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Uncovered leaders in hidden schools: effective leadership practices in California Model Continuation High School principals

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Uncovered leaders in hidden schools: effective leadership practices in California Model Continuation High School principals

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Content Running Head: CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP

UNCOVERED LEADERS IN HIDDEN SCHOOLS:
EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES IN CALIFORNIA MODEL CONTINUATION
HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS

by

Sean Delgado

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2018

Copyright 2018 Sean Delgado

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 2

Preface
Some of the chapters of this dissertation were co-authored and have been identified as
such. While jointly authored dissertations are not the norm of most doctoral programs, a
collaborative effort is reflective of real-world practices. To meet their objective of developing
highly skilled practitioners equipped to take on real-world challenges, the USC Graduate School
and the USC Rossier School of Education have permitted our inquiry team to carry out this
shared venture.
This dissertation is part of a collaborative project between three doctoral candidates: Sean
Delgado, Patricia Kling and Xochitl Ortiz. We three doctoral students met with several Model
Continuation High Schools (MCHS) with the aim of learning from the principals in these
phenomenological settings. However, the process for dissecting and acquiring a thorough
constructivist perspective from these chosen Model Continuation High School principals was too
large for a single dissertation. As a result, the three dissertations produced by our inquiry team
collectively address the effective practices of principals at MCHS. For this dissertation,
researcher Sean Delgado was the main author of Chapters One, Three, Four, and Five. Writers
Patricia Kling and Xochitl Ortiz collaborated on Chapter Two.

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 3

Acknowledgements
There are many people who I must acknowledge, as they have played a pivotal role in
helping me complete this dissertation. First, I would like to acknowledge Dr. David Cash, my
dissertation chair, and Dr. Rudy Castruita, my dissertation committee member, who both played
a vital role in helping me bring this dissertation to fruition. They challenged me, stretched me,
and helped me during this entire process. I would also like to acknowledge my third dissertation
committee member, Dr. James Elsasser, for his mentorship and assistance as both a dissertation
committee member and as my superintendent. Dr. Elsasser was the reason I chose to attend
USC, helped connect me with Dr. Cash and Dr. Castruita, and assisted me professionally to get
this dissertation completed. Dr. Elsasser also encouraged me when I needed it and embodied
what it meant to “fight on.” I would also like to acknowledge USC Rossier faculty who
equipped me with skills for research, particularly Dr. Artineh Samkian and Dr. Ruth Chung.
Continuation schools are often overlooked, but they have an important story to be told.
Therefore, I would like to acknowledge the principals of the continuation high schools and their
staff for allowing me the opportunity to research at their school sites. They do incredibly
difficult work, and I am privileged to help share their story.
Lastly, I would like to acknowledge my USC classmates who labored alongside me and
encouraged me in this process. None were more instrumental, however, than Xochitl Ortiz and
Tricia Kling. I could not have asked for a better group to work alongside for the completion of
the dissertation. They are both hard working, passionate educators, who were incredibly
dedicated to the process. It was a privilege to be their partner.
.

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 4

Dedication
This is dedicated to my unofficial, “fourth” dissertation committee member, my wife,
friend, and partner Dr. Sarah Arteaga Delgado. No other person helped me more, sacrificed
more, and guided me more to achieve this goal. She paved the way, and believed in me in ways
no one else has. I cannot thank her enough, for without her support, this would not have been
possible.
This dissertation is also dedicated to my family who also sacrificed in this process: my
family for watching my kids which gave me time to write and research, as well as my son and
daughter, Solomon and Evangeline, who graciously sacrificed time away from Dad.
Lastly, there is no one greater who empowered me with the ability to accomplish this
than my Heavenly Father above. The Apostle Paul wrote, “I can do all things through Christ
who strengthens me” (Philippians 4:13), and therefore Jesus Himself gets all the glory for
anything good I have done, both in this endeavor and in life.

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 5

Table of Contents
Preface 2
Acknowledgements 3
Dedication 4
List of Tables 8
Abstract 9
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 10
Introduction 10
Background of the Problem 11
Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 14
Research Questions 14
Importance of the Study 15
Limitations 16
Delimitations 17
Assumptions 17
Definitions of Related Terms 18
Organization of the Study 21
Chapter Two: Literature Review 22
Theoretical Framework 22
Leadership Styles and Theoretical Foundations 23
Leadership vs. Management 25
Trait Theory 26
Intelligence 27
Self-Confidence 27
Determination 27
Integrity 28
Sociability 28
Transformational Leadership 31
Full Range Leadership Theory 33
Continuation High Schools 35
Contextual Background 35
Historical Overview 36
Students 38
Accountability 39
Effective Leadership 43
Model Continuation High Schools 45
Conclusion 47
Chapter Three: Methodology 48
Introduction 48
Restatement of Problem, Purpose, and Research Questions 48
Design Overview 50
Sample and Population 52
Instrumentation 53
Data Collection Procedures 56
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 6

Data Analysis 57
Ethical Considerations 58
Summary 60
Chapter Four: Research Findings 61
Introduction 61
Organization of Data Analysis 62
Descriptive Characteristics 62
Survey Participants 62
Interview Participants 63
Research Question 1 64
Findings: Survey Participants 64
Summary 73
Research Question 2 74
Findings: Interview 74
Role-Modeling (Acts with Integrity IIB) 75
Contact, Rapport, and Building Caring and
Trusting Relationships (Builds Trust IIA,
and Coaches and Develops People IC) 75
Humility 77
Summary 79
Research Question 3 80
Findings: Interview 80
Findings: Document Analysis 85
Summary 86
Research Question 4 87
Findings: Interview 87
Findings: Document Analysis 90
Summary 91
Discussion 92
Auxiliary Findings 94
Summary 95
Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusion, and Implications 96
Statement of the Problem 96
Purpose of the Study 96
Research Questions 97
Design Overview 97
Key Findings 99
Auxiliary Findings 101
Implications for Policy and Practice 102
Policy 102
Practice 103
Limitations 103
Recommendations for Future Research 104
Conclusion 104
References 106

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 7

Appendix A. Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, Form 5X 121
Appendix B. Interview Protocol 122
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 8

List of Tables
Table 1: Interview Respondents by Experience 63

Table 2: Average Score per Category of Transformational
Leadership for the Principal of MCHS-A 65

Table 3: Average Score per Category of Transactional and Passive/
Avoidant Questions for the principal of MCHS-A 66

Table 4: Average Score per Category of Transformational
Leadership for the Principal of MCHS-B 68

Table 5: Average Score per Category of Transactional and Passive/
Avoidant Questions for the principal of MCHS-B 69

Table 6: Average Score per Category of Transformational
Leadership for the Principal of non-MCHS 71

Table 7: Average Score per Category of Transactional and Passive/
Avoidant Questions for the principal of non-MCHS 72

Table 8: A Comparison of Leadership Styles–Survey Respondents 73

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 9

Abstract
The purpose of this study is to examine the effective leadership qualities and practices of
principals from successful alternative school settings that are recognized as California Model
Continuation High Schools (MCHS), based on Transformational Leadership Theory. The
research questions that guided this study are the following: (1) Through the lens of Full Range
Leadership Theory, what is most commonly identified as the predominant leadership style used
by these MCHS principals, as identified by their teachers?; (2) What do MCHS principals
believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve
laudable outcomes?; (3) As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do
MCHS principals utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success?;
(4) How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of their
schools? This study was conducted using an Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods design, that
included a survey of MCHS teachers about their perceptions of their principals’ leadership, using
the MLQ-5X survey tool. The surveys were followed up with principal interviews and a
document analysis of their MCHS applications. The study revealed that principals at each
MCHS employ transformational leadership, and these specific leadership practices emerged as
themes, acting with integrity, building trust, coaching and developing people, and encouraging
innovative thinking. The research findings of this study have implications for policy in the areas
of purpose and accountability. There are practical implications, additionally, in the areas of
leadership development for future continuation high school principals.

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 10

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction
The California Continuation High School, established in 1919, is an alternative path to
achieving a high school diploma for students at risk of dropping out (CDE, 2017e). The mission
of continuation schools has evolved over the years, first beginning as a program to serve working
students, then transitioning to services for maladjusted youth, to the current model which is
service to at-risk students (Perez & Johnson, 2008). Since 1965, California State law has
mandated that most schools with 100 or more seniors make available a continuation school to
assist at-risk students (Ruiz de Velasco et al, 2008). Students at continuation high schools are
often between the ages of 16 and 18, arrive to the continuation high school from a
comprehensive high school or other location, and have not had a history of academic success.
The reasons for the lack of academic success are far-ranging. This non-exhaustive list highlights
an example of reasons, low motivation, lack of resilience, learning disabilities, lack of social
capital, high transiency, poor behavioral regulation, substance abuse, systemic obstacles, or
difficulty connecting in large school settings (Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco et al,
2008). Some students voluntarily choose to attend a continuation school, drawn by the small
size, the flexibility that comes with a required minimum attendance of 15 hours a week, the
alternative approaches to learning, and a chance to have a fresh start. Other students are placed
at continuation schools from probation agencies, through district referral processes, or as an
alternative means of expulsion (Ruiz de Velasco et al, 2008).
In essence, a continuation school is comprised of a diverse group of students who often
arrive and leave at varied and unpredictable times. For example, the California Department of
Education (CDE) website reported that in 2014-15, there were 460 continuation high schools
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 11

reporting an enrollment of 60,027 students, but that 116,500 students on average are served
throughout the entire year (CDE, 2017d). Despite the high risk factors among students and the
high mobility, it is the belief and purpose of the CDE to “provide a world-class education for all
students,” including these students who face enormous challenges (CDE, 2017c, p. 1).
Background of the Problem
Given the context, there is a tremendous need for quality leadership which can provide
the knowledge and skills required to provide a world-class education. While Traditional Public
Schools (TPS) have commonly had an accountability process to ensure that students are learning,
continuation schools have not been under the same scrutiny, or have had accountability measures
that were ineffective for a variety of reasons (Warren, 2016). At the July 12, 2017, California
State Board of Education (SBE) meeting, the SBE approved the development of a new
accountability measure, the Dashboard Alternative School Status (DASS), with expected
implementation in fall of 2018 (CDE, 2017b). This will fulfill the obligation of the law under
California Education Code (EC) Section 52052(g), which requires,
The Superintendent, with the approval of the State Board of Education, shall develop an
alternative accountability system for schools under the jurisdiction of a county board of
education or a county superintendent of schools, community day schools, . . . and
alternative schools serving high-risk pupils, including continuation high schools and
opportunity schools . . .. (CDE, 2018b, p. 1)
Leaders of these schools have an ethical obligation to uphold the belief and purpose of
the CDE to provide a world-class education, and will be held accountable by the State to do so.
Until this happens, however, principals will continue to be required to develop their own
accountability systems and provide their own sense of leadership to provide what they perceive
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 12

as a world-class education. Additionally, they will need to do so with at-risk students, and this
task requires exceptional leadership. The leadership will be required to provide an environment
that will foster the graduation of students who are capable of being ready for both college and
careers, and who will have skills that will prepare them to be competitive and successful in the
21st century (National Education Association, 2010.).
Between the 1960s to present day, the local and global marketplace has transformed from
an industrial to an informational economy (Care, Griffin & McGaw, 2012). New skill sets are
required to succeed in the 21st century (21C). Consequently, the Framework for 21st Century
Learning illustrated a new learning paradigm where traditional pedagogy (e.g. reading, writing,
and numeracy) explicitly incorporates fundamental 21C skills (Care et al., 2012). These
essential skills are critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity. Moreover,
these 21C skills are addressed within four domains, Traditional Core subjects and Skills,
Learning and Innovation Skills, Career and Life Skills, and Digital Literacies. If at-risk students
are going to be successful in life, they will need a quality education that can prepare them
socially, emotionally, and behaviorally, alongside effective instructional leadership required to
establish this learning environment (Daunic et al., 2013; Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
The need for this exceptional leadership is compounded when there is a scarcity of
capable school leaders, especially in high-poverty and high-minority schools, and continuation
schools tend to have students with higher concentrations of these students (Ruiz de Velasco et al,
2008). The National Association of Secondary School Principals cited the Institute for
Education Statistics that one in five principals working in schools during the 2011-2012 school
year left during the 2012-2013 school year, and that one of every two principals weren’t retained
past their third year (NASS, 2017). Additionally, they reported that the supply of qualified
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 13

principals is diminishing and won’t meet the growing demand for principals due to increase in
students attending schools (NASS, 2017). This is important, because when principals stay and
exhibit good leadership skills, teachers are retained (Player, Youngs, Perrone, & Grogan, 2017).
Therefore, these broad problems in education necessitate the need for this research regarding the
diminishing supply of effective principals, the complexity of instructional leadership in a school
setting of marginalized students with high needs, the growing demands for instructional
leadership that imparts 21st century skills to prepare students for college and careers, and the
impending new accountability system that California is preparing for continuation schools. By
examining the effective leadership practices that govern successful continuation schools, this
study may contribute to the growing body of literature, so that practices can be generalized to
influence practitioners and policy makers.
Statement of the Problem
There is a tremendous need for leaders to exhibit dynamic leadership qualities to
successfully oversee an organization with the complexity of a high school. While there is an
abundance of literature on qualities of effective principal leaders in high schools, there is very
little research with regard to the essential attributes of effective principal leadership in California
continuation high schools. This is an important area to study since the continuation school is a
setting often comprised of the most at-risk and marginalized student populations who struggle
with more exposure to violence and victimization, alcohol and substance abuse, higher mobility,
unstable living arrangements, and are more concentrated groups of minorities (Ruiz de Velasco
et al., 2008). Additionally, there is very little research associated with any aspect of continuation
high schools, much less the leadership required to effectively service vulnerable populations.

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 14

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the effective leadership qualities and practices
of principals from successful alternative school settings that were recognized as California
Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS), based on Transformational Leadership Theory
(Avolio, Bass & Jung, 1999). As such, the researchers of this study analyzed the beliefs and
practices of principals that led toward their school’s designation as a Model Continuation High
School. The researchers also investigated how teachers perceive the leadership traits in their
principal. This is important to ascertain because the principals’ beliefs, style, and practices may
or may not align with the research about effective leadership or with how teachers identify his or
her leadership style and practices. Moreover, it’s important to understand how teachers identify
the leadership style of their principal because teacher performance is the primary factor affecting
student achievement, while leadership is the second leading predictor of student achievement
(Hitt & Tucker, 2016). Consequently, the leader’s role in school effectiveness is pivotal in terms
of enabling teachers to improve student achievement (Goldring, Porter, Murphy, Elliott &
Cravens, 2009). The results of this study have both practitioner and policy implications, because
findings provide guidance for principals regarding promising practices, as well as policy with
respect to training and professional development.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study:
1. Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly
identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as
identified by their teachers?
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 15

2. What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to
successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes?
3. As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals
utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success?
4. How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of
their schools?
Importance of the Study
Continuation schools exist in the margins of society. Ruiz de Velasco et al. (2008)
described “continuation high schools and the students they serve as largely invisible to most
Californians” (p. 1). Invisible could take on different meanings, like diminutive in number, or in
social/political/economic capital. As a result of being largely invisible, continuation schools are
often overlooked in terms of research, perhaps given that the level of impact among students is
relatively small, since continuation students are a small minority of a school district.
Consequently, little research in the areas of alternative education and continuation school exists.
Ruiz de Velasco et al. (2008) said that “continuation high schools remain among the most
understudied sub-sector of secondary education in California (and nationally)” (p. 8).
Furthermore, “the research that does exist tends to be narrow in scope and focus” with
regard to continuation literature (Villalobos, 2014, p. 17). This study is important to add to the
dearth of literature that currently exists for students with the highest of needs, and hopefully
serve as a springboard for other forms of research.
As a result of the marginalization of continuation schools in society and in the body of
research, there is also a lack of coherence in legislation that begins at the State level. Williamson
(2008) described alternative education (AE) as a model that operates under ambiguous
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 16

legislation, with an over-generalized mission, a weak accountability system, and a lack of data,
all of which give agency to principals and teachers to operate in a manner they see fit. He
concluded that this gives students a wide range in the quality of educational programs that they
experience. Clearly, this study is important because critical analysis of effective leadership
practices in continuation high school will improve the quality of leadership requisite to meeting
the unique needs of at-risk youth in a manner that provides equitable access to world-class
education. From an academic, policy, and practitioner viewpoint, more research is needed in the
area of effective leadership within continuation high school settings.
Limitations
A limitation of this study was that it may be difficult to generalize the findings to non-
continuation high school settings. One could argue that alternative settings are unique, and what
is most effective for alternative settings may not be most effective for mainstream settings.
Additionally, there are considerable differences of approach and organization among
continuation schools. Ruiz de Velasco et al (2008) stated “continuation schools can and do look
very different in different counties, in different districts within the same county, and even within
the same district” (p. 9). This lends to this perception and adage among continuation schools,
that “if you’ve seen one continuation school, then you’ve seen none of them,” and “100
continuation schools educate the same student in 100 different ways.” Both of these adages
speak to the fact that there are very few commonalities among the culture and organization of a
continuation school, although the purpose often remains the same, which is preventing dropouts
(Ruiz de Velasco et al, 2008). Therefore, it is the responsibility of the reader to discern whether
the findings may be appropriately applied to other settings. The second limitation of this study
was the sample size, since the focus of the student was on principals at Model Continuation High
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 17

Schools. By not making non-model schools a focus, there is a chance that effective practices at
non-model schools would not get suitable exposure to highlight effective leadership practice.
Lastly, there were inherent limitations in the data collection instruments of survey, observation,
and interviews, although efforts were made to establish internal and external validity throughout
the data collection process.
Delimitations
One delimitation of this study was geographical limitation. Principals under this study
are those whose schools are in southern California. Another delimitation was the amount of time
that principals have been at their school site. In this case, selected principals were at their sites
for a minimum of three years, since the State runs a three-year cycle of recognition for the
MCHS program. Lastly, the data collection period took place over a three-month period, and
more time may be required to adequately observe leadership in practice.
Assumptions
There were several key assumptions made in this study. The first was that the teachers
surveyed will honestly and accurately assess the leadership qualities of their principals. The
second assumption was that, in the absence of a meaningful accountability system, the MCHS
program represents the best performance of California continuation schools in terms of preparing
students for 21st century college and career success (CDE, 2018c). Third, it was assumed that
principals can define and articulate qualities that they believe make a positive impact in their
schools. Lastly, it was assumed that the data collection tools for this study will produce results
that offer objectivity, dependability, and authenticity.

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 18

Definitions of Related Terms
The terms below were used throughout the study:
1. Accountability: Information regarding how the leadership and staff are meeting the needs
of all students based on a terse set of measures (CDE, 2017a).
2. Alternative Education: Any of the four alternative schools that are required by California
State law to meet the needs of students vulnerable to academic or behavioral failure, and
they include continuation schools, community day schools, county-run community day
schools, or independent studies programs (Austin et al., 2008).
3. Alternative Schools Accountability Model (ASAM): A state-sponsored accountability
model created following the passage of the Public Schools Accountability Act of 1999.
Schools select from three indicators from the following choices for accountability:
behavior, attendance, student persistence, writing achievement, reading achievement,
math achievement, high school graduation, or General Educational Development (GED)
completion (Austin et al., 2008). This system is now obsolete and will be replaced by the
Dashboard Alternative School Status (DASS) in fall of 2018 (CDE, 2018b).
4. Bolman and Deal’s Four Frames: Four leadership orientations identified by Bolman and
Deal (1991b) as structural, human resource, political, and symbolic.
5. California Continuation High School (CCHS): Continuation education is a high school
diploma program designed to meet the needs of students 16 through 18 years of age who
have not graduated from high school, are legally required to attend school, and are at risk
of dropping out (CDE, 2018a).
6. Climate: The feelings and attitudes that are elicited by a school’s environment based
upon the physical, academic and social dimensions (Loukas, 2007).
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 19

7. Culture: The belief and attitude influencing every aspect of how a school functions
(Lewis, Asberry, DeJarnett, & King, 2016).
8. Dashboard Alternative School Status (DASS): California’s new accountability system
that contains State indicators and standards to help identify a school’s strengths,
weaknesses, and areas in need of improvement in a dashboard of indicators. This
dashboard system replaces the Alternative School Accountability Model and will be
implemented in fall, 2018. (CDE, 2018b).
9. Human Resource Frame: The leadership frame that views organizations as existing to
meet individuals’ needs. Human needs and skills are aligned to achieve the
organization’s goals (Bolman & Deal, 1991b).
10. Leadership: The influence process facilitated by the school principal that motivates
stakeholders toward the attainment of a common goal or vision (Northouse, 2016).
11. Marginalized Youth: Students of color who are identified as living within poverty
conditions and experience socioeconomic or racialized forms of discrimination (Diemer,
& Li, 2011).
12. Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ): A questionnaire used to determine
leadership traits through the exploration of transactional leadership factors (Contingent
Reward and Management-by-Exception) and transformational leadership factors
(Charismatic Leadership, Individualized Consideration, and Intellectual Stimulation).
(Mind Garden, Inc., 2004)
13. Model Continuation High School: A California Continuation High School recognized by
the California Department of Education (CDE) as a comprehensive program that provides
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 20

services to at-risk youth through the use of exemplary pedagogical strategies, flexible
scheduling, and guidance and counseling services (CDE, 2018c).
14. Political Frame: The leadership frame that emphasizes the allocation of power and scarce
resources. The focus is on bargaining, negotiation, and coalition building (Bolman &
Deal, 1991b).
15. Protective Factors: Characteristics provided through a school setting, such as supportive
leadership, dedicated staff, schoolwide behavior management, and effective academic
instruction which minimize the risks for youth delinquency (Christle, Jolivette & Nelson,
2005).
16. Resilience: The ability to demonstrate positive adaptation in times of adversity, which is
a dynamic process that can change over time (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013).
17. Self-efficacy: The belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of
action required to manage prospective situations (Bandura, 1997).
18. Social Emotional Literacy (SEL): The ability to understand and regulate the emotions of
self and others, discriminate between and use them to guide one’s actions (Salovey &
Mayer, 1990).
19. Structural Frame: The leadership frame that emphasizes formal roles and relationships
within the organization. Its emphasis is on the division of labor and coordination of
individual activities (Bolman & Deal, 1991b).
20. Successful or Effective Educators: Those who have a positive and direct impact on
student outcomes, as measured by elevated academic achievement scores, incrementally
increased daily performance measures, visible student motivation and active engagement,
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 21

strong academic efficacy beliefs and other constructive social, and behavior or
intellectual outcomes (Coggshall, 2007).
21. Symbolic Frame: The leadership frame that utilizes symbols, rituals, culture, and
charisma to promote a common vision. The organization is viewed as a tribe working
together toward a common mission (Bolman & Deal, 1991b).
22. Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC): A California school accreditation
process which consists of a self-study and site visitation by a group of peers.
Organization of the Study
This study was organized in five chapters. The first chapter included the introduction and
statement of the problem, purpose of the study, and research questions. The second chapter
includes a review of the literature, with a focus on qualities of effective leadership in traditional
high school, as well as continuation high school settings. The third chapter includes a focus on
the methodology, data collection, and rationale for this study. The fourth chapter contains a
discussion of the results, and a conclusion and discussion of implications will be discussed in the
fifth chapter. Recommendations for further study will also be discussed in this chapter.

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 22

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
While there is ample literature on qualities of effective principal leaders in traditional
settings, research regarding key qualities of effective principal leadership in California
continuation high schools is sparse (Goldring et al., 2009; Hitt & Tucker, 2016; Leithwood,
Seashore Louis, Anderson, & Wahlstrom, 2004; Winton & Pollock, 2016). This is an important
area to study because the continuation school is a setting often comprised of the most vulnerable
and disenfranchised student populations at risk of high school dropout (Taylor, 2015; see also
Johnson, Morris, Rew, & Simonton, 2016; Malagon & Alvarez, 2010; Ruiz de Velasco &
Gonzales, 2017; Zolkoski, Bullock, & Gable, 2016). Consequently, this literature review
provides the theoretical and empirical rationale for conducting a mixed-methods analysis of
effective leadership in distinguished Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS). Chapter Two
includes an introduction followed by an analysis of research regarding the theoretical framework
of this study and leadership theory. Then, inquiries regarding characteristics, historical
overview, students, accountability, and effective leadership within California continuation high
schools will be discussed. Finally, literature regarding Model Continuation High Schools
(MCHS) will be examined and concluding comments will be provided.
Theoretical Framework
It is important to comprehend the conceptual framework on which this study was based.
A rationale and theoretical framework for this inquiry, regarding the essential attributes of
effective principal leadership in California continuation high schools, was the basis for this
research. It is necessary to study the phenomenon of transformation and vital constructs of
effective principals who have been identified as having transformed their school populations of
marginalized youth into model schools. These model continuation high schools
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 23

phenomenologically yield thriving and resilient students who actively engage in 21st Century
pedagogy and evidence college and career readiness upon graduation. Hence, the worldview and
conceptual framework, Phenomenological and Constructivist, was the theoretical lens through
which this research was examined. The phenomenon of the transformational leadership, coupled
with constructs such as why and how these principals guide their schools toward excellence, is
key to understanding essential attributes of effective principal leadership in California
continuation high schools.
Merriam and Tisdell (2016) posited that phenomenology is the study of how people
describe and experience different effects and situations. Constructivism asserts that one’s
perceptions and beliefs are shaped by individual assumptions, prior experiences, and the reality
in which one interacts (Li & Lam, 2005; Phillips, 1995). Through this blended lens, principals
are influenced by various constructs like personal experiences, environmental factors, leadership
styles, and theoretical foundations. These factors influence how principals proceed in creating
environments where teachers are empowered and students develop resilience; consequently, they
demonstrate requisite skill-sets for college and career readiness in the 21st century (21C). This
study dove deeper into pertinent constructs which will assist in a critical analysis of effective
leadership practices in purposefully selected Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS).
Leadership Styles and Theoretical Foundations
The concept of leadership is so complex that developing one concrete, universal
definition is near impossible (Bush & Glover, 2014; Leithwood, Jantzi, & Steinbach, 1999;
Northouse, 2016). Northouse (2016) purported that there are virtually as many definitions of the
term leadership as there are those who have attempted to define it. Although there is no clear
agreement on what adequately defines leadership, there is a general consensus that the construct
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 24

of effective leadership is multifaceted (Bush & Glover, 2014; Elmore, 2004; Leithwood, Jantzi et
al., 1999; Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005; McGowan & Miller, 2001; Northouse, 2016;
Yukl, 2002). With its complexity, there are many varying degrees of defining what effective
leadership involves. While Rubin, Munz, and Bommer (2005) proclaimed that leadership holds
power to either shed light or cast shadows onto others, Yukl (2002) described it as an influence
over others to perform and achieve a collective task. Elmore (2004) posited that leadership is an
actionable word denoting the practice of improvement. Blending descriptive traits with actions,
Northouse described leadership as the process in which one takes the lead to sway others within
a specific context to follow his or her vision and achieve a common goal. Anybody can be
placed into a position of leadership, per Northouse, but to be effective it takes a certain skills-set,
which is both innate and learned.
Ascertaining a wide-ranging consensus of traits essential for effective leadership is
particularly significant to school efficacy (Marzano et al., 2005). Leadership is a vital and most
influential factor in the development of efficacious operations for any organization (Bolman &
Deal, 2013; Northouse, 2016). Specifically, schools are microcosmic organizations that
profoundly need effective leadership to proliferate success (Northouse, 2016). Under this
premise, McGowan and Miller (2001) asserted that leadership “requires courage, commitment,
risk, and empathy. It builds on concentrated dedication and constructive participation” (p. 2).
Belasco and Stayer (1993) further postulated that effective principals foster leadership qualities
in staff members, establish goals specific to their student population’s needs, use reflection to
address challenges, and are proactive in finding solutions. Efficacious leaders instill a
commitment and create cohesive cultures; through vigor, providing a clear focus, and building
capacity they lead their school to meet established goals and achieve their mission (Bolman &
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 25

Deal, 2013; Collins, 2001; Gurr, Drysdale, & Mulford, 2006; Northouse, 2016). Although
viewed through a diversity of lenses, the construct of leadership concurrently and consistently
includes three key tenets: (1) Leadership is a process, not a trait or characteristic, that is solely
within the leader, but a transaction between leader and followers; (2) Leadership involves
influence and its impact on the followers; and (3) Leadership occurs in groups who have a shared
purpose to accomplish common goals (Bolman & Deal, 2013; Collins, 2001; Hallinger, 2011;
Northouse, 2016). While the idea of leadership is a popular topic, especially among corporations
or mainstream schools, little is known regarding the critical value of leadership within the
outliers of society, continuation high schools.
Clearly, these tenets of leadership align with meeting the needs of any school population,
especially continuation high schools. More profoundly, continuation high schools need effective
leaders who can influence all stakeholders with a clear mission and establish goals for students’
academic achievement and social competence (Childress, Elmore, & Grossman, 2006). This
kind of leadership has become evident in model continuation high schools, which leaves no
doubt that the quality in education is contingent upon quality of its leadership (Elmore, 2004;
Nelson, Benner, Lane, & Smith, 2004). Here, it is pertinent to distinguish between leadership
and management, especially when pondering the most effective route to achieve success among
the most marginalized and challenging population, continuation high schools (Nelson et al.,
2004).
Leadership vs. Management
While both are processes which necessitate working with and influencing others to
achieve a goal, leadership is distinct from management (McGowan & Miller, 2001; Northouse,
2016). The primary functions of management are to provide order, maintain stability with
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 26

existing relationships, and perpetuate consistency with procedures that have been proven to be
effective in the past (McGowan & Miller, 2001; Northouse, 2016; Zaleznik, 2004).
Management, further purported by Zaleznik (2004), is about building capability, control, and an
apposite balance of power; consequently, managers prioritize process, pursue stability and
control, and attempt to expediently resolve problems, often without entirely understanding their
significance. Leadership, in contrast, endeavors to fully understand underlying factors to resolve
problems and perpetuate progress by pursuing adaptive and productive change (Northouse,
2016). McGowan and Miller (2001) concurrently noted that leadership is about taking risks,
creating visions, challenging status quo, guiding the organization in new directions, expanding
people’s mindsets, building enthusiasm about working with children and communities,
establishing innovative structures and relationships, and advancing the prevailing cultures.
Leadership moves beyond simply managing; essentially, it utilizes challenges to grow and
incorporates elements of inspiration, vision, and passion to lead the organization to success
(Zaleznik, 2004).
Leaders, therefore, are able to manage, or ascertain that the organization is running
efficiently and effectively. Both managers and leaders are essential for any organization to
succeed, but its growth and direction is contingent upon the style, focus, priorities, and qualities
of its leader (McGowan & Miller, 2001; Northouse, 2016; Zaleznik, 2004). The process in
which a leader approaches the organization is influenced by his or her theoretical foundation.
Trait Theory
Trait theory is one of the forerunners in the study of leadership; originally focusing on
innate qualities of renowned political, social, and military leaders, such as Abraham Lincoln,
Mohandas Gandhi, or Joan of Arc, it evolved into a reconceptualized expansion of the
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 27

universality of leadership traits and relationships between people (Northouse, 2016; Oceguera,
2014; Spencer, 2002). Leaders of this caliber, Northouse (2016) suggested, are either born with
these traits, have learned them, or are a combination of both. With its focus on leaders and their
traits central to the leadership process, trait theory progressed into a list of qualities, accepted by
most researchers, that substantially contribute to a leader’s success: intelligence, self-confidence,
determination, integrity, and sociability (Spencer, 2002).
Intelligence. Per trait theory, the effectiveness of a leader is considered to be directly
related with his or her intelligence (Spencer, 2002). Strong leaders are identified as having a
higher than average intelligence, which also includes strong verbal abilities, perceptual strengths,
and stellar reasoning skills (Northouse, 2016; Spencer, 2002). Spencer (2002) further asserted
that the trait of intelligence significantly subsidizes a leader’s attainment of multifaceted problem
solving and social judgement skills. Intelligence is considered an essential trait necessary to
have a positive impact on a leader’s capacity for effectiveness (Northouse, 2016; Oceguera,
2014; Spencer, 2002).
Self-Confidence. The trait of self-confidence is referred to as a leader’s certainty about
his or her competencies and skills required to influence others and make a difference (Spencer,
2002). While based upon the trait theory premise that it is an innate quality, Bolman and Deal
(1994) asserted that a leaders' self-confidence comes from a genuine concern with helping others
or expanding knowledge, which overcomes an egocentric worry of appearances. When self-
confidence is visible, effective leaders are able to build trust and inspire others to follow their
lead (Sinek, 2011).
Determination. The trait of determination collectively involves the desire, initiative,
perseverance, governance, and ambition to accomplish an established goal (Northouse, 2016;
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 28

Spencer, 2002). Linnenbrink-Garcia, Patall, and Pekrun (2016) posited that one’s determination
is based upon intrinsic motivation, inherent satisfaction, and extrinsic motivation working toward
a separable outcome. A willingness to be proactive and persist in light of complications also
contributes to leader’s effectiveness, especially in times where dominance is necessary to
influence or direct the followers (Northouse, 2016; Spencer, 2002).
Integrity. A leader’s sense that his or her work is valuable and contributes to the
betterment of others, an intrinsic motivator, is perpetuated by his or her integrity (Sullivan,
2005). Adhering to a strong set of principles, a leader’s integrity encompasses the qualities of
honesty, trustworthiness, and taking responsibility for his or her own actions (Spencer, 2002).
Sinek (2011) asserted that integrity is more than just a leadership trait, it is the action of doing
the right thing. Through integrity, Gurr et al. (2006) indicated that a leader builds relationships
with care and respect and demonstrates successful and effective leadership.
Sociability. In conjunction with a strong ethical sense and drive to achieve goals for the
betterment of the group, sociability is a key trait for effective leadership (Gurr et al., 2006;
Northouse, 2016). Effective leaders evidence highly sociable traits, such as friendliness,
courtesy, tact, diplomacy, and sensitivity toward the needs and concern for the well-being others
(Spencer, 2002). Through sociability, leaders create and build upon positive relationships and
are more apt to influence their followers (Gurr et al., 2006; Northouse, 2016; Spencer, 2002).
In the early years of trait theory, many researchers agreed that these qualities are inherent
to successful leaders; however, as research has progressed, others have argued that effective
leadership requires more than personality traits, physical attributes, or personal values
(Oceguera, 2014). The fact that trait theory had focused exclusively on the leader, as opposed to
including situational factors or systemic dynamics, cause and effect of discoverable leadership
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 29

traits have not been fully addressed. Moreover, specific traits that would guarantee a leader’s
success in any given situation have yet to be discovered (Northouse, 2016; Spencer, 2002;
Stogdill, 1948).
Northouse (2016) postulated that early trait theorists failed to acknowledge that
leadership can be learned, that these specified traits can be developed over time, or that some
leaders can be effective in certain situations but not in other circumstances. Concurrently, Pervin
(1994) asserted that trait theory describes a leader’s effectiveness by simply narrowing it down to
innate personality traits, which is fundamentally flawed in its ability to address factors related to
personality dynamics or organizational patterns of all members within an association. Pervin
further emphasized the importance of the functionality of a leader’s personality, necessitating
further elucidations regarding the dimensions of temperament (e.g., emotionality, activity,
sociability) and semantics (e.g., evaluation and potency of effectiveness). Combining traits and
attributes into an integrated and meaningful construct, Zaccaro (2007) asserted, are more
probable in predicting effective leadership than by singling out any one particular trait. Zaccaro
further postulated that defining effective leadership patterns, such as the combination of social
acumen, awareness, and insight with appropriate responses to varied social environments and
contingent situations, can provide consistent models of effective leadership across a variation of
organizations and circumstances.
Stogdill (1948), however, challenged this notion by indicating that a leader’s skills or
traits that are effective in one organization or situation are not necessarily effective under
different circumstances or environments. Further, Stogdill contended that effective leadership is
not solely based upon a set of innate qualities; rather, it emerges in different situations where
personal relationships are built. In his longitudinal study to identify specific characteristics
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 30

commonly found in effective leaders, Stogdill postulated that successful leaders are: responsible
and driven by task completion; pursue goals with vigor and persistence; take risks and apply
innovative problem-solving skills; take initiative in social situations; adeptly influence others
behaviors; confidently exhibit a strong self-concept; actively accept responsibility for own
actions and consequences of decisions; willingly take on relational stress; demonstrate a high-
frustration tolerance threshold and patience with delayed circumstances; and build social
interaction system’s capacity for determined goals (Oceguera, 2014; Sypawka, 2008).
One way to access necessary traits for effective leadership is through the concept of
emotional intelligence (Petrides, 2010), also considered a critical trait by many (Goleman, 1998;
Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004, 2008; Salovey & Grewal, 2005; Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
According to Salovey and Mayer (1990), emotional intelligence is the ability to understand,
regulate, monitor, and access emotions of self and others to guide one's thinking and actions.
Here, the interplay between a leader’s emotions and cognitive applications (Petrides, 2010) of
necessary traits affect the leader’s choices and actions toward influencing others and leading to
common goals (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2001). Some leaders have the capability
to reason and utilize emotions to enhance thoughts and actions more effectively than others
(Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, 2004, 2008). Research yields high correlations between emotional
intelligence and efficacious leadership in business settings or like organizations (Mayer, Salovey,
Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2001; Petrides, 2010; Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005; Salovey & Grewal, 2005;
Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Leaders with higher emotional literacy are considered stronger in their
ability to cultivate productive working relationships and perpetuate behaviors conducive to
accomplishing set goals for the organization (Cherniss, Goleman, Emmerling, Cowan, & Adler,
1998; Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005; Salovey & Grewal, 2005). Clearly, traits that leaders exhibit
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 31

influence his or her followers. Traits are not only characteristics of an individual’s personality,
but are also actions put into practice (Gurr et al., 2006; Northouse, 2016; Oceguera, 2014;
Pervin, 1994; Zaccaro, 2007). In fact, theorists have suggested over the years that emotional
intelligence is a primary factor in a leader’s effectiveness in applying pertinent traits in making a
difference or leading an organization toward transformation (Cherniss et al., 1998; Gurr et al.,
2006; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2001; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2008; Rosete &
Ciarrochi, 2005; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Caruso, Mayer, and Salovey (2002) posited that
accurately recognizing emotion in one’s self and others is critical to a leaders' capacity to inspire
and build relationships. Gurr et al. (2006) furthered this postulation through their study which
indicated that personality traits and emotional recognition were positively linked to
transformational leadership.
Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership, also known as charismatic leadership, is based upon the
theory that leaders use their influence or charisma to motivate others to strive to rise to their
fullest potential and work together to produce results beyond set goals or expectations (Burns,
1978; Bolman & Deal, 1991b; Marzano et al., 2005; Northouse, 2016; Rubin et al., 2005;
Spencer, 2002). The concept of transformational leadership, initiated by Burns (1978), is
premised on the notion that leadership encompasses a dynamic reciprocity between the leader
and followers and which raises the level of morality between both (Northouse, 2016; Özaralli,
2003; Spencer, 2002). Bass (1985) furthered the idea by positing that transformational
leadership involves motivating, empowering, and transforming followers by elucidating the
critical value in task outcomes with which organizational goals or higher order needs should
transcend all self-interests (Özaralli, 2003; Spencer, 2002). Through engagement and creating
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 32

trusting and respectful connections (Northouse, 2016), the leader transforms the followers or
organization to adhere to a higher level of ethical standards and reach for long-term goals (Bass,
1985; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Spencer, 2002).
Research by Podsakoff, Dennis, MacKenzie, Moorman, and Fetter (1990) yielded
evidence suggesting that transformational leadership is multidimensional in nature and entails
the following key behaviors: identifying, developing, articulating, and inspiring others with
visions for new opportunities (e.g., vision behavior); leading by example with which followers
can emulate espoused values (e.g., model behavior); promoting cooperation, fostering acceptance
of all members of the group and developing a cohesive mentality so that all members work
together toward a common goal (e.g., goal behavior); indicating expectations for excellence,
quality, and high performance by all followers (e.g., expectations behavior); providing
individualized support for all members through demonstrations of respect and concern for their
personal feelings and needs (e.g., supportive behavior); and challenging followers to re-evaluate
personal assumptions about their work ethic and rethink how work can be achieved (e.g.,
intellectual stimulation behavior). Through transformational strategies such as these, Özaralli
(2003) concurred that the leader empowers the followers and increases team effectiveness.
Hence, attentiveness to the needs and motivational factors of all followers is necessary in order
for a transformational leader to guide the followers in reaching their full potential (Spencer,
2002).
Clearly, much research has been aimed at the theory of transformational leadership (Bass,
1985; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Bolman & Deal, 1991a, 1991b; Burns, 1978; Leithwood, 1994;
Marzano et al., 2005; Northouse, 2016; Özaralli, 2003; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Rubin et al.,
2005). Among this research, a commonality of critical tenets of transformational leadership has
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 33

taken precedence. It is agreed that the skills needed for principals to be effective
transformational leaders include: inspirational motivation, where high expectations are conveyed
and modeled through the leader’s behaviors and articulated visions; individual consideration,
where coaching or personal attention is provided to followers to stimulate learning, enhance
professional growth, and empower individuals to rise above status quo; intellectual stimulation,
where followers are motivated through new and challenging ideas and are encouraged to use
innovative and divergent thinking skills prior to taking action or solving problems; and idealized
influence or charisma, where leaders represent strong moral and ethical conduct through
personal accomplishments and demonstrate character such that followers hold them in the
highest regard with great trust and a desire to emulate their behaviors (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978;
Leithwood, 1994; Marzano et al., 2005; Northouse, 2016). Through the applications of these
tenets, leaders are able to guide their followers through a transformational process.
Full Range Leadership Theory
The Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT) was first hypothesized through the work of
Avolio and Bass (2001) as they began to explore the tenets of transformational leadership
(Abbas, Iqbal, Waheed, & Naveed Riaz, 2012). Initiated with Bass’s (1985) research, they
began to extrapolate ideas regarding effective leadership traits and theorize that leadership styles
are mostly comprised of three general domains: transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire
(Abbas et al., 2012; Antonakis & House, 2014).
Whereas transformational leadership is multidimensional and based upon influencing
others through building common bonds and creating trusting and respectful connections (Bass,
1985; Northouse, 2016; Spencer, 2002), transactional leadership utilizes the exchange of rewards
contingent upon a presentation of desired behaviors (Antonakis & House, 2014). While the
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 34

transformational leader articulates a shared vision with the followers and creates reciprocated
trust, the transactional leader employs a mutual exchange process to illicit anticipated outcomes
from the followers (Antonakis & House, 2014; Burns, 1978; Spencer, 2002; Waldman, Bass, &
Einstein, 1987). Both leadership styles actively seek to engage the followers and gain a
commitment to progress toward or achieve an established goal; one is accomplished through the
leader’s charisma and development of a mutual vision, while the other is by means of specific
transactions of rewards for completed responsibilities. In a completely different light, the
laissez-faire leadership style takes a passive approach; this leadership style does not proactively
engage the followers, but rather reacts to problems once they have become obvious obstacles to
goal attainment (Antonakis & House, 2014; Bush & Glover, 2003; Spencer, 2002). The laissez-
faire leader does not notice or monitor mistakes as closely as the transformational or
transactional leader, and is known to abdicate all leadership roles and responsibilities until
absolutely necessary (Antonakis & House, 2014; Spencer, 2002).
In reflection of all three leadership styles of FRLT, research indicated that
transformational leadership style is considered the most effective in gaining common values and
commitment toward a mission, especially for achieving long-term objectives (Antonakis &
House, 2014; Spencer, 2002). With the tenets of transformational leadership in mind, the
process of comparing the effectiveness of these three types of leadership evolved into the
creation of an open-ended questionnaire, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire™ (Avolio &
Bass, 2004). This assessment protocol has been utilized and validated across a variation of
sectors, such as industry (Hater & Bass, 1988) and the military (Yammarino & Bass, 1990),
resulting in the Full Range Leadership (FRL) model and training program (Antonakis & House,
2014; Avolio et al., 1999; Bass, 2009).
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 35

Continuation High Schools
According to the Legislative Analyst’s Office (Taylor, 2015), continuation high schools
are one of six types of alternative school options authorized by the State. The vision of
alternative schools is for all students, identified as at-risk, to graduate from high school prepared
for college, career, and adulthood (Taylor, 2015). The literature, however, highlighted historical
and current challenges in the form of conflicting, inconsistent, and ambiguous policy that serve
as impediments towards accomplishing this vision (Taylor, 2015; Ruiz de Velasco &
McLaughlin, 2012).
Contextual Background
The State indicates that continuation education is a high school diploma program
designed to meet the needs of students 16 through 18 years of age who have not graduated
from high school, are legally required to attend school, and are at risk of dropping out (CDE,
2017c). The State adds that many students in continuation high school are credit deficient and
may need a flexible school schedule due to employment demands, family needs, or other
circumstances (CDE, 2018a). Whereas, traditional sites require their students to attend six
hours of school per day, students in continuation schools are required to attend a minimum of
three hours per school day (CDE, 2018a). Like traditional schools, continuation schools are
operated by school districts and required to meet minimum State graduation requirements; yet,
the graduation requirements for continuation students may be lower than that of traditional
schools and their enrollment size is much smaller than traditional high schools – with a median
of about 100 students per school compared to a median of about 1,300 students at traditional
high schools (Taylor, 2015).
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 36

Due to high rates of mobility, the available demographic and performance indicators for
alternative and continuation settings are often estimates (CDE, 2017d; Austin, et al., 2008; Ruiz
de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Warren, 2016; Williamson, 2008). Annually, alternative schools
serve approximately half a million students who are considered at risk of dropping out of school
or are not successful in traditional schools (Taylor, 2015). The literature noted that on any given
school day, an estimated 5% of students (1 in 20) are enrolled in an alternative school, the
majority of students (over 95%) enrolled in alternative education are at the high school level, and
nearly two-thirds of alternative school students are enrolled in a continuation education setting
(Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016; Williamson, 2008). California has about 468 to 500 continuation
high schools which serve approximately 116,000 or 10 to 15% of the student population over the
course of a school year (CDE, 2017a; Taylor, 2015; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Warren, 2016;
Williamson, 2008). The numbers fluctuate due to schools’ openings and closures.
Historical Overview
American continuation education was based on British and German 1870s continuation
school models which emphasized adaptability to the social, political, and economic needs of
the time; local implementation with limited accountability; and site management that falls
largely to the continuation educator or principal (Williamson, 2008). Based on this model, the
first continuation school was established in Wisconsin in 1911 and in 1917 the Smith-Hughes
Act authorized federal funding for local continuation schools throughout the nation
(Williamson, 2008). The literature noted that the provisions regarding alternative schools are
outdated and do not align with the 21st century demands of a global economy (Ruiz de Velasco
& Gonzales, 2017; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016; Williamson,
2008). As an example, the limited requirement for school attendance and vocational emphasis
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 37

in the Education Code suggests tolerance for lowered expectations regarding achievement for
continuation students, which patently contradicts the mission of continuation schools to ensure
at-risk youth graduate prepared for college, career, and adulthood (Taylor, 2015; Ruiz de
Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012).
The literature categorized continuation education’s evolution into four general eras
(Kelly, 1993; Williamson, 2008). From 1917 to 1930, continuation education mainly aimed at
preparing students for industrial vocation, citizenship, the assimilation of recent immigrants,
and placement into work. Between 1931 to 1944, the focus evolved to vocational guidance
rather than placement due to increased levels of unemployment and criminalization of loitering
and unemployed young men of color and poverty, in particular. During 1945 to 1964,
continuation education emphasized the socialization and reforming of students referred to as
“maladjusted youth” (Williamson, 2008, p. 10). In the era from 1965 to present time, dropout
prevention has been the primary purpose of continuation education.
Today, continuation schools are referred to as “a cornerstone of the State’s dropout
prevention strategy” (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008, p. 1). Efforts promotive of positive
graduation rates are of critical importance because dropping out of high school increases the
likelihood of poverty, poor health, unemployment or low-wages, delinquency, family
dysfunction, mental illness, inequality, and significant economic strain to the local community
and country (Alliance for Excellent Education, n.d.; Anderson, 2014; Bjerk, 2012; Campbell,
2015; Chung, 2015; Gurantz, 2010). While the average public expenditure per pupil enrolled in
California elementary and secondary schools is approximately $10,000 (Fensterwald, 2017), a
1998 study by Cohen (as cited in Anderson, 2014), estimated that the cost to society for a high
school dropout is about $300,000 over that individual’s lifetime. Other research iterated that
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 38

dropouts are at greater risk of incarceration and mental illness; in California, the average cost per
year to incarcerate a minor is $208,338 and $47,421 for an adult (Henrichson & Delaney, 2012;
Petteruti, Schindler, & Ziedenberg, 2014). Clearly, it is in the interest of the individual and
society at large to invest in research as an impetus to ascertaining empirically validated, best
practices towards efforts in positive educational outcomes, including dropout prevention, for
students.
Continuation high schools face unique contextual challenges. The literature indicated
that due to “contradictory, confusing, and inconsistent” State accountability for continuation
schools, there is great variance in the educational quality and experiences of the students they
serve (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012, p. 6). Based on information from the CDE,
California’s overall graduation rate has shown improvement over the last seven years and is
currently at 83% (CDE, 2017d). Yet, research indicated great disparities among settings; on
average, California’s continuation school students are two and one-half times more likely to
dropout compared to peers in traditional settings (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). In the 2012-
2013 school year, from a sample of 258 continuation schools, 86% had a graduation rate below
83% with seven as low as zero percent and nine with a 100% graduation rate (Gordon, 2017).
Students
Continuation high school youth are exceptionally vulnerable and must confront and
overcome harsh obstacles interfering with their path towards graduation. Although continuation
education data lacks precision and there is significant variation between schools, research
emphasized highly apparent commonalities. As mentioned, compared to peers in traditional
settings, continuation students are significantly behind in academic credits and have a higher risk
of dropping out (Taylor, 2015; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017). Moreover, a meta-analysis
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 39

of health-related research in alternative high schools from 2010 to 2015 found that these students
experience a disproportionate range of risk factors that manifests in much higher involvement in
health-risk behaviors and levels of mental health problems (Johnson et al., 2016). This meta-
analysis also found that increased parental influence and monitoring correlated with decreased
use of illicit drugs and gang involvement among students. Students in alternative education
commonly experience low parental involvement (Munoz, 2004). Further, the study by Johnson
et al. (2016) found that, compared to traditional settings, alternative schools have greater
availability of high-fat/salty foods and described some of the school buildings and resources as
being in “despair” (p. 26) suggesting that the alternative school environment may affect the
mental health of its students. Continuation students are two to three times as likely to engage in
regular and heavy alcohol and drug use (including at school), physical fights, truancy, and
sexually risky behaviors (Johnson et al., 2016; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Munoz,
2004). Continuation schools enroll a disproportionately high percentage of foster youth, English
Learners, Black, Latino, transient, and low-income students; these students are more likely to
experience physical victimization in and out of school (Taylor, 2015; Ruiz de Velasco &
Gonzales, 2017; Johnson et al., 2016; Malagon & Alvarez, 2010; Williamson, 2008). In the face
of these adversities, research indicated that effective leadership within continuation schools can
help set the stage for empowerment, educational success, and social-emotional resiliency among
our most vulnerable students at risk of dropping out (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Farris, 2014;
Zolkoski et al., 2016).
Accountability
Despite the important role of continuation education in dropout prevention and
supporting positive student outcomes for some of our most neglected youth, the State’s current
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 40

school accountability system does not hold continuation schools accountable for short- or long-
term performance objectives. This systemic issue impedes the identification of continuation
schools that may or may not be serving students well, or for providing those low-performing
schools with appropriate supports, intervention, and incentives for improvement (Ruiz de
Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016). Primarily due to high mobility rates,
existing measures of State accountability based on performance data do not adequately evaluate
student progress in continuation schools (Austin et al., 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales,
2017; Warren, 2016; Williamson, 2008). Typically, students enroll for less than one year in a
given continuation school, which means that the State’s use of a four-year cohort graduation rate
to calculate dropout and graduation rates generally cannot be calculated for continuation
schools. Also, due to an average enrollment period of four to five months, student performance
on annual State standardized test scores are not likely a reflection of the present continuation
school’s effect on his/her learning, but rather that of previous schooling (Ruiz de Velasco &
McLaughlin, 2012). Moreover, the State does not require the systematic data collection/analysis
on the rate of transfer to non-alternative settings such as back to the traditional or postsecondary
settings (Taylor, 2015).
The previously administered Alternative Schools Accountability Model (ASAM) was
developed in 2000 by the CDE in conjunction with the 1999 Public Schools Accountability
Act (PSAA, Williamson, 2008). Between 2003 and 2009, the State used the ASAM rather
than traditional indicators for alternative schools. However, the ASAM system was never
fully implemented in large part because the intervening federal No Child Left Behind Act of
2001 required that alternative schools meet the same Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) criteria
like other schools (Taylor, 2015; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017). ASAM data collection
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 41

and reporting thus became voluntary, performance indicators varied making comparisons
across continuation schools unreliable, and data provided an incomplete picture of
continuation schools’ performance in that it only included students who were enrolled for at
least 90 days (Taylor, 2015; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Williamson, 2008). In 2009,
Governor Schwarzenegger vetoed funding for the ASAM program and was discontinued
altogether beginning with the 2010-11 school year. Many continuation schools did not have a
sufficient number of applicable test scores to receive an accountability report between 2009
and 2013 (Taylor, 2015; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017).
In 2013, the State passed AB 570 in an effort to put districts on notice and create
incentives to move more affirmatively towards ameliorating the accountability gap (Ruiz de
Velasco & Gonzales, 2017). Also, in 2013, the State adopted the Local Control Funding
Formula (LCFF) which significantly changed the school accountability system as indicated in the
California School Dashboard (CDE, 2018b). Performance indicators and standards identify the
strengths and areas in need of improvement for traditional, K-12 schools. Yet, the Dashboard
does not adequately evaluate the performance of alternative schools (CDE, 2017b; Ruiz de
Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015).
In 2014, the first year of implementation of the State’s newest accountability report,
many Local Control and Accountability Plans (LCAPs) disregarded alternative schools (Taylor,
2015; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017). The risk of such practice is that if alternative
schools’ outcomes are not separately emphasized in LCAPs, then performance indicators of
alternative education will continue to be concealed by district or county averages. Further, if
issues at alternative schools are ignored then systemic equitable access to appropriate State
support and intervention will be denied to our most at-risk youth (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008).
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 42

Consequently, in July of 2017, the State approved the Dashboard Alternative School
Status (DASS) program (CDE, 2018b). DASS holds alternative schools accountable for
modified methods of measurement for indicators that are aligned with the evaluation rubrics of
the LCFF to evaluate the success or progress of schools that serve high-risk students. DASS will
be incorporated in the Dashboard beginning with the fall 2018 release. The State Board of
Education (SBE) has yet to decide the cut points/modified methods at this time (CDE, 2018b).
Based on a review of the literature regarding best practices for improving accountability
in continuation education, it was recommended that schools measure academic performance on
State-approved pre- and post-benchmarks, credits earned, continued use of annual standardized
tests to measure the performance of their longer-term students, successful transitions (e.g., return
to traditional setting, post-secondary program, etc.), and one-year graduation rates for seniors
(Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016). It was also recommended
that the State collect and publish performance data in accountability reports for all continuation
schools regardless of enrollment numbers and that any additional indicators it adopts to measure
continuation schools’ performance be comparable across all continuation schools to identify best
practices and schools in need of support or intervention (Taylor, 2015). Moreover, it was
recommended that DASS include accountability indicators regarding school connectedness (e.g.,
attendance, punctuality), additional special indicators for vulnerable populations (e.g., pregnant
and parenting youth, lesbian, gay, bi-sexual, or transgender youth, etc.), and that continuation
schools establish clear identification, placement, orientation, and monitoring procedures for all
students (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016).

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 43

Effective Leadership
Although there are serious challenges inherent to continuation education, effective
leadership at the principal level is foundational to high-performing continuation schools (Bush,
2012; Farris, 2014; Hemmer, Madsen, & Torres,, 2013; Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco
et al., 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Sumbera, 2017). Research findings
proposed that continuation schools are more likely to ensure their students graduate from high
school with 21st century skills requisite for post-secondary education and/or career readiness if
the following key practices are established (Bush, 2012; Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de
Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). First, effective continuation
principals have positive expectations for students and clear goals that align with the mission,
vision, and practices of stakeholders. For example, Bush and Glover (2012) found that high-
performing schools incorporate structural modifications, such as altered course structures, short-
term modules, and performance-based credit recovery. With regard to curriculum design, Bush
and Glover found that high-performing schools applied a data-driven approach to address
learning gaps, backward-mapping to State standards, and online learning. These beliefs and
practices are consistent with the vision, expectations, and goal-oriented tenets of
transformational leadership (Podsakoff et al., 1990).
Second, effective schools have transparent and consistent intake and transfer processes
that are reinforced by district administration and aligns with the school’s goals (Ruiz de Velasco
& McLaughlin, 2012). For example, effective continuation schools limit involuntary transfers to
other appropriate alternative programs designed to meet the needs of students with behavioral
challenges. Third, effective continuation principals drive school improvement by regularly
monitoring reliable and meaningful data (e.g., attendance, graduation and transfer rates, etc.) and
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 44

participating in the accreditation process by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges
(WASC) or Model Continuation High School (MCHS) distinction (Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz
de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Warren, 2016). Also, partaking
in the WASC and MCHS processes are a means of mitigating the negative effects of inadequate
State accountability for alternative schools. Further, there is a culture of validation and
recognition of students/staff for educational growth and progress (e.g., benchmark assessments,
credit recovery). Fourth, high-performing schools apply a variety of innovative methods to
expand instructional minutes for students beyond the minimum State requirements of three hours
per day so as to facilitate collaboration/planning between teachers, direct instruction, and
expanded curricular options (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). These
practices are exemplars of transformational leadership in that the principal cultivates
collaborative efforts among staff toward a shared goal, high expectations, and intellectual
stimulation (Podsakoff et al., 1990).
Fifth, effective principals spearhead intentional efforts to analyze school climate data to
foster a safe, supportive, caring, and engaging learning environment (Bush, 2012). This fifth
element compliments descriptive research by Perez and Johnson (2008) and Ruiz de Velasco and
Gonzales (2017) who contended that school connectedness and caring relationships among staff
and students are imperative to effective continuation schools. This finding is consistent with that
of a mixed-methods study by Brown (2007) and a qualitative study by te Riele, Mills, McGregor,
and Baroutsis (2017), both conducted in alternative high school settings, which concluded that
fostering a culture of trusting and caring relationships were identified as imperative factors for
both students and staff (Brown, 2007). These findings are consistent with transformational
leadership as it noted the intentional creation of an engaging and positive school culture
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 45

committed to high expectations and ethical standards (Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1993;
Northouse, 2016).
Similarly, effective continuation principals are team oriented and consistently utilize and
cultivate discipline policies and practices that are restorative, grounded in a system of positive
behavioral intervention support, and solution/resolution focused (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco &
McLaughlin, 2012). Moreover, high-performing schools had innovative principal and staff
leaders that provided a range of academic, social-emotional, post-secondary, and vocational
supports on and off campus, including building alliances and working relationships with local
agencies and businesses in the interest of students (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz
de Velasco et al., 2008). Lastly, effective leaders are supported by district administration in
areas of relevant and ongoing professional development tailored to the unique needs of
continuation schools and create incentives to attract highly-skilled staff (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de
Velasco & Gonzales, 2017).
Overall, despite the challenges inherent to continuation school settings, the literature
affirmed a variety of best practices identified within high-performing continuation schools
throughout the State under effective principal leadership (Bush, 2012; Farris, 2014; Hemmer et
al., 2013; Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al.,
2008; Sumbera, 2017).
Model Continuation High Schools
As noted, effective continuation principals utilized a practice to drive school
improvement – initiating accountability via external validation processes, such as through the
MCHS distinction or WASC accreditation, as a means of mitigating the negative effects of
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 46

inadequate State accountability for alternative schools (Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco
& McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008).
Initiated as a joint project, the CDE and the California Continuation Education
Association (CCEA) have created a recognition program, the Model Continuation High School
(MCHS) Recognition Program, to identify and recognize exemplary continuation high schools
(CDE, 2018c). The selected schools are recognized for the comprehensive services provided to
their at-risk student population, evidenced through flexible scheduling, pedagogical strategies,
guidance, and counseling. Having qualified as model schools, these continuation high schools
provide high quality standards that can be emulated in other continuation high schools
throughout the State. In fact, an annual list of these purposively selected schools is used as a
resource of high caliber programs for school visitations from other California continuation high
schools. These programs are selected through a rigorous application process which includes a
peer-review panel and on-site visitation to ascertain effectiveness, assessments, and the use of
data to provide evidence-based achievement. When the California Superintendent of Schools,
Tom Torlakson, announced the Model Continuation High Schools for 2017, he described these
schools as being innovative, effective programs that work to motivate and support at-risk youth
and help them achieve their fullest potential (CDE, 2017f). He then described their creative
programs, such as STEM and Career Technical Education classes, that guide and prepare this
population of students for 21st century careers and college. These schools, in essence, have been
chosen for their efforts and success in changing the trajectories of their at-risk youth. At the very
core of each school, is a leader; an impassioned and driven principal who has modeled a clear
vision, firm values, and great influence over the staff, students, and community. Without great
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 47

leadership, continuation high schools will continue to exist in the peripheral of typical high
schools and perpetuate the marginalization of its populace.
Conclusion
Based on a comprehensive review of the literature there are both theoretical and
empirical justifications for conducting research regarding effective principal leadership in
distinguished Model Continuation High Schools. This is an important area of investigation
because continuation students are highly vulnerable youth who generally are at greatest risk of
dropout. There is an abundance of research on leadership theory, yet research on the
perceptions, practices, and leadership styles of principals of MCHS is limited. The research
indicated that the function of continuation schools has varied over the century. Presently, they
are meant to prevent dropout, yet they significantly vary in quality, serve the highest numbers of
disenfranchised students in the State, and have inadequate and outdated State accountability.
Processes such as WASC accreditation and MCHS distinction as well as anticipated improved
DASS State accountability system are predicted to positively impact the quality of continuation
high schools. Nonetheless, further research is needed to validate this assumption. Chapter Three
will include a discussion of the research design, data collection, and data analysis.

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 48

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This chapter includes a brief summary of the problem, purpose, review of literature, and
research questions that guided this study. It also includes an overview of the design of the study,
as well as a description of the participants, setting, instrumentation, data collection procedures,
and the methods of data analysis. It concludes with a summary of the research methodology and
preview of Chapters Four and Five.
Restatement of the Problem, Purpose, and Research Questions
California continuation high schools are multi-faceted organizations comprised of
students at risk of not graduating, who often have very high needs and face very difficult
challenges (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). The complex challenges in leading these
organizations are made more difficult, given the low priority that is placed on the research,
administration, and accountability of continuation education (Villalobos, 2014). With regard to
the research, it was documented that there is scant research available to influence and improve
practices at continuation schools (Ruiz de Velasco et al, 2008; Villalobos, 2014). The
administration of a continuation school is inconsistent from school to school, given that
alternative education (AE) models operate with ambiguous legislation, an over-generalized
mission, a weak accountability system, and a lack of data (Williamson, 2008). Lastly, there has
historically been little to no effective forms of State accountability (Warren, 2016). Given these
conditions, there is a tremendous need for quality leadership which can successfully shape a
school that can provide a world-class education for its at-risk students.
The review of the literature showed that while there is ample literature on qualities of
effective principal leaders in traditional settings, research regarding key qualities of effective
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 49

principal leadership in California continuation high schools is sparse (Goldring et al., 2009; Hitt
& Tucker, 2016; Leithwood, Seashore Louis et al., 2004; Winton & Pollock, 2016). Further, the
literature that does highlight continuation principal leadership only highlights a few key
qualities, such as being team oriented, consistently utilizing and cultivating discipline policies
and practices that are restorative, and solution/resolution focused (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco
& McLaughlin, 2012). Based on a review of the literature, there is a need for specific research
that captures leadership styles, orientations, or constructs of effective continuation principals. To
address this gap in the literature, the purpose of this study was to examine, through the lens of
Full Range Leadership Theory (Avolio et al., 1999), the efficacious leadership qualities and
practices of principals from alternative school settings who are deemed successful through
recognition as California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS). Hence, the following
research questions were used to guide this study:
1. Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly
identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as
identified by their teachers?
2. What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to
successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes?
3. As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals
utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success?
4. How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of
their schools?

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 50

Design Overview
This study was completed using the Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods design
which is a two-phase study that first involves collecting and analyzing data quantitatively, then
next builds upon the results through a qualitative study (Creswell, 2014). Moreover, Malloy
(2011) purported that a mixed methodology most thoroughly answers all research questions;
therefore, this sequential approach is specifically designed to provide qualitative data that
expands upon the initial quantitative results (Creswell, 2014), and further supports generated
answers to the research questions. The most evident benefits to a mixed-method design is that it
draws on the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative designs, is appealing to those at the
forefront of research due to its sophistication, and provides a more complete understanding of
research problems (Creswell, 2014; Malloy, 2011).
The quantitative instrumentation, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire™ 5X (MLQ-
5X, Avolio & Bass, 2004), ideally answered the research question seeking to identify the
statistically predominant leadership style of principals, based on the perceptions of their teachers,
as indicated on the questionnaires. Creswell (2014) suggested that quantitative results often
guide the researchers in moving toward the second, qualitative, phase of the study. Qualitative
research, as described by Creswell (2014), is an inductive method of inquiry that focuses on the
meaning and accentuates the importance of the interpretation behind the complexity of given
situations or phenomenology. Through this methodology, interviews with Model Continuation
High School (MCHS) principals were utilized to explore the most efficacious leadership traits
and practices in which they believe are essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve
laudable outcomes, along with the ways in which they measure the effectiveness of their schools.
As a point of comparison, non-MCHS teachers were also surveyed through the MLQ-5X (Avolio
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 51

& Bass, 2004) and their principals were interviewed to see whether there are leadership
similarities or differences from their model-school counterparts.
As the quantitative data, ascertained through the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) results,
indicated predominant leadership traits of the selected continuation high school principals, the
qualitative portion of the research began to analyze school documents and fine tune the interview
questions to learn more about the identified predominant leadership styles. Therefore, the
generated results from the data collection instrument, MLQ-5X, were then used to modify the
types of probes included on the qualitative interview questions regarding the predominant
leadership style of the selected principal participants. To help further explain or provide more
detail to the initial quantitative results, a document analysis was also employed as a phase-two
qualitative measure. In short, after analyzing the quantitative data of the MLQ-5X, this study
then utilized qualitative measures, such as specified interview questions and document analysis,
to support findings aimed at answering all research questions.
Validation of data was accomplished through triangulation. The logic of triangulation is
based on the premise that no single method adequately solves the problem of rival explanations
(Patton, 2002). Triangulation facilitates validation of data through cross verification of multiple
data sources, such as the research base, surveys, interviews, and document analysis (Creswell,
2014; Patton, 2002). Accordingly, the researchers performed a document analysis of the Model
Continuation High School (MCHS) application as a means of validating reported beliefs and
practices as indicated on the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) surveys by the teachers and
interviews with principals. Through this means of triangulation, an evaluation of consistency
among all gathered information and their findings from the different sources was completed.

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 52

Sample and Population
Since there are currently no State-sanctioned accountability methods for continuation
education, continuation schools largely have to rely on self-accountability. The largest program
for continuation schools is the California Model Continuation High School (MCHS) program,
which involves a rigorous self-study that is submitted to the State (CDE, 2018c). The MCHS
program requires that key components are in place for selected schools. With this information in
mind, three types of purposeful sampling were used in this study–unique, convenience, and
snowball or network (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The selected sites and participants are
considered unique, exemplary and successful based upon their status as MCHS. The unique
organizational attributes and pedagogical practices of selected sites and participants are
informative to this research. As a point of comparison, non-MCHS schools were also selected
and these schools and their leaders were based off of convenience.
Creswell (2014) stated that the sample size depends on the research design and
phenomenological studies typically range from three to 10 participants. The researchers utilized
convenience sampling for the selection of the nine research-worthy sites because this
methodology facilitated increased opportune access to the participants in consideration of time
limitations, familiarity, location, and availability (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Therefore, the
setting for the study was limited to six Model Continuation High Schools and three non-Model
Continuation High Schools located in southern California. Subsequently, each researcher
individually evaluated documents, surveys, and interview data from two separate MCHS and one
non-MCHS for this study.
The selection of participants in this study is considered snowball or network sampling
because the school principal participants were specifically selected through the generated list of
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 53

State selected Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS). For the non-MCHSs, information
from the teachers’ completed MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) paved the way for interviewing
their respective principals. All teachers from the selected continuation high school sites were
given the opportunity to complete the MLQ-5X questionnaire, which served for the quantitative
data collection and guided the study in determining the predominant leadership type of their
principals. The most prolific leadership styles were then distilled from the data collection tool,
MLQ-5X, which was then used to craft a purposeful interview from the sample of principals.
These principals were then interviewed by the researcher regarding essential leadership qualities,
attributes, and worldviews that helped them lead their programs.
Instrumentation
The quantitative data was collected using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire™
Form-5X (MLQ-5X, Avolio & Bass, 2004). The MLQ-5X is the most widely used data
collection tool to measure the Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT) developed by Avolio and
Bass (Antonakis, Avolio & Sivasubramaniam, 2003; Muenjohn & Armstrong, 2008). The MLQ-
5X FRLT assesses for the three classifications of leadership behavior–transformational,
transactional, and passive/avoidant leadership. These classifications are represented and
assessed by nine distinct factors (Mind Garden, Inc., 2004). The first five elements constitute
transformational leadership: (1) idealized influence–attributed (IIA), (2) idealized influence–
behavior (IIB), (3) inspirational motivation (IM), (4) intellectual stimulation (IS), and
(5) individualized consideration (IC). The next two components that constitute transactional
leadership are: (6) contingent reward leadership (CR) and (7) and management-by-exception
active (MBEA). The last two factors assessed for passive/avoidant leadership are
(8) management-by-exception passive (MBEP) and (9) laissez-faire leadership (LF) (Mind
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 54

Garden, Inc., 2004). The MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) contains 45 items that represent the
nine factors mentioned of the three leadership classifications (Mind Garden, Inc., 2004).
Respondents answered how frequently their supervisors display the behaviors that match the
leadership style using a 5-point, Likert-scale questionnaire with the responses of 1=not at all,
2=once in a while, 3=sometimes, 4=fairly often, and 5=always (Muenjohn & Armstrong, 2008;
Özaralli, 2003). The MLQ-5X is considered the best validated measure of transformational and
transactional leadership (Özaralli, 2003). Antonakis et al. (2003) conducted research on the
MLQ-5X and found the assessment to be useful and sufficiently valid in measuring for Full
Range Leadership Theory (FRLT). Muenjohn and Armstrong (2008) conducted a study that
examined the structural validity and internal reliability of the MLQ-5X and established that the
Cronbach’s alpha was 0.86, which is considered a relatively strong reliability (Kurpius &
Stafford, 2006). Finally, as posited by Muenjohn and Armstrong, the MLQ- 5X is a valid
quantitative assessment with which researchers can confidently use as an instrumentation to
measure for transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership factors. True to the
explanatory, sequential mixed methodology, quantitative information gathered from the results
of the MLQ-5X paved the way for identifying supportive documents and crafting pertinent,
qualitative interview questions that would build upon the initial quantitative results. For this
study, gaining an understanding of the principal leadership styles, perspectives, and applications
of their worldviews into the school cultures of effective MCHS continuation schools was of
primary concern.
While the selection of non-MCHS schools were chosen by convenience of location and
availability, MCHS principal selection was limited to those who have served at their sites for a
minimum of three years, thus matching the MCHS three-year cycle. Being purposeful about the
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 55

sample allowed the data collection to be gathered from those who were best in a position to offer
insight and understanding (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) to pertinent leadership practices,
specifically as they related to the continuation high school culture. Therefore, the predominant
leadership traits, quantitatively measured through the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004), were
used to craft a purposeful interview with the sample of principals as part of the qualitative study.
Qualitative data was gathered from interviews of the principals. The research interview,
a procedure where the researcher and participant discuss queries related to the topic of inquiry, is
considered a major source of the qualitative data necessary for understanding the phenomenon
under study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). While research questions formulate what the study
intends to understand, the interview asks participants related questions to gain deeper
understanding, from their perspectives, of the phenomenon (Maxwell, 2013). Again, gaining an
understanding of the MCHS participants’ perspectives and applications of their worldviews into
the continuation high school cultures, as compared to non-MCHS, is of primary concern;
therefore, interviewing is considered an optimal choice in gathering this data (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). A semi-structured interview was conducted with each respondent, which offers
the strengths of minimizing interviewer effects and bias since several interviewers were used
(Patton, 2002). An interview guide was made with a variety of questions (opinion/values,
feeling, knowledge, sensory, experience/behavior) so that the respondents could express the
totality of their experiences in their own terms (Patton, 2002). This format also served as a guide
to assist in gaining specific data from the participants, yet allowed for probing of questions when
clarification or extrapolation became necessary to gain a deeper understanding of the
phenomenology.

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 56

Data Collection Procedures
Prior to beginning the research and gaining access/entry to the sites where the study was
conducted, Creswell (2014) encouraged researchers to consider codes of ethics, such as
professional association standards, while gaining local permission from site and/or district
administrators and participants. The lists of California Model Continuation High Schools were
retrieved from the CDE website (CDE, 2016; 2017f; 2018d). Online research was conducted
and/or phone calls made to ascertain whether the current principal had been at the given site for
at least three years. Non-MCHS’s were identified by convenience of location and availability,
by means of internet search and phone contacts. When it was determined that MCHS schools
had the same principal in that position for at least three years, permission was sought from each
principal to survey the school teachers with the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) tool.
Permission from the non-MCHS principals was also granted to survey the school teachers with
the same instrument, the MLQ-5X. Each principal was given information regarding the purpose
of the study, the format of the study, their role to help facilitate an introduction with the teachers
and a follow-up principal interview. By means of physical or electronic
introduction/explanation, participant teachers were then given the purpose of the study, the
method of the study, and a disclosure of the research team’s commitment to ethics, followed by
the MLQ-5X survey. This was done during a part of their staff meeting or by an email with a
video clip explaining the process and providing the link to the study. The researcher provided an
invitation to the teachers to participate, which reiterated the purpose of the study and provided
the link to the MLQ-5X survey. Teachers spent about 15 minutes completing the MLQ-5X
survey. After survey data was analyzed, a follow-up interview was scheduled with the
principals. The principals were interviewed in their respective offices or location of their
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 57

choosing to ensure that the environment was comfortable and confidential. Each principal was
told how he was selected and ensured that there was no obligation to partake.
For the semi-structured, guided interviews, questions were crafted purposefully based
upon results from the quantitative data, following the criteria described in the instrumentation
and protocols section of this chapter. The selected respondents were called, and the researcher
identified him or herself, restated the background and purpose of the interview, and scheduled a
place, time, and date to conduct the interview. Each participant was informed that their real
names would not be used, nor would the name of the school be included in the dissertation. With
the granted permission of respondents, the interviews were audio recorded for posterity. This
allowed the researcher to focus more on the participant and not solely on writing down detailed
notes, even though some notes were taken during and after the interview (Patton, 2002). The
recordings also assisted with filling in missing gaps when transcribing, or reviewing, the
interview seemed unclear. The recordings were professionally transcribed onto a Microsoft
Word document using Rev software.
Data Analysis
The goal of this study was to examine the effective leadership qualities and practices of
principals from successful alternative school settings that were recognized as MCHS based on
Full Range Leadership Theory (Avolio et al., 1999). The researchers’ intent was to generate a
rich portrayal of the multifaceted phenomena of successful MCHS principals’ worldviews and
constructs involved in the creation of environments where marginalized populations of students
are transformed into thriving continuation high school campuses which have risen to a level of
State recognition. The Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods methodology assisted in
providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research questions (Creswell, 2014;
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 58

Malloy, 2011). Quantitative data derived from the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) and
qualitative information gathered from the interviews were then triangulated with data from the
document analysis of the MCHS application from the purposefully selected sites in this study,
along with the research base on effective leadership, framed on theories of constructivism and
phenomenology. By means of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting the data acquired from
studying these MCHS principals’ worldviews, policies, processes, and practices, the researchers
were able to formulate germane assertions that could possibly expand upon current research and
create hypothesis for further studies, as well as answer the research questions.
After all data was collected, the researchers utilized the Google Highlight Tool to
facilitate the examination of the interview and the document analysis of the MCHS Application
whereby the results were organized into small detailed categories in an open coding process
(Corbin & Strauss, 2008). As new information was identified, a new code was created. After no
new codes could be identified, a second step of axial coding was initiated (Corbin & Strauss,
2008). During the axial coding process, the researchers grouped similar pieces of open codes,
creating larger pieces of data or themes. The final step in the coding process was selective
coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) where main themes were identified. During each step in the
evaluation of the data, the focus was on how the survey, interview, document analysis, and
research or theoretical framework triangulated to address the research questions of this study.
Ethical Considerations
The validity, or credibility, and reliability, or dependability, of a study are contingent
upon the researcher’s ethics (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Patton (2002) further emphasized that
the trustworthiness of a study’s data is directly tied to the trustworthiness of the researcher who
collects and analyzes it. Fully aware that the role as a researcher could have a direct impact on
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 59

the relationship with the participants and outcome of the research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), the
researcher embarked to answer several ethical questions, as recommended by Linda Tuhiwai
Smith (Tuhiwai Smith, 1999),
Who defined the research problem? For whom is the study worthy and relevant? Who
says so? What knowledge will the community gain from the study? What knowledge
will the researcher gain from the study? What are some likely positive outcomes from
the study? What are some possible negative outcomes? To whom is the researcher
accountable? (p. 173)
The researcher reflected upon these questions throughout the research process, from start to
completion.
Additionally, the researcher referred to Merriam and Tisdell’s (2016) Ethical Issues
Checklist, which delineated the following,
explaining the purpose of inquiry and employed methods, reciprocity, promises, risk
assessment, confidentiality, informed consent, data access and ownership, interviewer
mental health, ethical advice, data collection boundaries, ethical and methodological
choices and ethical versus legal issues. (pp. 264-265)
Within clearly set ethical parameters, the researcher embarked upon a journey to
explore and extrapolate from a rich context of data findings, which guided the process of
triangulating emerging constructs to develop assertions. Utilizing these strategies allowed the
researcher to verify the credibility and trustworthiness of the findings and assist in addressing
potential ethical issues.
Specifically, this proposal was submitted to and approved by the Institutional Review
Board (IRB) at the University of Southern California. There was written consent from the school
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 60

district representative in which the selected school sites for the study are located. These consent
forms ensured that all parties involved were interviewed, questioned, and provided research-
related documents voluntarily. The names of all respondents were altered and their identities
were not disclosed. All respondents were asked for permission to digitally record their
interviews, and the recorder was left out in plain view. Requests to comment off the record were
honored. The transcribed interviews were stored in a secure place and will be destroyed in 2019.
Summary
Chapter Three gave a summary of the research problem, purpose, and a review of the
literature review. There is little research with regard to effective practices and leadership styles
of continuation principals, creating the need for this study. The study is an Explanatory
Sequential Mixed Methods study that began with surveys of teachers in southern California
Model Continuation Schools, and compared with non-MCHSs, using the MLQ-5X (Avolio &
Bass, 2004) data collection tool. The results from this tool were then used to generate specific
questions or probes which helped extrapolate more information regarding the predominant
leadership style identified from the MLQ-5X, and used for the qualitative part of the study,
principal interviews, and document analysis. MCHS principals selected had been at their sites
for a minimum of three years, which is one full cycle of the Model Continuation School cycle,
while non-MCHS were selected based upon convenience of location to researcher and
availability. The principals were part of a semi-structured interview. The results were then
transcribed and coded for analysis. Chapter Four includes a discussion of the results of the data
collection, while a discussion of the usefulness of the results and further areas of study will be
included in Chapter Five.

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 61

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH FINDINGS
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to examine the effective leadership traits and practices of
principals from successful alternative school settings that were recognized as California Model
Continuation High Schools (MCHS) based on Transformational Leadership Theory (Avolio et
al., 1999). The secondary purpose of this study was to compare the leadership qualities and
practices of principals from schools identified as MCHS with a principal from a school not
identified as an MCHS. The third purpose was to understand what accountability looks like at a
continuation school.
The first part of this chapter is a brief description of characteristics of the survey
respondents and interview subjects. The second part of this chapter is a descriptive analysis of
the findings for the following research questions:
1. Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly
identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as
identified by their teachers?
2. What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to
successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes?
3. As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals
utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success?
4. How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of
their schools?
The last part of this chapter concludes with a discussion on the findings, and also includes
auxiliary findings that emerged during the analysis.
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 62

Organization of Data Analysis
The first part of the data analysis consists of a description of the characteristics of the
survey respondents and the interview subjects. Sections two through five provide analysis of the
findings for each research question. The data analyzed for Research Question 1 is exclusively
from the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey data, and the data analyzed for Research
Question 2 is from the interviews of the principals. Lastly, the data analyzed from Research
Questions 3 and 4 are from interviews and a document analysis of the schools’ Model
Continuation School applications.
Descriptive Characteristics
Survey Participants
The survey was administered directly to the teachers by the researcher for the non-model
continuation high school principal (non-MCHS) and the principal for Model Continuation High
School A (MCHS-A). The researcher went to the school and gave a hyperlink and QR code for
the teachers to locate and complete the survey online during their staff meeting. For the
principal for Model Continuation High School B (MCHS-B), a survey was sent to the principal
via email, who forwarded the link to the survey to his teachers. The links to the MLQ-5X
(Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey was hosted at www.mindgarden.com. The link immediately
opened into the survey, where respondents completed the survey anonymously. For the non-
MCHS, 15 teachers completed the survey about their principal. For MCHS-A, there were 13
teachers, and for MCHS-B there were 14 teachers that completed the survey about their
principal. Absolutely no demographic data was collected about the teachers and the survey was
completely anonymous. This was done to ensure participation, given that the teachers were
asked to make judgments about the leadership qualities of their principals, who are also their
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 63

evaluators. The only information that was collected from the participants were their recorded
answers to the questions.
Interview Participants
The interviews for MCHS-A and MCHS-B were held in their offices, while the interview
for the non-MCHS participant was held in cafes. The interviews were conducted at the
conclusion of the school year, during student summer vacation. Two of the principals just
completed their third year, while the other completed his tenth year. Table 1 indicates the
experience levels for the principal participants.

Table 1
Interview Respondents by Experience
Principal
# of Years in
Education
# of Roles in
Education
# of Years at Current
Continuation School
Non-MCHS 19 4 3
MCHS-A 22 4 3
MCHS-B 33 4 10

All participants have had multiple roles in education during their career having performed
in such roles as instructional aide, counselor, assistant principal, principal, teacher, or school
activities director. All three are male. One is Caucasian, one Latino, and one African-American.
Participant MCHS-B could be considered at nearing the end of his career, while non-MCHS and
MCHS-A are mid-career, having an equal number of years at their school site, an equal number
of roles in education, and nearly equal number of years in public education. They were rated by
their teachers to gain an understanding of their leadership styles before these principals were
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 64

interviewed. Therefore, the next section of this chapter will begin with an analysis of Research
Question 1, which was answered by the teachers.
Research Question 1
● Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly
identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as
identified by their teachers?
Findings: Survey Participants
The first part of this mixed-methods study was to determine what the teachers believed
was the predominant leadership style of their principals. This was determined using the MLQ-
5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) rater form that captured and calculated the perceptions of teachers
toward their principal, and defined their ratings to show their principals as transformational,
transactional, or passive/avoidant leaders. The MLQ-5X survey contained 45 questions, and
used a 5-point Likert scale with ratings of 0 (“not at all”), 1 (“once in a while”), 2 (“sometimes”),
3 (“fairly often”), and 4 (“frequently, if not always”). The questions were indicative of a
passive/avoidant leader (e.g. the leader “fails to interfere until problems become serious”),
indicative of a transactional leader (e.g. the leader “provides me with assistance in exchange for
my efforts”), or indicative of a transformational leader (e.g. the leader “seeks differing
perspectives when solving problems”).
Table 2 provides the results that teachers rated for the principal of MCHS-A, in terms of
transformational traits. The table shows each rater’s individual average score for the
subcategories of transformational leader, alongside the overall transformational leader score.
The subcategories for Transformational leadership are the following, II-A is Idealized Influence–
Attributes (“Builds Trust”), II-B is Idealized Influence–Behaviors (“Acts with Integrity”), IM is
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 65

Inspirational Motivation (“Encourages Others”), IS is Intellectual Stimulation (“Encourages
Innovative Thinking”), and IC is Individual Consideration (“Coaches and Develops People”).

Table 2
Average Score per Category of Transformational Leadership for the Principal of MCHS-A
Participant
Acts with
Integrity
(IIB)
Builds
Trust (IIA)
Coaches &
Develops
People (IC)
Encour-
ages Others
(IM)
Encour-
ages Inno-
vational
Thinking
(IS)
Total
Transform-
ational
Average
Score
1 3.8 4.0 2.5 4.0 3.3 3.5
2 2.8 3.3 2.3 2.3 2.0 2.5
3 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4 3.0 3.8 3.3 2.8 2.3 3.0
5 4.0 4.0 3.5 4.0 3.8 3.9
6 3.8 4.0 2.0 3.5 * *
7 4.0 4.0 * 4.0 3.5 *
8 4.0 3.5 3.3 3.5 3.8 3.6
9 4.0 3.3 3.8 4.0 3.8 3.8
10 2.8 3.5 2.5 3.5 2.0 2.9
11 1.5 2.0 0.5 1.8 * *
12 3.8 4.0 * 4.0 3.8 *
13 4.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 3.8
M 3.5 3.65 2.79 3.49 3.3 3.44
* Participant chose not to respond to one or more items for this cell.

The data in Table 2 showed that the principal scored a total transformational score of
3.44. The principal particularly rated highly in the transformational sub-category of IIA–Builds
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 66

Trust, with a score of 3.65, with the highest score possible a 4. Additionally, the principal rated
high in the subcategory IIB–Acts with Integrity, with a score of 3.5.
Table 3 provides the results that teachers gave the principal for MCHS-A, with regard to
the categories of transactional leadership and passive/avoidant leadership. The average score for
the subcategories of transactional and passive/avoidant leadership qualities is listed alongside the
overall transactional and passive/avoidant score. The subcategories for transactional leadership
are the following, CR is Contingent Reward (“Rewards Achievement”) and MBEA is
Management-by-Exception (“Monitors Deviations and Mistakes”). The subcategories for
Passive/Avoidant leadership are the following, MBEP is Management-by-Exception Passive
(“Fights Fires”) and LF is Laissez-Faire (“Avoids Involvement”).

Table 3
Average Score per Category of Transactional and Passive/Avoidant Questions for the principal
of MCHS-A

Participant
Rewards
Achieve-
ment (CR)
Monitors
Deviations
& Mistakes
(MBEA)
Total
Transact-
ional
Average
Score
Avoids
Involve-
ment (LF)
Fights
Fires
(MBEP)
Total
Passive/
Avoidant
Average
Score
1 3.3 2 2.6 0.3 1.0 0.6
2 2.5 * * 0.3 0.5 0.4
3 4.0 3.3 3.6 0.3 0.8 0.5
4 1.5 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.4
5 4.0 1.3 2.6 0.0 0.0 0.0
6 4.0 1.0 2.5 * 1.8 *
7 * 2.8 * 0.3 * *
8 3.8 2.3 3.0 0.3 1.0 0.6
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 67

Table 3 (Cont’d)
Participant
Rewards
Achieve-
ment (CR)
Monitors
Deviations
& Mistakes
(MBEA)
Total
Transact-
ional
Average
Score
Avoids
Involve-
ment (LF)
Fights
Fires
(MBEP)
Total
Passive/
Avoidant
Average
Score
9 4.0 0.0 2.0 1.0 2.5 1.8
10 2.0 0.8 1.4 1.5 2.3 1.9
11 0.5 * * 0.8 1.5 1.1
12 4.0 * * 0.0 0.5 0.3
13 4.0 * * 0.5 0.3 0.4
M 3.13 1.56 2.34 0.48 1.04 0.73
* Participant chose not to respond to one or more items for this cell.

The principal received an overall transactional score of 2.34, and an overall
passive/avoidant score of 0.73. Compared to his transformational score of 3.44, the data
suggested that the staff of MCHS-A regard their principal as a transformational leader, followed
by occasional occurrences of transactional leadership. There is a very low rating for his
leadership to classify as passive/avoidant. The lowest score under that subcategory is 0.48 for
LF–Avoids Involvement. The staff believed that there is almost never an occasion where he
avoids involvement.
Table 4 provides the results that teachers gave for MCHS-B for transformational
leadership. The table shows each rater’s individual average score for the subcategories of
transformational leader, alongside the overall transformational leader score.

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 68

Table 4
Average Score per Category of Transformational Leadership for the Principal of MCHS-B
Participant
Acts with
Integrity
(IIB)
Builds
Trust (IIA)
Coaches &
Develops
People (IC)
Encour-
ages Others
(IM)
Encour-
ages Inno-
vational
Thinking
(IS)
Total
Transform-
ational
Average
Score
1 3.3 3.3 * 3.5 3.3 *
2 3.5 3.8 4.0 3.5 4.0 3.8
3 4.0 3.8 2.8 3.8 3.3 3.5
4 3.8 3.5 3.0 4.0 4.0 3.7
5 4.0 2.3 2.5 4.0 3.5 3.3
6 4.0 4.0 3.8 3.5 4.0 3.9
7 3.3 3.5 3.8 3.8 4.0 3.7
8 3.8 4.0 3.8 4.0 4.0 3.9
9 4.0 3.3 3.5 3.8 3.5 3.6
10 3.3 3.8 3.5 4.0 3.3 3.6
11 3.8 3.8 3.5 3.8 3.5 3.7
12 3.3 3.8 2.5 4.0 2.8 3.3
13 4.0 * 3.8 4.0 4.0 *
14 4.0 3.5 3.5 4.0 4.0 3.8
M 3.72 3.57 3.38 3.84 3.66 3.65
* Participant chose not to respond to one or more items for this cell.

The data showed that the principal of MCHS-B has a rating of 3.65 for transformational
leadership. The principal also scored particularly high in the subcategories of IS–Encourages
Others, with a score of 3.84, and IIB–Acts with Integrity, with a score of 3.72.
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 69

Table 5 provides the results that teachers gave the principal for MCHS-B with regard to
the categories of transactional leadership and passive/avoidant leadership. The average score for
the subcategories of transactional and passive/avoidant leadership qualities is listed alongside the
overall transactional and passive/avoidant score.

Table 5
Average Score per Category of Transactional and Passive/Avoidant Questions for the Principal
of MCHS-B

Participant
Rewards
Achieve-
ment (CR)
Monitors
Deviations
& Mistakes
(MBEA)
Total
Transact-
ional
Average
Score
Avoids
Involve-
ment (LF)
Fights
Fires
(MBEP)
Total
Passive/
Avoidant
Average
Score
1 3.0 * * 0.8 1.5 1.1
2 2.5 * * 0.5 0.3 0.4
3 3.5 2.0 2.8 0.0 0.0 0.0
4 3.5 * * 0.0 0.5 0.3
5 * 0.5 * 0.5 2.0 1.3
6 3.8 1.8 2.8 0.3 0.8 0.5
7 4.0 2.5 3.3 0.8 2.5 1.6
8 3.5 2.0 2.8 0.0 0.0 0.0
9 1.3 0.5 0.9 1.0 0.3 0.6
10 2.8 1.5 2.1 1.5 0.3 0.9
11 2.5 1.0 1.8 0.3 * *
12 3.5 * * 0.0 1.5 0.8
13 4.0 0.3 2.1 1.0 0.0 0.5

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 70

Table 5 (Cont’d.)
Participant
Rewards
Achieve-
ment (CR)
Monitors
Deviations
& Mistakes
(MBEA)
Total
Transact-
ional
Average
Score
Avoids
Involve-
ment (LF)
Fights
Fires
(MBEP)
Total
Passive/
Avoidant
Average
Score
14 4.0 2.0 3.0 0.8 0.5 0.6
M 3.22 1.41 2.4 0.54 0.78 0.66
* Participant chose not to respond to one or more items for this cell.

The principal received an overall transactional score of 2.4 and an overall
passive/avoidant score of 0.66. Compared to his transformational score of 3.65, the data
suggested the staff of MCHS-B regard their principal as a transformational leader, followed by
occasional occurrences of transactional leadership. The rating is low under the passive/avoidant
category. The highest score under that subcategory is 0.78 for MPEP–Fights Fires. The staff
believed that there is almost never an occasion where he fights fires, when the fires could have
been prevented.
For point of comparison, a non-MCHS was researched with the same methodology–
surveying the teachers to learn their perceptions on the leadership qualities of their principal,
with regard to the same categories of transformational, transactional, and passive/avoidant.
Table 6 provides the results that teachers gave for non-MCHS for transformational leadership.
The table shows each rater’s individual average score for the subcategories of transformational
leader, alongside the overall transformational leader score.

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 71

Table 6
Average Score per Category of Transformational Leadership for the Principal of non-MCHS
Participant
Acts with
Integrity
(IIB)
Builds
Trust (IIA)
Coaches &
Develops
People (IC)
Encour-
ages Others
(IM)
Encour-
ages Inno-
vational
Thinking
(IS)
Total
Transform-
ational
Average
Score
1 2.0 1.5 1.5 2.3 * *
2 1.3 1.0 0.5 1.8 0.0 0.9
3 2.0 1.5 1.0 2.5 1.3 1.7
4 1.5 0.5 1.8 2.0 2.0 1.6
5 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.1
6 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2
7 2.5 2.3 1.8 2.5 2.5 2.3
8 3.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.3 3.8
9 3.0 1.8 2.3 3.5 1.8 2.5
10 1.0 0.8 0.0 0.0 * *
11 1.0 1.0 1.3 3.0 1.0 1.5
12 2.5 3.0 2.8 3.0 2.3 2.7
13 1.3 1.8 * 1.5 * *
14 3.5 3.3 2.5 3.5 3.3 3.2
15 0.8 * 0.0 * 0.8 *
M 1.81 1.61 1.39 2.14 1.53 1.86
* Participant chose not to respond to one or more items for this cell.

The data in Table 6 showed that the principal scored a total transformational score of
1.86. The principal rated highest in the transformational sub-category of IIA–Encourages
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 72

Others, with a score of 2.14. This means that he sometimes encourages others. Table 7 shows
the ratings with regard to transactional and passive/avoidant leadership qualities.

Table 7
Average Score per Category of Transactional and Passive/Avoidant Questions for the Principal
of non-MCHS

Participant
Rewards
Achieve-
ment (CR)
Monitors
Deviations
& Mistakes
(MBEA)
Total
Transact-
ional
Average
Score
Avoids
Involve-
ment (LF)
Fights
Fires
(MBEP)
Total
Passive/
Avoidant
Average
Score
1 1.8 1.3 1.5 1.8 1.3 1.1
2 0.5 2.8 1.6 0.5 2.8 2.8
3 1.8 1.0 1.4 1.8 1.0 *
4 1.8 1.0 1.4 1.8 1.0 2.4
5 0.3 * * 0.3 * *
6 0.0 2.3 1.1 0.0 2.3 3.5
7 * * * * * 1.6
8 4.0 0.3 2.1 4.0 0.3 0.5
9 2.3 * * 2.3 * 1.9
10 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.0 0.3 3.0
11 2.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 0.0 1.5
12 2.5 0.8 1.6 2.5 0.8 1.1
13 1.8 * * 1.8 * 2.4
14 3.3 2.3 2.8 3.3 2.3 0.6
15 * * * * * *
M 1.7 1.21 1.46 1.7 1.21 1.87
* Participant chose not to respond to one or more items for this cell.
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 73

The principal received an overall transactional score of 1.46, and an overall
passive/avoidant score of 1.87. Compared to his transformational score of 1.86, the data
suggested that the staff of the non-MCHS regard their principal as predominantly
passive/avoidant. His highest scores are for the transactional subcategory of CR–Rewards
Achievement, and the passive/avoidant subcategory of LF–Avoids Involvement, which both
scored a 1.7.
Summary
Teachers rated their perceptions of what they believed to be the most predominant
leadership qualities of their principals, using the following scale, 0=Not at all, 1=once in a while,
2=sometimes, 3=fairly often, 4=frequently, if not always. A blank score means the respondent
was unsure. A comparison of the three principals’ score is shown in Table 8.

Table 8
A Comparison of Leadership Styles–Survey Respondents
Principal
Transformational
Score
Transactional
Score
Passive/Avoidant
Score
Non-MCHS 1.86 1.46 1.87
MCHS-A 3.44 2.34 0.73
MCHS-B 3.65 2.40 0.66

The teachers at the MCHSs perceive their principals’ leadership to be predominantly
transformational, while the comparison non-MCHS teachers perceive the leadership
predominance of passive/avoidant. This conclusion allows us to unpack the next three research
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 74

questions, to better understand what practices these principals do that is transformational at their
respective schools. Since the MCHS principals scored high in transformational leadership, the
next section will investigate what they believe are manifestations of transformational leadership
in terms of leadership traits. The following section will then investigate how these leadership
traits manifest itself into practices at their sites, followed by the principals’ ideas of effectiveness
and accountability.
Research Question 2
● What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to
successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes?
Principals were asked questions during their interviews to arrive at a sense of what they
believed are the traits required to successfully lead their schools. For Research Question 2, the
intent of the questions was to arrive at their sense of a leadership worldview, and what they think
are important qualities in leadership. Sequentially, this is important because Research Question
3 looked to understand what practices these leaders implement, and how they implement it.
Research Question 4 concluded the analysis by discovering how these principals approach
accountability, and knowing they are effective.
Findings: Interview
There were themes that emerged from the interviews of the principals of the model
schools (MCHS-A and MCHS-B). Some of the traits that emerged as common themes were
role-modeling, rapport-building, contact, developing caring and trusting relationships, and
humility. These are themes that also coincided with transformational leadership dispositions.
Since MCHS-A and MCHS-B rated high under transformational leadership, it follows that the
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 75

principals’ perceptions of effective leadership traits also coincided with transformational
leadership practices.
Role-Modeling (Acts with integrity IIB). Both principals discussed the importance of
role-modeling what is expected at their school sites. MCHS-B said, “I think that’s one of the
critical things . . . you have to model what you expect.” Role modeling is an act of integrity,
because it presumes that one has a high character that they wish to impart or influence on others.
This is a transformational leadership trait. MCHS-A gave an account on what modeling looks
like to him, “I’m big on leading by example. There’s nothing I won’t do. I vacuum my carpets
. . .I’ve set up chairs . . . but I don’t sit behind corners and trees and try to catch my staff.”
This last statement is an important contrast to transactional leadership, “I don’t sit behind
corners and trees and try to catch my staff.” Being focused on mistakes during staff performance
and responding with employee discipline or correction is indicative of transactional leadership.
This principal scored 1.56 on the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey under the transactional
subcategory of MBEA–Monitors Deviations and Mistakes. This demonstrated that only once in
a while does his staff perceive that he monitors mistakes, giving credibility to his statement that
he doesn’t try to catch staff in mistakes. Additionally, MCHS-B also scored 1.41 on the MLQ-
5X transactional subcategory of MBEA–Monitors Deviations and Mistakes. This low rating also
gave credibility to his statement that he is a practitioner of modeling as opposed to monitoring
for mistakes.
Contact, rapport, and building caring and trusting relationships (Builds trust IIA,
and coaches and develops people IC). An important trait that both principals expressed was
the importance of willingness to make contact, build rapport, and develop relationships.
Building trust (IIA) is a transformational leadership trait, since it makes followers feel like they
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 76

can safely follow the leader. Coaching and developing people (IC) is also a transformational
leadership trait because the personal and individualized attention brings out the very best in
people. The principals expressed both traits during the course of their interviews. The staff
confirmed that these principals are trust builders as evidenced by their MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass,
2004) subcategory scores of 3.65 for MCHS-A and 3.57 for MCHS-B. By contrast, non-MCHS
scored 1.61 on the MLQ-5X for trust-building (IIA). Additionally, the MCHS principals showed
a lesser extent of presenting coaching and personal development, with MCHS-A scoring 2.79
and MCHS-B scoring 3.38. By contrast, non-MCHS scored 1.39 for coaching and development
(IC).
Both principals discussed being in constant contact with their staff. MCHS-B said,
“People have duty all the time and I know where they are. I walk around and talk to them. I try
to be authentic and transparent and honest and supportive.”
MCHS-A echoed a similar trait of contact and connection, “I do lots of drive-bys. I let
my teachers know. . . ‘my main purpose for coming to class is to support you,’ so, I go in every
classroom three to four times a day.” In both these selections and other similar quotes, both
principals expressed the importance of being out where their employees are making direct, face-
to-face connection, and building personal relationships by taking an interest in who they are and
what they do.
Besides making contact and building rapport with teachers, the principals also discussed
other ways of building relationships with their staff. This included listening and being cognizant
of people’s needs, which corresponds with the transformational leadership trait of IC–Builds and
Coaches People. MCHS-B discussed being aware of a teacher’s needs, and leveraging that to
improve teacher performance,
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As leaders we have to be cognizant of who needs what . . . much of what we do in
education . . . is built on relationships. I can’t get a teacher to grow or to change or to
study their own practices unless I have a relationship with that teacher.
This suggested that part of relationship-building is gaining an understanding of a staff
member’s needs, and that there is a trust-building process that transpires through that awareness.
When the awareness creates trust, then teachers are more likely to be responsive to the
principal’s coaching. This is a transformational leadership trait that can be used to bring out the
best in employees. MCHS-A recounted a story that illustrated the direct benefit awarded to
students through the power of a trusting relationship,
I had a teacher, out of 180 days . . . missed close to a 120 days . . . and I called her in and
I sat down with her . . . First of all, I let her know that I cared about whatever she was
going through, but second of all, I let her know that, ‘This is a place of instruction, and I
need someone here consistently to teach these kids,’ . . . and I’m proud to say, this year
here, she has perfect attendance.
The ability to listen to staff members, being cognizant of their needs, expressing care
while maintaining expectations, served as a catalyst for a tangible action, the teacher is now at
school teaching students and providing benefit.
Humility. The last theme to emerge was centered on the leadership trait of humility.
This was the only trait that emerged as a common theme from all three principals. The trait of
humility was acknowledged by all three principals and it centered on the idea that they do not
have all the answers but must rely upon other staff members to help provide a measure of
leadership to the overall benefit of the school. The non-MCHS principal said,
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Leading a continuation school requires leaving your pride at the door and ego at the door
. . . You have to allow the staff to teach you how to work with the students and the
population and the students’ unique needs.
Similarly, MCHS-A acknowledged,
I think, as principals, we think we have a Superman cape on; we can do it all, but we
really can’t . . . I opened up letting the teachers know, ‘You don’t work for me. I work
for you.’ They’re on the front line.
MCHS-B did not directly reference the concept of humility, but he did capture the idea
that he doesn’t have all answers, and must rely upon his staff to help him make good decisions
on behalf of the school. For example, his reliance upon the expertise of the staff was apparent in
the hiring process, where he acknowledged that he needs assistance in making good hiring
choices,
[Candidates] apply or they put in for their transfers and we have interviews and I have
plenty of staff in this . . . I’ll have several teachers, I have my school secretary from
classified, quite often my head security guard. They’re just good at it. It’s a good team
for selecting people.
The leadership quality of humility, and the reliance on others, manifests itself in other
areas besides hiring practices. Humility also manifests in principal responsibilities like
establishing professional development. MCHS-A shared how he must acknowledge the
importance of the staff when developing a vision for professional development,
I can always have a vision of what I want, but if I don’t have the buy-in from the staff, we
know that we’re not going to get the productivity that we’re looking for, so what I
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normally do is, I talk to my staff and find out where we want to go. Once we find out
where we want to go, what professional development is needed?
The theme that emerged is the leadership trait of humility, both acknowledgement that
one doesn’t have all the answers, and using that to generate a broad range of support and ideas to
help make important school-wide decisions that influence the whole school, such as hiring
practices and professional development planning. Although humility leads to broadening the
group of thinkers and decision-makers, it also promotes intellectual stimulation among the
followers. The followers now have a responsibility to provide ideas, feedback, opinions, and
other intellectual offerings. Humility promotes the transformational leadership quality of
encouraging innovative thinking (IS). It requires a leader to seek differing perspectives when
solving problems, which is a transformational leadership quality. MCHS-A scored 3.3 for the IS
subcategory, and MCHS-B scored 3.66 for the IS subcategory. By contrast, non-MCHS scored
1.53 in the same category.
Summary
There were three dominant themes of predominant leadership traits that emerged from the
interviews of the MCHS-A and MCHS-B principals. The traits that emerged were the following,
and they aligned with transformational leadership, role-modeling (IIB); rapport-building, contact,
and building caring and trusting relationships (IIA and IC); and humility, that leads to promoting
innovation within others (IS). By way of comparison, these themes were nearly non-existent in
the interviews with non-MCHS, with the exception of the theme of humility. The next section
will be an investigation on how these leadership traits manifest into leadership practices at their
respective school sites. The last section will then be an investigation how these leaders answer
questions of effectiveness and ideas of accountability.
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Research Question 3
● As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS
principals utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success?
The key transformational leadership traits that emerged from the interviews were belief in
role-modeling (IIB); rapport-building, contact, and building trusting and caring relationships (IIA
and IC); and humility that leads to innovation, capacity building, and intellectual stimulation
(IS). During the course of this analysis, themes began to emerge on how these leadership traits
manifest itself in actual leadership and school practices. The following similarities emerged–the
non-MCHS and the two MCHS principals both exhibited the leadership trait of coaching,
developing, and individual consideration (IC) in the following areas of a high-flexibility/low-
rigidity approach, an individualized approach to a student learning plan, and preparation of
students for College and Career Readiness (CCR). There were differences in the manifestations
of the leadership traits of building trust (IIA) and innovation and intellectual stimulation (IS) in
the areas of hiring and professional development. The following sections will provide an
investigation of these findings using the principal interviews, and substantiate the findings in the
document analysis of the Model Continuation High School applications.
Findings: Interview
All three schools identified that the student population at their school struggled in
previous school settings, which necessitated the need to do something different. By being
flexible to student needs, this placed into school practice the transformational leadership quality
of coaching, developing, and taking into account individual consideration (IC). With regard to a
student approach using low rigidity, the principals acknowledged that they must approach
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students with a lower rigidity in a variety of areas. The non-MCHS, for example, stated that
there is flexibility in times that students devote to learning and to support,
Strategies that are ineffective would be the adherence to a schedule that is so rigid, akin
to one at a traditional school site. The students need the . . . flexibility in schedule
typically to deal with the challenges and barriers that are in the way of them accessing
core curriculum.
The non-MCHS went on to reference how a student must have the flexibility, for example, to
leave the classroom to receive mental health services, even at the cost of instructional time.
Similarly, MCHS-B found that there needs to be flexibility in terms of accepting work
and grading policies, that in continuation schools,
it’s not good . . . to say, ‘here are the hard, fast deadlines . . . if I don’t receive this by
3:00 then it’s worthless’ . . . that’s a horrible policy and is not in the best interest of
students.
MCHS-A shared his approach to student discipline. Most regard the principal in a
traditional public school as the stern disciplinarian with hard and fast rules, but he said that an
approach like that doesn’t work,
one of the hallmarks for me is knowing how to deal with people. I think that at the
continuation, that is one of the most important things because this is a different level of
kid . . . These kids are a little bit more difficult, so I think it’s just being able to know
how to talk and build a relationship with people.
What these approaches share in common is an individualized concern for the student,
their background, and context. All three principals described the transformative leadership trait
of individual consideration (IC), but in different areas of the school, social/emotional counseling,
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grading and grading policy, and discipline. The intent behind these approaches to students is to
be instructive, to coach and develop, and to bring about better versions of themselves.
Besides these individual approaches that utilize this leadership trait, the principals also
expressed that their program is built on a foundation of individual consideration, in terms of
instructional delivery. For example, while traditional high schools offer courses in classes with
rows of desks and 35 students to a class, these principals offer something different, to allow for
individual consideration. The non-MCHS said, “any time you can individualize for a student, or
differentiate for a student, based on their ability, you will get the best result possible.” He went
on to describe how having a lower staffing ratio was a very important factor in allowing his
program to have more project-based learning, and more attention paid to students’ individual
needs.
Similarly, MCHS-B discussed his programmatic flexibility that contours itself to
individual student needs,
We have various programs and flexibility within those programs. We have independent
study, we have a hybrid independent study. We have regular program. We have a
variety of the electives that the students kind of find at home.
To enhance student learning, MCHS-A shared how he has taken a school-wide approach
by providing a lot of field trips. He also described how the additions of a variety of extra-
curriculums, like a school garden and athletics, also add to the individual consideration they take
at the school.
With regard to College and Career Readiness (CCR), all three schools shared that they
value preparing students for college and careers. They have designed curriculum and
experiences to develop CCR within their students. The non-MCHS, in his interview, said they
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approach this topic as more of an in-class assignment, where they complete a senior project that
directs students to investigate potential careers and the pathways of education required for that
career. MCHS-A and MCHS-B said that they make their CCR education more experiential, by
visiting colleges, and having colleges visit the campuses. This leadership trait can be categorized
under two different transformational leadership subcategories. Developing learning experiences
for students to develop CCR is a form of intellectual stimulation (IS) and it is also a form of
coaching and individual consideration (IC).
While there were areas where transformative leadership traits manifested itself into
leadership practices at these schools, there were also areas of divergence, specifically in the areas
of managing human resources. The two areas, where the divergence was most visible, was in
hiring practices and in professional development. In regard to hiring practices, non-MCHS did
not have a system that allowed for transformative leadership; he stated, “In my district, staff has
been placed at the school site, which makes it difficult to win a championship when you have a
non-championship quality makeup of players.”
In contrast, MCHS-A and MCHS-B are positioned where they can select their own staff
members. Additionally, they can exercise transformative leadership by hiring staff members
who also exhibit transformative leadership qualities, specifically the trait of trust-building (IIA).
MCHS-A stated, “I’ve had to hire about three or four people since I’ve been here, and the one
thing I look for is heart . . . the most important thing to me is that my staff build relationships
with kids.” Similarly, MCHS-B stated that hiring is a practice where he can find someone who
also exhibits evidence of trust-building, in the form of happiness; “Hiring is one of the most
difficult things we do . . . I weigh very carefully, are they going to one, be happy here? Research
shows that being happy is pretty important.”
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Professional development is another area where there was divergence between MCHS-A,
MCHS-B, and non-MCHS. Specifically, it was evident that the MCHS principals used
professional development as an area to develop the capacity within teachers, but relying more on
their own staffs to self-direct their learning, find learning experiences that are of interest to them,
and find the answers within themselves. This stood on contrast with non-MCHS, whose
professional development opportunities were more district-directed or external. There were
areas of alignment, as well, such as structures of Professional Learning Communities (PLCs).
For example, PLCs were entrusted to explore data for the purposes of improving instruction and
for program evaluation. With an overall philosophy of using the locus of learning to reside
internally instead of externally, it transforms the teachers from builders and creators of
knowledge vis-à-vis recipients of knowledge.
MCHS-B expressed the idea that a lot of the learning is self-directed, where besides book
studies and Professional Learning Communities, teachers develop their own learning
experiences,
Teachers can sign up for conferences and individual growth opportunities, like my
yearbook advisor will be going again (to) . . . Adobe [conference] and he’ll get those
lessons in. One of my social scientists is going [to] a three-day training at the Reagan
Library.
MCHS-A stated that his teachers prefer to find the answers within themselves, rather than
be directed into learning from external factors,
I think they enjoy hearing from each other because they’re on the same level and it gives
them a little bit more confidence . . . They think that we have enough talent within our
own, and so . . . we try to do everything in-house as much as we can.
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This is in contrast to the non-MCHS, who stated that their trainings are more district-
directed, like district-level professional development in Common Core, Next Generation Science
Standards (NGSS), and instructional tools like Renaissance Star 360. There was no mention of
opportunities where teachers can go and provide their own learning experiences or have
opportunities where they could learn from each other. There was the added comment, however,
that “We definitely have some room to grow in terms of creating some solid professional
developments at the site. This year will be a year that that happens” (non-MCHS).
The next part of this analysis will uncover practices that MCHSs do to showcase these
leadership traits, as evidenced in the Model Continuation School applications.
Findings: Document Analysis
Of the five practices of flexibility, an individualized approach, College and Career
Readiness (CCR), hiring, and professional development, the documents substantiated the
individualized approach, CCR, and flexibility. There was no substantiation of hiring practices,
in terms of hiring candidates who share transformational leadership traits. There was also no
evidence of professional development practices, in terms of self-directed learning. Furthermore,
any notion of flexibility is intertwined with program flexibility, in terms of such practices as
flexible schedules.
With regard to an individualized approach, the MCHS-B stated that they offer their
various programs to help students recover credits, such as a Save Our Seniors (SOS) program, an
Extended Day Program, Independent Studies, and their traditional program. MCHS-A also listed
their flexible, individualized approach, with Regional Occupational Program (ROP) courses,
Independent Studies, college-concurrent enrollment, electives (like guitar and Career
Connections), and college-preparation courses. Both of these documents validated that these
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schools provide individual consideration (IC) on a programmatic level. This means that students
have a tremendous amount of freedom to tailor a learning program that meets their needs.
Similarly, they both discussed the practices that they engage in for CCR. MCHS-A
stated such practices as specialized college-preparing courses like Advancement Via Individual
Determination (AVID), University of California (UC) A-G certification, meaning classes meet
UC admission requirements, and a school-wide focus on college activities. Some of these
activities include application training, presentations, and placement testing. The MCHS-B
application likewise substantiated CCR activities, like CCR-guidance counseling, aptitude tests,
and scholarship assistance.
Summary
There were three dominant themes of predominant leadership traits that emerged from the
interviews of the MCHS-A and MCHS-B principals. The traits that emerged were the following,
and they aligned with transformational leadership: role-modeling (IIB); rapport-building,
contact, and building caring and trusting relationships (IIA and IC); and humility (IS). These
dominant leadership traits were demonstrated in the following school practices: individualized
approach to a learning program, flexibility and a non-adherence to rigidity, and college and
career readiness. There were other practices that transformational leadership practices exhibited
themselves in model continuation schools that were not evident in the non-model school: hiring
and professional development. The next section will investigate how these principals measure
their effectiveness and their ideas of accountability, as analyzed through interviews and
document analysis.

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Research Question 4
● How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of
their schools?
Given the current climate of continuation education, the following conditions provide
context to the continuation principals’ reality: ambiguous legislation, an over-generalized
mission, a weak accountability system, and a lack of data, which give agency to principals to
operate as they see fit (Williamson, 2008). Therefore, this research question wanted to answer
how continuation principals see accountability and practice accountability so they know that they
are being effective.
During the course of interviews, themes began to emerge. The emergent themes were
that there is no, or very little, State and District accountability and as a result, principals need to
practice self-accountability, and that they have no meaningful way of measuring their
effectiveness. The first part of this analysis will investigate principal perceptions of
accountability and effectiveness, as evidenced through interviews. This will be followed by a
document analysis of the Model Continuation High School application, to further substantiate the
findings in the interviews.
Findings: Interview
When principals were questioned about external accountability, they all had the same
responses, that they did not feel any external accountability for their schools’ performance.
When asked whether he receives any external accountability, non-MCHS said,
We’re not. And unfortunately, we haven’t had an accountability system since I’ve been
there . . . I held ourselves accountable for attendance, for our graduation rate, and for
student growth, based on Star 360 and that was just internal . . . Unfortunately, and I’ll
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throw this out there, I think as long as the wheels aren’t falling off of the wagon, the
district office pretty much leaves us alone.
That sentiment was also echoed by MCHS-A, when asked whether he felt any external
accountability pressures,
I really don’t. I think my superintendents have seen where the school came from to
where it is now, and she always is recognizing me for different things that are going on,
and to be honest, I don’t feel any pressure . . . Any pressure I feel, I’ve put on myself.
Lastly, MCHS-B was questioned whether continuation schools are held accountable,
“Yeah, they’re not. It depends on the district and it depends on the data that you can collect.”
Therefore, the principals expressed that they must all practice self-accountability, in
various forms. It could look like finding external agencies to provide a sense of accountability,
as when non-MCHS stated, “One of the only external validators that exists is model continuation
and that’s something that we’re trying to attain as well as WASC, would be another external
validator of the quality of our program.” The principals also agreed that they develop their own
metrics to measure success, as when non-MCHS stated, “We try to use the big four metrics that
we have – attendance, suspension rate, graduation rate and student credit recovery rate – as our
own personal indicators.” MCHS-B agreed, but finds the process of using internal indicators
problematic,
So I collect my own data. I have about a two or three-page document and I can show it to
you, of data that we create ourselves and it’s not statistically exact. Any good statistician
could pull it apart, or I could tell you all the problems we have with it.
MCHS-A stated that his data collection is extremely limited in scope,
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Accountability for us is mainly the attendance and the graduation rate, and so I make sure
that I have my secretaries calling. I’ll make trips out to the home, find out why kids
aren’t coming to school, and then I’m in those classrooms.
The principals also developed their own personal goals to keep themselves accountable.
Principals need to develop a measure to improve or goal to aspire to provide a sense of self-
efficacy. One such goal is college acceptance, as non-MCHS stated his goal this way,
I also had a personal goal of sending one student . . . from the continuation to a four-year
university and we accomplished that . . . and that was a big deal for me because
everybody said it wasn’t possible.
Another goal is graduation, as MCHS-A stated, “I want every kid to graduate. If I have
one kid who does not graduate, I feel that I wasn’t successful because I can’t lose any.”
Lastly, the practice of self-accountability manifests itself in the method of performance
benchmarking, finding a similar school to compare to superficially and in terms of performance
data (Dowd, 2005). Non-MCHS stated, “I like comparing myself to other alternative ed
sites . . .. I compare myself to ‘Neighbor High School’ [school name redacted] . . . they’re the
rabbit that we’re always chasing.”
Given the lack of coherent data, or data with any validity or reliability, and little or no
external pressure for any goals or outcomes, it stands as no surprise that these leaders have little
sense as to whether they are truly being effective. An example of the perception of unreliable
data came from non-MCHS, stating “our CAASPP scores are not very reliable because we get
our students six months before they take that test . . . we struggle because we’re not necessarily
the proprietors of that growth.” Therefore, non-MCHS feels a sense of self-efficacy from word-
of-mouth praise he receives, like,
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‘you encouraged me to not drop out and I didn’t, and I made it’ . . . Other than that . . .
there isn’t a whole lot of positive praise that comes our way. I’ve had a couple school
board members personally say that, ‘Thank you. If it wasn’t for you guys, we would’ve
had 150 less diplomas this year.’
There was agreement from MCHS-B; his assessment highlighted that it was difficult to
know, as an educator, whether it is possible to really ever know the impact or effectiveness that
the educator has,
these kids . . . you just don’t know . . . Some of the best feedback I get or the feedback
that makes me the happiest is when a parent says, ‘I don’t have to drag my kid out of bed
anymore. My kid loves to go to school.’ I think that’s 90% of our goal right there.
Despite never quite knowing their leadership effectiveness, the administrators still
provide ways to measure growth and progress, as evidenced in their California Model
Continuation High School applications. The next part of this analysis will uncover what MCHSs
do to practice accountability, as evidenced in the Model Continuation School applications.
Findings: Document Analysis
The documents described that both schools’ practice of looking at data and holding
themselves accountable both internally and with external support. With regard to external
accountability, both schools have participated in the MCHS process, which is a self-study, and it
ensures that certain program components are in place. External evaluators also must validate
when they visit the schools to ensure that these program components are in place. Both schools
also practiced external evaluation by receiving accreditation through the Western Association of
Schools and Colleges (WASC). They expressed in their document that the self-study process
that comprises the WASC accreditation provided the forum for self-evaluation for all
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stakeholders and served as an impetus for schoolwide improvement. External evaluators, to
ensure that the ongoing cycle of improvement exists, also validate this process. Both schools
also stated that they practice accountability by participating in the Single Plan for Student
Achievement (SPSA) process on an annual basis. This process is comprised of writing goals and
developing action plans to meet these goals. The SPSA is aligned to WASC.
Both schools expressed that they use a variety of data to paint a broad and comprehensive
picture of their schools. MCHS-A expressed that they use parent and student surveys, informal
observations and interviews with all stakeholders, standardized test scores, graduation rates,
student engagement, and post-secondary enrollment. They stated they use this information to
inform instruction and curriculum and for program evaluation. MCHS-B also stated they use
similar forms of data, such as standardized State testing data and formative assessments, in
addition to classroom assessment data and teacher observation data. Both schools also attested
to the practice of using regularly scheduled meetings to go over data for improvement of
instructional practice. Altogether, both schools showed that they have embedded accountability
measures where they pull a variety of data and analyze it as a staff at regular intervals.
Summary
In summation, for continuation schools, there is very little oversight or external
accountability, leaving principals and schools largely on their own to deal with the challenges
they face. The data collected from interviews presented three themes; first, there is very little or
no State and District accountability, which leaves school leaders unable to set official
benchmarks or gauge progress. Second, and as a result, principals need to practice self-
accountability. Third, principals have no meaningful way of measuring their effectiveness.
Their documents, however, present that their schools have deeply embedded systems that
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monitor data for purposes of program evaluation, both internally and externally. The next
section of this chapter is a discussion of the findings as they relate to the hypothesis that began
this study.
Discussion
This chapter presented the findings of this mixed-methods study, using the MLQ-5X
(Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey to understand the teachers’ perceptions of their principals’
predominant leadership traits, in terms of transformational, transactional, or passive/avoidant
leadership. Then, the survey data was substantiated through a qualitative analysis of both
interviews and documents. The purpose was to arrive at a thorough understanding of four
connected research questions. The findings gathered from this study indicated that California
Model Continuation High Schools were led by principals who have transformational leadership
qualities as their predominant traits. The findings also suggested that transformational leadership
conducts practices that lead to laudable outcomes, although these leaders are left to wonder
whether they are really making a difference.
Using the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey, teachers rated their perceptions of
what they believed to be the most predominant leadership qualities of their principals. Using the
survey tool to highlight transformational leadership, on a 0-4 scale (4 meaning always or almost
always), the results were as follows, MCHS-A (3.44), MCHS-B (3.65), and non-MCHS (1.86).
This data indicated that the principals for both California Model Continuation Schools are
perceived as transformational leaders, as they exhibit these qualities most of the time, if not all of
the time. Further, the data identified the non-MCHS is perceived as transformational rarely, if
ever.
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The next part of the research was to gain an understanding of what successful leadership
traits meant to the principals. The principals were interviewed and the data was carefully
analyzed to learn their understanding of efficacious leadership traits. It was discovered that these
principals expressed leadership traits that aligned with characteristics of transformational
leadership: role-modeling; rapport-building, contact, and building caring and trusting
relationships (IIA and IC); and humility (IS). Role-modeling corresponds with the
transformational subcategory of Idealized Influence–Behaviors (IIB). Rapport-building, contact,
and building caring and trusting relationships corresponds with the transformational
subcategories of Idealized Influence–Attributes (IIA) and Individual Consideration (IC). The
principals expressed the idea of humility, meaning the acknowledgement that they did not have
all the answers. This led them to seek perspective from their workers for guidance and decision-
making. Encouraging the best from everyone corresponds with the transformational subcategory
of Intellectual Stimulation (IS). By way of comparison, these themes were nearly non-existent in
the interviews with non-MCHS, with the exception of the theme of humility.
The next part of the research was to understand how these leadership traits become
school and leadership practices for both model and non-model continuation schools. These
dominant leadership traits of IIA, IIB, IC, and IS were demonstrated in the following school and
leadership practices: creating and sustaining an individualized approach to a learning program,
flexibility and a non-adherence to rigidity, and college and career readiness. There were other
practices that transformational leadership practices exhibited themselves in model continuation
schools that were not evident in the non-model school–hiring and professional development.
The model principals expressed that they look to hire happy and caring staff members who can
exhibit the IIA and IC transformational leadership qualities. They also separate themselves from
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the non-MCHS by professionally developing their staff by letting them explore their intellectual
curiosities and build and acquire knowledge by looking toward each other before going outside.
In contrast, the non-MCHS relied upon top-down, external forms of professional development.
Lastly, model and non-model principals acknowledged that they receive very little
oversight or external accountability, locally or on the State level. This context means that they
must practice self-accountability. This often looks like gathering their own forms of data that is
meaningful to them, developing personal job goals that may bring them satisfaction (like sending
a student to a four-year university or reaching 100% graduation), of finding similar schools for
the purpose of engaging in a performance benchmark. The principals also needed to find ways
to feel validation, since incoherent, invalid data is unreliable in painting an accurate picture.
Therefore, much of their feelings of self-efficacy came in anecdotal validation, such as a student
thanking the principal for their role in a student’s journey to a diploma.
Auxiliary Findings
During the analysis of data collection, an auxiliary finding emerged that was common
among all three principals–all three expressed the need, as a leader, to practice advocacy for
equal footing on behalf of their schools. This was largely the result of the fact that continuation
schools are like no other school in a district. Continuation schools operate under different
education laws, and they expressed that most colleagues who they work with outside the school
have little to no experience with alternative education. MCHS-A expressed his role as a school
advocate as necessary for the benefit of at-risk children,
I really think that the continuation school would just lay dormant if no one said anything,
and I think by being someone who’s gonna make noise . . . I mean, you have to fight . . .
for these kids.
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Similarly, non-MCHS expressed a similar sentiment in advocating for resources for the school,
district administrators don’t have a lot of knowledge of alternative ed, so they don’t know
how to help . . . I have also noticed because they have a lack of knowledge of alternative
ed, they are so hands-off to the point that anything I need resource wise, I have to find on
my own.
Lastly, MCHS-B expressed that the standard for continuation school should be very high,
considering that students at these schools are in greatest need,
the ideal (continuation) school needs to . . . have a park-like environment, it should be
welcoming, it should look as good or better than any other school in the district. There
shouldn’t be a school that looks any better than a continuation school.
This paints an illustration that an effective leadership trait for a continuation school is a
leader who has a sense of equity of what these at-risk students need, and is willing to be an
effective advocate to work in a system that oftentimes leaves the school at a disadvantage.
Summary
This chapter presented the findings of this mixed-method study using three forms of data
collection–surveys, interviews, and document analyses. A research of the findings stated that
transformational leaders lead model schools, and their leadership traits are embedded in school
practices. Despite recognition of being a model school, accountability is still problematic, so
these principals must practice self-accountability using a variety of methods. In the fifth and
final chapter, the study will be summarized and practice and policy implications will be shared.
There will also be a brief discussion of limitations, as well as recommendations for further study.

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 96

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND IMPLICATIONS
This chapter provides a summary of the purpose of the study, the research questions, the
design overview, and the key and auxiliary findings. It then concludes with implications for
practice and policy, followed by limitations and recommendations for further study.
Statement of the Problem
There is a tremendous need for leaders to exhibit dynamic leadership qualities to
successfully oversee an organization with the complexity of a high school. While there is an
abundance of literature on qualities of effective principal leaders in high schools, there is very
little research with regard to the essential attributes of effective principal leadership in California
continuation high schools. This is an important area to study since the continuation school is a
setting often comprised of the most at-risk and marginalized student populations, who struggle
with more exposure to violence and victimization, alcohol and substance abuse, higher mobility,
unstable living arrangements, and are more concentrated groups of minorities (Ruiz de Velasco
et al., 2008). Additionally, there is very little research associated with any aspect of continuation
high schools, much less the leadership required to effectively service vulnerable populations.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the effective leadership qualities and practices
of principals from successful alternative school settings that were recognized as California
Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS) based on Transformational Leadership Theory
(Avolio et al., 1999). As such, the researchers of this study analyzed the beliefs and practices of
principals that led toward their schools’ designation as a Model Continuation High School. The
researchers also investigated how teachers perceived the leadership traits in their principal. This
is important to ascertain because the principals’ beliefs, style, and practices may or may not align
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 97

with the research about effective leadership or with how teachers identify his or her leadership
style and practices. Moreover, it’s important to understand how teachers identify the leadership
style of their principal because teacher performance is the primary factor affecting student
achievement, while leadership is the second leading predictor of student achievement (Hitt &
Tucker, 2016). Consequently, the leader’s role in school effectiveness is pivotal in terms of
enabling teachers to improve student achievement (Goldring et al., 2009). The results of this
study have both practitioner and policy implications, because findings provide guidance for
principals regarding promising practices, as well as policy with respect to training and
professional development.
Research Questions
The following research questions guide this study:
1. Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly
identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as
identified by their teachers?
2. What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to
successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes?
3. As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals
utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success?
4. How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of
their schools?
Design Overview
This study was completed using the Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods design
which is a two-phase study that first involves collecting and analyzing data quantitatively, then
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 98

next built upon the results through a qualitative study (Creswell, 2014). Moreover, Malloy
(2011) purported that a mixed methodology most thoroughly answers all research questions;
therefore, this sequential approach is specifically designed to provide qualitative data that
expands upon the initial quantitative results (Creswell, 2014), and further supports generated
answers to the research questions. The most evident benefits to a mixed-method design is that it
draws on the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative designs, is appealing to those at the
forefront of research due to its sophistication, and provides a more complete understanding of
research problems (Creswell, 2014; Malloy, 2011).
The quantitative instrumentation, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire™ Form-5X
(MLQ-5X, Avolio & Bass, 2004) ideally answered the research question seeking to identify the
statistically predominant leadership style of principals, based on the perceptions of their teachers,
as indicated on the questionnaires. Creswell (2014) suggested that quantitative results often
guide the researchers in moving toward the second, qualitative, phase of the study. Qualitative
research, as described by Creswell (2014), is an inductive method of inquiry that focuses on the
meaning and accentuates the importance of the interpretation behind the complexity of given
situations or phenomenology. Through this methodology, interviews with Model Continuation
High School (MCHS) principals were utilized to explore the most efficacious leadership traits
and practices in which they believe were essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve
laudable outcomes, along with the ways in which they measured the effectiveness of their
schools. As a point of comparison, non-MCHS teachers were also surveyed through the MLQ-
5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) and their principal was interviewed to see whether there were
leadership similarities or differences from their model school counterparts.
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 99

As the quantitative data, ascertained through the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) results,
indicated predominant leadership traits of the selected continuation high school principals, the
qualitative portion of the research began to analyze school documents and fine tune the interview
questions to learn more about the identified predominant leadership styles. Therefore, the
generated results from the data collection instrument, MLQ-5X, were then used to modify the
types of probes included in the qualitative interview questions regarding the predominant
leadership style of the selected principal participants. To help further explain, or provide more
detail to the initial quantitative results, a document analysis was also employed as a phase-two
qualitative measure. In short, after analyzing the quantitative data of the MLQ-5X, this study
then utilized qualitative measures, such as specified interview questions and document analyses,
to support findings aimed at answering all research questions.
Validation of data was accomplished through triangulation. The logic of triangulation is
based on the premise that no single method adequately solves the problem of rival explanations
(Patton, 2002). Triangulation facilitates validation of data through cross verification of multiple
data sources, such as the research base, surveys, interviews, and document analyses (Creswell,
2014; Patton, 2002). Accordingly, the researchers performed a document analyses of the Model
Continuation High School (MCHS) applications as a means of validating reported beliefs and
practices as indicated on the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) surveys by the teachers and
interviews with principals. Through this means of triangulation, an evaluation of consistency
among all gathered information and their findings from the different sources was completed.
Key Findings
The key findings of this study is that California Model Continuation High Schools are led
by principals who have transformational leadership qualities as their predominant traits. The
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 100

findings also suggested that transformational leadership are the practices that lead to laudable
outcomes, although these same leaders are left to wonder whether they are really making a
difference.
Using the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey, teachers rated their perceptions of
what they believed to be the most predominant leadership qualities of their principals. This data
informed us that the principals for both California Model Continuation Schools are perceived as
transformational leaders, as they exhibit these qualities most of the time, if not all of the time.
Further, the data tells us that the non-MCHS is perceived as transformational rarely, if ever.
The next part of the research was to gain an understanding of what successful leadership
traits meant to the principals. It was discovered that these principals expressed leadership traits
that aligned with characteristics of transformational leadership: role-modeling; rapport-building,
contact, and building caring and trusting relationships (IIA and IC); and humility (IS). Role-
modeling corresponds with the transformational subcategory of Idealized Influence–Behaviors
(IIB). Rapport-building, contact, and building caring and trusting relationships corresponds with
the transformational subcategories of Idealized Influence–Attributes (IIA) and Individual
Consideration (IC). The principals expressed the idea of humility, meaning the
acknowledgement that they did not have all the answers. This led them to seek perspective from
their workers for guidance and decision-making. Encouraging the best from everyone
corresponds with the transformational subcategory of Intellectual Stimulation (IS). By way of
comparison, these themes were nearly non-existent in the interviews with non-MCHS, with the
exception of the theme of humility.
Model continuation principals’ predominant leadership traits IIA, IIB, IC. and IS were
demonstrated in the following school and leadership practices, creating and sustaining an
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 101

individualized approach to a learning program: flexibility and a non-adherence to rigidity, and
college and career readiness. There were other practices that transformational leadership
practices exhibited themselves in model continuation schools that were not evident in the non-
model school: hiring and professional development. The model principals expressed that they
look to hire happy and caring staff members who can exhibit the IIA and IC transformational
leadership qualities. They also separated themselves from the non-MCHS, by professionally
developing their staff by letting them explore their intellectual curiosities and build and acquire
knowledge by looking toward each other before going outside. In contrast, the non-MCHS relied
upon top-down, external forms of professional development.
Lastly, model and non-model principals acknowledged that they receive very little
oversight or external accountability, locally or on the State level. This context means that they
must practice self-accountability. This often looks like gathering their own forms of data that is
meaningful to them, developing personal job goals that may bring them satisfaction (like sending
a student to a four-year university or reaching 100% graduation), of finding similar schools for
the purpose of engaging in a performance benchmark. The principals also needed to find ways
to feel validation, since incoherent, invalid data is unreliable in painting an accurate picture.
Therefore, much of their feelings of self-efficacy came in anecdotal validation, such as a student
thanking the principal for their role in a student’s journey to a diploma.
Auxiliary Findings
An auxiliary finding emerged that was common among all three principals, all three
expressed the need, as a leader, to practice advocacy for equal footing on behalf of their schools.
This was largely the result of the fact that continuation schools are like no other schools in a
district. They have different laws, best practices, and most educators who they must work with
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 102

have little to no experience with alternative education. This painted an illustration that an
effective leadership trait for a continuation school is a leader who has a sense of equity and a
sense of student needs and is willing to be an effective advocate to work in a system that
oftentimes leaves the school disadvantaged.
Implications for Policy and Practice
This study has implications for both policy and practice. It is the intent of this study to
add to the small body of research for continuation schools, specifically in the area of leadership.
There are changes that can be made on the policy level to ensure that continuation schools are
optimized so that their students benefit.
Policy
1. One of the most glaring aspects of this research was that there is no meaningful
accountability system. Without accountability, there is no real way to determine whether
students are meeting standards, growing in their learning, or whether resources are being
used in sound ways. The State needs to develop a meaningful way to measure the
effectiveness of continuation schools, so these questions can be answered, similar to the
dashboard system that is used by traditional school counterparts. By doing this, the State
can hope to avoid what is the current reality, many continuation schools across the State
of varying quality.
2. The State needs to clarify the purpose of the modern continuation school. The
continuation school has had a history where it served different purposes, such as
providing modified schooling for working students, and serving as a place to house so-
called recalcitrant children. Consequently, continuation schools focus on what is
important to their leadership and community, but this may not be what is best for
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 103

students. For example, a school that focuses on social and emotional growth may not
prepare students for college and careers effectively, and vice versa. In this modern,
digital, informational age, the State should clarify what the purpose of these schools are.
Practice
The most practical implication is in leadership development. Good leadership qualities
are effective anywhere; however, the setting and context are different in continuation schools.
Oftentimes, principals eventually become effective at their continuation school, but the process
to learn effective practices is long, due to the nature of these schools. Leadership and
credentialing programs for administrators should pay attention to the unique aspects of
continuation schools and prepare leaders to recognize that not all strategies work as effectively in
all school settings. Leadership programs would provide benefit by teaching students, and help
students shorten their learning curve by instructing future leaders on practices that are shown to
be effective in alternative sites.
Limitations
There were a few limitations for this study, the first being a definition of what makes an
effective continuation school. In the absence of meaningful State accountability and data, a
working definition needs to be established on what is an effective continuation school. For
purposes of this study, the definition chosen was a school that won the prestigious California
Model Continuation High School recognition. This should not negate, however, the work that
other continuation schools are doing. There are other continuation schools that are doing
fantastic work on behalf of students that do not have the title. These schools, also, are worthy of
study.
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 104

Second, the sample size of principals could be larger for study–both model and non-
model schools. During the course of investigation, it became apparent that there are few schools
selected each year with the title of Model Continuation, and out of those schools, very few had
principals who served at that location for at least three years. There could be many explanations
for the short tenure of continuation school principals, and that could be a part of a future study.
Recommendations for Future Research
Since continuation schools are an under-researched segment of schools, there could be
several studies that would benefit these schools and contribute to the body of knowledge. Most
apparent could be an expansion of this study to include a larger sample size, and other tools to
gauge effective leadership outside of the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004). Second, there needs
to be research that investigates the impact that schools have on these at-risk populations. Areas
of focus could be best practices that continuation schools do to prepare students for college and
careers, as well as develop social and emotional factors within children such as developing
resiliency. Third, this study of effective leadership practices of continuation school principals
could be extended to effective teaching practices of continuation school teachers. Last, there
should be studies on the most effective ways to measure performance of these schools. All of
these studies would provide benefit for a student population that would stand to gain
tremendously.
Conclusion
This study sought to build on the small body of literature for continuation schools, by
attempting to understand the leadership practices of principals at model schools. The data
showed that transformational leaders lead schools to laudable outcomes by allowing their
leadership traits to take root within the culture of the school. Good traits and technique may be
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 105

universal to all school settings, but some traits may provide more leverage in a continuation
setting than others, and that is what this study sought to understand. Perhaps this study can help
serve as a catalyst for others to research continuation schools, in light of the belief of the
researcher that those students who require the most should receive the most, and research is no
exception.

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 106

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Appendix A
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, Form 5X

CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 122

Appendix B
Interview Protocol

Researcher: Sean Delgado
Interviewee:
School:
Date:
Time frame:

I. Introduction (Appreciation, Purpose, Line of Inquiry, Plan, Confidentiality, Reciprocity,
Consent to Participate, Permission to Record):

Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate the time that you have set
aside to answer some of my questions. The interview should take about 45 minutes to an hour,
does that work for you?
You have been identified as a (MCHS) principal who has cultivated learning
environments of collaboration, cohesiveness and emotional well-being, which have produced
resilient students of character and have yielded much academic success. Accordingly, you have
been selected for this study because you are considered a great resource regarding effective
leadership strategies, creating engaging and emotionally resilient continuation high school
environments and generating positive learning outcomes.
This research project explores the contributing factors of administrators who effectively
cultivate conducive environments that perpetuate resiliency among students. The purpose of this
interview is to help me understand effective MCHS principal’s your perspective(s) on the
concept of leadership and how you propagate tenets of transformational or transactional
leadership which can include motivational factors, monitor behavioral regulation, and foster
resilient cultures among your students.
This study is not intended to evaluate your techniques or experiences, but rather, to learn
about your leadership style and educational practices used to create environments conducive to
student learning, emotional regulation, and resiliency. I am interested mostly in hearing about
your experiences, success or failure, and stories; what is working for you? What have you
learned from unsuccessful events? This topic is significant in identifying strategies that
informally develop resilient MCHS environments and cultivate student resiliency that goes
beyond academia and lasts throughout students’ lifetimes. Your input and contributions are vital
to this study. Information obtained through this interview will be used in conjunction with
previous research to generate targeted supports and strategies that can be used to cultivate MCHS
environments.

Transition
Before we begin, I’d like to share some important information regarding confidentiality
and this interview process.

Confidentiality Disclosure
To assist with note-taking, I would like to audio record our conversation today. For your
knowledge, only researchers on this project will have access to these recordings which will be
destroyed after they are transcribed. Will you please sign a release form, in addition to a
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 123

required form to meet our human subject requirements? Basically, the human subject
requirement form states that: (1) all information will be held confidential, (2) your participation
is voluntary and you may stop at any time if you feel uncomfortable, and (3) we do not intend to
inflict any harm.
Thank you for your agreeing to participate. I apologize in advance, but it may be
necessary to interrupt you, if time begins to run short, to push ahead and complete the interview
questions.

II. Research Questions: The questions we will be discussing are based upon four main research
questions:
1. How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of their
schools? (practices)
2. What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully
lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes?
3. As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals
utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success?
4. Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly
identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as identified
by their teachers? (teachers’ beliefs based on MLQ-5X Quantitative data)

III. Setting the Stage (Developing Rapport and Priming the Mind, Demographic Items of
Interest; e.g. position, role, etc.)

I’d like to start by asking you some background questions.

1. First, could you tell me about your background in education?
a. Why did you become interested in continuation education?
b. How long have you worked in the field?
2. How did you become a principal in a continuation high school setting?
3. Any other information you would like to share before moving on with the interview?
4. ***Before moving onto the heart of the interview, may I have a copy, paper or electronic, of
your MCHS application? This will help my research regarding effective leadership practices.

IV. Heart of the Interview (Interview Questions are Directly Tied to RQ2):

Now I’d like to ask you some questions about your beliefs regarding leadership traits essential
to successfully lead your school to achieve commendable outcomes.

1. Describe what you believe the ideal CHS environment would be like.
2. What are challenges you face unique to continuation schools?
3. What are some strategies you use to meet those challenges?
4. Are there some strategies or dispositions you find ineffective in a continuation school?
a. Probe: Have you ever tried any techniques, you later deemed ineffective?
b. Probe: What was the outcome?
5. Are there leadership strategies and dispositions that are effective in any school setting?
a. Probe: Please provide an example.
CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP 124

b. Probe: Are there strategies that are more effective in continuation school settings?
c. Probe: Please provide an example
6. As a leader, what have you learned in leading your school to be a CHS/MCHS?
7. Some would say that strategies are unique to the situation. How would you respond to
that assertion?
Probe: Please provide an example.
8. What role, if any, does college and career readiness play at your school?
V. Interview Questions are Directly Tied to RQ (1 and 3)

Now we’re going to switch gears and talk about strategies you use to measure effectiveness
and practices employed to drive success in your school.

13. What is your process in creating a safe school climate?
14. What does professional development look like on your campus?
15. How are continuation schools held accountable?
16. What are the hallmarks of an effective continuation school?
17. How do you know you are personally being an effective leader?
18. How would you measure your school as effective?
19. What are obstacles to effective accountability for continuation schools, including yours?
20. Some would say that continuation schools need to be held to a different standard, since
they have an alternative population to Traditional Public Schools (TPSs). What is your
response to that?

VI. Closing Question (Anything Else to Add)
I am wondering if there is anything that you would add to our conversation today that I might not
have covered?

VII. Closing (Thank You and Follow-Up Option):

Thank you so much for you sharing your thoughts with me today! I really appreciate your time
and willingness to share. Everything that you have shared is really helpful for my study. If I
find myself with a follow-up question, I am wondering if I might be able to contact you, and if
so, if email is ok? Again, thank you for participating in my study. As a thank you, please take
(gift card, school supplies, etc.).

VIII. Post Interview Summary and Reflection

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine the effective leadership qualities and practices of principals from successful alternative school settings that are recognized as California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS), based on Transformational Leadership Theory. The research questions that guided this study are the following: (1) Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory, what is most commonly identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as identified by their teachers?

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Creator Delgado, Sean J. (author)

Core Title Uncovered leaders in hidden schools: effective leadership practices in California Model Continuation High School principals

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 10/18/2018

Defense Date 10/04/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag accountability,alternative education,at-risk,continuation high school,High School,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,Principal

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Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Cash, David (committee chair), Castruita, Rudy (committee member), Elsasser, James (committee member), Garcia, John (committee member)

Creator Email mrdelgado@rocketmail.com,seandelg@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-84633

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