoonen, et al., 2011). CTE teachers need to value alignment of their
instruction to industry and the Career Technical Education (CTE) Model Curriculum Standards,
as the standards were intended to assist California educators “in developing high-quality
curriculum and instruction to help ensure that students are career and college ready and to
prepare them for future careers” (California Department of Education, 2013, p.1). The qualitative
data revealed CTE teacher in this study demonstrated having little time for designing lessons
with CTE standards as a primary source for instructional content. Teachers’ comments also
revealed they acknowledged they should be continually aligning their instruction to industry with
the support of industry advisory and that they weren’t doing it or weren’t doing it often enough.
When asked about lesson design aligned to the CTE Anchor and Performance Standards,
Lori stated “...I'll be honest. I probably, I don't specifically look at those, but I know with my
lessons, I know that my students are meeting a lot of them.” This statement demonstrates Lori’s
assumption of “probable” lesson alignment to standards and her lack of time for ongoing
evaluation to ensure alignment. By saying “I know that my students are meeting a lot of them”
Lori showed she wasn’t going to be checking to make sure her assumption was correct.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 76
Stan also described how he aligned lessons to standards for a core subject, but admitted
not thoroughly examining CTE standards for the CTE courses he taught. Stan stated,
For [core subject], I start with the actual standards themselves and align content with the
standards. Does that make sense? But I haven't delved deeply into the new CTE
standards. Just when we had the workshop [district CTE professional development] I did.
By stating, “I haven't delved deeply into the new CTE standards” Stan’s comment demonstrated
lack of time for designing lessons with the new CTE standards, even though he received district
professional development to guide the process. Given the changing nature of Standards, it’s
important for teachers to be motivated to continually refine their lessons by aligning to new
Standards as they are published.
Margaret stated she sometimes consulted a friend, who worked in industry, to determine
if CTE skills meet industry expectations. When asked whether the technical skills she taught
were aligned to industry expectations, Margaret stated,
I guess I look at what we're doing sometimes. I have a friend who works in [industry]. I'll
say, "Hey, we're doing a project where kids are [completing a project]." And she would
have said, "Well, what kind of skills are you having them do?" And then based on that, I
guess we would look at that? I don't know. We don't do it enough to be honest. I mean, I
don't do it enough. I probably should do it more.
Although Margaret acknowledged the need for industry review to ensure skills are aligned to
industry, when she stated, “I guess I look at what we’re doing sometimes,” Margaret
demonstrated little time in examining curriculum alignment to industry. Not reviewing skills for
industry alignment, but knowing it should be done more frequently demonstrates Margaret’s low
motivational interest and investment in time to complete it.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 77
When Darla was asked about how she ensures lessons are industry-aligned, she shared,
I don't know if we, or specifically me, I do that enough. I'm just sometimes flying by the
seat of my pants a little bit which is hard because you don't have that support. If you're a
[CTE] teacher, you still have to go out and get that support. Oftentimes people who work
in the industry don't have the time to help you. We found that with an [CTE] advisory
board. We tried to get people to come to the advisory board to help us to steer our
curriculum. It's like pulling teeth. Oftentimes, if you have somebody that you have that
comes into your classroom and helps you out all the time you don't want to go back and
tap that well again.
By stating, “I don't know if we, or specifically me, I do that enough,” Darla also demonstrated
lack of time, particularly the persistence needed to maintain alignment of instruction to industry
through industry consultation. Her comment that “it’s hard because you don’t have that support”
indicated she felt like she had no organizational support and was not interested in continually
“tapping that well” of industry partners who have been willing to help in the past.
When Stan was asked if he knew whether his courses were industry-aligned; the teacher
admitted not knowing. Stan said,
You know, I don't. I don't have a group of adults, you’re supposed to have three industry
[advisors]. So, when I took my clear credential, you're supposed to have a group of three
people that are from the industry.
By stating, “You're supposed to have a group of three people that are from the industry” Stan
demonstrated knowledge and necessity of industry advisory boards. His previous comment “You
know, I don’t.” demonstrated his lack of time to obtain collaborative relationships with industry
partners.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 78
According to a research study by Thoonen, et al. (2011), teacher ownership and
internalization of a school’s goals and their dedication of time as personal goals are key to
teacher value and motivation. An analysis of interview data revealed CTE teachers demonstrated
lack of time for ongoing examination of lessons to standards and industry. Although teachers
acknowledged the importance of standards and industry alignment instruction and that they
should be aligning more, they demonstrated the lack of commitment and an investment of time in
applying this knowledge to practice, confirming low motivational utility-value for standards and
industry-aligned lessons.
The CTE teachers valued collaboration with CTE pathway-alike teachers; they
would like to learn from high-quality program exemplars to better align their programs.
Collaboration allows teachers to work together to problem solve, provide feedback, share
information, and provide assistance and support on content-related concerns (Thoonen, et al.,
2011). When CTE teachers were asked what they wished they had, interview data revealed
teachers valued collaboration with pathway-alike colleagues; they expressed the desire to learn
from exemplar, high-quality CTE programs; however they also shared meeting date conflicts and
having limited time due to school site obligations.
The CTE teachers value collaboration with CTE pathway-alike teachers. Margaret
shared her desire to collaborate with another pathway-alike teachers and the challenge of being
the only teacher teaching in her CTE specific content-area during school site professional
learning communities (PLC). Margaret explained,
The model that we have doesn't work for singletons. It really doesn't. Example? You can
talk to the dance teacher and she is in with the fine arts people. They've got dance and
ceramics and art and band and choir all lumped together. Those are very, very, very
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 79
different subjects. I mean...Yes, again you can talk about theory, but again when you're
dealing with skills-based, and my skill is not going to be the same as [a] Home
Economics teacher. So how do we work around that? I don't know. I don't have a
solution. Right now, during our PLC time, I sit at a table by myself with another CTE
teacher [different pathway] really often is off doing other things and I do my work. It's a
bummer. I mean, it's great because I have an hour and a half time every week on Tuesday
to plan. But I'm planning by myself again and I've always wanted a partner.
By stating, “I sit at a table by myself” Margaret described her experience as a “singleton”
teacher. She expressed her desire and value for a CTE pathway-alike partner with whom to
collaborate with to discuss specific skills students need to learn to be successful in the pathway
she teaches in.
Darla also had an interest in collaborating with CTE teachers outside of the district. She
said, “I would like to go somewhere in another district to talk to other [content specific
teachers].” Here she communicated wanting to learn from CTE content-alike colleagues, as she
was the only teacher in the district teaching in her CTE content area. Given that going elsewhere
is a lot of work, the fact that Darla would be willing to go out of her way demonstrated her utility
value for this type of collaboration.
Although Mary was not able to attend the quarterly meetings due to her own school site
obligations, she expressed admiration of her colleagues and that she enjoyed collaboration with
them. Mary said,
OK, we're going to collaborate district wide and we're going into all this stuff. Well, they
made these collaboration days on the days that we all have PLC training, but sometimes
your group can't meet because the one teacher has to meet with [their other content
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 80
group] or the other teachers are [supporting school accreditation]. I have not met with my
district PLC since November. It's not anybody's fault. Its just timing is bad. I love to talk
to [CTE pathway colleagues]. They're amazing.
Mary’s statement “I love to talk to [CTE pathway colleagues]” demonstrated her value and
desire to collaborate with CTE colleagues, but shared the challenge of not being able to meet for
district collaboration and training due to school site obligations.
Stan also discussed district’s CTE teacher collaborations during his interview and
communicated similar challenges to participating. He stated,
We get together once a month [at the district collaboration]. I haven't been able to attend
regularly with [school site obligations]. I've been able to sit down one time with two
other [CTE-alike] teachers. It was really short but really beneficial. I look forward to
more of that in the future. That's relatively new in terms of being structured. Regular
enough for me to remember it's being structured.
By stating, “It was really short but really beneficial” Stan demonstrated his value for district
collaborations with CTE colleagues. He believed that there was value to these interactions,
despite not being able to go to as many as he would have liked.
The CTE teachers value learning from high-quality exemplar CTE programs. Lori
expressed her desire to observe CTE program exemplars to model her program after. Lori was
not aware of CTE pathway-alike programs in the local area and referenced a large program in
Northern California. She stated,
You know what, I wish I could see? Programs that are thriving so I might have something
to model my classroom off of, but I'm not even sure if there are many pathways left. I
know Northern California has a big CTE program, but down here... I know a lot of them
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 81
are [in Northern California], when I was doing my research there, you know, haven't seen
a lot of [my pathway] here.
By stating that she wanted to see “programs that are thriving so I might have something to model
my classroom off of,” Lori demonstrated her utility-value and interest in modeling her program
after a “thriving” high-quality CTE program. She even alluded to being willing to go elsewhere,
where her particular pathway was being implemented.
Similarly, Margaret expressed her desire to visit pathway-alike exemplar CTE programs
at neighboring districts. She stated,
I would love to see what those schools are doing that makes them programs of
"excellence." I think that's awesome. What are those other schools? I would love to
compare and contrast. What are their lessons like compared to what we're doing? How
can we change or manipulate what they're doing into something to our programs to make
ours be a center of excellence? I think that to me is, I would have loved to go, if I had the
time, to observe at other schools and see what they're doing in their programs. A couple
years ago, I got to up [to another district's school] to look at what their class was doing. It
just spurred so many ideas for myself. I don't think that these teachers [in the district]
have enough time in our day and schedules to go do that now.
Margaret talked about her interest and value in seeing what other teachers are doing and the
desire to be inspired by “programs of excellence”, high-quality program, like the programs she
visited a few years ago. Willing to go to another district shows that she was willing to look
where needed to shape her own practice.
Mary described what she would like to ask of teachers of exemplar programs, if she had
the opportunity to visit them. She stated,
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 82
What was your thought process behind that? I don't think we as teachers... In general, I
think any teacher should find time to really go do that because you really do become very
reflective of what you're doing in your classroom versus what someone else is doing.
How are their courses aligned to those standards and what they're doing? Why are they
doing that? So, I think maybe that would be a great goal. But again, right now I don't
have the time to leave the classroom to do that.
By stating, “any teacher should find time to really go do that,” Mary demonstrated the value she
placed on observing others, even though time is limited. Also, by saying “you really do become
very reflective of what you’re doing in your classroom,” she was communicating the value of
comparing her program and practices to others’ because it ultimately has the potential to improve
what you do.
The qualitative data revealed CTE teacher low utility-value for CTE standards and
industry alignment, but high utility-value for peer collaboration. The teachers acknowledged the
need to practice lesson design and program alignment to CTE standards and industry
expectations; they stated they should, but are not. The teachers demonstrated low motivation
utility-value based on their lack of interest and persistence needed to start and complete the task
(Rueda, 2011). Saying something is important is insufficient. One must follow through with the
practices. Teacher comments also indicated low utility-value for working with industry pathway
representatives, even though collaboration is needed to ensure proper CTE skills are being
taught. Again, while they showed an understanding of its importance, their comments didn’t
point to them going out of their way to making sure they were aligning their work with support
from industry pathway representatives. Although the CTE teachers stated they valued in
pathway-alike collaboration and the opportunity to model their program after high-quality CTE
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 83
program exemplars, they did not explicitly state the intent of collaboration is to align instruction
to standards and industry.
Organizational Setting Influence 1: The organization needs to provide CTE teachers with
professional development to support understanding and the process of what comprises
high-quality programs
Findings for this section were based on organizational influences identified and analyzed
in the qualitative data. These influences included cultural setting, specifically the organization's
resource of professional development. The cultural setting influences were examined by the
frequency of related responses in the interview data. A theme found within the qualitative data
was the self-reported benefit of the organization’s provision of professional development on CTE
teacher procedural knowledge and instructional practice, especially upon entry into the teaching
profession.
The CTE teachers viewed district professional development as informative and
valuable. Model CTE teacher program training components include support on unit and lesson
planning, lesson presentation, and classroom management with an emphasis on strong academic
core subject matter (Wilkin & Nwoke, 2011). This is important as organizations and people are
not separate. People make up organizations; effective organizations have work processes in
place, including specialized knowledge and skills to ensure success (Clark & Estes, 2008). The
interview data showed CTE teachers felt they benefited from their organization’s informational
meetings and professional development.
Stan stated district training on CTE standards were beneficial. He said, “Once I went to
one that was really beneficial and the ones from the previous two years were beneficial with
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 84
[professional development on] the standards.” In this more general statement, Stan expressed
general satisfaction with the professional development, calling them “beneficial.”
Lori shared Stan’s sentiment regarding how district teacher professional development and
was more explicit about it increasing knowledge of CTE lesson design. She shared how little
information regarding CTE was provided by her school site administration when she was a
newly hired teacher, but received the support through the PD. She stated,
When I started teaching, I would go to our department meetings, but we never really
discussed pathways or how to make a program stronger or ... It was kind of ... I don't
know. I just feel ... We didn't really talk about much. And then, I didn't get much
information from administration. It wasn't until the past few years, [when CTE
professional development was provided] by the district to help us, which I felt like I
learned the most in the past few years.
By stating “It wasn't until the past few years, [when CTE professional development was
provided] by the district to help us that I felt like I learned the most in the past few years,”
Lori demonstrated she learned from the district’s support of CTE programs, including district-
level professional development on the pathway improvement strategies and CTE lesson design.
Given the finding discussed above about the lack of preservice training these teachers had in
CTE, it was important for them to have some inservice training to help them learn what was
necessary for successful CTE implementation.
Margaret described how the district’s accredited Teacher Induction program (formerly
called Beginning Teacher Support and Assessment [BTSA]), “a two-year, individualized, job-
embedded system of mentoring, support and professional learning,” (Commission on Teacher
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 85
Credentialing, 2015), supported her understanding of the process of CTE lesson design. She
stated,
...The BTSA program...taught me how to lesson plan, it really did. And so I think the
teacher credentialing program was not built for classes who are not core classes and
really, honestly it's not built for anybody except for probably English and math teachers
to be very honest. But the Induction Program allowed me [to practice] in my classroom
and experience [lessons] in my classes at that moment in time and had teachers from our
district who were able to be guide us to what we really needed, so I felt it was very
helpful.
By stating the Induction Program allowed for practice “in my classroom and experience [lessons]
in my classes at that moment in time, “Margaret demonstrated the benefit and value of just-in-
time training, especially given her university teacher preparation program fell short in supporting
her procedural knowledge about CTE, a “not core class.” Also, by saying she had “teachers from
our district who were able to guide us to what we really needed,” Margaret made a connection
between the findings above that there was utility value assigned to collaborating with their CTE
peers in other sites and the professional development opportunity they had at the district level.
Margaret also shared the influence of district professional development on CTE lesson
design,
I didn’t know [students needed to] know what their end product is going to be before I
can even start. So, the whole concept of backwards mapping was and so was it is, so key
to CTE...how backward planning is so important to CTE and how often when I was in
that [teacher] training program, I wasn't thinking that way at all. I didn't have [that] until
probably three or four years into teaching.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 86
By stating “I didn't have [that] until probably three or four years into teaching,” Margaret was
describing entering the teaching profession with little procedural knowledge on effective lesson
design but that the district professional development helped her with lesson design.
Organizational culture can support or hinder organizational change; moreover, effective
organizations create a supportive environment that builds their employees’ capacity to do their
job (Clark & Estes, 2008). The finding regarding organizational culture was teachers saw the
benefit and influence of professional development on their knowledge and by extension, their
instructional practice. The CTE teachers interviewed stated district professional development
was informative and beneficial to their understanding of CTE lesson design, especially when
they entered their teaching assignment with gaps in knowledge and understanding of CTE.
Cultural Setting Influence 2. The organization needs to provide program support through
performance monitoring and accountability
Findings for this section were based on organizational influences identified and analyzed
in the qualitative data. These assumed influence was related to the organization’s performance
monitoring and accountability system. The qualitative data highlighted the need for
organizational performance monitoring and accountability on CTE teacher instructional design
and program improvement.
The organizational accountability of CTE programs is variable. According to Schein
(2010), the culture of a high performing organization is maintained by the norms, values, and
practices organizational leaders infuse into their organization. During the interview, CTE
teachers were asked how CTE program goals were monitored. Qualitative interview data
revealed variable levels of CTE pathway performance accountability by the organization due to
local and state accountability placed on the organization. The CTE teachers shared the
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 87
responsibility of CTE goal setting and program improvement was historically placed on the
teachers unless the organization was required to monitor program improvement.
When Stan was asked how school wide, department, and personal goals were monitored,
he shared monitoring was dependent on an administrator’s focus. He stated,
For years, I thought [goals] were written on magical paper that just evaporated as soon as
you turn them in. They are looked at a little more now. This year was an evaluation year
for me. I think last year, when it wasn't [an evaluation year], it was looked at. I had an
administrator years ago that looked at it very closely too, and then we discuss them.
By stating, “For years, I thought [goals] were written on magical paper that just evaporated as
soon as you turn them in,” Stan shared his experience of turning in individual professional goals,
as all teachers do annually, and how those goals were not followed-up for many years. Stan
discussed his belief that the monitoring of individual goals depended on administrator interest
and the cycle of teacher evaluation. His statement of goals being “looked at a little more now,”
reflects the general CTE teacher sentiment about the recent increase in organizational
accountability on teacher performance.
In contrast, Lori stated, “I'm going to be really honest. I don't feel they do,” stating the
belief that there was a lack of organizational monitoring of goals. Margaret deepened this
perspective when she described accountability as being placed on CTE teachers, she stated,
100 percent is put on the teacher because we as a CTE teachers... again, I said this before,
are so prideful of our classes. We try very hard. I think across the board in all the schools
to make sure that our classes are up-to-date, fun, and skills-based so that the kids can
walk away learning and knowing that they're doing industry standard type of stuff. We all
do that on our own. It's like I said, it's not monitored, which is a bummer.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 88
By stating, “We all do that on our own,” Margaret shared accountability is on teachers. She also
shared her desire for increased monitoring and interest in career pathways by the organization,
when she stated, “It's like I said, it's not monitored, which is a bummer.” This statement showed
that she would have liked for it to be monitored.
Mary shared school site administrators did not frequent her classroom to observe
instruction. She stated,
“Not really. They don't even really come in and see what I'm doing… but they do attend
[the end of the student event]... that's pretty much it. I'm way off in the corner at my
school site, so they don't really come and visit; they don't come.
By stating, “They don't even really come in and see what I'm doing,” Mary demonstrated her
concern with the lack of organizational interest in and accountability of her program.
Additionally, by saying “I’m way off in the corner at my school site,” she showed how her
physical space at the margins might be reflective of CTE’s marginalization at her school.
Darla described accountability as variable and dependent on state and local accountability
measures placed on school districts, which is imposed on school sites. The teacher’s statement
reflected the district’s recent focus on CTE improvement due to the California State Board of
Education Accountability Model and Dashboard, “California’s new accountability and
continuous improvement system provides information about how local educational agencies and
schools are meeting the needs of California’s diverse student population based on a concise set
of measures” (California Department of Education, 2018). Darla said,
I never talk to any administrator about my CTE courses, that I can remember, until
recently. Where this push has come up with the whole career pathways have become a
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 89
thing on the dashboard. It's something that we're kind of stressing about. I never had,
except for an administrator helped me write it so it's [UC] a-g approved.
By stating, “I never talk to any administrator about my CTE courses, that I can remember, until
recently” Darla explained a recent shift from little organizational accountability to a focus on
CTE due to the implementation of California Department of Education’s California School
Dashboard, which “shows how districts and schools are performing on test scores, graduation
rates and other measures of student success,” including career pathway completion rates
(California Department of Education, 2018). Also, when Darla stated, “I never had, except for an
administrator helped me write it so it's [UC] a-g approved,” she was comparing the last time an
administrator focused on CTE course improvement, the administrator helped her rewrite and
submit a course outline for the University of California approval for course to be identified by
University of California system as a “academically challenging course, involving substantial
reading, writing, problems and laboratory work (as appropriate), and show serious attention to
analytical thinking, factual content and developing students' oral and listening skills” (University
of California, n.d.). This one time or minimal collaboration with the principal demonstrated the
principal’s lack of focus on Darla’s CTE program.
Stan shared a similar sentiment regarding leadership’s focus being variable and
dependent on state accountability. He stated,
And I think in the past... [Administrators] felt like they needed to focus on the [core
subject areas]. I felt that was a real issue. Why is it? I could be doing anything. No one
ever asked. I could be showing reruns of The Cosby Show and no one would know, but
that has change recently. I keep the door open, I've always been baffled by that. If I were
an administrator, I would want to go to every class at least once a week. It is such a big
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 90
deal when someone comes in when you are getting evaluated only every five years. If
you had to shoot a free throw every five years.
By stating, “…I think in the past... [Administrators] felt like they needed to focus on the [core
subject areas].” Stan was expressing his concern that administrator interest and accountability of
his courses has been low due to the effects of No Child Left Behind, and the focus on core
subject areas. When he stated, “…but that has change recently,” he was referencing to the
influence of the CA School Data Dashboard, which includes a College and Career Indicator that
measure CTE pathway completion rates. Here, too, Stan demonstrated his desire for this new
accountability by thinking about what he would do if he were a school site leader.
The qualitative data analyzed in this section revealed CTE teachers shared the sentiment
that the organization's recent CTE professional development has been valuable and beneficial to
their instructional practice. The CTE teachers also shared how organizational accountability on
CTE program was historically low, up until the recent changes in California school
accountability and reporting which considers CTE program completion as an indicator of student
college and career readiness. The participants in this study welcomed this increased monitoring
and accountability thanks to state initiatives, as it signaled a new focus to CTE programs,
something that was missing in an era where administrators only focused on cores subject areas.
Synthesis
As stated in the introduction to Chapter Four, the purpose of this study was to discover
what supports and prevents secondary CTE pathways to be standards-aligned and industry-
current. The qualitative research findings from this study attempted to address the research
question “What knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors support CTE teachers to
create and maintain high-quality CTE curriculum and instruction?” This study initially intended
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 91
to discover validated and isolated themes within the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences. It is important to note that some of the assumed knowledge and motivation influences
included in Table 3 were not addressed in Chapter Four of this research study, particularly
conceptual and metacognitive knowledge and motivation self-efficacy and goal-orientation.
Interview data revealed study participants did not find those influences to be important and those
did not emerge as themes, even though I was comprehensive in a priori thinking prior to starting
the study.
Research data revealed the organization’s influences on CTE teacher knowledge and
motivation. In other words, what the organization did or didn’t do interacted with the teachers’
knowledge and motivation to meet their goals. The organization’s provision of professional
development and newly adopted performance monitoring and accountability were found to
interact with the influence of CTE teacher procedural knowledge of and motivational utility-
value for standards and industry-aligned instruction. The interview data also revealed the CTE
teachers entered the teaching profession with a gap in procedural knowledge of CTE standards
and industry aligned lesson design. The teachers shared their perception that their traditional
university teacher preparation programs did not adequately support procedural knowledge of
high-quality CTE lesson and program design. One CTE teacher self-reported that the district’s
professional development filled her declarative knowledge gap; while other teachers comments
revealed a procedural knowledge gap was still evident based on their admission of spending little
time aligning classes to standards and the need for continued practice in CTE standards and
industry-aligned lesson design. Teachers’ admission of spending little time examining lessons
and skills to be CTE standards and industry-aligned demonstrated the teachers’ lack of
motivational utility value and interest. This finding is relevant, as teacher motivational utility
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 92
value, particularly interest in and commitment to create CTE standards and industry-aligned
lessons, is needed to meet an organization’s goal of high-quality CTE instruction.
The organization’s CTE professional development and opportunities for teacher
collaboration during district CTE meetings was highly valued by the teachers interviewed,
particularly singleton CTE teachers, who felt like they were working in isolation and could
benefit from seeing how others planned for and implemented high quality CTE programs. This
finding is important as a research study by Thoonen, et al. (2011) found organizational factors
such as opportunities for meaningful collaboration foster teacher motivation to learn. Even
though the teachers did not discuss peer collaboration on the CTE standards or industry
alignment specifically, all stated having a content-alike teacher to collaborate with was
beneficial. Another finding was CTE teachers’ desire to see and be inspired by models or
exemplars of high-quality CTE programs. Reflective of the social cognitive theory, models,
specifically modeling and learning of strategies, promotes creativity and innovation, allowing for
the synthesis of knowledge into practice and increased self-efficacy (Bandura, 2005). The CTE
teachers’ desire to be inspired is a key consideration as organization support for competency
through practice includes with collegial support and a connectedness to others, in order to
increase motivation and interest (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
DTSD’s organizational goal is to provide students with high-quality CTE curriculum and
instruction aligned to industry standards and post-secondary college and career education
expectations. DTSD needs to evaluate its organization’s culture and implement strategies that
continue to mediate CTE teacher procedural knowledge gap and increase motivational utility
value for standards and industry-aligned instruction. The culture or “feel” of an organization
directs and motivates individual within an organization; moreover, if individuals do not change,
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 93
there is no organizational change (Schneider, Brief & Guzzo, 1996). Chapter Five will present
strategies to support CTE teachers and DTSD to meet organizational goals.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 94
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
This chapter discusses the problem of practice based on the literature and findings from
the qualitative research study and proposes implications and recommendations to address the
problem. The goal of this chapter is also to provide insight for future research in regards to
effective CTE programs and instruction and to address the third question that guided this project:
What are the recommendations for teacher practice in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and
organizational resources?
Chapter Four provided findings drawn from an analysis of qualitative interview data and
CTE-related informational resources to address Study Question 2: What knowledge, motivation,
and organizational factors support CTE teachers to create and maintain high-quality CTE
curriculum and instruction? Findings from Chapter Four served as a foundation for Chapter Five,
which discusses the implications and provides recommendations for the problem of practice,
influenced by knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors. The chapter ends with a section
on how future research can build on this study.
Findings and Implications for Practice
Three prevalent findings from Chapter Four reflect identified influences from the
literature: procedural knowledge and motivation utility-value, and the organizational setting
influences of professional development and accountability, along with the interactions among
those concepts. The findings from this study informed the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences that facilitate or impede CTE teachers from achieving high-quality
curriculum and instruction aligned to industry standards and post-secondary college and career
technical education expectations. Furthermore, the findings may inform what prevents or
supports CTE teachers in making necessary and ongoing program improvements to ensure their
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 95
CTE programs are high-quality programs that prepare students for post-secondary college and
career. At the organizational level, the findings from this study may have implications for
districts looking to improve career technical education courses and program content as well as
instructional quality. Organizations may want to consider how organizational influences can
better support CTE procedural knowledge and motivation.
Finding 1: CTE Teacher Procedural Knowledge. Procedural knowledge themes from
Chapter Four included the CTE teachers had limited access to university CTE teacher education
and professional development and the CTE teachers were uncertain on the process of how to
design standards and industry-aligned lessons. Also, teachers did not see how the standards fit
into a pathway and they used other means to design instruction. During the interview, four of the
five CTE teachers stated their university teacher education did not equip them for CTE-specific
program and lesson design. As discussed in the Chapter Two Literature Review section of this
dissertation, NCLB resulted in the decline of CTE teacher university preparation program,
greatly reducing teacher access to CTE specific training (Fletcher, 2006); CTE teachers who
completed a traditional university teaching program shared their program did not provide
training in career technical education and CTE standards-aligned instruction. This was also
reflected in CTE teacher statements regarding their lack of procedural knowledge, the how to, of
creating high-quality CTE programs including standards and industry-aligned lessons in their
initial years in the teaching profession. Also, the CTE teachers acknowledged they should be and
were not doing enough standards-aligned lesson planning; they acknowledged a gap in
procedural knowledge and expressed the need for continued practice. CTE teachers need to know
not only the what of industry knowledge and skills, but the how of aligning instruction to CTE
standards and industry to ensure secondary students exit high school equipped with the
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 96
knowledge and skills to be successful in a career pathway. Organization implications include
providing CTE teachers with the support to increase procedural knowledge of CTE standards and
industry-aligned lesson design. Motivation drives individuals to pursue a task; utility value
includes knowing the purpose of, having interest in, and having commitment to complete a task
(Thoonen, et. al., 2011). Organizations can better support CTE teachers to develop knowledge
and understand of how to create high quality, standards and industry-aligned instruction.
Finding 2: CTE Teacher Motivation: Utility-Value. The effort individuals are willing
to expend on a task is the product of the degree to which they are expected to succeed and the
degree to which they value the task and their success (Eccles, 2006). Utility-value, a component
of task value is the perceived usefulness of a task to present and future goals (Eccles, 2006).
Findings related to CTE teacher motivational utility-value included the CTE teachers
demonstrated having little time for ongoing examination of the alignment of lessons to standards
and industry and the CTE teachers valued collaboration with CTE pathway-alike teachers; they
would like to learn from high-quality program exemplars to better align their programs.
Interview data revealed teacher felt they had little time to commit to standards and industry-
aligned instruction. Although collaboration and examination of program exemplars may inspire
teachers, the CTE teachers need to invest time to make ongoing updates to their CTE instruction
to ensure career pathway alignment to industry skills and demands. According to a research
study by Thoonen, et al., (2011) teacher value of a goal is demonstrated by the effort and
commitment to internalize school goals as personal goals; those teachers feel a strong moral
responsibility to improve organizational performance. Increasing the utility-value of a task
requires an individual's evaluation of the credibility of the task, their recognition of the need for
performance improvement, and the perception of the practicality and ease of transfer of the task
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 97
(Grossman & Salas, 2011). Potential organizational implications include the need for
organizational support of CTE teacher understanding of the purpose and lesson alignment to
standards and industry or CTE high school students may lack the industry knowledge and skills
needed to pursue a CTE pathway postsecondary college or career.
Finding 3: Organization Cultural Setting. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest efficient and
effective work processes and resources provided by an organization support workplace
performance and must be aligned to organizational goals to be effective. Moreover,
organizational resources are necessary to achieve goals and aid individuals as they perform
essential job-related tasks (Clark & Estes, 2008). Cultural setting influences examined in this
research study include DTSD’s ability to support CTE teacher understanding and the process of
what comprises high-quality programs and the ability to provide program support through
performance monitoring and accountability. This is important, as organizational cultural settings
are the complex, social context of an organization, which unconsciously and consciously defines
what individuals valued and influences what is achieved (Rueda, 2011).
Research findings related to Organization Cultural Setting were that the CTE teachers
viewed district professional development as informative and valuable. However, the
organizational accountability of CTE programs was variable. Interview data revealed teachers
found district CTE teacher professional development to be informative; many stated they learned
more about the CTE and the components of high-quality programs in the last few years than ever
in their career. This sentiment mirrored the finding that the majority of the teachers did not
complete CTE-specific teacher education before going into the teaching profession. Teachers
found the district’s recent CTE training to be beneficial; moreover, they expressed the desire for
more professional development and collaboration with CTE colleagues. Organizational
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 98
implications include the early identification of teachers who may need CTE professional
development and the need for ongoing CTE professional development to maintain teacher
knowledge of CTE standards and industry-aligned lesson and programs. Teachers also stated
organizational accountability of program instructional quality and alignment to industry and
standards was typically placed on the teacher and was unmonitored. Teachers expressed the
desire for more organizational awareness of what was being taught to students. There was a
promise related to the new call for more accountability driven by state dashboard requirements.
Recommendations for Practice
Procedural Knowledge
Procedural knowledge was found to be the most frequently mentioned knowledge
influence during interviews, and identified as a priority for achieving stakeholder goals and as
supported by literature reviews. Knowledge is comprised of the how, when, why and where of
information. Clark and Estes (2008) suggested that procedural knowledge and application, the
“how to,” is needed to design, implement, and achieve goals. To reduce uncertainty, the
organization needs to continue to provide the CTE teachers professional development to support
procedural knowledge on how to design high-quality, academically rigorous CTE curriculum.
Because procedural knowledge is the step-by-step knowledge an individual must have,
individuals be provided opportunities to accomplish tasks (Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). Prior
knowledge needs to be assessed based on identified performance goals; and supports need to
connect to existing expertise (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). Furthermore, opportunities must be
provided that allow for the practice of skills and skill integration to know when to apply what is
learned to develop mastery of a task (Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). This is important as training
can remediate procedural knowledge gaps and increase competence when opportunities for
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practice and application are provided (Clark & Estes, 2008). Therefore, it is recommended that
the organization provide training that allows CTE teachers to identify procedural knowledge
gaps and how to organize, design, and implement CTE standards and industry-aligned
curriculum based on their prior knowledge of instructional design. Also, it is recommended that
training incorporate standards-aligned CTE lesson design through guided practice and feedback.
Successful training includes providing individuals with a “how to” guide and providing guided
practice (Clark & Estes, 2008). Clark and Estes (2008) suggest that feedback during guided
practice corrects performance mistakes and enhances goal achievement. Given the findings that
it wasn’t until after teaching for a few years that CTE teachers got some training, it is also
recommended that the training be provided soon after teachers begin working in their respective
fields.
According to Mayer (2011), transfer is the effect of prior knowledge and understanding
to accomplish new tasks. Professional development needs to meaningfully connect key concepts
to participant prior knowledge to transfer and promote the training into automaticity (Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006), particularly procedural knowledge of CTE lesson design. To support CTE
teacher understanding of how the standards fit into a pathway, teacher training should consider
the CTE teachers’ prior knowledge and incorporate modeling of procedural practices, provide
guided practice, and include constructive coaching (Clark & Estes, 2008; Mayer, 2011).
Professional development, as well as engagement in self-monitoring and self-assessment, can
increase learning and retention during learning (Baker, 2006). The practice of procedural
knowledge and skills coupled with feedback and reflection will reduce CTE teacher uncertainty
and increase fluency with standards CTE lesson design to create high-quality lessons. This would
ensure teachers utilize the appropriate means to design instruction and ultimately support the
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 100
organizational goals of preparing students for college and careers.
Motivation Utility-Value
The motivational influence of utility-value was found to be a high priority based on the
frequency of research participant reference to motivational influences during semi-structured
interviews. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest motivational facets that influence performance
include active choice, persistence, and mental effort. CTE teacher motivational value of pathway
program improvement goals was evaluated and identified as a motivational gap. CTE teachers
need to value pathway program goals including the value of ongoing alignment of curriculum to
standards and industry. The CTE teachers demonstrated little time for ongoing examination of
lessons to standards and industry; moreover, they indicated they should be continually aligning
instruction to standards and industry, but were not doing so at the time of the study. They also
stated value for collaboration with pathway-alike teachers and showed interest in learning from
exemplar programs. In regards to time, individuals with a high-perceived value for a task view
the potential outcome of a task worth of effort and perseverance (Grossman & Salas, 2011).
Sharing the importance and purpose of a task promotes positive value and development of the
task (Eccles, 2006; Pintrich, 2003); CTE teachers needed to know the importance and purpose of
standards-aligned instruction to increase their motivation and desire to allocate time to examine
and conduct ongoing updates to their program and lessons to be aligned to standards and industry
expectations. This suggested administrators and CTE professional development providers needed
to model enthusiasm and show interest in CTE programs to increase CTE teacher positive task
perception and understanding of the purpose of CTE instruction. Because the CTE teachers
valued collaboration with peers and the desire to learn from exemplary programs, modeling can
include examples of high-quality programs and success of other CTE teachers. Therefore, it is
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recommended that the organization remind CTE teachers of the purpose of CTE and why they
need to teach industry-relevant content; this needs to be supported by data regarding student
learning outcomes and credible examples of successful pathway-alike programs to foster positive
values regarding program improvement goals. Also, positive values, interest, and enthusiasm for
program improvement need also to be modeled by CTE professional development trainers and
peers to increase CTE teacher value of program goals. Communication of the purpose and
benefit of a task, as well as the provision of an incentive after goal attainment will encourage the
development of CTE teacher task utility-value. Although utility-value of a task is necessary for
individuals to determine tasks worthy of effort, the examination and identification of
organizational cultural setting influences was also necessary.
Organization Cultural Setting
The influence of the organization’s cultural setting on CTE teacher goals was examined
based on the frequency of times it was mentioned during interviews. Organizational culture,
including the attention, emphasis, and value for certain processes, has the potential to drive
change and influence stakeholder beliefs and values (Clark & Estes, 2008). Professional
development was identified as an influence on teacher understanding of what comprises a high-
quality CTE program, while performance monitoring and accountability were identified as an
influence on program improvement and maintenance of high-quality programs. The CTE
teachers viewed the professional development they had received as informative and valuable;
they stated they benefited from their organization’s informational meetings and professional
development, which filled knowledge gaps and understandings about what comprises high-
quality CTE programs. As such, the organization needs to maintain organizational resources,
including professional development opportunities, to continue building CTE teacher
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understanding of what comprises a high-quality CTE program. This recommendation is
important, as building and maintaining the capacity of an organization, including the capacity of
its stakeholders, is crucial to organizational improvement and accountability (Hentshe &
Wohlstetter, 2004). A supportive environment focused on goal setting aligned to performance
tasks can promote engagement in learning (Pekrun, 2011).
The second assumed organizational influence was the need to provide program support
through performance monitoring and accountability. CTE teachers shared that organizational
accountability of CTE programs was variable. It is recommended that the organization increase
accountability through the monitoring and evaluation of the program’s effectiveness and the use
of valid and reliable data to drive decision-making (Clark & Estes, 2008). The learning,
motivation, and performance of an organization are enhanced if participants have clear, current
and challenging goals. Moreover, feedback that is timely, concrete (task focused) and goal-
focused also needs to be provided (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). It is recommended that the
organization foster a learning environment for teachers and define how that environment
connects to the organizational success and student learning outcomes. It is also recommended
that the organization use data, such as program alignment to industry expectations, student
pathway completion rates, and student post secondary CTE enrollment and career outcomes to
help CTE teachers understand the strengths and weaknesses of their pathway programs. This is
important as school effectiveness and student-learning outcomes are linked to the quality of
instruction (Thoonen, et al., 2011). To encourage motivation, it is recommended that the
organization provide timely, concrete, goal-focused and pathway program-focused feedback to
CTE teachers. The organization should also affirm CTE program improvements and the
accomplishments of CTE teachers by using data and recognizing and celebrating their work.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 103
Also, it is recommended that the organization ensure that performance appraisals are fair and
routine, and based on merit.
Future Research
This research could be replicated at other school districts to compare CTE teacher
knowledge and motivational influences with other existing organizational models and settings to
support the identification of factors that promote the creation and maintenance of high-quality
CTE program. Alternative research approaches may further highlight influences on CTE teacher
and inform organizations interested in ensuring CTE program offerings provide students with
high-quality CTE instruction aligned to CTE standard and industry expectations. For example,
future research could incorporate both qualitative and quantitative methods. This particular
research study examined one school district and a small sample of CTE teachers. Future research
could extend this study to a larger sample of CTE teachers across multiple school districts,
combining both qualitative data, such as interview and observation, and quantitative research
methods, such as surveys, to create a more comprehensive and in-depth understanding of
university CTE teacher education, new teacher professional development experiences, and
comparison to program quality. Another consideration is conducting CTE classroom
observations to examine CTE teacher procedural knowledge more explicitly by comparing
interview data with observational data and student artifacts. This research study could also be
replicated and modified to include all CTE pathway teachers, including those not included in this
research study criteria, CTE teachers who provide science, technology, engineering and
mathematical integrated CTE instruction such as engineering, biomedical science, or computer
science. Lastly, finding from this research study can be used to inform university teacher
preparation program of the need for improved CTE teacher education programs, specifically, the
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 104
expectation of CTE standards alignment and ongoing alignment of program content to industry
skills and innovative technological advances. Inclusion and comparison of the knowledge,
motivation and organizational influences of different CTE teachers and their pathway could
bring further insight for organizations, whether secondary or post-secondary level of education,
looking to make improvements to CTE program quality.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Gap Analysis Approach
The Clark and Estes (2008) the Gap Analysis Model provided a thorough structure and
method for the examination of CTE teacher knowledge and motivation, and organizational
influences, as well as suggesting recommendations for organizational improvement. The
framework model proved to be a useful guide for the analysis of assumed influences within the
qualitative data. However, the Gap Analysis Model proved to be a challenge for a small
sampling of research participants when analyzing and organizing interactions between
knowledge, motivation and organizational influences such as the influence of CTE teacher
knowledge on CTE teacher motivation or organizational influences on CTE teacher motivation.
Another example of Gap Analysis Model weakness was the generalization of influences into
clearly defined categories when multiple influences were found to contribute to findings.
Limitations and Delimitations
Ensuring an adequate number of CTE teacher research participants was a challenging
aspect of this study as the total population of CTE teachers in the organization, as in most school
districts, was low due to their specialized teaching assignment. This research study was
originally planned for seven teachers who matched the participant criteria; however, only five
agreed to participate. Fortunately, the quality and depth of the five interviews provided a
saturation of qualitative data for several of the possible influences identified in my original
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 105
conceptual framework. However, it is important to note that the findings of the research study
did not address all of the influences due to limited interview data collected even though
interview prompts were designed to encourage participant response to those influences. Another
limitation was the qualitative data collection approach I used in this study. All interviews were
conducted online using Google Hangout which allowed for face-to-face conversation and the
higher possibility of stakeholder availability and participation at their convenience. Although
facial expressions, including eye contact, were visible, not all body language such as gestures
were apparent, as such, the off-screen nonverbal cues were not included in the data collected. In
person interviews may have yielded better qualitative data. It is also important to note, as
included in the methods section, that CTE teachers under my supervision at my school site were
not invited to participate in the research study. Although their participation would have increased
the total number of participants by three, I made the decision to remove those interview
candidates to reduce potential researcher influence on participant responses. While familiarity
allowed for depth in interview dialogue and data, the readers of this research study should be
aware that the existence of shared identity and prior history of interaction with the five research
participants possibly affected the type of data shared by the interview participants.
In regards to delimitations, I initially set out to complete a qualitative study that gathered
interview and observational data for analysis, but ended up solely focusing on interview data due
to the challenge of examining CTE teacher competency through observations when the
participants varied in CTE specialization instruction. Although the California Department of
Education “11 Elements of A High-Quality CTE Program” self-evaluation tool was considered
as an observation evaluation tool, the concern was the accuracy of an observation by a researcher
not well versed in all of the participant career pathways and the industry skills and instructional
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 106
methods. Also, another factor with observations was not having enough time to complete both
extensive interviews and observations. Also, the inclusion of surveys was another initial
consideration, but eliminated due to the small sample size; however, specific knowledge survey
questions could have been asked and used to support research findings from interviews had
survey methods been appropriate for the context and population size.
Conclusion
As discussed in the literature review section of Chapter Two, the era of No Child Left
Behind (NCLB) accountability from 2002 to 2015 focused on the improvement of core subject
area instruction, such as math, science, and English Language Arts; however, there were minimal
references to career preparation in NCLB, and the sustainment and improvement of CTE was not
prioritized. The transition of NCLB to Every Student Succeeds Act in 2016 brought with it an
update of K-12 education accountability measures to include CTE as an indicator for high school
student college and career readiness. Selecting CTE as a topic for my research study could not
have had better timing when I set upon my educational journey, as CTE became a national focus
during my graduate studies. At the start of my study, school districts across the United States
began to shift priorities, due to targeted CTE grant funding offered at the federal and state level,
including funding intended to build CTE programs and make program improvements.
Improvements to CTE programs included ensuring CTE offerings were academically rigorous,
project-based learning opportunities that were industry skill-aligned. The expectation included
rigorous, high-quality CTE programs, which are cross-curricular, incorporating core subject
matter, as well as, student acquisition of professional skills, such as collaboration, teamwork,
critical thinking, and problem solving. During the six years that I worked as a CTE educator, I
taught over 1,000 high school students what I knew from my own formal education and
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 107
experience working outside of education. The high school years are a time of student self-
discovery of strengths and interests prior to entering adulthood. Many students excelled in my
classes, finding their purpose and passion, eventually continuing on to pursue post-secondary
education and career in the same pathway, while others gained technical professional soft skills
from completing CTE courses. As an educator, I challenged myself to stay apprised with the
latest, innovative advances in technology, maintaining industry technical skills and integrating
pathway trends into my courses. I felt the tension to stay current and often wondered what other
CTE teachers were doing and how they maintain currency after so many years away from
industry. This research study was inspired by this notion, as well as, my experience working with
new teachers and CTE teachers, and the inclusion of career technical education in California
Department of Education Data Dashboard as an indicator of high school student college and
career readiness.
The intent of this qualitative research study was to investigate how CTE teachers and
their organizations maintain CTE program offerings to be high-quality career exploration and
preparation programs that prepare high school students for post-secondary education and the
workforce. CTE teachers were selected as the participants for this study as they have a
significant influence on what is taught in CTE course; moreover, they bring industry sector
professional training and work experiences to education as they design lessons and hands-on
technical experiences, and provide instruction to high school students. Utilizing the Clark and
Estes’ Gap Analysis Model (2008), this research study investigated factors that support and
prevent teachers from making ongoing program improvements. These factors included CTE
teacher knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences. Recommendations provided were
based on research findings and the Clark and Estes’ framework, and related educational
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 108
psychology research, particularly those that focused on knowledge, motivational and
organization factors on organizational performance improvement. High-quality secondary CTE
programs build student interest and skills in a high-demand and high-wage industry pathway;
although CTE teachers are responsible for the design of their programs, organizations can
support teachers to build and maintain CTE programs of value by providing teacher in-service,
professional development and performance monitoring and accountability. Although CTE
teachers need to have knowledge of what comprises high-quality CTE programs, organizations
can provide professional development that build teachers’ understanding and application of
knowledge to the process of designing lessons aligned to instructional standards and industry
expectations. Also, CTE teachers need to be motivated to manage their time and examine
whether their instructional content is high-quality CTE instruction; organizations can build CTE
teacher purpose and value for the content being taught by providing opportunities for meaningful
collaborations and examination of program exemplars, and by recognizing program successes.
When high school students are enrolled in and complete a sequence of high-quality CTE
courses, they leave high school better prepared for post-secondary college and careers having
explored and gained content-specific professional and technical skills. When CTE teachers and
programs are supported by their organizations, high school students are better prepared to enter
the world as a productive member of society.
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 109
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OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 120
Appendices
Appendix A: CDE CTE “11 Elements of a High-Quality CTE Program” 121
Appendix B: Interview Protocol 128
Appendix C: Document Record 131
Appendix D: USC Information Sheet for Research 132
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 121
Appendix A
California Department of Education
Career Technical Education (CTE)
11 Elements of a High-Quality CTE Program
Self-Review Tool
Update 09/15
1. LEADERSHIP AT ALL LEVELS
Yes No What is being Assessed Evidence
1A. The CTE pathways are articulated with post-secondary
and industry through programs of study, formal
articulation agreements and dual enrollment.
● Dual Enrollment information
● Articulation Agreements
1B. Local district administrators participate in CTE
professional development regarding the benefits of CTE
and the management of CTE within the larger context of
educational improvement to serve all students.
● Dates and Names of Activities
1C. Investment is made to provide support for CTE leadership
at the local level to ensure that CTE administrators,
teacher(s), and counseling and instructional leaders have
sufficient time and resources to implement system
improvements and work with their counterparts in other
programs.
● Dates and Names of Activities
Comments:
2. HIGH-QUALITY CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION
Yes No What is being Assessed Evidence
2A. The CTE Model Curriculum Standards are the basis for
content of courses offered. Curriculum addresses
"Pathway" standards within the program pathway(s) and
course sequence.
Course Outlines
Course Catalog
Local CTE Plan
Review Curriculum Document
2B. 2B. Career paths have been identified and can be found on
a chart or diagram in the CTE Plan.
Local CTE Plan
2. HIGH-QUALITY CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION cont.
Yes No What is being Assessed Evidence
2C. The CTE program has classroom-linked work-based
learning and work experience education opportunities
through strengthened industry partnerships, effective
coordination with Regional Occupation Center/Program
(ROC/P), adult schools, Work Experience Education, and
Cooperative Work Experience Education programs, and a
systematic review of policies and practices addressing
barriers to access, including insurance, liability, and other
issues.
● List of Work Based Learning
(WBL) Sites
● Percentage of Students
Participating
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 122
2D. The school master schedule allows students to follow the
recommended sequence of CTE courses to complete the
selected career path(s).
● Master Schedule
● Course Catalog
2E. Students are provided with a strong experience in and
understanding of all aspects of industry.
● WBL Experiences
● Review Curriculum Document
● Lesson Plans
2F. Technology is incorporated into program instruction. ● Program-Based Software
● Program-Related Technology and
Advanced Equipment
2G. There is collaboration between academic and CTE
teachers.
● Agenda
● Minutes
● Sign-In Sheets
2H. CTE courses are industry certified, have been submitted to
meet high school graduation requirements, University of
California a-g (UC a-g) credit, or articulated with a
community college.
● Copy of Certification or Licensure
● Copy of UC A-G Approval List;
Articulation Agreements
Comments:
3. CAREER EXPLORATION AND GUIDANCE
Yes No What is being Assessed
Evidence
3A. Students are counseled regarding: ● List of Activities
● List of Career Path Information
Sent to Parents, Counselors and
Students
● CTE career opportunities.
● CTE and academic courses necessary to
complete career pathway offerings.
● Post-secondary education and training options.
3B. All students have a completed a four year career plan that
is updated annually.
● Lesson Plans
● Example of Student Four Year
Plan
Comments:
4. STUDENT SUPPORT AND STUDENT LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT
Yes No What is being Assessed
Evidence
4A. An official Career Technical Student Organization (CTSO)
has been chartered (or in application process) by the State
Association.
● CTSO Document
● Agenda/Minutes/Sign-In Sheets
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 123
4B. A local CTSO work plan is developed annually and a copy
is furnished to local administration.
● CTSO Work Plan
4. STUDENT SUPPORT AND STUDENT LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT cont.
Yes No What is being Assessed Evidence
4C. Leadership activities are embedded in the CTE curriculum. ● List of Leadership Activities
o Lesson Plans
o Curriculum
● Percentage of Students
Participating
● Evidence of Student Achievement
● List of Student Organization
Involvement In Community or
School Related Activities
4D. All students enrolled in CTSO's are affiliated with the
State Association.
● Local CTSO Roster
4E. Program meets the needs of special population students
(including special education, English learners, non-
traditional students, and the general student population).
● Student Completion Rates
● Student Placement Results
● Catalog of Support Services
● Retention Rates
● Mentors, Role-Models, Etc
4F. Students are made aware of non-traditional CTE offerings
and pathways that lead to high skill, high wage, or high
demand careers.
● Promotional Materials
● Student Placement Results
● Counseling Materials
Comments:
5. INDUSTRY PARTNERSHIPS
Yes No What is being Assessed
Evidence
5A. The Local CTE Advisory Committee is operational and
reflects the committee membership as outlined in the
California Education Code §8070 and meets at least once a
year.
● List of Advisory
o Members
o Titles
o Industry
● List of Educators
● Agenda/Minutes/Sign-In
● E-mails
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 124
5B. Business/industry is involved in student learning activities. ● List of Activities –
o Job Shadowing
o Speakers
● Percent of Industry Participation
5C. Business/industry is involved in the development and
validation of the curriculum.
● List of Advisory Members and
Industries
● Agenda/Meeting Minutes/Sign-In
Sheets
5D. Labor market demand has been documented for the
Program.
● Labor Market Projections
5E. There are industry certification standards and certificates
for students who achieve industry recognized skill and
knowledge requirements.
● Copy of Certification Standards
● Percentage of Students Receiving
Certification
Comments:
6. SYSTEM ALIGNMENT AND COHERENCE
Yes No What is being Assessed
Evidence
6A. A Program of Study, with a post-secondary institution, has
been developed.
● Industry Sector/Career Pathway
Identified
● Articulation, UC A-G, Technical
School Sequence Documents
6B. Sufficient time is provided for faculty to build cross-
segmental and cross-disciplinary collaborations aimed at
aligning curricula and programs, as well as models, tools,
and professional development to facilitate pathway
development.
● Meeting Dates for Collaboration
Time with Others in Identified
Sequence
● Documents Identifying Sequence
6C. Each CTE program sequence will include at least one
district-funded CTE course in the industry sector.
● Local CTE Plan
● Fiscal Records
Comments:
7. EFFECTIVE ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN
Yes No What is being Assessed
Evidence
7A. Opportunities provide for better use of after-school,
extended-day, and out-of-school time for career
exploration, projects, and WBL connected to in-class
curricula.
● Percentage of Students Who
Participate
● List of WBL Activities
● Signed WBL Agreements
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 125
7B. There are open-entry/open-exit strategies where feasible,
in ways that maintain the integrity of CTE courses and
course sequences and comply with industry requirements;
structure and sequence curriculum in modules or “chunks”
tied to jobs with multiple entry and exit points, and with
multiple levels of industry-recognized credentials built into
the sequencing of the pathway.
● Program Plans
● Counseling Materials
● Programs of Study Documents
7. EFFECTIVE ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN cont.
Yes No What is being Assessed Evidence
7C. Provides education and training for students and
incumbent workers at times and locations convenient to
students and employers, including non-traditional time or
methods.
● Distance Learning Activities
● Internet CTE Research Project
Completed by Students
Comments:
8. SYSTEM RESPONSIVNESS TO CHANGING ECONOMIC
DEMANDS
Yes No What is being Assessed
Evidence
8A. Mechanisms are in place that systematically track labor
market demands, maintain the currency of occupational
classifications, and ensure that teachers and counselors are
informed of new developments in their fields.
● Minutes Showing
Business/Industry Input Into
Curriculum And Programs
8B. There is sufficient funding to cover costs of necessary
equipment and facilities.
● Documented Costs Over Last 2
Years
● Assessment of Ongoing Costs
8C. There is a partnership among local businesses and local
workforce development and educational organization to
provide consistent and reliable data about the regional
economic and labor markets for planning programs.
● Labor Market Reports for both
Regional and Global
● Advisory Committee
Minutes/Agendas
Comments:
9. SKILLED FACULTY AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Yes No What is being Assessed
Evidence
9A. Every CTE teacher has the appropriate credential for
teaching the subject(s) assigned as well as documented
employment experience outside of education in the
program area taught.
● Approved by Local Credential
offices
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 126
9B. Based on the previous year’s records, every CTE teacher,
teaching at least half time CTE, attends a minimum of four
professional development activities.
● List of Teacher Technical
Development Activities Such as
Staff Exchange, Technical
Conferences, Industry Certification
Training, Etc.
9C. The CTE staff meets a minimum of twice a month. (This
criteria does not apply to single person departments - mark
column N/A = Not Applicable.)
● Staff Meeting Minutes
9D. A written record of minutes of action taken during CTE
staff meetings is kept in Department files.
● Staff Meeting Minutes
Comments:
10. EVALUATION, ACCOUNTABILITY, AND CONTINUOUS
IMPROVEMENT
Yes
N
o What is being Assessed
Evidence
10A. A District CTE Plan is on file with the local
administration and a copy is retained in the local
department files.
● Local Plan Files
10B. Updates of the CTE Plan are sent to the local
administrator by February. These updates include: (1)
Five Year Equipment Acquisition Schedule; (2) Chart of
Staff Responsibilities; (3) CTSO Program of Work; (4)
Advisory Committee Roster.
● Meeting Notes
● Improvement Plan
10. EVALUATION, ACCOUNTABILITY, AND CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT cont.
Yes No What is being Assessed Evidence
10C. Enrollment report (CDE 101-E1)
● All CTE courses are properly identified in data
system (including new courses).
● Enrollment figures and reports are reviewed by:
o Site Staff and district CTE staff
o Site and district advisory committees
● Completed and submitted by October 15 to the
CDE.
● CDE Records
● Local Data System
● Meeting Notes/Minutes
10D. A follow-up system (including membership in California
Partnership for Achieving Student Success [CALPASS])
is used which gathers the following information from
program completers:
● Student placement status in postsecondary
education or advanced training, in military
service, or in employment.
● Opinion regarding the value and relevance of
the CTE program.
● Suggestions for improving the CTE program.
● CDE Records
● Meeting Notes/Minutes
10E. Graduate Follow Up/Placement Report (CDE 101-E2)
The Graduate Follow Up data collected and presented to
the CDE by March 15.
● CDE Records
10F. The CTE Department analyzes their student retention
numbers each year and develops strategies to help
increase retention within the program.
● Meeting Notes
● Advisory Agenda/Minutes
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 127
10G. All Core Indicators meet or exceed the State level targets. ● Meeting Dates, Discussion Points
10H. The Expenditure Reports (CDE 101-A and VE-5) are
received by the CDE by September 30.
● CDE Records
● Interview of District Fiscal
Representative
Comments:
11. CTE PROMOTION, OUTREACH, MARKETING, AND
COMMUNICATION
Yes No What is being Assessed
Evidence
11A. The CTE program has a recruitment brochure or similar
document used to promote the program.
● Copy of Plan
● Date and Type of Activities such
as Web Page, Career Fairs, Open
House, Serving on Program
Related Committees, Etc.
11B. The CTE Department(s) conduct recruitment activities. ● Copy of Plan such as Feeder
School Meetings
Comments:
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 128
Appendix B
Interview Protocol
Introductory statements
Thank you for being here _________. How was your day at school, etc.? Your time and
commitment to be here is greatly appreciated. As I mentioned to you over the phone I am
conducting a research study on how K-12 districts can sustain career pathway programs and
discover what supports CTE teachers to build high-quality CTE programs. You were invited to
participate in this study, as one of the teachers in DTSD that hold a CTE credential and teach in a
non-STEM CTE pathway.
All readily identifiable information has/will be removed from this study. Your participation in
this study is voluntary and your identity will remain confidential; a pseudonym will be used in
place of your real name.
Would you be O.K., if I recorded this conversation? (Once participate agrees, recording begins
prior to the following question being recorded). This will ensure I honor your time and record
accurate information. I can share a copy of the interview transcript if you would like. You can
ask to stop recording at anytime. May I have your verbal approval to participate in this interview
and study? This information sheet includes everything I just stated. Do you have any questions
for me before we begin?
Introductory (warm-up questions to ease the interviewee):
1) How long have you been teaching?
a) What initially got you interested in teaching?
b) Can you share the classes and content you teach?
c) What other duties do you have at the school, if any?
d) How did you become involved in career and technical education or CTE?
e) What was your profession before you became a teacher (if they were industry)
Thank you for sharing your background and why you became a high school teacher. The next
sets of questions will ask you to share your insights on what CTE is, how you design lessons and
reflect on instruction.
Knowledge
2) If someone was to ask you what career and technical education is, what would you say?
3) Please describe how your teacher preparation program prepared you for a career as a CTE
teacher, if at all.
a) What were some things you learned in that program about CTE?
b) What do you wish your teacher preparation provided you about CTE that it didn’t, if
anything?
Conceptual
4) What are the key characteristics of a high-quality CTE curriculum?
a) When you hear of “industry aligned” what does that make you think of?
5) What are the key characteristics of high quality CTE instruction?
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 129
a) If I walked into a CTE classroom what should I see?
b) What would the students be doing?
c) What would the instructor be doing?
6) Describe a typical lesson you develop for a class.
a) What are the key components of the lesson?
7) How do you know when a CTE Program is a good program?
Procedural
8) How do you design high-quality curriculum?
a) Walk me through the steps of developing a lesson.
b) How do you ensure that the curriculum is academically rigorous?
c) What are some key elements that make a curriculum rigorous?
9) How do you ensure alignment to CTE Model Curriculum Standards and Frameworks, if at
all?
a) What are challenges to aligning the curriculum to the standards, if any?
10) Describe how lessons are aligned to career pathway technical and soft skills, if at all?
11) How does the curriculum then get implemented through instruction?
a) Walk me through a typical day in your class.
b) What do you do and say?
c) What do the students do and say?
Metacognitive
12) How do you know if lessons are aligned to CTE standards and industry expectations?
13) What do you think about after you have implemented a lesson as it relates to the lesson
itself?
a) How do you reflect on the lesson you designed, if at all?
b) What do you do as a result of this reflection, if anything?
14) What criteria do you use to judge whether the lesson was a good one?
a) How do you know if a lesson helped with career readiness?
b) How do you know if a lesson helped with college readiness?
15) What do you think about after you have implemented a lesson as it relates to the instruction?
a) How do you reflect on the lesson you implemented, if at all?
b) What do you do as a result of this reflection, if anything?
The next sets of questions will ask you to reflect and share insights on CTE programs goals,
values, and what you hope for your program. Just a reminder, you can ask to stop recording at
anytime.
Motivation
Self-efficacy
16) Tell me about the last time you felt like you were accomplishing the program goals through
your curriculum.
a) How do you know the goals were being accomplished?
17) Tell me about a time when you felt less confident that you were accomplishing the program
goals through your curriculum.
a) How do you know the goals were not being accomplished?
18) How would you say your confidence in the curriculum influences your ability to accomplish
the program’s goals?
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 130
Utility Value (Expectancy-Theory)
19) What are your thoughts about the value of aligning instruction to college?
a) What are your thoughts about the value of aligning instruction to career?
b) Some people say that schools should prepare students for college, not career. What are
your thoughts on that?
Goal orientation (Mastery Goal)
20) What skills or knowledge are you hoping your students exit the CTE program with?
a) What are your goals for the program?
b) What are some areas where the program needs to improve to move closer to the goals, if
any?
21) How do you continually improve the program, if necessary?
This last set of questions will ask you to reflect and share insights on how the district and your
school sites support your program. As mentioned before, you can ask to stop recording, if
needed.
Organization
Leadership
22) What is DTSD’s vision for CTE at the high schools, if at all?
a) How was the vision determined?
23) How are improvement goals for CTE programs communicated, if at all?
a) How are CTE goals determined? By whom?
b) How is CTE considered in school and district planning, if at all?
Resources
24) What kind of CTE professional development is provided to you, if at all?
a) How well do they prepare you to teach CTE?
b) What are some strengths of the professional development?
c) What are some areas in need of improvement with the professional development?
d) What kind of professional development do you wish you could have, if at all?
25) How does your school site support your programs, if at all?
a) How are instructional resources acquired if needed?
b) What kind of support or resources do you wish you could have?
Performance Monitoring and Accountability
26) How does the district (or your school sites) monitor CTE programs?
a) How does the district (or your school site) monitor instructional improvement goals, if at
all?
b) How does the district (or your school sites) monitor program alignment to standards?
c) How does the district (or your school sites) monitor program alignment to industry?
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 131
Appendix C
Document Record
● Handout
● Online instructions - URL_____________________________________________
● Photo instructional environment
● Photo of instructional equipment
● Materials
Description Document:
Notation
Usefulness/Relevance for the Study
OVERCOMING THE CTE SILO 132
Appendix D
USC Information Sheet for Research
University of Southern California
Information Sheet for Research
Overcoming the CTE Silo
You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Sue Key at the University of Southern California.
Research studies include only people who voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about
this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you. Please read through this form and ask any
questions you might have before deciding whether or not you want to participate.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Research studies have found student participation high-quality career technical education improves graduation and
post-secondary success rates. California Department of Education Accountability Model & School Dashboard’s
College/Career Indicator, contains both college and career measures, include Career Technical Education (CTE)
Pathway completion.
With state and federal focus on CTE and the recent influx of grant funding to ensure districts sustain, enhance, and
expand high-quality career pathway programs, this research study aims to understand what supports CTE teachers
and programs to meet post secondary college and career expectations.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to take part in a 40-minute audiotaped interview where
questions will be asked either in person or over the phone. The interview may require follow-up clarifying questions
by phone. You do not have to answer any questions you don’t want to; if you don’t want to be taped, handwritten
notes will be taken.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will receive a $50 gift card for your time and participation in this research study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. Your responses will be
coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. At the completion of the study, all interview
transcripts and audio recordings will be destroyed once they have been transcribed. If you do not want your data
used in future studies, you should not participate.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection Program
(HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of
research subjects.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Sue Key at skey@usc.edu or
(310) 901-7026.
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the research in general
and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone independent of the research team,
please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
“CTE programs are dynamic
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Key, Sue S.
(author)
Core Title
Overcoming the career technical education silo: an evaluation case study
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)
Publication Date
11/09/2018
Defense Date
10/22/2018
Publisher
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(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
11 Elements of a High-Quality CTE Program,accountability,California Commission on Teacher Credentialing,California Data Dashboard,California Department of Education,career pathway,career technical education,Carl D. Perkins,Clark and Estes,college and career,College and Career Indicator,college and career readiness,cross-curricular,CTE,CTE Model Curriculum Standards and Frameworks,CTE program effectiveness,CTE teacher,CTE teacher preparation,CTE teacher qualifications,CTEIG,cultural model,cultural setting,Designated Subjects CTE Credential,ESSA,Every Student Succeeds Act,expectancy-theory,gap analysis,High School,high-quality CTE,improving career technical education programs,industry partnerships,industry pathway,industry-aligned,K-12 education,knowledge, motivation and organizational influences,learning and motivation theory,mastery goal,mentorships,NCLB,No Child Left Behind,OAI-PMH Harvest,ongoing professional development,performance monitoring,Perkins,procedural knowledge,professional development,project-based,qualitative study,regional occupation centers,secondary education,standards-based,utility-value,Vocational Education
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committee chair
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committee member
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Tags
11 Elements of a High-Quality CTE Program
accountability
California Commission on Teacher Credentialing
California Data Dashboard
California Department of Education
career pathway
career technical education
Carl D. Perkins
Clark and Estes
college and career
College and Career Indicator
college and career readiness
cross-curricular
CTE
CTE Model Curriculum Standards and Frameworks
CTE program effectiveness
CTE teacher
CTE teacher preparation
CTE teacher qualifications
CTEIG
cultural model
cultural setting
Designated Subjects CTE Credential
ESSA
Every Student Succeeds Act
expectancy-theory
gap analysis
high-quality CTE
improving career technical education programs
industry partnerships
industry pathway
industry-aligned
K-12 education
knowledge, motivation and organizational influences
learning and motivation theory
mastery goal
mentorships
NCLB
No Child Left Behind
ongoing professional development
performance monitoring
procedural knowledge
professional development
project-based
qualitative study
regional occupation centers
standards-based
utility-value