University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Lessons from Little Saigon: heritage conservation and ethnic enclaves in Orange County

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Lessons from Little Saigon: heritage conservation and ethnic enclaves in Orange County

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LESSONS FROM LITTLE SAIGON:
HERITAGE CONSERVATION AND ETHNIC ENCLAVES IN ORANGE COUNTY

By

Christy Ko Kim

A MASTER’S THESIS PRESENTED TO THE
FACULTY OF THE USC SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirement for the Degree
HERITAGE CONSERVATION

December 2018

Copyright 2018 Christy Ko Kim

ii
Acknowledgements

First, I would like to thank my Thesis Chair, Trudi Sandmeier, Director of the Heritage
Conservation in the School of Architecture at the University of Southern California. I am thankful
that she was available with invaluable advice and guidance when I encountered difficulty with
my research or writing. She allowed this paper to be my own work, yet consistently steered me
in the right direction and gave me confidence to know that I was capable of completing this on
time. Also, I thank Trudi for guiding me through my years in the master’s program. She was
always generous with her time, encouraging, motivating, and knowledgeable. I am beyond
grateful that I was able to finish this program with Trudi as Director.

I would also like to thank Hillary Jenks at the University of California, Riverside and Vinayak
Bharne at the University of Southern California, for graciously accepting my request to sit on my
thesis committee. Hillary’s experience and knowledge in the field of ethnic enclaves and
Vinayak’s global understanding of underrepresented communities and global conservation
contributed greatly to the writing of this report, and I am grateful. I am also grateful for Partner
Engineering and Science, for being flexible enough for me to attend classes and finish this
master’s program, while working full time.

Finally, I must express my utmost gratitude to my family. My husband who allowed me to pursue
my dreams, even if that meant I was absent many nights. Thank you for taking care of the
children while I was in class and being supportive, as always. I also want to thank my mother-in-
law for willingly watching my children so I could attend class, go to work, and complete this
thesis. I want to thank my sister for providing me with one last read and comments on my thesis
during her busy schedule. Finally, I want to thank my children for being patient with me and so
well-behaved, allowing me to spend the time I needed to complete this program.

iii
List of Figures
Figure 0.1: Map of Orange County ........................................................................................................................ - 4 -
Figure 1.1: First wave of refugees entering United States by plane in 1975 ....................................... - 8 -
Figure 1.2: Second wave of refugees known as “boat people” in 1982.. ............................................... - 9 -
Figure 1.3: Number of Vietnamese immigrants entering the U.S. from 1980-2012. ...................... - 10 -
Figure 1.4: Camp Pendleton Refugee Camps ................................................................................................. - 10 -
Figure 1.5: An apartment near St. Anselm Church ...................................................................................... - 11 -
Figure 1.6: The first reported “Vietnam Town” ........................................................................................... - 12 -
Figure 1.7: Aerial photograph of Bolsa Avenue between Magnolia and Brookhurst. .................... - 13 -
Figure 1.8: Photograph of commercial signs along Bolsa Avenue ......................................................... - 14 -
Figure 1.9: Photograph of “Little Saigon” Freeway Sign. ........................................................................... - 14 -
Figure 2.1: Map of Little Saigon ........................................................................................................................... - 16 -
Figure 2.2: Mile Square Regional Park in Fountain Valley........................................................................ - 19 -
Figure 2. 3: Orange County Tet Festival Held at OC Fair and Event Center. ...................................... - 19 -
Figure 3.1: Asian Garden Mall in Little Saigon............................................................................................... - 27 -
Figure 3.2: Asian Garden Mall .............................................................................................................................. - 28 -
Figure 3.3: Asian Garden Mall Entrance .......................................................................................................... - 28 -
Figure 3.4: Asian Garden Mall Retailer ............................................................................................................. - 28 -
Figure 3.5: Asian Garden Mall Retailer ............................................................................................................. - 28 -
Figure 3.6: Asian Garden Mall Decorations .................................................................................................... - 28 -
Figure 3.7: Restaurant in Hanoi .......................................................................................................................... - 28 -
Figure 3.8: Small Buddha Shrine ......................................................................................................................... - 32 -
Figure 3.9: Incense for Worship .......................................................................................................................... - 32 -
Figure 3.10: Main Stage at Asian Garden Mall ............................................................................................... - 32 -
Figure 3.11: Buddha on the Main Stage at Asian Garden Mall ................................................................ - 32 -
Figure 3.12: Asian Garden Mall Due Quan Thanh Shrine .......................................................................... - 33 -
Figure 4.2: Urban Location Boba Tea House ................................................................................................. - 40 -
Figure 4.3: Milk Tea and Boba ............................................................................................................................. - 40 -
Figure 4.4: Fusion foods ......................................................................................................................................... - 40 -
Figure 4.5: Popular Banh Mi Sandwich Shop ................................................................................................. - 40 -

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures .............................................................................................................................................................. - iii -
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................................... - v -
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................. - 1 -
0.1 Waves of Immigrants ................................................................................................................................. - 1 -
0.2 Asian Immigrants ........................................................................................................................................ - 1 -
0.3 Ethnic Enclaves in Orange County........................................................................................................ - 3 -
Chapter 1: Westminster and the Creation of Little Saigon ......................................................................... - 6 -
1.1 History of Westminster ............................................................................................................................ - 6 -
1.2 Refugee Arrival ............................................................................................................................................ - 7 -
1.3 Resettlement ............................................................................................................................................... - 10 -
1.4 Beginning of Little Saigon ...................................................................................................................... - 12 -
Chapter 2: Little Saigon .......................................................................................................................................... - 16 -
2.1 Little Saigon Today ................................................................................................................................... - 16 -
2.2 Conserving Place ....................................................................................................................................... - 19 -
2.3 Asian Garden Mall ..................................................................................................................................... - 20 -
Chapter 3: Asian Garden Mall as a Potential Historic Resource ............................................................. - 22 -
3.1 National Register of Historic Places ................................................................................................... - 22 -
3.2 California Register of Historic Resources ........................................................................................ - 23 -
3.3 Exceptional Significance Under the National Register and Special Consideration Under
the California Register ....................................................................................................................................... - 23 -
3.4 Historic Context ......................................................................................................................................... - 26 -
3.5 Significance – Criteria A/1 for Exceptional Significance ........................................................... - 29 -
3.6 Integrity ........................................................................................................................................................ - 29 -
Chapter 4: Future of Little Saigon ...................................................................................................................... - 34 -
4.1 Further Measures Taken for Conservation ..................................................................................... - 34 -
4.2 Cultural Heritage Assets ......................................................................................................................... - 35 -
4.3 Cultural District Designation ................................................................................................................ - 39 -
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................... - 41 -
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................................... - 44 -

v
Abstract
Orange County, California is home to the third largest Asian American population in the United
States. Ethnic enclaves and communities are an integral aspect of diversity and vibrancy in the
county. These transplanted cultures have developed and expanded over the years, altering their
communities: politically, socially, and economically. Little Saigon, in the Orange County city of
Westminster, is of particular note in that it is the second largest Vietnamese community outside
of Vietnam and has exponentially grown since the arrival of the first refugees. Little Saigon is not
like other ethnic enclaves. This thesis will discuss what makes the Vietnamese ethnic enclave
different from many others and how these commercial business owners have transformed Little
Saigon into an area worth preserving. Methodical approaches will also be discussed on how to
conserve Little Saigon’s architectural and cultural heritage.

Introduction
0.1 Waves of Immigrants
America has long been a country of immigrants, starting early on with the Europeans.
Spanish were the first Europeans to arrive in America during the colonial era, primarily to
establish base camps for further exploration, while simultaneously attempting to convert the
natives to Roman Catholicism. French explorers including Giovanni da Verrazzano, Jacques
Cartier, and others travelled to the Americas looking to expand and conquer new areas. The
English arrived in the 1600s for a variety of reasons: as indentured servants, as volunteers, as
captives, and still others as convicts. The Pilgrims and Puritans also arrived in the 1600s in
search of religious freedom and fleeing persecution. Hundreds of thousands of Africans came to
America against their will as slaves between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries.
1
Other
waves of migration to America occurred during the late 1800s and early 1900s when immigrants
arrived in search for better economic opportunities.

0.2 Asian Immigrants
East Asian groups, such as the Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans initially came to the United
States in the late eighteenth or early nineteenth century as labor immigrants. Chinese were the
first Asians to immigrate to the United States on a large scale. This was primarily for employment
opportunities during California’s Gold Rush in the mid-1800s, followed by the Japanese shortly
after.
2
Chinese immigrant workers held a variety of jobs in the gold mines, agriculture, factories,
and garment industry. They quickly became discriminated against, being blamed for declining
wages due to their willingness to accept lower paid work and dominating the labor market over
their non-Chinese counterparts. As a result, the Chinese Exclusion Act in the United States was
enacted in 1882. The Chinese Exclusion Act was the first immigration law to restrict a specific
race from entering the United States.
3
The Immigration Act of 1924 also restricted immigrants

1 "U.S. Immigration Before 1965," History, 2009, accessed February 5, 2018, http://www.history.com/topics/u-s-
immigration-before-1965.
2 “Census 2000: Orange County’s Asian Population,” Orange County Profiles, Center for Demographic Research,
Volume 6, No. 4 (December 2001), accessed June 10, 2018,
http://www.fullerton.edu/cdr/_resources/pdf/profiles/profilesv6n4.pdf.
3 “Chinese Immigration and the Chinese Exclusion Acts,” 2018, U.S. Department of State, accessed February 5, 2018,
https://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/chinese-immigration.

- 2 -
via the national origins quota, which largely favored immigrants of European descent, as it was
based on the 1870 United States (U.S.) Census nationalities. Essentially, this eliminated those of
Asian descent.
4
The Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed in 1943, raising the quota for the
number of Chinese allowed to enter the United States. All quotas were repealed after the passing
of the Immigration and Nationality Act in 1965, which abolished previous race-based
immigration limits from other non-Asian countries.
5
The Immigration and Nationality Act
became a catalyst for the diversity of immigrants in the United States.
According to the U.S. Census, data on race has been collected since 1790. However, the
first Asian category was not included until 1860 when Chinese was added to the California
census, followed by the Japanese ten years later. The rest of the United States followed in 1890
by adding an Asian category to the U.S. Census. According to the Office of Management and
Budget (OMB), which the U.S. Census uses as guidance, “Asian refers to a person having origins in
any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent, including,
for example, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands,
Thailand, and Vietnam.”
6
In 1980, six more specific Asian categories were added to the U.S.
Census: Asian Indian, Chinese, Pilipino, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese. From 2000 to 2010,
the Asian population grew more rapidly than any other group in the country. A majority of
Asians are concentrated in ten states, which include California, New York, Texas, New Jersey,
Hawaii, Illinois, Washington, Florida, Virginia, and Pennsylvania.
7
According to the Nielsen report
on Asian American consumerism, a majority of immigrants from the over forty Asian countries
come from China and India (20% and 17% respectively), approximately 16% from the
Philippines, and 9% each from Vietnam and Korea. By the year 2019, the Asian American
population in the United States is expected to grow to 25.7 million.

4 "The Immigration Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act),” U.S. Department of State, accessed February 5, 2018,
https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/immigration-act.
5 "Chinese Immigration and the Chinese Exclusion Acts," U.S. Department of State, accessed February 5, 2018,
https://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/chinese-exclusion-act-repeal.
6 Elizabeth M. Hoeffel, Sonya Rastogi, Myoung Ouk Kim, and Hasan Shahid, 2010 Census Briefs, March 2012, Raw
data, Washington D.C., accessed March 6, 2018., https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-11.pdf.
7 Elizabeth M. Hoeffel, Sonya Rastogi, Myoung Ouk Kim, and Hasan Shahid, March 2012, Issue brief, The Asian
Population: 2010, accessed March 6, 2018, https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-11.pdf.

- 3 -
0.3 Ethnic Enclaves in Orange County
Over half of the Asian population the United States is located in the West, followed by the
Northeast.
8
In her book Latinos in Ethnic Enclaves: Immigrant Workers and the Competition for
Jobs, Stephanie Bohon defined an ethnic enclave as “a metropolitan area characterized by a
concentration of businesses owned and operated by immigrants from the same country of origin,
or their direct descendants.”
9
As more immigrants arrived in the United States, enclaves began to
grow. Another more common definition of an ethnic enclave is a “very large concentration of
ethnic enterprises employing a large proportion of workers from the same ethnic group.”
10

Enclaves are a result of the desire to create a community with shared ethnicities, cultures, and
customs to experience a home away from home. It can happen organically from an innate
connection of cultural similarities or intentionally by creating a community that closely mimics
the business, culture, and traditions left behind. These enclaves typically differ considerably from
the surrounding area they occupy due to their culture, language, traditions, and physical
appearance in some cases.
California has been home to many multicultural groups, with a large population of Asian
Americans in comparison to other states. The numbers of Asian Americans in Orange County
alone have grown exponentially over the past twenty years. According to the census report, the
2016 estimates reveal that the Asian population in Orange County comprised 20.4%, which is the
third largest after White and Latino. From 2000 to 2010, the Asian population increased by 41%,
making Orange County the third largest Asian-populated county in the nation after Los Angeles
and Santa Clara.
11
In Orange County, the 2016 report also estimates that Vietnamese make up the
largest population of Asians (198,860), followed by Chinese (97,666), and Korean (94,914).
12

8 Betty Lo and Saul Rosenberg, “Asian-Americans: Culturally Diverse and Expanding Footprint, 2016,” The Asian
American 2016 Consumer Report, accessed December 2, 2017,
http://nielsencommunity.com/report_files/Asian_Consumer_Report_2016_Final.pdf.
9 Stephanie Bohon, Latinos in Ethnic Enclaves: Immigrant Workers and the Competition for Jobs (New York: Garland
Publishing, Inc., 2001), 4.
10 Richard R. Verdugo, Hispanics in the US Labor Market Selected Research (Charlotte, NC: Information Age
Publishing, 2014), 37.
11 Ahn Do and Christopher Goffard, "Orange County Home to Third-Largest Asian American population in U.S," Los
Angeles Times, July 13, 2014, accessed March 8, 2018, http://www.latimes.com/local/orangecounty/la-me-asian-oc-
20140714-story.html.
12 "Community Facts," American FactFinder, October 5, 2010, accessed March 8, 2018,
https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/community_facts.xhtml?src=bkmk.

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Although Little Saigon is the most recognized ethnic enclave in Orange County, other
official and unofficial ethnic enclaves exist. Little Seoul or the Korean Business District, officially
established by the City of Garden Grove in 2001, started with a Korean supermarket and grew to
over eighty Korean businesses by 1980.
13
Most Korean immigrants arrived after the Immigration
and Nationality Act of 1965 was passed, in search of economic and educational opportunities in
the United States.
14
Although there is no official enclave for Chinese, this is the second largest
Asian race in Orange County, many of them living in Irvine, California. Other Orange County cities
contain pockets of ethnic communities, although not identified formally as ethnic enclaves, and
none more concentrated than the Vietnamese. Orange County areas such as Irvine, Fullerton, and
Buena Park have larger Asian populations. These cities do not have specific geographic enclaves,
but rather consist of pan-Asian communities with different Asian groups occupying the same
city.

Figure 0.2: Map of Orange County (Image Courtesy of MarsRover, Wikimedia Commons).
Ethnic enclaves occur for reasons such as people craving the closeness of cultural
similarity and the familiarity of those from their own country. Refugees, as opposed to
immigrants, tend to have an even stronger yearning to form cultural groups as the decision to
leave their home country to start a new life in a foreign country is generally out of reluctance, not

13 Eric Brightwell, "California Fool's Gold - Exploring Little Seoul," Eric Brightwell, October 8, 2016, accessed March
8, 2018, https://ericbrightwell.com/2014/05/20/visiting-orange-countys-little-seoul-happy-asian-pacific-
american-heritage-month/.
14 Pyong Gap Min, Asian Americans: Contemporary Trends and Issues, (Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 2006),
14-16.

- 5 -
desire.
15
Little Saigon is the largest centralized and homogeneously populated Asian ethnic
enclave in Orange County formed by refugees.

15
Sanjoy Mazumdar, Shampa Mazumdar, Faye Docuyanan, and Colette Marie McLaughlin, “Creating a Sense of Place:
The Vietnamese-Americans and Little Saigon,” Journal of Environmental Psychology, 2000, (2000 Academic Press),
329.

- 6 -
Chapter 1: Westminster and the Creation of Little Saigon

1.1 History of Westminster
In 1870, Reverend Lemuel P. Webber established the town of Westminster in Orange
County, California. He purchased approximately 6,000 acres of land and sold portions to those
who wished to help him form a Presbyterian temperance colony. He named the town
Westminster, after the Westminster Assembly of the Divine, which established the basic
principles of the Presbyterian faith.
16
Other recorded inhabitants of the Westminster area prior
to the temperance colony included the Gabrielino Indians, and those who lived in Westminster
long before the Indians inhabited the land, known as the Oak Grove people.
17
Originally part of
Los Angeles, Orange County seceded from its neighbor to the north in 1889, forming a separate
county that was bound by the ocean to the west, the mountains to the east, Los Angeles to the
north, and San Diego County to the south.
18

Large scale Asian immigration to the United States, primarily from China and Japan, was
in the mid nineteen hundreds.
19
In 1942, the number of residents in Westminster was
approximately 2,500.
20
Also in 1942, the Japanese were forced to relocate to internment camps
under Executive Order 9066, signed by President Roosevelt, which authorized “the removal of
any or all people from military areas as deemed necessary or desirable.”
21
This included the
entire West Coast, which was home to a majority of Japanese Americans. Japanese Americans
were relocated to internment camps during the war. In 1945, they were allowed to return back
to their homes on the West Coast. These Japanese were some of the first Asian Americans to
occupy the Westminster area after the war.

16 "The City," The City - Westminster Chamber of Commerce, accessed October 27, 2017.
http://westminsterchamber.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=112&Itemid=595.
17 “History of Westminster,” The City of Westminster, accessed May 8, 2018, http://www.westminster-
ca.gov/about/history.asp.
18 Nathan Masters, "How Orange County Seceded from Los Angeles," KCET, August 16, 2013, accessed October 27,
2017, https://www.kcet.org/shows/lost-la/how-orange-county-seceded-from-los-angeles.
19
“Census 2000: Orange County’s Asian Population,” Orange County Profiles, Center for Demographic Research,
Volume 6, No.4, December 2001, accessed June 10, 2018,
http://www.fullerton.edu/cdr/_resources/pdf/profiles/profilesv6n4.pdf
20 Ibid.
21 "FDR Signs Executive Order 9066," History.com, accessed April 20, 2018, https://www.history.com/this-day-in-
history/fdr-signs-executive-order-9066.

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In the 1950s, Westminster and the adjacent cities, Midway City and Barber City, planned
to join together as one, Tri-City. However, Midway City decided to remain unincorporated,
leaving Westminster and Barber City to incorporate on their own in 1957, under the city name of
Westminster.
22
After the housing construction boom of the 1960s, the number of residents in
Westminster increased to 25,750. In the 1970s, the city’s commercial areas grew, along with
governmental facilities, and the population jumped to 60,076.
23

1.2 Refugee Arrival
In 1975, after the tumultuous defeat of South Vietnam unified the entire country under
Communist rule, many South Vietnamese fled the new regime and began to arrive in the United
States as refugees. The former South Vietnam capital of Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Minh City,
the event known as the Fall of Saigon. Hundreds of thousands of Vietnamese citizens fled
Vietnam to different parts of the world, many of them settling in the United States.
The Vietnamese population increase in the United States did not occur during a single
period; rather, it happened as three separate waves. Prior to the first wave of refugees, there
were approximately 18,000 Vietnamese immigrants living throughout the United States.
24
The
first wave of refugees that departed Vietnam were considered the upper echelon and wealthy.
(Figure 1.1) These were “government and military officials, elites, and relatives of United States
citizens.”
25
Many of these Vietnamese had a relatively good understanding of English and
because of their occupations, they lived sophisticated lifestyles while in Vietnam. Also, because of
their backgrounds, assimilation to American living was somewhat easier for the first wave than
for those that came in later waves.
26
Approximately 130,400 refugees came to the United States
during this first period, 125,000 from Vietnam, with the remainder from Cambodia and Laos.
27

22 “History of Westminster,” The City of Westminster, accessed May 8, 2018, http://www.westminster-
ca.gov/about/history.asp.
23 “Historical Census Populations of California, Counties, and Incorporated Cities, 1850-2010,” June 4, 2012,
Produced by California State Data Center, Demographic Research Unit, Department of Finance, California, accessed
April 3, 2018, https://purl.stanford.edu/qh169pt0560.
24 D. R. SarDesai, Southeast Asia, Past & Present, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2016), 220.
25 Ben Hamatake, “Spatial Little Saigon: Mapping an Ethnic Community,” (Master's Thesis, California State
University, Fullerton, 2014), 12.
26 D. R. SarDesai, Southeast Asia, Past & Present, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2016), 218.
27 Ibid.

- 8 -

Figure 1.1: First wave of refugees entering United States by plane in 1975 (Photograph courtesy of Jim Mosby
accessed from Flickr).
The second wave of refugees, the “boat people,” came between 1978 and 1980. Boat
people originated from the rural areas of Vietnam and included non-Vietnamese of Chinese
descent, fleeing persecution in Vietnam. (Figure 1.2) The boat people fled the country on boats,
leaving with absolutely nothing in most cases, and many suffering greatly in their travels in
hopes to start a new life.
28
Experiences such as piracy, rape, starvation, and even death were not
uncommon. Unlike other immigrants, a majority of refugees arrived in the United States fully
dependent on the government or their sponsors and were unable to choose the location in which
they settled. Initially, to minimize the impact on the local communities and in hopes to quickly
assimilate the resettling refugees to American culture, refugees were scattered throughout
different areas of the U.S. as part of government policy, preventing ethnic clustering.
29
A total of
166,727 second wave refugees were accepted into the United States from the Indochina area
(also known as Southeast Asia) during this wave. Of that number, 95,200 were Vietnamese and
the remaining from Laos and Cambodia. It was during this time that the Refugee Act of 1980 was

28 Chris Haire, Roxana Kopetman, and Tom Berg, "How they became us: Orange County changed forever in the 40
years since the fall of Saigon," Orange County Register, accessed November 7, 2017,
http://www.ocregister.com/2015/05/01/how-they-became-us-orange-county-changed-forever-in-the-40-years-
since-the-fall-of-saigon/.
29 Min Zhou, “Straddling Different Worlds: The Acculturation of Vietnamese Refugees,” Research and Seminars,
migration.ucdavis.edu/rs/more.php?id=49.

- 9 -
created to provide a systematic approach to resettling the increasing number of refugees in the
United States. Under this new policy, ethnic clusters were no longer discouraged.
30

Figure 1.2: Second wave of refugees known as “boat people” in 1982 (Photographs courtesy of Pixabay Fotoshop
Tops).
The third wave of refugees, during the 1980s and 1990s, occurred through family
reunification, when many children and/or wives came to the United States to be reunified with
their families. A significant increase in the Vietnamese population occurred during this time.
(Figure 1.3) According to the Migration Policy Institute tabulations based on the Census Bureau,
American Community Surveys, and Decennial Census, the population of Vietnamese immigrants
to the United States more than doubled in number and reached over one million in the United
States in 2006, with a steady increase thereafter.
31

30 D. R. SarDesai, Southeast Asia, Past & Present, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2016), 218.
31 Hataipreuk Rkasnuam and Jeanne Batalova, "Vietnamese Immigrants in the United States, "Migrationpolicy.org,
March 2, 2017, accessed November 6, 2017, https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/vietnamese-immigrants-
united-states-2.

- 10 -

Figure 1.3: Number of Vietnamese immigrants in the U.S. from 1980-2012 (Image courtesy Data from U.S. Census
Bureau 2006, 2010, and 2014 American Community Surveys (ACS)).
1.3 Resettlement
In 1975, approximately one third of the refugees that came to the United States settled in
California. Although several other states were accepting refugees, the largest refugee camp was
in Southern California at Camp Pendleton. (Figure 1.4) Camp Pendleton was, and still is, a major
U.S. Marine Corps base on the West Coast. Established prior to World War II for training, it is
located approximately thirty-eight miles from the northern boundary of San Diego County and
approximately sixty-two miles south of Westminster.

Figure 1.4: Camp Pendleton Refugee Camps – children playing and a makeshift education center (Photographs
courtesy of Orange County Archives).
The close proximity of Camp Pendleton to Westminster may have been one reason for the
Vietnamese settlement in Westminster. Affordable housing in Westminster and the surrounding

- 11 -
cities of Santa Ana, Anaheim, and Garden Grove, was likely another influential factor.
32
The
earliest Vietnamese refugees settled in the city of Garden Grove, where forty Vietnamese families
were housed in an apartment near the St. Anselm Cross-Cultural Center in 1976.
33
The St. Anselm
Cross-Cultural Center, working with other sponsors and voluntary agencies, assisted Vietnamese
refugees when problems were encountered during their resettlement.
34
A former Palestinian
refugee, Reverend Samir Habiby, founded the St. Anselm Cross-Cultural Center, later changing its
name to Horizon Cross-Cultural Center.
35;
After operating for forty years, the center closed down
in 2016.
36
(Figure 1.5)

Figure 1.5: St. Anselm Church location, where help for refugees was offered and current photograph of the church in
Garden Grove, California. The area borders the city of Westminster (Image by Author).

32 Tom Berg, "Why Westminster? Eleven reasons the Vietnamese came to Little Saigon – and Why They Stayed,"
Orange County Register, accessed November 8, 2017, http://www.ocregister.com/2015/04/30/why-westminster-
eleven-reasons-the-vietnamese-came-to-little-saigon-and-why-they-stayed/.
33 Christian Collet and Hiroko Furuya, "Enclave, Place, or Nation? Defining Little Saigon in the Midst of
Incorporation, Transnationalism, and Long Distance Activism," Amerasia Journal 36, no. 3 (2010), 6-7.
34 Ibid.
35 "Episcopal News Service," Episcopal News Service: Press Release # 77423, accessed December 4, 2017,
https://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/ENS/ENSpress_release.pl?pr_number=77423; Thuy Vo Dang, Linda
Trinh Võ , and Trâm Lê, Vietnamese in Orange County, Charleston, SC (Arcadia Publishing, 2015), 40-41.
36 Ibid.

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As Vietnamese resettled in Westminster and the nearby cities, small commercial
Vietnamese-owned businesses were established as a means for some refugees to make a living.
Some of the first Vietnamese commercial businesses were reportedly in Santa Ana where a
business license was issued to “a service group for Vietnamese refugees.”
37
Shortly after this
license was issued, within the same shopping center, several other Vietnamese businesses
appeared, such as Saigon Market and a Vietnamese Book Exhibition.
38
(Figure 1.6) These
commercial businesses began to draw Vietnamese to the area to obtain Vietnamese-specific
goods and services they could not get elsewhere.

Figure 1.6: The first reported “Vietnam Town” was located in Santa Ana on First Street, as the first business licenses
for Vietnamese businesses were pulled in this area. Today, the shopping center is filled with Mexican retail stores
(Image Courtesy by Author and Photograph courtesy of © 2018 Google Earth 33°N 117°54’02.15”W elev 100ft, June
1, 2018).
1.4 Beginning of Little Saigon
What we know today as Little Saigon essentially began in 1978 and originated with three
businesses: Danh Pharmacy owned by Quach Nhut Danh; a small market owned by Harry Wu;
and Bridgecreek Realty founded by Frank Jao. All three were Vietnamese-operated businesses
located along Bolsa Avenue. Prior to the opening of these businesses, this stretch of Bolsa Avenue
consisted of an area of undervalued commercial properties, strawberry fields, and mobile home
parks. Frank Jao took the opportunity to invest in the inexpensive land.
39
(Figure 1.7) Similar to

37 Christian Collet and Hiroko Furuya, "Enclave, Place, or Nation? Defining Little Saigon in the Midst of
Incorporation, Transnationalism, and Long Distance Activities," Amerasia Journal 36, no. 3 (2010), 6-7.
38 Chris Jepson, "O.C. History Roundup, How Little Saigon Ended Up in Central Orange County,” accessed November
16, 2017. http://ochistorical.blogspot.com/2015/06/how-little-saigon-ended-up-in-central.html.
39 Christian Collet and Hiroko Furuya, "Enclave, Place, or Nation? Defining Little Saigon in the Midst of
Incorporation, Transnationalism, and Long Distance Activities," Amerasia Journal 36, no. 3 (2010), 6-7.

- 13 -
other refugees, Jao came to the United States with close to nothing in his pocket and was told not
to expect to work for about six months while settling into the United States; however, he quickly
found a job as a door-to-door vacuum salesperson, taking economic matters into his own hands.
Within a year of his arrival, he was buying and selling properties in Westminster.
40
This was just
the beginning of Jao’s real estate empire.
41

Figure 1.7: Aerial photographs of Bolsa Avenue between Magnolia and Brookhurst in 1975 and 2018. In 1975, much
of the residential buildings existed; the commercial area has developed (Photograph courtesy of Orange County
Archives and Imagery@2018 Google, Map data © 2018 Google).
Jao’s initial idea was to create an “Asian Town,” not a Vietnamese Town, to cater to a
broader Asian audience rather than just the Vietnamese; hence, he created “Asian Garden Mall”
and “Far East Plaza,” both currently in Little Saigon. Tony Lam, previously one of the leaders in
Orange County's Southeast Asian community and former president of the County's Vietnamese
Chamber of Commerce, stated, "We want to call our community Asian Town--not 'Little Saigon,'
which is too negative and reminds people of the bad experiences from the (Vietnam) war.”
42
By
1981, the Bolsa Avenue strip housed more than 100 Vietnamese merchants including storefront

40 Chris Haire, Roxana Kopetman, and Tom Berg, "How They Became Us: Orange County Changed Forever in the 40
Years since the Fall of Saigon," Orange County Register, May 1, 2015, accessed March 15, 2018,
http://www.ocregister.com/2015/05/01/how-they-became-us-orange-county-changed-forever-in-the-40-years-
since-the-fall-of-saigon/.
41 Margo Roosevelt, “Frank Jao’s Story: From Refugee to Business Mogul,” Orange County Register, April 30, 3015,
accessed June 9, 2018, https://www.ocregister.com/2015/04/30/frank-jaos-story-from-refugee-to-business-
mogul/.
42 David Reyes, "Asiantown : Commercial-Cultural Complex Expected to Anchor Southland's Next Chinatown," Los
Angeles Times, March 16, 1987, accessed November 17, 2017. http://articles.latimes.com/1987-03-16/local/me-
6292_1_cultural-complex.

- 14 -
signage in Vietnamese and the area evolved into the thriving ethnic enclave Orangey County
residents and visitors appreciate today.
43
(Figure 1.8)

Figure 1.8: Photograph of commercial signs along Bolsa Avenue looking west toward Magnolia in 2017 and
commercial business area along Bolsa Avenue east of Magnolia (2017) (Image by Author).
The Bolsa Avenue strip was officially given its name by Governor George Deukmejian in
1988, along with a “Little Saigon Exit” freeway sign.
44
This area is still considered the heart of
Little Saigon today. (Figure 1.9)

Figure 1.9: Photograph of “Little Saigon” Freeway Sign east of the Magnolia exit along the 22 Freeway (Photograph
by Author).

43 C. D. Smith, "Untold Story: Little Saigon," Orange Coast Magazine, February 1992, 22-23.
44 Richard C. Paddock," Deukmejian Courts 'Little Saigon' Votes." Los Angeles Times, June 19, 1988, accessed
December 1, 2017, http://articles.latimes.com/1988-06-18/news/mn-4504_1_george-deukmejian .

- 15 -
Little Saigon’s businesses continued growing in success over the years. Business owners
expanded across city borders into different neighborhoods. Frances Nguyen, the first Vietnamese
president of Westminster’s Chamber of Commerce, has reportedly fielded phone calls from
Vietnamese businesspeople in San Jose, Houston, Dallas, Boston, and states such as Virginia,
Washington, and Oregon, all of them seeking to emulate Orange County’s commercial success
with Little Saigon.
45

45 Jim Hinch, “O.C.’s Saigon? Nothing Little About It,” Orange County Register, November 5, 2012, accessed March 15,
2018, http://www.ocregister.com/2012/11/05/ocs-saigon-nothing-little-about-it-2/.

- 16 -
Chapter 2: Little Saigon

2.1 Little Saigon Today
Little Saigon today is an area that spans several cities in Southern California, including
Fountain Valley, Garden Grove, and Huntington Beach. Westminster, however, is where Little
Saigon began and still exists today. (Figure 2.1) Experiencing Little Saigon in Southern California
is a palpable, cultural immersion in Vietnamese culture. Most Vietnamese visit Little Saigon to
find Vietnamese foods, clothing, and services. The strip along Bolsa Avenue is often congested
with vehicular traffic and Vietnamese pedestrians, most often on weekends, but during
weekdays as well. It is a busy major thoroughfare in the heart of Little Saigon. In the past, many
of the business owners primarily spoke Vietnamese, although, more and more second generation
Vietnamese businesses are emerging where a language barrier is no longer an issue with
customers that are not of Vietnamese descent.

Figure 2.1: Map of Little Saigon in red box, showing areas of expansion in red circles (Figure by Author).

- 17 -
Little Saigon is where Vietnamese Californians go to eat, meet, shop, and hear Vietnamese
current events. Many Vietnamese reside in Westminster as well, although the primary draw is
the commercial area. It is also a national and international center for Vietnamese information
and entertainment. For example, the Viet Film Fest, held annually in Little Saigon, is the largest
Vietnamese film festival in the world. The film festival, created in 2003 by the Vietnamese
American Arts and Letters Association (VAALA), showcases works of art by and about the
Vietnamese people. People of all races and cultures are welcome to enjoy these films.
46
VAALA’s
mission is to connect and enrich communities through Vietnamese art and culture. According to
their website:
VAALA was founded in 1991 by a group of Vietnamese American journalists,
artists, and friends to fill a void and provide a space for artists to express
themselves as a newly resettled immigrant community. The original mission of
VAALA was to support Southeast artists, with an emphasis on Vietnamese
literature and visual arts. VAALA is a community-based non-profit organization
historically run entirely by volunteers. Over the years, VAALA has collaborated
with diverse community partners to organize numerous cultural events to
connect and enrich communities. These events have included art exhibitions,
book signings, music recitals, plays, and annual events such as the Viet Film Fest
and the Children’s Moon Festival Art Contest.
47

Tet is the Vietnamese New Year celebration, which coincides with the Chinese and other
Asian lunar New Year celebrations. In 2018, two Tet Festivals were celebrated simultaneously in
different cities of Orange County. The Union of Vietnamese Student Associations of Southern
California (UVSA) held its 37
th
annual Tet Festival for the second year at the Orange County Fair
Grounds, while the CEAVA Foundation, in conjunction with Orange County Parks, held another
Tet Festival at Mile Square Park close to the heart of Little Saigon.
48
(Figure 2,2)
Although several different organizations have hosted the Tet Festival in the past, none
have had a more continuously successful event than the UVSA. The UVSA is a nonprofit
organization created in 1982 to allow Vietnamese American students from various colleges,

46 “Vision,” Viet Film Fest 2018, accessed April 25, 2018, http://www.vietfilmfest.com/festival/vision/.
47 “VAALA,” accessed March 12, 2018, http://vaala.org/.
48 Thuy Vo, “Who is Running the County’s 2018 Tet Festival?” Voice of OC, October 31, 2017, accessed June 10,
2018, https://voiceofoc.org/2017/10/who-is-running-the-countys-2018-tet-festival/. Very little information was
available on the CEAVA Foundation, which is an organization based out of Kim Pharmacy in Westminster and “is
headed by Nghia Xuan Nguyen, an economist and frequent commentator for Vietnamese-language media. The
organization registered with the State of California in May of 2017, just before the February 2018 Tet Festival
according to bizapedia.com.

- 18 -
universities, and high schools to come together to address social issues in their community,
across the United States, and abroad. UVSA has been organizing the Tet Festival for 37 years
through student volunteers and donations.
49
The first Tet Festival organized by the UVSA was in
1982 on Hoover Street in Westminster. The event started conservatively with a small number of
people, but over the years as the population of refugees continued to grow, so did the festival.
The Tet parade travelled through the streets of Westminster with dragons, military veterans
from the Vietnam War, drummers, bands, Vietnamese singers and actors, and traditionally-
dressed girls displaying Vietnamese traditions and culture. The event was also broadcast in all
fifty States by over thirty news and media outlets.
50
Due to its increase in popularity, the venue
changed over the years from locations in Westminster to Santa Ana to Garden Grove. In 2013, for
several political and financial reasons, UVSA’s contract with Garden Grove was not renewed, at
which point the Festival was moved to Costa Mesa.
51
(Figure 2.3) This proved to be a good
decision to support the efforts of having a more culturally inclusive festival than what has
occurred in years past. According to Frances Nguyen, a businesswoman and the first female
president of the Westminster Chamber of Commerce, “We’ve done a lot of things to try to make
this event mainstream.” She goes on to say, “The new venue is closer to a lot of other
communities now. People might not want to go to Little Saigon, but Costa Mesa is okay.”
52
This
demonstrates the continued expansion of Vietnamese culture in areas other than Little Saigon.
The UVSA has played an extremely important role in keeping this tradition alive, and the makeup
of the student Vietnamese generation is changing as well. Today, a majority of the directors are
American born, some who do not speak Vietnamese, yet continue to carry this tradition. Frances
Nguyen mentions, “I feel relieved. I feel like I’ve brought my torch to the next generation, and
they’re still carrying it.”
53
Although the student run Tet Festival is no longer in Little Saigon or
the surrounding area, it is still understood which community and culture the festival is
celebrating. Bringing it to a different city has allowed non-Vietnamese cultures and communities

49 "About," UVSA Tet Festival, accessed March 12, 2018, https://tetfestival.org/about/.
50 "Little Saigon Tet Parade," Little Saigon Now, accessed December 14, 2017,
https://www.littlesaigonnow.com/event/little-saigon-tet-parade-2018-61.html.
51 Charles Lam, “Forty Years After the Fall of Saigon, Orange County's Annual Tet Festival Goes Plural,” OC Weekly,
February 6, 2018, https://www.ocweekly.com/forty-years-after-the-fall-of-saigon-orange-countys-annual-tet-
festival-goes-plural-6483633/.
52 Ibid.
53 Ibid.

- 19 -
to participate in the tradition that they may have not otherwise. This type of recognition is
beneficial for Little Saigon and the Vietnamese community. Second and third generation and
Non-Vietnamese can enjoy the festival and may later want to visit Little Saigon to understand
and learn more about the Vietnamese culture.

Figure 2.2: Mile Square Regional Park in Fountain Valley, site of the CEAVA and OC Parks organized Tet Festival in
2018 (Photograph by Author).

Figure 2. 3: Orange County Tet Festival Held at OC Fair and Event Center in 2017 (Photographs courtesy of Daily
Pilot and Copyright © 2017. Used with Permission).
2.2 Conserving Place
Tangible places have a clearly defined methodical approach for conservation. However, as
2018, there are no buildings in Little Saigon or in the city of Westminster that have been listed on
the National Register of Historic Places or the California Register of Historical Resources. This
may be due to a combination of reasons, which includes the lack of a preservation ordinance in

- 20 -
Westminster, Little Saigon being a relatively new development in terms of age for conservation
standards, and the Bolsa Avenue corridor’s vernacular architecture. Many of the buildings in
Little Saigon are one- or two-story strip outdoor mall-style shopping centers with minimal
design elements and conventional stucco exterior wall construction, with storefront retail
window and door systems. Many of these buildings were extant when Vietnamese businesses
took over and made them their own. Some of the newer architecture constructed after the arrival
of the Vietnamese refugees incorporated Asian-inspired architectural details to emulate the
architecture of their homeland. Whether it is because of the businesses or the Asian-influenced
architectural details, the Asian Garden Mall is widely known by the Vietnamese and non-
Vietnamese communities as the anchor of Little Saigon. Construction methods and materials are
no different from the surrounding buildings, although the additional Asian-inspired details
added to otherwise lackluster buildings provide an inviting cultural experience different from
their surrounding neighbors.
2.3 Asian Garden Mall
Asian Garden Mall is an Asian architecture-inspired building, very closely mimicking the
commercial experience in the former Saigon. (Figure 2.4) Constructed in the 1980s of concrete
tilt up panel construction (widely used in American architecture) the inclusion of East Asian
architectural details and column-supported green pagoda-style roof structures create a visual
change from the surrounding architecture in the area and other cities. (Figure 2.5) Although
there have been attempts to recreate Asian architecture in the United States, such as the Chinese
Theater in Los Angeles or the East West Bank in San Francisco’s Chinatown, it is not the
architecture that makes the Asian Garden Mall significant. It is instead the visceral experience of
visiting the former Saigon in Orange County that sets it apart from any other shopping mall in
Orange County. The Asian Garden Mall is where the Vietnamese community can gather and be
themselves in a country that can be hostile toward foreigners. They can be comfortable speaking
their language, eating their food, and gathering in large groups. Although several other buildings
along Bolsa Avenue have a story and importance to the development of Little Saigon, this
building provide a clear point of entry to the Little Saigon area for mainstream tourists as well as
the Vietnamese community.

- 21 -

Figure 2.4: The Asian Garden Mall in Little Saigon off of Bolsa Avenue (Photograph by Author).

Figure 2.5: Pagoda Temple in Vietnam with the use of upturned roof eaves, similar to that replicated at the Asian
Garden Mall (Photograph courtesy of Yoonhee Kim).

- 22 -
Chapter 3: Asian Garden Mall as a Potential Historic Resource

3.1 National Register of Historic Places
The National Register is “an authoritative guide to be used by federal, state, and local
governments, private groups and citizens to identify the nation’s cultural resources and to
indicate what properties should be considered for protection from destruction or impairment.”
54

In order to be eligible for listing on the National Register, a property must be at least fifty years
of age, unless it is of “exceptional importance,” and possess significance in American history,
culture, architecture, or archaeology. A property of potential significance must meet one or more
of the following four established criteria:
A. Resources that are associated with events that have made a significant contribution to
the broad patterns of our history; or
B. Resources that are associated with the lives of significant persons in our past; or
C. Resources that embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of
construction, or that represent the work of a master, or that possess high artistic
values, or that represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose components
may lack individual distinction; or
D. Resources that have yielded or may be likely to yield, information important in history
or prehistory.
55

Additionally, according to the National Register Bulletin No. 15, “to be eligible for listing in the
National Register, a property must not only be shown to be significant under National Register
criteria, but it also must have integrity.”
56
Integrity is defined in this bulletin as “the ability of a
property to convey its significance.”
57
The National Register recognizes the following seven
aspects or qualities that in various combinations define integrity. These include feeling,
association, workmanship, location, design, setting, and materials. National Register Bulletin No.
15 states that in order to be significant, a resource must be judged only when it is evaluated
within its historic context. Historic contexts are “those patterns, themes, or trends in history by
which a specific occurrence, property or site is understood and its meaning (and ultimately its
significance) within history or prehistory is made clear.”
58
A property must represent an

54 Effects of Listing Under Federal Law, 36 CFR 60.2 Section 60.2, https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/36/60.2.
55 Ibid.

56 “How To Apply the National Register Criteria for Evaluation, National Register Bulletin No.15,” Department of the
Interior, National Parks Service, 1990, https://www.nps.gov/nr/publications/bulletins/nrb15/Index.htm.
57 Ibid.
58 Ibid.

- 23 -
important aspect of the area’s history or prehistory and possess the requisite integrity to qualify
for the National Register.

3.2 California Register of Historic Resources
The California Register is also an authoritative guide used by state and local agencies,
private groups, and citizens to identify historical resources and to indicate that properties are to
be protected, to the extent prudent and feasible, from substantial adverse impacts.
59
The
California Register also has criteria which are based on the National Register Criteria, although,
identified as 1 to 4 rather than A to D. Similar to the National Register, a property generally must
possess significance at the local, state, or national level under the four criteria, which include the
following:
1. Associated with events that has made a significant contribution to the broad patterns
of local or regional history or the cultural heritage of California or the United States;
2. Associated with the lives of persons important to local, California or national history;
3. Embodies the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, region or method of
construction or represents the work of a master or possesses high artistic values;
4. Has yielded, or has the potential to yield, information important to the prehistory or
history of the local area, California or the nation.
60

3.3 Exceptional Significance Under the National Register and Special Consideration
Under the California Register
The National Register generally excludes properties that are less than fifty years old.
According to the National Park’s Service “Fifty years is a general estimate of the time needed to
develop historical perspective and to evaluate significance. This consideration guards against the
listing of properties of passing contemporary interest and ensures that the National Register is a
list of truly historic places.”
61
However, even if a property is less than fifty years old, it can be
listed on the National Register if it can be determined to be of “exceptional significance.” There is
no one specific definition for exceptional significance in the National Register Bulletin because of
the complexity and variety of reasons a resource can be evaluated as exceptionally significant.

59 “California Code, Public Resources Code - PRC § 5024.1.” 2018, Findlaw, accessed March 25, 2018,
https://codes.findlaw.com/ca/public-resources-code/prc-sect-5024-1.html.
60 Ibid.
61 “How To Apply the National Register Criteria for Evaluation, National Register Bulletin No.15,” Department of the
Interior, National Parks Service, 1990, https://www.nps.gov/nr/publications/bulletins/nrb15/Index.htm.

- 24 -
Each nomination is determined case by case and must contain justification for the “exceptional”
significance of a property.
62
The nomination has two parts. The first describes why the property
has historic significance with reference to the National Register Criteria A through D, and the
second justifies why the property is of exceptional significance discussing the context used for
evaluating the property and utilizing the National Register Guidelines for Applying the National
Register Criteria for Evaluation to summarize the importance of the resource.
The California Register does not exclude resources for nomination based on age alone, but
states “a resource less than fifty years old may be considered for listing if it can be demonstrated
that sufficient time has passed to understand its historical importance.”
63
It also states, “In order
to understand the historic importance of a resource, sufficient time must have passed to obtain a
scholarly perspective on the events or individuals associated with the resource.” When
considering properties for nomination, there is greater flexibility in applying the California
Register criteria compared to the National Register. However, California Register nominations
must still discuss the historic significance of the property with reference to Criteria 1 through 4,
and provide an understanding of its historical importance, similar to the process in the National
Register.
64

Although the commercial strip of Little Saigon started in 1978, the Asian Garden Mall,
constructed in 1985, is one of the most successful developments and landmarks of the area.
However, the property is less than fifty years old and would not meet the criteria for the National
Register based on its age. The following sections evaluate the eligibility of the Asian Garden Mall
for listing on the National Register under Criterion A and on the California Register under
Criterion 1 for its significance as a resource that reflects an important time in U.S. History and its
impact on and value to the Vietnamese community in Orange County.
When locals were interviewed with the question of which building best represents Little
Saigon, the Asian Garden Mall was consistently mentioned as one of the most important

62 “How to Apply the National Register Criteria for Evaluation, National Register Bulletin No.15,” Department of the
Interior, National Parks Service, 1990, https://www.nps.gov/nr/publications/bulletins/nrb15/Index.htm.
63 Code of Federal Regulation, 36 CFR 60.4, National Park Service, accessed June 9, 2018,
https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/36/60.2.https://govt.westlaw.com/calregs/Document/IFFC7DA00D48511D
EBC02831C6D6C108E?viewType=Full&transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default), 338.
64 California Code, Public Resources Code - PRC § 5024.1.” 2018, Findlaw, accessed March 25, 2018,
https://codes.findlaw.com/ca/public-resources-code/prc-sect-5024-1.html.

- 25 -
resources to the community.
65
In comparison to other Asian-inspired architectural buildings
such as T&K Food Market and the entrance structure, the experience of feeling as though being in
Vietnam was most evident when walking through Asian Garden Mall. Although there are other
buildings that have potential to be listed for their importance in history and contribution to Little
Saigon, the distinctive east Asian architecture communicates an Asian heritage that is different
from the other buildings in the area.
Developer, Frank Jao, responsible for a large part of the development of Little Saigon had
a master plan in mind to create an Asian center to draw tourists. Asian Village, located across
from the Asian Garden Mall was the first of his master plan; although, was not designed with
Asian architectural features. The Asian Garden Mall was the second phase and largest project for
Jao’s Little Saigon master plan. It was an “enormous success and gained a reputation as the
centerpiece of Little Saigon.”
66
This was also partially the beginning of controversy between the
ethnic Chinese and ethnic Vietnamese architecture as Jao’s plan was to create a tourist
destination that was not just focused on Vietnamese rather focused on Asians, hence the names
Asian Village and Asian Garden Mall. His third plan was to create a bridge over Bolsa Avenue
with Chinese architectural elements to connect the Asian Village and Asian Garden Mall. This
bridge did not come to fruition due to opposition, most notably by Mai Cong, president of the
non-profit service-oriented Vietnamese Community who criticized the bridge design for being
too Chinese.
67
She stated “We don’t want for our beloved Little Saigon to be turned into a
Chinatown. The architecture of the proposed bridge is in the style and characteristic of Chinese.
The Vietnamese have our own culture, our own architecture. We want this to stay as Little
Saigon for the benefit of all who come here.”
68
In 1993, as a result of these controversies, the
Design Standards Manual of the City of Westminster was created which states that “New or
existing developments in the community planning area of Little Saigon must adhere to the
following requirements: ‘The design theme shall incorporate architectural elements similar to
those found on buildings constructed in Vietnam in the early 1900s in the French colonial

65 Theresa Pham, Caroline Nguyen, and Jennifer Nguyen, Interview by Author, October 2018.
66 Nam Q. Ha, “Business and Politics in Little Saigon, California,” May 2002, Rice University: Faculty of the
Department of History, accessed June 17, 2018,
http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=hb28700442;NAAN=13030&doc.view=frames&chunk.id=ch03&toc.depth=1&t
oc.id=&brand=calisphere
67 Ibid.
68 Ibid.

- 26 -
Tradition’ or ‘follow a traditional Chinese architectural theme’ because ‘this style of architecture
is used on many religious buildings in Vietnam.”
69
Through this master plan, including the most
successful building of the plan, the Asian Garden Mall, Asian architectural design was included as
part of the design Standards Manual which further contributes to the importance of the building
due to the influences on future planning in Westminster. For these reasons, the Asian Garden
Mall was chosen for this case study over other buildings in the Little Saigon area.

3.4 Historic Context
The Asian Garden Mall, also known as Phuoc Loc Tho, was constructed in 1986 for
$15,000 by Frank Jao and is the largest Vietnamese-operated shopping mall in the United
States.
70
Located at 9200 Bolsa Avenue, this building and the surrounding commercial district is
the heart of Little Saigon. The Asian Garden Mall is constructed of conventional modern-day
American materials, typical of a two-story office building or shopping center, utilizing stucco and
expansive storefront glazing at the primary entrance. However, it also includes a reproduction of
East Asian architectural elements including a pagoda-style roof in green and the use of the color
red on the storefront, which in many Asian cultures signifies fire and has connotations of luck,
prosperity, happiness, and life.
71
Four large white marble statues are situated at the mall
entrance to welcome customers, which include a standing Buddha and the namesakes of the
mall, Phuoc, Loc, and Tho. (Figure 3.1) Phuoc, Loc, and Tho are from one of the most popular
paintings in the Vietnamese culture, representing the gods of happiness (Phuoc), wealth (Loc),
and Longevity (Tho).
72
Buddha represents himself and one of the dominant religions in Vietnam.
The scale of the building is massive in comparison to the surrounding commercial strip
buildings along Bolsa Avenue. Its primary and central location along Bolsa Avenue and the
obvious East Asian architectural details identify the symbolic significance of the building in Little
Saigon. (Figure 3.2) The interior architecture is similar to an American shopping center with a

69 Nhi, T. Lieu, The American Dream in Vietnamese, (University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis, 2011), 48.
70 Adrienne Nguyen, "Asian Garden Mall (Phước Lộc Thọ)," Clio, October 28, 2015, accessed March 16, 2018,
https://www.theclio.com/web/entry?id=19398.
71 SmarterTravel, “What Colors Mean,” January 26, 2017, accessed June 9, 2018,
https://www.huffingtonpost.com/smartertravel/what-colors-mean-in-other_b_9078674.html.
72 "Talking about Phuc Loc Tho (Happiness – Windfall – Longevity) in Tet Occasion," Tourismvn, March 19, 2011,
accessed March 16, 2018, https://tourismvn.wordpress.com/2011/02/03/talking-phuc-loc-tho-happiness-–-
windfall-–-longevity-tet-occasion/.

- 27 -
central circulation route flanked by retailers along each side of the central corridor. These
Vietnamese retailers, however, all consist of popular Vietnamese food chains and restaurants;
culture-specific clothing, gifts, and necessities; and services, including opticians, skincare, and
jewelry. To further represent the Asian experience, the interior walkways are lined with various
Chinese lanterns throughout the common areas. Chinese lanterns are often used during the
celebration of the Vietnamese New Year, as they represent brightness for a bright future.
73

(Figures 3.4 through 3.7)
The experience at the Asian Garden Mall is unique to Little Saigon. From the old
Vietnamese men lounging at the entrance drinking coffee, playing cards, or just resting, to those
publicly worshipping the Buddha and other sacred figures, Vietnamese culture can be
experienced firsthand. (Figure 3.3) As part of Frank Jao’s plan to create an area of cultural
tourism, which would be welcoming to Vietnamese and non-Vietnamese alike, the mall became a
place for the community to gather, in particular, the older generations. It is a place where the old
and the young can feel at home and be Vietnamese without experiencing racism, where they are
able to embrace their culture, and remember their past. The Asian Garden Mall is also a place
where non-Vietnamese can come to experience Vietnamese culture. This will continue even
more so as the younger generations take over businesses and remove the language barrier for
non-Vietnamese speaking customers.

Figure 3.1: Asian Garden Mall in Little Saigon; statue of Buddha and Phuoc, Loc, and Tho in the entrance courtyard
(Photograph by Author).

73 Aulia Rachmat, “Lantern: Symbol of Brightness, Love,” Jakarta Post, February 4, 2008, accessed April 28, 2018,
http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2008/02/04/lantern-symbol-brightness-love.html.

- 28 -

Figure 3.2: The Asian Garden Mall conventional tilt up stucco covered construction with Asian-inspired features
(Photograph by Author).
Figure 3.3: The Asian Garden Mall entrance area with first generation Vietnamese enjoying the open-air courtyard
(Photograph by Author).

Figure 3.4: An Asian Garden Mall retailer selling Vietnamese clothing (Photograph by Author).
Figure 3.5: An Asian Garden Mall retailer selling Vietnamese trinkets (Photograph by Author).

Figure 3.6: Asian Garden Mall lantern decorations (Photograph by Author).
Figure 3.7: Restaurant in Hanoi, Vietnam where lanterns are still utilized as a decorative element (Photo courtesy of
Yoonhee Kim).

- 29 -
3.5 Significance – Criteria A/1 for Exceptional Significance
To be eligible for listing under Criterion A/1 for “exceptional significance” on the National
Register and the California Register, a resource must have a direct association with events that
have made a significant contribution to the broad patterns of our history. The arrival of
Vietnamese refugees to the United States in and after 1975 relates directly to the Cold War when
the anti-communist sentiment was strong in the United States and Americans feared communist
expansion. When South Vietnam was threatened by communist North Vietnam, the United States
supported the South in efforts to prevent communism from overtaking the entire country. After
the Vietnam War, the United States readily accepted Vietnamese refugees along with those from
other surrounding Southeast Asian countries and the number of refugees continued to grow.
Vietnamese refugees tended to congregate in the Westminster area. The large influx of
Vietnamese also aided in changes to refugee and immigration laws, all contributing to
demographic shifts in America.
Little Saigon is also significant for Vietnamese refugees and Vietnamese Americans as a
place where they could find the comfort foods of home, and where they could speak Vietnamese
without discrimination. This was a place they could comfortably be Vietnamese and feel
connected with their community, something that was not easily experienced in most other cities
around Orange County and Los Angeles during that time.
The Asian Garden Mall was constructed in response to the events of this time and the
confluence of the Vietnamese people in this area. It was created to provide a haven for the
Vietnamese community and a cultural experience for non-Vietnamese visitors. Westminster
changed drastically from an area that was predominantly white and economically stagnant to an
Asian ethnic enclave with rising economic opportunities for the city. The period of significance
for the Asian Garden Mall is 1986 when the property was constructed.

3.6 Integrity
In addition to having to meet one of the four significance criteria, properties must also retain
their physical integrity from the period in which they gained significance. Based on the relatively
young age of the Asian Garden Mall, significant change to the building has not occurred since it
was constructed; therefore, it retains its integrity. The following is an analysis of the seven
aspects of integrity:

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• Location: The place where the historic property was constructed or the place where the
historic event occurred. – The building has not moved since its original construction in
Westminster. Therefore, the integrity of location has been retained.
• Setting – The physical environment of the historic property. – At the time of construction,
the area was growing with Vietnamese businesses. A year after the building was
constructed, there were over 3,000 Vietnamese-owned businesses in Orange County with
anywhere from 20,000 to 50,000 people visiting Bolsa Avenue every weekend.
74
The
development fronting Bolsa Avenue on the north and west sides of the property consist of
one- and two-story retail strip shopping centers. The properties directly east of the Asian
Garden Mall are single-story commercial buildings. The developments to the south and
the east consist of multi- and single-family residential properties, as well as mobile home
parks. A review of a historic aerial photo shows that from 1994 to the present time, the
buildings have remained largely unchanged. Therefore, the integrity of setting remains
intact.
• Materials – The physical elements that were combined or deposited during a particular
period of time and in a particular pattern or configuration to form a historic property. –
With exception of maintenance practices, the building finishes remain largely intact with
no major alterations or additions. Therefore, the integrity of materials remains intact.
• Design – The combination of elements that create the form, space, structure, and style of
the property. – The Asian Garden Mall was originally designed as a shopping center
attempting to recreate characteristics of East Asian architecture, in particular the pagoda
roof. The use of the color red on the storefront windows and the large Asian statues at the
entrance were all intended as part of the original design to bring an Asian experience to
America. The interior was designed to have an open-air feel with businesses flanking the
central open corridor. The fundamental design of the building and style of architecture
have not been altered since its construction in 1986. Therefore, the property has retained
its integrity of design.

74 Adrienne Nguyen, "Asian Garden Mall (Phước Lộc Thọ)," Clio, October 28, 2015, accessed March 16, 2018,
https://www.theclio.com/web/entry?id=19398.

- 31 -
• Workmanship – The physical evidence of the crafts of a particular culture or people
during a given period in history or prehistory. – The construction of the Asian Garden
Mall utilized what appears to be conventional tilt up wall construction methods with
stucco finish. Columns are covered in plaster supporting steel girders, wood plank roof
structure, and decorated with a pagoda-style roof. The intent of the architecture was to
mimic the appearance of East Asian architectural elements. Although, the architecture is a
replicated version of the style in Asia and does not use the same authentic materials, the
roof style and use of color red throughout the building is a clear indication of the Asian
architectural style. Therefore, the property has retained its workmanship.
• Feeling – A property’s expression of the aesthetic or historic sense of a particular period
of time. – The Asian cultural experience is prominent beginning with the building’s
architectural features. This style of replicated Asian architecture is rare in Orange County.
Yet, more than the architecture, the visceral experience when walking through the space
is to closely experience the former Saigon firsthand. Older generation Vietnamese gather
in the outdoor seating areas relaxing in the shade, smoking cigarettes, or drinking coffee
and playing cards. As you enter the buildings, the ground floor is lined with Vietnamese
restaurants, the second floor has a large shrine dedicated to worship, and jewelry store
upon jewelry store as you walk one second floor wing. (Figures 3.8, 3.9, and 3.12) Second
and third generation Vietnamese Americans are able to experience a glimpse of their
homeland in the United States. Those who are not Vietnamese can walk through a cultural
experience while having difficulty communicating with business owners, which
contributes to the feeling. This experience has largely remained the same since the
building was constructed. Therefore, property has retained the integrity of feeling.
• Association – The direct link between an important event or person and a historic
property. – Although not familiar to mainstream America, Frank Jao is a very familiar
name in the Vietnamese community and the city of Westminster. His attempts to create an
Asian cultural experience along Bolsa Avenue and his connection with real estate in Little
Saigon makes him an important figure among the Vietnamese and significant to the
development of Little Saigon. Frank Jao was one of the many refugees who arrived in
America as a result of the Vietnam War. He came to the United States with close to

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nothing, later creating Bridgecreek Realty, putting Westminster on the map. Westminster
has become recognized because of Little Saigon, not only in Orange County, but also
throughout California and the nation as the most successful Vietnamese community in the
United States. Frank Jao continues to do work in Little Saigon today. The property retains
integrity of association.

Figure 3.8: Small Buddha Shrine for worship in the Asian Garden Mall (Photograph by Author).
Figure 3.9: Incense for worship next to the Buddha Shrine (Photograph by Author).

Figure 3.10: Main Stage at Asian Garden Mall (Photograph by Author).
Figure 3.11: Buddha on the main stage at Asian Garden Mall (Photograph by Author).

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Figure 3.12: Asian Garden Mall Due Quan Thanh Shrine named for a Taoist Temple in Hanoi, Vietnam (Photograph
by Author).

If the building were listed on either the California Register or the National Register, it
would be the first resource to be listed on any historic register in Westminster. Based on the
above observations, the property appears to be eligible for listing on the California Register
under Criterion 1 and the National Register under Criterion A for its significance in contributing
to the broad patterns of history locally, in California, and the United States. The fall of Saigon was
one of the catalysts for demographic change in the United States, and California. The building
reflects the impact of the Vietnam War and the tumultuous defeat of Saigon, which the United
States was so heavily involved in trying to support. The formation of Little Saigon in Westminster
was a result of aftermath of the war, as the incoming refugees sought a new home. The Asian
Garden Mall and the surrounding Little Saigon area were places they could feel closer to home.
Locally, it transformed Westminster as a city, demographically as well as economically, and
contributed to the cultural, social, and economic success of the city today. Both throughout
California and the United States, Little Saigon has been an example of a successful Vietnamese
ethnic enclave that other Vietnamese communities desire to emulate and bring to their city.

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Chapter 4: Future of Little Saigon

4.1 Further Measures Taken for Conservation
The Asian Garden Mall is evaluated in the previous section as it is likely the most
significant architectural structure in Little Saigon that has the potential to be listed on either the
California Register or the National Register. However, in general, the architecture in Little Saigon
is not the reason for its importance. Little Saigon and the Vietnamese community in Orange
County is notable because in the midst of fleeing to the United States and assimilating to the
American culture, the Vietnamese held on to their roots and somehow successfully built their
community upon the memories of their fallen land. Many came with nothing and were able to
obtain loans to start small businesses such as dry cleaners, markets, and liquor stores. They
relied on the Little Saigon area for cultural protection and comfort in a foreign land where
discrimination was heavily experienced.
The refugee or first generation Vietnamese, however, are aging and the second and third
generations will inherit the responsibility of preserving this unique heritage and remarkable
story of Vietnamese culture in the United States. According to the Westminster Chamber of
Commerce, there are roughly 3,500 immigrant-owned businesses along the mile long stretch of
Bolsa Avenue in Westminster and over one million square feet of commercial space.
75
Second
and third generation Vietnamese Americans are unlike their parents in that the need for Little
Saigon as a culturally safe location no longer exists. Second and third generation Vietnamese are
American-born, understand and speak English fluently, and have experienced American culture
in schools growing up. Many Vietnamese Americans have moved out of Westminster to other
Orange County suburban areas, although Vietnamese-owned businesses remain, and the
unofficial boundaries of Little Saigon continue to expand. Yet, it is still important to sustain the
interest in Little Saigon among future generation Vietnamese Americans.
The Westminster City Council recognizes the importance of the community to the city and
to the Vietnamese community at large. They understand that a tangible change is necessary in
order to accommodate the needs of the changing generations and the values they hold. Until

75 Allyson Escobar, "Little Saigon Tries Shuttles to Ease Congestion and Boost Tourism," Los Angeles Times,
February 5, 2017, accessed March 12, 2018, http://www.latimes.com/socal/daily-pilot/entertainment/tn-wknd-et-
0205-little-saigon-shuttle-20170204-story.html.

- 35 -
recently, the city has utilized the traditional municipal process for change through planning,
zoning, and building department processes. However, council leaders and community
stakeholders understand that this community is not ordinary. Consistent discussions with the
city council, organizations such as the Urban Land Institute, community residents, business
owners, and community leadership should continue as they examine how to maintain Little
Saigon as it grows.
Little Saigon has evolved significantly since it was officially recognized in the 1980s.
Growth and change are happening today as business storefronts are updated and new buildings
are constructed. Additionally, businesses and buildings are getting refurbished in more ways
than one, as second- and third-generation Vietnamese Americans take over as business owners.
The former Orange County Vietnamese American Chamber of Commerce President stated that
“the restaurant industry in Little Saigon has exploded in the past five years, fueled in large part
by young entrepreneurs leaving careers in medicine, law, banking and technology for something
they are more passionate about - food.”
76
These businesses are evolving and will continue to
evolve as future generations replace original owners; this includes the architecture, as the
standard retail strip centers create no visual interest to attract the attention for passing
customers. Yet, the cultural significance of Little Saigon needs to be retained while the area
evolves.

4.2 Cultural Heritage Assets
In September 2014, San Francisco Heritage issued a report titled “Sustaining San
Francisco’s Living History – Strategies for Conserving Cultural Heritage Assets.” One of the goals
of this report was to “create a common language that will advance citywide public policy and
neighborhood-level cultural heritage conservation initiatives; and provide useful examples of
strategies and case studies that can be employed by communities, nonprofits, academics
institutions, foundations, and City agencies.”
77
In the past, preservation has been traditionally
concentrated on architecture or monumental structures. In addition, the importance of these

76 Allyson Escobar, "Little Saigon Tries Shuttles To Ease Congestion and Boost Tourism," Los Angeles Times,
February 5, 2017, accessed March 12, 2018, http://www.latimes.com/socal/daily-pilot/entertainment/tn-wknd-et-
0205-little-saigon-shuttle-20170204-story.html.

77 Mike Buhler, Desiree Smith, and Laura Dominguez, “Sustaining San Francisco's Living History,” San Francisco
Heritage, September 2014, https://www.sfheritage.org/cultural-heritage/.

- 36 -
buildings or monuments was tied closely to wealthy non-minority architects and their clientele.
The report looks to draw attention to the conservation of cultural and social resources, both
tangible and intangible, and the locations where these activities take place. The term “cultural
heritage asset” is utilized in this report to distinguish between tangible and intangible cultural
resources. The term is used to define “historic businesses, nonprofits, and other types of
institutions that contribute to the city’s cultural identity.”
78

At the international level, tools for intangible heritage exist such as United Nations
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)’s Lists of Intangible Cultural
Heritage that values those intangible items such as inherited traditions and practices passed
down. This can include “oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals, festive events,
knowledge and practices conserving nature and the universe, or the knowledge and skills to
produce traditional crafts.“
79
At the national level, a method for recognizing and evaluating
Traditional Cultural Properties (TCPs) was developed by the National Park Service, which is
defined as “a property that is eligible for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places
based on its association with the cultural practices, traditions, beliefs, lifeways, arts, crafts, or
social institutions of a living community.”
80
The TCP evaluations have been most frequently
applied to Native American sites and other communities with deeply rooted traditions and
cultural practices passed down through generations.
At the local level, utilizing San Francisco Heritage’s report and identifying Little Saigon as
a Cultural Heritage Asset can be a first step in recognizing, identifying, and conserving its
important cultural heritage. The recommended approach in this report includes six separate
strategies supported by different examples and case studies. A brief approach on how to apply
each example in Little Saigon follows.
1) Develop a consistent methodology for identifying and documenting cultural heritage
assets - Little Saigon is filled with buildings, businesses, traditions, food, culture, and
monuments. What is important to one person living or working in Little Saigon may have

78 Mike Buhler, Desiree Smith, and Laura Dominguez, “Sustaining San Francisco's Living History,” San Francisco
Heritage, September 2014, https://www.sfheritage.org/cultural-heritage/.
79 “What is Intangible Cultural Heritage,” Intangible Cultural Heritage, accessed April 20, 2018,
https://ich.unesco.org/en/what-is-intangible-heritage-00003.
80 National Register of Historic Places – Traditional Cultural Properties, (US Department of Interior National Park
Service American Indian Liaison Office, 2012).

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different importance to another. One of the first steps should be to inventory the local
community to determine what parts, including but not limited to, buildings, parks, public
art, community gathering places, events, monuments, groups, and businesses are
important to preserve. This could be completed formally through a historic context
statement, a historic resource survey, or informally through interviews. The important
goal here is to identify what assets are distinctively important to preserve in Little Saigon
and why, whether it be for tangible reasons or intangible reasons.
2) Support neighborhood cultural heritage conservation initiatives – This involves working
with the cities and other community advocates to provide support for conservation
efforts in the area. An important first step in retaining cultural heritage is that the city of
Westminster introduces a preservation ordinance in order to protect the valuable
resources and areas from demolition and insensitive rehabilitation, not only in Little
Saigon but also throughout Westminster. The lack of a preservation ordinance can be
detrimental to any preservation efforts or cultural preservation efforts in the future.
However, it is clearly understood that Little Saigon is not significant for its building stock
but the rich history of the Vietnamese people and the cultural community that exists.
Often we look at the buildings to be protected, but forget about the people and the
businesses that have inhabited the buildings for so long. These people, businesses, and
intangible culture is what make Little Saigon special and should be incorporated as part of
any new preservation ordinance.
3) Support mentoring and leadership training programs that transmit cultural knowledge to
the next generation - One of the most successful traditions that are being transmitted
through generations is the Tet Festival as discussed in the aforementioned chapters.
Although two organizations hosted separate festivals this year, over the years, the UVSA
has most successfully recruited young volunteers to be involved in the annual tradition.
The student run organization has organized the festival for years and will hopefully
continue to be supported by students interested in learning about and carrying on this
tradition. This is a natural education tool for younger generation Vietnamese. Although
the festival itself has not been held in Little Saigon for some years, the festival celebrates
and highlights the culture which is closely tied to the Little Saigon area. This type of
recognition can bring more visitors and tourists to Little Saigon. Other programs,

- 38 -
including language programs important for the transmission of culture, can be
implemented throughout the area. Food is generally an important part of any culture and
teaching how to appreciate Vietnamese food through cooking classes can also be a
tradition that is passed down through generations.
4) Develop financial incentives and property acquisition programs for owners and stewards
of cultural heritage assets – During the building disposition/acquisition phase or tenant
re-negotiations, provide incentives to property owners to lease or sell to businesses that
support the cultural diversity of the community and could help maintain the Vietnamese
businesses in the area.
5) Promote cultural heritage assets through public education and, when desirable,
sustainable models of heritage tourism - The City could also partner with other
organizations to help fund educational programs or walking tours to highlight the
importance of the community’s history. The Vietnam War plays a large part in America’s
history and the results of this war are an interesting education opportunity for both
Vietnamese and non-Vietnamese alike. Additionally, there are restaurants throughout the
area that also educate those who are interested in Vietnamese food culture; why certain
foods became a Vietnamese staple and how certain foods have remained the same or
evolved to today.
6) Establish a formal citywide designation program for cultural heritage assets to conserve
the valuable cultural assets in our communities and provide targeted benefits, such as tax
incentives, business loans, or waived fees, for designated areas – To establish a citywide
program such as this, the Westminster City Council, the local community, and
stakeholders who support the effort to sustain Little Saigon would need to work together
to come up with a systematic approach to create such a designation program. In Orange
County, Westminster City Council can be the first to create a program such as this for
Little Saigon and can help the many other cities with valuable ethnic communities to
establish something similar.
81

81 Mike Buhler, Desiree Smith, and Laura Dominguez. 2014, “Sustaining San Francisco's Living History,” San
Francisco Heritage, https://www.sfheritage.org/cultural-heritage/.

- 39 -
The key to the above six recommendations involves the community and the City’s help in
championing these efforts.

4.3 Cultural District Designation
In 2007, the Urban Land Institute produced a document discussing potential changes to
Little Saigon that could help build continued economic support and continue Jao’s efforts to
create a tourist destination. The primary goal for the study was to answer the question, “How can
the city of Westminster and the citizens of Little Saigon sustain and enhance this unique cultural
and community base?”
82
Several solutions came out of this study; one of the primary solutions
was to establish the area as a tourist destination, similar to the Chinatowns in Los Angeles or San
Francisco. Much of the heart of Little Saigon is the business district, filled with restaurants,
shops, and markets. As the younger generations take over family businesses or start new
restaurants in the area, the food culture has taken a strong hold as an economic driver and social
gathering opportunity. (Figures 4.2 - 4.5) Restaurants tend to attract both tourists and locals
alike. The primary draw to Little Saigon for many Vietnamese Americans, as well as those outside
of the Vietnamese culture, is the food. According to multiple interviews conducted with local
Vietnamese Americans, the universal response to why they visit Little Saigon is the food.
83
As
mentioned earlier, food culture is growing and one of the most closely tied elements to an ethnic
culture.

82 Kevin Lawler, John Hixenbaugh, Michael Maxwell, Trang D. Tu, Jennifer LeFurgy, and Cary Sheih, Urban Land
Institute, October 1-4, 2014, An Advisory Services Panel Report - Little Saigon Westminster, California Strategies for
Transforming Little Saigon, Washington D.C., 8.
83 Theresa Pham (2nd Generation Westminster Resident), Interviewed by Author, October 2017.

- 40 -
Figure 4.1: Urban Location Boba Tea House - a new restaurant/tea house in the surrounding area of Little Saigon -
Garden Grove (Photograph by Author).
Figure 4.2: Milk Tea and Boba menu at Urban Location Tea House (Photograph by Author).

Figure 4.3: Fusion foods combining different cultures at Urban Location Boba Tea House (Photo by Author).
Figure 4.4: Popular Banh Mi sandwich shop and bakery in Garden Grove - Thantam Bakery (Photo by Author).

- 41 -
Conclusion
The story of Little Saigon is unlike other ethnic enclaves, as it is a community built by
refugees out of necessity and the desire to stay connected to their original culture. Little Saigon
has become the most well-known officially designated Asian ethnic enclave in Orange County.
Although its boundaries are gradually expanding, the location of where this ethnic enclave began
has been maintained. From a few small businesses to over a mile-long strip of a business district,
the enclave has successfully grown and continues to contribute to the economic vitality of
Westminster. Although the number of Vietnamese residents in Westminster has decreased to
only 45% today, Little Saigon’s commercial areas remain popular and the boundaries of the
greater Little Saigon continue to expand beyond Westminster.
84
Little Saigon continues to be a
thriving ethnic enclave in Westminster, although, a generational shift is occurring and active
steps should be taken to maintain the attraction and value of this business community. It is
important for change to occur to accommodate the new interests of younger generations, but
managing that change so as not to eliminate the past is critical.
Traditional methods of recognizing historic buildings and districts are listings on the
national, state, and local level. The Asian Garden Mall was evaluated in the aforementioned
section as a building that contributed to the broad patterns of events that made a significant
contribution to the local area, California, and the United States. This is merely one building in
Little Saigon, and there are many more in the Little Saigon and the surrounding area that have
yet to be explored. A community-wide historic survey of both the properties and the businesses
in Little Saigon is an important next step, as this would help to inventory the buildings and
businesses to determine which ones have potential significance. There are several other
important buildings that still stand today which could be eligible for nomination. This includes
St. Anselm Church, where the St. Anselm (Horizon) Cross-Cultural Community Center opened its
doors to help the many refugees assimilate to living in America. Danh Pharmacy and Bridgecreek
Realty are also important resources, as these were two of the original businesses starting the
commercial success of Little Saigon. Bridgecreek Realty is also the business of Frank Jao, the man

84 Chris Haire, Roxana Kopetman, and Tom Berg, "How They Became Us: Orange County Changed Forever in the 40
Years since the Fall of Saigon," Orange County Register, May 1, 2015, accessed March 15, 2018,
http://www.ocregister.com/2015/05/01/how-they-became-us-orange-county-changed-forever-in-the-40-years-
since-the-fall-of-saigon/.

- 42 -
who changed the face of Bolsa Avenue. The Asian Village, mentioned earlier, has potential
significance for being the first phase of Jao’s master plan for Little Saigon or Today Plaza as
another example of Asian inspired architecture. With continued research and surveys of the
existing resources, several other significant resources in the area could be listed as part of this
valuable time in Orange County history.
Another crucial investigation is to determine if the mile-long strip along Bolsa Avenue is
eligible for listing as a Historic District. Based on the many changes over the years to buildings
and storefronts, a traditional historic district listing might be difficult to achieve. However, due to
the importance of the area as a cultural community, this would be an important avenue that
should be further researched. Additionally, the approaches discussed by San Francisco Heritage
to promote the area as a Historic Cultural District or Cultural Heritage Asset could be the first
step in identifying Little Saigon as a place of cultural importance. Establishing this type of
program will require local action and formally establishing a special program in Westminster,
such as those being suggested in San Francisco.
85
Once a program such as this is established, it
can be an imperative element for ethnic enclaves and other cultural communities to help
establish formal significance in a non-traditional manner. As more communities become formal
ethnic enclaves, conservation will be important, yet not all these enclaves will have tangible
architecture, specific patterns of history, or famous people tied to the place in order to be
designated on the national or state register as a historic resource or district. Therefore,
alternative measures will need to be established to conserve and place value in sites of cultural
diversity.
Little Saigon is one example of a successful ethnic enclave, yet no protection exists to
conserve it. Changes can have an unfavorable impact on the community. Much can be learned
from the Little Saigon refugee community and commercial district, yet there is a lot of work to do
for the conservation and future success of this generationally changing ethnic enclave. It will be
essential to understand how the City and developers plan to manage change and if they will
implement special programs for the distinctive circumstance of Little Saigon as an area with
cultural importance. How will the businesses change as the generations change and what steps

85
Mike Buhler, Desiree Smith, and Laura Dominguez, “Sustaining San Francisco's Living History,” San Francisco
Heritage, September 2014, https://www.sfheritage.org/cultural-heritage/.

- 43 -
can be taken to conserve what currently exists while retaining the interest of future generations?
Focusing conservation efforts in Little Saigon has the potential to increase and incorporate a
larger audience including a younger generation and ethnic cultures that are otherwise not
familiar with conservation in the United States. As the field of heritage conservation moves
toward widening the focus beyond buildings constructed by famous architects or homes of
important American elite figures, Little Saigon emerges at an opportunistic time to be included
as part of American history for underrepresented communities.

- 44 -
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Asset Metadata

Creator Kim, Christy Ko (author)

Core Title Lessons from Little Saigon: heritage conservation and ethnic enclaves in Orange County

School School of Architecture

Degree Master of Heritage Conservation

Degree Program Heritage Conservation

Publication Date 10/30/2018

Defense Date 12/12/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Heritage Conservation,Little Saigon,OAI-PMH Harvest,preservation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Sandmeier, Trudi (committee chair), Bharne, Vinayak (committee member), Jenks, Hillary (committee member)

Creator Email kim530@usc.edu,kochristy@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-99808

Unique identifier UC11675722

Identifier etd-KimChristy-6920.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-99808 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-KimChristy-6920.pdf

Dmrecord 99808

Document Type Thesis

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Kim, Christy Ko

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA