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Time’s Up: a transformative view of women leaning into the superintendency in California

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Time’s Up: a transformative view of women leaning into the superintendency in California

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Content Running head: TIME’S UP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 1

Time’s Up: A Transformative View of Women Leaning
into the Superintendency in California

by
Alison Kim Walker

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2019

Copyright 2019 Alison Kim Walker

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 2

Acknowledgements
It is with sincere gratitude and the highest respect that I acknowledge my dissertation
chair, Dr. Dave Cash, whose positivity and dedication to creating equitable outcomes for all
students and leaders, inspired me to complete this research study. I would also like to thank
and appreciate, Dr. Rudy Castruita, my dissertation committee member and professor, who
exemplifies transformational leadership and professionalism. I would also like to
acknowledge Dr. Darleen Peterson, my other dissertation committee member and friend, who
encouraged me from the very beginning of this program and believed in this research study.
With great joy and gratitude, I acknowledge mi amiga y compañera, Dr. Amanda Banda,
who has been an amazing friend, procrastinator-in-crime, and cheerleader throughout this
dissertation process. I would also like to acknowledge my study group and friends Dr. Tricia
Kling, Dr. Xochitl Ortiz, Dr. Patti Corral, and Dr. Sean Delgado.
I would like to especially thank the superintendents that participated in this research
study. I appreciate your honesty, vulnerability, and the work that you do each day to make a
positive difference in the lives of others. It is a great honor to share your words of wisdom and
stories throughout this dissertation and it is my greatest hope and intention that together with
your narratives, the research, and the findings we are able to increase the representation of highly
qualified female superintendents in California and throughout the United States and that together
we acknowledge that “Time’s Up” and we must work together to put an end to discrimination,
harassment, and inequality in the workplace (Time’s Up, 2017).

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 3

Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my two loving, supportive, and amazing families in
Massachusetts and South Korea. First, to my mom, who answers my every call and text and is
always willing to listen when I need to talk. Thank you for being generous, patient, and
supportive of me. To my dad, who no matter what, always comes through for me and shares
stories of how to lead, persevere, and uplift others. To my 엄마 Korean mom, thank you for
being you. Your warm smile, kindness towards others and generous heart inspires me daily to
always be kind and loving towards others. To my 아빠 Korean dad, you never cease to amaze
me. I see you. I see how you wake up early every morning to study on your own. I see how
your love of languages translates into handwritten pages of words and phrases from other
countries. I love languages and learning, too, and that comes from you. To my mom, dad, 엄마,
아빠, I am so proud to be your daughter. To my siblings, Bryce, Steven, Katherine, 김미경,
김미애, 김미영, 김성숙, 김은주, & 김희정, I feel blessed to be both big sister and little sister.
Your encouragement, humor, and work ethic push me to be a better person and sister. And,
lastly, with great joy and love, I dedicate this dissertation to my loving and supportive boyfriend,
Cameron James Kaye. You have the biggest heart. Your support, encouragement, and belief in
me moves mountains and means the absolute world to me. I love you. Thank you for being my
better half and supporting me on this journey.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 4

Table of Contents
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................9
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................10
Abstract ..............................................................................................................................11
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .................................................................................12
Introduction ..................................................................................................................12
Background of the Problem .........................................................................................13
Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................15
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................ 16
Research Questions ......................................................................................................16
Significance of the Study .............................................................................................17
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study .................................................................17
Definition of Terms......................................................................................................18
Organization of the Study ............................................................................................21
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ............................................................................23
Historical Background .................................................................................................23
Women in the Workplace: Superintendents ................................................................26
Gender Bias ............................................................................................................27
Race........................................................................................................................28
Glass Ceiling ..........................................................................................................30
#TimeUp and #MeToo Movement: Women in Education Leadership .......................33
Mentoring ...............................................................................................................35
Theoretical Frameworks ........................................................................................36
Transformative World View ..................................................................................36
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 5

Glass Ceiling Theory .............................................................................................36
Feminist Theory .....................................................................................................37
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................37
Chapter Three: Methodology .............................................................................................40
Introduction ..................................................................................................................40
Research Questions ......................................................................................................40
Research Design and Methods .....................................................................................41
Mixed Methods ......................................................................................................41
Transformative Mixed Methods Design ................................................................41
Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods Design ...................................................42
Sample and Population ..........................................................................................42
Sampling ................................................................................................................43
Population ..............................................................................................................43
Instrumentation ......................................................................................................44
Quantitative Instrument .........................................................................................45
Qualitative Instrument ...........................................................................................45
Validity and Reliability ..........................................................................................46
Data Collection ............................................................................................................47
Data Analysis ...............................................................................................................48
Summary ......................................................................................................................48
Chapter Four: Findings ......................................................................................................49
Background ..................................................................................................................49
Demographics of Participants ................................................................................51
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Racial/Cultural Group ............................................................................................54
Research Questions ......................................................................................................56
Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................................56
Coding of Data .............................................................................................................56
Findings........................................................................................................................57
Research Question #1 ..................................................................................................57
Mentoring ...............................................................................................................57
Organizational Culture ...........................................................................................64
Research Question #2 ..................................................................................................68
Formal Education ...................................................................................................68
Career Path .............................................................................................................71
Research Question #3 ..................................................................................................73
Research Question #4 ..................................................................................................76
The #TimesUp and #MeToo Movements ..............................................................76
Feminist Theory .....................................................................................................78
Glass Ceiling Theory .............................................................................................80
Ancillary Findings: Recommendations for Aspiring Superintendents ........................82
Aspiring Female Superintendents ..........................................................................82
Perceptions of Female Superintendents .................................................................83
Personal Life ..........................................................................................................84
Physical Appearance ..............................................................................................84
Advice to Aspiring Superintendents ......................................................................85
Summary ......................................................................................................................86
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Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusion, and Implications ....................................................87
Introduction ..................................................................................................................87
Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................................88
Research Questions ......................................................................................................88
Methodology ................................................................................................................88
Results and Findings ....................................................................................................89
Research Question #1 ..................................................................................................89
Mentoring ...............................................................................................................89
Organizational Culture ...........................................................................................90
Research Question #2 ..................................................................................................90
Formal Education ...................................................................................................90
Career Path .............................................................................................................91
Research Question #3 ..................................................................................................92
Research Question #4 ..................................................................................................92
#TimesUp and #MeToo Movement .......................................................................92
Feminist Theory .....................................................................................................93
Glass Ceiling Theory .............................................................................................93
Ancillary Findings: Recommendations for Aspiring Superintendents ........................93
Aspiring Female Superintendents ..........................................................................93
Perceptions of Female Superintendents .................................................................94
Personal Life ..........................................................................................................94
Physical Appearance ..............................................................................................95
Advice to Aspiring Superintendents ......................................................................95
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Implications for Policy and Practice ......................................................................95
Policy .....................................................................................................................96
Practice ...................................................................................................................96
Recommendations for Future Research .......................................................................97
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................98
References ........................................................................................................................100
Appendix A: Superintendent Cover Letter for Survey ....................................................105
Appendix B: Informed Consent .......................................................................................106
Appendix C: Superintendent Survey ...............................................................................107
Appendix D: Interview Protocol Cover Sheet .................................................................113
Appendix E: Interview Protocol .....................................................................................114

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 9

List of Tables
Table 1: Current age of survey participants by gender ......................................................52
Table 2: Marital status of survey participants by gender ...................................................52
Table 3: Current age of interview participants by gender and marital status ....................53
Table 4: Racial/cultural group of survey participants by gender .......................................55
Table 5: Who’s who? A snapshot of four living generations ...........................................65
Table 6: Highest educational attainment level of survey participants ...............................69
Table 7: Highest educational attainment level of interview participants ...........................69
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 10

List of Figures
Figure A: Superintendent role conceptualization and contemporary needs
affecting practice ...............................................................................................24
Figure B: Gender and racial/cultural groups of superintendents ......................................30
Figure C: Workplace perceptions of women of color ........................................................31
Figure D: Perceived opportunities available to women .....................................................32
Figure E: Women’s state of promotion and attrition in the workplace ..............................32
Figure F: TIME’S UP Logo ..............................................................................................33
Figure G: Transformative explanatory sequential mixed methods conceptual
framework .........................................................................................................44
Figure H: Triangulation of the data ...................................................................................47
Figure I: Gender and racial cultural group .........................................................................55
Figure J: Survey participants’ perspectives on mentoring women ....................................58
Figure K: Survey participants’ perspectives on women seeking male mentors ................61
Figure L: Survey participants’ perspectives on women seeking female mentors ..............62
Figure M: Survey participants’ perspectives on women being mentored by men .............63
Figure N: Superintendent survey responses to social media and K-12 education .............76
Figure O: Superintendents’ perspectives on gender equality ............................................79
Figure P: Superintendents’ perspectives on gender differences related to work
ethic ...................................................................................................................80
Figure Q: Superintendents’ perspectives on racial discrimination ....................................81

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 11

Abstract
This study applied feminist theory (Crossman, 2018) and glass ceiling theory (Dunlap &
Schmuck, 1995) through the lens of a transformative worldview framework (Creswell, 2014) to
understand the formal and informal learning experiences of superintendents in southern
California. The purpose of this study was to examine the differences between the formal and
informal learning experiences of superintendents in southern California to help encourage more
women to pursue to this leadership position with a greater understanding of the professional
expectations, experiences, and barriers to entry. More specifically, this study set out to
determine: (1) what formal and informal learning do superintendents experience to develop their
understanding of the organizational culture of school districts, (2) are there differences in the
formal educational attainment degrees between female and male superintendents, (3) are there
differences in the formal and informal learning between female and male superintendents as they
develop their understanding of school district culture, and (4) what barriers did female
superintendents overcome in order to become school superintendents? This study implemented a
transformative explanatory sequential mixed-methods approach in which 43 superintendents
from throughout southern California completed an online survey and nine female and seven male
superintendents were selected to participate in a semi-structured interview. Through the process
of triangulation, this study’s findings indicated that there are additional barriers to entry into the
superintendency for female superintendents; however, a doctoral degree was found to help
accelerate entry into the superintendency for both females and males. This study provides
recommendations to help promote a more equitable selection process for superintendents that
may help to increase the overall representation of females in the superintendency.
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 12

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Introduction
“TIME’S UP
TM
programming addresses the systemic inequality and injustice in the
workplace that have kept underrepresented groups from reaching their full potential” (TIME’S
UP, 2019, para. 2). “For women, I think you just have to always do more than 100 percent,”
says Los Angeles Unified School District Superintendent Michelle King (Superville, 2017, An
Unappealing Job, Figure 1). “You have to go over and beyond to demonstrate you can do it.
And then folks have to see that that’s happening, and then they’ll take a chance” (Superville,
2017, An Unappealing Job, Figure 1). “Even though K-12 education is largely a female
enterprise, men dominate the chief executive’s office in the nation’s nearly 14,000 districts,
numbers that look especially bleak given that the pool of talent is deep with women” (Superville,
2017, para. 5). According to the Study of the American Superintendent: 2015 Mid-Decade
Update (AASA, 2015), females only make up 27% of the superintendency, an increase of only
2% from 2010. Currently, only “one in five C-suite leaders is a woman, and fewer than one in
thirty is a woman of color” (McKinsey & Company and Lean In, 2017, p. 4). C-Suite refers to a
corporation’s most important senior executives and gets its name from the titles of top senior
executives which tend to start with the letter C, for chief, as in chief executive officer (CEO),
chief academic officer (CAO), chief business officer (CBO) (Investopedia, 2018). “Research has
shown that women in male-dominated occupations, especially those in male-dominated work
contexts, are sexually harassed more than women in balanced or in female-dominated ones”
(D’Onofrio, 2018, According to Time’s Up’s website, para. 3).
When they do get the job, women often face scrutiny men don’t, some superintendents
said. They are told to smile more, their appearances are critiqued, and they can face
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 13

harsh treatment when they assert their authority. . . . Part of it, I think, is race and gender.
I think there is an additional burden for women of color in that role. (Superville, 2017,
Qualifications, Not Gender, paras. 1, 4)
According to the Women in Workplace (McKinsey&Company & Lean In, 2017) study,
The intersection of race and gender shapes women’s experiences in meaningful ways.
Women of color face more obstacles and a steeper path to leadership, from receiving
less support from managers to getting promoted more slowly. And this affects how
they view the workplace and their opportunities for advancement. Overall, two
patterns are clear: compared to white women, things are worse for women of color, and
they are particularly difficult for Black women. (p. 12)
Additional findings revealed that women hit the glass ceiling early . . .
This gender disparity has a dramatic effect on the pipeline as a whole. If entry-
level women were promoted at the same rate as their male peers, the number of women
at the SVP [senior vice president] and C-suite levels would more than double.
(McKinsey & Company and Lean In, 2017, Key Findings, para. 2)
Background of the Problem
The California Department of Education (CDE, 2017) reported that there were 1,024
public school districts throughout the state of California for the 2016-2017 school year. The
school districts were organized by type and the number of districts, respectively: Unified (344),
Elementary (528), High (76), and Other (76).
Some states–New Hampshire, California, and New York–have higher-than-average
percentages of female superintendents. In sheer numbers, California leads the country,
but the state also has the second-largest number of districts, more than 1,000. When the
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 14

AASA [American Association of State Administrators] conducted its survey this
summer, California had 335 women running districts. (Superville, 2017, ‘She Meant
Business’, para. 11)
According to the 2016 AASA Superintendents Salary and Benefits Study, “the mean
age for female superintendents is greater than their male counterparts” (p. 3) and “females tend
to enter the role later and have greater experience in the roles leading to assuming a
superintendency” (p. 3).
Females and persons of color “continue to be underrepresented because their presence
in the position does not reflect the diversity of both the national population and the total
student population in public schools” (Kowalski, McCord, Peterson, Young, & Ellerson, 2011,
p. 85). According to the American School Superintendent: 2010 Decennial Study, “Extant
literature reveals a history of both gender-related and race-related barriers to administrative
positions” (Kowalski et al., 2011, p. 85). To better understand how women break through the
glass ceiling to become superintendents in California, this study used a transformative
worldview to examine the role of equity traps and harassment in the workplace as barriers to
entry for women and racial/ethnic minorities into administrative roles that lead to the
superintendency. A transformative worldview framework relates to a marginalized or
underrepresented community and specific issues faced by that community (e.g., oppression,
power) (Creswell, 2014). The University of California, Berkeley Leadership Connection
Rubric (Tredway, Stephens, Leader-Pione, & Hernandez, 2012) defined equity traps as deficit
thinking, erasure (acting as if one does not see racial categories), the gaze (diminishing
expectations in racially diverse schools), and paralogical beliefs (attributing low performance
to external factors by not assuming personal responsibility).
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 15

Males, on average, became novice superintendents at an earlier age than did their female
peers. More than half (56.3%) of males reached the position by the age of 45, and they
were 4 times as likely as women to be a novice superintendent before the age of 36.”
(Kowalski et al., 2011, p. xvii)
This research study will provide insight into inequities in the selection process of women
superintendents in California to promote a more equitable hiring process for females and
racial/ethnic minority females by understanding the barriers and journeys of female
administrators that have broken through the glass ceiling to become superintendents in
California.
Statement of the Problem
Women are underrepresented in the role of superintendent in California. The majority of
women that are selected to become superintendents in California have had more professional
working experience than their male counterparts and enter at an older age than their male peers.
According to the ASSA 2010 Decennial Study (Kowalski et al., 2011), more than half of men
(56.3%) entered the superintendency “by age 45 and were 4 times as likely as women to be a
novice superintendent before the age of 36” (Kowalski et al., 2011, p. 5). Women in the
Workplace (McKinsey&Company & Lean In, 2017) found that “Women remain
underrepresented at every level in corporate America, despite earning more college degrees than
men for thirty years and counting” (p. 2). Women are highly qualified for the superintendency
role; and according to state agencies, “a considerable number of women possess certificates or
licenses to serve as superintendents (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006)” (Kowalski et al., 2011, p. 85), yet
remain underrepresented nationwide and in California. This study examined the root causes of
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 16

inequities in the selection process of women superintendents in California and how women
superintendents in K-12 education in California successfully lean into this leadership position.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to provide insight into the formal and informal learning
experiences of female superintendents. This study compared the professional experience and
formal educational attainment levels of female and male superintendents and addressed the
barriers women encounter to become superintendents in California. Surveys provided formal
educational and demographic data of female and male superintendents in California.
Interviews were conducted to understand the formal and informal learning experiences of both
female and male superintendents as they develop their understanding of school district culture
and the organization of school districts.
Research Questions
The following research questions were used to guide this study:
1. What formal and informal learning do superintendents experience to develop
their understanding of the organization of school districts?
2. Does the formal education of male and female superintendents differ in California?
3. Is there a difference in the formal and informal learning between men and women as
they develop their understanding of the school district’s culture?
4. What barriers did female superintendents overcome in order to become
superintendents in California?
This study explored the transition and trajectory of female superintendents in California
and differences between their male counterparts’ journey. It examined the formal and informal
learning experiences of women as they transition into administrative roles in K-12 educational
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 17

leadership. Through a transformative worldview, this study examined barriers that women
encounter when transitioning into administration; and looked at leadership strategies that support
coping and excelling in these roles. Transformative research provided a platform for participants
to be able to improve their lives by focusing research on inequities based on gender, race,
ethnicity, disability, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic class and to explain why the
problems of oppression, domination, and power relationships exist (Creswell, 2014).
The formal and informal learning experiences of women will be determined by utilizing a
narrative analysis approach, compiling women’s formal educational attainment and informal
learning experiences throughout their leadership journey.
Significance of the Study
This research study provided insight into the formal and informal learning experiences of
women that have successfully ascended into a superintendent role and may help encourage other
women to pursue this leadership position.
Limitations and Delimitations of the Study
This study was limited to superintendents in southern California and their self-reported
personal narratives into the superintendency role. Interview questions related to harassment in
the workplace, in alignment with the current #MeToo (2018) and #TimesUp (2017) movements,
were limited to the relevance of the research participants’ personal experiences.
The delimitations of this study were limited to the geographic region of participants
(southern California) and the number of superintendents surveyed (43) and interviewed (16).

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 18

Definition of Terms
Cultural consonance: The level of an individual’s or group’s knowledge, use and synchronicity
with the cultural norms or a community or institution. (Tredway, et al. 2012)
C-Suite: C-Suite, or C-Level, is a widely-used slang term used to collectively refer to a
corporation’s most important senior executives. C-Suite gets its name from the titles of
top senior executives which tend to start with the letter C, for chief, as in chief executive
officer (CEO), chief financial officer (CFO), chief operating officer (COO), and chief
information officer (CIO). (Investopedia, 2018)
Discourse II: A process for having conversations about practice and change that includes a non-
blaming, non-judgmental approach. The premise of Discourse II is that organizational
actors adopt a problem-posing, problem-solving frame of mind. The leader meets the
constituents at their level of readiness and honors their thoughts and work. This form of
discourse is the foundation of respectful resolution of conflicts and is a fundamental
component of democratic engagement. (Leadership Connection Rubric, 2017)
Efficiency: “Getting the most out of a given input.” “Achieving an objective for the lowest
cost.” (Stone, 2001, p. 61)
Equality: The state or quality of being equal; correspondence in quantity, degree, value, rank, or
ability. (Dictionary.com, 2018)
Educational Equity: Educational equity means that each child receives what he or she needs to
develop to his or her full academic and social potential. Working towards equity
involves:
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 19

 Ensuring equally high outcomes for all participants in our educational system; removing
the predictability of success or failures that currently correlates with any social or cultural
factor
 Interrupting inequitable practices, examining biases, and creating inclusive multicultural
school environments for adults and children
 Discovering and cultivating the unique gifts, talents, and interests that every human
possesses. (National Equity Project, 2018)
Equity: Equity is the goal for all sides in a distributive conflict; the conflict comes over how the
sides envision the distribution of whatever is at issue. (Stone, 2001)
Equity Trap: The possibility of relying on a constricting view of the situation that limits the
ability to take responsibility for achieving outcomes for students. The equity traps
include deficit thinking or conversations, erasure (acting as if one does not see racial
categories), the gaze (diminishing expectations in racially diverse schools and keeping
peer teachers “in line” in terms of what is expected of teachers), and paralogical beliefs
(attributing low performance to external factors by not assuming personal responsibility).
(Leadership Connection Rubric, 2017)
Feminist Theory: Feminist theory is a major branch of theory within sociology that is
distinctive for how its creators shift their analytic lens, assumptions, and topical focus
away from the male viewpoint and experience. In doing so, feminist theory shines light
on social problems, trends, and issues that are otherwise overlooked or misidentified by
the historically dominant male perspective within social theory.
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 20

Key areas of focus within feminist theory include discrimination and exclusion on
the basis of sex and gender, objectification, structural and economic inequality, power
and oppression, and gender roles and stereotypes, among others. (Crossman, 2018)
Glass Ceiling: The “glass ceiling” is a concept that betrays America’s most cherished
principles. It is the unseen, yet unbreachable barrier that keeps minorities and women
from rising to the upper rungs of the corporate ladder, regardless of their qualifications or
achievements. (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995)
Lean In: To press ahead, to project confidence, to “sit at the table” and physically lean in to
make herself heard. (Merriam-Webster, 2018)
MeToo: In 2006, Tarana Burke founded the “me too” movement to helps survivors of sexual
violence, particularly young women of color from low-wealth communities, find
pathways to healing. Using the idea of “empowerment through empathy,” the “me too”
movement was ultimately created to ensure survivors know they’re not alone in their
journey. The “me too” movement has built a community of survivors from all walks of
life. By bringing vital conversations about sexual violence into the mainstream, we’re
helping to de-stigmatize survivors by highlighting the breadth and impact sexual violence
has on thousands of women, and we’re helping those who need it to find entry points to
healing. Ultimately, with survivors at the forefront of this movement, we’re aiding the
fight to end sexual violence. We want to uplift radical community healing as a social
justice issue and are committed to disrupting all systems that allow sexual violence to
flourish. (Me Too, 2018)
Patriarchy: Patriarchal (adj.) describes a general structure in which men have power over
women. Society (n.) is the entirety of relations of a community. A patriarchal society
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 21

consists of a male-dominated power structure throughout organized society and in
individual relationships. Power is related to privilege. In a system in which men have
more power than women, men have some level of privilege to which women are not
entitled. (Napikowski, 2017)
#TimesUp: Time’s Up is a unified call for change from women in entertainment for women
everywhere. From movie sets to farm fields to boardrooms alike, we envision nationwide
leadership that reflects the world in which we live. (TIME, n.d., para. 7)
Powered by women, our TIME’S UP
TM
programming addresses the systemic
inequality and injustice in the workplace that have kept underrepresented groups from
reaching their full potential (TIMES UP, 2019, para. 2)
Transformative Research Paradigm: Set of assumptions and procedures used in research:
 Underlying assumptions that rely on ethical stances of inclusion and challenging
oppressive social structures.
 An entry process into the community that is designed to build trust and make goals and
strategies transparent.
 Dissemination of findings that encourage use of the results to enhance social justice and
human rights. (Creswell, 2014)
Organization of the Study
Time’s Up: A Transformative View of Women Leaning into the Superintendency in
California is organized into five chapters. Chapter One provides an overview of the study and
introduces data to present the root causes of inequities in the selection process of women
superintendents in California and includes definitions of terms used in this study. Chapter
Two includes a literature review in the following four areas: selection criteria of
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 22

superintendents, professional experience and educational attainment, formal and informal
learning experiences, and barriers to entry into the superintendency for women. Chapter Three
provides a description of the methodology selected for this research study and includes:
sample and population selection, interview questions, data collection, and data analysis.
Chapter Four is a report of the research findings. Chapter Five is composed of a summary of
findings, implications for practice, conclusions and recommendations. References and
appendices are included in the conclusion of this research study.
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 23

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This section provides a review of existing literature as it relates to the formal and
informal learning experiences of women that have successfully ascended into the
superintendency in K-12 public school districts. The historical background of women in
leadership positions in business and education will provide data on the underrepresentation of
women in leadership positions in the workplace. Research on race and gender bias is
presented as potential barriers to the superintendency. The aftermath of the #MeToo
movement and its impact on the mentorship and promotion of women in the workplace will
be discussed. Glass Ceiling and Feminist Theory frameworks will be presented to frame this
transformative worldview research study.
Historical Background
“The American public education system has experienced multiple reform periods”
(Kowalski et al., 2011, p. 1) that have influenced the conceptualization of the superintendent
role (Kowalski et al., 2011). From 1865 to 1910, the superintendent position was
conceptualized as a teacher-scholar role that was typically filled by males considered to be
effective teachers (Kowalski et al., 2011). In 1909, Ella Flag Young was appointed as the first
female superintendent of the Chicago schools and predicted there would be an increase in the
representation of female superintendents of large school districts (Blount, 1998, p. 1). In 1910,
only 8.9% of school superintendents were female (Kowalski et al., 2011). In 1982, women
held only 1.2% of superintendent positions in the United States (Blount, 1998; Glass, Björk, &
Brunner, 2000). In 2000, women held 13.2% of superintendent positions (Kowalski et al.,
2011).
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 24

The superintendent position has evolved over the last 100 years (see Figure A) from:
teacher-scholar, business manager, statesman, applied social scientist, and communicator to
meet the social, educational, and professional needs of the community (Kowalski et al., 2011).

Source: (Kowalski et al., 2011, p. 9)
Figure A: Superintendent Role Conceptualization and Contemporary Needs Affecting
Practice

Prior to 1910, educational administration programs did not exist at the university level;
however, with the influence of the Industrial Revolution, the superintendent position evolved
into a business management role, with more emphasis on managerial skills than instructional
knowledge. The Teachers College at Columbia University capitalized on this shift and created
an educational administration specialization, considered to be superior to teaching to meet the
increasing demands of the superintendency (Callahan, 1962 as cited in Kowalski et al., 2011,
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 25

2011). This role characterized superintendents as authoritative, impersonal, and task-oriented
(Schneider, 1994 as cited in Kowalski et al., 2011).
After 1930, and the Great Depression, the role of the superintendent evolved
from business manager to statesman, which transitioned the position from individual
control to community voice, with increasing political implications (Kowalski et al.,
2011).
In the mid-1950s, the conceptualization of the superintendent role shifted focus from
political philosopher to applied social scientist with the expectation that educational problems
in multicultural, democratic societies could be solved by relying on empiricism, predictability
and scientific certainty (Sergiovanni, Burlingame, Coombs, & Boyd, 1987 as cited in
Kowalski et al., 2011). Kowalski (2009 as cited in Kowalski et al., 2011) found that in the
1960s and 1970s doctoral students in educational administration were required to complete a
cognate subject, such as psychology, economics, political science, or sociology. By the early
1960s, Callahan (1966) found that superintendents as applied social scientists would be “high
level technicians, expert at keeping their organization going but not equipped to see or
understand where they are going.” (Callahan, 1966 as cited in Kowalski et al., 2011, p. 4).
From the 1980s to present, the superintendent role evolved from social scientist to
communicator, using the classical model of organizational communication, which
emphasized power and dominance by issuing instructions and commands down a chain of
command (Burgoon & Hale, 1984 as cited in Kowalski et al., 2011). The classical model of
organizational communication was replaced by the relational model of communication,
which is considered to be “open, two-way, and symmetrical (i.e., intended to benefit all
interactants)” (Kowalski et al., 2011, p. 4). Osterman (1994) found that superintendents are
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 26

judged on the basis of their communicative behavior; and studies on performance evaluation
and dismissals (e.g. Beverage, 2003; Peterson, 1999; Davis 1998) revealed that discipline
occurred if superintendents were seen as “incompetent and inconsistent communicators”
(Beverage, 2003, Peterson, 1999, and Davis 1998 as cited in Kowalski et al., 2011, p. 4).
Women in the Workplace: Superintendents
Men and women in leadership positions are perceived differently. Success and
likeability are positively correlated for men and negatively correlated for women. Successful
men are liked by both men and women. Successful women are liked less by both genders.
(Sandberg, 2013). In 2003, professors at the Columbia Business School presented a Harvard
Business School case study about Heidi Roizen. Half of the students received the case study
with Heidi’s name and the other half received the same study with the name “Heidi” changed to
“Howard.” Students agreed that both leaders were equally competent; however, Heidi was seen
as “not the type of person you would want to hire or work for” in comparison to Howard who
was perceived to be a more appealing colleague (Sandberg, 2013, p. 39-40). Cultural norms for
sex-role behaviors are prevalent throughout the field of education. Historically, men have
overwhelmingly dominated the superintendent role, which has reinforced sex-role expectations
for men to be in CEO positions for school districts (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). The historical
presence of men in the superintendency role has produced a conditioning process (Dana &
Bourisaw, 2006). The impact of this conditioning process is that men and women are
accustomed to working under the direction and leadership of men and are not conditioned or
accustomed to performing work that meets the expectations of a woman CEO (Dana &
Bourisaw, 2006). According to Ely, Ibarra, and Kolb (2011), “Women’s underrepresentation in
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 27

leader positions validates entrenched systems and beliefs that prompt and support men’s bids
for leadership, which in turn, maintains the status quo” (p. 475).
Gender Bias
In the United States, females earn about 57% of undergraduate degrees and 60% of
master’s degrees (Sandberg, 2013). Despite the gender gap in academic achievement, Sandberg
(2013) attributed a leadership ambition gap to the higher number of males to females in
leadership roles. A Millennials in the Workplace (2012 as cited in Sandberg, 2013) survey
found that women were just as likely as men to describe themselves as ambitious as men.
However, millennial women were less likely than millennial men to aspire to a leadership role
in their current field. (Sandberg, 2013). “Since more men aim for these roles, it is not
surprising they obtain them” (Sandberg, 2013, p. 16).
The Study of the American Superintendent: 2015 Mid-Decade Update (AASA, 2015)
found that females make up 27% of the superintendency. Bolman and Deal (2013) found that
in American schools, women constitute the great majority of teachers and a growing percentage
of middle managers, but only held 15% of superintendent roles in 2007 (p. 352). While there
has been a small increase in the presence of female superintendents, research by Botelho and
Abraham (2017) found that:
People often exhibit a preference for men over women when information about an
individual’s quality (for example, their expected performance) is unavailable or
unclear. Even when performance information is available, lab-based research has
shown that women still tend to be disadvantaged, compared with men of equal quality.
This double standard means women must outperform men to be evaluated similarly.
(para. 2)
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 28

Gender bias has been found to raise the assessment of men while lowering the
assessment of women; however, gender-blind evaluations result in better outcomes for women
(Sandberg, 2013, p. 152). Superville’s (2017) research argued that current and former women
superintendents “were adamant that they want to be hired because they are qualified” (An
Unappealing Job?, para. 6) “I don’t want to be offered a position because I am woman;
likewise, I don’t want to lose a position because I am a woman” said Julie Mitchell, the
superintendent of Rowland Unified District in southern California. (Superville, 2017, An
Unappealing Job?, para. 7).
Sandberg (2013) found that when evaluating identical resumes of male and female
applicants for a lab manager position, scientists rated males as more competent than females
and offered females a lower starting salary and less mentoring (Moss-Racusin et al., 2012 as
cited in Sandberg, 2013).
Aspiring and sitting women superintendents have proclaimed their desire to be hired as
superintendents based on their qualifications (Superville, 2017); however, gender bias
continues to be a pervasive obstacle towards the superintendency. Dana and Bourisaw (2006)
argued that “Gender is the inherent and ever-present barrier. Whether it is extending efforts to
acquire quality preparation, gain experience, enter into administration, move up the hierarchy,
or serve as a superintendent, the barrier for women is gender” (p. 14).
Race
The Women in the Workplace (McKinsey&Company & Lean In, 2017) report found
that “Women remain significantly underrepresented in the corporate pipeline” (4). “Inequality
starts at the very first promotion. This is even more dramatic for women of color” (Krivkovich,
Robinson, Starikova, Valentino, & Yee, 2017, p. 2). In 1980, only 2.1% of superintendents
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 29

were considered to be in the demographic of people of color, which increased to 3.9% in 1992
and 5.1% in 2000 (Kowalski et al., 2011). Simmons (2005 as cited in Kowalski et al., 2011)
argued that the increase of superintendents of color may be attributable to an increase of
unattractive positions, such as those in troubled school districts.
“One of the national issues facing school leaders is the equitable hiring of women and
persons who represent minority populations for top school leadership positions. Historically,
women have been underrepresented in such educational leadership positions as
superintendencies.” (Gilmour & Kinsella, 2009, p. 3). Ely et al. (2011) found that “Women in
positions of authority are thought too aggressive or not aggressive enough, and what appears
assertive, self-confident, or entrepreneurial in a man often looks abrasive, arrogant, or self-
promoting in a woman” (p. 477). Additional research related to race found that women of Asian
descent were stereotyped as passive, reserved, and lacking in ambition and Latinas were
considered overemotional which were not characteristics aligned to successful leadership.
African American women were often stereotyped as overly aggressive and confrontational (Ely
et al., 2011).
The findings of the 2016 AASA Superintendent Salary and Benefits Study (Finnan &
McCord, 2017) revealed (see Figure B) that similar to previous studies, males outnumbered
females by a four-to-one ratio. While, more female and minority superintendents responded to
this survey than in previous years, respondents were overwhelmingly White (non-Hispanic) at
91.9%. The small representation of minority superintendents made findings for these groups
difficult.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 30

Source: (Finnan & McCord, 2017, p. 2)
Figure B: Gender and Racial/Cultural Groups of Superintendents

Glass Ceiling
“Glass walls and ceilings have been systematically constructed as a consequence of our
cultural attitudes, behaviors, and practices” (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006, p. 6). Prejudice against
minorities and White women was found to be the greatest barrier for women aspiring into
executive positions (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1991 as cited in Dana & Bourisaw,
2006).
In 1991, the Civil Rights Act created the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission (Federal
Glass Ceiling Commission, 1991 as cited in Dana & Bourisaw, 2006) to focus on identifying
artificial barriers impacting the professional advancement of minorities and women and
increasing opportunities and professional development for women and minorities to prepare
for more management level and decision-making positions in business. The Federal Glass
Ceiling Commission found that three levels of barriers existed: societal, internal structural
barriers, and governmental barriers (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1991 as cited in Dana
& Bourisaw, 2006).
The 2017 Women in the Workplace Study by McKinsey & Company and Lean In found
that “Despite facing more pitfalls to advancement, women of color have higher ambitions to be
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 31

a top executive than white women” (McKinsey & Company and Lean In, 2017, p. 13).
Krivkovich et al. (2017) provided,

Source: Krivkovich et al., 2017, Exhibit 2, p. 4
Figure C: Workplace Perceptions of Women of Color

Figure C revealed that managers are more likely to advocate for White and Asian
women for opportunities. Black women received the least amount of support from managers
in all areas measured. This data revealed that workplace perceptions of women of color may
impact the trajectory of a woman’s career.
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 32

Source: Krivkovich et al., 2017, Exhibit 2, p. 4
Figure D: Perceived Opportunities Available to Women

White, Asian, and Latina women scored the highest in perceived opportunities
available to women. Black women scored the lowest in thinking they have equal opportunities
for growth as their peers, that promotions are based on fair and objective criteria, and that the
best opportunities go to the most deserving employees. Overall, this research found that
minority women had higher ambitions than White women to be a top executive.

Source: Krivkovich et al., 2017, Exhibit 2, p. 4
Figure E: Women’s State of Promotion and Attrition in the Workplace

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 33

An analysis of Figure E: Women’s State of Promotion and Attrition in the Workplace
revealed that respectively, White, Asian, and Latina women are promoted at a higher rate than
Black Women. Conversely, the attrition rate is highest for Black women, followed by Latina,
Asian, and White. Superville (2017) also found additional burdens for women of color that have
ascended into the superintendency.
#TimesUp and #MeToo Movement: Women in Education Leadership
“Powered by women, Time’s Up [see Figure F] programming addresses the systemic
inequality and injustice in the workplace that have kept underrepresented groups from reaching
their full potential” (Times Up, 2019, para. 2). The #MeToo movement, founded by Tarana
Burke in 2006, has sensitized the public to the financial, psychological, and career costs for
women which have resulted in organizations implementing mandatory workplace trainings and
seminars to company retreats, to encourage the identification, reporting, and handling of cases of
harassment and discrimination (Ben-Ghiat, 2018).

Source: Time’s Up, 2019, Image 1
Figure F: TIME’S UP Logo
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 34

The intersection of the #Time’s Up and #MeToo campaigns have provided a platform
for women to address inequality, discrimination, and sexual harassment in the workplace that
have historically impacted the trajectory of their careers. According to Abrashoff (2012), “In
the business world, there is a myth that women achieved equality, when in fact a great deal of
subtle harassment and discrimination exists” (p. 196). Women in the Workplace (McKinsey &
Company & Lean In, 2017) found that, “Nearly 50% of men think women are well represented
in leadership in companies where only one in ten senior leaders is a woman. . . . a third think
women are well represented when they see one in ten in leadership at their company” (p. 14).
LeanIn.org (2019) found that “Since the recent media reports of sexual harassment,
almost half of male managers are uncomfortable participating in a common work activity with a
woman, such as mentoring, working alone, or socializing together” (para. 1 [right-hand side]).
LeanIn.Org and Survey Monkey (2019) conducted a study to find “what men and women are
feeling in the wake of the widespread media reports of sexual harassment” (Key Findings,
para. 1) and reported the following findings,
 Almost 30% of male managers are uncomfortable working alone with a woman–more
than twice as many as before. (para. 3)
 The number of male managers who are uncomfortable mentoring women has more than
tripled from 5% to 16%. This means that 1 in 6 male managers may now hesitate to
mentor a woman. (para. 4)
 Senior men are 3.5% times more likely to hesitate to have a work dinner with a junior-
level woman than with a junior-level man–and 5 times more likely to hesitate to travel
for work with a junior-level woman. (para. 5)
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 35

The social media presence of the symbolic hashtags #TimesUp and #MeToo have
prompted the creation of the new symbolic #MentorHer to encourage more males to
mentor women (LeanIn.Org, 2017).
Mentoring
Gilmour and Kinsella (2009) found that “Mentors and networking are often key
elements in the career path to the superintendency” (p. 13). Lean In. (2019) found,
Mentorship is critical to the success of women across industries. We all benefit when
a colleague shows us the ropes and sponsors us for new opportunities—particularly
when they’re more senior, as men often are. This type of support can be especially
impactful for women of color, who are less likely to receive career guidance from
managers and senior leaders. (It’s critical to success, para. 1)
Dana and Bourisaw (2006) explained that “Frequently a mentor-protégé relationship
begins with willingness of a successful superintendent in another school district or
successful retired superintendent to mentor a novice” (p. 188). Additional findings revealed
that,
Women aspiring to the positions of school and school district leadership must
remember that they are entering a male-dominated profession and that available
mentoring may be conducted by men. Some discomfort with commitment to
mentoring in a professional sense may exist because of the man-woman
relationship. (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006, p. 193).
The #MentorHer movement may encourage more men to participate in mentoring
aspiring women leaders in education in the aftermath of the #TimesUp and #MeToo
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 36

campaigns, which have left some men feeling uncomfortable engaging in professional
mentoring relationships with women (LeanIn, 2019).
Theoretical Frameworks
Female superintendents in California experience both formal and informal learning as
they develop their understanding of the organization of school districts. Two theories are
applied to present the formal and informal learning experiences of both female and male
superintendents in California: Glass Ceiling Theory and Feminist Theory. These theories will
be examined through the lens of a Transformative World View framework.
Transformative World View
Creswell (2014) defined the Transformative World View framework as a set
of assumptions and procedures used in research,
 Underlying assumptions that rely on ethical stances of inclusion and challenging
oppressive social structures
 An entry process in the community that is designed to build trust and make goals and
strategies transparent
 Dissemination of findings that encourage use of the results to enhance social
justice and human rights. (p. 71)
Glass Ceiling Theory
Dunlap and Schmuck (1995) defined the glass ceiling as an unseen barrier that holds
women back from advancing to more senior level positions in their careers. The theory of
glass ceilings examined the differences in formal learning between female and male
superintendents in California. According to Dana and Bourisaw (2006), “Glass walls and
ceilings have been systematically constructed as a consequence of our cultural attitudes,
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 37

behaviors, and practices” (p. 6). Bolman and Deal (2013) found that both men and women
associate leadership characteristics to men more than women.
Feminist Theory
Crossman (2017 as cited in Rich, 2017) defined feminist theory as “. . . distinctive for
how its creators shift their analytic lens, assumptions, and topical focus away from the male
viewpoint and experience” (2.11, Theoretical Framework, para. 1). Feminist theory will
examine the female perspective of why there are fewer female superintendents leading the
nation’s school districts. Blount (1998) found that “Feminists considered attainment of the
superintendency as a particularly important goal for women because it was a position from
which they could wield considerable educational influence. It also symbolized women’s
increasing social, political, and economic power” (p. 1-2). “Feminist theory include
discrimination and exclusion on the basis of gender, objectification, structural and economic
inequality, power and oppression, and gender roles and stereotypes” (Crossman, 2018, para. 2).
Ely et al. (2011) stated,
The implication is that women need simply to learn the rules of the game and change
their behavior accordingly. This advice is misguided, however, because it fails to take
into account how gender bias can give rise to double binds and double standards.
(p. 486)
Conclusion
This historical conceptualization of the superintendent position from the 1910s to
present examined the growing expectations and responsibilities of this leadership role and the
development of specialized educational leadership programs at the university level. The
Women in the Workplace (Krivkovich et al., 2017) study found that “Inequality starts at the
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 38

very first promotion. This is even more dramatic for women of color” (p. 2). The initial
teacher-scholar conceptualization of the superintendent sought effective male teachers
(Kowalski et al., 2011), which may have influenced the historical underrepresentation of
women superintendents in the corporate pipeline. Rhimes and Verica (2013) illustrated the
prevalence of power and privilege through the interaction between an African American father
and daughter to address how gender and race are barriers to leadership positions,
Father: “You have to be what . . .”
Daughter: “Twice...”
Father: “What?” Daughter: “Twice as good.”
Father: “Twice as good as them to get half of what they have.” (dialogue)
Gender and racial bias are obstacles to the superintendency that keep women
underrepresented in this leadership role (Kowalski et al., 2011). Social media has shed light on
discrimination, harassment, and inequalities in the workplace which have prompted campaigns
in professional environments from entertainment to agriculture to use the hashtags #TimesUp
and #MeToo to efficiently promote widespread awareness over these issues (Women in the
Workplace, 2017; McKinsey&Company & Lean In, 2017). While social media has provided a
platform for women in diverse professions to speak out about discrimination, harassment, and
inequalities in the workplace there has been little research presented on how aspiring women
leaders’ careers may have been affected in K-12 educational leadership.
Dana and Bourisaw (2006) found that there may be some discomfort between
professional male and female mentoring relationships due to cultural norms and
recommended that both participants agree upon a professional acceptable environment and
adhere to a professional standard of ethics. The effects of these campaigns have prompted
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 39

workplace trainings to support the equitable treatment and inclusion of women and racial
minorities in the workplace. However, some of the aftermath of these campaigns have
resulted in the discomfort of men to provide professional support and mentoring to women
colleagues, which resulted in the creation of the #MentorHer initiative to encourage more
men to mentor and coach their women colleagues (LeanIn.Org, 2017). According to the
LeanIn.org’s (2019) study,
Mentorship is critical to the success of women across industries. We all benefit when
a colleague shows us the ropes and sponsors us for new opportunities—particularly
when they’re more senior, as men often are. This type of support can be especially
impactful for women of color, who are less likely to receive career guidance from
managers and senior leaders. (It’s critical to success, para. 1)
This research study provided insights into the formal and informal learning
experiences of women superintendents in K-12 public school districts. Interviews and
surveys will address how the current social media climate has impacted educational
leadership and mentoring opportunities and career transitions and trajectories. This research
study was conducted through a transformative worldview framework examining both glass
ceiling and feminist theories in educational leadership (Creswell, 2014; Dunlap & Schmuck,
1995; Crossman, 2018).

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 40

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Chapter Three is an overview of the methodology selected for this research study. It
begins with an introduction, purpose of the study, and research questions; and will continue with
the sample and population, instrumentation, and data collection. This chapter also includes a
data analysis and summary section.
Introduction
The purpose of this research study is to provide insight into the formal and informal
learning experiences of women superintendents in K-12 public school districts in southern
California. This study compared the professional experience and formal educational
attainment levels of female and male superintendents and addressed the barriers women
encounter to become superintendents in California. Interviews were conducted to understand
the formal and informal learning experiences of female and male superintendents as they
develop their understanding of school district culture and the organization of school districts.
Research Questions
The following research questions focus on the formal and informal learning experiences
of women who have broken through the glass ceiling to become superintendents in California.
These questions provided information on the differences between men and women as they
progress in their career and insights into additional barriers that women encountered as they
promoted to superintendents in California.
1. What formal and informal learning do superintendents experience to develop their
understanding of the organizational culture of school districts?
2. Does the formal education of male and female superintendents differ in California?
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 41

3. Is there a difference in the formal and informal learning between men and women as
they develop their understanding of the school district’s culture?
4. What barriers did female superintendents overcome in order to become school
superintendents?
Research Design and Methods
This research study utilized a transformative explanatory sequential mixed-methods
approach framed by feminist and glass ceiling theoretical paradigms to address the formal and
informal learning that women in K-12 educational leadership roles experienced as they broke
through the glass ceiling and became superintendents in California.
Mixed Methods
This research study used a mixed-methods research approach.
Mixed methods research is as an approach to inquiry involving collecting both
quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the two forms of data and using distinct
designs that may involve philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks. The
core assumption of this form of inquiry is that the combination of qualitative and
quantitative approaches provides a more complete understanding of a research problem
than either approach alone. (Creswell, 2014, p. 4)
Transformative Mixed Methods Design
Creswell (2014) defined the transformative mixed-methods design as,
The researcher uses a social justice theory as a framework for a mixed methods study.
This theory (e.g. feminist, racial) frames many aspects of the mixed methods study, such
as the research problem, the questions, the data collection and analysis, interpretation,
and the call for action. (p. 228)
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 42

Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods Design
Creswell (as cited in Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) defined the explanatory sequential design
procedure where “the quantitative data are collected first; the collection of the qualitative data
follows, generally with the purpose of explaining the results or a particular part of the findings in
more depth.” (p. 47).
This research study utilized a transformative explanatory sequential mixed-methods
approach framed by feminist and glass ceiling theoretical paradigms. Creswell’s (2014)
explanatory sequential mixed-methods data collection procedures were implemented “with
rigorous quantitative sampling in the first phase and with purposeful sampling in the second
qualitative phase” (p. 224).
In the first, quantitative phase of this research study, survey data was sent to 51 male and
50 female superintendents in California. Survey data was received, collected, and analyzed from
26 female and 17 male superintendents. Survey data provided demographic information,
educational attainment levels, and pathways to the superintendency. Feminist theory and glass
ceiling theory framed components of the survey data, including professional awareness and
consequences of the social media-based Time’s Up and #MeToo campaigns. The quantitative
data analysis of the surveys informed the purposeful sampling of superintendents selected to
participate in the qualitative phase of this research study. The qualitative phase of this research
study included semi-structured interviews with seven male and nine female superintendents in K-
12 public school districts in California.
Sample and Population
Convenience sampling based on location (southern California) and respondents
(superintendents) (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) serving in K-12 public school districts during the
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 43

2017-2018 and 2018-2019 school years were invited to participate in the quantitative survey
portion of this research study. Purposeful sampling was used in the secondary phase of the
transformative explanatory sequential mixed-methods design, “based on the assumption that the
investigator wants to discover, understand, and gain insight and therefore must sample from
which the most can be learned” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 96).
Sampling
This research study used a combination of convenience and purposeful sampling. The
convenience sample allowed the investigator to analyze the quantitative survey data of 17 male
and 26 female superintendents of K-12 public school districts in California. A convenience
sample was selected to ensure a sample size would provide detailed insights into differences
between the formal and informal experiences of male and female superintendents of K-12 public
school districts in southern California. Based on the analysis of these surveys, the investigator
utilized purposeful sampling to select seven male and nine female superintendents to interview
based on their responses to the survey data. Creswell (2014) defined purposeful sampling, “To
purposefully select participants or sites (or documents or visual material) means that qualitative
researchers select individuals who will best help them understand the research problem and
research questions” (p. 246). The investigator reviewed the responses to the surveys that
indicated knowledge of or impact from the #TimesUp and #MeToo social media campaigns.
Population
The selected population for the quantitative and qualitative components of this research
study included sitting superintendents during the 2017-2018 and 2018-2019 school years in
southern California.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 44

Transformative Framework
Feminist Theory & Glass Ceiling Theory
Quantitative Data Collection & Analysis
Superintendent Surveys (26 females / 17 males)
Follow up with
Qualitative Data
Collection & Analysis
Superintendent Interviews
(9 females / 7 males)
Interpretation
Instrumentation
This study utilized a transformative explanatory sequential mixed-methods design. The
researcher utilized a transformative framework through the lens of feminist theory and glass
ceiling theory. The researcher surveyed 26 female and 17 male superintendents for the
quantitative portion of the research study. The researcher analyzed the quantitative data and
selected nine female and seven male superintendents to interview for the qualitative portion of
the research study. The final stage in this research study was data interpretation and analysis.

Figure G: Transformative Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods Conceptual Framework

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 45

Quantitative Instrument
The quantitative data for this research study was collected through the usage of an online
Qualtrics survey. This survey was broken into five sections. Superintendent demographic-
focused questions included age, gender, racial/cultural category, and marital status which
provided a foundational comparison between female and male superintendents within southern
California. Disaggregated school district data provided insight into the different types of school
districts where female and male superintendents were selected to serve. The leadership
characteristics and preferences revealed gender and stylistic preferences of superintendents.
Questions focused on the glass ceiling theory in K-12 education addressed potential barriers for
aspiring and sitting women and minority superintendents. The social media and mentorship
questions focused on how the #TimesUp and #MeToo campaigns impacted the culture and
climate for female and male superintendents.
Qualitative Instrument
In a transformative explanatory sequential mixed-methods design, quantitative data is
collected and analyzed. Then, based on the quantitative data analysis, the qualitative portion of
the research study was implemented. The qualitative data for this research study was collected
through semi-structured interviews in the natural setting of the selected participants (Creswell,
2014). Interviews consisted of ten questions and were audio-recorded with participant consent.
Interview questions were aligned to the research questions of this study. Qualitative face-to-face
interviews were conducted that involved semi-structured and open-ended questions to elicit
personal narratives from the participants (Creswell, 2014). The semi- structured and open-ended
interview questions allowed participants to speak comfortably, freely, and flexibly, which
allowed the researcher to respond to the situations at hand (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 46

Validity and Reliability
Throughout the research study, the researcher utilized validity tests to rule out validity
threats and increase the credibility of the data collected (Maxwell, 2013). Respondent validation
(Bryman, 1998 as cited in Maxwell, 2013; Lincoln & Guba, 1985 as cited in Maxwell, 2013)
involved the systematic solicitation of feedback about the data and conclusions from the
participants which ruled out potential misinterpretation of the meaning of what participants said
during interviews. Triangulation (see Figure H) of the quantitative and qualitative data collected
from a diverse group of participants in different settings was analyzed to reduce the risk of
chance associations and systematic biases that could be attributed to the use of a singular specific
method. To ensure the validity of the quantitative portion of the research study, the researcher
analyzed the survey questions utilizing content validity to ensure the items measured the content
they were intended to measure (Creswell, 2014).

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 47

Theories
Feminist
Glass
Ceiling
Research
Findings
Quantitative
Data
Surveys
Qualitative
Data
Interviews

Figure H: Triangulation of the Data

Data Collection
For the quantitative component of this research study, surveys were emailed to 51
male and 50 female superintendents and 26 female and 17 male superintendents responded
throughout southern California. Appendix A includes the email cover letter inviting selected
superintendents to participate in this study.
The qualitative portion of this research study included on-site interviews of 9 female
and 7 male superintendents purposefully selected based off of survey data analysis in southern
California. Interviews were conducted at the offices of the selected superintendents. On-site
interviews were chosen for the convenience of the interview participants. Interviews were
allotted 30-minute time slots and were audio-recorded with the consent of the participants.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 48

Data Analysis
In a transformative explanatory sequential mixed-methods design, quantitative and
qualitative data are analyzed separately with the quantitative results used to plan the qualitative
follow-up (Creswell, 2014). The researcher input the data collected into the computer software
program ATLAS.ti to code data at multiple levels into categories and subcategories to display
category themes within the data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Creswell’s (2014) three steps for
data analysis and interpretation included organizing and preparing data, reviewing all data, and
coding data into categories. Interview and survey questions were aligned to the research
questions of this study. All participant responses were transcribed and coded. Feminist theory
and glass ceiling theories were applied to link the data collected to the transformative conceptual
framework.
Summary
This research study utilized a transformative explanatory sequential mixed-methods
approach. First, quantitative survey data was collected and analyzed using an online Qualtrics
survey of 50 female and 51 male superintendents in southern California. Following an analysis
of the survey data, 9 female and 7 male superintendents were purposefully selected to
participate in the qualitative data collection of this research study through semi-structured
interviews in their natural setting. Content validity, respondent validation, and triangulation of
collected data were implemented to ensure validity, reliability, and credibility of the data
collected. The findings are reported in Chapter Four and implications for further research are
presented in Chapter Five.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 49

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Background
This chapter presents an analysis of the data collected from the study which aimed to
examine the formal and informal learning experiences of superintendents in southern California
to help encourage more women to pursue the superintendent position with a greater
understanding of the professional expectations, experiences, and barriers to entry. The most
recent data from the School Superintendents Association 2017-2018 AASA Superintendent
Salary & Benefits Study found that the mean and median age of entry into the superintendency
continues to be greater for female superintendents than their male counterparts (Finnan &
McCord, 2018). Consistent with findings from the 2016 AASA Superintendent Salary &
Benefits study, in comparison to males, females entered the superintendent role later in their
careers with more teaching and educational leadership experience (Finnan & McCord, 2018). In
2015, women held 27% of superintendent positions in the United States (AASA, 2015). While
many aspiring female superintendents are considered highly qualified for the superintendent
position by state agencies, females continue to remain underrepresented in this leadership
position (Kowalski et al., 2011).
In transformative research, analysis of the research findings may encourage the usage
of the results to enhance social justice (Creswell, 2014). The findings of this research study
will examine the experiences of male and female superintendents to encourage more females
to aspire towards this position. Additional findings of this research may help to encourage
school districts and boards of education to understand specific barriers of entry into the
superintendent position for females to help increase the representation of women in this role.
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 50

Feminist theory (Crossman, 2018) shifts focus away from the male viewpoint and
experience and offers a female perspective on social issues within historically dominant
male communities. This study addressed the underrepresentation of females in the
superintendent position and included the perspectives of male and female superintendents
to better understand why women remain underrepresented in this position. The #MeToo
movement (Me Too, 2018) addressed additional barriers of entry into the superintendent
position that female superintendents experienced while working towards and while in this
position.
The glass ceiling theory (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995) addressed the
barriers that keep minorities and women from equitable representation in senior leadership
positions, regardless of qualifications or achievements. This study addressed the
underrepresentation of minorities and women of color in the superintendent position. The
Time’s Up movement (Times Up, 2017) examined inequalities in the workplace that kept
underrepresented groups from entry into leadership roles.
Quantitative data was collected by electronic survey that was emailed to 51 male and 50
female superintendents in southern California. The survey had an overall completion rate of
39%. 26 female superintendents responded to the survey, which provided a 52% completion
rate of the sample population of female superintendents included in this research. 17 male
superintendents responded to the survey, which was 33% of the sample population of male
superintendents included in this study.
Qualitative data was gathered using one-on-one interviews with 16 superintendents. Nine
female superintendents and seven male superintendents were selected to participate in the
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 51

interview portion of this research study. The 16 superintendents interviewed are referred to as
Superintendents A-I with a gender identifier preceding this label.
When conducting this research, a semi-structured approach was used during the
interviews, which consisted of 10 questions on the interview protocol. The semi-structured
approach gave the researcher the flexibility to probe and ask additional follow-up questions
as needed.
A transformative explanatory sequential mixed methods approach was conducted using
data from the surveys and interviews. Quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed separately
with the quantitative results used to plan the qualitative follow-up. (Creswell, 2014, p. 224).
The data and theories were then interpreted and analyzed using the process of triangulation
to validate the findings.
Demographics of Participants
The quantitative portion of this research study included 26 female and 17 male
superintendent responses to the electronic survey questionnaire. Survey participants ranged in
age from 30-39 to 60 or over. The age range of initial entry into the superintendency for the
26 female superintendents that responded to the survey was 35 to 66 years old. The age range
of initial entry into the superintendency for the 17 male superintendents that responded to the
survey was 38 to 55 years old. The survey data revealed the average age of entry into the
superintendency for female superintendents was greater than their male counterparts. The
average age of entry into the superintendency for female superintendents was 49 years old and
for males 44 years old.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 52

Table 1
Current Age of Survey Participants by Gender
Age Female (n = 26) Male (n = 16)
Under 30
30-39 3 (12%) 1 (6%)
40-49 12 (46%) 11 (69%)
50-59 8 (31%) 4 (25%)
60 or
over
3 (12%)

In the quantitative portion of this research study, more female (12%) than male (6%)
survey participants were 30-39 years old at the time of this study. The median age range for both
female (46%) and male (69%) survey participants was in the 40-49 year range. Eight females
(31%) and 4 males (25%) survey participants were in the 50-59 year range and three females
(12%) were in the 60 or over range while no male participants were in the 60 or over range.

Table 2
Marital Status of Survey Participants by Gender
Marital Status Female (n = 26) Male (n = 16)
Married 21 (81%) 15 (94%)
Widowed 1 (4%)
Divorced 3 (12%) 1 (6%)
Separated

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 53

Table 2 (Cont’d.)
Marital Status Female (n = 26) Male (n = 16)
Never married
No response 1 (4%)

Table 2 presented the marital status of the survey participants. The survey data found
that of the 26 female superintendents surveyed, 81% were married, 12% divorced, 4%
widowed, and 4% no response. No one indicated that they were separated or never married.
Ninety-four percent of the 16 male superintendents that responded to the survey were married
and 6% were divorced. None of the male superintendents indicated widowed, separated, never
married, or no response.
The qualitative portion of this research study included interviews with 16
superintendents from school districts located in southern California. Nine female and seven
male superintendents were selected to participate in the interview portion of this research study.
Interview participants were referred to as Superintendent A-I with a gender identifier preceding
this label. Table 3 presents the current age of interview participants by gender and marital
status.

Table 3
Current Age of Interview Participants by Gender and Marital Status
Superintendent Label Female Male
A 37, Divorced 44, Married
B 51, Divorced 50, Married
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 54

Table 3 (Cont’d.)
Superintendent Label Female Male
C 51, Married 51, Married
D 52, Married 51, Married
E 53, Married 54, Married
F 55, Widowed 54, Married
G 55, Married 56, Married
H 57, Married
I 63, Married

In the qualitative portion of this research study, the age range of participants was 37 to
63. Female Superintendent A was the youngest superintendent interviewed in this research
study.
Racial/Cultural Group
Table 4 presents the self-reported racial/cultural group data of the superintendents
surveyed. 77% of the female superintendents self-reported White (not Hispanic) and 56% of
the male superintendents self-reported White (not Hispanic). The most recent AASA
Superintendent Salary & Benefits Study (Finnan & McCord, 2017) also reported that
superintendent respondents are overwhelmingly White (not Hispanic). This research study
inadvertently omitted the Hispanic or Latino racial/cultural group as a possible racial/cultural
response in this survey.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 55

Table 4
Racial/Cultural Group of Survey Participants by Gender
Racial/Cultural Group Female (n = 26) Male (n = 16)
White 20 (77%) 9 (56%)
Black or African American 2 (8%) 3 (19%)
American Indian or Alaska
Native

Asian
Native Hawaiian or Pacific
Islander
1 (4%)

Other 3 (12%) 4 (25%)

In the quantitative portion of this research study, none of superintendents self-reported as
American Indian or Alaska Native and Asian. Twelve percent of female and 25% of male
superintendents self-reported Other, which was the second highest racial/cultural group indicated
in this research study. Figure I presents a comparison of this research study’s self-reported
racial/cultural group findings.

Source: Finnan & McCord, 2018, p. 10
Figure I. Gender and Racial Cultural Group

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 56

Research Questions
The findings in this research study were guided by the following research questions:
1. What formal and informal learning do superintendents experience to develop their
understanding of the organizational culture of school districts?
2. Does the formal education of male and female superintendents differ in California?
3. Is there a difference in the formal and informal learning between men and women as
they develop their understanding of the school district’s culture?
4. What barriers did female superintendents overcome in order to become school
superintendents?
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the differences between the formal and
informal learning experiences of superintendents in southern California to help encourage more
women to pursue to this leadership position with a greater understanding of the professional
expectations, experiences, and barriers to entry.
Coding of Data
In order to conduct data analysis, the researcher began by categorizing data sets that were
potentially relevant and responsive to the research questions using a process of open coding
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The researcher began the data analysis process by listening to the
audio-recordings of the interviews while reading along with the interview transcriptions and
using Maxwell’s (2013) strategies for qualitative data analysis: (1) memos, (2) categorizing
strategies (such as coding and thematic analysis), and (3) connecting strategies (such as narrative
analysis (Maxwell, 2013).
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 57

After reviewing all of the interview data, the researcher organized the data into
categories, compared the responses by gender, made connections to the literature review and
identified significant themes and experiences. The researcher used analytical coding
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) to finalize categories and themes in response to the research
questions.
Findings
The researcher presents the findings into categories, themes, and theories, which have
been derived from the data analysis in relation to the research questions (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). The data analysis that follows is from this study and aimed to examine the formal and
informal learning experiences of superintendents in southern California to help encourage more
women to pursue the superintendent position with a greater understanding of the professional
expectations, experiences, and barriers to entry.
Research Question #1
What formal and informal learning do female superintendents experience to develop their
understanding of the organizational culture of school districts?
Mentoring
According to Gilmore and Kinsella (2009), mentorship is a key component in the career
path to the superintendency and critical to the success of women across industries (Women in the
Workplace, 2017; McKinsey&Company & Lean In, 2017). Women aspiring to senior leadership
positions often find that they are entering into male-dominated professional settings where
mentoring is mainly conducted by men and this may cause discomfort for the male, female, or
both parties (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). This research study included literature from the
#TimeUp and #MeToo campaigns, which shed light on sexual assault, harassment, and
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 58

inequality in the workplace (Time’s Up, 2017). In 2017, LeanIn.org and Survey Monkey
conducted a study to understand the impact of the #TimesUp and #MeToo campaigns on
mentoring and found that the number of male managers that reported discomfort with mentoring
women has more than tripled from 5% to 16% (LeanIn.org, 2017).
The quantitative portion of this research study included survey questions related to the
social media #TimesUp and #MeToo campaigns and the impact on the culture and climate of K-
12 education. Fifty-five percent of survey participants in this research study reported that the
#TimesUp and #MeToo campaigns have had an impact on the culture and climate of K-12
education and were prompted to answer additional questions related to social media and
mentorship. The 23 superintendents that were selected to answer additional questions based on
their initial response were presented with the following prompt related to mentoring, “Social
Media and Mentorship: Has the aftermath of the #TimesUp and #MeToo campaigns focusing on
discrimination and harassment in the workplace impacted the mentorship of women?”

Figure J: Survey Participants’ Perspectives on Mentoring Women
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Strongly agree
Agree
Somewhat agree
Neither agree or disagree
Somewhat disagree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Men are more hesitant to mentor women
Men are more hesitant to mentor women.
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 59

Figure J examined survey participants’ perspectives on mentoring women. Twenty-three
superintendents (43.48%) that were presented with this additional prompt neither agreed or
disagreed that in the aftermath of the #TimesUp and #MeToo campaigns that men are more
hesitant to mentor women. Five participants (21.74%) reported that they somewhat agreed and
4.35% (1 participant) agreed that men are more hesitant to mentor women. Four participants
(17.39%) disagreed, 8.7% (2 participants) slightly disagreed, and 4.35% (1 participant) strongly
disagreed that men are more hesitant to mentor women.
The qualitative portion of this research study included semi-structured interviews with 16
superintendents. Male Superintendent F is 54 years old and married. He grew up with a single
mother and his sister who was like a mother figure to him. He shared that he always grew up
with strong females in his life more so than men. Male Superintendent F shared his perspective
on mentoring women:
Young females . . . when they ask me to help them, I’m much more . . . much more . . . I
mean it. Much more sensitive as to where I meet them, when I meet them. I’ve told
people when you meet with me you’ve got to dress a little more conservatively because I
don’t want people thinking I’m mentoring somebody because they’re inappropriately
dressed. I mean, seriously. It’s a different time and so I am sensitive to it.
I never thought that way. It’s okay. It’s better to be careful about it. I think the
beauty in it is it’s being reciprocated by the people that I’m helping, I think I’m helping.
I hope I’m helping, because I think they realize that I’m trying to be mindful of that as a
man and a White male who’s in a position of power. You know, I’m really sensitive
about it. I wouldn’t say in a way that’s almost you’re going on the side of excessiveness
but it’s here, it’s now, and there are bad people out there. I’m doing everything I can to
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 60

not be perceived as one. Even though I’m not, but I don’t even want to be perceived as
one.
Male Superintendent F emphasized that he is now more aware and cautious when
mentoring young women due to the perception of others.
Female Superintendent H is 57 years old, married, and holds a doctorate degree. When
asked about the connection between the #TimesUp and #MeToo social media campaigns and
mentorship and if men may now hesitate to mentor women, she shared the following:
I’m not sure that will inhibit all men, and so the reality is, if you’ve been a young woman
anywhere, you’ve been harassed. You’ve been put in those situations and that’s the truth
for me as well. So, I do think on both sides, we’re all going to go into those situations a
bit with our eyes open. I think the good news for women is in those situations, we won’t
be taken advantage of, and I do think that has happened and will likely continue to
happen, but hopefully women will also have their eyes open.
The #TimesUp and #MeToo movements have provided a platform and process for
women to report and share incidences of discrimination and harassment. Throughout this
research study, women and men were asked to share their perspectives on how these social
media campaigns may have impacted the field of K-12 education. Male Superintendent F was
intentional about where he meets with aspiring female leaders. Female Superintendent H
acknowledged that harassment is a reality for young women and applies an “eyes open”
approach.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 61

Women are more hesitant to seek out male mentors.
18 16 14 12 10
Women are more hesitant to seek out male mentors.

Strongly disagree

Disagree
Somewhat disagree
Neither agree or disagree
Somewhat agree
Agree
Strongly agree
Figure K: Survey Participants’ Perspectives on Women Seeking Male Mentors

Figure K presented survey participants’ perspectives on women seeking male mentors.
Sixteen participants (69.57%) neither agreed or disagreed that women are more hesitant to seek
out male mentors; 13.04% (3 participants) disagreed, 8.7% (2 participants) strongly disagreed,
and 4.35% (1 participant) slightly disagreed that women are hesitant to seek out male mentors.
One participant (4.35%) slightly agreed that women are hesitant to seek out male mentors.
Figure L shows that 34.78% (8 participants) somewhat agreed and 21.74%
(5 participants) agreed that women are more likely to seek out female mentors; 30.43%
(7 participants) neither agreed or disagreed and 13.04% (3 participants) disagreed.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 62

Figure L: Survey Participants’ Perspectives on Women Seeking Female Mentors

Female Superintendent I is 63 years old, married, and holds a doctorate degree. She does
not believe that the #MeToo movement has had an impact on mentoring. Female Superintendent
I shared that she is very intentional about mentoring people at all levels.
“As long as you’re doing all the right things, I’m not harassing anyone, I’m not making
sexual nothing. It’s just like, ‘Go for it. Go for it. I’ll be there helping’” stated Female
Superintendent I.
Male Superintendent A was the youngest male superintendent interviewed. Male
Superintendent A is 44 years old, married, and holds a doctorate degree. Male Superintendent A
listened to a naval officer speak about mentorship and shared this story with the researcher.
In the navy, they recognized that there was an unequal ratio of women in leadership roles.
When they dug into it, they basically discovered that women are not getting mentored
early on in their careers, so they’re never getting those opportunities.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Strongly agree
Agree
Somewhat agree
Neither agree or disagree
Somewhat disagree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Women are more hesitant to seek out male mentors
Women are more hesitant to seek out male mentors.
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 63

The key to opening those doors is figuring out how to create those mentorships.
Not to eliminate them. There’s a lot of good things going on with women being
mentored by women, which is fine, but the imbalance isn’t going to change if currently
the leadership is a lot of men. It’s never going to change.
Male Superintendent A shared that he is working on equalizing the playing field when he
mentors aspiring leaders. Similar to Male Superintendent F, Male Superintendent A believed
that with mentoring, “It’s really about being smart and then being equal with your time.” Male
Superintendent A stated that if he’s willing to go to lunch with a male, he should also be willing
to go to lunch with a female and if it’s a problem, it’s better to figure out a way to make it work
than to not spend an equal amount of time with both genders.

Figure M: Survey Participants’ Perspectives on Women being Mentored by Men

Women are less likely to be mentored by men.

Strongly disagree

Disagree
Somewhat disagree
Neither agree or disagree
Somewhat agree
Agree
Strongly agree
10 12 14
Women are less likely to be mentored by men.
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 64

Figure M shows that 56.52% (13 participants) neither agreed or disagreed that women are
less likely to be mentored by men. Five participants (21.74%) somewhat agreed that women are
less likely to be mentored by men; 13.4% (3 participants) disagreed and 9.7% (2 participants)
somewhat disagreed that women are less likely to be mentored by men. Interviews with Male
Superintendents A and F revealed that they are more intentional and aware about where they
mentor and meet with females.
Organizational Culture
The formal and informal learning experiences of female and male superintendents as they
develop their understanding of the organizational culture of school districts varies greatly by age,
district, and career pathway. Superintendents that participated in the semi-structured interviews
were asked how they developed their understanding of the organizational culture of their current
school districts.
According to Lovely and Buffum (2007), the current workforce in public education is
composed of four living generations: Veterans, Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Millennials.
Table 5 presents the profiles of the four living generations in public education. For Veteran
superintendents, in their minds, age correlates with rank and status in the organization and
employees must follow a traditional career ladder that they work their way up (Lovely &
Buffum, 2007). Table 5 provides a sample of how age and generation can impact a
superintendent’s developing and understanding of organizational culture.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 65

Table 5
Who’s Who? A Snapshot of Four Living Generations
Generation/Age
Span

General Characteristics
Defining Moments/Cultural
Icons
Veterans
(born 1922-1943)
38 million Americans
Formed worldview during hard
times of Depression and WWII

Built much of the nation’s
infrastructure

Believe in duty before pleasure

Spend conservatively

Embrace values that speak to
family, home and patriotism

The Great Depression
Bombing of Pearl Harbor
The Golden Era of Radio
Superman
FDR, Patton, Eisenhower
Baby Boomers
(born 1944-1960)
64 million Americans
Grew up in optimistic times of
economic expansion

Think of themselves as “cool”
and “stars of the show”

Covet status and power; driven to
succeed

Are service oriented

Tend to be competitive because
of their group size

Pursue own gratification, often at
a price to themselves and their
families

Vietnam War
Assassinations
Civil rights movement
Women’s lib
The peace sign
Captain Kangaroo
The Beatles

Generation X
(born 1960-1980)
39 million Americans
Raised in an era of soaring
divorce rates, struggling
economy, and fallen heroes

Are self-reliant and skeptical of
authority

Microwaves, computer games,
VCRs
Nixon Resignation
MTV

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 66

Table 5 (Cont’d.)
Generation/Age
Span

General Characteristics
Defining Moments/Cultural
Icons
Seek sense of family through
network of friends and work
relationships

Maintain nontraditional
orientation of time and space

Eschew being labeled in any way,
shape, or form

AIDS
Extreme sports
The Simpsons
Millennials
(born 1980-2000)
79 million Americans
Feel wanted and indulged by
parents

Lead busy, over planned lives

9-11
Columbine
Embrace core values similar to
Veterans- optimism, civic duty,
confidence, morality

Are well mannered and polite

Able to use technology in
unforeseen ways
The Internet
X Games
Reality TV
The Olson twins

Male Superintendent G is 56 years old and was the oldest male superintendent
interviewed in this research study. Male Superintendent G is married and holds a doctorate
degree. Male Superintendent G developed his understanding of the organizational culture of his
current school district by developing a 90-day plan, which included meeting with community
members with positional authority and asking the following three questions: (1) What’s the best
thing the school district does? (2) What can the school district get better at? (3) How might we
be able to help each other? Male Superintendent G then categorized the responses into themes
and developed a 100-day report to present to the School Board. This process helped Male
Superintendent G to get a good sense of the school district.
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 67

Female Superintendent H is 57 years old, married, and holds a doctorate degree. Female
Superintendent H also developed her understanding of her current school district by going on a
90-day listening tour. Female Superintendent H asked herself the following questions: (1) What
do you see? (2) What are you learning? (3) What are you going to change? (4) What needs to
be fixed. Female Superintendent H shared, “I’m big on the language of leadership and really
listening for how the way we talk impacts the way we work.”
Male Superintendent D is 51 years old, married, and holds a doctorate degree. Male
Superintendent D developed his understanding of the organizational culture of his current school
district by reading the newspaper and talking with people. Male Superintendent D emphasized
reading and listening to stories of the past from a variety of community members.
Female Superintendent A is 37 years old, divorced, and holds a doctorate degree. Female
Superintendent A was the youngest superintendent interviewed in this research study. Female
Superintendent A shared that she developed her understanding of the organizational culture of
her school district organically. Female Superintendent A started by reviewing the board policy
around her expectations as a superintendent and held lots of board workshops her first year. Her
first workshop was on vision and planning and she came together with her board members to
decide what they envisioned for the district and community. Female Superintendent A has seven
schools in her school district and she does seven walks and talks with her principals every week,
which helps her to get a strong pulse of what’s happening within her school community. Female
Superintendent A found that she needed to do some reductions and replace some of the leaders in
her school district her first year. Female Superintendent A acknowledged that anyone might say,
“Maybe you shouldn’t do those in your first year as a superintendent,” but her personality and
thought process is that if she is going to work in this system and if she wants this to be a system
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 68

that can run, she needs to be able to make hard decisions. Female Superintendent A shared that
she held a very strong board workshop around budget allocation and when the reductions were
moved forward in March, the board was very much behind this decision because they saw the
bigger picture. Female Superintendent A held a facility walkthrough workshop in the spring that
she shared really helped the organization.
Male Superintendents D and G and Female Superintendent H are all part of Generation
X. Generation X is described as taking nontraditional approaches to problem solving and work
best on teams when they are able to complete tasks, make decisions, and implement solutions in
their own way (Lovely & Buffum, 2007). Female Superintendent A is part of the Millennial
generation. Millennials are described as open to new ideas, able to work with varying employee
styles and needs, and are determined to achieve team goals (Lovely & Buffum, 2007).
Research Question #2
Does the formal education of male and female superintendents differ in California?
Formal Education
According to Women in the Workplace (McKinsey&Company & Lean In, 2017),
“Women are underrepresented at every level in corporate America, despite earning more college
degrees than men for thirty years and counting” (p. 3). In both the quantitative and qualitative
portions of this research study, superintendents were asked to report their highest educational
degree. The formal educational attainment levels of both female and male superintendents were
similar. However, there was a correlation with the age of the superintendent and the advanced
degrees held. One hundred percent of superintendents surveyed in the 30-39 age ranges held
doctorate degrees. Three of the four superintendents that accepted their first superintendent role
in this age range were female.
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 69

Table 6
Highest Educational Attainment Level of Survey Participants
Highest Degree Earned Female (n = 26) Male (n = 16)
Bachelor’s
Master’s 9 (35%) 3 (19%)
Doctorate 17 (65%) 13 (81%)

Table 6 showed the formal educational attainment levels of the 42 superintendents that
completed the survey portion of this research study. Sixty-five percent of female respondents
held doctorate degrees and 81% of male respondents held doctorate degrees. Thirty-five percent
of female respondents held master’s degrees and 19% of male respondents held master’s degrees.

Table 7
Highest Educational Attainment Level of Interview Participants
Highest Degree Earned Female (n = 9) Male (n = 7)
Bachelor’s
Master’s 3 (33%)
Doctorate 6 (67%) 7 (100%)

Table 7 presented the formal educational attainment levels of the female and male
superintendents interviewed in this research study. 100% of male superintendents interviewed
held a doctorate degree as their highest degree earned. Sixty-seven percent of female
superintendents interviewed held doctorates and one indicated that she was “all but dissertation”
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 70

and plans to complete her dissertation. Of the remaining two female superintendents without
their doctorate degrees, one left her program due to illness and the other female superintendent
decided not to pursue a doctorate degree.
Female Superintendent A graduated from her undergraduate program in three years and
started teaching while attending night school and summer classes to earn her master’s degree.
Her motivation for finishing her degree early was to get into the workforce to be able to start
making money. She started working on her principal licensure for salary points to increase her
salary in an area that she considered both meaningful and relevant. Female Superintendent A
completed her master’s degree with a PreK-12 Reading Specialist certification and advises
aspiring leaders to “Always go for a licensure that can do something for you, so if you’re
interested in some sort of study, it’s always nice to have that extra piece so that you can say, ‘Oh
yeah, I’m licensed in that.’” Female Superintendent A went on to receive her doctorate while
teaching middle school. She had a flexible schedule with two back to back preparation periods
from 1:00pm to 3:00pm which allowed her to leave campus for her coursework.
Male Superintendent C is 51 years old, married, and holds a doctorate degree. Male
Superintendent C shared that neither of his parents attended college, so he had to figure out his
educational journey on his own. He started at a community college before transferring to a state
school and receiving a bachelor’s degree in criminal justice. Male Superintendent C then moved
into teaching and received his teaching credential, a master’s degree in education and his
administrative service’s credential. He completed a doctorate degree and an executive master’s
in business administration. He worked full time while completing all of these degrees.
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Career Path
Female Superintendents A and G shared a narrative analysis of their career pathways
towards the superintendency. Male Superintendent F shared his career pathway towards the
superintendency.
Female Superintendent A was the youngest superintendent interviewed in this research
study. Female Superintendent A became a superintendent at 35 years of age. Female
Superintendent A started as a second grade teacher for two years before being impacted by a
Reduction in Force (RIF), which prompted her to seek another teaching position with another
school district, where she taught third grade for four years, and middle school for three years in
Gifted and Talented Education. Her eighth year, she was promoted to an administrator position
of a K-2 primary school building where she remained in that role for a year and decided it was
not the “overall big picture” that she wanted. Female Superintendent A left that district and
moved into a Gifted and Talented Education Coordinator position at the county level, where she
would sit with assistant superintendents and superintendents to develop plans that would be
presented to their Boards of Education for implementation. She also worked with some schools
individually and would work with small groups, but ultimately decided that she wanted to make
a greater impact on a bigger level. Female Superintendent A shared her journey toward the
superintendency after accepting an Executive Director of Gifted and Talented Education:
I took the job as an Executive Director, and I don’t even think I knew at that point, this
was not that long ago. It was in in 2014, but I don’t know that I knew all the ranks of the
jobs, and by November, I was promoted to assistant superintendent, and then, so what
they saw was that I was able to better lead the rest of the team. I was still over all the
directors, but I think it was also significant within the system to be able to give me that
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ability to manage even more extensively. I did that for a year, and we just, we saw a lot
of growth. We did a lot of really great things in that district, and then, in the second year,
the superintendent who I was working with got another job, and so, I was appointed
really quickly, and I don’t think that . . . I had thought while I was there, I didn’t know if
I wanted to stay within that system, and work, because he was a very intense
superintendent to work for. I think it was good for me. It thickened my skin in a lot of
ways, but even at that point with me thinking I might want to leave, and go somewhere
else, I was thinking I would probably apply for an assistant superintendent job
somewhere else, just lateral. I didn’t mind that.
Female Superintendent A remained in this first superintendent role for two years and was
approached by a search firm and left for her current district where she is completing her second
year as superintendent.
Female Superintendent H, who has worked at the same school district for 31 years shared
her career pathway towards the superintendency,
I was a teacher. I taught middle school. Taught a program for gifted students for a while.
Went into special projects at a district level and categorical programs for a few years.
Went back out to the sites. Was an assistant principal and a principal at our elementary
schools, but those are K-8 and then I was eight or nine years as a Director of K-12
Curriculum and Instruction. And then, like I said, loved business, so I went over and did
a decade of business. So, after I’ve done that for a little bit, for about a year or two, I was
Director of Data and Assessment. So, I’ve done a pretty equal balance on the
instructional side and on the business side and I would not be a superintendent without a
business background. You need to know it.
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 73

Female Superintendent H had a more traditional career path working with the same school
district.
Male Superintendent F had a traditional career path prior to becoming a superintendent.
Male Superintendent F has worked in both urban and suburban school districts prior to working
with his current school district. Male Superintendent F shared his career path,
I was a middle school teacher for four years. Then I was a teaching assistant principal for
two years at a middle school. Then I was the assistant principal for about a year and a
half there. Then I became an elementary principal for three years. That was interesting,
elementary school. I was 28 years old and an elementary principal. Had no clue what I
was doing but enjoyed it. The first two years. The third year it got boring. Elementary
school was just boring to me. Then I became a middle school principal for two and a half
years [at another district]. Then became a Director of everything [at another district].
Did that for three years. Then for the first time in my life I applied for a job in an affluent
community. I was there for five years as the Assistant Superintendent of Curriculum and
Instruction and the Assistant Superintendent of HR. It’s a smaller district, so I did both.
. . . Then 12 and half years ago, I came here [to my current district].
Research Question #3
Is there a difference in the formal and informal learning between men and women as
they develop their understanding of the school district’s culture?
According to Kowalski et al. (2011), from the 1980s to the present, the role of the
superintendent evolved from social scientist to effective communicator. In the qualitative
portion of this research study, superintendents were asked about their communication style.
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 74

Female Superintendent E is 53 years old, married, and holds a doctorate degree. Female
Superintendent E shared that over the years she has become much more diverse in the ways that
she communicates,
One of things also, over time that I have really focused on is letting people . . . I’m kind
of private myself, is letting people into the more vulnerable side of me, so that they can
see through what I talk about. What’s important to me, and what I value. I’ve really
done a lot more of telling through my life experiences, or through what I’m seeing are my
impressions of things, what it means to me. And I think it’s felt vulnerable, and at the
same time, it lets people into a window, into a human being that really does tell you what
they value, and how we’re going to collectively move an organization along.
Female Superintendent E’s first and most preferred method of communication is being in the
same room with people.
Male Superintendent B is 50 years old, married, and holds a doctorate degree. Male
Superintendent B has a structured approach to communication. Male Superintendent B has a
weekly group meeting scheduled with his cabinet members, which consists of his four assistant
superintendents, and meets once per month with his extended cabinet which also includes all
directors. In addition, Male Superintendent B meets individually, once per week for an hour
with each assistant superintendent. Male Superintendent B also invites his cabinet members to
individual meetings and offers community members individual meeting time.
Male Superintendent E is 54 years old, married, and holds a doctorate degree. When
asked about his communication style, Male Superintendent E stated the following,
I’m very honest and brutally upfront, and even the teachers know it. It’s like you can ask
me anything but don’t be surprised by the answer because I’m not going to beat around
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 75

the bush. So, if we can do things, we can do things and if we can’t, we can’t, but here’s
why we can’t.
Male Superintendent E has a very direct communication style.
Female Superintendent F is 55 years old, widowed, and holds a doctorate degree. Female
Superintendent F tries to communicate in person as much as possible and described her
communication style as follow:
When decisions need to be made, I prefer to have those decisions made in a group setting
by bringing the people who are going to be impacted by the decision into the room so that
we can craft a response together. I communicate in person as frequently as possible to
our community organizations because I believe that being present demonstrates how I
value them and allows me to receive input and feedback constantly. And, so by having
access, I receive information.
The sample quotations from Female Superintendents E and F showed that they value a
more personalized approach to communication. Female Superintendent E shared that she allows
herself to be vulnerable, which helps others to see what she values as a human being.
Female Superintendent F also shared that she prefers to communicate in person to show how
she values her team. Female Superintendent F shared her belief in collective decision-making.
The sample quotations from Male Superintendents B and E had a more direct and
systematic communication style. Male Superintendent B has scheduled times to meet with and
communicate with his cabinet, board, and community members. Male Superintendent E shared a
more direct and efficient approach to communicating with his members of his school district.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 76

Research Question #4
What barriers did female superintendents overcome in order to become school
superintendents?
In the quantitative portion of this research study, both female and male superintendents
were asked if they believed the #TimesUp and #MeToo campaigns had an impact on the culture
and climate of K-12 education.

Figure N: Superintendent Survey Responses to Social Media and K-12 Education

Twenty-three of the 43 superintendents that responded to this survey believed that the
#TimesUp and #MeToo campaigns have impacted K-12 education.
The #TimesUp and #MeToo Movements
The #TimesUp and #MeToo movements have provided an outlet for women to share
their experiences of discrimination and harassment in the workplace. This research study
Social Media: Have the social media #TimesUp and
#MeToo campaigns had an impact on the culture and
climate of K-12 education?
Yes No
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 77

included questions for superintendents that may have been impacted or observed discrimination
and harassment throughout their careers and how it has impacted their journey towards the
superintendency and their current role as superintendents.
Female Superintendent B is 51 years old, divorced, and holds a master’s degree. Female
Superintendent B shared the following experience.
I’ve been sexually harassed in my career three times. Each time, my first reaction was, “I
will leave this job,” as opposed to, “I will address it and deal with it.” I think finally
addressing and dealing with it was the path I took. Having said that, I think I’m a really
good leader of making sure practices and policies support all employees and hold people
accountable to their behavior.
In this research study, some female superintendents shared that sexual harassment was
and continues to be an additional barrier for women pursuing the superintendent position. One
of the female superintendents interviewed shared that as a sitting superintendent she was
sexually harassed by one of her board members.
Female Superintendent C is 51 years old, married, and holds a doctorate degree. Female
Superintendent C shared the following experience about working with a male superintendent
prior to becoming a superintendent,
“I did work for one leader, and he was definitely . . . he was a Harvey Weinstein. He was
very much a harasser; not only of women, but men. He was an equal opportunity
harasser, and he was awful. He was the devil.”
Female Superintendent C shared that she and her colleagues were fearful for their careers.
When I think back, we could’ve done a major lawsuit, but nobody did because people
were trying to preserve their careers. They put up with it and moved on, and put up with
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 78

it, and moved on. So that particular district has never had consistency in leadership when
he has been there. He’s been there more than once. The Board has actually brought him
back a few times. It’s really sad.
The narrative analyses shared by these female superintendents revealed that the
#TimesUp and #MeToo movements have impacted the field of K-12 public education and are
barriers for women who aspire to superintendent positions.
Feminist Theory
“Gender is the inherent and ever-present barrier. Whether it is extending efforts to
acquire quality preparation, gain experience, enter into administration, move up the hierarchy, or
serve as a superintendent, the barrier for women is gender.” (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006, p. 14).
Feminist theory focuses on the female perspective and includes discrimination on the basis of
gender, objectification, gender roles, and stereotypes (Crossman, 2018).
Figure O examines superintendents’ perspectives on gender inequality in the selection of
superintendents. Twenty-five participants (59.52%) selected “Does not describe my feelings”
when given the prompt, “There is no gender inequality in the selection superintendents.” This
shows that more than half of survey respondents feel that gender is a factor in the selection of
superintendents.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 79

Figure O: Superintendents’ Perspectives on Gender Equality

Female Superintendent E shared the following perspective on differences in gender,
I just think there’s a different expectation that women need to . . . women just need to
perform very, very well. As should everybody need to. I’ve seen it played out where so
much more is relied on in addition to the human capital that a female would bring.
Where I think that for a very long time, so much has rested on the role of a male as a
leader, that it kind of almost opens a door for them, that maybe a female needs to be sure
to work really hard to make sure that any door that could be opened is opened, or an
option.
Consistent with Female Superintendent E’s perspective on gender differences, Sandberg
(2013) also found that gender bias favors the assessment of males while lowering the assessment
of women.

There is no gender inequality in the selection of superintendents.
30 25 20 15 10
Clearly describes my feelings
Mostly describes my feelings
Moderately describes my feelings
Slightly describes my feelings
Does not describe my feelings
There is no gender inequality in the selection of superintendents.
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Glass Ceiling Theory
The Glass Ceiling describes the barrier that has kept minorities and women from being
equitably represented in leadership positions, regardless of qualifications or achievements
(Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995). In the quantitative portion of this research study,
superintendents were prompted to describe their feelings related to the glass ceiling theory.

Figure P: Superintendents’ Perspectives on Gender Differences Related to Work Ethic

Figure P prompted superintendents to describe their feelings regarding the following
prompt, “Women must work twice as hard as men to be considered for a superintendent role.”
Sixteen participants (38.1%) reported the prompt “Women must work twice as hard as men to be
considered for a superintendent role” does not describe their feelings; 21.43% (9 participants)
reported that this statement clearly described their feelings; 19.05% (8 participants) selected that
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Clearly describes my feelings
Mostly describes my feelings
Moderately describes my feelings
Slightly describes my feelings
Does not describe my feelings
Women must work twice as hard as men to be
considered for a superintendent role
Women must work twice as hard as men to be considered for a superintendent role.
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 81

it mostly described their feelings, 16.67% (7 participants) selected that it moderately described
their feelings, and 4.76% (2 participants) reported that it slightly described their feelings.
Sandberg (2013) found that gender-blind evaluations of qualifications results in better
outcomes for women as gender bias was found to raise the assessment of men while lowering the
assessment of women.

Figure Q: Superintendents’ Perspectives on Racial Discrimination

Figure Q prompted superintendents to reflect on if they felt as though they’ve been
affected by racial discrimination. Fifty percent (21 participants) reported that the prompt, “I have
been affected by racial discrimination” does not describe their feelings; 11.9% (5 participants)
selected “Clearly describes my feelings” in relation to the prompt about being affected by racial
discrimination. 7.14% (3 participants) selected “Mostly describes my feelings,” 16.67%
(7 participants) selected “Moderately describes my feelings,” and 14.29% (6 participants)
I have been affected by racial discrimination.
25 20 15 10
Clearly describes my feelings
Mostly describe my feelings
Moderately describes my feelings
Slightly describes my feelings
Does not describe my feelings
I have been affected by racial discrimination.
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selected “Slightly describes my feelings” regarding being affected by racial discrimination. Half
of the participants did not report being affected by racial discrimination. The remainder of
participants reported varying degrees of being affected by racial discrimination. The self-
reported racial/cultural groups of the survey participants were as follows: 69.05%
(29 participants), White, 11.9% (5 participants), Black or African American, 16.67%
(7 participants), Other, and 2.38% (1 participant) Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander. The
Hispanic or Latino field was unintentionally left out of the survey responses.
Ancillary Findings: Recommendations for Aspiring Superintendents
Sandberg (2013) found that success and likeability are positively correlated for men and
negatively correlated for women, resulting in successful men being liked by both men and
women and successful women being less liked by both genders. In the quantitative portion of
this research study, superintendents were prompted to share their perspectives on questions
related to leadership characteristics and gender preferences. In the qualitative portion of this
research study, superintendents were asked to share additional commentary or advice for new or
aspiring superintendents and if this advice varied for female superintendents.
Aspiring Female Superintendents
Be aware of the reality that you’re going to have to work harder because of the fact that
you are female. I don’t see that changing any time soon. There are just so many subtle
. . . there’s an unconscious bias there. So just be prepared to work harder, and just kind
of align your expectations to the reality today, and then the other strong advice I would
give is to ensure that you have an attorney that negotiates your contract, that you have
facilitators that negotiate the superintendent evaluation process, and that you don’t put
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 83

yourself out there to do it yourself. It’s good to be represented and to be kind of like a
third party in the whole process, so that the Board can be fair and equitable with you.
Female Superintendent C’s advice to aspiring female superintendents aligns with 62% of
the survey participants that responded to some degree they felt that women had to work twice as
hard as men to be considered for a superintendent role.
Perceptions of Female Superintendents
Female Superintendent D is 52 years old, married, and holds a master’s degree. Female
Superintendent D shared the following advice to aspiring female superintendents,
I’ve watched my friends, my colleagues, act differently than who they are because they
feel like they have to. And so, I don’t think women should change who they are. They
don’t need to be . . . if they’re a softer female, they don’t have to be tough in their job, in
their demeanor to stand with other superintendents. Because women get a bad reputation
from staff, from employees, from faculty. They say, “Man, all the female
superintendents are bitchy.” That’s what they say. And if you’re that way naturally, I
guess you’ve been hired that way. That’s fine. But I see a lot of people change. So for
females, I always encourage them to just be who they are because that’s how they’ve
moved forward anyway.
Female Superintendent B stated that she thinks there is a lot of gender stereotyping.
Female Superintendent B has helped a school district get out of bankruptcy; however, at her
current school district, she has been told she doesn’t need to worry about the budget and that one
of her male colleagues will take care of all that for her. Female Superintendent B has a strong
budget background, but shared that it’s not the recognized norm at her current school district.

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Personal Life
Female Superintendent H has worked in the same school district for 31 years and has
developed her understanding of her school district by holding various roles throughout the
district prior to becoming superintendent. Female Superintendent H shared that age was a factor
when she became an administrator and it was often pointed out that she was the youngest on the
administrative team. Female Superintendent H also observed that age has come up when
considering who to put into the next position. Female Superintendent H has not experienced race
or gender bias in her school district; however, she did notice that she was viewed differently
when she became ill and had to leave her doctoral program and the superintendent position for
over a year.
Female Superintendent H shared her experience,
It was almost like I had to start earning that credibility all over again because I found that
when you’re diagnosed with something, sickness, people tend to push. They’re kind and
well-intended, but it almost becomes something that defines you and that you have to
rebuild that credibility and that value.
Female Superintendent H acknowledged that age was a factor when she became an
administrator, but illness was an additional obstacle for her when she returned to lead her school
district. Illness was categorized under the theme of personal life as it was separate from
professional life yet impacted this superintendent’s career.
Physical Appearance
Female Superintendent G shared that throughout her career, she was advised by fellow
female superintendents, “Don’t stop dying your hair until you get your next job.”
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When I went gray, the thing that women said to me over and over . . . in fact, made a big
to-do about it . . . women would come up to me and say, “You’re so brave,” in the
elevator. I mean, it’s just crazy. How is it brave to be . . . said nobody to a man who was
gray, ever, “How brave of you to be gray,” so if that isn’t absolutely explicit age bias and
gender bias, I don’t know what is. (Female Superintendent G)
According to Superville (2017), women superintendents have been told to smile more,
their appearances have been critiqued, and they can face harsh treatment when they assert their
authority. Female Superintendent B also reported comments being made about her physical
appearance and wearing dresses with high heeled shoes and other comments being made when
she wears a suit. Female Superintendent B stated, “If I were a man and wore a suit every day, I
guess nobody would care. It’s just so different for women.”
Advice to Aspiring Superintendents
Female Superintendent A is 37 years old and the first female superintendent at her current
school district. Female Superintendent A shared the following advice to aspiring
superintendents,
Don’t get so hung up on all of the roles. I mean, that’s important to some people, and
you’ll even hear people in really high positions say, “Oh it’s important that you walk
through all the doors and take all the steps that you need to.” But I also feel like there are
certain times in your life where you’ll be propelled a little bit faster through something,
and so, own it, and take it when you do.
Female Superintendent A acknowledged that she did not take the traditional career path
towards the superintendency and aspiring superintendents should “own it” and take advantage of
opportunities that are presented to them.
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Summary
This chapter reported the findings of the 43 survey respondents and the 16 interview
respondents that are currently serving as superintendents throughout southern California. This
chapter looked at the formal and informal learning experiences of both female and male
superintendents, formal educational attainment levels, and barriers around the #TimesUp and
#MeToo movements that some superintendents overcame to become and maintain their roles
as superintendents. The results from this research study indicated that women still remain
underrepresented in the role of superintendent throughout southern California, which aligned
to findings from the 2016 and 2017-2018 AASA Superintendent Salary and Benefits Studies
(Finnan & McCord, 2017; Finnan & McCord, 2018) and provided additional insights into the
career pathways and obstacles that female superintendents encounter in their present roles.
Both female and male superintendents reported observing and experiencing inequities based
on gender, age, and race which aligned to the transformative worldview, feminist theory, and
glass ceiling theory.
Chapter five will present a summary of the research findings and implications
for practice. Recommendations for future research will also be presented.

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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND IMPLICATIONS
Introduction
Women continue to remain underrepresented in the superintendent position despite
having greater teaching and leadership experience than their male counterparts prior to entering
into this role (Finnan & McCord, 2018). More than half of men entered the superintendent
position by age 45 and were four times more likely to be a novice superintendent before the age
of 36 (Kowalski et al., 2011). This study found that doctoral degrees accelerated the entry into
the superintendency for both female and male educational leaders.
While conducting this research study, increasing allegations of sexual harassment and
workplace discrimination in the media sparked widespread recognition of the #MeToo and
#TimesUp social media campaigns. The #TimesUp campaign found that 80-90% of leadership
in the entertainment industry was male–and mostly, Caucasian male, which prompted this
organization to seek systemic change (Time’s Up, 2019). Similar to the entertainment industry,
in the field of education, men held 73% of superintendent positions in 2015 (The Study of the
American Superintendent: 2015 Mid-decade update, 2015) and continue to hold the majority of
leadership positions (Finnan & McCord, 2018), which prompted this research study to examine if
issues of sexual harassment and workplace discrimination have impacted the field of K-12
education and if they are barriers to entry for aspiring superintendents. Fifty-five percent of
superintendents surveyed agreed that the #MeToo and #TimesUp social media campaigns have
impacted the culture and climate of K-12 education.
A transformative worldview framework was used to examine the specific issues and
experiences of women as underrepresented leaders in the superintendent community. Research
findings were aligned to feminist and glass ceiling theories. The significance of this study is to
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further support the increasing research of women pursuing superintendent positions and to better
understand the formal and informal experiences of women and men that have successfully
ascended into a superintendent role in order to encourage more women to consider pursuing this
leadership position.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand the formal and informal learning experiences
of female superintendents that have successfully become superintendents in southern California.
It is important to understand the formal and informal experiences of both female and male
superintendents to better understand the barriers that keep more women from being represented
in the role of superintendent of school districts.
Research Questions
The following research questions were used to guide this study:
1. What formal and informal learning do superintendents experience to develop their
understanding of the organization of school districts?
2. Does the formal education of male and female superintendents differ in California?
3. Is there a difference in the formal and informal learning between men and women as they
develop their understanding of the school district’s culture?
4. What barriers did female superintendents overcome in order to become superintendents in
California?
Methodology
A transformative sequential mixed-methods approach was conducted for this research
study. Quantitative data were collected from a survey that was distributed to 26 female and 17
male superintendents serving in public school districts from throughout southern California.
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Qualitative data were retrieved from nine female and seven male superintendents currently
serving in public school districts within southern California. All interviews were conducted at
the office of the superintendent and contained 10 questions on the interview protocol. A semi-
structured approach was used during the interviews. Triangulation of all data was used to
interpret and analyze the findings of this research study.
Results and Findings
The findings in this research study are based on the data that were collected and analyzed.
This section will interpret the results of the quantitative and qualitative data aligned to the
literature review.
Research Question #1
What formal and informal learning do superintendents experience as they develop their
understanding of the organization of school districts?
Mentoring
Perception and equality in mentoring relationships was the overall theme reported by
superintendents in this research study. Mentoring is an important part of the career path towards
the superintendency (Gilmore & Kinsella, 2009). Superintendents developed part of their
understanding of the organization of their school districts through formal and informal mentoring
by successful sitting or retired superintendents. Female superintendents are underrepresented in
the superintendent community. As a result, female superintendents will likely be mentored by
male superintendents as they hold the majority of superintendent positions in the United States.
In the aftermath of the #MeToo and #TimesUp social media campaigns, both female and male
superintendents have shifted their thinking about where and when they mentor new
superintendents.
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Organizational Culture
Superintendents developed their understanding of the organization of their school
districts through a process-oriented or communal approach. The gender of the superintendents
interviewed was not a factor in how these superintendents developed their understanding of
organizational culture. The age of the superintendents had a greater correlation with the
approach they selected to understand the organization of their school district. Superintendents
interviewed in this research study were part of the Baby Boomers (born 1944-1960), Generation
X (born 1960-1980) and Millennials (born 1980-2000) generations (Lovely & Buffum, 2007).
According to Lovely and Buffum (2007), Generation X values process over product and
Millennials are respectful of authority, but unafraid to approach their boss with concerns. In this
research study, superintendents that fell into the Generation X category favored a process-
oriented approach that entailed a 90-day entry plan and their recommendations. The
superintendent interviewed who fell into the millennial generation category preferred a
communal approach, which involved various stakeholders and concluded with the
superintendent’s recommendations to the Board of Education.
Research Question #2
Does the formal education of male and female superintendents differ in California?
Formal Education
Women entered into the superintendency later in their careers with greater teaching and
educational leadership experience than men according to the 2017-2018 AASA Superintendent
Salary & Benefits Survey (Finnan & McCord, 2018). This research study compared the formal
educational attainment levels of female and male superintendents to determine if women
superintendents had higher educational attainment levels than men when entering into the
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 91

superintendent role. One hundred percent of superintendents surveyed held at least a master’s
degree. Eighty-one percent of male superintendents (13 participants) and 65% of female
superintendents (17 participants) that responded to this survey held doctorate degrees. One
hundred percent of the seven male superintendents interviewed held doctorate degrees. Sixty-
seven percent of the nine female superintendents interviewed held doctorate degrees. Three
female superintendents interviewed reported a master’s degree as their highest educational
attainment. One of the three female superintendents without a doctorate degree has completed
all of her doctoral coursework and is working on her dissertation and the other female
superintendent left her doctoral program due to illness. One hundred percent of superintendents
surveyed that fell in the 30-39 year range held doctorate degrees. In this research study, 12% of
female superintendents surveyed were in the 30-39 year range and 6% of male superintendents
were in the 30-39 year range. This research study found that higher formal educational
attainment degrees correlated with younger ages for superintendents.
Career Path
The career paths for female and male superintendents in this research study varied less by
gender and more by educational attainment, experience, and age. For both female and male
superintendents with doctoral degrees, the path towards the superintendency was more
accelerated than superintendents that held only master’s degrees. Experience within the same
district was an entry point to the superintendency for both female and male superintendents in
this research study. Age was an initial barrier to entry for female and male superintendents
throughout their careers; however, experience and holding a doctorate degree helped
superintendents break through this barrier.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 92

Research Question #3
Is there a difference in the formal and informal learning between men and women as
they develop their understanding of the school district’s culture?
Superintendents are expected to be effective communicators (Kowalski et al., 2011). The
overall communication styles reported by both female and male superintendents were direct,
communal, or structured. Female and male superintendents preferred to communicate in person
whenever possible. Male superintendents emphasized brutal honesty and directness. Female
superintendents emphasized a more community-driven and personal approach to communicating.
Both female and male superintendents utilized a structured approach to communication that
included weekly scheduled meetings with cabinet and board members as a group and
individually.
Research Question #4
What barriers did female superintendents overcome in order to become superintendents
in California?
#TimesUp and #MeToo Movement
Fifty-five percent of the superintendents that responded to this survey believed that the
#TimesUp and #MeToo movements have impacted K-12 education. Male superintendents
reported that they are more thoughtful about where and when they mentor female
superintendents. Female superintendents shared experiences of sexual harassment as aspiring
educational leaders and sitting superintendents. Female superintendents expressed caution over
reporting harassment due to the potential impact on their careers.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 93

Feminist Theory
This research study examined how gender impacts the representation of women in the
superintendent role. Female superintendents reported the need to constantly prove themselves in
the superintendent role. Sixty percent of survey participants believed that gender inequality
impacts the selection of superintendents.
Glass Ceiling Theory
Lean In.org and Women in the Workplace (2017) conducted a study and found that the
workplace is especially challenging for women of color. In this research study, 61.9% of survey
respondents indicated that the statement “Women must work twice as hard as men to be
considered for a superintendent role” described their feelings to some degree. The 2017-2018
AASA Superintendent Salary & Benefits Study (Finnan & McCord, 2018) found that
respondents were overwhelmingly White (not Hispanic), which accounted for 93.3% of
respondents. This research study also found that respondents were predominately self-reported
as White (not Hispanic), which accounted for 69.05% of respondents. The findings of this
research study align to previous research conducted by Gilmore and Kinsella (2009) that
reported an inequity in the hiring of women and minorities in educational leadership positions.
Ancillary Findings: Recommendations for Aspiring Superintendents
In addition to the four research questions that guided this study, the 16 interviews that
were conducted provided additional information and insights for aspiring superintendents.
Aspiring Female Superintendents
Superintendents in this research study want aspiring superintendents to know that gender
bias does exist and aspiring female superintendents need to be aware that they must work harder,
continuously prove themselves, and understand that both female and males have been
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 94

conditioned to work under the leadership of males and, therefore, research has found that
successful women will be liked less by both genders (Sandberg, 2013).
Perceptions of Female Superintendents
The perception of female superintendents is pervaded with gender stereotypes. The
overall theme reported by female superintendents was a perception that female superintendents
have a limited understanding of budget and finance. According to Dana and Bourisaw (2006),
the predominance of males in the superintendent role has reinforced sex-role expectations for
men to hold the CEO position of school districts. Sandberg (2013) reported the findings of the
Heidi Roizen Harvard Business School Study that found when students were presented with the
same qualifications and certifications of “Heidi,” with only the name changed to “Howard,”
students agreed that both Heidi and Howard were equally competent, but Howard appeared to be
the more appealing colleague and Heidi was not the type of person you would want to hire or
work for.
Personal Life
The significant theme that emerged for superintendents in regard to personal life was
surrounding age, illness, and calendars. Female superintendents recommend having two separate
calendars, where personal and professional activities are separated. Female superintendents
reported being questioned and judged about family activities when their schedules were merged.
Age was reported as a factor for entry into leadership positions for aspiring female and male
superintendents. Doctorate degrees accelerated entry into the superintendency for both female
and male superintendents. Illness was reported as an unexpected obstacle for one female
superintendent returning to her school district. Female Superintendent H reported a need to
rebuild credibility after returning to work from an illness leave.
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 95

Physical Appearance
Superville (2017) found female superintendents have been critiqued on their physical
appearance. Female superintendents reported receiving advice and comments on their hair color
and attire. In this research study, female superintendents shared how age and gender bias have
helped them to thicken their skin. Male superintendents did not report receiving advice,
comments, or critiques on their physical appearance. Physical appearance emerged as a factor
that has impacted aspiring and sitting female superintendents.
Advice to Aspiring Superintendents
This research study followed the career paths of 16 female and male superintendents that
ascended into the superintendent position. The theme that emerged for aspiring superintendents
is to own your experiences and be open to opportunities presented to you.
Implications for Policy and Practice
This study contributes to the research regarding the formal and informal learning
experiences of women that have successfully ascended into superintendent positions in southern
California. Findings from this study provide insight into the different formal education, career
path, and obstacles that both female and male superintendents experienced throughout their
careers. The findings of this research study may help encourage aspiring female superintendents
to prepare to enter the superintendent position earlier in their careers and help to increase the
overall representation of females in the superintendent community. This research has
implications for both policy and practice. The following is an enumeration of the implications
for policy and practices to help increase the representation of females in superintendent positions
and to support women superintendents that have been impacted by discrimination, sexual
harassment, or inequalities in the workplace.
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 96

Policy
The findings of this research study, in conjunction with the research available, indicated
that gender-blind evaluation policies need to be developed surrounding the hiring and selection
of superintendents to increase the representation of highly qualified female superintendents of K-
12 school districts throughout southern California and nationwide. Females that are selected to
serve in superintendent positions had similar formal educational attainment degrees as males;
however, female superintendents continuously had more teaching and educational experience
than male superintendents (Finnan & McCord, 2018). The School Superintendents Association
may want to consider including questions related to workplace discrimination, sexual
harassment, and inequality in the workplace into their annual Superintendent Salary and Benefits
Study, as 55% of the superintendents surveyed in this research study indicated that K-12
education has been impacted by both the #MeToo and #TimesUp campaigns, which address
these issues and were identified as obstacles for some of the female superintendents interviewed.
The School Superintendents Association may want to consider partnering with the #TimesUp
movement to develop equitable policies for the selection of superintendents and provide trainings
on gender bias and the impact on the selection process for aspiring female superintendents.
Practice
Based on the findings of this research study and extant literature, it is recommended that
superintendent search firms implement a board workshop focusing on gender bias and consider
encouraging a gender-blind evaluation process for superintendents. Superintendents may want to
hold a workshop for board members on the #TimesUp and #MeToo campaigns and the impact
on K-12 education. This workshop could serve as an entry point for board members to recognize
that harassment, discrimination, and inequality is unacceptable throughout the school district. If
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 97

the School Superintendents Association includes questions related to the #TimesUp and #MeToo
campaigns in their future studies, more female superintendents may open up about their
experiences of harassment, discrimination. or inequality in the workplace. By acknowledging
that sexual harassment is a reported barrier for many young aspiring and sitting female
superintendents, new policies may be created to ensure that women do not have to let harassment
go or change school districts, which may impede a more direct pathway to the superintendent
position earlier on in their careers as Finnan and McCord (2018) found that female
superintendents consistently enter into the superintendent position later in their careers than their
male counterparts.
Recommendations for Future Research
This research study was limited to superintendents located in southern California and
included survey data from 26 female and 17 male superintendents. Nine female and seven male
superintendents participated in on-site, semi-structured interviews. Findings from this study
revealed six additional areas need to be further explored. The following are recommendations
for future research.
1. Expand the “Heidi Roizen” research study into a case study of a male and female
superintendent to determine leadership perceptions and likeability.
2. Further research the conditioning process involving men and women being conditioned to
work under the leadership of men in chief leadership positions.
3. Conduct a study on gender and likeability in leadership positions in K-12 education.
4. Further research the impact of the #TimesUp and #MeToo movements on mentoring
opportunities for women.
5. Further investigate the career ladders for aspiring female superintendents.
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 98

6. Conduct a study on the frequency of Title IX complaints and sexual harassment
allegations in K-12 education and the impact on women aspiring to leadership positions.
Expanding the “Heidi Roizen” case study would spread light on the different perceptions
of female and male superintendents and provide additional insight into how gender bias impacts
the underrepresentation of females in the superintendent position. Furthering research on the
conditioning process of both men and women being conditioned to work under the leadership of
men could help Boards of Education to be more aware of unintended gender bias favoring the
selection of more male superintendents. Conducting a research study on gender and likeability
in K-12 education might help more women to support each other to ascend the career ladder into
educational leadership positions. Furthering the research on the impact of the #TimesUp and
#MeToo movement on mentoring opportunities for women could help encourage more women to
consider aspiring towards a superintendent position. Further investigation into the career ladders
of aspiring female superintendents would provide insight into why women enter into the
superintendency later in their careers with more teaching and leadership experience than their
male counterparts (Finnan & McCord, 2018) which could help Board of Education members to
develop a more equitable selection process for new superintendents. Conducting a study on the
frequency of Title IX complaints and sexual harassment allegations in K-12 education and the
impact on women aspiring to leadership positions could help leaders in education to be more
cognizant of the attrition of women in educational leadership roles and could help to explain an
ambition gap between females and males aspiring to the superintendency.
Conclusion
This study adds to the scarce body of literature surrounding the formal and informal
learning experiences of females as they become superintendents through the examination of the
TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 99

perceptions and narrative analyses of female and male superintendents surveyed and interviewed
from throughout southern California. The data introduced new barriers to entry into the
superintendency for aspiring female leaders around the #TimesUp and #MeToo movements and
the impact on K-12 education. Superintendents in this research study shared vulnerable stories
of discrimination and sexual harassment in the workplace while aspiring and sitting in the
superintendent chair. Aspiring and sitting female superintendents must be able to navigate the
politics of sexual harassment and discrimination in the workplace in order to successfully lead
public school districts and be a model for future generations of young female leaders. Male
superintendents need to be willing and able to mentor and support aspiring female leaders to help
increase the representation of females in the superintendency. This research may help future
aspiring female leaders to be more equally represented in the superintendency by encouraging
Boards of Education to consider gender-blind evaluations of candidates and to be aware of the
additional barriers to entry that women encounter on their career path towards the
superintendency.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 100

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TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 105

Appendix A: Superintendent Cover Letter for Survey

Dear [Superintendent – Insert Name],
My name is Alison Kim Walker, and I am a K-12 Educational Leadership doctoral candidate at
the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education.

I am conducting a research study for my dissertation, which examines the formal and informal
learning experiences of female and male superintendents in California as they develop their
understanding of the organization of school districts.

You were selected to participate in this research study because you are currently serving as a K-
12 superintendent in southern California. Your participation in this research study is completely
voluntary. You may decline altogether or leave blank any questions you do not wish to answer.

If you agree to participate in this research study, please answer the questions on this online
survey [Insert Survey Link] as honestly as possible and submit your responses by [Insert Date].
This survey should take approximately 10 minutes to complete. Your identity as a participant
will remain confidential at all times during and after the study.

Thank you for taking the time to assist me in my educational endeavors.

Please feel free to contact me with any questions or comments.

Alison Kim Walker
USC Rossier School of Education Doctoral
Candidate K-12 Educational Leadership

University of Southern California
Mobile: 339.227.3282
Email: akwalker@usc.edu

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 106

Appendix B: Informed Consent

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 107

Appendix C: Superintendent Survey
Demographic Questions
Q1 What is your age?
o Under 30
o 30-39
o 40-49
o 50-59
o 60 or over
Q2 At what age did you first become a superintendent of a school district?

Q3 What racial/cultural group best describes how you identify yourself?
o White
oBlack or African American
o American Indian or Alaska Native
o Asian
o Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander
o Other

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 108

Q4 What is your marital status?
o Married
oWidowed
oDivorced
oSeparated
o Never married

Q5 How many children do you have?
o 0
o1
o 2
o 3
o4 or more

Q6 What is your highest educational attainment level?
o Bachelor’s
o Master’s
o Doctorate

School District Questions
Q7 Which area best describes your school district?
oUrban
oRural
o Suburban

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 109

Q8 Which socioeconomic status best describes your school district community?
o Poverty
o High Poverty
o Middle Class
o Affluent

Q9 Which category best describes your school district?
o Elementary

o Secondary

o Unified

Q10 Which category best describes your district enrollment?
o Fewer than 300
o 300 to 2,999
o 3,000 to 24,999
o 25,000 or more

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 110

Q11 Leadership Characteristics and Preferences

Strongly
agree
Agree
Somewhat
agree
Neither
agree
nor
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Disagree
Strongly
disagree
I prefer to
work for a
female
supervisor.
I prefer to
work for a
male
supervisor.
I feel
comfortable
negotiating
my salary.
I actively
seek
opportunities
for
professional
growth.
I actively
seek
opportunities
to network
with
colleagues
and
superiors.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 111

Q12 Glass Ceiling: Observations/Experiences of Aspiring/Sitting Superintendents in K-12
Education

Q13 Social Media: Have the social media #TimesUp and #MeToo campaigns had an impact
on the culture and climate of K-12 education?
o Yes
o No

Clearly Mostly Moderately Slightly Does not
describes my describes my describes my describes my describe my
feelings feelings feelings feelings feelings
Women must
work twice as
hard as men to
be considered
for a
superintendent
role.
There is no
gender
inequality in the
selection of
superintendents.
I have been
affected by
racial
discrimination.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 112

Q14 Social Media and Mentorship: Has the aftermath of the #TimesUp and #MeToo campaigns
focusing on discrimination and harassments in the workplace impacted mentorship of women?

Strongly
agree
Agree
Somewhat
agree
Neither
agree nor
disagree
Somewhat
disagree
Disagree
Strongly
disagree
Men are
more
hesitant to
mentor
women.
Women
are more
hesitant to
seek out
male
mentors.
Women
are more
likely to
seek out
female
mentors.
Women
are less
likely to
be
mentored
by men.
The
#MeToo
and
#TimesUp
social
media
campaigns
have not
impacted
K-12
education.

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Appendix D: Interview Protocol Cover Sheet
University of Southern California –
Superintendent Interview Protocol
Introduction Good morning. My name is Alison Kim Walker, and I am currently
a doctoral student at the University of Southern California’s Rossier
School of Education.

I would like to begin by thanking you for making time to share
your leadership journey with me for the purpose of this research
study on the formal and informal learning experiences of
superintendents in California. During this interview, I’m hoping to
learn more about your pathway to the superintendency and if there
are differences between the learning experiences of female and
male superintendents that have successfully ascended into a
superintendent role in southern California.

Do you have any questions for me about this study?
Consent to Record This pilot study involves the audio or video recording of your
interview with the researcher. Neither your name nor any other
identifying information will be associated with the audio or
video recording or the transcript. Only the research team will
be able to listen to or view the recordings.

The recordings will be transcribed and erased once the
transcriptions are checked for accuracy. Transcripts of your
interview may be reproduced in whole or in part for use in
presentations or written products that result from this study.
Neither your name nor any other identifying information (such as
your voice or picture) will be used in presentations or in written
products resulting from the study.

Do you feel comfortable being recorded today?
Time This interview should take approximately 30 minutes.

Thank you for meeting with me today.

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 114

Appendix E: Interview Protocol
Superintendent
Interview
Researcher
Interview Date
Superintendent
Location
Interview Start Time
Interview End Time

Q1 Formal Learning – Educational Attainment
Please tell me about your formal educational background.
College / University
Degrees
Certifications
Credentials
Languages

Q2 Formal Learning – Career Path
Please tell me about your career pathway towards the superintendency. What roles have you
held and for how long that helped to prepare you for the superintendent position?

Q3 Informal Learning – Mentoring
What role has mentoring played in your leadership journey towards the superintendency?

What role has mentoring played during your superintendency?

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 115

Q4 Informal Learning – Social Media and Mentorship #TimesUp #MeToo
#MentorHer
Social Media: With the introduction of the #TimesUp and #MeToo campaigns focusing on
workplace discrimination and harassment, many men are now uncomfortable mentoring
women. With women being underrepresented in the role of superintendent, this could serve
as a disadvantage for women.
Men: Could you share your thoughts on mentoring women?
Women: Could you share your thoughts on seeking male mentors?

Probe: Sheryl Sandberg, CEO of the LeanIn.org foundation, started the #MentorHer social
media campaign as a call to action to encourage more males to mentor women, could you
share your thoughts on how social media may have a positive or negative impact for
aspiring female superintendents?

Q5 Leadership – Organizational Culture
How did you develop your understanding of the organizational culture of your current
school district?

Q6 Leadership – Communication
What is your communication style as a superintendent?

Q7 Demographics – Personal Life
Could you tell me more about you? (Age, Marital Status, Children, Pets)
Current Age
First Superintendent Position
Age

Marital Status
Children
Pets

TIMESUP: WOMEN AND THE SUPERINTENDENCY 116

Q8 Challenges – Glass Ceiling / Age / Gender / Race
Glass Ceiling: What role, if any, have you observed that age, gender, or race played in an
aspiring superintendent’s selection to a superintendency?

Q9 Recommendations for Aspiring Superintendents
What advice do you have for aspiring female
superintendents? What advice do you have for aspiring
male superintendents?

Q10 Superintendent Input / Comments / Story
Do you have any additional comments, stories, or lessons that you’ve learned along the way
that you would like to share to help aspiring or new superintendents?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study applied feminist theory (Crossman, 2018) and glass ceiling theory (Dunlap & Schmuck, 1995) through the lens of a transformative worldview framework (Creswell, 2014) to understand the formal and informal learning experiences of superintendents in southern California. The purpose of this study was to examine the differences between the formal and informal learning experiences of superintendents in southern California to help encourage more women to pursue to this leadership position with a greater understanding of the professional expectations, experiences, and barriers to entry. More specifically, this study set out to determine: (1) what formal and informal learning do superintendents experience to develop their understanding of the organizational culture of school districts, (2) are there differences in the formal educational attainment degrees between female and male superintendents, (3) are there differences in the formal and informal learning between female and male superintendents as they develop their understanding of school district culture, and (4) what barriers did female superintendents overcome in order to become school superintendents? This study implemented a transformative explanatory sequential mixed-methods approach in which 43 superintendents from throughout southern California completed an online survey and nine female and seven male superintendents were selected to participate in a semi-structured interview. Through the process of triangulation, this study’s findings indicated that there are additional barriers to entry into the superintendency for female superintendents

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Asset Metadata

Creator Walker, Alison Kim (author)

Core Title Time’s Up: a transformative view of women leaning into the superintendency in California

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/25/2019

Defense Date 03/21/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Discrimination,female superintendents,feminist theory,glass ceiling theory,harassment,inequity,leadership,Me Too,OAI-PMH Harvest,sexual harassment,superintendents,Time's Up,transformative theory,underrepresented,Women

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Cash, David (committee chair), Castruita, Rudy (committee member), Peterson, Darleen (committee member)

Creator Email akwalker@usc.edu,alisonkimwalker@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-143906

Unique identifier UC11676738

Identifier etd-WalkerAlis-7244.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-143906 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-WalkerAlis-7244.pdf

Dmrecord 143906

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Walker, Alison Kim

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA