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The impact of college success program on first generation college students in their preparation for college

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THE IMPACT OF COLLEGE SUCCESS PROGRAM ON FIRST GENERATION
COLLEGE STUDENTS IN THEIR PREPARATION FOR COLLEGE

by

Amber Bradley

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2019

Copyright 2019 Amber Bradley
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DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my late grandmother Debra Russell.
Every moment when I feel like giving up, I remember you telling me what I am destined for. I
remember hearing and listening to your voice saying that you will always be with me mentally,
spiritually and emotionally. You told me that I would become a doctor one day; who would have
thought that day would come. You are the light at the end of my tunnel telling me and guiding to
push forward.
I would also like to dedicate this dissertation to the matriarch of my maternal family.
Autherine “Momma” Kelly. Momma, my shining light, my everything. It is through your
kindred soul that I am who I am today. You give selflessly, you love unconditionally, you move
swiftly, you are timeless. You make me so proud to be your first great-grandchild.
Additionally, I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my beloved friend, confidant,
and dance dad, D’Nez Westmoreland and the LadyHawks Dance Team. It hurts ever so much to
know that you will not be able to physically see me walk the stage, however, I know that you are
looking down from heaven CHEERING me on through this process. I thank you for your love
and support and your confidence in me as I grow as a dancer, an academic and a leader.

3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Family, framily, and friends, you are all nothing short of amazing. My backbones. Without
the love and support you all provide, without the countless moments of you all checking in with me
to see how I am doing and how my dissertation is coming along, I would not be here today,
accomplishing this life-long goal. I have always had a dream of becoming a doctor, a pediatrician
actually. I never thought in a million years, I would become someone who is passionate about not
only educating herself, but educating others. This is for you ALL.
Mom, Felicia, I am grateful for your love, support and guidance throughout my educational
career. You paved the way for what is possible for generations to come. You set the expectation early
on, and I had no choice but to live up to it. I am so grateful you saw in me what I did not see in
myself. I am so happy you chose to be my mom. I am so honored you chose me as your daughter.
Thank you.
While my family, framily, and friends are beyond blended, and too many to name, I want to
thank you all for loving me in my most unlovable moments. I want to thank you all for pushing me
when I did not want to be pushed. I want to thank you all for believing in me when I did not believe
in myself.
To my sisters Aémoni, Ameeya, Lauren, London, and Rene. You ALL give me strength,
love and hope for our future. I am so very proud of all of you and to be the leader of this pack. I
expect great things from you in the future. To my bestie Guynesha. You have no idea how much you
inspire me to be a better version of myself. I want to thank you for always being by my side and
encouraging me when I do not have the strength to encourage myself. To my beautiful God-sons
Caleb and Connor, TT-mom loves you so very much. This is for you. To my roomie fo life Ellie,
your motivation and constant support will forever stay with me. You are truly an amazing amiga. To
my P.I.C. Evan, thank you for your consistent support and for encouraging me to push through even
when I wanted to quit. Thank you for your unwavering love, support and humor.
4
Furthermore, I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my chairs. My wonderful support
team, who really, without them, none of this would be possible. I want to thank Dr. Alan Green and
Dr. Guadalupe Garcia Montano for encouraging me along the way. Alan, you have been an amazing
mentor for the past 6 years. I want to thank you for your guidance and pushing me to be better. I
appreciate the countless hours the both of you put in, making sure that we are all set for success. It is
chairs like you who make accomplishments like this possible.
I would also like to acknowledge my mentors that have given me the moral, mental, and
physical support throughout this process. Dr. Sheila Banuelos, my dear mentor and friend. Thank you
for your continued love and support. You are a part of the reason I continued my education. Thank
you for providing me with opportunities I would not have otherwise had, without your mentorship.
Dr. Tiffany Tyler, whether you believe it or not, you have been a positive driving force in my life
since high school. Thank you for being a positive role model for young, driven, African American,
women. Sherri Bradford, it was through your leadership, guidance and support that fast-tracked me
through Santa Monica College, and onto a path of educational success.
My CoHearts, this journey would not have been the same without you. It was by choice that
we all decided to enroll in this program, it was by chance and luck that we all ended up in the same
cohort night, and it was by love that we all decided to build a unique bond that even our professors
did not understand. I am grateful for each and every one of you through the highs and the lows, the
good and the not so good, Brazil and our countless nights at the lab and Downtown Los Angeles. To
The Crew, JJ, Marty, Shaneka, Kimmie, Dionne and Vanessa, I am forever indebted to you all. You
all hold me down, are always down, and forever lifting me up! No man left behind. Together, we got
this.

5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ 3
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ........................................................................ 8
Background of the Problem ........................................................................................................ 9
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 12
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 13
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 14
Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 15
Key Definitions ......................................................................................................................... 15
Organization of the Study ......................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................................................ 18
Contributing to College Readiness ........................................................................................... 18
Overview of Topics ............................................................................................................... 19
High School and College Readiness ..................................................................................... 19
College Access Programs ......................................................................................................... 27
College Access and Success ................................................................................................. 30
College Readiness ................................................................................................................. 31
Sense of Belonging ................................................................................................................... 32
Institutional Support and Programs ...................................................................................... 32
Spirituality and Persistence ....................................................................................................... 33
Lack of Empirical Evidence for College Access Programs ...................................................... 34
Conceptual Frameworks ........................................................................................................... 35
Review Summary ...................................................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 39
Research Design ........................................................................................................................ 42
Sample and Population ............................................................................................................. 44
Access/Entry ............................................................................................................................. 45
Instrumentation ......................................................................................................................... 45
Interview Protocol ..................................................................................................................... 46
Data Collection Approach ......................................................................................................... 46
Survey Protocol ......................................................................................................................... 46
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 47
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 48
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS .................................................................................................... 50
Setting and Participants ............................................................................................................. 52
Alma ...................................................................................................................................... 52
Anne ...................................................................................................................................... 53
Donna .................................................................................................................................... 54
John ....................................................................................................................................... 55
Jose ........................................................................................................................................ 55
Karla ...................................................................................................................................... 56
Metzli .................................................................................................................................... 57
Nancy .................................................................................................................................... 57
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 58
It Takes a Village: College Readiness ...................................................................................... 58
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Mentoring Over Time ........................................................................................................... 59
Parent Involvement ............................................................................................................... 61
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 64
Alumni Support Through Giving Back ..................................................................................... 64
Alumni Engagement ............................................................................................................. 65
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 67
A Sense of Community is a Sense of Belonging ...................................................................... 67
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 69
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 70
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION ................................................................................................. 71
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 71
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 72
Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 73
Limitations ............................................................................................................................ 73
Summary of Results .................................................................................................................. 74
Results for Research Question One ...................................................................................... 74
Results for Research Question Two ...................................................................................... 75
Results for Research Question Three .................................................................................... 76
Recommendations for Practice ................................................................................................. 76
Recommendations for Future Research .................................................................................... 78
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 79
References ..................................................................................................................................... 81
Appendix A .................................................................................................................................. 87
Informed Consent/Cover Letter ................................................................................................ 87
Appendix B .................................................................................................................................. 88
Individual Student Interview Protocol ...................................................................................... 88
Appendix C .................................................................................................................................. 90
Informal Staff Interviews .......................................................................................................... 90
Appendix D .................................................................................................................................. 92
Information Sheet for Subjects ................................................................................................. 92
Appendix E .................................................................................................................................. 94
College Success Program Participation Survey ........................................................................ 94
Figure 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 110
Key Elements to College Readiness ....................................................................................... 110
Figure 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 111
Four Keys to College Readiness ............................................................................................. 111
Figure 3 ...................................................................................................................................... 112
Comprehensive Conceptual Framework: Student Persistence ............................................... 112
Figure 4 ...................................................................................................................................... 113
Model of College Preparation Program Effectiveness ............................................................ 113

7
ABSTRACT
Traditionally, higher education institutions have not been easily accessible to low
income, first-generation college students. However, higher education is quickly becoming more
desirable for economic independence and a comfortable middle-class lifestyle. Federal college
preparation programs were created to create diversity among college campuses and to increase
the number of low income, first-generation students. College access programs aim to provide
services to and for underserved, first-generation students. As participants of such programs,
students can gain positive personal adjustments as well as gain multiple avenues of capital for
academic and social success, college admission, and university matriculation. One may concur
that college completion could free low-income, first-generation students from intergenerational
poverty and negative social stigma. There is a lack of empirical research about the characteristics
and factors of low-income, first-generation students and their paths to college, sense of
belonging, and persistence in college.
This study examined the factors that contribute the abovementioned characteristics.
Furthermore, this study aimed to find how one college access program enhances college
readiness, what components of the program contribute to retention and persistence of students
while in college, how the program fosters sense of belonging and in what ways spirituality plays
a role in sense of belonging. Participants were asked to share their experiences with the program,
staff and students through in-depth interviews. The researcher gained insight and understanding
of the functionalities of the College Success Program, its participants and its programmatic
outcomes. The results of this study affirmed that students who participated in College Success
Program felt prepared to enter college, continued participation while in college and post-
graduation, gained a sense of belonging within the program and valued having and being
mentors.
8
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Among the many factors contributing to academically able students not attaining a
college degree is the fact that many do not have access to the tools, knowledge sets and
information necessary to navigate the college-going process (Horng et al., 2013). Anderson and
Hearn (1992), Damico (2015), and Torche (2011) agreed that the postsecondary education
system is viewed as not only a provider of individual, social, and economic opportunity, but also
as a necessary element in the national quest for equal opportunity across socioeconomic, racial,
and ethnic lines. Millions of low-income, first-generation college-bound students attending
schools in the United States do not reach their goals of college education attainment (Allen,
2005; Jacobson & Mokher, 2009). Venezia and Jaeger (2013) suggest that many high school
students aspire to attain postsecondary education, but many enter college without basic skills,
content knowledge, or mindset needed for success.
Since the 1960s, both federal and state governments have been funding college access
programs. Tierney, Corwin and Colyar (2005) noted that, more recently, local community,
county departments, and educational institutions, such as College Board, and private
organizations, such as the Gates Foundation, contributed significant resources to assist
disadvantaged students in their quest for a college education.
In 1964, TRiO emerged as a part of President Johnson’s War on Poverty. Programs such
as Upward Bound, Talent Search, Student Support Services, Veteran’s Upward Bound,
Educational Opportunity Centers, McNair program and Upward Bound Math/Science, otherwise
known as the TRiO programs, were the first national college access and retention programs to
address the serious social and cultural barriers to education (Council for Opportunity in
Education, n.d.). The purpose of these programs is to serve first-generation, low-income students
in middle school, high school and higher education. The National Association for College
9
Admission Counseling (2017) recognizes over 395 college access and success programs
nationally.
This chapter sets the context of the study by presenting a brief overview of the history
and functionality of college access programs. Also, this chapter includes the background of the
problem, purpose of the study, research questions, methods and significance of the study.
Background of the Problem
Research indicates there are many areas for consideration when assisting first-generation
students. Specifically, for this study, their experience, persistence, and sense of belonging and
spirituality are important topics that must be understood to grasp a holistic view of this
population. Persistence rates show that first-generation, low-income students of color are less
likely than their non-first generation counterparts to complete postsecondary education within 5
years (Chen, 2005; Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998). To ensure student success, institutions of
higher education must have a clearer definition of student success, create opportunities, and
demonstrate a commitment to student success (Upcraft & Gardner, 1989). Per Tinto (1986),
student involvement and connections to the institution, peers, and other student groups may also
affect sense of belonging.
As previously mentioned, the 1960s bred the era of college access or college preparation
programs which were created to assist and guide underrepresented students and access college by
providing an essential knowledge base, tools for college preparation and mentorship.
Furthermore, college access programs aid students in understanding and developing of sense of
belonging prior to and while in college. Student integration and academic perseverance can be
attributed to a student’s sense of belonging (Freeman, Anderman & Jensen, 2007). To reiterate,
three areas of consideration will be addressed in this section, first-generation student experience,
student persistence, and sense of belonging and spirituality.
10
First-generation student experience. First-generation college students in comparison to
students whose parents went to college are at a disadvantage in regards to college knowledge and
college related experiences (Billson & Terry, 1982; Thayer, 2000; NCES 2001). Contributing
factors to this disadvantage may include lack of assistance from family and friends, lack of
college knowledge, and high schools lacking exposure and opportunities that aid in the
preparation of college entry. Moreover, there may be financial hardship which correlates to lack
of financial knowledge and how to seek funding for college. These are some of the contributing
factors as to why college access programs were created, to educate and prepare low income,
first-generation students for the college going process and to be successful in completion of a
college degree.
Student persistence. While there are still gaps in student attendance amongst first-
generation students, access to higher education for this group has improved. Of the students who
entered college in 2003, the number of first-generation students was higher in comparison to
non-first-generation college students (NCES, 2002).
Sense of belonging and spirituality. Newly admitted students sometimes experience a
lack of sense of belonging to their academic, cultural, and social assimilation into college. There
are significant ways in which this lack in sense of belonging can manifest: poor grades, low self-
esteem, social isolation, and even depression. Students in their first year of college may
experience feelings of homesickness, isolation and alienation, anxiety, and loneliness from being
away from home and getting accustomed to their new way of living. This lack of sense of
belonging can also contribute to a student withdrawing from their degree program by
withdrawal, push out, or drop out.
A national longitudinal study conducted by Astin and colleagues (2011) defines
11
spirituality as “our sense of who we are and where we come from, our beliefs about why we are
here—the meaning and purpose that we see in our work and our life—our sense of
connectedness to one another and the world around us” (p.4). They found that students with
higher spirituality scores were more satisfied with college, attained higher grades, were more
open to embrace diversity, and exuded higher academic self-esteem. Moreover, the connection
between sense of belonging and spirituality may be fostered through college access programs as
college access programs create an avenue for students to feel connected.
College preparation programs. In an effort to aid underrepresented students in the
college going process, several college preparation programs have come into existence. These
programs were developed to create equal access opportunities for underrepresented students to
attend and succeed in college. The College Board released the survey results in 2001 of The
National Survey for Outreach Programs. The purpose of the survey was to detail specific
information regarding the types of college access programs and to provide practitioners,
researchers, and policy makers with a better understanding of the programs that are currently
serving students. College access or college preparation programs from across the United States
were invited to participate in the study. Swail and Perna (2001) indicated that of the 1,110
programs that participated, 465 presented as federal programs, such as Talent Search, GEAR-UP
and Upward Bound.
The results of the survey show that majority of the college preparation programs are not
generalized, meaning, they do not follow a model or a template. Furthermore, there was no
consistency or uniformity among the programs’ funding sources, operational systems, goals and
objectives, program evaluation and targeted students. However, Swail and Perna (2002) found
consistent themes throughout the programs such as a clear mission and vision, contributing to
12
student motivation, early intervention, parent involvement, and collaboration.
College Readiness
Research indicates that college readiness is a term used to define high school courses
taken, grades earned and national test scores. Conley (2007) however, defines college readiness
as “the level of preparation a student needs to enroll and succeed-without remediation-in a credit-
bearing general education course at a postsecondary institution that offers a baccalaureate degree
or transfer to a baccalaureate program.” (p. 5). A college-ready student by this definition,
understands the expectations and rigor of a college course, gains content knowledge, utilizes
critical thinking by taking away key intellectual concepts presented in the course. Conley (2007)
postulates that college is extremely different from high school, and therefore college readiness is
different than high school competence. However, literature suggests that first-generation students
of color are not prepared for college, thus college access programs were created to aid and assist
in the college readiness process.
Statement of the Problem
College readiness is commonly understood as the level of preparation a student needs to
enroll and succeed in a college program (certificate, associate’s degree, or baccalaureate) without
requiring remediation (Venezia & Jaeger, 2013, p. 118). College readiness is defined in three
ways: minimum college admissions criteria, achievement test performance, and GPA (Roderick,
Nagaoka, & Coca, 2009). Furthermore, Conley (2007) adds that a college ready student also
attains cognitive strategies also known as think, know, act go (previously mentioned in this
chapter and will be discussed throughout the study). There is a gap in college preparation
between low-income, first-generation college bound students of color and their non-first-
generation, non-low-income counterparts.
13
College preparation programs assist in fostering those very components for a student to
be successful prior to and during college. However, the question remains: why college
preparation programs? Cowan Pitre and Pitre (2009) and the National Center for Education
Statistics [NCES], (2008) claim that over several decades in the United States, African America,
Hispanic, Native American, and low-income students have completed high school and attended
college at consistently lower rates than White and higher-income student counterparts. Programs
such as TRiO and others like it, assist with student persistence before and during college.
Research outlines that college access programs are tasked with objectives and goals to assist
students in being prepared for college, however, many programs have their own agendas. This
study aimed to find whether one program’s missions and agendas align with what research says
college access programs are created to do.
Purpose of the Study
College Success Program is a unique program in that it is not government nor state
funded. It is funded by a local church. Therefore, the mission and goals set by the organization
are accountable to the organization. If only the organization is assessing goals, how do we know
if the program adheres to the goals of what research says college access programs are supposed
to do? Herein lies the problem and the focus of this study.
Furthermore, this study looked at how sense of belonging is connected with spirituality.
The interconnectedness of the two has little recognition in higher education literature (Astin,
Astin, & Lindholm, 2011; Bryant & Astin, 2008; Schreiner, 2013); however, the integration of
the two, sense of belonging and spirituality, can lead to benefits for students such as an increased
knowledge base and satisfaction with their college experience (Astin, Astin, & Lindholm, 2011;
Kuh & Gonyea, 2006; Schreiner, 2013). In this study, the researcher focused on students who
used College Success Program as a resource during and after high school, geared toward
14
assisting them in the preparation of and success through college. Furthermore, this study aimed
to identify the way in which a program, such as College Success Program, contributes to first-
generation, low-income, students of color’s preparation for college, sense of belonging and
spirituality, and persistence through college. There are three research questions that guided this
study:
1. In what ways does College Success Program employ family and community engagement,
peer support, and mentoring to enhance participants’ college readiness?
2. In what ways does College Success Program employ family and community engagement,
peer support, and mentoring to enhance participants’ achievement, retention and
persistence during college?
3. In what ways does spirituality play a role in sense of belonging in College Success
Program participants?
There are three conceptual frameworks that guided this study. The first focuses on
components of college readiness, the second, identifies college preparation program
effectiveness, and the third looks at student persistence. The literature reviewed in chapter two,
suggests that students who participate in college preparation programs gain the knowledge to be
prepared for college entrance requirements. Moreover, Chapter Two also highlights the
importance of college preparation programs for low-income, first-generation college bound
students. This study also addresses the importance of spirituality and sense of belonging.
Significance of the Study
This study is important because it addresses the importance and effectiveness of one
college preparation program and its impact on low-income, first-generation college bound
students of color, sense of belonging and spirituality and persistence.
15
The lack of college readiness is a potential problem because students of color from this
background face a multifaceted lifestyle that many would consider difficult—students have
circumstances that compete with academic demands or college preparedness outside of school
that may hinder the college preparation process. This problem is important to address because it
reveals the hardships students face from one college access program that may relate to the
experiences of those from similar backgrounds. Moreover, there are many studies on college
preparation programs. However, there is a need to learn about programs like College Success
Program. To learn what these programs do well, we studied College Success Program as a case
study. Understanding the programmatic factors of College Success Program that foster academic,
social and creative collaboration for low-income, first-generation college bound students has
important implications for understanding students’ sense of belonging and spirituality,
persistence, and college preparation and readiness.
Limitations
The limitations presented in this study are as follows: (1) the students who participated in
this study have all been participants of the College Success Program, (2) the sample was limited
to low-income, first-generation students of color; if other ethnicities are present, the study would
have yielded differently. These limitations had an impact on the results of this study as it relates
to other studies alike. Furthermore, due to the specificity of targeting one program, these
limitations also make the results less generalizable.
Key Definitions
There are some key terms used throughout this dissertation that will guide this study. The
term students of color is an inclusive term for individuals that identify as African American,
Latino, or mixed-ethnicity. Only subjects who self-identify as students of color will be invited to
participate in this study.
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The term first-generation college student will refer to students whose parents did not earn
a college degree (Tierney, Colyar & Corwin, 2003). The term low-income refers to students
whose parent have income at or below 150% of the federal poverty level (Myers & Schrim,
1999)
The term persistence is drawn from Reason’s (2009) comprehensive conceptual
framework on student persistence.
College preparation program refers to an outreach program that a student participates in
prior to attending an institution of higher education.
For this study, urban education is referenced in terms of low performing schools with a
high population of first-generation, low-income students that are scarcely resourced with college
access information and tools.
Affluent education is used to reference high performing schools with low to
minimal amounts of low-income, first-generation, students with schools being heavily resourced
with college access information and tools.
Organization of the Study
Chapter One laid the foundation of this study. This chapter introduced the study,
provided the background and statement of the problem, purpose and significance of the study,
limitations, key definitions, and an organizational layout for the remainder of the study. Chapter
2 presents previous research that is relevant to this study. Included are challenges related to
college access and preparation programs as they relate to low-income, first-generation college
bound students of color. Furthermore, Chapter 2 provides conceptual frameworks that identify
key components of college readiness, college preparation program effectiveness, and student
persistence. Chapter 3 describes the methodology that drove this study. It also includes a
description of College Success Program, the research design, sample and population,
17
instrumentation used, and the data analysis methods. Chapter 4 presents the research evidence
and findings of the study. Chapter 5 describes the implications of the study, recommendations for
future research and concluding thoughts.
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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Chapter Two begins with “Contributing to College Readiness” which highlights aspects
and constituents that contribute to students being prepared, or not, for college. “College Access
Programs” follows, which details the history, benefits, and necessity of these programs. The
chapter will proceed with spirituality as it relates to retention and persistence of low-income,
first-generation college students. Next, “Lack of Empirical Evidence for College Access
Programs” which explains why it is imperative to research them. This chapter concludes with the
“Theoretical concepts and frameworks” illustrates the importance of research and how it relates
to the topic of college access.
A preliminary review of existing literature as it relates to preparedness for postsecondary
education produces a multitude of important themes. However, the literature lacks practical
examples that demonstrate students’ perceptions of preparedness at the secondary school level
for postsecondary education and the extent to which their preparedness or lack thereof assisted in
the transition from high school to college.
Contributing to College Readiness
Researchers concur that underrepresented college bound students are extremely resilient
despite the daily challenges they face (Tierney, Colyar, & Corwin, 2003). Venezia and Jaeger
(2013) agree that their willingness to challenge themselves at the secondary school level is a tell-
tale sign of their ambition to attain higher education. Venezia and Jaeger (2013) further suggest
the vast majority of high school students aspire to some kind of postsecondary education;
however, far too many students enter college without the basic content knowledge, skills, or
habits of mind they need to succeed.
Conley and EPIC (2008, 2010) created the four keys to college and career readiness to
identify key factors that contribute to students being prepared for college. The first factor, think,
19
identifies key cognitive strategies such as problem formulation, research, interpretation,
communication and precision and accuracy. The second factor, know, looks at key content
knowledge which incorporates structure of knowledge, academic attribution, challenge level,
academic value, experience with technology, and student effort. Third factor, act, identifies key
learning skills and techniques such as ownership of learning strategies and self-monitoring.
Lastly, the “fourth”, key transition knowledge and skills, addresses academic and postsecondary
awareness, college admissions process, college and career culture, tuition and financial aid,
matriculation, career awareness, role and identity and self-advocacy.
Overview of Topics
A review of the literature provides several key concepts that are of importance to this
study. A primary trend that must be explored further is the usage of college preparatory programs
in urban schools. Welton and Martinez (2014) and Cowan Pitre and Pitre (2009) agree that many
schools that lack college access resources need the assistance of college preparation programs to
serve to the increasing number of underrepresented students wanting to attain higher education.
Moreover, secondary level curriculum is another important concept worthy of review,
specifically regarding how well it prepares or does not prepare first-generation students for
college. The curricular deficiencies first-generation college bound students of color experience in
urban schools is especially concerning considering a rigorous high school curriculum is one of
the highest predictors of college persistence, more so than test scores (Swail et al., 2003; Welton
& Martinez, 2014). If urban schools do not have the capacity to offer rigorous classes, how do
systems of education expect students to be prepared for college?
High School and College Readiness
Venezia and Jaeger (2013) argue that students enter postsecondary education
underprepared for collegiate level coursework for many reasons including disparities amongst
20
the high school curriculum and what colleges expect. Furthermore, there are large differences
between the education accessible by high schools with a significant amount of students in
poverty and that offered by high schools with more advantaged students. Furthermore, this
coincides with the notion that urban schools are poorly resourced, lacking not only in college
access material, but also in rigorous programs such as Advanced Placement (AP) or International
Baccalaureate (IB) that prepare the student for college level courses both mentally and
physically.
Venezia and Jaeger (2013) state the National Assessment of Educational Progress
(NAEP) suggests that many students are likely falling short of college readiness. “The NAEP
determines students’ achievement level—basic, proficient, or advanced—based on input from a
broadly representative panel of teachers, education specialists, and members of the general
public” (p. 118). This exam along with others such as the SAT and ACT are used to decide if a
student is proficient in English, Math, Science, Reading Comprehension, and Writing which in
part determines if a student is “ready” for college level courses based on a passing score.
Moreover, students not only need to be academically prepared for college but also attain
the college knowledge necessary to prepare for and enroll in a postsecondary education
institution (Welton & Martinez, 2014). Welton and Martinez stated that, although college
knowledge is necessary for college entrance success, research on college knowledge primarily
focuses on the social capital of students from underrepresented groups (first-generation, low
SES, and students of color) lack to help connect them to college preparatory information.
Testing. There are three major college entrance exams that college-bound students take
during their junior and senior years of high school: NAEP, SAT and the ACT. These exams are
used to determine college readiness. To put these exams in perspective with underrepresented
students, Venezia and Jaeger (2013) found that, in 2012, only 25% of all ACT-tested high school
21
graduates met the college readiness benchmarks in all four subjects (meaning that they earned
the minimum score needed to have a 50% chance of obtaining a “B” or higher in corresponding
first-year college courses). Breaking it down by section specifics, 52% of graduates met the
ACT’s reading benchmark, 46% met the mathematics benchmark, and 67% met the English
benchmark. Only 31% met the benchmark in science (Venezia & Jaeger, 2013). As these are
overall national data, the numbers that represent underrepresented students are much lower
passing scores.
Looking at SAT data, among the high school graduating class of 2012, only 43% of all
SAT takers met the SAT College and Career Readiness Benchmark, indicating a 65% likelihood
of obtaining a “B-” average or higher during the first year of college (Venezia & Jaeger, 2013).
One can only speculate the data for first-generation college-bound students if the national
average is extremely low.
As aforementioned, the NAEP, which determines a student’s enrichment level, reports
even lower statistics. Venezia and Jaeger (2013) state that, in 2009, only 38% of twelfth-grade
students performed at or above the proficient level on NAEP’s reading assessment and even
fewer, 26%, were at or above the proficient level in mathematics. As time moves forward,
English and Math continues to be a struggle not only for urban school students, but also for all
students.
Curriculum. College-ready in the state of California and many other states is defined as
students completing the A-G requirements (other states may have different title). Students are
mandated to meet certain course requirements. While many students are becoming “college
ready” the state of California is mandating that students complete A-G requirements as
graduation requirements per the Common Core change, there still remains a disparity between
urban school students and affluent school students and actual preparedness for college (Roderick,
22
Nagaoka, & Coca, 2009). As abovementioned, the availability of rigorous courses such as AP
and IB are minimal in the urban school settings, making it difficult for students to challenge
themselves academically and making it difficult for students to be competitive for top-tier
colleges (Roderick, Nagaoka, & Coca, 2009).
College preparation programs. There are many college preparation and access
programs to assist students with the understanding and knowledge of college entrance
requirements: TRiO, AVID, GearUP, CalSOAP, CollegeMatch, and many others. “TRiO refers
to a series of programs, funded under Title IV of the Higher Education Act of 1965, created to
assist disadvantaged Americans in overcoming class, social and cultural barriers to higher
education” (U.S. Department of Education, 2011, np). The term TRiO was coined to represent
the initial three programs, Upward Bound, Talent Search, Student Support Services. Upward
Bound is a program that grew out of the Economic Act of 1964, in response to President
Johnson's War on Poverty. Talent Search was the other program created in 1965. Student
Support Services was founded in 1968 (U.S. Department of Education, 2012).
The question remains: why college preparation programs? Over several decades in the
United States, African America, Hispanic, Native American, and low-income students have
completed high school and attended college at consistently lower rates than White and higher-
income student counterparts (Cowan Pitre & Pitre, 2009; National Center for Education Statistics
[NCES], 2008). Programs such as TRiO assist with student persistence before and during
college. Research states that TRiO students continue to college upon high school completion at
rates similar to the general-population (Cowan Pitre & Pitre, 2009). Students are more likely to
persist through college that participate in college access programs. As mentioned in Cowan Pitre
and Pitre (2009), TRiO Programs are research-based educational opportunity models that reflect
23
much of the literature on improving higher education access and experiences for students from
historically marginalized groups.
Parents, Learning and Retention
Students who are first in their family to attend college are a growing majority on college
campuses. The collegiate body is changing; it is more and more representative of the browning
of America and includes not only more students of color, but also more women, more students
who are multilingual, large numbers of part-time students, adult learners, low-income students,
immigrants, and first-generation students (Jehangir, Williams, & Jeske, 2012). This encompasses
a sense of diversity among the institutions. As outlined by Altbach, Berdahl, and Gumport
(2005), the breadth of concerns related to diversity on campus throughout the United States
include not only race, ethnicity, gender and class, but religion, sexual orientation, gender
identity, and disability among others. Added to this list should be the learning styles and levels of
preparedness first-generation students arrive to college with. Padgett, Johnson, and Pascarella
(2012), define first-generation as neither parent having any college education. Existing research
finds that first-generation college students are less prepared in their first year of college than
their non-first-generation college student counterpart (Warburton, Bugarin, & Nunez, 2001).
Students and the effects of their parents. There are many factors that affect cognitive
and psychological development during college some of which have intergenerational benefits
such as cultural and social capital; however, there is differentiation between first-generation
students and their counterparts (Padagett, Johnson, & Pascarella, 2012). First-generation
students’ college experience, specifically cognitive and personal benefits he or she derives, is
influenced by parental education (Padgett, Johnson, & Pascarella, 2012). Evidence shows that
the level of education a student’s parent has is correlated to how prepared the student will be for
college. A parent that has some college experience, or a college degree, affords their children
24
with social and cultural capital. As defined by Padgett, Johnson, and Pascarella (2012), social
capital refers to the information, values, norms, standards, and expectations for education as
communicated to individuals through the interpersonal relationships they share with others. A
parent with a college background can share previous experiences and resources as opposed to the
student with a parent who has no college experience. Padgett and colleagues deem that first-
generation students are at a disadvantage compared to non-first-generation students in various
precollege measures related to cultural and social capital.
First-generation students are more likely to come from lower-income families, spend less
time socializing with various social agents in high school, have lower standardized test scores,
are less likely to be prepared academically upon entering college, and have lower initial critical
thinking abilities compared to their non-first-generation peers. Students whose parents have no
college experience feel less academically prepared compared to their peers (Padgett, Johnson, &
Pascarella, 2012). Unfortunately, the previous statement holds true for most first-generation
students. Students in low-income, low-poverty communities, often tend not to have an
abundance of academically challenging classes (i.e. advanced placement ‘AP’ and honors);
students enter college not academically prepared due to the lack of rigor their high school classes
contained.
Students and learning. Learning or lack thereof can also have an impact on a student’s
level of interaction and connection within the institution of higher education (Padgett, Johnson,
& Pascarella, 2012). As mentioned by Padgett, Johnson, and Pascarella (2012), Compared to
their non-first-generation peers, first-generation students are more likely to live off campus,
participate in fewer extracurricular and volunteer activities, maintain lower levels of interactions
with peers, study fewer hours per week, are frequently less involved in course learning activities
and experiences, and indicate having fewer resources to aid in the demands of academic rigor.
25
First-generation students are not as susceptible to openly share their background and experiences
with those they are unfamiliar. Students that are first-generation, most benefit from experiences
such as enhanced academic and classroom experiences (amount of time spent studying and
number of unassigned materials read) have been found to have a positive effect on students’
cognitive development and critical thinking (Padgett, Johnson, & Pascarella, 2012). The
challenge for first-generation, low-income students it that the academic environment may do
little to reflect their multiple identities or create avenues to explore beliefs in context of their
lived experience and new life at school (Jehangir, Williams, & Jeske, 2012). Creating learning
environments within the classroom that draw on first-generation students’ strengths can be
resourceful for these particular students.
Padgett, Johnson, and Pascarella (2012) via Sorcinelli (1991), make note that Chickering
and Gamson (1987) consider the relationship between student and faculty both in and out of
class to be the most influential in supporting student involvement, and as such, a substantial
amount of research has focused on college teaching and student faculty interactions. Sorcinelli’s
claim indicates that there is a prevalent positive influence between student-faculty interaction
and student learning and development, gains in cognitive development, and personal and
intellectual growth. Course challenge and high academic expectations have a significant effect
on a student’s Positive Attitude Toward Literacy (Padgett, Johnson, & Pascarella, 2012). The
interactions between students and their professors can potentially open opportunities for both the
professor and the students (research opportunities for both parties). The social capital theory
suggests that upon entrance to college, first-generation students are not as well equipped as their
peers to derive the potential development benefits that stem from interactions with an
institution’s faculty. Therefore, it is important to connect students with faculty early to establish
a sense of community and comfortableness for first-generation students.
26
Students and Retention. Padgett, Johnson, and Pascarella (2012) present prior research
suggesting that a positive relationship exists between student-faculty interaction and student
learning and cognitive development. However, first-generation students who had good teaching
interactions with faculty members report lower performance on cognition and psychosocial well-
being compared to their counterparts. This suggests that first-generation students are
underprepared to interact with faculty upon entering college. Padgett and colleagues state that
first-generation students may not have been predisposed or encouraged to seek help and
consultation from faculty members in high school; thus, these valued experiences from high
school are not translated into college. When first-generation students begin interacting with
faculty at the college level in the classroom, a level of discomfort and intimidation may exist,
which in turn can be overwhelming for the student. This again refers back to the student not
having the same resources and experiences as their non-first-generation student peers. Students
of non-first-generation status are more likely to be prepared in terms of proper protocol of
interacting with professors and faculty alike once they reach an institution of higher education.
Nurturing spaces that allow for reflection and attention to one’s development and personhood
can be a compass by which to steer through the unknown territory of higher education and in
doing so combat isolation and marginalization that prevent degree attainment and satisfaction in
one’s educational pursuits (Jehangir, Williams, & Jeske, 2012).
With cultural and social capital being two concepts that can either affect a student
positively or negatively, parents transmit cultural capital by reinforcing the value and importance
of a college education as a means towards maintaining socioeconomic status. Social theories
speculate that first-generation students have either limited or no access to and use of resources.
Students who possess high levels of cultural capital have the added advantage of being provided
with additional resources within an educational and social setting. These resources provided
27
students with an inherited advantage over students who possess low levels of cultural capital.
This refers to the information previously stated in regards to first-generation students not having
sufficient information prior to entering college because of their parent’s status. Padgett, Johnson,
and Pascarella (2012) posit that first-generation students are already at a disadvantage in terms of
their experiences, values, and resources before they even step foot on a college campus. These
key components to any students’ life, can make one student’s experience of college different
than another peer. Previous research dating back more than 20 years suggests that such programs
have a positive impact on student academic performance, retention and completion (Padgett,
Johnson, & Pascarella, 2012).
The aforementioned, supports aspects of cultural capital theory that college-educated
parents transmit skills, attitudes, and interests to their children about the importance of engaging
in educationally meaningful activities such as reading and writing. Whereas parents who have no
college experience are placed at a disadvantage in transmitting knowledge and expectations
about the rigors of the collegiate environment to their children (Padgett, Johnson, & Pascarella,
2012). As mentioned in Biggs, Torres and Washington (1998), Richardson and Skinner (1991)
describe a theoretical model focused on both student access and achievement. It is based on the
premise that retention is a matter of an institution taking responsibility for adapting itself to the
needs of a diverse student body.
College Access Programs
Since the 1960s, both governmental parties, federal and state, have been funding college
access programs. Tierney, Corwin and Colyar (2005) noted that more recently, local community,
county departments, educational institutions, such as College Board and private organizations
such as The Gates Foundation have contributed significant resources to assist disadvantaged
students in their quest for a college education. As a part of President Lyndon B. Johnson’s War
28
on Poverty in 1964, TRiO emerged. Upward Bound, Talent Search, Student Support Services,
Veteran’s Upward Bound, Educational Opportunity Centers, McNair program and Upward
Bound Math/Science otherwise known as the TRiO programs, were the first national college
access and retention programs to address the serious social and cultural barriers to education in
America (Council for Opportunity in Education, n.d.). The purpose of these programs is to serve
first-generation, low-income students in middle school, high school and higher education.
Methodological research conducted by Westat and Mathematica Policy Research show that
Students Support Services (SSS), promotes persistence in college, college credit accrual, and
college grades; Talent Search increases the number of applications for financial aid and
postsecondary enrollment; and Upward Bound Math/Science has positive effects on enrollment
in selective four-year institutions and completion of a bachelor’s degree in STEM fields (The
Pell Institute, 2009).
The Gaining Early Awareness & Readiness through Undergraduate Preparation (GEAR
UP) program created in 1998, is a newer initiative via the U.S. Department of Education that
promotes college attendance by targeting students in earlier grades. GEAR UP was created to
provide communities with a comprehensive, holistic and research-driven initiative to prepare
low-income and students of color for higher education (National Council for Community and
Education Partnerships).The program offers grants to states that collaborate with schools and
other service providing bodies that create and implement programs to improve a school’s ability
to increase student academic preparation, achievement and retention all while promoting college
enrollment (Damico, 2015; Perna, 1999; Perna et al., 2008).
There are also several college access programs that are not government funded such as
Advancement via Individual Determination (AVID) and state programs such as Helping
Outstanding Pupils Educationally (HOPE; Bergerson, 2009; Dyce, Albold, & Long, 2013).
29
Benefits of College Access Programs
Tierney and Hagedorn (2002) define college access programs as: “enhance[d] programs
that supplement a school’s regular activities and are aimed at low-income youth who otherwise
might not attend college” (p.2). However, Harvill, Maynard, Nguyen, Robertson-Kraft, and
Tognatta (2012) define college access programs as pre-college interventions that explicitly
identify increasing college readiness and/or college enrollment as a primary goal of the program.
College access programs aim to provide services to and for underserved, first-generation
students. These services include tutoring, advising, enrichment activities, college and career
counseling. In theory, students can make positive personal adjustments as well as gain multiple
avenues of capital for academic and social success, college admission, and university
matriculation through the supports, activities, and experiences these programs offer (Harvill et
al., 2012).
College completion could free low-income students from the chains of intergenerational
poverty and negative social stigma. It can also help build the necessary capital essential for
changing their social position and forming cultural capital to be passed down to future
generations (Damico, 2015; Famer-Hinton, 2008; Park, Denson, & Bowman, 2013).
Furthermore, college access programs tend to capture the attention of students and their families
along critical pathways in the pipeline to college such as college aspirations, college enrollment,
and college completion (Cooper, 2008; Dyce, Albold, & Long, 2013).
Tierney, Colyar and Corwin (2003) state that the purpose of college preparation programs
is to enhance and supplement regular activities at schools that serve primarily low-income,
students of color who without the assistance of these programs, may otherwise not be able to
attend college. The Center for Higher Education Policy Analysis developed nine hypotheses
relating to common aspects of first generation college preparation programs. These hypotheses
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highlight the influence of factors of college preparation and enrollment. The nine factors are (1) a
rigorous academic curriculum (2) academic, college, and career counseling (3) co-curricular
activities (4) incorporation of students’ cultures (5) family and community engagement (6) peer
support (7) mentoring (8) timing of interventions (9) funding priorities. Much like these nine
hypotheses, the activities at College Success Program address one or more of the following
priorities: (1) college readiness (2) job readiness (3) college persistence (4) healthy living (5)
leadership.
College Access and Success
Higher education is quickly becoming more desirable for economic independence and a
comfortable middle class lifestyle. Anderson and Hearn (1992), Damico (2015), and Torche
(2011) all agree that the postsecondary education system has come to be viewed as not only a
provider of individual, social, and economic opportunity, but also a necessary element in the
national quest for equal opportunity across socioeconomic, racial and ethnic lines. The gap
continues to increase between those who earn a college degree and those who do not. The
earnings of an individual that attended college and did not obtain a degree is increased by five to
eleven percent compared to a person with a high school diploma only (Ogunwole, Drewery, &
Rios-Vargas, 2012; U.S. Census Bureau, 2006).
“A multi-faceted, comprehensive approach and commitment from multiple players is
required for improving college access and success for low-income and first-generation students”
(Perna, 2015, p. 2). To ensure effectiveness of the approach its standards are that all students
have the necessary financial resources to pay college costs; all students are adequately
academically prepared for college-level requirements (Perna, 2015, p. 2); and all students have
the information and knowledge required to understand college-related requirements and
31
processes, make appropriate college-related choices, and navigate the complicated pathways
into, across, and through higher education institutions (Perna, 2015).
College Readiness
In the 1960s and 1970s, providing college access to students of color was limited to
federal and state funding programs. These programs underestimated the importance and need of
cultivating and supporting the academic, social, and psychological preparations required to be
college ready (Swail & Perna, 2002). Students living in poverty driven, minority, urban areas: (1)
are less well prepared academically, (2) perform poorly on college entrance and readiness exams,
(3) are ill prepared to select colleges, apply for admission, and secure acceptances and (4) are
poorly informed about the cost of attending college and the availability of need based financial
aid (Haveman & Smeeding, 2006). Conley (2005; 2010) defines what it means for a high school
student to be college ready as the capability of a high school graduate to enroll and succeed in
credit bearing courses without remediation when beginning at a college or university and then
progressing to the next course in sequence. Moreover, Tierney, Corwin and Colyar (2005)
postulates that access to college planning information and college website navigational skills &
strategies, leads to the development of self-efficacy and college aspirations, strategies of
socialization and acculturation, and financial aid and financial planning. These constructs also
contribute to a student becoming college ready.
Non-government Programs
Often overlooked, but equally important are the non-government run or funded college
access programs. Maynard, Orosz, Andreason, Castillo, Harvill, Nguyen, Robertson-Kraft, and
Tognatta (2014) conclude that TRiO and similar programs increased college enrollment by 12%.
Perna (2015) suggests that college access programs need to be cognizant of the way in which
they deliver their services and should adhere to delivering services to address the state, regional,
32
and local contexts in which programs are impactful. Furthermore, given the limits on federal
funding, and to increase support for college access programming, Perna (2015) further suggests
that the federal government should collaborate and build partnerships with existing programs
sponsored by the federal government, state governments, colleges and universities, philanthropic
organizations, and other funding bodies. Moreover, not only should the federal government
support the service delivery of college access programs but should promote and encourage
research to increase awareness and unveil the benefit of college access programs (Perna, 2015).
Sense of Belonging
To assess sense of belonging, student involvement will be observed as a measure. For the
purposes of this study, student involvement and student engagement will be used
interchangeably and will hold the same meaning. Astin (1975, 1984, 1985), Pace (1984), and
Kuh and colleagues (Kuh, Whitt, & Strange, 1989; Kuh, Schuh, Whitt, & Associates, 1991)
developed Student Involvement Theory. They all concur that students learn by doing, learn from
their interactions, and the environmental contributions within their campus climates. Pike and
Kuh (2005) argue that there is a positive correlation between engagement and gains in general
abilities, critical thinking, grades for courses, and persistence rates. Two identified variables will
be used for student engagement; institutional support or programs and the actions of the student.
Institutional Support and Programs
Herndon and Hirt (2004) postulate that upon entering college, first-generation students
are challenged with issues surrounding academic, social, emotional, cultural and financial
matters. They deemed these students as needing institutional or programmatic support to aid in
assisting students with acclimating to challenges with beginning college. All students, despite
ethnicity, need these types of support (Herndon & Hirt, 2004). Furthermore, institutional support
and resources are key to a student’s sense of belonging and retention.
33
Of all types of involvement on college campuses, frequent faculty interaction has a
positive correlation to satisfaction (Astin, 1985). Tinto (2000) deems that there are three
variables critical to student support, sense of belonging and learning: shared knowledge, shared
knowing and shared responsibility. While the importance of academic and social integration has
been stressed as important factors in the successful retention of students (Tinto, 1993), others
have questioned a model that seems to put the responsibility of integration chiefly with students
themselves rather than viewed as an interplay of responsibility between the student and the
institution (Hausmann, Ye, Schofield, & Woods, 2009). It may be possible that some of the same
institutional support systems and structures that positively contribute to a sense of belonging of
students of color in general would also positively impact first-generation student retention.
Student Involvement
Student involvement aids in improving student success in college (Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh &
Whitt, 2005). There are two key constituents to students adjusting to college: the institution and
the student (Astin, 1975; Tinto, 1975). Two critical aspects of student engagement are the
amount of time and effort a student spends on studying or other activities as well as the way in
which an institution provides and organizes resources to gain student participation (Kuh, Kinzie,
Schuh & Whitt, 2005). Social support has a positive correlation to assisting students handle
stressful encounters (Pierce, Sarason & Sarason, 1996). When implementing services and
programs, college preparation program coordinators should be aware that the level of
involvement of the family will differ based on the student’s race and ethnicity (Jun & Colyar,
2002).
Spirituality and Persistence
Wood and Hilton (2012) argue that spirituality is an overarching concept with several
meanings. “This includes believing in a higher power or being, participating in an organized
34
religious community, or simply having meaning or purpose in one’s life” (Harris, Frank, &
Wood, 2013, p.176). Wood and Hilton analyzed interview data gathered from 28 African
American males attending an urban community college in the Southwest. They found five
contributing factors to spirituality’s influence on students’ college experiences: (1) spirituality
helped to reduce feelings of alienation and isolation (2) spirituality inspired students to pursue
academic excellence (3) spirituality provided meaning and purpose in life. (4) being resilient in
overcoming challenges that threatened their persistence and success in college was another way
in which spirituality influenced students’ community college experiences. Participants reported
relying on prayer and other expressions of faith when they faced obstacles and (5) some
participants believed their spirituality allowed them to focus on school rather than being drawn to
partying, drugs and alcohol, promiscuity, and other endeavors that can detract from success
in college. Wood and Hilton (2012) concluded that the participants spent a larger amount of time
studying and focusing on academic endeavors. However, there is a gap in research as this study
focused on the African American male population, yet consistently used the term males of color
(MOC). MOC include: African America, Hispanic/Latino, Native American and other ethnicities
(Moore, Ford, & Milner, 2005).
Lack of Empirical Evidence for College Access Programs
Perna and Thomas (2006) suggest that most research on college access programs
determine that preparation and achievement, knowledge and information regarding college and
college entrance requirements, and financial aid, financial literacy and resources are four
components likely to lead a student to college enrollment. Perna (2006) deems that research
demonstrates that students make college-related decisions based on a comparison of the benefits
and costs in relation to the economic theory of human capital. Much like Tierney’s ideals, she
further states that many low-income and first generation students have limited or incomplete
35
information about the benefits and costs of different higher education options, the availability of
and processes for receiving financial aid, or the ways to successfully navigate pathways into and
through college to degree completion. College access programs are the gatekeepers that aid in
preparing students for life after high school. Moreover, students that utilize and participate in
college access programs may likely be more prepared for college academically, socially, and
mentally. Furthermore, more research should be conducted on smaller, privately funded
programs to assess if they are in alignment with what research says college access programs aim
to do. More research in this area may contribute to generalizable information regarding college
access programs in the future. Moreover, research on non-government funded programs may
lead to funding opportunities to increase delivery and services of programming to a larger
number of students and families.
Conceptual Frameworks
The conceptual frameworks used to guide the study are grounded in Conley’s “Key
Elements to College Readiness”, Tierney and Hagedorn’s “Model of College Preparation
Program Effectiveness”, Reason’s “Comprehensive Model on Student Persistence”. Each model
is key to understanding student’s sense of belonging as well as how well a student who
participates in a college access program is prepared for college prior to arrival.
Conley’s elements (Appendices A and B) frames the way in which the researcher has
assessed College Success Program’s curriculum and interactions with students. Reason’s
Comprehensive Conceptual Framework: Student Persistence (Appendix C) framed the
researcher’s interview protocol for the students intended to be interviewed in reference to
persistence. Moreover, Tierney and Hagedorn’s model of college preparation program
effectiveness (Appendix D), framed how the researcher benchmarks against other programs for
an assessment of College Success Program’s program effectiveness.
36
Conley’s Key Elements to College Readiness
Conley (2010) prepared a conceptual framework that addresses the key elements to
college readiness. With academic preparation at the center which includes proficiency in subject
matter, cognitive skills, and general academic skills, students who are college ready should meet
these elemental points: self-efficacy is encouraged through self-appraisal of academic
capabilities to academic performance and is affected by prior performance in course work;
motivation encompasses the orientation toward engaging challenges, pushing through those
challenges, and overcoming obstacles as it relates to academic performance and goals; academic
skills and discipline influence academic performance and includes skills such as time
management and critical thinking; aspiration reflects a student’s desire to attend college and its
influence on academic performance; college knowledge is knowing the requirements to apply for
and get to college as well as financial aid information.
Reason’s Comprehensive Model on Student Persistence
Based on Reason’s (2009) model on student persistence, the input of the characteristics
and experiences of a pre-collegiate student (sociodemographic traits, academic preparation and
performance, and student dispositions) yields persistence. Furthermore, through the college
experience, the input of organizational context to peer environment within individual student
experiences (classroom experiences, out-of-class experiences, and curricular experiences) also
yields persistence. This framework will be key when assessing student persistence within
College Success Program and with how College Success Program contributes to persistence
whilst in college.
Tierney and Hagedorn’s Model of Program Effectiveness
Tierney and Hagedorn (2002) created a model for college preparation program
effectiveness. This model will be used to not only asses College Success Program, but to also
37
benchmark College Success Program to other programs alike to gauge if College Success
Program is doing what research says college access programs aim to accomplish. This model
indicates that program characteristics such as primary role and mission, local service delivery
system, types of programs, program size and location, target population characteristics, and
primary source of funding can segue in two different directions: instructional processes and
program improvement. Instructional processes include in school or after school programming
and their modes of delivery. This then breaks into non-academic and academic services which
yields desired outcomes. Program improvement includes: staff development and training,
recruitment and outreach, review of methods, materials, curricula, and resource allocation,
program evaluation, the tracking and review of successful graduates, and cost effectiveness also
yields desired outcomes, both short-term and long-term.
Review Summary
This literature review was designed to provide a historical and current framework for
investigating the components and practices of successful, well-performing college access
programs. A key concept that is foundational to this discussion is the idea that all students
despite demographics, or parental level of education, should have equal access and assistance to
gaining postsecondary education. Furthermore, another crucial concept is the importance of the
roles that social and cultural capital play in producing college ready students within schools with
a college going culture. Moreover, research that goes beyond the norm of categorization and
describing college access programs that fall within a typology is the groundwork for studying the
practices, components, and professionals that create effective and successful college access
programs.
There is a lack in empirical research about the characteristics and factors of low-income,
first-generation students and their paths to college, sense of belonging, and persistence in
38
college. Research postulates that students that are involved in college access programs prior to
college, tend to persist in college and are more academically successful (Tierney & Hagedorn,
2002). Astin’s Student involvement theory (1985) deems that, student success stems from the
amount of physical and psychological energy a student invests. Furthermore, the amount of
involvement in academic, social and cultural environments, leads to the potential for student
success (Cabrera, Nora, Terenzini, Pascarella & Hagedorn, 1999; Strange, 2003). The assistance
of college access programs in conjunction with familial and institutional support for low-income,
first-generation students, may increase student’s level of preparedness for college, sense of
belonging, and persistence in college.

39
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this study was to identify the factors that contribute to first-generation,
low-income, students of color’s path to college, sense of belonging, and persistence in college.
Furthermore, in this study, the researcher focused on students who had used College Success
Program as a resource during and after high school, geared toward assisting them in the
preparation of and success through college.
The research questions that guide the study were:
1. In what ways does College Success Program employ family and community engagement,
peer support, and mentoring to enhance participants’ college readiness?
2. In what ways does College Success Program employ family and community engagement,
peer support, and mentoring to enhance participants’ achievement, retention and
persistence during college?
3. In what ways does spirituality play a role in sense of belonging in College Success
Program participants?
The following sections specify how these research questions will be addressed through
research design, sample and population, instrumentation, data collection, data analysis, and
ethical considerations.
This study focused on the impact of College Success Program on first-generation students
and their sense of belonging and their persistence in college. Per the College Success Program
website: College Success Program is a youth development and leadership program, where kids
and young adults are inspired to be their best and supported to achieve their dreams. It offers
leadership, culture and arts, college access, and college completion programs. Most participants
are first-generation college or college-bound students from very low-income families living in
South Central, Pico Union, and other neighborhoods in and around downtown Los Angeles. The
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program is offered at no or low cost after-school and during school breaks, but all kids and
families, including many immigrant families, contribute through service and donations.
The college access program at College Success Program offers college application
support such as personal statement workshops, SAT study groups, college visits, mentoring,
FAFSA help, and other services that has assisted about 35 students who enrolled in college. In
2013, this number increased to over 40 additional students including one student that was
accepted and currently attends Yale University. College Success Program also offers a college
persistence program that provides services such as writing preparation, study skills workshops,
support groups, online support and connecting students to on-campus resources.
College Success Program
College Access. College Success Program’s college access aims to prepare high school
juniors and seniors for the college application process and provide them with information on
undergraduate admissions, financial aid, majors and careers, and scholarships. Many of the
students are very low-income first generation youth who come from underperforming school
with limited resources. They need a lot of help navigating the college application process and
encouragement to pursue their dreams of higher education.
Usually students begin participating in the college access during the spring or summer of
their senior year. During the spring, they begin brainstorming and writing their personal
statement and in the summer, they take SAT prep classes, job training, and personal statement
workshops. They also participate in the peer mentoring class taught by college students.
College Success Program provides a weekly class after school for HS seniors to attend
and be updated on future tasks and deadlines including registering for the SAT and ACT,
sending test scores, and taking placement tests. Students are also informed on and given tips on
how to pick a college, starting a personal statement, asking for letters of recommendation, and
41
choosing a major. During the classes students also participate in icebreakers and team building
activities.
Every year College Success Program helps 40-50 HS seniors apply to college and receive
financial aid. Approximately 15-20 of those students participate in the College Success Program
Mentorship Program. The mentorship program provides students with a mentor who meets with
them once a week and provides more in-depth one on one help on the college application
process. Mentors are volunteers who are either college students or working professionals
interested in education and service. They support students by encouraging them, holding them
accountable to their goals and devoting time to online research of topics including scholarships
and career options.
Mentors meet with students once a week during the fall semester and biweekly during the
spring semester. They meet for one to two hours with their mentees and work on tasks including
finalizing personal statements, goal-setting, and preparing for college interviews. They also
attend monthly mentor meetings and check-in with the program director once every two weeks
regarding the progress of their mentees or any additional support they might need. During the
monthly mentors are trained on personal statement writing, teenage brain development, the
financial aid process, among other things.
College Persistence. College Success Program’s college persistence program supports
and engages students who have been through the college access program through mentorship,
leadership activities, college visits, and reunions. Students are assisted with emotional and
spiritual support as well as with assistance with financial aid, goal-setting, career planning, and
job preparation.
Before college students start college, they are introduced to older peers in their campus
through send-off parties, email introductions, social events and camping retreats. Once they are
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in college staff continues to be in communication by checking-in with them through social
media, text and emails, phone calls, and video chats. Staff and volunteers also visit students on
campus and provide emotional support, meals, and connect students to internships and resources
on campus. Twice a year College Success Program gives care packages and letters to students.
During winter and spring breaks college students come back for luncheons and reunions
at College Success Program. We also provide special events to provide professional and personal
development including career days, drug and alcohol presentations, healing circles, and campus
climate discussions.
In the summer, many college students come back to visit staff during their office hours
and to provide classes and workshops at College Success Program. Some of the summer
workshops led by college students in the past have discussed topics like inequality in higher
education, college writing, gender studies and SAT preparation.
Over 150 college students remain activity in College Success Program through the
college persistence program and they receive support from about 20+ volunteers that include
mentors, board members, and United Methodist campus ministry partners.
Research Design
This study utilized interviews and with first-generation, undergraduate students of color
that have participated in College Success Program programming and College Success Program
staff to explore what components of the College Success Program that contributed to the
achievement and retention of its students, what role if any, spirituality and engagement, self-
authorship and sense of belonging play in the delivery of services to students, and how well the
organization approaches the idea of college access and college readiness. Creswell’s (2008),
there are six essential steps when conducting a research study: (a) identification of a research
problem, (b) review of the current literature, (c) having a purpose for research, (d) the collection
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of data, (e) analysis of the data, and (f) reporting the evaluation of the research. This study is
organized around these six steps.
Why Qualitative Methods
Qualitative methods allow for exploring deeper meaning and gathering rich and thick
data. Using interviews is a qualitative method that allows for deeper understanding of the verbal
and the non-verbal cues we get from our participants. Merriam (2009) states that “qualitative
researchers are interested in understanding how people interpret their experiences, how they
construct their worlds, and what meaning they attribute to their experiences” (p.5). As
researchers, one must dig deep into the participants’ actions, reactions and responses when
gathering data.
An interview is a process in which a researcher and participant engage in a conversation
focused on questions related to a research study (Merriam, 2009; DeMarrais, 2004). There is a
magnitude of different types of interviews such as highly-structured or standardized, semi-
structured and unstructured or informal to name a few. Merriam (2009) describes interviewing as
a necessary process when we cannot observe behavior, feelings or how people interpret the
world around them. She further states that it is also necessary to interview when we are
interested in past events that are impossible to replicate. Interviewing is the best technique to use
when conducting intensive case studies of a few selected individuals (Merriam, 2009). However,
interviewing can also be used to collect data from many people representing a broad range of
ideas.
Merriam (2009) defines a case study as a comprehensive description and analysis of a
bounded system. Furthermore, a case study discovers what occurs within a bound system and is
an empirical examination that explores an existing phenomenon in a real-life setting, “especially
when the boundaries between the phenomena and context are not clearly evident” (Merriam,
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2009 p.40). Case studies exploit the rich qualitative data collected to create an in-depth,
descriptive analysis of the studied setting. The survey that was created for this study focused on
the student’s demographics, parental background, high school background, pre-college
experiences, perceptions of College Success Program, and student involvement. This survey was
created to capture information that will not otherwise be captured during the interviews.
Sample and Population
Purposeful, non-probability sampling in a qualitative study is the most applicable strategy
to assess the relationship of activities and the implication of those relationships Patton (2002).
The process of selecting the interview respondents for this study goes back to the research
questions. The researcher searched for first-generation, undergraduate students of color that have
participated in College Success Program programming and College Success Program staff to
participate. The researcher reached out to College Success Program to assist in recruiting these
students, since they work first-hand with them and have built rapport with these students. These
individuals were appropriate to include in the study because they all meet the criteria in which
the researcher was looking for. All that participated were students of color, first-generation,
undergraduates who have all participated in the college access program of College Success
Program and College Success Program staff.
The rationale behind selecting specific sites for observation lies within the research
questions. To have a well-rounded view on student participation and impact of College Success
Program, the researcher interviewed students that are currently attending college and continue to
participate in College Success Program and College Success Program staff. The researcher was
able to get a deeper understanding of the impact College Success Program has on the
participants.

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Access/Entry
Getting approval to conduct the study went through the director of College Success
Program, Anne Hawthorne. Once the researcher solidified the research questions, the researcher
was able to move forward with reaching out to student participants and to College Success
Program staff to assist in the recruitment of participants. The researcher obtained consent from
interview respondents and it was simple. The researcher provided all participants with a consent
form, explained what the consent form was and had them sign it at their own will. Once signed,
the researcher moved forward with conducting interviews.
Instrumentation
The instrumentation that was used to conduct this study were two interviews, one for the
students and one for the staff. Also, a demographic survey and a survey inquiring about their
time in college while participating in the program was used to collect data. The protocols for
each group of participants varied in item content. The structure of the interview protocol was
designed to allow the interview to stay on-task. It was separated into categories, however, the
questions proposed, allowed for semi-structured interview format. There were six categories on
the protocol: family, mentoring and counseling, peer groups, program, university and spirituality.
This protocol kept the interview on-task and allowed for deeper conversation once all questions
were asked. The decision to ask specific questions in the interview was driven by the research
questions. In keeping the research questions in mind, interview questions were created that
would inevitably answer what is to be known. Moreover, the opportunity arose during the
interview to dig deeper in the conversation, therefore, the respondent’s responses allowed the
drive for follow up questions.
All the questions for the interviews protocol were coded to the research questions and to
the frameworks shaping the study. The frameworks chosen to facilitate the study were those of
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Conley (2007) on redefining college readiness; that of Robert D. Reason (2009) on student
persistence; and Tierney and Hagedorn (2002) on college preparation program effectiveness.
Interview Protocol
Semi-structured interview protocols were the primary method used to collect data for this
study. Questions were open-ended and responses to the questions were used as probes for an in-
depth conversation. There were two separate interview protocols, one for the student participants
(Appendix B), and one for the staff participants (Appendix C). The research questions were
cross-referenced with the interview questions. As the different protocols were created to
represent the different perspectives and views of the participants, they also aligned with each
other and with the research questions and frameworks.
Data Collection Approach
In efforts to collect interview data, a quiet empty College Success Program office was
chosen to interview the respondents. This choice was made because the interviews were
recorded, therefore needing the space to be quiet so that there was no background noise in the
playback of the recordings. Because students and staff were interviewed, and to avoid
participants feeling intimidated, the researcher wore causal college apparel. The times of day that
worked best with the participant’s schedules considering they are all undergraduate students was
chosen. The evenings and late afternoons worked the best. A combination of pen and paper, a
computer and iPad to take notes was be used. Also, a phone to record the interviews was used for
the purpose of reviewing interviews for initially missed information. To collect survey data,
students were emailed a survey link and asked to respond within a 14-day window.
Survey Protocol
A survey protocol was created for the participants that were interviewed in order to
broaden the study. Much like the interview protocol, the survey questions were cross-referenced
47
to the research questions and the frameworks. Most questions were posed with a Likert-style
response scale, some were write-in responses and some were multiple choice response. A survey
protocols was created for student participants (Appendix B). All questions from both the survey
and interview protocols were aligned with the research questions and frameworks.
Data Analysis
Interview Data. The design of the interview questions for this study were created to
collect data regarding the research question; that is, to gain insight on the factors that contribute
to first-generation, low-income, students of color’s path to college, sense of belonging, and
persistence in college. As a novice researcher, the researcher utilized a general qualitative
approach to data analysis (Lichtman, 2014). As keeping focus during research can have its
difficulties, the researcher placed research questions on the front page of both the student
interview and staff interview protocols. As recommended by Bogdan and Biklen (2007), the
researcher conducted initial analyses of interview data right after the sessions were complete to
assist in ensuring accuracy of findings. For each interview, the researcher listened to the
recording once through, then went back and listened a second time through, this time, making
notes on the notes and in the margins the researcher took during the actual interview while
asking questions to the participant. The researcher went through Miles, Huberman, and Saldana’s
(2014) first cycle of coding, the researcher read the interview transcript data for a second time
and coded based on apriori and emergent codes. To dig deeper, in the second cycle, the
researcher synthesized the data down to manageable chunks by applying pattern codes (Miles,
Huberman, and Saldana, 2014).
Creditability and Trustworthiness. Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014) harp on the
importance of researchers creating strategies to increase confidence in the consumer about the
researcher’s research data and findings. The researcher was able to address potential threats to
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validity. So, that the participants could be authentic as possible, the researcher distributed the
survey first to avoid participants from portraying characteristics of preparedness that were
discussed during the interview. Suggested by Maxwell (2013), the researcher triangulated the
data by comparing the data from the interviews and surveys of each participant. Miles,
Huberman, and Saldana (2014) explain that triangulation of the data by confirming it through
more than one means corroborates the findings and increases credibility. As suggested by
Merriam (2009), the researcher questioned the results to determine creditability based on the data
and reflected if the data collected answered my research questions.
Ethics. Although this study was conducted at an organization the researcher is familiar
with, the researcher made sure to choose students she did not personally know, however, some of
the students knew each other. To ensure a level of comfort, the researcher informed the
participants that the role of the researcher in both the interview and the survey was as a doctoral
student and novice researcher. Because the researcher previously worked with first-generation
pre-college students (high school level), she consistently checked her biases. While analyzing
data, the researcher knows from experience how the students she previously worked with are not
prepared when they enter college. It is critical to confront one’s biases to prevent looking and
listening only for verbal and nonverbal confirmations of those beliefs (Merriam, 2009). For the
sake of practicing and gaining knowledge and skills, the researcher asked that each participant
sign a consent form and informed them that their information will remain confidential when
reporting the data (Merriam, 2009). Furthermore, the researcher asked permission of each
participant to be recorded during the interview so that she can acquire accurate data.
Conclusion
In chapter 4, the researcher presented the results of this study of how College Success
Program employs family and community engagement, peer support and mentoring to enhance
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college readiness for first-generation, low-income, students of color, how sense of belonging is
fostered and the role spirituality plays in sense of belonging, and how College Success Program
aid in persistence in college. In chapter 5, the researcher made a connection between the findings
from this study and existing research. The researcher also made recommendations for future
considerations of college preparation programs, student success, sense of belonging and
spirituality for student success.
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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
This chapter presents the findings from an in-depth study of College Success Program
and the process by which they assist high school students to become college-ready. Through
interviews (Merriam, 2009; DeMarrais, 2004) geared toward discovering the success of College
Success Program through the eyes of current participants and alumni, participants shared their
personal stories, their challenges in high school and college, and identified and described the
important people who encouraged and influenced them to persist through college. This study
relied on three frameworks, Conley (2007) on redefining college readiness; Reason (2009) on
student persistence; and Tierney and Hagedorn (2002) on college preparation program
effectiveness.
The purpose of this study was to identify the way in which a program, such as College
Success Program, contributes to first-generation, low-income, students of color’s preparation for
college, sense of belonging and spirituality, and persistence through college. There three research
questions for this study were:
1. In what ways does College Success Program employ family and community engagement,
peer support, and mentoring to enhance participants’ college readiness?
2. In what ways does College Success Program employ family and community engagement,
peer support, and mentoring to enhance participants’ achievement, retention and
persistence during college?
3. In what ways does spirituality play a role in sense of belonging in College Success
Program participants?
In addressing the first research question, two key findings emerged in response to the
ways in which College Success Program employs family and community engagement, peer
support and mentoring to enhance participants’ college readiness. The first, mentoring, was a
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key component in participants feeling prepared for college. The findings support the theory
that students should have the information and knowledge required to understand college-
related requirements and processes, make appropriate college-related choices, and navigate
the complicated pathways into, across, and through higher education institutions (Perna,
2015). The second, parent involvement, served to be a way in which College Success
Program integrated parents into the college-knowledge component of the program.
In response to the second research question, alumni engagement emerged as the key
theme in participants matriculating through and navigating college once at an institution
according to staff and student participant interviews. In the context of this study, alumni
engagement means alumni of College Success Program assisting with different aspects of
College Success Program’s programming. In college preparation programs, such College
Success Program, mentoring is a key component (Tierney, Venegas, 2006; Swail & Perna,
2002). As a component of College Success Program, the intent was to evaluate the impact
that mentoring had on its participants.
The data for research question three concurred with the Student Development Theory
Astin (1975, 1984, 1985), Pace (1984), and Kuh and colleagues (Kuh, Whitt, & Strange, 1989;
Kuh, Schuh, Whitt, & Associates, 1991), that students learn by doing, learn from their
interactions, and the environmental contributions within their campus climates. Lastly, the results
for the third research question revealed that sense of belonging was essential for participants,
however, without the role of spirituality.
The design of this chapter is broken into four parts: first, settings and participants, then
three sections will follow that explores each research question. Chapter 5 will follow this
chapter, which is comprised of the findings, implications for practitioners, and recommendations
for further research.
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Setting and Participants
All the interviews for this study were conducted at College Success Program. College
Success Program is in Downtown Los Angeles, next to a low-income housing community and
within a day care center. The center is located on the second floor of the facility. To access
College Success Program, one must ring a doorbell and someone from inside the office comes
down the stairs to let you in. When you enter the center, you can feel the sense of community
immediately. There are art pieces and student work on the walls, a lounge-type area in the front
with a couch and tall table with chairs, a restroom, kitchen area, full-time staff office, workroom
and a large room that consists of tables, chairs and computers. Also in this space is a rainbow
painted on the wall indicative of inclusivity. Each interview lasted about an hour, in a quiet and
private room. Most of the interviews occurred during hours that College Success Program was
closed allowing for minimal surrounding noise.
Also, included in this section is a short description of each CSP staff participant. The
participants are organized in alphabetical order by their self-selected pseudonyms and real names
(Some of the staff decided not to choose a pseudonym). Through the stories of the staff
participants, it is my intention that the reader gain insight about their unique experiences as well
as the similarities they all endure while working with CSP student participants or enrollees).
Following this section will be the findings of this study.
Alma
Alma is one of the full-time staff at College Success Program. She is Latina and a first-
generation college student and graduate. Like many of the College Success Program participants,
she attended OHMMHS. She is currently pursuing a masters of education degree in student
affairs at a university in Los Angeles. She is compassionate and cares deeply for the students she
interacts with and their success. Alma began her career at College Success Program in 2014 as a
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part-time employee. Currently, she is the Music and Community College Programs Coordinator
at College Success Program. She created the community college program out of a need as many
students who attended College Success Program pursued the community college route. The
program assists students who decide to attend community college with their college going
process as well as assist in the matriculation to a four-year college or university if that is the goal
of the student. The first cohort of the community college program began in summer of 2017.
Like many of the students that utilize College Success Program, Alma graduated from a
local high school and attended community college before attending a four-year institution. She
spoke to why there was a need for the community college program, “So through this program,
we created a support group amongst them so that they can feel that they are going to college, that
there is, that they have other peers that are like them and also local community college or local
schools around here an amongst them creating that sense of like college pride.”
Anne
Anne is another full-time staff member at College Success Program. She is the executive
director for the LAMU Foundation. Her primary role at College Success Program is to lead the
program and secure funding for the program. She serves as the liaison between the church and
the program and between the program and the community and schools. When she started College
Success Program, there were only two full-time staff members, herself and Karla. The two of
them worked tirelessly to grow the program into what it is today.
She believes that College Success Program works because of the small nature of the
program. She stated that she followed the work of Bill Tierney “I came across his work and there
were three factors that he had identified as being key to helping low income, first generation
college students, access college and those three things were: a community of fictive kin, access
to correct information and a caring adult who can answer questions and encourage you.” A
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fictive kin group “refers to a kinship-like connection between and among persons in a society,
not related by blood or marriage, who have maintained essential reciprocal social or economic
relationships” (Fordham, 1988, p. 56). Much like the fictive kin and social capital study
conducted by Tierney and Venegas (2006), for the purposes of this study, it is suggested that
fictive kin groups “enable the potential for the group to think about college and to be considered
as college eligible in ways that other students are not” (p. 1691). Starting out small, Anne knew
that they had the community of fictive kin and therefore, had the other two; having access to
correct information because they had access to the internet, and they were the caring adults that
their students needed.
Donna
Donna is a 23-year-old female, Latina, and the oldest of three girls, one of which is 18-
years-old and attends Santa Monica College (SMC) and the other is 13-years-old and in eighth
grade, Both of Donna’s parents came to America from different countries, mom from Guatemala
and dad from Mexico. She is the first in her family to not only attend college, but graduate.
Suddenly, she became the role model for her younger siblings. “I’m the first to graduate college
in my home, in my neighborhood, in my community.” Donna attended Ramon C. Cortines
School of Visual and Performing Arts for high school. Upon graduating, she began pursuit of her
college career at Pasadena City College (PCC), Los Angeles City College (LACC) and Los
Angeles Valley College (LAVC) prior to transferring to a 4-year institution. In 2017, she
graduated from University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) which is located about two
hours away from College Success Program, majoring in psychology and minoring in philosophy.
Her career goal is to become a music and art therapist.
She began utilizing College Success Program in 2013 while attending high school.
Throughout high school, her mom was her biggest supporter and she would always tell her
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“school is the only job you have.” Donna is not only driven and motivated, she gets what College
Success Program is doing as a program and therefore took an internship in the summer of 2016
with College Success Program to teach two classes.
John
John is a 24-year-old, male, Latino. He is the only child; his mother and father live in
California and his other family members live in other states across the country. He attended
OHMMHS and graduated in 2012. After high school, John began pursuit of a college career at
California State University, Northridge (CSUN) which is located about an hour away from
College Success Program. After spending five years studying political science at CSUN, he
graduated in the spring of 2017. He was encouraged by his parents to attend college, stating “that
was the expectation post high school.”
His parents were extremely supportive, making time in their schedules to get him places
and they helped him financially when he needed it. During his time at CSUN, he was involved in
many clubs and organizations including his fraternity, Phi Delta Theta, of which he became
president in just his second year of school, he was also a part of CSUN Young Democrats and
served as the chair, and the CSUN Blues Project.
Jose
Jose is a 23-year-old, male, Chicano. He is an only child and the first in his family to
attend college. He attended OHMMHS and graduated in 2013. Jose gained acceptance to a 4-
year institution, however, decided to attend a community college first. With his eyes set on the
prize of becoming the President of the United States of America, Jose, began attending college at
East Los Angeles College (ELAC), a community college located on the East side of Los
Angeles. He then transferred to CSULA which is located about thirty minutes northeast from
College Success Program to study political science. Jose decided that he was not satisfied with
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the way the world is, the “system”, and wanted to make a change. Being born in the United
States (US), raised in Mexico for five years, then moving back to the US, he felt humbled by his
experience in Mexico, saying, “that gave me a lot of values, humble, we lived a peasant life, a
farming life in Mexico, and then coming back here, gave me a better understanding of the
world.”
As a participant of College Success Program, he was a member of their band, which
allowed him to explore his creativity. While in college, he was a participant of the First Year
Experience at ELAC, he explored many music courses while at ELAC, however, he indicated
that he “regrets not getting involved in clubs and organizations.” Having proud parents who are
supportive of Jose attending college made him feel happy. His parents immigrated from Mexico
to the US to allow Jose to have what he called “the best life possible.”
Karla
Karla is the third full-time staff member at College Success Program. She has been
working at College Success Program since the program’s inception and is the Program Director.
She, like many of her students, is a first-generation college student and graduate. She is what I
like to call “the heart of College Success Program” when interviewing students, Karla’s name
repetitively came up in conversation. For example, Donna said, “Karla does everything, she’s
always there when you need her.” She hosts many of the workshops at College Success Program
such as college application sessions, financial aid, financial literacy, SAT and ACT prep,
personal statement writing, and many others.
Moreover, she leads an advocacy program called College for All Coalition. This program
provides a voice for students in policy for education and allows them to speak on certain bills in
Sacramento. She says that “volunteers are huge at College Success Program, with only three full-
time staff members, volunteers fill-in where there are gaps.” She works heavily with students and
57
parents on the understanding of college knowledge information and explained that College
Success Program provides individualized attention and a positive and encouraging environment.
Metzli
Metzli is a 21-year-old, female, Latina, and the oldest of three. Her younger brother is 16-
years-old and her younger sister is 14-years-old. Metzli is a US native, however, her family came
to the US from Mexico and she is the first in her family to attend college. She attended OMMHS
and graduated in 2014. She currently is a student at SMC studying to be a teacher as she wants to
teach literature in Mexico because “the school systems in Mexico have a lot of problems.” Her
parents are extremely supportive of her education and learning and would encourage her to make
it a goal to attend Harvard.
“It was the acquaintances I had at College Success Program that motivated me to go to
college” she rejoiced! As an active member in her community, going to college became a
necessity to become a role model for those that came after her, she passionately spoke, “I knew I
had to socialize with like-minded people.”
Nancy
Nancy is a 20-year-old Latina, a sophomore in college studying psychology. She attended
OMMHS and graduated in 2016. She is a current student at Los Angeles Trade Technical
College (LATTC) and has the goal of transferring to a Cal State or UC. Furthermore, she has a
career goal of becoming a counselor and aims to pursue a masters of educational counseling
degree and potentially her Ph.D. She said, “since I was little, my parents would say, ‘you’re
going to college’ and so I knew I had to.” Given that her mom is the primary person in the house
working, as her dad is unemployed, Nancy is enthusiastic about increasing her education and
helping her parents; she currently works at the bookstore at the University of Southern California
58
(USC). She knows that both of her parents are proud of her and knows that she has their
complete support.
Summary
These short descriptions of each participant shed light into their everyday lives and how
they are affected by College Success Program. All the student and two staff participants are first-
generation college students or graduates, meaning the first in their families to attend college. All
the student participants and their families are classified as low-income and working-class. All the
student participants are either College Success Program alumni or were about to graduate high
school. They all identified that mentorship was a significant part in their participation with
College Success Program. The differences however, are seen in each of their collegiate
experiences. All three members of the College Success Program staff are full-time employees,
however, all bare different responsibilities to the program. The support at College Success
Program is abundant and therefore contributes to the confidence level of feeling prepared for
college and sense of belonging of the student participants. The next section will discuss the
results of research question one.
It Takes a Village: College Readiness
The purpose of this question is to address how College Success Program supports its
participants in becoming prepared for college. College Success Program utilizes different college
readiness tools to guide its participants to college readiness. Per Venezia & Jaeger, 2013 (p.
118), college readiness is commonly understood as the level of preparation a student needs to
enroll and succeed in a college program (certificate, associate’s degree, or baccalaureate) without
requiring remediation. A college ready student attains cognitive strategies also known as think,
know, act, go (Conley, 2007). College Success Program was chosen as it is a program servicing
low-income, first generation, college bound students in the Downtown Los Angeles and South
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Central areas. The goal of College Success Program is to help close the gap of educational
inequity; providing ways for students to access opportunities, explore intellectual curiosity, and
help them learn to advocate for themselves. The first research question was, how does College
Success Program employ family and community engagement, peer support, and mentoring to
enhance participants’ college readiness?
There are two themes that emerged that address the first research question, and help
explain how College Success Program assists in preparing its participants for college. The two
findings related to the first research question are presented in the next 2 subsections in order of
importance, mentoring over time and parent involvement.
Mentoring Over Time
Mentorship programs provide cultural awareness training and counseling to help
increase students’ self-efficacy and self-esteem (Padgett and Reid, 2002). College Success
Program facilitates a mentorship program where participants are paired with a college student or
working professional interested in service and education. These mentors help their mentees once
a week in the fall and biweekly in the spring, one on one, to help during the college application
season and to help prepare them for college interviews. Furthermore, a different type of
mentorship was mentioned through the interviews, these mentorships blossomed between Karla,
Alma and the students.
Through college preparation workshops such as college applications, financial aid,
personal statement writing, SAT and ACT, and many others, students at College Success
Program begin to gain trust in those assisting them, their mentors, through the process. Tierney,
Corwin and Colyar (2005) define college preparation as “intellectual scaffolding”, this is key for
students transitioning into college and embodies the knowledge, supports, resources, and critical
skills. In agreeance with Conley (2010) research on college readiness, the participants and staff
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of College Success Program positively commented on feeling prepared for the college
application process. Alma sees mentorship as key when working with her students.
College Success Program provides a warm experience…being able to work with students
on a one-on-one basis, you really get to know them…through learning about a student
and their families, we here at College Success Program are able to provide emotional and
moral support.
For Alma, mentoring participants and seeing them grow as individuals, is why she continues to
be a guiding force, especially for those students who decide to attend community college.
Donna had the opportunity to benefit from having an assigned mentor during her senior
year of high school.
The mentorship lasted through college application season… I didn’t feel like the
mentorship was personal…however, Anne, who works here at College Success Program
full-time helped me with my personal statement and provides you with that boost of
encouragement you need. …Alma helped me with navigating the community college
system through her community college program that gathered once a month. …Karla…
she does everything, she’s always there when you need her. She came to visit me while I
was attending UCSB; she also took participants of College Success Program on college
tours so that they could see their possibilities.
Much like Donna, John reached out to College Success Program staff during times of
need. He mentioned that he was never part of the official mentorship program, however,
…There are many resources at College Success Program like pamphlets and
informational resources. …I consider Karla to be a mentor at College Success Program.
She offers words of encouragement and helps me get out of the box of my own head.
…The College Success Program staff provides emotional support and assists in times of
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uncertainty. …The mentoring relationship has grown over time, they seem to genuinely
care, genuinely care consistently.
Students like Donna and John found mentors in those that showed the most consistency in their
interactions at College Success Program. Jose however, was not involved with the mentorship
program, nor was he fond of the idea of a mentor relationship. However, he did feel supported
through the college preparation process.
Although my college prep was slightly above average since I went to a magnet high
school, it wasn’t until I began going to College Success Program that I actually felt like I
was receiving assistance. …College Success Program “held my hand” through the
transfer process. I don’t really come in for help, but they do provide a piece of mind and
are instrumental in helping me transfer on-time.
The mentors at College Success Program effectively build solid bonds of trust and create
atmospheres where participants feel welcomed and comfortable. Nearly all of the participants
indicated that the bonded more with the full-time staff than the temporary mentors as the full-
time staff were able to spend more time with them and are more invested in them.
Parent Involvement
Padgett, Johnson, and Pascarella (2012) indicate that there is a disadvantage for parents
who have no college experience in sharing knowledge and expectations about the challenges of
the collegiate environment to their children. However, at College Success Program, parents are
introduced to college knowledge information through workshops.
Parents are an integral part of the functionality of operations at College Success Program,
even if they do not know that they are. In order for a student to participate at College Success
Program, parents are supposed to pay an annual admission fee of about $25-$50. With a large
population of their participants identifying as low-income, that fee can become a barrier. The
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staff at College Success Program created a solution, they ask the parents to contribute in any way
they can; some bring snacks or lunches, some help clean the space, some provide supplies while
others pay what they can. Students like Nancy and Metzli have parents that work during the day.
Metzli expresses how her parents contributed.
My parents are not really involved at College Success Program due to work, however,
they did come a couple of times for a parent meeting. My dad spoke at the parent meeting
and said that although I wasn’t doing well my senior year, he could see that College
Success Program was helping me find other ways to graduate high school and go to
college.
Although not extremely involved, Metzli’s parents make every effort to support her and see the
benefits of what College Success Program has to offer. Much like Metzli’s parents, Nancy’s
parents work during the day and therefore cannot physically be present at College Success
Program.
My parents haven’t been to College Success Program, but they can see the impact it has
on my life and school.
Alma gives her insight on what the parents of College Success Program participants want to
know.
The parents are interested in knowing that their children are going to be okay
when they go off to college. …We host a required parent orientation and explain what
College Success Program is, how we can help their students and the process of students
going to college. After this workshop, we see increased levels of parent involvement.
…Parents find ways to contribute if they are unable to pay the enrollment fee, and in that,
they feel valued.
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Like Alma, Anne could not express enough the importance of parent contribution. She indicates
that
…Parents want to know that their kids are safe when they get out of school, and here at
College Success Program, they know that their kids are somewhere safe. …It is our goal
to help parents understand how to pay for college. We build personal relationships that
cultivate trust. …We host parent engagement meetings quarterly about choosing colleges,
financial aid and how to read financial aid award letters. These parent-to-parent
interactions builds community within College Success Program. The parents then become
reinforcers for what College Success Program says, it helps the students stay on track.
John and Jose’s parents could make contributions to College Success Program. John mentioned
that
My parents participated and volunteered for an event or two. I am not sure which ones
they did, but they understand how College Success Program works.
Jose details that he has not been a part of College Success Program all four years of high school
and that his participation is recent.
I think my mom participated in a fundraiser and has provided food for board meetings
and other fundraisers. My dad gives me rides to College Success Program and
participates in raffles and fundraising events.
It appears that with this sample, if the parents and participants did not have College
Success Program to aid and assist with college knowledge and understanding the path to college,
they may not have correctly applied to college or would not have known the steps in which to
apply for college, i.e. college application timelines and financial aid application assistance. The
workshops and meetings held for participants and parents are important for the proper
understanding of the “how to’s” of college. Parent involvement plays an integral role in the
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effectiveness of how College Success Program delivers its message, they are the enforcers at
home, while College Success Program are the enforcers after school.
Summary
This section featured important findings in how College Success Program utilizes family
and community engagement, peer support and mentoring to enhance participant’ college
readiness. Approximately all the student participants (90%) and all the staff participants (100%)
described the importance of the workshops that College Success Program provides, the
mentorship they gain through the program and parent engagement.
Mentoring serves as the centerpiece that the rest of the program is built on, without this,
and trust in this the rest of the program would not be as successful. Mentorship is a huge part of
what makes College Success Program work and the staff are key in building those relationships.
There is a high level of trust between students, parents, and staff in their roles as mentors.
In the next section, alumni engagement is assessed to answer the question of how College
Success Program encourages family and community engagement, peer support, and mentoring to
increase participants’ achievement, retention and persistence during college.
Alumni Support Through Giving Back
The purpose of research question two, is to address how College Success Program
supports its participants once they have graduated high school and matriculated to college. Chen
and Carroll (2005) and Nunez and Cuccaro-Alamin (1998) concur that first-generation, low-
income students of color are less likely than their non-first-generation counterparts to complete
postsecondary education within five years per persistence rates. College Success Program is a
program that encourages their alumni to continue participation in the program throughout college
and beyond. Persistence yields the input of the characteristics and experiences of a pre-collegiate
student (sociodemographic traits, academic preparation and performance, and student
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dispositions) according to Reason (2009). The results in this section parallel the second research
question, in what ways does College Success Program employ family and community
engagement, peer support, and mentoring to enhance participants’ achievement, retention and
persistence during college? This section will cover the theme, alumni engagement, which
emerged addressing the ways in which College Success Program fosters retention and
persistence of its participants.
Alumni Engagement
With College Success Program being a small program, and tight relationships being built,
it becomes easier to track where their students decide to attend college. This becomes important
when a new group of College Success Program alumni enter the college world, needing a friend
group, needing to be connected, needing a tribe. During the year, College Success Program does
a great job of taking its participants on college tours; exposing them to college campuses, college
life, and a new way of engaging, interacting and relating with new people. Connecting with their
alumni during those college visits allows for current high schoolers to not only ask questions
about college, but ask about the high school to college transition, campus life, and how to stay
connected with College Success Program.
Alma, a College Success Program full-time staff, and the creator of the community
college program, indicated that College Success Program alumni are both high school graduates
and college graduates.
…Students entering directly into university, that’s when we started building these kinds
of small peer-to-peer cohorts. …During breaks, students who have gone off to college
come back to volunteer. …We host a retreat during winter break for high school and
college graduates. It’s a time we can help connect those recent high school grads to
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current college students. As a matter of fact, one of our college graduates recently
became a College Success Program board member.
Anne indicated that the alumni of College Success Program are extremely involved, especially
once they return to Los Angeles from their respective schools.
…We have another level of peer mentoring where upperclassmen at the individual
campuses, mentor and welcome the first-year students. And then there’s another, there is
like another level of leadership where we hire college students over the summer to
actually put on the program the whole summer program. So, there’s all these different
levels of leadership now that we have 21 alumni, we’re building an alumni council…we
helped 250 students get into college, 200 of those are active.
Anne defines active as the program having contact with them in the last year. Karla in agreeance
with Anne and Alma detailed that the alumni were very involved and continued receiving
assistance from College Success Program though college and beyond.
…I used to think that once they finished college, then they’re done! Okay, next group of
students. But no, they’re sending us their resumes, they’re asking us for interview help
and we’re either providing it or connecting them to a volunteer that can help and give
them feedback on their resumes or their cover letters. And now that they’re a little bit
older, we do more social events like happy hour or dinner and lunch. We keep track and
see where they’re at with their job application process, where they’re at with their
families, how their living situation is now that they’re not living in college and are maybe
living back at home. And they are also involved with mentoring, a few of them have
actually come back this year and mentored the new group of high school seniors.
College Success Program actively makes an effort to keep their alumni engaged and
connected to the College Success Program community. Through staff mentoring at the alumni
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level, or the alumni mentoring current College Success Program participants, all members are
affected positively.
Summary
Featured in this section, are the important findings in how College Success Program
employs family and community engagement, peer support, and mentoring to enhance
participants’ achievement, retention and persistence during college. All the staff participants
(100%) described the importance of the College Success Program alumni and the ways in which
they continue to engage and interact with the program and its participants. Though College
Success Program began almost a decade ago in 2009, their alumni impact and engagement levels
remain high and consistent. The College Success Program staff are in-tuned with their alumni
and are aware of where they are, not only physically, but mentally and emotionally. As
aforementioned, the alumni feel so connected that many of them volunteer over the summer and
at different times throughout the year. Furthermore, the organization hosts an alumni reunion
during the summer which allows the alumni to reconnect with old friends, and gain some new
ones. The data presented revealed that alumni engagement has increased over the years and
continues in an upward trend. CSP alumni find value in contributing their time back to the
organization both while they are in school and when they return during their breaks according to
the interview results.
In the next section, sense of belonging is assessed to answer the question of if spirituality
plays a role in the building of sense of belonging in College Success Program current and alumni
student participants.
A Sense of Community is a Sense of Belonging
Students benefit from having a community that supports them academically, socially,
emotionally and physically. The third research question for this study was: in what ways does
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spirituality play a role in sense of belonging in College Success Program participants? Although
College Success Program is a non-religious program of a local foundation and church, it has
received special funding from the local church, its community partners, and many generous
individual and business donors. Many of the participants and their families are members of and
attend the churches. However, there is no religious or spiritual affiliation with these entities.
Alma mentioned “once in a while, pastors will come to College Success Program to provide
spiritual guidance” to those in need. Anne indicated that the church provides care packages two
times a year, financial support and volunteers.
This is a responsibility of the church so that the church has a responsibility to support a
protected shelter and encourage young people. College Success Program is probably one
of the clearest manifestations of that in a Methodist church. So, it’s not religious, but it’s
what makes the program really special.
Anne has had the pleasure of seeing this program blossom from its inception. She sees the
connection with the church and how its values are embedded in what College Success Program
does for its participants. Donna spoke to her religious and spiritual affiliations and how she
leaned on them during some hard times.
I grew up catholic, I think that changed over time, I think that changed once I got into a
more scientific field. I don’t believe in cosmos or Mercury retrograde, I guess I am
spiritual in a sense that I do believe everyone has an energy and your energy can impact
another person’s energy and that is within the spectrum with everyone in the world.
In contrast, John shared that he is “not particularly spiritual, however, I do see the power in
religion and spirituality—how it can help people and how they use it as moral compasses and
guidelines.” Metzli, on the other hand, indicated that she is spiritual and enjoys connecting with
people.
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…I was doing something really unhealthy, like going on a spending binge…there are
always religious groups that come up to students on campus and everyone always says
no, but there were these girls, and they were just different. Because always when people
come up to me, they are like, White people, and then I don’t really relate to them…these
girls, they were like me! They were people of color and also had immigrant parents and
they talked about how they went through a lot of legal struggles because of it and how
they found a connection with God…I think they feel the same way I do about God.
Anne spoke to College Success Program providing its participants with a sense of belonging and
a sense of place. She described a story of a previous participant who did not finish college and
who decided to join the Airforce, he said “we know you’re here for us, even though now I’m
going to the Airforce…[spoke of someone else who went to jail and had difficult life
experience]…you guys are still there for us.” Numbers graduated are the quantifiable measure,
however, it is a sense of loyalty and unconditional positive regard, which College Success
Program calls “radical hospitality” that provides a welcoming environment of no rules, a culture
of respect, and a safe space for its participants to tell their stories.
Summary
Academic motivation, success, and persistence are all characteristics of sense of
belonging (Freeman, Anderman, & Jensen, 2007; Hausmann, Schofield, & Woods, 2007).
However, researchers debate that gaining a sense of belonging may be difficult for minority
students (Hurtado & Carter, 1997; Stephens, Fryberg, Markus, & Johnson, 2012; Strayhorn,
2012). College Success Program helps to foster sense of belonging within its participants without
imposing spirituality. Given that CSP is partially funded by a church, the staff were curious if
spirituality played a role in their student’s sense of belonging. However, none of their
programming or curriculum incorporates spirituality or religion due to their non-religious
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structure, therefore neither having any impact on the student participants. The way in which they
engage with not only their current participants but also their alumni is unmatched. The
participants, though they are students of color, find a home within College Success Program; a
place they belong—a place they call home.
Conclusion
This chapter presented findings from interviews with 10 participants involved with
College Success Program, 7 first-generation students and 3 staff. Compelling themes arose
through an in-depth analysis of the participant’s narratives detailing their interactions with
College Success Program. In this chapter, the way in which the program aids and assists its
participants through college readiness was explained by how College Success Program provides
mentorship to their participants over time and the levels of parental involvement to the program.
Student participants had high positive regard for the staff at CSP and considered them to be the
most influential type of mentor. Persistence in the program was looked at through the lens of
alumni engagement and how the program continues to offer assistance once its students go to
college. Lastly, a culture of togetherness aids in fostering a sense of belonging in the individuals
that choose to participate in College Success Program. However, there was no evidence of
spirituality connecting to a student participants’ sense of belonging. Chapter 5 provides
additional discussion of the findings, recommendations for the program and future research.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
Statement of the Problem
The focus of this study was to research the factors that contribute to first-generation, low-
income, students of color’s path to college, sense of belonging, and persistence in college of
College Success Program participants. College readiness is commonly understood as the level of
preparation a student needs to enroll and succeed in a college program (certificate, associate’s
degree, or baccalaureate) without requiring remediation (Venezia & Jaeger, 2013, p. 118).
College readiness is defined in three ways: minimum college admissions criteria, achievement
test performance, and GPA (Roderick, Nagaoka, & Coca, 2009). Furthermore, Conley (2007)
adds that a college ready student also attains cognitive strategies also known as think, know, act
go (previously mentioned in this chapter and will be discussed throughout the study). There is a
gap in college preparation between low-income, first-generation college bound students of color
and their non-first-generation, non-low-income counterparts.
College preparation programs assist in fostering those very components for a student to
be successful prior to and during college. However, the question remains: why college
preparation programs? Cowan Pitre and Pitre (2009) and the National Center for Education
Statistics [NCES], (2008) claim that over several decades in the United States, African America,
Hispanic, Native American, and low-income students have completed high school and attended
college at consistently lower rates than White and higher-income student counterparts. Programs
such as TRiO and others like it, assist with student persistence before and during college.
Research outlines that college access programs are tasked with objectives and goals to assist
students in being prepared for college, however, many programs have their own agendas. This
study aimed to find whether one program’s missions and agendas align with what research says
college access programs are created to do.
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Purpose of the Study
College Success Program is a unique program in that it is not government nor state
funded. It is funded by a local church as well as other various donors. The mission and goals set
by the organization means that the organization is accountable to itself. If only the organization
is assessing its goals, how do we know if the program adheres to the goals of what research says
college access programs are supposed to do? Herein lies the problem and the focus of this study.
Moreover, this study looked at how and if sense of belonging is connected with
spirituality and how those connect with the program. The interconnectedness of the two has little
recognition in higher education literature (Astin, Astin, & Lindholm, 2011; Bryant & Astin,
2008; Schreiner, 2013); however, the integration of the two, sense of belonging and spirituality,
can lead to benefits for students such as an increased knowledge base and satisfaction with their
college experience (Astin, Astin, & Lindholm, 2011; Kuh & Gonyea, 2006; Schreiner, 2013). In
this study, the researcher focused on students who used College Success Program as a resource
during and after high school, geared toward assisting them in the preparation of and success
through college. Furthermore, this study aimed to identify the way in which a program, such as
College Success Program, contributes to first-generation, low-income, students of color’s
preparation for college, sense of belonging and spirituality, and persistence through college.
There are three research questions that guided this study:
1. How does College Success Program employ family and community engagement, peer
support, and mentoring to enhance participants’ college readiness?
2. In what ways does College Success Program employ family and community engagement,
peer support, and mentoring to enhance participants’ achievement, retention and
persistence during college?
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3. In what ways does spirituality play a role in sense of belonging in College Success
Program participants?
There are three conceptual frameworks that guided this study. The first focused on
components of college readiness, the second, identified college preparation program
effectiveness, and the third looked at student persistence. The literature reviewed in chapter two,
suggested that students who participated in college preparation programs gain the knowledge to
be prepared for college entrance requirements. Moreover, Chapter Two also highlighted the
importance of college preparation programs for low-income, first-generation college bound
students. This study also addressed the importance of spirituality and sense of belonging.
Methodology
Through in-depth, in-person interviews with 7 first-generation, undergraduate students of
color that have participated in College Success Program programming and 3 College Success
Program staff, this qualitative case study revealed how College Success Program contributes to
the achievement and retention of its students, what role sense of belonging plays in the delivery
of services to students, and how well the organization approaches the idea of college access and
college readiness. As mentioned in Chapter 3, an interview protocol was used to allow for an on-
task discussion, however, there were times when questions or responses would go on tangent.
The six categories used on the protocol, family, mentoring and counseling, peer groups, program,
university and spirituality, allowed for the research questions to be answered as well as new
emerging themes to develop.
Limitations
There were a few limitations whilst conducting this study. The limitations presented in
this study are as follows: (1) the students who participated in this study have all been or are
currently participants of the College Success Program, (2) the sample was limited to low-income,
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first-generation students of color; if other ethnicities are present, the study would have yielded
differently. These limitations had an impact on the results of this study as it relates to other
studies alike, (3) The sample size for the study was small, this was due to the study being
conducted during a time when students were already back at their respective schools. Although I
requested to conduct the study during the summer, I was not granted access to begin interviewing
participants until fall/winter via College Success Program, (4) The sample size largely consisted
of Latinx participants, this is because the program consisted of mostly Latinx participants. A
diverse pool of participants may have provided a different perspective of the program and its
impact on different cultures or ethnicities. Furthermore, due to the specificity of targeting one
program, these limitations also make the results less generalizable.
Summary of Results
There were four main themes that emerged through this study. The first, mentoring over
time, which served to be the heart and soul of this program and how it operates. Second, parent
involvement in all facets is a crucial part of the culture built within the program. Third, alumni
engagement continues the circle of life within the program. Lastly, sense of belonging allows for
participants of College Success Program to feel welcomed.
Results for Research Question One
Two themes emerged as a result of research question one, mentoring over time and parent
involvement. These two factors contribute to how the program employs family and community
engagement, peer support, and mentoring to enhance participants’ college readiness. Mentoring
over time was a common theme that participants noted during interviews. Mentors were assigned
to College Success Program participants while they were in high school and the students also
considered the staff as mentors as well. These mentors aided and guided students through the
college application process, financial aid application process, test taking, as well as career
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guidance and preparation. Many schools lack college access resources therefore needing college
access programs to assist in serving the increasing number of underrepresented students desiring
to attend an institution of higher education (Welton & Martinez, 2014; Cowan Pitre & Pitre,
2009). Conley’s (2008, 2009) Four Keys to College readiness addresses four areas that align with
this finding; think: the key cognitive strategies, know: the key content knowledge, go: the key
transition knowledge and skills and act: the key learning skills and techniques. These four keys
are demonstrated in how College Success Program staff disseminate information to both its
participants and to parents as well as how they inform and teach their participants.
Results for Research Question Two
Unlike government funded or state funded programs that require participation of its
students once enrolled, it is amazing that the students continue to utilize the services that College
Success Program has to offer as a college access program that does not require its students to
participate once signed up. Alumni engagement emerged as a theme and response to research
question two. A positive correlation exists among engagement and gains in critical thinking,
persistence rates, general abilities, and grades (Pike & Kuh, 2005). Student persistence and
retainment through alumni engagement allows College Success Program staff to keep current
with their students once they begin attending college.
Reason’s (2009) Comprehensive Conceptual Framework on Student Persistence indicates
that student precollege characteristics and experiences feed into the college experience
comprised of organizational context and peer environment (individual student experiences)
which then yields an outcome of persistence. Moreover, organizational context yields persistence
and student precollege characteristics and experiences also yields persistence. These elements are
shown in how College Success Program engages their alumni. The organization works hard to
maintain and retain relationships with their alumni achieving a network for generations to come.
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Results for Research Question Three
Student involvement and institution connectedness, colleagues, and other student groups
may affect sense of belonging in a student (Tinto, 1986). While spirituality did not play a
significant role in student’s sense of belonging, sense of belonging was a significant finding in
how the students connected with College Success Program and its staff. Even though the
program is connected to a local church through funding, the principles to program is founded on
are non-religious. Although some of the participants in the study indicated that they are
somewhat spiritual, they indicated that their spirituality and their sense of belonging is separate.
Freeman, Anderman and Jensen (2017) agree that student assimilation and academic
determination may be attributes of student’s sense of belonging. The way in which College
Success Program staff offers themselves as an extended family member, a mentor, a guide,
shows in how connected the students are to the program and organization. In College Success
Program, sense of belonging begins the moment the students build relationships with the staff
and other student participants. That then grows as they take ownership of the program and all
that it has to offer.
Recommendations for Practice
There are three recommendations for practice that are important relative to findings from
this study. First, improve the mentoring component, second, create a formalized contact log with
College Success Program current students and alumni, lastly, create an annual assessment plan.
College Success Program has benchmarked their program after other college access
programs, however, there are some areas for improvement. While CSP has a mentoring program
set in place, the results showed that participants did not take full advantage of that resource and
felt that the staff of College Success Program were mentors to them more than the one they were
assigned. It is recommended that College Success Program revamp their program and utilize
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alumni as mentors rather than the volunteers of College Success Program. Not only will this
increase alumni engagement, it will allow the participants to feel more comfortable contacting
their mentors as well as build relationships. It is also suggested that these mentor/mentee parings
happen based on common interest, career interests, similar majors, and personality types. There
should be some sort of official mentor/mentee kick-off or end-of-the-year celebration to foster
sense of belonging.
Because results showed a significant alumni and current student participation, creating a
formalized contact method with College Success Program current students and alumni is
recommended to create a tracking system. It can be difficult to stay in contact with a student
once they matriculate to college, however, with a formalized system of tracking, College Success
Program will not only know where their alumni are, but they will also have a system to track that
contact. It is suggested that College Success Program use a system similar or the same as TRiO
programs, Blumen. This system can create annual reports, log services for counseling and
tutoring sessions, capability to export data, more than 250+ reports built-in, personalized letters
and much more. Utilizing a tool like this can help to promote organization within the program,
especially when creating quarterly or annual reports, when applying for grants and for assessing
how the program is functioning.
Lastly, because the results showed that there is no formal way to assess how successful
CSP is, it is recommended that College Success Program create an annual assessment plan for
the organization. It is key that College Success Program creates student learning outcomes to
begin this assessment. It is suggested that College Success Program utilize the Council for the
Advancement of the Standards in higher education (CAS) as a tool to create their assessment
plan. While there is no CAS standard for general college access programs, there is one for TRiO
programs. College Success Program can use the TRiO standards as an example and baseline for
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the assessment. This assessment plan may be beneficial when applying for grant monies and
other funding. Although College Success Program has been an effective program for students
based on interviews and the college going rate, assessing the program will help justify the need
for grant monies and other donations. Assessment will also help identify the struggles students
are having and how College Success Program can act as a resource for those students. If this
assessment plan were successful, it would become a model for other college access programs
similar to College Success Program to begin using. Eventually, the assessment plan could
become and effective tool for college access programs as a whole.
Recommendations for Future Research
Future research is still needed on the benefits of college access and preparation programs,
especially those that are not government or state funded. Findings from this study are not
generalizable, however, the analysis of lived experiences of the College Success Program
participants both students and staff, allowed me to understand the importance of how College
Success Program functions and the way in which they interact with students, parents and alumni.
There are two recommendations for future research, the first, study how sense of belonging
creates a sense of connectedness and ownership of a program and second, for college access and
preparation programs to continue communication once a student has matriculated to college.
Prior to and while in college, college access programs aid students in understanding and
developing of sense of belonging. For first generation students, finding a tribe can be difficult. It
is imperative that future research focuses on how programs, such as College Success Program,
create a welcoming and inclusive environment for its participants. When students feel as though
they belong, they are more inclined to promote and advocate for the things they believe in and
are a part of. I find this to be true for College Success Program participants. Each one of the
study participants disclosed that because of the way the College Success Program staff interacts
79
with each student, they feel comfortable being themselves and finding their voice. There are
three critical components to student support: sense of belonging and learning, shared knowledge
and shared knowing and shared responsibility (Tinto, 2000). Through these critical variables,
future research can focus its efforts in encouraging other programs to adopt this method of
inclusivity.
Secondly, continued communication once a student has matriculated poses some
challenges. Some students may not feel a need for continued participation, while other students
may continue to utilize the network they built within the program, which is the hope. It is
suggested that future research focuses on continued support and continued communication with
program alumni. It can become difficult for some students to assimilate to a new environment
(college), which may not provide the same types of support programs like College Success
Program provides to its participants. This may lead to a feeling of disconnectedness and a lack of
sense of belonging. Tinto (1993) deems there are important factors in the successful retention of
students which has an importance of academic and social integration. It is suggested that College
Success Program staff track their alumni through various methods such as Facebook, Instagram,
Twitter and other social media outlets along with direct communication via phone calls, emails
and text.
Conclusion
This study aimed to examine factors that contribute to first-generation, low-income,
students of color’s path to college, sense of belonging and persistence in college of College
Success Program participants. Using data collected from 10 in-depth interviews with College
Success Program current students, alumni and staff, the findings presented in chapter 4, suggest a
significant trust in the College Success Program to aid and guide their participants from high
school through matriculation to college. Through mentoring and parental involvement, alumni
80
engagement, and sense of belonging, College Success Program’s model of programming
provides a tight-knit community and network that each student can capitalize on.
The data from this study showed the importance of mentoring and the effects it can have
on how connected a student can feel. Based on Padgett and Reid (2002), increased self-esteem
and self-efficacy can be contributed to mentorship programs that provide cultural awareness
training and counseling. Learning from the participants in this study about the importance of
mentorship offers practitioners insight on how to create these networks for students.
Furthermore, providing information to parents and creating a network for them allows for parent
buy-in particularly during the college application and financial aid season. Parents may be more
susceptible to provide sensitive information when they are informed of how their information
will be used for their child.
College preparation programs like College Success Program, aim to increase college
awareness, exposure to college experiences as well as experiences outside of the college realm to
prepare first-generation students for life after high school (Gandara, 2001). Based on the
information provided by the seven student participants in this study, there is clear evidence that
their participation in College Success Program had an impact on their transition to college, sense
of belonging and connectedness to the staff and students of the program. Alongside changing
lives, programs such as College Success Program and programs alike, provide its participants
with resources that increase their knowledgebase and awareness of and access to higher
education and its benefits.
81
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Appendix A
Informed Consent/Cover Letter
Dear Student:

Hello, my name is Amber Bradley and I am a doctoral student in the USC Rossier School of
Education EdD program with an emphasis in Higher Education. I am conducting a research
study to investigate the factors that contribute to first-generation, low-income, students of color’s
path to college, sense of belonging, and persistence in college.

I am requesting your participation in this study, which will involve completing the biographical
description and returning it to me by ____________________.

Your participation in this study is voluntary. If you choose not to participate, it will NOT affect
your standing in the program in any way. The questionnaire is anonymous, thereby ensuring
confidentiality of responses. All data will be maintained in a secure facility and destroyed at the
end of one (1) year.

Your input and help with this research project is very important. I appreciate you taking the time
to complete and return the biographical description and informed consent letter. If you have any
questions concerning this research study or your participation in this study, please feel free to
call me at (310) 621-5687 or email me at aebradle@usc.edu You may also contact Dr. Alan
Green (alangree@usc.edu) or Guadalupe Garcia Montano (g.garciamontano@yahoo.com) for
more information regarding the study.

If you have any questions about your rights as a participant in this research, or if you feel you
have been placed at risk, you may contact Julie Slayton, University Chair of the Human Subjects
Committee, Institutional Review Board at (jslayton@usc.edu).

Thank you again for your participation.

Sincerely,

Amber Bradley, EdD (candidate)
aebradle@usc.edu
University of Southern California

Yes, I would like to participate in the above referenced study.

_________________________________ ______________ ________________________
Please Print Name Date Please Sign
88
Appendix B
Individual Student Interview Protocol
Time of interview:
Date of Interview:
Location:
Interviewer:
Pseudonym:

Greeting and Introduction
• Thank you for your willingness to participate in this study, I appreciate your time.
• Review the purpose of the study: I am interested in learning more about the factors that
contribute to first-generation, low-income, students of color’s path to college, sense of
belonging, and persistence in college.
• Review of procedures: I will ask you several open-ended questions related to your
experiences at College Success Program and ask you to answer as fully as you can. I will
digitally record the interview and also make my own notes. If you wish to state
something that you do not want recorded, simply tell me and I will turn off the recorder
for that particular segment of our discussion. I will later transcribe the interview and send
you a copy for you to review for accuracy. All personally identifiable information will be
safeguarded and altered to protect your identity and privacy.
• Do you have any questions before we begin? May I clarify anything for you?
• Review with student Informed Consent document and obtain signatures; study participant
is invited to select pseudonym.

Family
1. Tell me about yourself and your family?
2. What role did your family play in helping you to get ready for college?
3. How would you describe your parents or guardians feelings about you attending college?
4. What sacrifices have your parents or guardians made to prepare you for college?
5. How do you think your parents or guardians feel about being involved in your schooling?
6. Do you feel your parents or guardians believe they impact your education? Positively or
Negatively? Please explain.
7. What type of contributions have your parents or guardians made to College Success
Program?

Mentoring and Counseling
8. Have you ever had a mentor or been involved in a mentoring program? If so, what was the
focus of this relationship and how long did it last?
9. In what ways have mentor(s)/counselor(s) helped you understand different rules for success?
10. How have mentor(s)/counselor(s) provided you assistance different than your parents?
11. In what ways have mentor(s)/counselor(s) introduced you or informed you about college life?
12. In what ways did your mentor(s)/counselor(s) help you prepare for college?
13. How do view your relationship with your mentor(s)/counselor(s)?
14. How often have you met with your mentor(s)/counselor? Please describe these interactions.

Peer groups
15. With whom do you associate with most frequently?
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16. What type of association is it?
17. Has your circle of friends changed since admissions into college? If so, how has it changed
and why?
18. How have your peers helped or hindered (hurt) your academic life?
19. How do your peers feel about academic success?

Program
20. How would you describe the level of preparation you had for college entrance and
completion?
21. How did College Success Program help you to prepare for college?
22. What are the components of the College Success Program that have contributed to your
success?
23. Please describe your level of involvement with College Success Program currently.
24. What type of college preparation programs did College Success Program offer during or after
high school?

University
25. Describe your first year experience?
26. How did you do during your first year?
27. What contributed to your first year success (family, friends, alumni, etc)?
28. How did you overcome obstacles that confronted you during the first year?
29. Please describe the courses you took during high school to prepare you for college?
30. How did this course(s) assist you in your first year?

Spirituality
31. Do you consider yourself a spiritual individual? If so, please explain.
32. What aspects, if any, of spirituality have guided you while in college?
33. How do you believe spirituality has affected your persistence while in college?

Wrap-up
34. Is there anything you think I should have asked but did not ask you?
35. Is there anything you would like to add to your comments or clarify from earlier?

Closing
• Thank you for your time and participation in this interview. I will send you a copy of the
transcript of this conversation via e-mail and will ask you to review it for accuracy.
• If you have any questions at all, please do not hesitate to contact me.
• Thank you again.
90
Appendix C
Informal Staff Interviews

Time of interview:
Date of Interview:
Location:
Interviewer:
Pseudonym:

Greeting and Introduction
• Thank you for your willingness to participate in this study, I appreciate your time.
• Review the purpose of the study: I am interested in learning more about the factors that
contribute to first-generation, low-income, students of color’s path to college, sense of
belonging, and persistence in college.
• Review of procedures: I will ask you several open-ended questions related to your
student’s experiences at College Success Program and ask you to answer as fully as you
can. I will digitally record the interview and also make my own notes. If you wish to state
something that you do not want recorded, simply tell me and I will turn off the recorder
for that particular segment of our discussion. I will later transcribe the interview and send
you a copy for you to review for accuracy. All personally identifiable information will be
safeguarded and altered to protect your identity and privacy.
• Do you have any questions before we begin? May I clarify anything for you?
• Review with student Informed Consent document and obtain signatures; study participant
is invited to select pseudonym.

Students
1. What components of College Success Program are most important for students?
2. How do you think the program helps students to reach their fullest potential?
3. How does participation in this program help prepare students for college?
4. In what ways has the College Success Program assisted students in their sense of
belonging to college?
5. How do you believe the program has prepared the student academically and socially for
college?
6. How did College Success Program help students understand how to be successful in
college?
7. Given your experience with the program, do you feel that it has been beneficial in helping
students reach their academic goals? Please explain.
8. What type of programming is held to assist students with transitioning to college?
9. What type of programming is held to prepare students for college?
10. Are the alumni of College Success Program currently involved? If so, how?
11. How would you describe students overall experience with College Success Program?

Parents
12. What components of College Success Program are most important for parents/guardians?
13. What is the level of involvement of parents?
14. How did parent involvement help the students?
91
15. Were the parents required to be involved in the program? If so, how?

Affiliations:
16. In what ways are College Success Program involved with the church?
17. Is College Success Program a religious program? If so, in what way?
18. Are students or parents involved with the church? If so, in what way?

Wrap-up
36. Is there anything you think I should have asked but did not ask you?
37. Is there anything you would like to add to your comments or clarify from earlier?

Closing
• Thank you for your time and participation in this interview. I will send you a copy of the
transcript of this conversation via e-mail and will ask you to review it for accuracy.
• If you have any questions at all, please do not hesitate to contact me.
• Thank you again.
92
Appendix D
Information Sheet for Subjects
University of Southern California
(Rossier School of Education, Los Angeles, CA)

The Impact of College Success Program on First Generation College Students in Their
Preparation for College

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Amber Bradley under the supervision
of Dr. Alan Green and Dr. Guadalupe Garcia Montano at the University of Southern California for
the purposes of a dissertation. You are invited to participate because you are an alumnus of College
Success Program. In order to qualify for this study, you must already be in college and are currently
involved with College Success Program. Your participation is voluntary. You should read the
information below, and ask questions about anything you do not understand, before deciding whether
to participate. Please take as much time as you need to read the consent form. You may also decide to
discuss participation with your family or friends. You may keep a copy of this form.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to gain a more in depth understanding of the factors that contribute to
first generation, low-income, students of color path to college, sense of belonging and persistence in
college. The researcher hopes to learn more about how College Success Program contributes to these
characteristics and how they are utilized as a recourse during and after high school.

STUDY PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study, you will be asked to answer a series of interview
questions over a period of approximately 1.5 hours. The interview will be audio-recorded and will be
conducted at the College Success Program facility. If you do not wish to be audio-recorded, you may
not participate in the study. There may be an opportunity for a 1 hour follow-up interview.
Participation is completely voluntary.

POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no anticipated risks. You do not need to answer any questions you do not want to.

POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
There are no direct benefits to participants. The anticipated benefits to society are the opportunity to
learn from students the benefit of college access and preparation programs. Future students and
educators may benefit from the study of knowing contributing factors to student success, sense of
belonging and student persistence.

PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
At the completion of the interview, you will receive a $10 Starbucks gift card. You will receive the
gift card, even if you decide to end the interview early. You will not be compensated for any follow
up interviews.

CONFIDENTIALITY
INFORMATION SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
93
Any information collected from this interview or subsequent interactions will be kept confidential as
far as permitted by law. However, if we are required to do so by law, we will disclose confidential
information about you. The members of the research team and the University of Southern
California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews
and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

The audio data may be transcribed by a transcriptionist who has signed a confidentiality agreement.
The audio data will be stored in a password protected computer and the interview notes will be stored
in a locked filing cabinet. Your responses will be coded using a participant ID, and maintained
separately from your identifiable information. The coded data will be secured in a password
protected file.

At the completion of the study, audio recordings will be destroyed. Identifiable data will be destroyed
three years after the study has been completed. The remaining de-identified data may be maintained
indefinitely and used in future research studies. If you do not want your data used in future studies,
you should not participate.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used. Confidentiality will be maintained by using pseudonyms in the written
report.

PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
Your participation is voluntary. Your decision whether or not to participate will involve no penalty or
loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may withdraw your consent at any time and
discontinue participation without penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies
because of your participation in this research study.

ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship with your university will not be affected
whether or not you participate in this study.

INVESTIGATOR’S CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Amber Bradley
at 310- 621-5687 or aebradle@usc.edu .

RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANT – IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu
94
Appendix E
College Success Program Participation Survey

95

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110
Figure 1
Key Elements to College Readiness

Sources: Conley (2010); Mattern and Shaw (2010); Perna (2005); Robbins and others (2004, 2006); Rueda (2005)
111
Figure 2
Four Keys to College Readiness

112
Figure 3
Comprehensive Conceptual Framework: Student Persistence

Sources: comprehensive model on student persistence. Reprinted from “An Examination of Persistence Research through the Lens of a Comprehensive
Conceptual Framework,” by R. D. Reason, 2009, Journal of College Student Development, 50, p. 661. © 2009 American College Personnel Association.
Reprinted with permission of Johns Hopkins University Press
113
Figure 4
Model of College Preparation Program Effectiveness

Sources: Model of College Preparation Program Effectiveness, by W. G. Tierney and L. S. Hagedorn , 2002, Increasing Access to College: Extending
Possibilities for All Students, p. Appendix 1.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Bradley, Amber Elane (author)

Core Title The impact of college success program on first generation college students in their preparation for college

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 02/14/2019

Defense Date 01/16/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag access,alumni engagement,college access,college access programs,college readiness,first generation,High School,Higher education,mentor,mentoring,mentorship,OAI-PMH Harvest,parent involvement,peer support,persistence,retention,sense of belonging,Spirituality,students of color

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Green, Alan (committee chair), Baca, Reynaldo (committee member), Garcia Montano, Guadalupe (committee member)

Creator Email aebradle@usc.edu,amberbradle3@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-119811

Unique identifier UC11676718

Identifier etd-BradleyAmb-7066.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-119811 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BradleyAmb-7066.pdf

Dmrecord 119811

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Bradley, Amber Elane

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA