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Building a spatial database of biochar research and practice with Web-GIS

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Building a Spatial Database of Biochar Research and Practice with Web-GIS

by

Michael Edward Babcock

A Thesis Presented to the
Faculty of the USC Graduate School
University of Southern California
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science
(Geographic Information Science and Technology)

May 2019

Copyright © 2019 by Michael Edward Babcock

To my parents William and Waleen Babcock

iv

Table of Contents
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iv
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ ix
List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... x
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 13
1.1. Background and Motivation .............................................................................................. 13
1.1.1. Biochar and Climate Change ...................................................................................... 13
1.1.2. Biochar Applications .................................................................................................. 14
1.1.3. Biochar System Suitability ......................................................................................... 19
1.1.4. Potential for Biochar Web-GIS Applications ............................................................. 20
Chapter 2 Related Work and Literature Review .......................................................................... 22
2.1. Web 2.0 and Volunteered Geographic Information ........................................................... 22
2.2. Web Mapping Applications for Social and Environmental Monitoring ............................ 24
2.2.1. Web-GIS Case Examples for Social and Environmental Monitoring ........................ 25
2.2.2. Biochar and Spatial Analysis Case Example .............................................................. 28
2.2.3. Biochar Database Case Example ................................................................................ 29
2.2.4. Biochar Web-GIS Case Example................................................................................ 29
Chapter 3 Application Development ........................................................................................... 31
3.1. Application Development Steps and Workflow ................................................................ 32
3.1.1. Application Development Steps ................................................................................. 32
3.1.2. Application Workflow ................................................................................................ 33
3.2. User Requirements ............................................................................................................. 34
3.3. Software ............................................................................................................................. 35
3.4. Publishing Feature Services ............................................................................................... 38
3.5. Web Services ..................................................................................................................... 39
3.6. Platform.............................................................................................................................. 40
3.7. User Input........................................................................................................................... 40
v

3.8. Application Outputs ........................................................................................................... 43
Chapter 4 Results ......................................................................................................................... 44
4.1. Web Page for the BfAMT .................................................................................................. 44
4.2. BfAMT Mobile and Web App User Scenarios .................................................................. 46
4.2.1. Esri’s Collector for ArcGIS Mobile App .................................................................... 46
4.2.2. The Biochar for Agriculture Mapping Tool Web-GIS App ....................................... 49
4.3. BfAMT User-Generated Content ....................................................................................... 58
4.4. The BfAMT Web App Mobile Phone Interface ................................................................ 61
4.5. Managing Coded Domains and Feature Class Fields in ArcMap 10.6 .............................. 62
4.6. Help Resources .................................................................................................................. 63
4.7. App Evaluation / Testing ................................................................................................... 63
4.7.1. Subjects ....................................................................................................................... 63
4.7.2. Design of User Survey ................................................................................................ 64
4.7.3. Timeframe for Beta-Testing ....................................................................................... 65
4.7.4. Evaluation of the BfAMT Web-GIS and Mobile Apps .............................................. 65
Chapter 5 Conclusions and Future Work ..................................................................................... 74
5.1. Summary Description of the BfAMT ................................................................................ 74
5.2. Challenges in BfAMT App Development ......................................................................... 74
5.3. Strengths of the BfAMT .................................................................................................... 76
5.4. Limitations of the BfAMT ................................................................................................. 78
5.5. Promotion and Extension of the BfAMT ........................................................................... 78
5.6. Future Work ....................................................................................................................... 81
5.7. Broader Impact................................................................................................................... 82
References ..................................................................................................................................... 83
Appendix A: BfAMT Text Fields and Coded Attribute Domains with Values ........................... 87
Appendix B: BfAMT Collector Mobile App Screenshots and Workflow ................................... 91
Appendix C: BfAMT Web-GIS App Help Instructions ............................................................... 97
Appendix D: BfAMT Online Google Survey Questionnaire ..................................................... 101

vi

List of Figures
Figure 1. Clockwise from top left: Pyramid kilns with flame curtain, cone kiln containing wood
biochar, in-ground pit for making biochar, Amazonian Dark Earths, finely processed
biochar, Jolly-Roger oven made from a 55-gallon steel drum .............................................. 17
Figure 2. Clockwise from top left: Women tilling biochar into topsoil, biochar applied around a
coffee tree’s dripline, TLUD Champion stove with cooking tripod, TLUD Champion stove
combustion chamber containing corn cob biochar, biochar compost applied to young coffee
trees, small twig biochar ........................................................................................................ 18
Figure 3. Workflow for implementing the BfAMT web app and integrating it with the Collector
for ArcGIS mobile app .......................................................................................................... 34
Figure 4. Entity-Relationship Diagram of the BfAMT enterprise geodatabase. Coded domains
are displayed as tables of coded values rather than entities. In contrast, the ‘BfAMT
Attachment’ table is displayed as an entity ........................................................................... 42
Figure 5. BfAMT web page showing heading, summary description, and web app screenshot .. 45
Figure 6. BfAMT web page showing hyperlinks to the BfAMT web app and online survey
questionnaire, and the beginning of the video tutorial section .............................................. 45
Figure 7. Automated point feature collection in Collector ........................................................... 46
Figure 8. Manual point feature collection in Collector ................................................................. 47
Figure 9. Collection of point feature attribute domain data in Collector ...................................... 47
Figure 10. Point feature attribute data submission and basemap selection in Collector............... 48
Figure 11. Editing point feature attributes and attaching photos in Collector .............................. 48
Figure 12. BfAMT web app interface help graphic ...................................................................... 49
Figure 13. BfAMT ‘Contribute Data’ widget for adding point features....................................... 51
Figure 14. BfAMT feature pop-up window with attribute fields and active drop-down menu .... 52
Figure 15. BfAMT ‘Chart Tool widget’ showing biochar cropping system pie chart results and
coffee production sites ........................................................................................................... 53
Figure 16. BfAMT ‘Search Biochar Sites’ widget showing the search tasks and search results
windows for coffee growers .................................................................................................. 54
Figure 17. BfAMT ‘Select Biochar Sites’ widget showing the ‘Attribute Table’ and ‘Options
Menu’ for exporting feature attributes as a Microsoft Excel CSV file ................................. 55
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Figure 18. Biochar sites symbolized by Organization Type or Individual ................................... 58
Figure 19. Biochar sites symbolized by Primary Biochar Project Type ...................................... 58
Figure 20. Biochar VGI sites (11 total) ........................................................................................ 61

viii

List of Tables
Table 1. BfAMT coded attribute domains and text fields ............................................................ 41
Table 2. BfAMT web app and web page URLs............................................................................ 44
Table 3. Selected point feature attributes (columns) from the BfAMT web app. Only example
point features (rows) created by the author were included in the output .............................. 57
Table 4. BfAMT user-generated content or VGI .......................................................................... 60
Table 5. User responses to Questions 1-11 of the BfAMT survey questionnaire......................... 67
Table 6. User responses to Questions 12-17 of the BfAMT survey questionnaire....................... 69
Table 7. User responses to Questions 18-20 of the BfAMT survey questionnaire....................... 71
Table 8. User responses to Questions 21-27 of the BfAMT survey questionnaire....................... 72
Table 9. User responses to Questions 28-31 of the BfAMT survey questionnaire....................... 73

ix

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my thesis advisor Dr. Jennifer Bernstein for her interest, feedback,
and encouragement, my committee members Dr. Jennifer Swift and Dr. An-Min Wu for their
interest and guidance, Systems Administrator Richard Tsung for his technical assistance, 2017
MSGIST graduate Kelly Wright for her useful suggestions, Dr. Paul Anderson for his input, and
members of the International Biochar Initiative for their participation. Lastly, I would like to
thank my parents William and Waleen Babcock for their love and support.

x

List of Abbreviations
AGOL ArcGIS Online

ADE Amazonian Dark Earths

API Application Programming Interface

BfAMT Biochar for Agriculture Mapping Tool

BMP Best Management Practice

CFEP Chigoe Flea Eradication Project

C Carbon

CH4 Methane

CO Carbon Monoxide

CO2

Carbon Dioxide

CSS Cascading Style Sheets

CSV Comma Separated Values

ERD Entity-Relationship Diagram

FTP File Transfer Protocol

GHG Greenhouse Gas

GIS Geographic Information Science or System
GPS Global Positioning System
HTML Hypertext Markup Language

HTTP Hypertext Transport Protocol

IBI International Biochar Initiative

IDW Inverse Distance Weighted

IRB Institutional Review Board

xi

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

JSON Javascript Object Notation

Land PKS Land Potential Knowledge System

MCDM Multi-Criteria Decision Model

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

NMVOC Non-Methane Volatile Organic Carbon

NOx Nitrous Oxide

OGC Open Geospatial Consortium

RDBMS Relational Database Management System

REST Representation State Transfer

SAAS Software-As-A-Service
SQL Structured Query Language

SSI Spatial Sciences Institute
TLUD Top-Lit Updraft
URI Uniform Resource Identifier
USC University of Southern California
VGI Volunteered Geographic Information
WAB Web App Builder
WFS Web Feature Service

WISDOM Woodfuel Integrated Supply/Demand Overview Mapping

WMS Web Mapping Service

WRB World Reference Base for Soil Resources

xii

Abstract
Climate change poses increasing risks to the world’s ecosystems and agricultural systems
as greenhouse gas emissions are contributing to the unprecedented warming of the biosphere.
One mechanism for capturing and storing carbon dioxide (CO2), a primary greenhouse gas, is the
production and application of biochar, or carbonized biomass created in an oxygen-limited
environment. The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) identifies
biochar as stable organic carbon that can increase soil carbon sequestration, resilience, and
fertility. Biochar researchers and enthusiasts have worked to identify scenarios that are
conducive to the application of biochar and maximize its potential benefits. Researchers have
addressed biochar feedstock, production technologies, physical and chemical properties, and
biochar’s potential in energy generation, environmental remediation, resource management, land
rehabilitation, and agricultural production. The Biochar for Agriculture Mapping Tool (BfAMT),
which integrates Esri’s Collector for ArcGIS mobile application with a stand-alone web
application developed with Esri’s Web App Builder (WAB), was designed to collect and display
volunteered geographic information (VGI) about biochar agricultural sites on a global scale.
With its editable feature services and map-driven forms, the BfAMT allows users to document
their site-specific research and experimentation with biochar, thereby creating a geodatabase of
biochar project locations, site attributes, and file attachments that facilitates research,
coordination, and information sharing within the biochar community. Feedback from biochar
users who beta-tested the BfAMT and completed an online survey questionnaire are presented
and discussed. Recommended improvements offered by first-time users help guide the
development and customization of the BfAMT as a workspace, spatial database, and promotional
tool for local, regional, and global biochar activities.
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Chapter 1 Introduction
Global warming and climate change pose increasing risks to the world’s ecosystems and
agricultural systems as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the burning of fossil carbon
sources (e.g., petroleum, natural gas, and coal) are contributing to unprecedented warming of the
biosphere. The consequences of a temperature increase of 1°C above pre-industrial levels are
being manifested in the form of more extreme weather events (e.g., hurricanes, floods, droughts,
and fires), rising sea levels, and diminishing Arctic sea ice (IPCC Press Release 2018). Further
consequences of global warming include ecosystem disturbances, like loss of habitat and the
spread of disease vectors (Babiker et al. 2018), and decreased agricultural production linked to
the degradation of soil organic matter (Lal 2006).
An emerging technology in global efforts to address the impacts of climate change is
biochar. Draper (2018, 1) defines biochar as “a solid material obtained from thermochemical
conversion of biomass in an oxygen-limited environment”. More generally, biochar is
carbonized organic material that is intended for use as an agricultural soil amendment. Chapter 1
provides background information on biochar and its potential to sequester carbon, reduce GHG
emissions, and improve soil fertility.
1.1. Background and Motivation
1.1.1. Biochar and Climate Change
In October of 2018, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)—the United
Nations body that assesses science related to climate change—released a Special Report (SR1.5),
entitled “Global Warming of 1.5 °C”, or IPCC SR1.5, highlighting climate change impacts that
could be avoided if global warming is limited to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels. The IPCC’s
SR1.5 report warns that limiting global warming to 1.5 °C will require a swift, far-ranging, and
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unprecedented societal transition to ensure that CO2 emissions are reduced by 45% (from 2010
levels) by 2030 and become ‘net zero’ by 2050 (IPCC Press Release 2018, 1-2). One mechanism
for capturing and storing carbon dioxide (CO2), a primary greenhouse gas, is the production and
application of biochar.
In Chapter 4 of the IPCC SR1.5 report (Babiker et al. 2018), biochar is mentioned in
Section 4.3.7. (Carbon Dioxide Removal) and subsection 4.3.7.3. (Soil Carbon Sequestration and
Biochar). The IPCC identifies biochar as recalcitrant (i.e., very stable) organic carbon that can
increase soil carbon sequestration, resilience, and fertility. Although the IPCC report considers
biochar’s benefits as potentially significant at local scales, it questions the impact that biochar
will have on global carbon sequestration. Reasons given include “a lack of large-scale trials of
biochar applications to agricultural soils under field conditions”, perceived “limitations in
biomass availability”, and possible constraints on the “maximum safe holding capacity of soils”
(Babiker et al. 2018, 48). However, the report does not consider alternative uses for biochar,
including its incorporation as a material in bio-engineering (e.g., water management, wastewater
treatment, solid waste management, and building construction).
1.1.2. Biochar Applications
Biochar technology was practiced to varying degrees by ancient agricultural societies
(Cornelissen et al. 2016), although its potential as an agricultural soil amendment and carbon
sequestration method has only been studied for the last ten to fifteen years. Thousands of years
ago, agricultural societies of the Amazon Basin in South America established a system of
amending their acidic, nutrient-poor tropical soils with organic waste, human waste, and charred
biomass (Lehmann et al. 2006). This process resulted in physical and chemical soil conditions
that served as the basis for sustained agricultural production. Today, these cultural soils of the
15

Amazon Basin are colloquially known by their Portuguese name Terra Preta de Indio, or
Amazonian Dark Earths (ADE). Biochar applications are not limited to acidic, tropical soils, and
could be most beneficial for amending previously cultivated, degraded soils with low organic
matter content, coarse texture, and poor water and nutrient retention (Lehman and Joseph 2009;
Scholz et al. 2014; Sohi et al. 2010).
Biochar is a highly porous material with a variable surface charge for nutrient adsorption
and a high internal surface area (i.e., porosity) that serves as a substrate for microorganisms and
a sink for water and nutrients (Lehman and Joseph 2009). It can be produced from “waste”
biomass sources, does not require expensive equipment or electricity to produce, and is resistant
to physical and chemical breakdown. After raw biochar is pulverized into small particles, it is
typically enhanced with nutrients, microorganisms, and minerals to improve soil properties and
resource use efficiency (Draper, 2018).
The two major thermochemical conversion technologies used to make biochar are
gasification, which allows for the presence of some oxygen, and pyrolysis, which effectively
excludes oxygen (Draper 2018). After pyrolysis between 250°C and 600°C, about 50% of the
carbon (C) contained in biomass, which is 40-50% C by weight, is converted to stable C in the
form of biochar, which contains 70-80% C (Lehmann and Joseph 2009). The conversion
efficiency of biomass-C to biochar-C using simple kiln techniques (50%) far exceeds the amount
of soil carbon retained after biomass burning (3%) and natural decomposition (< 10-20% after 5-
10 years) (Lehmann et al. 2006). Thus, according to Lehmann et al. (2006), the conversion of
biomass to biochar fundamentally transforms C sequestration dynamics and leads to a much
higher C content in soil than the application of un-charred organic matter.
16

The relatively smoke-free pyrolysis process used to produce biochar is energy efficient
and releases few pollutants during the conversion of biomass to stable carbon. Thus, biochar
technology could provide economic and health benefits to the approximately 2.4 billion people
worldwide who depend on woodfuel resources to cook and heat their homes (FAO 2017).
Biochar cookstoves (made from tin, clay, brick, steel, etc.) have been developed that can produce
biochar from dried biomass (e.g., small-diameter twigs, corn cobs, nut shells, rice husks, and
straw fabricated into pellets) and use the generated heat for cooking. Greater quantities of
biochar can be produced using top-lit updraft (TLUD) ovens, retorts (i.e., sealed vessels), and
flame curtain kilns that can be loaded with large-diameter feedstocks (e.g., tree branches, woody
shrubs, bamboo, and fruit stones). Thus, the potential for using cooking devices and low-cost
ovens and kilns to produce biochar locally for use in agricultural applications could be
substantial. Figure 1 below contains photos of low-cost biochar production devices, biochar, and
biochar-amended soils of the Amazon Basin (i.e., Amazonian Dark Earths), and Figure 2 below
contains photos of biochar, biochar-soil applications, and biochar cookstoves.
According to Cornelissen et al. (2016), flame curtain pyrolysis is an effective method for
the combustion of pyrolysis gases. Flame curtain kilns, also known as flame cap kilns, are
fabricated from steel or brick into cone-, pyramid-, cylinder-, and box-shaped devices for
producing biochar (Wilson 2018). They can also be made by forming a pit in the ground. A small
pile of wood is generally placed in the bottom of the kiln (or pit) and then lit at the top. After the
initial wood burns to coal, new wood is added until a flame curtain develops across the entire
surface of the kiln. This flame curtain serves to exclude oxygen and preserve older layers of char
(Wilson 2018). Cornelissen et al. (2016) demonstrated that flame curtain kilns emitted
significantly lower amounts of combustible gases and particles—including carbon monoxide
17

Figure 1. Clockwise from top left: Pyramid kilns with flame curtain, cone kiln containing wood
biochar, in-ground pit for making biochar, Amazonian Dark Earths, finely processed biochar,
Jolly-Roger oven made from a 55-gallon steel drum
18

Figure 2. Clockwise from top left: Women tilling biochar into topsoil, biochar applied around a
coffee tree’s dripline, TLUD Champion stove with cooking tripod, TLUD Champion stove
combustion chamber containing corn cob biochar, biochar compost applied to young coffee
trees, small twig biochar
19

(CO), methane (CH4), aerosols (i.e. suspended particles - PM10), non-methane volatile organic
carbon (NMVOC), and nitrous oxides (NOx)—compared to traditional kilns used to make
charcoal fuel from biomass. Other studies have demonstrated that pyrolysis systems for cooking
and charcoal-making can produce 75% less deleterious gas emissions (mainly CO, CH4, and
aerosols) than traditional systems (Cornelissen et al. 2016).
Wilson (2018) sees biochar as an emerging technology that provides an outlet for
biomass generated from farm and forest management operations (e.g., woody debris, crop
residues, invasive species, and livestock manure) with benefits that include the addition of a
long-lasting carbon source to depleted soils and a potential revenue source for low-income, rural
communities. In addition to farm and forest management, biochar has potential in wastewater
treatment, stormwater management, mitigation and sequestration of toxic substances, and
inclusion in building and packaging materials (Wilson 2018; Draper 2018). Furthermore,
biochar’s ability to 1) mitigate the release of GHGs from soil, 2) co-produce energy at the local
level, 3) sustain healthy populations of beneficial soil microbes without the need for continued
inputs like inorganic fertilizers and pesticides, and 4) remove carbon from the atmosphere by
converting biomass to stable carbon resources are some of the reasons why biochar has been
presented as a viable carbon management and climate change adaptation strategy (Draper 2018;
Wilson 2018; Latawiec et al. 2017; Scholz et al. 2014).
1.1.3. Biochar System Suitability
Biochar’s beneficial properties and agricultural benefits have been the subject of ongoing
research and experimentation as biochar researchers and enthusiasts have worked to identify
scenarios that 1) are conducive to the application of biochar and 2) serve to maximize its
potential benefits. Research topics have addressed biochar feedstock, biochar production via
20

pyrolysis, biochar’s physical and chemical properties, and how different biochars might interact
with various soil properties and agricultural management practices. Variables like feedstock
type, production method, biochar properties, soil properties, and crop type can interact in
unpredictable ways that produce variable results. Understanding and defining the relative
importance of these variables helps to identify scenarios that are compatible with the production
and use of biochar within agroecosystems (Scholz et al. 2014).
1.1.4. Potential for Biochar Web-GIS Applications
Since 2006, an increasing number of individuals, non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), government agencies, and research institutions have conducted research into
experimental biochar applications and their differential effects on soil properties and crop yield.
Significant research has been carried out in the United States, Europe, Australia, and China; with
international development projects implemented in Central and South America, Southeast Asia,
and Africa. Many biochar researchers and practitioners share their knowledge and project work
through the International Biochar Initiative (https://www.biochar-international.org/), Yahoo’s
Biochar Group (https://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/biochar/info), and the Biochar Journal
(https://www.biochar-journal.org/en/home). As a visitor to these sites, it can be difficult to keep
track of member contributions, which could include their identity, organizational affiliation,
geographic location, type of biochar project, and project details. Although discussion threads
archived on the Yahoo Biochar Group website are searchable by author, subject, message, and
date, they are not indexed by topic or georeferenced by location.
A web-GIS application that accepts volunteered geographic information (VGI)—and
includes options for attaching photos, document files, and social media links—would provide a
platform for learning the location and activities of individuals and institutions involved in
21

biochar research, experimentation, and practice. A web application focused on collecting and
displaying biochar VGI should include the following: 1) a geodatabase (i.e., spatial database)
containing information on biochar activities and site attributes, 2) a map service showing the
location of formal biochar research and/or site-specific activities, and 3) user-generated content
(i.e., VGI) that is searchable and exportable. The Biochar for Agriculture Mapping Tool
(BfAMT), which is presented in Chapter 3, was designed to meet these three objectives.

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Chapter 2 Related Work and Literature Review
With one recent exception (Salo et al. 2018), no web-GIS mapping applications have been
developed to host information pertaining to biochar projects; be they focused on land restoration,
waste management, climate change mitigation, or agriculture. Therefore, a discussion of related
work will also focus on existing web-GIS applications that have design features and functionality
that match the intended structure and objectives of the Biochar for Agriculture Mapping Tool
(BfAMT). Biochar database and spatial analysis case examples will also be discussed.
2.1. Web 2.0 and Volunteered Geographic Information
Over the last 10 years, there has been a rapid and profound transformation in how
geographic information is collected, stored, and dissemintated. Several terms have been used to
describe this phenomenon, including web 2.0, crowdsourcing, citizen science, and volunteered
geographic information (Sui et al. 2013). Elwood et al. (2012) define volunteered geographic
information (VGI) as geographic information that is voluntarily collected and shared with others
to provide information about the geographic world, with novices, volunteers, and experts all
playing a role. VGI systems have emerged as a complementary means of spatial data production;
using the Internet and multiple computing devices and platforms (including desktop computers,
cloud computing, global positioning system (GPS) devices, and smart phones) to create, share,
visualize, and analyze geographic information (Sui et al. 2013). Sui et al. (2013) think geospatial
data falls within the context of big data, or the ever-expanding universe of data that is being
assembled, geographically referenced, and linked to digital networks.
Goodchild (2007) remarked that developments in VGI are contributing to the reversal of
top-down approaches in how geographic data are gathered and distributed. For example, web
applications like Wikimapia and OpenStreetMap have produced information on landmarks and
23

roads where none existed previously. Wikimapia and OpenStreetMaps are examples of VGI that
serve to complement or augment framework data (e.g., landmarks, roads, and hydrography)
commonly used for administrative programs, wayfinding, geopositioning, and geotagging
(Elwood et al. 2012). Non-framework data include citizens’ observations of conditions, events,
activities and their locations. In some cases, VGI can be used to formulate research hypotheses
and develop conceptual frameworks (Elwood et al. 2012).
Feick and Roche (2013) claim that engaging in VGI activities is a good way for
individuals or groups of people to develop their spatial skills. They argue that the geosocial value
of VGI is dependent on the data’s intrinsic value and the socio-technical processes that go into
producing and using it. Although VGI is mostly open-source and available to the public,
inequalities exist regarding its global distribution and accessibility. These inequalities include
different levels of Internet access and the affordability of electronic devices relative to earned
income. VGI projects that target a global audience should be attentive to these issues and
consider using multiple platforms for reaching out to those living and working in different socio-
economic and socio-technical contexts.
As a data source, VGI’s value has been challenged for lack of expert oversight, absence
of professional standards, and spatial data uncertainty. Elwood et al. (2012) pointed out that VGI
does not carry the same data quality assurances of conventional GI that was produced with
authoritative products by trained experts. Goodchild (2012) discussed a general lack of quality
assurance and expert oversight in VGI data and introduced three methods (i.e., crowdsourcing,
social, and geographic) for accepting or rejecting volunteered contributions. Feick and Roche
(2013) recognized that the quality of collaborative VGI datasets varied significantly among
volunteered contributors and that it’s complicated to assess data quality using standard measures
24

of accuracy and completeness. However, they argued that VGI is generally motivated by
personal interests and local/experiential knowledge, which results in the creation of unique
datasets that meet the needs and objectives of individuals and/or organizations. Thus, VGI can
have the effect of building individual and community capacity (i.e., improved social networks)
over short periods of time. Along these lines, Elwood et al. (2012) suggested that VGI data
quality should be measured by the number of peers who have reviewed or edited its content.
Biochar proponents and practitioners cover a range of backgrounds and skill types that
include: academic researchers, policy promoters, government agencies, non-profit/community
organizations, humanitarian/aid organizations, farmers, and backyard enthusiasts. Those with
and interest in reporting their biochar activities are typically professional and non-professional
scientists. Many individuals and organizations involved in biochar research and practice would
like to know: 1) what information is available on biochar projects, and 2) what activities are
taking place in their area or region. Thus, a spatial database of biochar activities, site attributes,
and documentation would help individuals and organizations search for projects that match their
level of interest, expertise, and/or research needs.
2.2. Web Mapping Applications for Social and Environmental Monitoring
Web-GIS applications store and display georeferenced social and environmental data
(collected by academics, professionals, citizen scientists, and volunteers) in an interactive
mapping environment. Spatial data that is accessible through web-GIS apps can be viewed,
edited and analyzed using open-source GIS software like QGIS and GRASS GIS, or proprietary
software like Esri’s ArcGIS Desktop and AGOL services.
25

2.2.1. Web-GIS Case Examples for Social and Environmental Monitoring
Hurliman et al. (2011) described a global database for mapping, control, and surveillance
of neglected tropical diseases that involved the identification and authentication of geographic
locations, prevalence study data, and literature relevant to a specific disease parasite,
schistosomiasis. They reviewed multiple data sources for their ability to provide georeferenced,
open-access information that can be queried to identify study locations, literary sources, and
survey-specific attributes. The database and web-GIS app interface were designed so that
administrators could: 1) enter and edit existing data, 2) mask confidential data as requested by
authors, and 3) enable direct communication between researchers (Hurliman et al. 2011). Users
can search records using different selection criteria (e.g., by country, document category, disease,
and journal) and download records for research and monitoring purposes.
Another web-GIS app and database for mapping disease prevalence was developed by
Wright (2017) as part of a global disease management strategy targeting the flea Tunga
penetrans, which causes an epidermal parasitic skin disease called tungiasis. Wright’s thesis
titled “Web-GIS as a Disease Management Workspace: Enabling Advocacy at Multiple Scales
Across Multiple Continents with the Case of Tungiasis” involved the development of two
separate apps, the Chigoe Flea Eradication Project (CFEP) and the Tungiasis eLibrary. The
overall objective of the web apps was to foster sharing of epidemiological data in support of
international aid workers, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and health professionals
working to manage tungiasis on a global scale (Wright 2017).
The CFEP developed by Wright (2017) was designed to demonstrate the suitability of
web-GIS as a collaborative workspace that uses VGI to monitor and control tungiasis, whereas
the objective of the Tungiasis eLibrary was to create a general disease profile for tungiasis that
could be used to define its spatial distribution and provide a World Health Organization policy
26

pathway for its classification as a neglected tropical disease. The Tungiasis eLibrary serves as a
relational geodatabase for tungiasis-related journal articles that are displayed on a web map.
App users contribute georeferenced, peer-reviewed publications that they are asked to categorize
by focus (e.g., epidemiology, public health, and medicine). Users contribute VGI in the form of
their own, or others’, published or unpublished work. Sources of unpublished literature include
conference proceedings, government and NGO whitepapers, and spatial data. The CFEP allows
community aid to track the provision of field surgeries, shoes, and medicine; record patient
demographic data; and document the use of pesticides in sleeping shelters and communal areas.
At a regional scale, aid groups involved in tungiasis prevention and education are invited to
provide contact information and delineate their service boundary on a map using the CFEP web
app interface (Wright 2017).
Web mapping tools have also been developed to display environmental data, including
maps of soil-plant evapotranspiration and woodfuel resources. Masera et al. (2006) developed a
spatially explicit method for assessing local wood energy supply and demand patterns using a
variety of sources that include forestry, energy, and socio-economic information. The Woodfuel
Integrated Supply/Demand Overview Mapping (WISDOM) application can display the spatial
distribution of woodfuel consumption by fuel type, user category (e.g., household vs industrial)
and type of demand. It can also be used to identify woodfuel priority areas—as a function of
socio-cultural, technical, and environmental variables—where the demand/supply balance
indicates an immediate or future deficit.
Baumann (2013) described GIS tools developed by eLEAF that use complex algorithms
to calculate plant water requirements, soil moisture, and biomass production per pixel. The
eLEAF model uses satellite imagery to calculate albedo, leaf area index, vegetation index, and
27

surface temperature. Model output is combined with meteorological data to create time-series
maps of plant water use and biomass production. Combining these maps with land-use coverages
can provide information about water and biomass availability by land-use class. ArcGIS Server
and ArcGIS Online provide eLEAF data in multiple formats including Open Geospatial
Consortium, Inc. (OGC), web services, and smartphone applications. In the future, output layers
from WISDOM and eLEAF GIS tools could be integrated with the Biochar for Agriculture
Mapping Tool (BfAMT) and biochar site suitability layers to help identify biochar priority areas.
Herrick et al. (2016) developed mobile applications for collecting spatio-temporal VGI
that can be used to 1) monitor ecosystem health and land potential and 2) evaluate local trends in
land degradation, resilience, and restoration. The Land Potential Knowledge System (i.e., Land
PKS) suite of mobile apps were primarily developed to evaluate land production potential in
Africa through the collection of local soil, vegetation, and landscape characteristics. Herrick et
al. (2013) pointed out that recent advances in mobile phone and cloud computing technologies
can help facilitate the integration of local and scientific knowledge when making land
management decisions. According to Herrick et al. (2013), mobile apps can be used to record
information about a site using drop-down menus, text-inputs, and picture matching.
Land PKS integrates simple, geo-tagged user inputs with data, information, and
knowledge stored in the Cloud (Herrick et al. 2016). Locally-collected data can be integrated
with global climate and soils databases and predictive models that can be used to generate point-
specific estimates of land potential and make recommendations for food production and risk
management. Users of Land PKS have different educational backgrounds (e.g., researchers,
NGO workers, ag-extension agents, and farmers). Thus, some elements of Land PKS are
language independent (i.e., icon- and video-based), while others require knowledge of plant
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species and soil testing methods that are available through the app. Most Land PKS app elements
require no special training thanks to picture-matching, drop-down menus, video explanations,
and multiple-choice questions. User inputs are automatically uploaded from mobile phones to the
Cloud when phones have access to data. According to Herrick et al. (2016), one of the most
promising future applications of global Land PKS is the ability to rapidly share successful
strategies with individuals managing land with similar potential.
2.2.2. Biochar and Spatial Analysis Case Example
Latawiec et al (2017) developed a multicriteria decision model (MCDM) to assess factors
driving the successful application of biochar in temperate regions. Poland was used as a case
study for overlaying spatial variables—specifically soil pH, organic matter, and texture, and
trace metals (e.g., cadmium)—to identify potential areas for increasing agricultural productivity
and mitigating soil contamination through the application of biochar. Soil acidity data was
ranked and used to assign pH levels to soil polygons. The soil contamination layer (i.e. cadmium
data layer) was derived using the Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) interpolation method.
A prioritization map was created by overlaying all soil layers in an ArcGIS environment and
assigning ‘strong’ and ‘medium’ indicators to each soil variable. It should be noted that biomass
availability was not included in the MCDM, although Latawiec et al (2017) stated a need to
investigate whether Poland’s current biomass supply can meet future biochar production needs.
Latawiec et al. (2017) concluded that their MCDM for identifying biochar site suitability
represents a potential option for enhancing soil quality and agricultural productivity in Poland
and could be applied to areas with similar physical and socio-economic conditions.
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2.2.3. Biochar Database Case Example
An organized effort to characterize different biochars is being carried out at the
University of California, Davis. The UC Davis Biochar Database website
(http://biochar.ucdavis.edu/) states that there are many biochar suppliers producing unique
biochars made from a variety of feedstock materials (UC Davis 2018). The purpose of the
database is to generate knowledge about how biochar’s chemical and physical properties impact
its potential benefits. Major data types are classified into test categories (i.e., basic utility
properties, toxic assessment, and advanced analysis of soil enhancement properties) based on the
desired level of analysis. The open-access database allows registered users to enter biochar
characterization data with options for selecting the biochar parameter, peer reviewed article type,
and feedstock type, and plotting the results. Results are intended to aid end users when selecting
biochars for specific applications. Although the data entry form includes a field for ‘Geographic
Region,’ there is no field for geographic coordinates. A mapping application could help database
users understand the socio-environmental context of individual biochar characterization efforts,
and map feature symbology could be customized to help users visualize the types of biochar
feedstock being tested locally and regionally.
2.2.4. Biochar Web-GIS Case Example
A web mapping application of biochar activities was recently published by the Finnish
Biochar Association in Finland (Salo et al. 2018). The project website includes information
about the five different categories used to symbolize the web map (i.e., research organizations,
biochar companies, finished projects, ongoing projects, and scientific research projects). A web-
based form (i.e., Google form) allows participants to report their biochar activities by defining
their geographic location (i.e., city, neighborhood, and address), activity category, name/project
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name, project description, area and amount of biochar applied, and additional information.
Alternatively, participants can submit their information via e-mail. Presumably, a website
administrator adds this information to the web map, which is continuously updated. Web page
content states that there are biochar projects located in 30 different Finnish municipalities and
cities and that the majority are related to biochar-based solutions for stormwater and runoff
management, planting trees in urban areas, and improving the quality of water bodies through
nutrient management. The web map, which runs on the Google maps platform, does not allow
direct user input. However, it is possible to toggle (i.e., turn on and off) each activity category on
the map because each category has its own layer. Also, each individual site is listed under its
map layer category and zooming to individual sites is possible when the site name is clicked.

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Chapter 3 Application Development
The Biochar for Agriculture Mapping Tool (BfAMT), which consists of a mobile data collection
app integrated with a stand-alone web-GIS app, was designed to meet three major objectives: 1)
enable users to document their biochar research and project activities using editable map feature
services that are designed to represent the actors, projects, technologies, methods, and variables
of the biochar community, 2) facilitate the visualization and exploration of VGI, and 3) promote
coordination among biochar users to share information and identify best practices. The BfAMT
name was chosen because biochar is primarily produced and applied as a soil amendment, with
the purpose of reducing GHG emissions and improving soil fertility (IBI 2018).
Research institutions, government agencies, non-profit organizations, community
organizations, international NGOs, and individual biochar enthusiasts were invited to upload and
edit their biochar site information (i.e., spatial and non-spatial attributes) using two different
applications: 1) Esri’s Collector for ArcGIS mobile app, and 2) the BfAMT web-GIS app that
was created with Esri’s Web App Builder (WAB). Users of the BfAMT mobile and web apps
were encouraged to upload their own photos, videos, literature and project data (published or
unpublished). User-generated content (i.e., VGI) will support the development of a biochar-
centric database that contains project information in the form of point feature attribute data,
document files, and links to outside resources.
The BfAMT web-GIS app provides a shared workspace and template for biochar
researchers and enthusiasts who want to contribute spatial data and project information to a
central location (i.e., enterprise geodatabase). The spatial scale of the BfAMT is global and
encompasses most temperate and tropical regions. Temporally, most biochar-related research and
experimentation began circa 2006 with the study of Terra Preta de Indio soils, or Amazonian
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Dark Earths (ADE), and continues into the present. ADE soils are classified as Pretic Anthrosols
by the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) (2014). According to the WRB (2014,
147), Anthrosols have been heavily modified by human activities like the “addition of organic or
mineral matter, charcoals or household wastes, or irrigation and cultivation”. According to the
WRB (2014, 6, 13), a pretic horizon is a mineral surface horizon having the following
characteristics: 1) dark in color, 2) high content of organic matter and phosphorous (P), 3) high
content of exchangeable calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) and 4) man-made charcoal residues
and/or artefacts of human occupation like ceramics, lithics, and bone or shell tools. In the
Amazon Basin, pretic soils are well-distributed and have persisted over several centuries despite
high organic matter mineralization rates that are characteristic of tropical environments (World
Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014).
Thus, the BfAMT database’s continued development will depend on VGI to expand the
scope of biochar project information available for searching and visualization. Ultimately, the
BfAMT’s web-based platform will help create a centralized body of information that promotes
sharing, connectivity, and coordination within the biochar community. Such a platform could
help define biochar’s ability to serve as a climate change mitigation and adaptation strategy for
addressing the impacts of human-induced global warming.
3.1. Application Development Steps and Workflow
3.1.1. Application Development Steps
Application development of the BfAMT included several steps:
● Create an enterprise-level geodatabase using the ArcMap 10.6 ‘Create Enterprise
Geodatabase' tool to establish a connection with ArcGIS Server’s SQL Server platform.
Spatial and non-spatial attribute data are stored within a relational database management
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system (RDBMS) capable of: 1) maintaining entity relationships among attribute tables
and 2) storing photo and file attachments.
● Create a point feature class with coded attribute domains and text fields in ArcMap 10.6.
Publish a map feature service layer to AGOL to be used in connection with the Collector
for ArcGIS mobile app and the BfAMT web-GIS app. Create an AGOL account called
“Bio Char” to allow guest users to beta test the Collector for ArcGIS mobile app.
● Use Esri’s Web App Builder (WAB) to create a web-GIS application with help options,
customized user interface, and out-of-box app functions (i.e., widgets) to aid users in
navigating the interface, exploring the web map, uploading VGI, querying attribute data,
and exporting site records as Excel comma separated value (CSV) files.
● Use HTML5, Javascript, and CSS programming languages—and Adobe Dreamweaver
software (part of Adobe’s Create Cloud’s software-as-a-service)—to develop a basic web
page with embedded links, help graphics, video tutorials, and the BfAMT web-GIS app
itself. The BfAMT project website is hosted on the University of Southern California’s
Spatial Sciences Institute Server.
3.1.2. Application Workflow
A flowchart for implementing the BfAMT web app and integrating it with the Collector
for ArcGIS mobile app is presented in Figure 3 below.
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Figure 3. Workflow for implementing the BfAMT web app and integrating it with the Collector
for ArcGIS mobile app
3.2. User Requirements
Targeted users of the BfAMT are academic researchers, agronomists, waste managers,
environmental engineers, government agencies, international NGOs, biochar policy developers
and promoters, commercial biochar producers, non-profit organizations, community
organizations, farmers, and others biochar enthusiasts who are interested in research,
experimentation, best practices, extension/outreach, policy development, and the advancement of
biochar technology. Major areas of biochar research and experimentation include its 1)
production and processing methods, 2) agricultural applications for food/fiber/fuel production, 3)
waste/resource management applications for farms, forests, and urban environments, 4) potential
for the remediation of toxic substances, wastewater treatment, stormwater management, etc., 5)
economic and environmental viability as a soil amendment, renewable energy source,
building/packaging material, etc., and 6) potential for carbon sequestration and climate change
mitigation/adaptation.
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Beta-testers were expected to possess intermediate computer and smart phone skills to
help them navigate the BfAMT web and mobile apps. For users to access Esri’s Collector for
ArcGIS mobile app, they were required to have an authorized ArcGIS Online account. For this
thesis project, a general use ArcGIS Online account was set up by the USC Spatial Science
Institute (SSI) Server Administrator. The name for this account is “Bio Char”. A login and
password were created for the “Bio Char” account and distributed to those individuals who
expressed interest in beta-testing the BfAMT. Beta-testers with iPhones (i.e., the iOS platform),
who were familiar with downloading apps to their smart phones, were encouraged to download
the Collector for ArcGIS mobile app using the Apple App Store, Google Play, Amazon App
Store, or Microsoft Windows Apps and typing “Collector for ArcGIS” into the app store search
window. Beta-testers with Android phones (i.e., the Android platform) were warned that the
Collector mobile app might not work on their device (see Section 3.3. below).
3.3. Software
Esri’s ArcMap version 10.6 is the proprietary GIS software used to create maps, register
and implement an enterprise-level geodatabase, and establish a geodatabase connection to
ArcGIS Server 10.4 using SQL Management Studio 2012. Although there are open-source GIS
software options like GRASS GIS and QGIS, the author’s knowledge of ArcGIS Desktop, its
fundamental role in GIS, and the ease with which it can be used in conjunction with AGOL to
publish and share map feature services were determining factors for choosing ArcGIS products
and services to customize and implement the BfAMT mobile and web-GIS apps.
The software used to customize the BfAMT web-GIS app was Esri’s Web App Builder
(WAB); available through ArcGIS Online’s software-as-a-service (SAAS). The current version
of Esri’s WAB is Kernel Version 2.10 in ArcGIS Online 6.3. Esri’s WAB is a graphical
36

programming interface that allows users without code-writing skills to build 2D and 3D web
apps that run on any device (Esri Web App Builder 2018). WAB’s configurable themes and
ready-to-use, out-of-the-box widgets make it easy for developers to customize the appearance
and functionality of web-GIS apps. Esri’s WAB was chosen over other open-source options such
as Leaflet and Github’s Customizable Map Viewer (CMV) because of its easy integration with
Esri’s ArcGIS Desktop and AGOL services.
Esri’s Collector for ArcGIS mobile app, hereafter referred to as Collector, was integrated
with the BfAMT web-GIS app to facilitate data collection in remote locations. The integration of
Collector with the BfAMT web app necessitated the creation of an enterprise-level geodatabase
because it is not possible to create a feature service from data residing in a file geodatabase (Esri
Collector Discussion-1 2018). Collector was configured by creating a feature layer with coded
attribute domains in ArcMap 10.6 and publishing it as a map feature service to AGOL.
The Collector mobile app can be used to upload point coordinates, site attributes, photos,
and text files to the BfAMT web app, which is accessed in an Internet browser. The benefits of
using Collector in conjunction with the BfAMT web app include: 1) uploading point features to
the web app without a desktop computer, and 2) offline data collection capabilities in locations
where cellular service is longer available, but where GPS services are still active. Data waypoints
(i.e., point locations) collected offline with Collector can later be accessed and used to collect
and upload attribute data when cellular service becomes available.
According to Esri’s Collector website, these are the current requirements for mobile
phones that can successfully implement the Collector app (Esri Collector Requirements 2018):

37

Android
• Android 4.2 (Jelly Bean) or later
• Processor: ARMv7 or later, or x86
• OpenGL ES 2.0 support
• Precise location (GPS and network-based) support
iOS
• iOS 8 or later
• iPhone, iPad, iPod touch
Windows 10 (tablet and PC)

• Version 1511 or later
• Long-Term Servicing Branch (LTSB) version 1607 or later
One current limitation to using Esri’s Collector at local and global scales is that the latest
versions of Collector require trusted certificates to access ArcGIS Server services in ArcGIS
Online (ESRI Collector Discussion-2 2018). According to information posted on the Esri
Collector Discussion website, this appears to have affected only Android smart phones, while
iPhones and Windows devices (i.e., tablets) are unaffected. When connecting to Collector on an
Android device with the pre-Android 6.0 operating system, the following message is displayed:
“The server you are trying to connect to cannot be verified”. This limitation is significant when
considering that the Android operating system is estimated to own 88% of the global mobile
operating system market share (Statista 2018). However, an announcement on October 29, 2018
claims that this issue (i.e., BUG – 000109667) has been fixed in Collector for ArcGIS (Android)
18.0.3. The announcement extends an invitation to beta-test Collector on the updated Android
platform (Esri Collector Android 2018).
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Adobe Dreamweaver, part of Adobe’s Creative Cloud suite of SAAS software, was used to
design a web page to host the BfAMT web-GIS app. Dreamweaver was chosen over free web
editors because it included help tutorials and file transfer protocol (FTP) client capability. Web
page development involved the use of hypertext markup language (HTML), Javascript, and
cascading style sheets (CSS) to format and juxtapose background information, links, photos, and
videos; and embed the BfAMT web app.
3.4. Publishing Feature Services
Steps to publishing map and web feature services to the USC SSI ArcGIS Server:

1) Open an ArcMap 10.6 MXD file. Add a feature class layer to the map that is projected in
the Web Mercator Auxiliary Sphere projection
2) Select File > Share As > Service > Publish a Service

3) Create an ArcGIS Server connection for hosting the feature service

4) Create an ArcGIS Server folder to publish the service

5) In the ‘Service Editor’ window, click the ‘Capabilities’ tab and check the ‘WMS’ and
‘WFS’ boxes to allow users to access the map via other applications and devices. Also
select ‘Feature Access’ to allow web editing of map features. Under the ‘Mapping’ sub-
tab, feature service operations for “Data”, “Map”, and “Query” are enabled by default.
“Query” assures that map data can be downloaded even if attribute fields are turned off.
In the ‘Feature Access’ sub-tab, feature service operations for “Create”, “Delete”, and
“Update” are enabled by default. Disabling “Delete” would prevent the deletion of map
features by users, although they could still edit features. This is a useful control for
preventing the accidental or purposeful deletion of features services that are shared with
39

the public. Note: In WAB, the ‘Edit’ widget’s custom settings can be used to disable
layer settings like “Add”, “Delete”, and “Update Geometry” to prevent public tampering.
6) Enter feature service information using the ‘Item Description’ tab
7) Click the ‘Share’ tab to specify who the feature service will be shared with
8) Click ‘Analyze’ to determine if any actions must be taken before the map document can
be published. Resolve any errors that appear in the ‘Prepare’ window. Note: Feature layer
basemaps cannot be published because basemap service is accessed through AGOL.
9) Once medium and/or high severity errors have been resolved, click ‘Publish’
3.5. Web Services
After a feature service is published to AGOL via the ArcGIS Server connection,
representation state transfer (REST) service endpoints that use hypertext transfer protocol
(HTTP) are called by the BfAMT web app when data is requested. REST services consist of
browser-cached uniform resource identifiers (URIs) that link the web app to a network location
where data is stored and delivered as web map services (WMS) or web feature services (WFS).
WMS and WFS are Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) interface standards that deliver maps
and data in response to a user request (Jones and Purves 2008).
Usage limitations (i.e., credit usage) do not pertain to the BfAMT web app because web
app data are hosted on the USC SSI Server and not AGOL. Thus, accessing data, using AGOL
basemaps, exporting data, and searching for a single address do not consume credits. Although
WAB geoprocessing functions—such as those available in the ‘Analysis’ widget—do consume
credits, these were not included in the design and functionality of the BfAMT web app.
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3.6. Platform
As previously mentioned, Esri’s proprietary Collector mobile app (with configured feature
service layer) integrated with a stand-alone web-GIS app (customized with Esri’s WAB) was
used as the platform for the BfAMT. The Collector mobile app was included as part of the
BfAMT workflow to 1) allow those in the biochar community working in remote locations to
upload and access their biochar site information, and 2) allow mobile app users to identify and
access biochar site information generated by others around the world. The BfAMT mobile and
web apps are intended for a global audience because biochar projects are being carried out across
a wide range of climatic, environmental, socio-economic, and technological conditions.
3.7. User Input
The BfAMT geodatabase provides a centralized location for biochar-related projects,
whether focused on waste/resource management, energy production, land remediation and
restoration, climate change adaptation, or agricultural production. Input data for the BfAMT
consists predominantly of VGI. App users are asked to 1) define their location as a point feature,
2) enter site attributes, and 3) upload supporting documentation such as photos, videos, and text
files (e.g., spreadsheets, word processing documents, and PDF files).
Attribute fields and values for the database were chosen to encompass biochar projects
with a land management or agricultural focus, although there are options for describing other
types of biochar projects. These include: 1) descriptive text fields and 2) attachment capability
for uploading documents. Both options serve to contextualize and enhance biochar site attributes
that were collected using map-driven forms. Table 1 below lists the names of the coded attribute
domains and text fields of the BfAMT. Tables of BfAMT attributes and their coded values are
presented in Appendix A.
41

Table 1. BfAMT coded attribute domains and text fields
Coded Attribute Domains

Text Fields Length
Organization Type or Individual

Name of Individual or Organization (Optional) 150
Country Name

Contact Information (Optional) 150
Primary Biochar Project Type

Other Country (Optional) 100
Biochar Site Type

Other Biochar Project Type (Optional) 150
Primary Biochar Cropping System

Other Biochar Site Type (Optional) 150
Biochar Project Timeline

Primary Crop Species (Optional) 150
Type of Biochar Production Device

Specific Biochar Production Device (Optional) 150
Biochar Feedstock Source

Specific Feedstock Source (Optional) 150
Type of Biochar Feedstock

Specific Feedstock Type (Optional) 150
Method for Quenching Biochar

Specific Biochar Fertilization Method (Optional) 150
Method for Pulverizing Biochar

Specific Biochar Application Method (Optional) 150
Primary Biochar Quality Test

Other Research Trial Design (Optional) 150
Primary Biochar Fertilization Method

Additional Project Notes (Optional) 255
Biochar Soil Application Method

Soil pH Value (Optional) 50
Biochar Soil Application Rate

Biochar pH Value (Optional) 50
Biochar Research Trial Design

Percent Ash in Biochar (Optional) 50
Soil Properties Measured

Percent Volatile Carbon in Biochar (Optional) 50
Soil Texture Class

Percent Labile Carbon in Biochar (Optional) 50
Biochar Properties Measured

Percent Fixed Carbon in Biochar (Optional) 50
The coded attribute domain values and text fields of the BfAMT are included in the
entity-relationship diagram (ERD) in Figure 4 below. This E-R diagram represents the current
BfAMT enterprise geodatabase design. Although the BfAMT enterprise geodatabase has
RDBMS capability, there is currently only one feature class and attribute table. Because no entity
(i.e. table/object) relationships are represented, the design is flat file. However, by enabling
attachment capability for the geodatabase, a separate SQL table was generated. Thus, feature
attachments constitute the sole entity relationship with the BfAMT attribute table. In Figure 4
below, coded domains are displayed as tables of coded values rather than entities. In contrast, the
‘BfAMT ATTACHMENT’ table is displayed as an entity.

42

Figure 4. Entity-Relationship Diagram of the BfAMT enterprise geodatabase. Coded domains
are displayed as tables of coded values rather than entities. In contrast, the ‘BfAMT Attachment’
table is displayed as an entity
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3.8. Application Outputs
The BfAMT web-GIS app provides options for 1) selecting an area of interest, 2)
querying map features, 3) summarizing and exploring query results, and 4) and exporting
selected records as Microsoft Excel CSV files. Output records can be limited by the map extent,
a selected area of interest drawn on the map, or a map filter or search query. BfAMT output
examples are presented in Chapter 4 below.

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Chapter 4 Results
Chapter 4 presents the content of the BfAMT website, which contains links and help resources
for the Collector mobile application and BfAMT web-GIS application. Also included in Chapter
4 are user scenarios and output for the mobile and web apps.
Uniform resource locators (URLs), or web addresses, for the BfAMT web page and web-
GIS application are presented in Table 2 below.
Table 2. BfAMT web app and web page URLs
BfAMT Web Page URL:
https://tinyurl.com/y9maoodr (Accessed Dec 27, 2018)
BfAMT Web-GIS Application URL:
https://bit.ly/2QVDfk5 (Accessed Dec 27, 2018)

4.1. Web Page for the BfAMT
The content of the BfAMT web page includes 1) a short summary of the tool’s capability
and intended audience, including a web app screenshot, 2) a link to the USC SSI URL in
ArcGIS.com that hosts the web-GIS app, 3) a link to the Google survey questionnaire, 4)
embedded video tutorials for using the Collector mobile app and BfAMT web app, 5) a help
graphic for the BfAMT web app interface, 6) help instructions for using the BfAMT’s web app
interface and map tools (i.e., widgets), and 7) the embedded BfAMT web app itself. Figure 5
below shows the BfAMT web page heading, summary description, and web app screenshot, and
Figure 6 below shows hyperlinks links to the BfAMT web app and online survey questionnaire,
and the beginning of the video tutorial section.
45

Figure 5. BfAMT web page showing heading, summary description, and web app screenshot

Figure 6. BfAMT web page showing hyperlinks to the BfAMT web app and online survey
questionnaire, and the beginning of the video tutorial section
46

4.2. BfAMT Mobile and Web App User Scenarios
User scenarios for the Collector mobile app and BfAMT web app are presented in this
section. Collector mobile app graphics demonstrate how to collect, edit, add photo attachments,
and upload point features to the web map, while BfAMT web app graphics demonstrate widget
functionality and how to export selected site records.
4.2.1. Esri’s Collector for ArcGIS Mobile App
Figures 7-11 below are Collector screenshots for online data collection, editing, and
submission. Additional Collector help graphics for navigating the mobile app interface and
collecting data offline are presented in Appendix B. Figure 7 below shows automated feature
point collection in Collector using the ‘My Location’ button.

Figure 7. Automated point feature collection in Collector

Figure 8 below shows how to add a point feature manually in Collector using a smart
phone touch screen, and Figure 9 below shows how to collect point feature attribute data.
47

Figure 8. Manual point feature collection in Collector

Figure 9. Collection of point feature attribute domain data in Collector

Figure 10 below shows how to use Collector to submit point feature attribute data and
change the basemap.
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Figure 10. Point feature attribute data submission and basemap selection in Collector

Figure 11 below shows how to use Collector to edit point feature attributes and attach
photos.

Figure 11. Editing point feature attributes and attaching photos in Collector
49

4.2.2. The Biochar for Agriculture Mapping Tool Web-GIS App
Figures 12-17 below are BfAMT web app help graphics for 1) navigating the user
interface, 2) using WAB widgets to create point features and explore the web map’s dataset, and
3) exporting site records using the ‘Attribute Table’.
Figure 12 below displays the widgets and features of the BfAMT web app interface,
which are labeled for easy identification.

Figure 12. BfAMT web app interface help graphic

The ‘Foldable Theme’ template in WAB was chosen for the BfAMT web app interface
because of its clear layout and five space holders designated for widgets. The top of the map
frame was configured with the USC logo (far left), a title (i.e., Biochar for Agriculture Mapping
Tool), and web links to the International Biochar Initiative, the Biochar Journal, and Backyard
Biochar. Widgets, or map tools, are in the top left of the screen under the address bar, and in the
top right of the screen along the map frame’s border. The five widgets in the top left are ‘Help
50

Instructions’ (red), ‘Select Biochar Sites’ (light orange), ‘Search Biochar Sites’ (pink), ‘Chart
Tool’ (green), and ‘Contribute Data’ (blue). The ‘Help Instructions’ widget contains detailed
instructions about BfAMT web app features and widgets. Help instructions for the BfAMT web
app can also be found in Appendix C. The four widgets located in the top right of the map frame
are the ‘Legend’ (light pink), ‘Layer List’ (baby blue), ‘Basemap Gallery’ (yellow), and
‘Bookmark’ (light grey) widgets. The ‘Bookmark’ widget contains preset map regions for quick
zooming. BfAMT web app widgets were chosen from the suite of widgets in WAB based on
their relevance to basic web map functionality and to facilitate the visualization and exploration
of attributes contained in the database of biochar agricultural sites. Some widgets were renamed
(e.g., ‘Select’ widget renamed ‘Select Biochar Sites’, ‘Query’ widget renamed ‘Search Biochar
Sites’, and ‘Edit’ widget renamed ‘Contribute Data’) for easier recognition by users of the
BfAMT web app.
A graphic describing how to use the ‘Contribute Data’ widget to add point features to the
web map is presented in Figure 13 below. Clicking on the ‘Contribute Data’ widget opens a pop-
up window with a point feature template. The symbology of the template is also visible in the
‘Legend’ widget pop-up. The Organization Type or Individual coded attribute domain was
chosen to symbolize point features because it serves to distinguish between different types of
biochar users. Point marker symbols for Organization Type or Individual were selected from the
available character marker symbols in ArcMap 10.6.
Once a point feature symbol has been selected and becomes highlighted in the
‘Contribute Data’ pop-up window, one can click on the map to add the point feature at its desired
location (see Figure 13 below). To add a point feature to a precise location on the web map, one
enters decimal degree coordinates (i.e., latitude decimal degree, longitude decimal degree) into
51

the ‘Search’ bar, located in the top left of the map frame, then clicks the search icon or hits enter
on the keyboard.

Figure 13. BfAMT ‘Contribute Data’ widget for adding point features

Once a point feature has been placed at its desired location on the map, a feature pop-up
window will appear with attribute fields for data collection (see Figure 14 below). In Figure 14,
the Source of Biochar Feedstock drop-down menu is active.

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Figure 14. BfAMT feature pop-up window with attribute fields and active drop-down menu

The ‘Chart Tool’ widget (see Figure 15 below) has preset chart options for summarizing
biochar site attributes. Upon opening the ‘Chart Tool’, there are three preset chart tasks for
summarizing 1) Biochar Project Type, 2) Biochar Cropping System, and 3) Biochar Production
Device. In Figure 15, the Biochar Cropping System chart task was selected. Pie chart results were
generated based on the entire dataset (i.e., full map extent), although a spatial filter can be
applied that will limit results to the current map extent, or an area defined by the drawing tool.
The pie chart in Figure 15 displays the count total and percent for each attribute value as the
cursor is moved over individual pie slices. Hovering over the ‘Coffee’ pie slice with the cursor
highlights coffee production sites on the web map in a red square. Double-clicking the ‘Coffee’
pie slice zooms the map to the area encompassing coffee production sites.
53

Figure 15. BfAMT ‘Chart Tool widget’ showing biochar cropping system pie chart results and
coffee production sites

The ‘Search Biochar Sites’ widget contains three preset queries for displaying specific
biochar site attributes. These preset queries are listed under the ‘Search’ tab and include queries
for 1) Coffee Growers – to identify biochar sites with coffee as the primary cropping system, 2)
Resource Management (Farm/Forest/Urban) – to identify biochar projects focused on resource
management, and 3) Biochar Feedstock (Crop Residue) – to identify projects that use crop
residue to make biochar. After clicking on a search task, results are highlighted with a pin
marker. A customized pop-up window also appears with a list of results (see Figure 16 below).
Search results in Figure 16 below are generated based on the map’s current extent. Thus,
to search a different area or region, zoom in (or out) and run the ‘Search Biochar Sites’ widget
again. Results generated by running search tasks can be zoomed to, or viewed in the ‘Attribute
Table,’ using the ‘three-dot-menu ( …)’ of the ‘Search Biochar Sites’ pop-up window. Search
results appear as a tab in the ‘Attribute Table’ and as a layer in the ‘Layer List’ widget until the
tab is closed. The search results layer can be toggled on or off using the ‘Layer List.’ The process
54

of exporting search results as an Excel CSV file is explained below in the ‘Select Biochar Sites’
widget description and Figure 17 (next page).

Figure 16. BfAMT ‘Search Biochar Sites’ widget showing the search tasks and search results
windows for coffee growers

The ‘Select Biochar Sites’ widget (see Figure 17 below) allows users to select an area of
interest on the map and view the results (i.e., site records). The ‘three-dot-menu ( …)’ in the
‘Select Biochar Sites’ pop-up window contains options for zooming to selected records and
viewing them in the ‘Attribute Table.’ Once the user has selected their features of interest, they
can choose to export them as an Excel CSV file using the ‘Options Menu’ in the ‘Attribute
Table’ (see Figure 17 below).

55

Figure 17. BfAMT ‘Select Biochar Sites’ widget showing the ‘Attribute Table’ and ‘Options
Menu’ for exporting feature attributes as a Microsoft Excel CSV file

Caution should be mentioned when zooming to selected records or query results using the
‘Select Biochar Sites’ and ‘Search Biochar Sites’ widgets. If zooming to selected records
obscures point feature symbols from the map frame’s view, those records will no longer be
visible in the ‘Attribute Table.’ This same word of caution applies to manually opening the
‘Attribute Table’ and expanding its size by dragging it into the map frame. One can avoid this
potential drawback by knowing the number of features that were originally selected using the
‘Select Biochar Sites’ widget, or the number of results that were originally generated by running
the ‘Search Biochar Sites’ widget. The bottom left corner of the ‘Attribute Table’ shows the
number of records contained in the table. It may be necessary to adjust the size of the ‘Attribute
Table’, or the map frame using map controls (i.e., ‘Home’ button and ‘Zoom’ controls), so that
all records are accounted for in the table.
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After exporting selected biochar site records as an Excel CSV file, the output looks like
the example output in Table 3 (see below). The Table 3 output (which consists exclusively of
example point features created by the author) has been formatted for purposes of visual display,
and only a select number of attribute fields are included. Example point features and their
attribute values were created by the author and added to the BfAMT web map to provide 1)
sample data for the customization of map widget tools, 2) background for help graphics, and 3)
context for first-time BfAMT web app users.

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Table 3. Selected point feature attributes (columns) from the BfAMT web app. Only example
point features (rows) created by the author were included in the output
Name of Organization Country Name Primary Biochar Project Type
Example (Community Organization) - 7 Zambia Food Production
Example (Research Institute) - 1 United States of America Crop Trial (Greenhouse)
Example (Community Organization) - 8 Costa Rica Food Production
Example (Community Organization) - 1 Venezuela Biochar Product (Nutrient/Microbe/Mineral)
Example (Community Organization) - 6 Peru Food Production
Example (Individual) - 1 Chile Crop Trial (Outdoor)
Example (Community Organization) - 2 Brazil Resrc Mgmt (Farm/Forest/Urban)
Example (Community Organization) - 10 Senegal Biochar Product (Nutrient/Microbe/Mineral)
Example (International NGO) - 1 Burkina Faso Food Production
Example (Individual) - 3 Libya Crop Trial (Outdoor)
Example (Individual) - 2 Indonesia Raw Biochar Production
Example (Community Organization) - 5 Japan Crop Trial (Greenhouse)

Biochar Site Type Primary Biochar Cropping System Primary Biochar Fertilization Method
Large Farm (greater than 5 hectares) Coffee Compost
Planting Containers (greenhouse) Legume (bean, pea, lentil, etc) Manure
Large Farm (greater than 5 hectares) Coffee Inorganic Fertilizer
Rural Space (non-farm) None Compost
Medium Farm (between 1 and 5 hectares) Coffee Manure
Garden Plot (in-ground) Coffee Urine
Large Farm (greater than 5 hectares) Tree Crop (fruit, legume, leaf, etc) Urine
Urban Space (non-farm) None Multiple (Please specify in next field)
Medium Farm (between 1 and 5 hectares) Rice Urine
Small Farm (less than 1 hectare) Cereal (wheat, millet, etc) Inorganic Fertilizer
Medium Farm (between 1 and 5 hectares) Other Vegetable (squash, pepper, etc) Fish or Bone Meal
Planting Containers (greenhouse) Other Vegetable (squash, pepper, etc) Effective/Indigenous Microbe Mix

Type of Biochar Production Device Type of Biochar Feedstock Biochar Soil Application Rate
Gasifier (TLUD, Jolly-Roger Oven, etc) Crop Residue (Stems/Stalks/Leaves) 0.6 - 1.7 kilograms/square meter (kg/m2)
Retort (Adam retort, steel drum, etc) Crop Residue (Stover/Husk/Pod/Pit) 0.6 - 1.7 kilograms/square meter (kg/m2)
Burn Pile (stacked) Natural Wood - Small Diameter < 5 cm 0.6 - 1.7 kilograms/square meter (kg/m2)
Gasifier (TLUD, Jolly-Roger Oven, etc) Waste Wood - Lumber, Plywood, etc 1.8 - 3.6 kilograms/square meter (kg/m2)
Flame-Cap Kiln (cone kiln, open-pit kiln) Crop Residue (Stover/Husk/Pod/Pit) 2-5 tons/hectare (t/ha)
Gasifier (TLUD, Jolly-Roger Oven, etc) Natural Wood - Small Diameter < 5 cm 6-20 tons/hectare (t/ha)
Burn Pile (stacked) Natural Wood - Large Diameter > 5 cm 6-20 tons/hectare (t/ha)
Flame-Cap Kiln (cone kiln, open-pit kiln) Natural Wood - Small Diameter < 5 cm 21 - 40 tons/hectare (t/ha)
Gasifier (TLUD, Jolly-Roger Oven, etc) Crop Residue (Stover/Husk/Pod/Pit) 2-5 tons/hectare (t/ha)
Tin Can System Crop Residue (Stems/Stalks/Leaves) 0 - 0.1 kilograms/square meter (kg/m2)
Traditional Kiln (mound kiln, etc) Crop Residue (Stover/Husk/Pod/Pit) 0.2 - 0.5 kilograms/square meter (kg/m2)
Flame-Cap Kiln (cone kiln, open-pit kiln) Natural Wood - Large Diameter > 5 cm 21 - 40 tons/hectare (t/ha)

Figure 18 below shows global biochar sites symbolized by Organization Type or
Individual, and Figure 19 below shows global biochar sites symbolized by Primary Biochar
Project Type. Example biochar sites created by the author, and actual biochar sites contributed
by users, are included in Figures 18 and 19.

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Figure 18. Biochar sites symbolized by Organization Type or Individual

Figure 19. Biochar sites symbolized by Primary Biochar Project Type

4.3. BfAMT User-Generated Content
There were eleven VGI point features uploaded to the BfAMT web map. These eleven
sites were contributed by three individuals and five organizations. One of these organizations
uploaded three sites in Africa that they symbolized with the ‘Other’ point marker symbol (see
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Figure 20 below). Selected attributes for the eleven user-generated biochar sites are presented in
Table 4 below. Text fields (outlined in red) include Primary Crop Species, Specific Feedstock
Type, and Specific Production Device. These fields were included in the BfAMT design to allow
users the option of specifying important characteristics of their biochar projects that were not
captured using attribute drop-down menus. The inclusion of text fields attempted to address a
limitation of Collector that does not allow for selecting multiple values per field. Unfortunately,
text field responses are not easily searchable using SQL functions because the text string in the
search expression must exactly match that of the text field (i.e., spelling, wording, length, etc.).
For this reason, it is preferable to have users to enter data using drop-down menus.

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Table 4. BfAMT user-generated content or VGI

Organization Type or Individual Country Name Primary Biochar Project Type
Community Organization Bangladesh Resrc Mgmt (Farm/Forest/Urban)
Other Burkina Faso Crop Trial (Outdoor)
Other Ghana Food Production
Other Cameroon Food Production
International NGO Cameroon Soil Rehabilitation/Land Restoration
Government Agency United States of America Soil Rehabilitation/Land Restoration
Individual United States of America Raw Biochar Production
Other United States of America Other (Please specify in next field)
Individual United States of America Food Production
Individual United States of America Soil Rehabilitation/Land Restoration
Research Institute United States of America Biochar Product (Nutrient/Microbe/Mineral)

Biochar Site Type Primary Biochar Cropping System Primary Crop Species (Optional)
Other (Please specify in next field) Other (Please specify in next field) Garden and field crops
Garden Plot (in-ground) Other Veg (squash, pepper, tomato)
Garden Plot (in-ground) Other Veg (squash, pepper, tomato)
Garden Plot (in-ground) Other Veg (squash, pepper, tomato)
Large Farm (greater than 5 hectares) Tree Crop (fruit, legume, leaf, etc) Banana
Urban Space (non-farm) Other (Please specify in next field) Trees

Other (Please specify in next field) Other (Please specify in next field) All
Garden Plot (in-ground) Other Veg (squash, pepper, tomato) Zucchini
Small Farm (less than 1 hectare) Other Veg (squash, pepper, tomato)
Other (Please specify in next field) Coffee

Type of Biochar Feedstock Specific Feedstock Type (Optional) Source of Biochar Feedstock
Natural Wood - Small Diameter < 5 cm various woods, cowdung+biomass Other (Please specify in next field)
Crop Residue (Stover/Husk/Pod/Pit) Farm Waste (crop residue, manure, invasives)
Crop Residue (Stems/Stalks/Leaves) rice husks Farm Waste (crop residue, manure, invasives)
Crop Residue (Stems/Stalks/Leaves) Farm Waste (crop residue, manure, invasives)
Crop Residue (Stover/Husk/Pod/Pit) Empty fruit bunches Farm Waste (crop residue, manure, invasives)
Natural Wood - Small Diameter < 5 cm Pre-Made or Commercial Biochar Product
Natural Wood - Small Diameter < 5 cm Urban (processed wood, tree trimmings, etc)
Other (Please specify in next field) All Other (Please specify in next field)
Processed Wood - Pellets Douglas fir wood pellets (40 lb. bag) Urban (processed wood, tree trimmings, etc)
Other (Please specify in next field) Red Alder wood chips for mulch Urban (processed wood, tree trimmings, etc)
Crop Residue (Stover/Husk/Pod/Pit) Stems, stalks, leaves Farm Waste (crop residue, manure, invasives)

Biochar Production Device (Optional) Biochar Research Trial Design Biochar Soil Application Method
Akha TLUD cookstove Other (Please specify in next field) Other (Please specify in next field)
Randomized Complete Block Uniform Mixing or Plowing of Topsoil
Randomized Complete Block Uniform Mixing or Plowing of Topsoil
Randomized Complete Block Uniform Mixing or Plowing of Topsoil
Kon-Tiki Control vs Treatment (no replication) Planting Holes (field)
None Surface Application (natural mixing)
also flame cap None None
All can be considered
Champion TLUD Stove None Planting Holes (field)
TLUD design and finction Control vs Treatment (with replication) Surface Application (natural mixing)
Control vs Treatment (with replication) Uniform Mixing or Plowing of Topsoil

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Figure 20 below shows the location of the eleven VGI sites from Table 4 above. Two
users (representing four sites total) chose to represent their biochar sites using the ‘Other’ point
marker symbol for the Organization Type or Individual attribute. This suggests that it may be
necessary to include more options for Organization Type or Individual to describe other types of
organizations involved in biochar activities. In Figure 20, three ‘Individual’, one ‘Government
Agency’, one ‘Community Organization’, one ‘Research Institute’, and four sites labeled ‘Other’
are visible across North America (5), Africa (4), Central America (1), and Asia (1).

Figure 20. Biochar VGI sites (11 total)

4.4. The BfAMT Web App Mobile Phone Interface
Launching the BfAMT web-GIS app on the author’s iPhone 5s smart phone resulted in a
cluttered interface because the size of point feature icons relative to the map frame increased
considerably compared to the desktop interface. Also, use of the ‘Attribute Table’ was very
difficult because only one site record was visible, and the number of visible fields in the table
was limited. Furthermore, it was difficult to access the point feature pop-up window’s ‘three-dot-
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menu ( …)’ to perform editing tasks, etc. On an iPhone 5s, the ‘three-dot-menu (…)’ was hidden
off-screen at the bottom of the interface. It was necessary to use one finger to lift the touch
screen and use another finger to tap the ‘three-dot-menu (…)’ so it stayed visible. It was only by
performing this task that ‘three-dot-menu (…)’ could be opened. Thus, it is not recommended to
use the BfAMT web app on an iPhone 5s (and perhaps other mobile devices). However, despite
its apparent drawbacks, loading the BfAMT web app on a mobile phone presents a no-cost
alternative that avoids the need for an AGOL user account to access the Collector mobile app on
a smart phone device. It should be pointed out, however, that the BfAMT web app will not work
offline when opened a mobile device.
4.5. Managing Coded Domains and Feature Class Fields in ArcMap 10.6
Adding coded values to attribute domains using the ‘Database Properties’ ‘Domains’ tab
in ArcMap 10.6 went smoothly when adding a new coded value to existing coded values.
However, when reordering or reassigning coded values, the changes applied did not appear in
numeric order when the ‘Database Connection’ was refreshed. The ‘Sort Coded Value Domains’
geoprocessing tool can be used to reorder coded values, but this tool apparently does not work
when updating the order of coded values for active coded domains (i.e., those that are linked to
feature service layers published in AGOL). This issue was circumvented by creating a new
coded domain and re-entering coded values in the desired order. However, to assign the new
domain to the same attribute field required the creation of a new feature class, for reasons given
in the following paragraph.
Publishing a feature service layer to AGOL had the effect of locking feature class
properties under the ‘Fields’ tab in ArcMap 10.6, which prevented editing operations (e.g.,
adding a new field, changing the field name and data type, and assigning a different domain to
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the field). For a newly created feature class, it is possible to edit all field properties. Thus, an
existing feature class, which was locked in ArcMap 10.6 because it had been published to
AGOL, was exported to the same database and renamed. It was then possible to edit fields for
the newly created feature class. This process was repeated each time a new feature class field
need to be added, or when a feature class field required updating. However, when adding a field,
the only option was to add it as the last field in the list. It was not possible insert or reorder
fields. After researching the issue, a workaround was implemented by downloading an extension
for ArcCatalog called X-Ray for Geodatabases and using its ‘Reorder Fields’ tool. Using this
tool required the author to create an ordered list of attribute field names in Excel that could be
pasted into the X-Ray tool. Although this proved to be a successful workaround, it was later
realized that attribute fields could be reordered in AGOL using the ‘Configure Pop-up’ tool.
4.6. Help Resources
A complete series of help graphics for using the Collector mobile app is found in
Appendix B. There is also a five-minute Collector video tutorial (created and narrated by the
author) that is posted on the BfAMT web page. Complete help instructions for using the BfAMT
web-GIS app can be found in the web app’s ‘Help Instructions’ widget, in Appendix C of this
document, and in a twelve-minute video tutorial (created and narrated by the author) on the
BfAMT web page.
4.7. App Evaluation / Testing
4.7.1. Subjects
The recruitment of human subjects for beta testing of the BfAMT mobile and web apps
was carried out via e-mail and through an open invitation announcement posted to a biochar
listserv (i.e., Yahoo Groups - Biochar). Personal acquaintances of the author, as well as contact
64

referrals who are members, or affiliates, of the International Biochar Initiative (IBI), were sent e-
mail invitations with an attached information/consent form that could be openly distributed to
others via e-mail. In total, 10 IBI members and 10 IBI affiliates—who provided input on their
biochar projects for a 2018 white paper entitled “The Potential for Biochar to Improve
Sustainability in Coffee Cultivation and Processing”—received the e-mail invitation to beta-test
the BfAMT. An invitation announcement was also posted on the Yahoo Biochar Group listserv
(https://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/biochar/info) that has an estimated 300-400 active
members. In the body of the e-mail and listserv announcements, participants were provided with
hyperlinks to the BfAMT web page, web-GIS app, and Google survey questionnaire. Participants
interested in beta-testing the Collector mobile app were asked to contact the author and request
the login credentials needed to access Collector on their mobile devices.
After beta-testing, users were asked to fill out an online survey questionnaire that was
created using Google forms. Because beta-testing the BfAMT and completing the online survey
involved human subjects in research, approval by USC’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) was
required. The study entitled “Beta Testing for Biochar Web-GIS Application” (UP-18-00696)
was approved by USC-IRB on October 30, 2018.
4.7.2. Design of User Survey
As previously mentioned, a survey questionnaire for beta-testers of the BfAMT mobile
and web apps was designed using Google Forms, which is part of the Google Drive office suite.
Screenshots of the online Google survey questionnaire are presented in Appendix D. Google
Forms is an information collection tool that allows the creation of customized surveys. Survey
customization includes options for 1) choosing the question format (e.g., multiple choice,
checkboxes, dropdown, short answer, and paragraph), 2) requiring responses to individual
65

questions, 3) limiting responses to once per person, 4) allowing users to return to the survey and
edit their responses, and 5) applying custom themes, such as adding custom images or logos to
the header and page background. A Google survey spreadsheet is automatically populated with
user responses and can be downloaded as an Excel CSV file. Additionally, pie chart results are
generated for each survey question, making it easy to visualize user responses.
4.7.3. Timeframe for Beta-Testing
The first beta-testing invitation was sent via e-mail on November 7, 2018. A Biochar
Yahoo Group listserv announcement was posted on November 9, and a second listserv
announcement was posted on Nov 18. Subsequent e-mail invitations and reminders were sent on
Nov 9, 17, and 25, 2018.
4.7.4. Evaluation of the BfAMT Web-GIS and Mobile Apps
The BfAMT mobile and web-GIS app components were beta-tested by a group of
biochar users who are members, or affiliates of, the International Biochar Initiative; an
international NGO based in the United States dedicated to promoting worldwide biochar
research, production, and use; and other biochar users who subscribe to the free Yahoo Groups-
Biochar listserv.
Preliminary testing of the Collector mobile app and BfAMT web-GIS app by the author
found that the apps performed well in meeting project objectives. Issues encountered in Collector
included 1) compatibility with Android devices and 2) a complicated workflow for collecting
point features offline (see Appendix B). Issues encountered with BfAMT web app included 1)
point features not being included in the ‘Attribute Table’ when the ‘Attribute Table’ obscures
point features in the map frame, 2) customized map scale zoom levels that would not display the
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basemap, and 3) exporting site records to an Excel CSV file using a widget pop-up’s ‘three-dot-
menu ( …)’ that resulted in Excel CSV files populated with codes instead of text descriptions.
As of Dec 27, 2018, five people had responded to the BfAMT survey questionnaire.
Tables 5-9 below contain user responses to the questionnaire. Responses to Questions 1-11 are
contained in Table 5 (see below). Three people were able to use the Collector mobile app to
contribute data (see Q1 in Table 5 below). All five were able to use the web app to contribute
data (see Q4 in Table 5 below). None of the respondents tried exporting data from the ‘Attribute
Table’ (see Q6 in Table 5 below), with reasons given being “not needed” and “lack of time.”
Two people said they would make changes to the BfAMT web app interface (see Q9 in Table 5
below). One person said that their input did not reflect the type of work they were doing.
Another said they would change the formatting by reducing the size of point marker icons and
wanted the ability to place an icon in the exact location of their project. Using the web app to
place a point in one’s exact location is possible by typing decimal degree coordinates (separated
by a comma) into the address bar. This feature is described in the BfAMT ‘Help Instructions’
widget. However, the process of adding decimal degree coordinates to the ‘Search Bar’ window
is not included in the BfAMT web app video tutorial posted on the project web page. Lastly,
there was a comment that users will need time to become comfortable with app features.

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Table 5. User responses to Questions 1-11 of the BfAMT survey questionnaire

Yes No Maybe

Q1. Were you able to use the
Collector for ArcGIS mobile app to
enter your biochar site information?
3 2 None
Q2. If you answered 'No' to Q1, what
was the main problem?
P3: I do not use any apps
P4: Could not download the app
Q3. Can you explain your response to
Q2?
P3: I do not use apps
Q4. Were you able to use the Biochar
for Agriculture Mapping Tool (web
app) to add your data point and edit
your biochar site's attributes?
5 None None

Q5. If you answered 'No' to Q4, what
was the main problem?
No Responses
Q6. Did you try exporting data from
the Attribute Table as an Excel CSV
file?
None 5 None
Q7. If you answered 'Yes' to Q6, were
you successful?
No Responses
Q8. If you answered 'No' to Q7, what
was the main issue?
P1: Not needed
P3: My personal lack of time at this time
P5: I did not need to do so
Q9. Would you change anything
about the Biochar for Agriculture
Mapping Tool's web app interface
(i.e. visual display) or website
content?
2 3 None
Q10. If you answered 'Yes' to Q9,
what would you change?
P2: The formatting
P4: Several things need development for more detail
Q11. Can you explain your response
to Q10?
P2: Smaller icons, the ability to put the icon in the
exact location of the project
P3: Users will need some time to get into the use of
the program
P4: My input does not reflect what I am actually
doing
P5: I like the layout as is. Simple to use

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User responses to Questions 12-17 are contained in Table 6 below. As for BfAMT
attribute categories and their associated drop-down menu options (see Q12 in Table 6 below),
two people would like to add an option for choosing multiple responses, especially for users who
are applying biochar in field trials and conducting multiple types of projects. Not having the
option to make multiple selections for drop-down attribute values is one of the biggest
limitations of the BfAMT feature service layer and map-driven form. In contrast, Esri’s Survey
123’s form-centric interface has multiple selection capability and can possibly be integrated with
Collector (see Chapter 5 – Conclusion).
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Table 6. User responses to Questions 12-17 of the BfAMT survey questionnaire

Yes No Maybe

Q12. Would you change anything
about the biochar site attribute
categories and drop-down menu
options that are collected via the
ArcGIS Collector mobile app?
2 3 None
Q13. If you answered 'Yes' to Q12,
what would you change?
P2: Add, modify, or delete drop-down menu options
for specific biochar attribute categories
P5: I would like to have a 'select all that apply' for
the Biochar Project Type, because my projects fits in
at least 4 categories
Q14. Can you explain your response to
Q13?
P2: Allow multiple responses especially for those
who are using biochar in field trials
P3: A great start does not need to be changing things
from the first moment.
P5: We are producing biochar to eliminate a
byproduct of coffee production, we will mix it with
soil to restore fertility and conduct field research
trials
Q15. Would you change anything
about the Biochar for Agriculture
Mapping Tool's functionality?
2 3 None

Q16. If you answered 'Yes' to Q15,
what would you change?
P2: Improve pop-ups by including more or less
information, etc
P4: Add contextual map layers (e.g., soil class, land
use, land cover, and climate)
Q17. Can you explain your answer to
Q16?
P2: Some info in the pop-ups is redundant. Including
a project overview would be nice as well - including
whether the project is a replicated study,
demonstration site, or simply a site that uses biochar
as part of their bmps
P3: See previous comments about the need for some
time.
P5: It was easy to use and worked well

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One option for storing multiple selections for individual questions is to add duplicate
questions labeled as primary, secondary, and tertiary (e.g., Secondary Biochar Project Type).
Alternatively, text fields can be used for including additional selections. Text fields were added
as a follow-up to BfAMT coded attribute fields where multiple selections were warranted.
Regarding BfAMT functionality (see Q15 in Table 6 above), one person would like to
reduce “redundancy” in feature pop-up windows and include a field for a project overview that
would allow users to describe whether a project is a replicated study, demonstration site, or a test
site that uses biochar as a best management practice (BMP). A drop-down option for specifying
whether a project is simply an implementation of a BMP (and not part of a project research
design) could be added to the Primary Biochar Project Type category. Currently, adding a
project overview is possible using the Additional Notes text field, although only 255 characters
are available. Originally, a Project Summary text field was one of the first attribute fields listed
in the ‘Contribute Data’ widget pop-up window. However, the Project Summary field was
moved down the list of attribute fields and renamed Additional Notes to capture any project
details that were not adequately addressed by other attribute fields.
User responses to Questions 18-20 are contained in Table 7 below. Three people
described the BfAMT app as “neither difficult or easy”, one as “somewhat easy” and one as
“very easy” (see Q18 in Table 7 below). The ability of the BfAMT to facilitate visualization and
exploration of biochar sites included four responses for “very well” and one response for
“average” (see Q19 in Table 7). As to how well the BfAMT will facilitate communication
between individuals and organizations involved in biochar research and experimentation, three
people said, “very well”, one said “somewhat well”, and one said “somewhat poorly.”

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Table 7. User responses to Questions 18-20 of the BfAMT survey questionnaire

Neither
Difficult nor
Easy
Somewhat
Easy
Very Easy
Q18. How easy or difficult was it to use ArcGIS
Collector (mobile app) to document your
agricultural work with biochar?
3 1 1

Very Well Average

Q19. How well do you think the Biochar for
Agriculture Mapping Tool (web app) facilitates
the visualization and exploration of biochar
agricultural sites?
4 1

Very Well
Somewhat
Well
Somewhat
Poorly
Q20. How well do you think the Biochar for
Agriculture Mapping Tool (web app) will
facilitate communication between individuals and
organizations involved with biochar research and
experimentation?
3 1 1

User responses to Questions 21-27 are contained in Table 8 below. The three people who
used the Collector mobile app to contribute data said they would continue to use it (see Q21 in
Table 8 below). Four people said they would continue to use the BfAMT web app and a fifth
person said that future use would depend on whether more “real” data points (as opposed to the
example points that currently constitute the majority of point features) were added to the web
map (see Q23 in Table 8 below). All respondents said they would recommend the BfAMT web
app to others in the biochar community (see Q25 in Table 8 below). Regarding the BfAMT in
general (see Q27 in Table 8 below), one person said “It seems to fill an important niche. It will
take time to build up its critical mass of users.”
72

Table 8. User responses to Questions 21-27 of the BfAMT survey questionnaire

Yes No Maybe

Q21. Will you continue to use
Collector for ArcGIS (mobile app) to
update your biochar site's attributes?
3 1 1
Q22. If you answered ''No' or 'Maybe'
to Q21, can you explain?
P3: I do not use mobile apps
P4: Our interest in biochar is democratization. We are
developing a new TLUD, investigating urine as a
source of nitrogen, and have a large experiment to
define the contribution of biochar to an organic
garden (on a comparative basis), new protocols for
BC incorporation, the use of chickens for nutrient
enhancement in soil as well as several smaller
experiments top document more specific soil
questions.
Q23. Will you continue to use the
Biochar for Agriculture Mapping Tool
(web app) to search for information
about other biochar research sites?
4 None 1
Q24. If you answered 'No' or 'Maybe'
to Q23 can you explain?
P3: Will be 'Yes' when there are more real data points
Q25. Will you recommend the
Biochar for Agriculture Mapping Tool
(web app) to others in the biochar
community?
5 None None
Q26. If you answered 'No' or 'Maybe'
to Q25, can you explain?
No responses
Q27. Any additional comments?
P1: Perhaps give an option early to simply jump right
in.
P3: It seems to fill an important niche. It will take
time to build up to its "critical mass" of users.
P4: If I can help, call me
P5: No, thank you for creating this tool

User responses to Questions 28-31 (i.e., demographics) are contained in Table 9 below.
In the pool of survey respondents, there was one female 25-34 years of age, one male 45-54, and
three males over 64. One person had a Master/JD degree and four had PhDs (see Table 9 below).
73

Table 9. User responses to Questions 28-31 of the BfAMT survey questionnaire

25-34 45-54 64+
Q28. What is your age? 1 1 3

Male Female

Q29. What is your gender? 4 1

White

Q30. What is your race/ethnicity (select all that
apply)?
5

Master/JD PhD

Q31. What is your highest level of education? 1 4

74

Chapter 5 Conclusions and Future Work
Chapter 5 includes a summary description (Section 5.1.), application development challenges
(Section 5.2.), strengths (Section 5.3.), limitations (Section 5.4.), promotion and extension
(Section 5.5.), future work (Section 5.6.), and broader impact (Section 5.7.) of the BfAMT.
5.1. Summary Description of the BfAMT
The BfAMT was primarily designed as a platform for sharing biochar activities related to
land rehabilitation, resource management, and agriculture. The integration of the Collector
mobile app with the BfAMT web app empowers users in remote locations, and those in low-
income areas of the world who have limited computer/Internet resources, to use mobile devices
to 1) document their on-site biochar research and activities, 2) visualize and explore user-
generated content, 3) coordinate multi-site biochar projects, and 4) share information about best
practices. The BfAMT web-GIS app serves as a browser-based workspace for managing,
exploring, and exporting biochar site information using Esri WAB features and widgets. Either
the Collector mobile app or BfAMT web app can be used to create point features, record site
attributes, upload photos and videos, download and save photos and videos, and view text file
attachments (e.g., Excel spreadsheets, Word documents, and PDF files). However, only the
BfAMT web app can be used to 1) upload text file attachments, 2) download and save text file
attachments, and 3) query and export geodatabase site records.
5.2. Challenges in BfAMT App Development
In general, BfAMT app development challenges included: 1) working with coded
attribute domains and feature class fields in ArcMap 10.6, 2) updating and customizing feature
services in AGOL, and 3) working with symbology in ArcMap 10.6 and AGOL.
75

Issues encountered when working with coded attribute domains and feature class fields in
ArcMap 10.6 are described in Section 4.5. above. Loss of BfAMT web app configurations (i.e.,
widget settings) in WAB was experienced when updating feature service layers in AGOL and
reassigning data sources within the BfAMT web app. Also, in WAB, customizing map scale
zoom levels resulted in loss of the basemap. Map scale customization may only be possible using
Esri’s Developer Edition to work directly with WAB Javascript Object Notation (JSON) files or
the ArcGIS programming interface (API) for Javascript.
Other issues were encountered when working with map symbology in ArcMap 10.6,
Collector, and WAB. To get symbology text descriptions to appear within the symbology
template that is used to identify and select the appropriate point feature symbol to add to the map
in ArcMap and AGOL, it was necessary to assign a data type of ‘Text’ to the coded domain(s)
used to symbolize the map (e.g., Organization Type or Individual and Primary Biochar Project
Type). It was also necessary to write codes and values using identical text (see the coded domain
table for Organization Type or Individual in Figure 4 above). Although this method worked for a
single coded domain (i.e., Organization Type or Individual), the author was unable to create a
second coded domain with a ‘Text’ data type (i.e., Primary Biochar Project Type) and use it to
assign text descriptions to map symbology (as described in the next paragraph).
As described previously in Section 4.5., changing a coded domain’s data type after its
feature class has been published to AGOL required exporting the feature class to the same
geodatabase and renaming it so that coded domains and feature class fields could be edited.
However, after 1) creating a new coded domain with data type ‘Text’, 2) assigning the new
domain to its corresponding attribute field (i.e., Primary Biochar Project Type) and 3) adding the
new feature class layer to the map in ArcMap 10.6, point features disappeared during the process
76

of assigning unique symbology to the layer. Interestingly, even though point features were no
longer visible in the map frame, they could still be selected using the ‘Select Features’ tool.
However, because point features were not displayed in ArcMap 10.6, they were also not
displayed when the published feature service layer was opened in AGOL’s Map Viewer. It may
be necessary to create an empty feature class to assign one, or multiple, attribute domains as
coded text before publishing to AGOL. This will be investigated.
Originally, a difference in map symbology size between the Collector mobile app and the
BfAMT web app was experienced. Specifically, the size of map feature symbols in Collector
appeared much smaller than they did in the BfAMT web app. To correct this issue, web maps
with different size symbology were created from the same feature class layer. A web map with
larger symbols was assigned to Collector and a web map with smaller symbols was assigned to
the BfAMT web app. Functionally, edits made to either web map were reflected in both.
5.3. Strengths of the BfAMT
Based on user feedback, the BfAMT is succeeding in its objectives to facilitate the
visualization and exploration of biochar sites, with generally favorable reviews regarding its
ability to facilitate communication between individuals and organizations involved in biochar
activities. Users who beta-tested the BfAMT said they would continue to use the apps and
recommend them to others in the biochar community. Lastly, users seemed mostly satisfied with
the attribute categories and drop-down menu options for describing biochar (agricultural) sites.
However, recommended improvements included the integration of options for 1) selecting
multiple values per attribute domain and 2) describing different types of biochar field studies.
The BfAMT was compared to other biochar databases and web-GIS applications, and the
comparative limitations and advantages of each are discussed: The UC Davis Biochar Database
77

is a well-constructed website with web-based data entry forms aimed at collecting data on
different biochars’ physical and chemical characteristics. Although the data entry form includes a
text field for Geography, there is no field for entering geographic coordinates. There is also no
mapping application linked to the database for visualizing locations where people are conducting
biochar characterization research. However, a web mapping application is not necessarily a
useful extension of the UC Davis Biochar Database unless map users value an ability to search
for biochar characterization data on feedstocks that are available within their own geographic or
socio-environmental context. The UC Davis Biochar Database does offer analysis and
visualization of biochar characteristics with options for plotting different biochar variable
combinations on x and y-axes. However, no other database search options are available. Instead,
users have the option to download the entire dataset as an Excel CSV file.
The sole biochar web-GIS application that the author found is produced by the Finnish
Biochar Association in Finland. The app, called “Map of biochar activities in Finland”, is
effective in its simplicity and its inclusion of all biochar-related activities. Data collection is
form-centric, designed using Google forms. Users are asked to answer a short list of questions
about their biochar activity and submit a form to the Finnish Biochar Association. Attribute
information is subsequently entered into the database and displayed on the map. Perhaps the best
feature of the web map is a layer list that displays all major biochar activity categories, with
individual sites listed below each category. When clicked, individual sites are displayed in the
map’s center. Limitations of this web-GIS app include no ability to download the data and no
search options for finding and displaying locations with specific biochar activity attributes.
78

5.4. Limitations of the BfAMT
Possible limitations that came up during and after BfAMT implementation were: 1) the
need to expand the app’s appeal to reach a broader base and include users involved in biochar
projects outside the realm of agriculture, 2) the effectiveness of the BfAMT mobile and web apps
to connect those in the biochar community, 3) the need to develop more targeted methods for
reaching out to biochar researchers and project managers (in an effort to build the database), and
4) the need for additional feedback to help improve the mobile and web apps.
Follow-up questions that could be used to address limitations of the BfAMT include: 1)
Do BfAMT users consider the dataset to be trustworthy, informative, and/or robust enough for
identifying and learning about biochar research and activities? 2) Will users of the BfAMT
mobile/web app platform use it to reach out directly to other researchers and biochar
practitioners? 3) Do map-driven forms provide attribute categories and values that reflect user
needs for comparing different biochar sites? and 4) Will the BfAMT be able to retain active users
and recruit new users over time?
5.5. Promotion and Extension of the BfAMT
The BfAMT will continue to be promoted by International Biochar Initiative staff, who
have offered to spread the word via e-mail and include an announcement in their monthly
newsletter as soon as the post-beta-testing version of the app is ready. The updated BfAMT will
also be shared on the Yahoo Biochar Group listserv. Future promotional tools will include
targeted e-mails to researchers, organizations, and individuals who have recently published
biochar research, or are actively studying or using biochar. In general, an effort will be made to
populate the BfAMT web app with as many biochar user profiles and site activities as possible to
increase the likelihood that the International Biochar Initiative will commit to continuing the
79

map feature service as part of their organization’s global outreach campaign for promoting the
production and use of biochar. This may involve secondary means of recruiting volunteer
participation. For example, Google forms and e-mail attachments could be used to collect
information about biochar activities from those who are not necessarily interested in taking the
time to use the BfAMT to contribute data themselves, but who would like to have their project
information added to the database. Under this scenario, a BfAMT app administrator would use
VGI to create map features, enter attribute data, and add attachments.
An alternative to using the Esri’s Collector for ArcGIS map-centric mobile app to collect
spatial data is Esri’s Survey 123 form-centric mobile app. The capabilities and benefits of Survey
123 compared to Collector are available on Esri’s Survey 123 blog site (Esri Survey 123 Blog
2018). Survey 123 incorporates a user-friendly survey form that is configurable using a
Microsoft Excel CSV spreadsheet that contains app-specific language for defining data
collection field types. To create a geopoint, a small interactive map frame (embedded in the
survey form) is used to place a pin marker at a desired location. Survey 123 offers two major
advantages over Collector: 1) a more aesthetic data collection form (i.e., smart form) with an
option to select multiple values for a single question, and 2) anonymous access with no AGOL
account sign-in required. However, Survey 123 layers can only be hosted in AGOL and are
therefore more subject to Esri credit usage. Furthermore, Survey 123 only supports the collection
of point features and photo attachments.
The author chose to use Collector as the mobile data collection app to pair with the
BfAMT web-GIS app because it can 1) be integrated with ArcGIS Server and Microsoft’s SQL
Server to support multiple document type attachments (e.g., photos, PDFs, and Microsoft Word
and Excel files) in a RDBMS, and 2) supports data collection of points, lines, and polygons.
80

Although photo attachments can be uploaded with Collector, text files cannot. However, text
files attached through the BfAMT web app can be downloaded and viewed with Collector.
Neither line nor polygon feature services were published as part of the original BfAMT, but the
option to create these feature classes for delineating biochar research plots or activity areas could
be implemented in future versions. Ultimately, the ability to 1) upload point, line, and polygon
feature class data to the USC SSI ArcGIS Server and 2) give mobile app users the option to view
text attachments (e.g., article PDFs, lab spreadsheets, and word processing files) were the main
criteria for choosing Collector over Survey 123.
Esri recently offered a new course called “Field Data Collection and Management Using
ArcGIS” that teaches best practices for 1) configuring and implementing the suite of ArcGIS
field productivity apps, which includes Collector for ArcGIS and Survey 123, and 2) configuring
these apps to work together. The author will explore the possibility of integrating Collector and
Survey 123 as part of future BfAMT app development and deployment.
The BfAMT is focused on biochar projects that have a land restoration, resource
management, or agricultural focus. However, for the BfAMT to be used by other biochar interest
groups, feature class subtypes with their own set of coded attribute domains may need to be
developed to accommodate users who are interested in 1) biochar carbon capture and storage
(CCS), 2) biochar production byproducts like hydrogen gas and bio-oil that can be used to
produce electricity, and 3) commercial biochar production and distribution. The creation of
feature class subtypes for the enhanced visualization and data exploration of different biochar
activities represents a feasible next step for building a more inclusive biochar activities database
and increasing the outreach of the BfAMT.
81

5.6. Future Work
In an effort to be more inclusive of other types of biochar projects and activities outside
the realm of agriculture, future iterations of the BfAMT will include the creation of database sub-
types and/or an expansion of attribute categories and values for describing projects related to
biochar’s use in 1) stormwater management, 2) wastewater treatment, 3) environmental
remediation, 4) building construction, 5) energy production, 6) commercial products and
services, and 7) promotion and policy as it relates to climate change mitigation. Additionally, a
feature class subtype could be created for biochar events (e.g., trainings, workshops, promotional
events, volunteer projects, and meet-ups).
The addition of contextual map layers is another consideration for future iterations of the
BfAMT. Experimental agriculture has an inherent spatial component that can be correlated with
in-situ environmental variables; like soil properties, climatic variables, and biomass availability;
and socio-economic variables like population density, land use, distance to transportation
networks, and economic metrics. Individually or collectively, these environmental and socio-
economic variables could be used to analyze and define site suitability for biochar production
and cropping systems.
More generally, the addition of map layers to the BfAMT would provide a contextual
background for biochar users who are interested in assessing how different factors might affect
the sustainability of their biochar system(s). For this thesis project, contextual map layers were
considered optional or unnecessary from a utility perspective. Also, the global scale of the
BfAMT would require large datasets that could affect app performance. Nonetheless, contextual
map layers could be added to the BfAMT where detailed local or regional datasets are available,
or where legitimate research or management needs are identified.
82

A possible addition to the BfAMT web page is an advanced video tutorial that teaches
users how to apply filters and/or add expressions to map widgets. Learning this skill would
enable users to search the database for specific attributes without relying on preset functions. The
project web page might also be redesigned to include a header, side panels, and/or tabs with
supplementary help resources and information about biochar. Web page formatting might also be
changed to improve aesthetics and ease-of-use. Lastly, the addition of a blog section could be
useful for those wishing to 1) make an announcement, 2) share links and information, or 3) start
a dialogue with other biochar users.
5.7. Broader Impact
Once user feedback and other recommended modifications are incorporated into a revised
version of the BfAMT, it will be promoted and shared with a larger segment of the biochar
community. This will involve new recruitment methods that target recent contributors to the field
of biochar research and practice (e.g., academic and research institutions, NGOs, government
agencies, and self-proclaimed biochar associations).
The future research, networking, and policy value of the BfAMT will depend on user
contributions (i.e., VGI) to build a critical mass of biochar research and activity sites that
encourage continued and expanded the use of the tool. Over time, the BfAMT has the potential
to develop into an internationally recognized web-GIS application for the sharing, visualization,
investigation, and promotion of global biochar activities.
83

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Appendix A: BfAMT Text Fields and Coded Attribute Domains with Values
Table 1A. BfAMT attribute categories Page 1 (text fields and coded values)

Attribute Category Data Type Code Code Description
Organization Type or Individual Long Integer 0 Research Institute
1 Community Organization
2 International NGO
3 Government Agency
4 Individual
5 Other
Name of Individual or Organization (Optional) Text
Contact Information (Optional) Text
Country Name Text Text Three letter Country ID
Other Country (Optional) Text
Primary Biochar Project Type Long Integer 0 Raw Biochar Production
1 Biochar Product (Nutrient/Microbe/Mineral)
2 Resrc Mgmt (Farm/Forest/Urban)
3 Soil Rehabilitation/Land Restoration
4 Fuel/Fiber Production
5 Food Production
6 Crop Trial (Outdoor)
7 Crop Trial (Greenhouse)
8 Other (Please specify in next field)
Other Biochar Project Type (Optional) Text
Biochar Site Type Long Integer 0 Planting Containers (greenhouse)
1 Planting Containers (outside)
2 Garden Plot (raised bed)
3 Garden Plot (in-ground)
4 Small Farm (less than 1 hectare)
5 Medium Farm (between 1 and 5 hectares)
6 Large Farm (greater than 5 hectares)
7 Forest/Savannah/Desert
8 Rural Space (non farm)
9 Urban Space (non farm)
10 Other (Please specify in next field)
Other Biochar Site Type (Optional) Text
Primary Biochar Cropping System Long Integer 0 None
1 Rice
2 Coffee
3 Maize
4 Cereal (wheat, millet, sorghum, etc)
5 Legume (bean, pea, lentil, etc)
6 Other Vegetable (squash, pepper, tomato, etc)
7 Root Crop (potato, cassava, yam, etc)
8 Tree Crop (fruit, legume, leaf, etc)
9 Wood or Fiber Crop
10 Biofuel Crop
11 Natural Vegetation
12 Other (Please specify in next field)
Primary Crop Species (Optional) Text
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Table 2A. BfAMT attribute categories Page 2 (text fields and coded values)

Attribute Category Data Type Code Code Description
Biochar Project Timeline Long Integer 0 0-1 year
1 2-5 years
2 6-20 years
3 21 - 100 years
Type of Biochar Production Device Long Integer 0 None
1 Tin Can System
2 Traditional Kiln (mound kiln, beehive kiln, etc)
3 Burn Pile (stacked)
4 Flame-Cap or Open-Air Kiln (cone kiln, pyramid kiln, open-pit kiln)
5 Gasifier (TLUD, Jolly-Roger Oven, etc)
6 Retort (Anila Stove, Adam Retort, steel drum retort)
7 Industrial or Commercial-Size Reactor (Gasifier or Pyrolyzer)
Specific Biochar Production Device (Optional) Text
Biochar Feedstock Source Long Integer 0 Forest/Shrubland (deadfall, invasive species, etc)
1 Farm Waste (crop residue, manure, invasive species, etc)
2 Purpose Grown (woodlot, other designated biomass crop)
3 Urban (processed wood, tree trimmings)
4 Municipal (biosolids, solid waste, etc)
5 Industrial or Commercial (boiler ash, food processing waste, etc)
6 Pre-Made Biochar or Commercial Biochar Product
7 Unknown
8 Other (Please specify in next field)
Specific Feedstock Source (Optional) Text
Type of Biochar Feestock Long Integer 0 Natural Wood - Small Diameter < 5 cm
1 Natural Wood - Large Diameter > 5 cm
2 Waste Wood - Lumber, Plywood, etc
3 Processed Wood - Pellets
4 Crop Residue (Stems/Stalks/Leaves)
5 Crop Residue (Stover/Husk/Pod/Pit)
6 Food Residue (Bagasse/Brewer's Waste)
7 Livestock or Poultry Manure
8 Biosolids (Sewage Sludge)
9 Bone
10 Coal Byproduct
11 Unknown
12 Other (Please specify in next field)
Specific Feedstock Type (Optional) Text
Method for Quenching Biochar Long Integer 0 Water Only
1 Urine (no dilution)
2 Smothering (with soil and/or capping with lid)
3 Nutrient Solution (water + nutrients)
Method for Pulverizing Biochar Long Integer 0 None (whole pieces)
1 Hand Tool (hammer, mortar and pestle, etc)
2 Food Blender (with water)
3 Crushing (vehicle, roller, press, etc)
4 Device (mill, chipper, leaf vacuum, etc)
Primary Biochar Quality Test Long Integer 0 None
1 Worm Avoidance Test
2 Germination Test
3 Yield Test
89

Table 3A. BfAMT attribute categories Page 3 (text fields and coded values)

Attribute Category Data Type Code Code Description
Primary Biochar Fertilization Method Long Integer 0 None
1 Inorganic Fertilizer
2 Urine
3 Manure
4 Worm Castings
5 Fish or Bone Meal
6 Wastewater/Sludge
7 Mycorrhizal Fungi
8 Effective/Indigenous Microbe Mix
9 Rock Dust
10 Compost
11 Multiple (Please specify in next field)
12 Other (Please specify in next field)
Specific Biochar Fertilization Method (Optional) Text
Biochar Soil Application Method Long Integer 0 None
1 Uniform Mixing or Plowing of Topsoil
2 Banding (furrows, tree dripline, etc)
3 Planting Holes (field)
4 Planting Containers (indoor or outdoor)
5 Surface Application (natural mixing)
6 Other (Please specify in next field)
Specific Biochar Application Method (Optional) Text
Biochar Soil Application Rate Long Integer 0 0-1 tons/hectare (t/ha)
1 2-5 tons/hectare (t/ha)
2 6-20 tons/hectare (t/ha)
3 21 - 40 tons/hectare (t/ha)
4 40 + tons/hectare (t/ha)
5 0 - 0.1 kilograms/square meter (kg/m
2
)
6 0.2 - 0.5 kilograms/square meter (kg/m
2
)
7 0.5 - 1.7 kilograms/square meter (kg/m
2
)
8 1.8 - 3.6 kilograms/square meter (kg/m
2
)
9 3.6 + kilograms/square meter (kg/m
2
)
Biochar Research Trial Design Long Integer 0 Control vs Treatment (no replication)
1 Control vs Treatment (with replication)
2 Split Plot
3 Completely Randomized
4 Randomized Complete Block
5 Other (Please specify in next field)
Other Research Trial Design (Optional) Text
Additional Project Notes (Optional) Text
90

Table 4A. BfAMT attribute categories Page 4 (text fields and coded values)

Attribute Category Data Type Code Code Description
Soil Properties Measured Long Integer 0 None
1 pH Only
2 Soil Texture Only
3 pH and Soil Texture
4 Lab Analysis (Attach - Optional)
Soil pH Value (Optional) Text
Soil Texture Class Long Integer 0 Not Determined
1 Sand
2 Loamy Sand
3 Sandy Loam
4 Loam
5 Silt Loam
6 Silt
7 Sandy Clay Loam
8 Clay Loam
9 Silty Clay Loam
10 Sandy Clay
11 Silty Clay
12 Clay
Biochar Properties Measured Long Integer 0 None
1 pH Only
2 Lab Analysis (Attach - Optional)
Biochar pH Value (Optional) Text
Percent Ash in Biochar (Optional) Text
Percent Volatile Carbon in Biochar (Optional) Text
Percent Labile Carbon in Biochar (Optional) Text
Percent Fixed Carbon in Biochar (Optional) Text
ATTACHME NT Blob
SHAPE Geometry
91

Appendix B: BfAMT Collector Mobile App Screenshots and Workflow

Figure 1B. Collector for ArcGIS app download on iPhone 5S, and ArcGIS Online login screen

Figure 2B. Home screen, information details screen, and options menu screen in Collector
92

Figure 3B. Options menu, settings menu, and accuracy menu

Figure 4B. Automated point feature collection in Collector

93

Figure 5B. Manual point feature collection in Collector

Figure 6B. Collection of point feature attribute domain data in Collector
94

Figure 7B. Collection of point feature text field data in Collector

Figure 8B. Point feature attribute data submission and basemap selection in Collector

95

Figure 9B. Editing point feature attributes and attaching photos in Collector

Figure 10B. Offline point feature collection with Collector (Adding Waypoints – Slide 1)

96

Figure 11B. Offline point feature collection with Collector (Adding waypoints – Slide 2)

Figure 12B. Online data collection in Collector using waypoints

97

Appendix C: BfAMT Web-GIS App Help Instructions
THE BIOCHAR for AGRICULTURE MAPPING TOOL

Basic Map Controls are in the upper left corner of the map:

• Zoom in and out using the +/– buttons or the scroll wheel on your mouse
• Use the Home button to return to the map's full extent
• The Search bar allows you to input place names, addresses, and decimal degree
coordinates

Widgets, or map tools, are in the upper left corner of the map below the search bar,
and in the upper right corner of the map along the top border. Hover over a
Widget’s icon with your cursor to reveal its title. Map Widgets from left to right are
as follows:

• The Help Instructions widget (this widget!) contains instructions for using
The Biochar for Agriculture Mapping Tool (BfAMT).

• The Select Biochar Sites widget allows you to select an area of the map and
view the results in the Attribute Table . After clicking the Select Biochar
Sites tool, you can define an area of interest by clicking and dragging the
pointer on the surface of the map. If necessary, move the Select Biochar Sites
pop-up window to reveal your area of interest. To view the Attribute Table
return to the Select Biochar Sites pop-up window and click the ‘three-dot-
menu (…)’. This will give you the option to ‘View in Attribute Table’ that
will display an Attribute Table containing all biochar sites within your area
of interest. ALWAYS! clear your results with the ‘Clear’ button in the Select
Biochar Sites pop-up window, otherwise the biochar sites you selected will
remain highlighted in a baby blue color.

• The Search Biochar Sites widget contains preset queries for searching
different biochar site attributes. These preset queries are listed under the
‘Tasks’ tab. Simply click on a task (i.e., query) and the results are highlighted
on the map. A pop-up window appears with the query results. In the pop-up
window, you can scroll through your results site by site. These results are
limited to the current map extent (i.e., what you see is what you get!).
Therefore, if you want to search the entire database, please hit the Home
98

button to view the map’s full extent. If you want to search a defined area or
region, Zoom in using the +/– buttons and run the task (i.e., query) again.

• The Chart Tool widget has preset chart options for summarizing biochar site
attributes. Simply click on a chart task and choose ‘Apply’ to see the results
displayed. You have the option to apply a ‘spatial filter’ to your results. By
checking the ‘spatial filter’ box, you can limit your results to the map’s extent
or an area you defined by you using a drawing tool.

• Click the Contribute Data widget to add another biochar project site to the
map. Simply click on one of the icon choices to highlight it, then choose your
location on the map by using the Zoom +/– buttons to specify where exactly
you want to place your point. Next, click on the map to place your point. To
maintain privacy, you may choose to place a point in the general vicinity of
your project area (e.g., same neighborhood, county, or province).

• The Legend widget, located in upper right corner of the map along the top
border, displays the LEGEND for each map layer.

• The Layer List widget displays all map layers. If a layer’s check box is checked,
it should be visible on the map. By unchecking a layer’s check box, its features
will no longer be visible on the map. To view each map layer’s symbology,
simply click the small DOWN arrow next to the map layer’s name.

• The Basemap Gallery widget presents a gallery of basemaps and allows you to
select one as the basemap for The Biochar for Agriculture Mapping Tool. It is
easy to switch basemaps using this widget. Try it out! I like to use the ‘Light
Grey Canvas’ basemap for clarity. Each time you open the web app it will
default to the ‘Topographic’ basemap, so you will need to change it to your
preferred basemap each time.

• The Bookmark widget allows you to add bookmarks for preferred locations
on the map. I have already created some regional bookmarks you can use. You
are welcome add your own bookmarks. First, zoom to the area you would like
to bookmark. Then click the ‘Add’ button and name your bookmark. You have
the option to ‘Edit’ or ‘Delete’ your bookmark.

99

There are several options for viewing, searching, and exporting data from the
Attribute Table :

• To view the entire dataset, you can click the small UP arrow that is centered at
the bottom of the map (Attention: it’s small and hard to see). This will bring up
the first few rows of the Attribute Table . (Note: To view more table rows,
you will have to use the table’s scroll bar, located on the right side of the table.
Or, to increase the size of the table, hover over the table’s top border with your
cursor (until you see a two-way arrow symbol like this one ), then click and
drag upward. However, if the expanded table obscures any of the points on the
map, you will no longer see these points in the table. So, you’ll need to adjust
the map view (by zooming out) so that all points are still visible in the map
frame. To export data from the Attribute Table as an Excel CSV file, you
will need to click the arrow next to the ‘Options’ tab, located in the upper left
corner of the Attribute Table . You can export the entire table, or you can
select which rows you want to export by holding down the ‘Control’ button on
your keyboard and clicking in the left margin of the rows you want to export. If
done correctly, the rows you choose should be highlighted in a baby blue color.
Under the ‘Options’ menu, you will see an option for ‘Export Selected to
CSV’. Once clicked, your Excel CSV table (.csv file) should download to your
computer.

• Another way to search biochar site attributes is to use the ‘Options’ menu of
the Attribute Table . Click ‘Options’ and choose ‘Filter’. Next, click
‘Add Expression’ and choose from the drop-down menu options to create
your own search expression. The results will be displayed on the map. They can
then be exported as an Excel CSV file. REMEMBER! to use the ‘Filter’
window pop-up to delete your expression, otherwise the map will continue to
show only the results from your search (which might be 0!). So, click the ‘X’
next to your expression to delete it and allow the map to repopulate with the
full range of biochar sites.

• You can also view the entire Attribute Table using the Layer List widget.
After clicking the Layer List icon, you can view a map layer’s Attribute Table
by selecting the ‘three-dot-menu (…)’ to the right of the layer name.

• The Select Biochar Sites tool provides another way to select map data and
export it to an Excel CSV file. Open the Select Biochar Sites tool and use it
to select an area of interest (e.g., the continent of Africa). Only those biochar
100

sites that were selected will show up highlighted in a baby blue color in the
Attribute Table . As described above, use the ‘Options’ tab located in the
upper left corner of the Attribute Table to export the selected records as
an Excel .CSV file. (Warning: If you click on the ‘three-dot-menu (…)’ in the
Select Biochar Sites pop-up window, you will see and option to ‘Export to
CSV file’. However, the cell values in the exported table will show up as coded
values instead of text descriptions).

To edit or update your biochar site’s attribute data, simply click on the icon of the
map feature point you created. This brings up a pop-up window with your biochar
site’s attributes. At the bottom right corner of the pop-up window you will see a
‘three-dot-menu (…)’. Click the ‘three-dot-menu (…)’ and choose ‘Edit’ from the
drop-down list. Now, you can start editing your biochar site’s attributes. When
finished, simply close the pop-up window and your changes are saved. Using the
‘Edit’ feature allows you to add photo and file attachments (e.g., Microsoft Word and
PDF files) to your biochar site. Adding document attachments is a unique feature of
the BfAMT web app that is not possible when using the Collector for ArcGIS
mobile app, although Collector does allow you to upload photos.

I welcome feedback and suggestions for improving The Biochar for Agriculture
Mapping Tool (mebabcoc@usc.edu).

Web Author: Michael Babcock, M.S. Candidate, University of Southern California
Product Version: ArcGIS Online 6.3 – October 2018
Kernel Version: 2.10

101

Appendix D: BfAMT Online Google Survey Questionnaire

Figure 1D. Information section of the BfAMT survey questionnaire Information and Consent
Form

102

Figure 2D. Consent section of the BfAMT survey questionnaire Information and Consent Form

103

Figure 3D. Functionality section (partial screenshot) of the BfAMT survey questionnaire

104

Figure 4D. Practicality section (partial screenshot) of the BfAMT survey questionnaire

105

Figure 5D. Demographics section (partial screenshot) of the BfAMT survey questionnaire

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Climate change poses increasing risks to the world’s ecosystems and agricultural systems as greenhouse gas emissions are contributing to the unprecedented warming of the biosphere. One mechanism for capturing and storing carbon dioxide (CO₂), a primary greenhouse gas, is the production and application of biochar, or carbonized biomass created in an oxygen-limited environment. The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) identifies biochar as stable organic carbon that can increase soil carbon sequestration, resilience, and fertility. Biochar researchers and enthusiasts have worked to identify scenarios that are conducive to the application of biochar and maximize its potential benefits. Researchers have addressed biochar feedstock, production technologies, physical and chemical properties, and biochar’s potential in energy generation, environmental remediation, resource management, land rehabilitation, and agricultural production. The Biochar for Agriculture Mapping Tool (BfAMT), which integrates Esri’s Collector for ArcGIS mobile application with a stand-alone web application developed with Esri’s Web App Builder (WAB), was designed to collect and display volunteered geographic information (VGI) about biochar agricultural sites on a global scale. With its editable feature services and map-driven forms, the BfAMT allows users to document their site-specific research and experimentation with biochar, thereby creating a geodatabase of biochar project locations, site attributes, and file attachments that facilitates research, coordination, and information sharing within the biochar community. Feedback from biochar users who beta-tested the BfAMT and completed an online survey questionnaire are presented and discussed. Recommended improvements offered by first-time users help guide the development and customization of the BfAMT as a workspace, spatial database, and promotional tool for local, regional, and global biochar activities.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Babcock, Michael Edward (author)

Core Title Building a spatial database of biochar research and practice with Web-GIS

School College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

Degree Master of Science

Degree Program Geographic Information Science and Technology

Publication Date 02/08/2019

Defense Date 12/11/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Agriculture,ArcGIS,biochar,biomass,Carbon,carbon sequestration,climate adaptation,climate change,Collector for ArcGIS,enterprise geodatabase,Esri Web App Builder,feedstock,food security,gasification,GIS,International Biochar Initiative,kiln,OAI-PMH Harvest,pyrolysis,Soil,soil amendment,soil fertility,spatial database,volunteered geographic information,web-GIS

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Bernstein, Jennifer (committee chair), Swift, Jennifer (committee member), Wu, An-Min (committee member)

Creator Email mbabcock.474@gmail.com,mebabcoc@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-117139

Unique identifier UC11675945

Identifier etd-BabcockMic-7046.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-117139 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BabcockMic-7046.pdf

Dmrecord 117139

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Babcock, Michael Edward

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA