University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Understanding the high school parent involvement gap in the era of local control and accountability

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Understanding the high school parent involvement gap in the era of local control and accountability

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Content Running head: PARENT INVOLVEMENT GAP 1
UNDERSTANDING THE HIGH SCHOOL PARENT INVOLVEMENT GAP IN THE ERA OF
LOCAL CONTROL AND ACCOUNTABILITY
by
Daniel D. Urrutia
___________________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2019
Copyright 2019 Daniel D. Urrutia
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Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to Bill O’Rourke, James Reagan, and Edward Urrutia. They made
it possible for me to be where I am today.

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Acknowledgements
Upon the completion of this momentous achievement, it is important to reflect on the
journey and acknowledge those that have supported me along the way.
I am forever grateful to my committee. Thank you Dr. Artineh Samkian, committee
Chair, for your commitment to guiding me through this process. Your patience and radiant
positivity were invaluable throughout. Thank you, Dr. Angela Hasan, committee member, for
your inspirational expertise and passion for the subject. Your insight truly added value that will
never be forgotten. Thank you, Dr. Steven Miller, committee member, for joining me on this
journey. Your roles as both a mentor and educational leader have forever inspired me and have
shaped who I am today.
I would not have been successful without the support of many. Thank you, Elizabeth, my
partner in life, for believing in me along the way. I will never forget your encouragement,
patience, and care. Thank you to my family for encouraging and supporting me the last few
years. Thank you to all of my colleagues for your everlasting support. Thank you May 2016
cohort for the laughs and free counseling throughout this journey. Lastly, and most importantly,
thank you to the participants of this study, as if it were not for you, I would not have been able to
complete this dissertation.

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Table of Contents
List of Tables 5
List of Figures 6
Abstract 7
Introduction 8
Organizational Context and Mission 9
Importance of Addressing the Problem 9
Purpose of the Project and Questions 10
Organizational Performance Goal 10
Stakeholder Group of Focus 11
Review of the Literature 11
The Significance of Parent Involvement 12
Parent Involvement Challenges 15
Parent Involvement Practices 17
Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences 19
Knowledge Influences 19
Motivation Influences 20
Organizational Influences 25
Summary 30
Interactive Conceptual Framework 31
Participating Stakeholders with Sampling Criteria for Interviews 33
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale 34
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale 34
Data Collection and Instrumentation 36
Data Analysis 36
Findings 37
Participating Parents 38
Finding 1: Parents’ Understanding of Involvement 39
Finding 2: Invitation to School 55
Finding 3: Barriers to Involvement 62
Solutions and Recommendations 82
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences 83
Knowledge Recommendations 83
Motivation Recommendations 86
Organizational Recommendations 89
Recommendations for Future Research 93
Conclusion 94
References 96
Appendix A: Interview Protocol 104
Appendix B: Informed Consent/Information Sheet 110
Appendix C: Credibility and Trustworthiness 111
Appendix D: Ethics 113
Appendix E: Limitations and Delimitations 114

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List of Tables
Table 1. Knowledge Influences 20
Table 2. Motivation Influences 24
Table 3. Organizational Influences 29
Table 4. Summary of Influences on Parent Involvement 30
Table 5. Parent Participants 39
Table 6. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations 85
Table 7. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations 88
Table 8. Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations 92

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List of Figures
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework for Parent Stakeholders 33
Figure 2. Actual Exponential Discriminative Snowball Sampling 35
Figure 3. Parent Involvement Continuum Scale 83

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Abstract
This study applied the Clark and Estes (2008) gap analysis framework to examine and
understand parent involvement at the high school level in the era of California’s overhauled
school funding formula. The purpose of this study was to examine the knowledge and motivation
of uninvolved parents as well as potential organizational influences concerning the district’s
parent involvement goal. Through qualitative interviews, this study captured parents’ beliefs and
understandings of their role in their high schoolers’ education as well as barriers that they
perceived to inhibit regular involvement. Gaps associated with conceptual knowledge, self-
efficacy, expectancy-value, cultural settings, and cultural models were identified – leading to the
formation of recommended actions to address the identified gaps.

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Introduction
Limited parent involvement in schools has been a lingering problem that has persisted in
secondary education. Parent involvement has been linked to many positive school outcomes,
such as graduation rates and grade point average (Berkowitz, et al., 2017), yet schools struggle to
attract parents. Increasingly, policy and reforms have shifted to support, promote, and require
parent involvement. Most recently, the Local Control Funding Formula (LCFF) was adopted in
the state of California, restructuring school funding and accountability across the state
(California Department of Education, 2014). Under the LCFF, local educational agencies (LEAs)
must develop a Local Control and Accountability Plan (LCAP) that outlines how the agency will
address local goals and state-recognized priorities. As such, school districts across the state must
work with all of their stakeholders, including parents, to develop actionable goals and budgets
that address local student needs.
The LCFF and LCAP established an ongoing expectation of parent involvement in school
district decision-making. A challenge for many school districts has been to equitably involve all
parents, especially those at the secondary level where parent involvement tended to decline
(Henderson & Mapp, 2002). As such, this dissertation examined the problem of low parent
involvement rates in activities related to the district’s parent involvement goal. More specifically,
factors concerning the knowledge and motivation of parents to become involved, as well as
potential organizational influences that may affect their involvement, were examined.
This study used the California Department of Education’s definition of parent
involvement: “Parent involvement is the exchange of information (communication), purposeful
interaction, and meaningful participation between parents and schools to support student learning
and achievement” (California Department of Education, 2014). Engagement is a supporting term
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used to describe the action of either the school-initiated contact at the district (i.e., the solicitation
of input from parents) or the parent-initiated contact at the district (i.e., participation in district
advisory committees).
Organizational Context and Mission
The Beachside Union High School District (BUHSD)
1
is located in California and serves
as the high school district (grades 9-12) for four feeder elementary districts. The area is primarily
low-income and has a student body that consists of 72% Hispanic, 16% African American, 3%
Asian, 2.2% White, and the remainder Other. The district is comprised of four comprehensive
high schools and one continuation/alternative school, enrolling about 8,000 students annually
(Ed-Data, 2016). The district’s overall mission is to prepare students for the demands of a
modern technological society and ensure all students graduate with a high school diploma. The
district strives to partner with parents to accomplish its goals and maintains that in order to be
successful in its endeavors, parent involvement is necessary.
Importance of Addressing the Problem
It was essential to examine the organization's performance of increasing parent
involvement for a variety of reasons. As it stood, parent involvement was prohibitively limited
and homogenous. Research highlighted that districts often struggle to attract new or previously
uninvolved parents (Freedberg, 2016; Jeynes, 2005) and meet requirements set by statewide
priorities and local goals. Without meaningful involvement from parents, the district was limited
in the input it received, impacting the decision-making process. In other words, without parents’
diverse perspectives during workshops, surveys, advisory committees, school site council, et al.,
the district’s decision-making does not account for potentially different ideas. Further, if the

1
BUHSD is a pseudonym
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district does not increase the involvement levels of its parents, it will not meet its LCAP
performance goal and may be subject to intervention from the County Office of Education
(COE).
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this study was to examine the knowledge and motivation of parent
stakeholders when it came to their involvement at the high school level, as well as possible
organizational influences that may have impacted the district’s parent involvement goal. While a
complete evaluation project would focus on all district stakeholders, for practical purposes the
stakeholders of focus in this study were uninvolved parents.
As such, the questions that guide this study were:
1. What are uninvolved parents’ knowledge and motivation as it relates to their involvement
at the high school level?
2. What is the interaction between the school or district’s culture and context and
uninvolved parent knowledge and motivation for involvement at the high school level?
3. What are the recommendations for the district’s involvement efforts in the areas of parent
knowledge and motivation as well as its organizational resources and policies?
Organizational Performance Goal
The district’s goal is to increase the involvement rate of parents, as required by the
California Department of Education and the district’s Local Control and Accountability Plan,
from 23 percent to at least 30 percent by the end of the 2018-19 school year. This percentage is
cumulative based on all parent involvement activities which are measured by parent attendance
rates at workshops, learning walks, and conferences as well all participation in committees
including District-Level English Learner Advisory Committee (DELAC), English Learner
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Advisory Committee (ELAC), District Parent Advisory Committee (DPAC), LCAP Advisory
Board, and School Site Council (SSC). As it related to LCAP involvement, these various groups
help to support the district’s involvement goal and to inform LCAP decision-making in addition
to the various other opportunities provided to parents, such as surveys.
Stakeholder Group of Focus
While the joint efforts of all stakeholders contribute to the achievement of the
organizational goal of increasing parent involvement, it was essential to understand how parents
understood their role and where they were in regards to their knowledge and motivation for
involvement at the high school level. Further, parents revealed changes the district can make to
increase involvement and attract more parents. As such, the stakeholder of focus for this study
was uninvolved parents of the Beachside Union High School District. Uninvolved parents were
ideal participants for this study since they were the largest subgroup not consistently involved,
suggesting a gap in knowledge, motivation, or a deficit within the organization itself. The
district’s performance goal for parents is that by the end of the 2018-19 school year, parent
involvement rates will meet or exceed 30 percent. Parents recruited for this study were members
of this group, lived in the community, had at least one child that attended a high school within
the district at the time of the study, spoke English, and were not actively involved at the high
school level.
Review of the Literature
The following literature examined factors that affect parent involvement. The review
begins with research on the significance of parent involvement in school settings. This is
followed by an overview of the literature on common parent involvement challenges and
research-based practices. Following the general research literature, the review turns to the Clark
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and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Framework and, more specifically, knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences related to parent involvement.
It is important to note that some scholars treat involvement and engagement differently
while others use the terms interchangeably – some defined involvement as “doing to” as opposed
to engagement as “doing with” (Ferlazzo, 2011). In this context, involvement is merely the
school informing the parent of areas where they can contribute while engagement is a two-way
partnership that is based on authentic interest, trust, and respect (Gaitan, 2004). Juxtapose, many
other researchers, as well as the California Department of Education, use the term
interchangeably to cover activity related to the overarching concept of parent involvement. For
this literature review, the terms used by the researchers of each respective article were used,
unless otherwise specified.
The Significance of Parent Involvement
Studies have found that parent involvement was linked to student success and positive
school outcomes. Research conducted by Epstein (1987) found that student learning and
development was benefited by families, schools, and the community since each served as
overlapping spheres of influence in a child’s life. Specific to parents, Epstein outlined roles that
supported student outcomes, which included shared responsibilities between parents and staff
within the institution, emphasizing cooperation and coordination of resources. Parent
involvement activities that support student outcomes include participation in school or district
committees, advisory groups, and parent-teacher organizations. Additionally, when parents work
together with school staff, it displays a consistent understanding of the importance of education
(Epstein, 1990).
Fantuzzo, McWayne, Perry, and Childs (2004) conducted an empirical study on
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preschool parents to better understand parent involvement concerning student behavior. Parent
involvement that included direct contact with school staff and participation in at-school activities
was shown to affect problematic behaviors amongst the students positively. They noted two roles
related to parent involvement: at-home and at-school. The at-home role was linked to the child’s
motivation to learn while the at-school role was linked to volunteering and attending meetings
(Fantuzzo, et al., 2004). Both roles were associated with decreased behavior problems.
Through a meta-analysis of quantitative literature, Fan and Chen (2001) found that parent
involvement had a positive effect on student academic outcomes, especially when those
outcomes are measured as a global indicator such as grade point average. Further, they found a
strong connection between parent expectations/aspirations for their child’s success and their
child’s academic performance. It was noted that parent involvement is generally viewed as a
remedy for school-based educational problems (Fan & Chen, 2001), indicating researchers’
agreement regarding the significance of parent involvement.
The significance of parent involvement in district decision-making. Researchers
contend that parent involvement in district decision-making can support school outcomes. In a
qualitative study, Wheaton and Sullivan (2014) reviewed the significance of community input in
district goal-setting. They found that goal setting was a multifaceted process that involved many
stakeholders, including parents, and served as an important component of school decision-
making. The process was viewed to be significant, as parent and community involvement in goal
setting provided districts with new ideas and suggestions to better support student needs, leading
to the creation of actionable, measurable, and shared goals (Wheaton & Sullivan, 2014).
The theory of change model has been used to explain the significance of parent and
community involvement. Gold, Simon, and Brown (2002) explained that the achievement of
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school outcomes require three supports: leadership, community power, and social capital.
Focusing on community power, they described that when staff, parents, and the community work
together on decision-making, they share a sense of ownership. Furthermore, they contended that
staff, parents, and the community have a shared goal of student performance that can create a
setting to bridge relationships to move change forward.
Similarly, Epstein and Jansorn (2004) established a research-based framework for
strengthening family-school partnerships. They contended that to increase student success
requires the inclusion of parents in school decisions, governance, and district advocacy groups,
as well as opportunities for school and district goal-setting. Such inclusion helps improve school
programs, climate, and parents’ knowledge and skills related to their child’s education. Thus, the
involvement and inclusion of parents are significant to the district decision making processes.
The significance of parent involvement in school accountability and budget
development. Scholars contend that parent involvement in the LCFF/LCAP development
process helps to target local needs and improve aspects of accountability. Hahnel (2014)
examined the first year of California’s school funding formula. Based on available data, they
maintained that parent involvement had much significance to school accountability and budget
development, as parent participation in various LCAP advisory committees helps to represent
high-need student subgroups (ELL, special needs, et al.). Also, when developing the local plan,
their involvement provided community trust, transparency, and helped to target needs (Hahnel,
2014).
Darling-Hammond, Wilhoit, and Pittenger (2014), through policy analysis, indicated that
transparent communication with and involvement of parents about school district budgets
improves accountability for student outcomes and measurable goals. As required by the LCAP,
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parent opportunities for input in budget development should be apparent. The result is an
increased awareness of school budgets, leading parents to hold the state accountable for fair and
equitable funding (Darling-Hammond, Wilhoit, Pittenger, 2014). In that regard, increased
awareness and understanding of school district budgets would have a positive and long-term
effect on local schools.
Humphrey, et al. (2014), interviewed 71 school officials across ten districts in California
to understand the budget development process before and after the implementation of the new
local control funding formula. They found that districts had begun thinking about the budgeting
process differently, shifting from ‘what can we afford’ to ‘what do we need.’ They determined
that, in order to determine need, meaningful parent involvement was critical to the budget
process and can represent the distinct needs of foster youth, English language learners, and other
underrepresented student groups and thus accentuating the significance of parents’ involvement
such processes.
Parent Involvement Challenges
Researchers have attempted to explain why parents become involved and some of the
challenges districts face when engaging with parents. Berkowitz, et al. (2017), concluded
parents’ perception of school climate affects how often they were involved at the school. They
found that school and staff efforts to encourage the involvement of parents are often inconsistent,
thus affecting rates of involvement. Furthermore, Berkowitz, et al. (2017), noted that parent
involvement in school settings could be dependent upon the family’s race, ethnicity, heritage and
the child’s age in addition to staff efforts of encouragement.
Hahnel (2014) also noted several parent involvement challenges, specifically in an LCAP
environment. They found that school districts often have more interests and demands that they
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can contend with, creating competition amongst the various stakeholders regarding resource
allocation. Divergent priorities between the community, parent groups, district leaders, staff, and
labor unions create tension. Hahnel (2014) noted that the renewed push for local control created
an opportunity for meaningful input from stakeholders, but districts must work to balance
divergent interests which serve as a possible challenge for parent involvement.
Equity challenges. Some studies have indicated that equitable parent involvement across
certain groups is a common challenge for schools. Arias and Morillo-Campbell (2008) discussed
the significance of English language learner (ELL) subgroups, noting they are the largest
growing subgroup in the United States. Consequently, parents of ELL students have some unique
barriers affecting their involvement in schools, which include language, unfamiliarity with local
school systems, and differing cultural norms (Arias & Morillo-Campbell, 2008). Furthermore,
school staff is not always trained to support ELL families, thus posing as an additional challenge
for their involvement.
Gordon and Nocon (2008) explored parent involvement amongst low-income Latino
parents in an environment where their involvement in school governance is mandated by federal
law. They found that although parent involvement was mandated, there were disproportionate
levels of involvement among low-income Latino parents, noting a history of disadvantaged
groups not being engaged. Social reproduction theory suggests that affluent families have a more
significant influence on school decisions, hence stressing the existence of an equity gap in
certain groups’ involvement at school.
Challenges at the secondary level. Research showed that parent involvement at the
secondary school level had been notably lower than at the primary level. Gonzalez-DeHass and
Willems (2003) examined the underutilization of parent involvement in school. They found that
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parent involvement at the secondary level is lower during their child’s adolescent years as a
result of the nature of schooling and complexity of curriculum, which causes parents’ sense of
self-efficacy to decline. Additionally, parent involvement opportunities may not be as apparent
as at the elementary level (Gonzalez-DeHass & Willems, 2003).
Simon (2000) explored the predictors of parent involvement at the secondary level. They
noted that parent involvement tends to decline during their child’s adolescent years due to
complexities at the high school level, including complicated curricula. They also described
tension from adolescents from parents’ presence, which discourages parent involvement. As a
result, secondary schools face unique challenges for involving parents in high school.
Parent Involvement Practices
Researchers have linked effective parent involvement practices to academic performance
and community development. Through a meta-analysis of qualitative research, Henderson and
Mapp (2002) described effective parent involvement practices to include outreach, face to face
meetings, regular communication, and updates on progress or changes. These practices have
been shown to have a positive impact on parent involvement rates and school-based outcomes.
Further, staff training on parent involvement was shown to develop trust and establish
collaborative relationships with families.
Parent involvement policies and procedures. The research illustrated the impact school
and district policies have had on parent involvement. Epstein and Sheldon (2002) explored the
impact community and parent involvement had on student attendance. They found that a positive
impact occurred in schools that implemented clear and transparent policies that supported
community partnerships and consistently incorporated parents. Their findings embellished the
significance that policy had, especially in areas that mandated parent involvement.
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Epstein (1984) examined school policy and parent involvement. Through a quantitative
study, Epstein found that schools with high levels of parent involvement have policies that
support, encourage, and reward teachers for conducting parent workshops, hosting parent
volunteers, and spending time on outreach. Similarly, Chavkin (1995) examined comprehensive
district-wide reforms in parent and community involvement programs. They found that schools
with high levels of parent involvement had strong policies that support their involvement in
resource allocation and outcome assessment. The study revealed the impact that local, state, and
federal policies had on the ability to promote or inhibit parent involvement, thus highlighting the
significance policies has on parent involvement.
Legal changes to parent involvement practices. Changes to the school funding and
accountability system in California have affected how districts approach parent involvement.
Vasquez Heilig, Ward, Weisman, and Cole (2014) examined recent school-based reforms,
including California’s LCFF/LCAP, and noted that school accountability systems have shifted
from top-down to bottom-up, changing school district functionality. According to the law, school
Districts must promote parent involvement, especially in district and school site decisions,
advisory committees, and the LCAP process, which has statutorily changed parent involvement
practices in school districts. Now, County offices of education (COE) have a regulatory role in
school district accountability and must work with districts on developing steps for building local
capacity on parent involvement and created an opportunity to strengthen community and parent
partnerships by meaningfully involving them in the LCAP process (Warren, 2016).
Affeldt (2015) noted that California’s significantly overhauled school funding and
accountability system provided the opportunity for local, community-based control over school
financial decisions. As a result, the state recognized several priority areas, including efforts to
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seek parent input in decision making and promotion of parent participation in high need and
special education programs. These legal changes, specifically in California, have changed how
districts must involve critical stakeholders, such as parents.
Knowledge, Motivation and Organizational Influences

There is a vast amount of research related to parental knowledge and motivation for their
involvement in schools. The literature reviewed in this dissertation focused on critical
understandings of how parents’ knowledge and skills influence involvement. The various types
of knowledge and motivational influences related to parents in a school setting, which are
summarized in Table 1, Table 2, Table 3, and Table 4, were examined. Additionally, several
themes related to parent involvement and how they refer to each underlying theory were
explored and discussed.
Knowledge Influences
Certain knowledge influences play a role in how stakeholders become involved in an
organization. To accomplish goals, an individual requires specific knowledge and skills to be
effective. For this review, knowledge is how to do things while motivation is what keeps us
going and how often (Clark, Estes, Middlebrook, & Palchesk, 2004). A challenge exists when
stakeholders are unaware of or uneducated on their expected role. In the context of a school,
parents do not necessarily have self-regulatory knowledge or skills necessary to effectively
engage at the level expected by the school, district, and state (Hoover-Dempsey, et al., 2005),
which create a challenge for the organization to meet its goals and comply with bureaucratic
requirements. Many parents are unfamiliar with their new LCAP decision-making abilities and
may be discouraged by a limited familiarity with school district systems, terminologies, and
measurement tools, requiring strong intervention from the district.
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Conceptual influences. Lack of conceptual knowledge may affect awareness of shared
goals, role expectations, and other elements, as summarized in Table 1. Conceptual knowledge,
which is “the interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that enable
them to function together” (Krathwohl, 2002, p. 214), assists with individuals’ realization of
what they do and what they should do. These include expectations for engagement and
participation in district advisory groups, knowledge around school district functionality, and
understanding of program and graduation requirements, state tests, post-secondary options, and
college preparation (Henderson & Mapp, 2002). Additionally, parents are not always aware of
their capabilities or opportunities in a school setting, especially at the secondary level (Deslandes
& Bertrand, 2005). Parents’ conceptual knowledge can be improved when staff forges
connections with parents. Limited understanding of the many concepts found at the high school
level may influence the parents comfort to participate.
Table 1
Knowledge Influences
Assumed Knowledge Influences Knowledge Type
Parents need knowledge and awareness of district goals, their expected
role within the school district, and the significance thereof.
Conceptual
Parents need knowledge of general school district functionality. Conceptual

Motivation Influences
Parents must be motivated to be involved at school. Many factors can influence
motivation including active choice, persistence, and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008; Clark,
Estes, Middlebrook, & Palchesk, 2004). Active choice is the decision to pursue a goal, even if it
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is involuntary. Persistence is the division of attention between other targets and objectives and
balancing between them, despite the possibility of having more attractive goals. Mental effort
refers to the energy put toward accomplishing the goal, which can be affected by a lack of
confidence. These three factors affect how motivated the stakeholder is to engage in and meet or
exceed their goal.
Many theories exist that address motivational factors. For this review, two theories that
influence parents’ motivation to realize the district’s engagement goal – self-efficacy theory and
expectancy-value theory – were examined. Self-efficacy theory relates to the intensity of one's
perceived ability to accomplish the goal (Bandura, 2000). Expectancy-value theory focuses on
one's desire and ability to engage the task. The theory is broken down into multiple factors,
which include: attainment value, or how it identifies with the individual, and utility value, or how
it benefits the individual (Fredricks & Eccles, 2006). Both theories, when applied to parental
engagement, may influence the success of meeting the organization’s goal of engaging parents.
Self-efficacy theory. Within the realm of motivation, efficacy plays a central role in how
people behave and think about a course of events. Bandura (1986; 2000) contended that
individuals have control over their experiences and help to shape events based on their action, or
lack thereof. Bandura described people as producers and shapers, since they produce experiences
and shape events. As it relates to motivation, people must “believe that they can produce desired
effects and forestall undesired ones by their actions” (Bandura, 2000, p. 75) or they will have
little desire to participate. Individuals must actively choose and build confidence in their abilities
to effect change and reach goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). The limited involvement of parents in
schools is an efficacy problem, as self-efficacy describes human function, which includes choice,
motivation, thought patterns, behaviors, and productivity (Bandura, 2000).
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Beliefs related to self-efficacy are the foundation for motivation and accomplishment.
According to Pajares and Urdan (2006), individuals develop their self-efficacy beliefs from four
primary sources: mastery, experience, vicarious experience, social persuasions, and
physiological reactions. Knowledge and personal experiences are considered the most influential
factors. Individuals tend to gauge their mastery based on their successes and failures, which raise
and lower their self-efficacy respectively. Further, self-efficacy is affected by shared experiences
or skills through the observation of others and social persuasions, which is the cultivation of
motivation through belief. Lastly, self-efficacy beliefs are influenced by emotional statuses, such
as anxiety and stress, affecting one’s interpretation of the task.
Parents and self-efficacy. Research indicates that parental engagement between primary
and secondary grades decline, suggesting parents become less motivated to engage as their child
progresses through school, as their belief in their ability to help declines (Deslandes & Bertrand,
2005). In other words, parents are more engaged when they believe they have the skills and
knowledge necessary to effectively participate (Shumow & Lomax, 2002; Hoover-Dempsey,
Bassler, & Brissie, 1992). Further, the self-efficacy of parents plays a significant role in their
motivation to engage. Parents should believe that they have the skills and knowledge to help in
their child's education. At the primary level, research reveals that parents are more inclined to
believe that they can help than at the high-school level (Pajares & Schunk, 2001; Bandura,
Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 2001). Essentially, as the student progresses to the high
school level, the perception of the parent to engage becomes less defined.
Scholars contended that parents’ limited knowledge on how influence on school
governance, affecting their motivation to engage the school or district. Henderson and Mapp
(2002) argued that it is important to develop families’ political knowledge and invest in political
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capital, giving parents and community members the ability to be more involved in school
governance. They described the problem as a lack of political capital, which is defined as the
knowledge of how the system works, how to have influence over public decisions and have
access to school policymakers and a voice in the process. Scholars acknowledge that
stakeholders, such as parents, are more inclined to engage and have higher self-efficacy when
properly informed (McCrudden, Schraw, & Hartley, 2006; Bandura, 2000).
Expectancy-value theory. Similar to self-efficacy theory, expectancy-value theory
outlines an individual's motivation to achieve short and long-term goals. Wigfield and Eccles
(2000) contended that when people are faced with a goal or challenge, they begin by asking “can
I do the task?” and “do I want to do the task. When questioning the desire to do the task,
individuals gauge based on several factors: intrinsic interest, or the enjoyment of doing the task,
attainment value, or the alignment with identity, utility value, or the relationship to short and
long-term goals, and perceived opportunity cost. When individuals are interested in the task,
engagement is greater (Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998).
Attainment and utility value affect one's interest and motivation. Attainment value, which
refers to individuals’ identity, changes as they grow. The identity is formed by a person's
personality, capability, long-range goals, gender and cultural role construction, personal
interests, and social expectations (Wigfield & Eccles, 2006). Further, individuals’ sense of
belonging affects their attainment and utility value. This, coupled with the anticipated cost of and
value of engagement affect one's desire to participate.
Parents and expectancy value. Researchers indicated that people align themselves to
their surroundings based on their personal beliefs and understandings (Rayburn & Palmgreen,
1984). For parents, their role construction, in the context of a school environment, has an impact
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on their engagement. If parents construct a limited role, the district’s goal of increasing parent
engagement is not on their radar. As described by Clark and Estes (2008), “motivation influences
three very critical aspects of our work and private lives-first, choosing to work towards a goal;
second, persisting at it until it is achieved; and third, how much mental effort we invest to get the
job done” (p. 44).
Given the subjectivity and variations of cultural backgrounds, parents’ expectancy values
may vary widely (Jasis & Ordonez-Jasis, 2012). Chrispeels and Rivero (2001) examined Latino
parents’ role in their child educations, a number of factors were found to impact parents’
motivation to engage their child’s school, which include how they defined their role, their love
and aspiration for their child, and their personal experiences from their home country. Further,
Lareau and Horvat (1999) noted that race and class shaped how parents interact with their child’s
school and their perception of how the school interacts with them, affecting parents’ expectancy
value.
Table 2
Motivation Influences
Assumed Motivation Influences
Self-efficacy Theory
Parents need to believe that they have the power to make a difference in their child’s
education.
Expectancy-Value Theory
Parents need to perceive value in their involvement and participation with their child’s school.

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Organizational Influences
In addition to stakeholder knowledge, skills, and motivation, organizational influences
can affect stakeholder performance goals and outcomes, as outlined in Table 3. A number of
theories outline these influences which include organizational culture and climate as well as
processes, policies, goals, rewards, and incentives. When attempting to change organizational
practices, these influences play a role in the success of the change process and should be
accounted for (Clark & Estes, 2008). In school district settings, organizational influences are
considered for both internal and external stakeholders. These influences, which include
organizational culture and climate, have an effect on the engagement of parents and their
perspectives thereof.
General theory. Organizational culture influences the way people in and around an
organization operate. Schein (1992) found that culture provides an organization with stability
and rigidity by changing how individuals within the organization perceive, feel, and act. Culture
is considered to be a primary impediment to change and consists of three levels: artifacts (visible
structures and observed behavior), espoused beliefs and values (ideals, goals, values, and
aspirations), and basic underlying assumptions (unconscious beliefs). Within these levels, leaders
play an integral role, as they are “the source of the beliefs and values that get a group moving in
dealing with its internal and external problems” (Schein, 1992, p. 32). Further, there are three
general subcultures within an organization: operator (frontline staff), design (architects/engineer
team), executive (managing staff). The operator group is on the frontline, such as sales
representatives or teachers. The design group is those that are technical, such as engineers or
subject matter experts. Lastly, the Executive subculture includes the top leaders, such as CEO or
Superintendent and their leadership team or cabinet. Of these three subcultures, the executive
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team is often misaligned from the operators and engineers (Schein, 1992). The three levels, along
with the three subcultures, should be recognized, as they define organizational culture and the
people involved with the organization.
Organizations vary considerably across all institutions based on several factors. Clark and
Estes (2008) stated that organizations have unique cultures that can be viewed in three ways: in
the environment, groups, and individuals. First, culture is an environmental phenomenon based
on the development of culture within the organization, affecting performance outcomes. In other
words, “cultural patterns can be changed by changing the work environment” (Clark & Estes,
2008, p. 108). Second, group culture suggests that it is not the individual or the environment, but
instead the group or subgroup that influences culture and defines shared responsibilities and
consensus. Third, individual culture stresses the importance of an individual's knowledge, skills,
and motivation, which are attributed to unique life experiences, culture, and heritage. The
environment, group, and individual play a role in defining and shaping organizational culture.
Research suggests that the feel of an organization is developed by people in and around
the organization. Schneider, Brief, and Guzzo (1996) outlined the significance of both climate
and culture as it relates to organizational feel. Climate is developed by its members, including
how the organization operates daily and the type of goals the organization pursues. These factors
are significant as they relate to how organizations function and change. To examine an
organization's climate and culture, the nature of interpersonal relationships, hierarchies, work,
and support play a role. Interpersonal skills influence trust, cooperativeness, and social supports
for individuals within the organization. Hierarchies affect decision making participation between
staff and managers. The nature of the work within the organization links to the tools, flexibility,
and development opportunities available to employees. Lastly, the focus of support determines
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organizational standards in areas of customer service as well as how performance is measured
and rewarded (Schneider, Brief, and Guzzo, 1996). Each of these factors contributes to the
success of total organizational change, which is designed to stimulate policies, practices, and
procedures at all levels of an organization.
Scholars suggested people are the key to how an organization functions, develops, and
changes. Moran and Brightman (2000) outlined three significant factors related to organizational
management: purpose, identity, and mastery. They contended that employees are goal-oriented
and focused on a sense of purpose, desire, and value (Moran & Brightman, 2000). Organizations
with a high purpose and meaningfully aligned goals drive those thoughts (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Further, identity, both within a group and as an individual, establishes a sense of organizational
consistency and stability, alleviating internal and external pressures (Moran & Brightman, 2000).
Lastly, professional mastery stresses the importance of ensuring employees are provided
professional development the fosters the needed knowledge, skills, and abilities within the
organization. Organizations are complicated with many layers, requiring careful attention to the
individuals within.
Organizational factors for parents. Scholars contended that the internal organizational
culture affected external stakeholders, such as parents. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) stated
that culture could positively influence academic performance within an organization.
Specifically, cultural settings (social context) and models (shared schema) are interconnected in
a way that affects organizational outcomes. These settings and models include how families
come together and interact as well as how district staff, including teachers and administrators,
engage in regular and irregular settings. “The problem in schools is that settings are rarely as
productive as they need to be. Meetings are held, and children are in classrooms, but purposes,
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desired outcomes, and means to accomplish ends are too often unclear” (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001, p. 51). Organizational culture and internal competencies should continually
be recognized and reinforced, especially as it relates to educational outcomes.
Educational agencies are challenged with ensuring stakeholder input is meaningfully
sought and valued. Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (2002) argued that the invitation to
involvement is as important as the individual's own motivation to engage. “Invitations from
important others at school may contribute significantly to more active parental beliefs about the
personal role and increasingly positive beliefs about the effect of one’s actions” (Hoover-
Dempsey & Sandler, 2002, p. 110). Invitations come from three sources: teachers, students, and
the school in general. Invitations from the school suggest a positive climate and culture that
fosters parent involvement, building parent role expectation.
Further, staff commitment to parent empowerment, which includes engaging parents with
meaningful roles, input, and providing feedback on contributions, is shown to play a critical role
in the development of compelling invitation (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 2002; Eccles &
Harold, 1993). Additionally, active invitation influences parents’ knowledge of how to support
the organization, and specifically, their child (Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2010). Invitation to
involvement from the organization's perspective is especially compelling in how stakeholder
input is obtained and valued.
Some researchers asserted that some organizational factors hinder meaningful parent
engagement. Gonzalez-DeHass and Willems (2003) state that lack of encouragement from staff,
scheduling challenges, conflicting beliefs on how parents should be involved, and lack of staff
preparation and administrative support all influence the underutilization of parents in school
settings. Some teachers and staff choose not to encourage parent participation due to fear of
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taking away their authority or bring criticism to their work (Gonzalez-DeHass & Willems, 2003;
Lazar & Slostad, 1999). Further, parents face many barriers that make engagement an
impossibility, including lack of transportation, childcare, translation services, work scheduling
conflicts, and a disconnect between them and school staff (Gonzalez-DeHass & Willems, 2003;
Wood & Baker, 1999).
Additionally, the parent involvement and engagement activities are often limited to
parent-teacher conferences and other traditional interactions with little to no focus on cultural
perspectives of different groups, especially at the secondary level (Gonzalez-DeHass, Willems,
2003; Dornbusch & Ritter, 1988). “Although all schools routinely invite parents to attend
informational meetings and conferences, few encourage them to actively participate in extended
and engaging activities” (Dodd & Konzal, 2000, p. 11). A commonly known barrier of parent
engagement is the lack of professional development and organizational support for instructional
staff (Wood & Baker, 1999; Eccles & Harold, 1993). This lack of support and incentive to spend
meaningful time engaging parents’ may limit parent-specific opportunities.
Table 3
Organizational Influences
Assumed Organizational Influences
Cultural Model Influences
● Staff needs to encourage parent involvement.
● Staff needs to regularly welcome and invite parents to the school or district.
● Staff needs to designate roles for parents and not fear reduced authority in the classroom
from increased parent involvement.
Cultural Setting Influences
● The school and district need to adopt policies and procedures that support parent
involvement.
● The school and district need to have regular opportunities for staff in-service and training for
stakeholder engagement.
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Summary
As outlined in Table 4, there are a number of assumed influences affecting parent
involvement. These influences are supported by the literature and included knowledge,
motivation, and organizational culture and climate. The following section organizes these
influences in a conceptual framework that visualizes the actual interaction within the
organization selected for this study.
Table 4
Summary of Influences on Parent Involvement
Assumed KMO Influences on Parent Involvement Selected Literature
Conceptual Knowledge

Parents need knowledge and awareness of district
goals, their expected role within the school district,
and the significance thereof.

Krathwohl, 2002;

Wheaton & Sullivan, 2014; Deslandes &
Bertrand, 2005; Clark & Estes, 2004;
Gold, et al., 2002; Henderson & Mapp,
2002; Epstein, 1987
Parents need knowledge of general school district
functionality.

Humphrey, et al., 2014; Hoover-
Dempsey, et al., 2005; Deslandes &
Bertrand, 2005; Gonzalez-DeHass &
Willems, 2003; Henderson & Mapp,
2002
Motivation – Self-Efficacy Theory

Parents need to believe that they have the power to
make a difference in their child’s education.
Pajares & Urdan, 2006; Clark & Estes,
2004; Bandura, 2000

Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005; Shumow
& Lomax, 2002; Hoover-Dempsey, et
al., 1992

Motivation – Expectancy Value Theory

Parents need to perceive value in their involvement
and participation with their child’s school.
Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Wigfield &
Eccles, 2000

Jasis & Ordoñez-Jasis, 2012; Chrispeels
& Rivero, 2001; Lareau & Horvat, 1999

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Organizational Culture and Climate

Staff needs to encourage parent involvement.

Staff needs to regularly welcome and invite parents
to the school or district.

Staff needs to designate roles for parents and not
fear reduced authority in the classroom from
increased parent involvement.

The school and district need to adopt policies and
procedures that support parent involvement.

The school and district need to have regular
opportunities for staff in-service and training for
stakeholder engagement.
Clark & Estes, 2008; Schein, 2004;
Schneider, Brief, & Guzzo, 1996; Moran
& Brightman, 2000

Berkowitz, et al., 2017; Gelsomini &
Ishida, 2014; Epstein & Van Voorhis,
2010; Gold, et al., 2002; Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001

Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Hoover-
Dempsey & Sandler, 1997

Warren, 2016; Gelsomini & Ishida,
2014; Gold, et al., 2002; Henderson &
Mapp, 2002; Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001

Epstein & Sheldon, 2002; Henderson &
Mapp, 2002; Wood & Baker, 1999

Arias & Morillo-Campbell, 2008; Wood
& Baker, 2000

Interactive Conceptual Framework
To structure this study, a conceptual framework was developed to bridge stakeholder
knowledge and motivation together within the organization's context. Merriam and Tisdell
(2016) contended that such conceptualizing is needed to personify the phenomena that are being
studied. In other words, the conceptual framework establishes a unique lens from the
practitioner's own perspective, incorporating it with literature and research theories (Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016; Maxwell, 2013). Since stakeholder knowledge and motivation is not independent
from the organization, bringing all influences together assisted in studying their interaction with
each other.
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Figure 1 depicts the interaction between parents’ knowledge and motivation within the
organizational context of the Beachside Union High School District. The parent stakeholders,
represented in red, have knowledge and motivational influences that affect their rates of
involvement. These influences are significant, as knowledge informs how we do things while
motivation keeps us going (Clark & Estes, 2008). Within a school setting, parents may not have
certain conceptual knowledge around school functionality or expectations (Deslandes &
Bertrand, 2005; Henderson & Mapp, 2002). Further, parents may doubt their ability to make a
difference in their child’s education (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005; Shumow & Lomaz, 2002) or
may not perceive value in their involvement at the school (Jasis & Ordoñez-Jasis, 2012;
Chrispeels & Rivero, 2001; Lareau & Horvat, 1999). As such, parent involvement is influenced
by their knowledge and motivation.
Educational organizations can also shape whether and how parents become involved.
From an organizational context, cultural settings and models may affect how often parents
engage in the school or district. Factors such as how staff welcome parents (Hoover-Dempsey &
Sandler, 1997), the roles available to parents (Warren, 2016), or how meaningfully staff engage
with parents (Berkowitz, et al., 2017) all may effect parent involvement. These potential
impediments can be rectified by evaluating organizational resources, culture, and climate,
including school and district policies and procedures (Epstein & Sheldon, 2002) and staff in-
service on stakeholder involvement practices (Arias & Morillo-Campbell, 2008).
For this study, parents and the organization were viewed separate of each other since
parents are not an actor inside the organization, but rather are key external stakeholders. Despite
separation, the resources of the district are partly directed toward parents and parents are affected
by the district's culture, climate, goals, and overall success or failure. As such, the stakeholder
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goal is linked to both parents and the organization since both affect the outcome.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework for parent stakeholders.
Participating Stakeholders with Sampling Criteria for Interviews
School districts have a multitude of stakeholders that they are held accountable to. One of
these stakeholders are the parents of the students enrolled in the school district. While all districts
have involved parents, especially in the high school level, it is more likely that parents are
uninvolved. As such, this study focused on the uninvolved parent population of the Beachside
Union High School District. Parents and their involvement are significant to BUHSD and its
goals, as the California Department of Education requires districts to seek parent input to inform
local decisions. More importantly, as demonstrated in the review of literature section, parent
involvement in schools has shown to boost student academic outcomes (Henderson & Mapp,
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34
2002; Fan & Chen, 2001; Epstein, 1987). Since the intent of this study was to understand the
knowledge and motivation of uninvolved high school parents and their perceptions related to
involvement at school, interviews with a sample of twelve uninvolved high school parents was
appropriate. These parents were asked open-ended questions related to their knowledge and
motivation for their involvement in their child’s education, as well as their thoughts on parent
participation in the decision-making process. Additionally, they were asked about potential
organizational barriers that may affect their ability to participate. The full interview protocol can
be found in Appendix A.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Interview participants were parents, stepparents, or guardians of a currently
enrolled student at the BUHSD. Although I could have included former parents, the intent of this
study was to examine parent knowledge and motivation for involvement at the school in an
LCFF/LCAP environment.
Criterion 2. Interview participants spoke and understood English, as I am not fluent in
any other language.
Criterion 3. Interview participants were not actively involved at the high school level,
including district advisory committees or school site organizations such as Parent Teacher
Organization (PTO), School Site Council (SSC), et al. This criterion served to filter out parents
that may already be familiar with school and district expectations and goals related to their
involvement. As such, uninvolved parents were the primary focus.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
This study utilized exponential non-discriminative snowball sampling. This sampling
method allows researchers to begin with initial participants that meet the criteria who then
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35
provide multiple referrals until the required sample size is met (Etikan, Alkassim, & Abubakar,
2016) and is best in cases where hard-to-reach populations, such as uninvolved parents, are being
sought out (Patton, 2015).
As visualized in Figure 2, the recruitment began with three uninvolved high school
parents that I personally knew of having met this study’s criteria. From there, they referred me to
parents they believed who met the criteria. I contacted each referral to determine their eligibility
and informed them of the intent of this study, which avoided potential preparation by the
referrer. From there, I asked each participant to provide additional references. This continued
until the desired sample size of twelve uninvolved high school parents was reached.

Figure 2. Actual exponential discriminative snowball sampling.
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Data Collection and Instrumentation
Interviews were the primary source of data collection for this study. Interviews were
conducted with twelve parents and averaged 30 minutes. The interviews were audio-recorded
and conducted face-to-face at a neutral location of their choosing. A neutral location of their
choice served to ensure the location was convenient for the participant and avoid them feeling
pressured (Maxwell, 2013). The interviews followed a semi-structured approach, allowing for
some follow-up questions to dive deeper into responses and seek clarity (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). After coding the data, questions related to emergent findings as well as questions for
member-checking were prepared for follow-up interviews. All participants were invited for a
follow-up interview either face-to-face or via phone, of which nine or 75% agreed. The follow-
up interviews averaged 20 minutes.
Interviews were used to deepen understanding in areas that we cannot directly observe,
such as feelings, thoughts, intent, and past actions (Patton, 2015). In order to effectively address
the research questions, the interview questions aimed to find trends related to parents’
understanding of their role in their high schooler’s education, including knowledge pertaining to
school and district functionality, goals, and roles as well as perceived barriers for their
involvement. The questions were open-ended and single barreled, avoiding informal fallacy by
focusing on a single topic per question. The full interview protocol can be found in Appendix A.
Data Analysis
The data collected from each interview was transcribed and coded in an effort to make
sense of the data and attempt to answer this study’s research questions (Merriam & Tisdell,
2015). The coding produced emergent themes that were found in each interviewee’s responses
about their knowledge and motivation, as well as potential organizational influences, related to
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37
involvement in their child’s education. After transcription of the interview data, I used
qualitative data analysis software to organize terms, phrases, and words that consistently
occurred throughout the text. The data were color-coded based on the categories that emerged
and organized based on the influences outlined in the conceptual framework. This process,
known as open coding and axial coding, is utilized in qualitative research to organize pieces of
data to assign categories (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). Essentially, open coding works to break
down the data into key points as guided by the conceptual framework and research questions.
Axial coding helped to synthesize the meaning of the interview data into a code that was then
categorized.
Findings
The purpose of this study was to examine the knowledge and motivation of uninvolved
parents as well as potential organizational influences in relation to the district’s parent
involvement goal. More specifically, the study sought to draw out parents’ beliefs and
understandings around their own role in their high schoolers’ education as well as barriers that
they perceive to inhibit regular involvement. As such, the qualitative findings of this study are
presented in the context of three overarching themes: 1) parents’ understanding of involvement,
2) invitation to school, and 3) barriers for involvement. These encompass the primary findings of
this study and provide for a well-rounded presentation of the data within the context of the
project questions, which were:
1. What are uninvolved parents’ knowledge and motivation as it relates to their own
involvement at the high school level?
2. What is the interaction between the school or district’s culture and context and
uninvolved parent knowledge and motivation for involvement at the high school level?
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3. What are the recommendations for the district’s parent involvement efforts in the areas of
parent knowledge and motivation as well as its own organizational resources and
policies?
Participating Parents
Interviews were conducted with twelve uninvolved parents of high school students
presently enrolled in the BUHSD. For the purpose of this study, uninvolved meant not actively
involved in high school district advisory committees, school site organizations such as Parent
Teacher Organization (PTO), School Site Council (SSC), et al., or any other regular parent
involvement activity. Interestingly, four of the parents interviewed were actively involved at the
elementary school, but not at the high school for the various reasons discussed below. The
participants included ten parents, one stepparent, and one legal guardian. Table 5 outlines the
characteristics of the participants, including the number of children they had at the time of the
study, grade level of their high schooler, and general demographic information such as race,
ethnicity, education, income, and age. The sample was predominately Latino or Hispanic, which
was statistically likely due to the demographics of the school population which was 75 percent
Latino or Hispanic and 15 percent Black or African American. Five participants, or 42 percent,
said their highest level of education was high school with another five participants indicating
college education. Of the remaining participants, one completed vocational school and one did
not state.

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Table 5
Parent Participants
2

Participants Type
Race or
Ethnicity
Education Income Age
# of
Children
Grade in
District
Brenda Parent Latino
Vocational
School
>$71k 41-50 3 11, 12
Nancy Stepparent Latino Bachelors >$71k 31-40 2 10
Hector Parent Latino Bachelors >$71k 31-40 2 10
Maria Parent Latino
High
School
<$30k 41-50 2 12
Ashley Parent Black Bachelors $30-$50k 51+ 2 9, 12
Claudia Parent Latino
High
School
$51-$70k 31-40 3 10
Juan Parent Latino Bachelors >$71k 51+ 2 11
Kevin Guardian Latino - - 26-30 1 10
Karla Parent Hispanic
High
School
$30-$50k 41-50 3 12
Susan Parent Hispanic
Some
College
$30-$50k 31-40 2 11
Rosa Parent Hispanic
High
School
>$71k 31-40 3 9, 11
Vincent Parent Hispanic
High
School
$51-$70k 51+ 4 10, 12

Finding 1: Parent s’ Understanding of Involvement
As noted in the review of the literature, definitions of parent involvement vary greatly.
Some scholars differentiate engagement from involvement while others use the terms
interchangeably (Ferlazzo, 2011; Gaitan, 2004). Through the interviews of this study, it was
determined that parents have their own understanding of what parent involvement entailed,
which has been broken out into two themes: 1) parent involvement at home and 2) parent
involvement at school.

2
Pseudonyms were used to protect the identity of the participants.
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Parent knowledge and motivation for involvement at home. When asked about parent
involvement, eleven out of twelve parents consistently gravitated to daily routines at home with
their children. On multiple occasions, parents linked their involvement to homework,
communication, and observation. Parents understood homework to be a significant component of
the daily routine. Ashley, a parent of a freshman and a senior, mentioned that as soon as she
picks her kids up from school, she asked about homework:
Well, I pick up my child from school and I immediately say, "Do you have homework?"
They say yes and I'm like, "Okay. What do you have homework in?" Math or reading and
English? Normally, when they get home from school, they're hungry, so they want a
snack or dinner. Then, after that, they immediately go into...after you finish your snack or
you eat dinner, then you go in to do your homework.
In this quotation, Ashley said she “immediately” asked about homework. She further stressed the
urgency and specified that after snack or dinner they were to “immediately” return to homework.
The repeated use of the word “immediately” suggested the weight of homework to her as a
parent as well as her role of ensuring that it was completed, which expressed a motivational
belief in both power to make a difference and value in her involvement. Similarly, Nancy, a
stepparent of a sophomore, described her routine after work with her stepdaughter in which
homework is a focus:
By the time I get home, she's already home and she's usually already had a small little
snack. And then, she's doing homework already. And then, she's pretty much waiting for
dinner. We have dinner. That's where we talk unless she happens to be done with
homework or wants a break, then she comes and she'll talk on her own before dinner. Or
we'll talk. And then usually after dinner, back to homework. Some days she's done pretty
PARENT INVOLVEMENT GAP

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fast and some days she has a lot. But she's really good at managing due dates and all that.
Then, shower and bed.
Nancy reiterated the significance of homework and brought up the notion of family time. Family
time is an important factor that affects a parent’s desire to be involved in their child’s education
and at school (Jasis & Ordoñez-Jasis, 2012). For Nancy, family time served as an opportunity to
communicate with her teenager in between homework. The discussion of daily routines, which
included family time, served as an example of how parents understood their role. Another parent,
Brenda, also discussed her routine with her children after she gets home from work:
One is already home when I get home. And one is usually at band practice. So after that,
once we're all there, then it's dinner, conversation about how the day went, or what's new.
That's usually pretty short. Any upcoming events, what's coming up, what's coming up
that we need to pay for. Lately the conversation's been about college and which one they
want to go to and what the future holds and what they want to do. They usually go to
their rooms later that evening and work on homework late into the night, unfortunately.
In this statement, Brenda reaffirmed the importance of family time as a means for her to peer into
the lives of her children through discussion, even expanding to what the future holds for them.
This suggested parents have designated this time as an element of the parental role. Additionally,
Brenda did not discuss her own involvement with homework when she said “they usually go to
their rooms later that evening and work on homework,” as some parents mentioned that they are
not able to assist their high schooler with homework. Given the nature of schooling and
complexity in curriculum at the secondary level, parents are often not as involved in this area
(Gonzalez-DeHass and Willems, 2003; Hoover-Dempsey, Bassler, and Brissie, 1992). Rosa, a
parent of a sophomore and a junior, described this exact problem:
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42
I just let them do their homework on their own. If they ask me for help, and most of the
time now, I cannot help them very much, I will see who I can call for their tutoring and
stuff like that to get them in there.
Rosa expressed the inability to assist with homework, but she did not give up. Instead, she shared
that she remained involved by finding a tutor. Rosa’s actions suggested a few important
concepts. First, she recognized an area she cannot help with due to limited knowledge, but
rectified this by actively seeking out support for her children. Second, she displayed an innate
sense of motivation despite a possible decrease in self-efficacy from not being able to help with
homework. Parents tend to have increased self-efficacy when they believe that they can help
their child succeed in school (Shumow & Lomax, 2002). Vincent, a father of four, also spoke of
his challenge in helping with homework:
The hard part is their homework, because the way we were taught when we were growing
up and the way they're taught is totally different. It's really hard to help them on certain
things. But I do help them when we can, both of us my wife and I do because we have
our kids in dual immersion classes since kindergarten, and my wife is able to help them
with the AP Spanish and of course I help with the English stuff.
According to Vincent’s experience, things have changed since he grew up and “the way they’re
taught is totally different.” He mentioned that he and his wife try to help in ways they can, such
as with Spanish, which keep them motivated to be involved. This sentiment was also apparent
with Claudia, as she mentioned that she has not helped with homework since elementary school,
but still checks in on her child. She stated that “the only thing I do basically is ask him how he's
doing as far as the classes and what he's doing in the classes. Getting in with helping him with
homework, I haven't done that since elementary.” Parents did not seem confident in their ability
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43
to help with high school homework, but they still placed importance on homework time while
also providing support in areas they felt they could.
Parents continued to define their role in their child’s education, often centering in areas
that they could help with. They also reinforced the motivation influence through their belief in
their ability to make a difference and valuing their involvement in their children’s education.
Juan epitomized this notion by describing his role:
I think my responsibility is to teach my son that his number one priority and job, you
could say, is to go to school. And that there is no debating that. I think I need to tell him.
And then I also need to eliminate all the barriers for him to be successful. Such as, if he's
taking on like statistics or any of this and now he needs $125 calculator, I need to go out
and buy it.
In this quotation, Juan stressed the importance of school by telling his son it is “his number one
priority and job.” Juan believed it was his role as a parent to ensure his student goes to school
while eliminating any barriers for his son, suggesting a motivational belief in the importance of
parents acting in such a capacity. This notion was not isolated, as Ashley stated that she assisted
by finding tutoring, transportation to the library, purchasing school supplies, and communicating
with the teacher. She stated:
I help them with their homework if they need it and get them extra help, like a tutor if
they need it. Take them to the library, get them books, get them school supplies.
Whatever they need to get a good grade in the classroom. If I need to talk, I talk to the
teachers during parent-teacher conference. How is my child doing? What kind of extra
credit can they get? Whatever they need.
Ashley emphasized that she would provide them “whatever they need” so that they “get a good
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grade in the classroom.” She articulated her understanding of a parent’s role while continuing to
imply motivation for involvement in those areas. Similarly, Hector, a parent of a sophomore, said
he utilized the tools available to ensure his daughter completed assignments. He said his role
included:
Verifying her work, her homework. Logging onto PowerSchool, verifying that she has
completed assignments. Just discussing her strategy in executing assignments and
managing her classes. So just following up with her.
Hector’s statement, “verifying that she has completed assignments,” demonstrated the value he
placed on his role in his daughter’s education. Even when parents can’t help their children with
the homework, simply “verifying” they had completed it goes a long way. He continued, stating
that it is a parent’s role to “supervise” the student at home, “making sure that the student is doing
homework.” Maria, a parent of two children, indicated that she liked to “have an hour, a specific
hour to do homework, to do reading. We like to eat together to talk about how the day was at
school.” By designating a specific time for homework and some family time to “talk about how
the day was at school,” Maria shared Hector’s concept of “supervising” her high schooler’s time.
The home role, which parents differentiated from the school role, included keeping their
children on-task with homework, communicating with them during family time, and fulfilling
any needs that they observed. Although parents described a limited ability to assist with their
high schooler’s homework, they recognized the importance of checking in with the student and
providing the resources necessary for them to be successful, suggesting they are motivated by
such roles, see value in their involvement, and believe that they have the power to make a
difference in their child’s education.
Parent knowledge and motivation for involvement at school. On numerous occasions,
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parents mentioned that a partnership between school staff, parents, and students was necessary.
Parents spoke of at-school roles for which they had knowledge of, which included assistance
with fundraising, participating in school events and organizations when possible, and generally
communicating with teachers, counselors, and staff. Some parents even mentioned aspirational
roles that they valued, such as school safety and accountability. Parents also described a
“partnership” at-school between themselves and school staff. Juan described such a partnership
but emphasized that the school needed to do their part while his role is to provide the resources at
home. He stated:
So, it's somewhat of a partnership, I need to eliminate the barriers, but then they need to
create the opportunities and the educational opportunities to advance to actually, okay, if
he has all this free time and has all the resources to get it done, well they need to give him
the education for him to spend all that time and resources, and not just waste his time and
by default waste the resources and the money and time, and all that stuff. So, they need to
step up their game if they want us to step up our game. So, that's kind of how we work
mutually.
In this statement, Juan acknowledged his role as a parent was to “eliminate the barriers” and to
provide his son with “all the resources to get it done.” He mentioned the school must “step up
their game if they want us to step up our game,” suggesting that he would take care of the home
if they take care of the school. Further, he separated the responsibility of his son’s education into
two categories. One is the parent’s role of providing resources, such as money and time, while
the other is the school’s role of providing academic opportunities.
Another parent, Ashley, felt that it was a parent’s role to hold the school accountable by
ensuring it offered superior education. She expressed the following when asked about a parent’s
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role: “well, the parent's role, I feel, is to make sure that the school is providing the best education
possible, especially compared to other school districts. I find that very important.” She
continued, suggesting that a parent’s role is a “50/50” relationship where “you try to meet them
halfway, if you can.” Ashley and Juan described their understanding of parent involvement and
linked it to providing resources for their children while also partnering with the school to “meet
them halfway.” This notion demonstrated conceptual knowledge, as they recognized a role
within the school structure, which requires their involvement in order to function (Krathwohl,
2002).
Parents expanded on their understanding of at-school roles. Claudia, a parent of a
sophomore, believed parents play an important role in fundraising:
I think in the area that we do help them with the fundraising, because I know funds for
special activities is very important. So we really push family members, friends, and get a
lot of donations so they can be able to do what they need to do with those activities.
Claudia expressed motivational value in her involvement with fundraising when she said “I
know funds for special activities is very important.” She actively chose to support the
fundraising goal, going as far as including family members and friends, pushing them to help. In
that statement, she demonstrated active choice, persistence, and mental effort, which are all
factors that affect motivation toward goal accomplishment (Clark, et al., 2004). Another parent,
Susan, mentioned the importance of parents being involved in Parent Teacher Association
(PTA), parent meetings, conferences, and related events while also communicating with
counselors and teachers. She voiced: “being involved with the school, at the PTA, parent
meetings, parent conference, and back to school night, and helping your child stay involved in
everything.” Susan demonstrated some knowledge of school functionality when she mentioned
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“parent meetings, parent conferences, and back to school night” as ways to play a role in
decisions at the school.
Parents also touched on other involvement areas. Rosa linked parent involvement at
school with safety. She believed a parent’s presence would help alleviate any potential bullying
and would demonstrate concern. She said:
If we want to make sure...like you hear there are fights and stuff like that, bullying, all
that stuff that's going on right now, I think we could get involved with school now. Like
go in there and show that we are concerned. Show our concerns. I think that would be the
most important role with the school because other than that, I think they pretty much have
it all down, as far as academically, I think more for safety reasons, we should be involved
when we hear things, see things on our kids phones, or stuff like that.
In this statement, she expressed aspiration for involvement when she said “I think we could get
involved with the school now” by showing “that we are concerned.” Further, she said that the
school “pretty much have it all down, as far as academically,” suggesting that the academic
realm belongs to school staff and thus entrusting the school to make those decisions and
lessening the perceived role of parents to other areas.
The notion of school safety was echoed by Ashley, as she believed a regularly involved
parent can assist with issues such as bullying, stating that parents “have to be pretty involved,
because you don't want your child getting into trouble with bullies and stuff.” The idea that a
parent’s presence is associated with a safer environment was not isolated. When asked what
types of roles the school should offer to parents, Brenda suggested a type of safety role where
parents would serve as an extra set of eyes. She stated:
I know this is going to sound weird, but I think it would be pretty cool to have ... I don't
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know what you would call it, with the elementaries they would be like noon duty staff.
And I wouldn't call it security, because you're not there to do any security measures, but I
don't know, maybe just ... I don't want to say hanging out either, you're not hanging out,
but just kind of walk the campus, and maybe be an extra pair of eyes for the high schools.
Think that'll probably give parents a chance to ... My kids would probably freak out like,
"Seriously, you're going to go to the school?" But I don't have to be standing next to
them, like yeah, why not, let me just take a look around, see how things are going, just be
that extra set of eyes. I think that would be interesting.
Similar to Rosa, Brenda expressed aspiration for a role around school safety, describing a
position she was familiar with from elementary school. Notably, in describing this role, she
referred to her primary school knowledge in an effort to describe possible opportunities for
parents at the high school level. It can be surmised that parents perceived value and held a belief
they can make a difference with such a role that they have been accustomed to during their high
schooler’s elementary days.
When asked specifically about a parent’s role at school, responses varied. Parents
discussed the role of communication, believing it was important for parents to know who to talk
to at the school should the need arise. Juan indicated that a parent should “be knowledgeable...at
least know the most important players in the school.” Continuing that idea, Hector said that
parents should “maintain communication and involve...to have that communication with the
student alongside with the school, I would say, is a high priority.” In addition to communication
with the school, Maria took it one step further, stating that it is important to attend meetings in
order to stay informed. She said she liked to “participate because there are a lot of good
information.” She displayed a willingness to increase her knowledge and valued the information
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she received from school meetings. Thus, parents stressed the importance of communication and
knowing who to contact as well as an interest and willingness to increase their knowledge by
attending school meetings.
Parents also discussed the desire for specific roles at school. Lack of meaningful or
desired roles influences the underutilization of parents in schools (Gallimore & Goldenberg,
2001). Ashley shared her experience when she signed up to volunteer, saying “they wanted us to
be the cafeteria workers and work in the cafeteria.” She emphasized her lack of interest in such a
role with an auditable “ugh.” Her statement represents weak motivation for involvement because
of the displeasure in the roles that were offered by the school. Parents had suggestions for more
interesting involvement opportunities. Brenda described her idea:
I think it'd be kind of nice to have the parents go in and just teach. If they have a special
talent or skill, I think it would be nice to have them come in and, not necessarily ...
Maybe assist the teacher, or just share that, maybe have some type of directory or
something that says, "Ms. So-and-so has ..." you don't have to say exactly what you do,
but just kind of give some background. "I have this," or "I know this," and this skill,
maybe go in and have an activity where parents could actually go in and show them. For
instance, if someone owned a restaurant or something, and they went in and maybe just
taught a simple cooking class, which I know they have a cooking class, but something
else, just to get inspired, and say, "This is how I started, this is what I did." The different
opportunities of different jobs that are out there. I think it'd be kind of nice to have the
parents go in and just teach.
She described using parents’ skills, background, and interests to get parents involved at school.
Brenda’s suggestion was also related to work in the education/academic sphere, rather than as a
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supportive role backstage. When individuals are interested in the task, engagement and
motivation is greater (Jasis Ordoñez-Jasis, 2012; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). reveals that parents
may be unaware of the opportunities available to them.
When asked about parent involvement in school or district decisions, parents had
concerns. Juan described parent involvement from the perspective of a teacher, stating: “‘Do we
really want to have them engage?’ That's a scary thing. ‘I don't want a parent to tell me what
science book to get.’ You have teachers that think that way.” When parents believe that their
presence is not desired by school staff, they are less likely to participate (Hoover-Dempsey &
Sandler, 1997). He continued, by suggesting that parent involvement in curricular areas may be
beneficial, as the district and parents will be held accountable to teachers in times of contention
or disagreement. He stated:
But I think you would...in the long run, would be very beneficial because parents,
whenever something is questioned or someone starts bad mouthing a district decision, I
think there's parents that would stand up and say "Wait a minute, you guys weren't part of
this for three months. We went through all this." So I think in the long run, it would help
the district.
In that statement, Juan presumed a sense of ownership when parents are involved in the decision
making process. Their involvement serves as a form of accountability and support in case of
contention against certain decisions, which would “help the district.” Further, Juan believed, at
least in theory, school leadership groups should have a parents’ perspective. He said:
I believe that parents should be given an opportunity for everything. I'm sure the school
has leadership, leadership committees a parent should be part of that. I think they should
be, when they're doing textbook adoption, I think a parent should be in that. I think pretty
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much everything. In every committee decision that ... or every standing committee that a
district has, a parent should probably be a part of that.
As demonstrated by Juan’s statement, he was not aware of some of the roles already available to
parents, such as public hearings for textbook adoption. As noted by researchers, parents are not
always aware of the opportunities available to them, suggesting a gap in knowledge (Deslandes
& Bertrand, 2005; Henderson & Mapp, 2002). In Juan’s case, he expressed motivation for
parents having “an opportunity for everything,” but displayed limited knowledge around school
functionality and actual roles available to parents.
Although most parents agreed that their involvement in decision making is important,
some shared the idea of tempering the scale of their decision making ability. When asked about
parent decision making, Kevin, a legal guardian of a sophomore, described the importance of
parents having a voice, but with limitations. He said:
I think there should be a voice, but I don't think it should be a strong voice, if that makes
any sense. I think whatever the Board of Education for the state or for the country,
whatever that is, I think they've done their job why they're at where they're at. And I think
their voice is loud enough. But I think you should be able to, as a parent... voice an
opinion here and there.
In his statement, Kevin communicated believing parents should “voice an opinion,” but not a
“strong” voice, suggesting that parents should be heard, but not have the final say. Further, in his
description of the “Board of Education for the state or for the country, whatever that is,” he
uncertainty of how a school is actually governed, which was common amongst the participants,
and thus implied a limited knowledge of school functionality. Regardless of who has the final
say, he appeared confident in their authority to make the final decision and did not see a strong
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role for parents in that process. Vincent indicated that parents may have divergent agendas.
When asked about parents’ involvement in decision making, he said:
I think that's a pro and con because you have your liberals, you have your Democrats, and
you have your Republicans, and you have your everything in between and everybody has
a different agenda, and what they want to see coming out of the school for the kids. And
to get everybody to come up with a simple agreement I think that makes it really hard.
Just like me at work, if I'm gonna do something for the employees I'm not gonna be able
to satisfy everybody so I try to satisfy the majority of the folks. But you're always gonna
get someone to complain about it, even if it's free ice cream for the site, why does it have
to be ice cream?
He contended that parents would not all agree on a solution and someone will always be left
unhappy with the decision. Divergent interests from various stakeholders can often cause
contention (Hahnel, 2014). Juan agreed with this idea, suggesting that parent involvement in
decision making is important, but the decisions they are allowed to make should be tempered and
parents should be educated before they can make higher level decisions.
Well it's important to make decisions, but there's different levels of decisions. Whether
you want to put a flower bed there or put it over there, I think that decision 100% a parent
can make and nothing, but I think when you're making decisions about, for, let's say
separation of church and state, should the kid be saying pledge of allegiance? Running
church groups in school or not et cetera, I think those kinds of decisions, it'd be scary to
leave 'em up to parents. I think a district should educate and train parents before they can
make decisions like that.
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His belief suggested limited confidence in parents’ abilities to make the more important
decisions affecting the students without a certain level of education or training. Such a mindset
was common amongst parents and served as a barrier to one’s efficacy.
Parents believed there should be regular involvement with the school and district. Claudia
contended that parents should attend district board meetings, stating “they should definitely at
least attend one of the board meetings a year.” Juan agreed with an annual timeline, but believed
parent opportunities are “tailored to parents at the school,” which suggested parents have a more
personalized experience at the school than the district. Hector suggested monthly involvement
with the district to “get a better understanding of what’s going on in the whole community or in
the district.” Despite these timelines, parents noted several barriers that impact their ability to
involve as regularly which are discussed in the third finding section. Interestingly, some parents
expressed emotion regarding their involvement. Claudia expressed embarrassment, stating: “I am
embarrassed of the fact that I haven't volunteered now at his high school level, or even junior
high. So I could be more present, I think that would be one of the things where I have fell
behind.” She indicated that she “could be more present” and is an area she “fell behind” in, thus
taking on the blame for her lack of involvement. Similarly, Maria said “when I don't go for some
reason, I feel bad.” The emotional response to parents’ perception of their own involvement
suggests some knowledge of their expected role at-school and indicates that they see value in
their involvement, despite recognizing their shortfalls.
Summary of finding 1. In the first finding, two distinct themes emerged: parent
involvement at home and parent involvement at school. On many occasions, parents described
daily routines that focused around homework, communication, family time, as well as observing
the needs of their children to ensure they are successful. Parents consistently reiterated the
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importance they placed on homework time and defined a supportive role around this pivotal task.
Additionally, communicating during family time served as an opportunity to peer into their high
schoolers’ life by asking them questions and checking in on them. This suggested a belief in
parents’ power to make a difference in their child’s education, albeit in a limited capacity.
Parents contended that they struggle to help with homework due to the difficulty in curriculum
and refined their role away from involvement in certain areas such as academics, instead
entrusting school staff with those tasks. This belief conflicts with local goals and state laws
which require parent involvement.
When asked about at-school roles, parents articulated aspirational desires for certain roles
at school, but continued to emphasize a separation between the role of school staff versus their
own in key areas such as decision making. They expressed a belief in parents being a part of the
process and having a voice, but in a circumscribed capacity. At school, parents expressed a sense
of partnership in that they saw their role as taking care of the home, while the school must handle
the academics. Some parents did expand into areas of fundraising and involvement in parent
meetings, but it was far less prevalent as most parents only discussed aspirational roles they
would desire, such as school safety, or thoughts on what they believed to be important for
parents to know at school, such as who to communicate with should the need arise.
In terms of this study’s research question related to parent knowledge and motivation for
involvement at the high school level, a number of influences are at play within this finding. In
the knowledge realm, parents understood their role as two parts: at home and at school, each with
differing responsibilities. The at home role focused on homework, family time, and providing
any resources that the high schooler may need. Parents viewed a limited role during homework
due to the complexity of the curriculum and instead described a limited supporting role. In
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contrast, parents believed in a non-academic and far less active role at the school, primarily
shaped around communicating with the teacher when necessary and attending school events,
such as back-to-school night. This understanding inhibits parents’ involvement in areas such as
academics, effectively limiting their role to areas they believe parents are responsible for or to
areas they believe they can actually assist.
Finding 2: Invitation to School
The second finding contains two distinct themes: power of direct invitation for school
involvement and methods of invitation. The first theme conveyed the power that direct invitation
can have on a parent’s motivation to involve. Specifically, the power that their high school
student has given the social stigma of teenagers not wanting their parents around them. The
second theme discusses the various methods of invitations used by the school that parents were
familiar with.
Power of direct invitation for school involvement. As stated by Deslandes and
Bertrand (2005), parent involvement at the secondary level is affected by student invitation.
More specifically, parents centered their motivation for involvement around their child’s
invitation. Juan described how powerful his child’s invitation is:
Well the times I felt like I haven't done a good job is when I know I should attend
something but I just don't. You feel guilty 'cause you didn't attend. 'Cause believe it or
not, I said I went yesterday but if my son wouldn't have insisted on me going, texting me,
'cause he's out of the country but he was texting me, sending me an email...I wouldn't
have gone. 'Cause I know, I know it's something that I coulda ... he coulda done when he
got back. Or it could've been later.
Similar to Claudia and Maria, Juan expressed an emotional response of “guilt.” In his case,
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however, he felt such guilt when he did not attend the school-based events that his son invited
him to. He admitted that, if it were not for his son’s persistence, he would not have gone.
Connecting this to the purpose of this study, Juan displayed knowledge of school events for
parents, but was primarily motivated to attend based on the direct invitation of his child. Brenda
also shared an emotional response when invited by her child, stating:
It makes me feel good to know that they want me there, you know? Where other kids shy
away from having their parents there, it's nice to know that they don't mind that I attend.
They want me to be there, and it makes me feel good.
She described her experience when she attended an event that her child invited her to,
emphasizing that “it makes me feel good” that they wanted her there. Thus, again, reinforcing the
linkage between parent motivation for involvement at school with perceived invitation from the
student in accordance with the findings of Deslandes and Bertrand (2005). This is further
exemplified by Ashley, as she stated: “I really feel proud as a parent. You're so honored and you
wanna help encourage their success and so, you wanna show up for them.” Ashley connected her
involvement to encouraging her child’s success, suggesting that she understood her role at school
as being supportive of her child and expressed feeling proud, which served as a form of
motivation for her involvement. The invitation from the student is especially powerful, as parents
linked it to a positive emotional response. According to the literature, the most influential factor
for parents to become involved with the school is invitation from their child (Deslandes &
Bertrand, 2005; Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). When asked if their child invited them to an
event, would they be more likely to attend, all parents agreed. Relative to this study, parents’
motivation for involvement can be significantly swayed by their student’s direct invitation.
Notably, parents believed that teenagers want their space, thus limiting their presence and
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involvement at the high school level. Karla opined, “I know I wouldn't want my mom going to a
field trip with a high schooler. I'd be like please. So maybe it's not that your child doesn't love
you, it's just that they want their space and you have to trust that they're going to be okay.” She
went on to describe it as “embarrassing,” revealing a social stigma attached to parental presence
at the high school level. Vincent shared his experiences with his oldest daughter at a school
sporting event: “I think my oldest daughter...the further away from me as possible at school, the
better. The football games, I'll take them to football, but okay you sit over at that end and I'm
gonna be over here.” Nancy viewed a necessary boundary to allow the student to develop with
independence. She stated:
There should be a boundary. Like I said earlier, you're not going to walk and hold her
hand the entire time so at this age, I think as a teenager, especially mine's a sophomore, I
think there has to be a balance of letting her have these certain experiences on her own,
let her figure things out on her own. I'm still there monitoring in the shadows type of
thing because I'd say, sophomore, two years from now, she'll be in college. She'll be on
her own. She'll really have to figure things out. So yeah, I don't think overwhelming them
with involvement. Sometimes they want to prove themselves too. They want to say hey, I
can do it. I did it already. Don't worry, I can do it.
Nancy’s statement, in connection to other high school parents’ experiences, suggested that
parents presume limitations on how often they should be around due to a social stigma. Nancy
encapsulated this predicament, describing it as a “boundary” where “there has to be a balance”
and let the student “figure things out” on their own. This self-imposed boundary impacts parent
involvement in high school. Claudia opined on the matter:
In my case, for example, my daughter's elementary this year. This incoming year, I'm
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gonna be the president for PTA. With him unfortunately, after junior high is when it
dwindled down and I stopped volunteering…I think as they get older, they become more
independent. You start kind of just letting them take care of everything. They don't
depend on you as much, so I noticed it in our case as well, that after elementary, once he
got to junior high, it was a lot less that I would be involved. I would see his grades, he
was doing great and that was good, but I wasn't involved in the school activities or
physically there.
She revealed that, at the elementary level, she was an involved parent serving as President of
Parent Teacher Association at her daughter’s school. She went on to describe her involvement at
school with her son, which progressively declined because “they don’t depend on you as much.”
Her role became limited to checking his grades to make sure he was doing well. Claudia’s
experience speaks volume, as she was a parent that had experienced the progression from
primary to secondary school, admitting that her involvement “dwindled down” to the point
where she only checked her high schooler’s grades. This is consistent with the literature, which
acknowledges a decline at the secondary level (Gonzalez-DeHass & Willems, 2003).
While Claudia implied that she was not invited by her older children to be involved, Juan
shared that he is invited just like when his child was in elementary school, noting that parents
that stop attending may have broken a unique relationship:
One thing I've learned from elementary all the way to high school, because my high
school student, he still invites me to events, which is interesting because he invites me
just like he did when he was in third grade. I guess it's because we always attended, so I
think we haven't broken that relationship. I think a lot of parents and their kids, they
break that relationship at some point. Middle school, whenever. But we tend to.
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When asked why he thought some parents break that relationship, he stated that parents begin to
rationalize that, as the child gets older, they no longer need their parents there.
I think it's misguided thinking into thinking that because the child is now older, they kind
of can use logic to determine that you know what? It's true my parents don't need to do
this, and they may verbalize that to their parent, because that's kind of what their parent
wants to hear. So, I think they start talking to the kids as if they're grownups or older,
because they are. But they don't realize that it doesn't matter how old they are, they still
need that cheerleader. They still need to know that their parent supports them. Because
what ends up happening is you stop going to your child's event, then the next year, your
child's not going to go. And before you know it, no one's goes to these events.
In his statement, Juan linked parent involvement to serving as a “cheerleader” for their child and
acknowledged that regardless of the age of the child, they still need that “cheerleader” to support
them. He understood a parent’s primary role is to serve as a “cheerleader” and not so much
around academics. As indicated by researchers, parents tend to develop roles based on their own
life experiences as well as other factors such as age (Jasis & Ordoñez-Jasis, 2012; Chrispeels &
Rivero, 2001; Lareau & Horvat, 1999). Maria, a non-native English speaker that often relied on
her daughter for information, described her experience. She said:
I think it's less because my daughter, sometimes, she give the information to attend a
meeting and she said, Nobody, it's okay if you cannot go…So sometimes it's difficult for
us because I think they don't want us to go but we have to go.
She revealed that she believed sometimes her daughter does not want her to attend events or
meetings. Continuing the idea of acting as a cheerleader, Maria linked parent involvement to
model behavior for her kids, stating that “if we are involved, they are going to be, I think, better
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in the school because if we don't participate, I think they are not be interest either in the school.”
She presumed that her involvement and participation affects her children’s interest in school. In
the context of this study, it can be construed that her motivation for involvement was to act as a
role model for her kids. She viewed her involvement at school as a positive behavior that she
should exemplify.
Evidently, parents valued student invitation, going as far as expressing guilt when they
were invited by their child, but did not attend. As described by researchers, direct invitation from
school staff or students can have a significant impact on parent involvement (Hoover-Dempsey
& Sandler, 1997). This suggests parents are motivated when invited by their child. However,
parents imposed a barrier on how often they should be around due to social stigmas and a
teenager’s need for independence. As it related to their own involvement, parents understood
their role as a form of “cheerleader” that supports their child through and through. In contrast,
state requirements and local goals require much more from parents, conflicting with the beliefs
of parents.
Methods of invitation. The second theme that emerged related to the finding of
invitation, was methods of invitation. Parents discussed a number of methods the school used to
invite them to events, such as robocalls, flyers, text messages, and emails. Brenda described the
school’s communication as “pretty open,” stating that “the flyers and the calls that I've received,
the emails I've received, they're pretty welcoming.” In relation to this study, Brenda’s experience
is positively aligned with the organizational influences of welcomeness and invitation. Some
parents expressed preferences for how the school invited them. Hector mentioned his preference
for phone calls. He stated “I do like the phone calls. I like the voicemails. I'm not receiving
emails. But the voicemails are fine because I can replay ... I can save it to my voice log and
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review it again.” He indicated that he had a preference, but did not mention if he had the ability
to choose how he was invited. Some wanted more. Kevin said phone calls are not enough,
stating:
More visuals, I believe, is key. I know you get phone calls and you get text messages.
You get emails here and there. Most parents in the inner cities don't really open emails,
right? But I think more visuals, whether it's on campus, whether it's on paper, whether ...
And I know through kids in high school, they don't ... You know, you get a piece of
paper, you throw it away, right? But it has to be something more like that. More banners?
Maybe banners as you're going through a big street.
In his statement, he believed in more visuals, such as banners, that are displayed in streets. He
described that parents “in the inner cities don’t really open emails,” suggesting some may be left
out depending on the means of invitation. Research has indicated that schools with high levels of
involvement have policies and resources allocated toward parent outreach (Epstein, 1984).
Summary of finding 2. Based on parents’ responses, direct invitation from their student
carries much weight for a parent’s motivation to attend at-school events. Parents seemed to rely
on their high schooler’s direct invitation as not to infringe on their independence, despite efforts
of the school to invite parents through other methods, which brings us to the second theme.
Parents discussed the various methods the school has used that they are familiar with. These
methods included robocalls, text, email, and mailers. Based on parents’ responses, it can be
surmised that direct invitation and the method of invitation matter. Policies related to how
parents are invited may need review, as parents shared preference for certain methods such as
phone calls and more visuals. As it relates to this study, parents are clearly motivated to be
involved at the school when directly invited by their high schooler. It can be inferred that direct
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invitation from school staff may also carry notable weight in a parent’s decision to attend.
Further, this suggests staff should encourage students to invite their parents to school or district
events, activities, workshops, et al.
Finding 3: Barriers to Involvement
The last and most notable finding of this study were barriers to involvement. This finding
had multiple themes including: 1) time constraints, 2) knowledge and confidence, 3) childhood
experience and culture, 4) language difference, 5) grade progression, 6) staff welcomeness and
training, and 7) policies. Each of these themes may serve as a barrier for parent involvement, as
they are perceived to encumber a parent’s ability to be regularly involved at school.
Time constraints. One-hundred percent of parent participants of this study shared that
time constraints inhibited involvement at school. A frequently mentioned barrier was parents’
work schedules. Brenda described this problem, stating: “I feel my role as a parent is to stay
involved, informed, as much as possible, because I am full-time, have a full-time job.” In her
statement, she understood her role as staying involved and informed, but clarified that because
she was employed full time, there were limitations. Similarly, Hector described the necessity for
a work/life balance, stating “I think because of the work/life balance, I think we do live in a
society where we just have to work and work and work. And we have so much juggling that's
going on.” He described a reoccurring theme in most adults’ lives – work. Nancy said that if her
work status was different, she would be more involved.
There's a lot to do. Work, you've got to go home, do dinner. And then, the hours after
work just fly by so fast. I would say that's a big component. Just time. I know if I were,
let's say, a stay at home mom or worked part-time, I would be more involved in the
school for sure.
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In addition to her work schedule serving as the biggest component of her time, she
acknowledged there were additional responsibilities outside of work, such as preparing dinner.
The notion that freeing herself from a full-time job would benefit her involvement ability was
relatable to the other participants. Juan mentioned that not all parents work a uniform schedule,
adding an additional challenge to the time constraint barrier. He said “I think a lot of
parents...they don't work traditional schedules, nine to five. And some parents are working two
jobs. So even though they may want to be involved, they can't.” He reemphasized work as a
barrier, especially in cases where parents must work two jobs, which is common in low income
areas. In addition to varying work schedules, parents have other familial obligations. Claudia, a
parent of a high school student and two elementary students, discussed her time constraint,
stating:
I think the time. Just the time. With having other family members to take care of and
being involved, especially in my case, I have little ones that are in elementary and that's
where most of my focus is. For me personally, that's the barrier. Spending more time
volunteering in another school is kind of time consuming with work and all that.
In her statement, she described a self-imposed barrier, choosing to focus the limited time she had
on her younger children, suggesting she placed more value on her involvement at younger ages.
Most parents expressed similar opinions due to time constraints because of work schedules,
family obligations, and the need for personal time.
Despite parents’ displaying some knowledge of their role at school, time-related barriers
were shown to limit parents’ availability and pose as a challenge for the school to incorporate
everyone within an ideal timeframe. When asked about her role at school, Brenda said “I think
attending school activities, as many as I can. Usually after my work hours, so it’s any evening
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activities.” She automatically connected her availability to attend school activities around her
work hours, stressing the effect works hours have on parent involvement. When asked about low
attendance at school and district events, she said the timing and location were also a factor:
Sometimes I think it's the time, and maybe the location, or they just get the information
too late. I'm trying to think what my reason is, because obviously I want to attend a
meeting and then ... I don't make it a priority; I think is what it is. Because I'm sure I can
make it, I just ... Something else comes up and I'll take that. I don't know.
Brenda indicated that the time, location, and timeliness of the invitation were all likely factors
for parents to attend. She acknowledged that she often intended to attend, but did not make it a
priority. In relation to this study, her statement showed awareness of involvement opportunities
but suggests a greater barrier, other than time, related to motivation and active choice (Clark, et
al., 2004), as she did not “make it a priority” to attend. Parents continued to discuss the timing of
events. Maria said that the time of the event may be “too early or too late for them” as a result of
work schedules. Karla said, “I know in my case if a meeting is at 6:30 and I’m off at 4:00, I’m
not gonna go to that 6:30 meeting. If they’re at 5:00, I will go to that meeting.” She asserted that
if the timing is inconvenient, she would not attend the meeting, highlighting the importance
scheduling had on her involvement. Claudia indicated that dinner time plays a role. She said that
“most parents are working parents and time, also the timing as far as after school and dinner
time. There’s always different reasons why we can’t attend.” She continued, saying that “I have
been to some that they provide food and that helps a lot, especially if its during dinner time. We
just grab something there.” Claudia’s experience suggested meals at events can be helpful for
encouraging involvement.
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Given the parents’ time constraints, the scheduling of events are significant. Brenda
described her experience around a particular event that they were unable to attend due to short
notice. She said, “It was kind of last-minute so I told my husband, I'm like, ‘you should go to
this,’ but we found out a little too late so he wasn't able to make it.” She suggested that having
advanced notice by sending out an event calendar would help her schedule around time
constraints. This implied that she does not always receive enough notice to plan for school or
district events, thus inhibiting her involvement. Ashley continued this notion, stating that parents
“don’t know when the district meetings are” and that “they need to do better at getting that
information out to the parents.” From her perspective, parents are not receiving invitations from
school staff. She had some recommendations to get the word out:
Now I don't know if there's a website or we have this big, gigantic sign that you can see
whenever you get off the freeway. They show the foods and whatever upcoming events.
Advertise it there. ‘School district meetings, Thursday at 7:00 to all parents...please
come. We'd love to have you.’ Maybe refreshments served after. I don't know, but that
advertisement needs to get out there. Do a robo-call. I don't get robo calls. I get robo calls
for other stuff, but get that information out to the parents. You have to do flyers. Do an
email, do text messages, but we don't know.
She recommended the school or district advertise on billboards and utilize flyers, email, and text
messages. She emphasized that parents “don’t know” when the meetings are, suggesting the
school needs to “do better at getting that information out to the parent.” Ineffective invitation by
school staff (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001) in addition to limited parent knowledge of school
or district meetings (Henderson & Mapp, 2002) serve as a barrier for involvement and stress the
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significance of staff invitation through forging direct connections to develop such knowledge and
awareness (Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2010).
Given these responses, it can be inferred that time constraints inhibit parents’
involvement at school. They described a struggle between work schedules and the bustling of
life, including familial obligations. Although they suggested that they valued their involvement,
the universal problem of not having enough hours in the day impacted their capacity. This
stresses the significance of policies related to how and when the school or district schedules
events, if certain resources such as food or translators are provided, and ensuring parents are
informed ahead of time to allow for planning.
Knowledge and confidence. Parents displayed limited knowledge of district goals and
related functionality. When asked about the district goals, none of the participants could cite a
specific goal. Some parents attempted to answer while others indicated they could not. One of
the parents that attempted an answer, Susan, said “I guess to try to get kids to do good and
prepare them for college and get them out of high school.” Her response was the closest to one of
the district’s actual goals of preparing students for college. However, when asked how the
district creates the goals, she said “I guess the school district, superintendents, everybody.”
Further, when asked to describe the role of school board, she said could not. Hector, when asked
the same question, said “I don’t think I can.” Their responses conveyed uncertainty and
suggested a knowledge gap in terms of school district functionality, specifically related to district
goals and governance. This was consistent with other parents, as Nancy was asked who creates
the district’s goals and responded “I don’t know.” When asked how the district accomplishes its
goals, she stated “I would say reviews, maybe audits. I don’t know either.” Parents were able to
generally describe the hierarchy of a school district. Brenda described the principal as
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“overseeing the teachers and the staff.” Other parents were able to assume the hierarchy of the
district, although not expressly. This suggested parents have some understanding of how a
school district functions, but not enough to understand how goals are developed.
Because of the gap in knowledge, parents described varying levels of confidence in their
ability to participate in school decisions. As indicated by the literature, individuals will have little
desire to participate when they have limited belief in their abilities (Bandura, 2000) or feel they
have limited knowledge to be of help (Hoover-Dempsey, et al., 2005). Rosa exemplified this by
describing a lack of self-efficacy, stating “I think, again, for most parents it would be a lack of
knowledge and background. Not having an education, so we’re kind of hesitant.” Her statement
embodies insufficient confidence in her ability due to a perceived lack of knowledge or skills.
She continued, stating “I don’t think we should feel that way because we do get a lot of support.”
She acknowledged that there was support available, which is offered through parent workshops.
The acknowledgement of support suggests an awareness of resources available to parents that are
perhaps underutilized. However, her underlying motivation for not involving or taking advantage
of such support remained when she said, “I don’t think I can help make anyone make a better
decision when it comes to education…I don’t think we know better because we’re not there.”
Her statement reinforced the notion that a parent’s role remained at home and suggested a
limited belief in her power to make a difference at school. Claudia, a parent that was involved at
the elementary school but not the high school, had similar assertions, stating “I think a lot of the
parents don’t have enough knowledge to make those decisions.” She continued, “there's a lot of
crazy parents. I'm sorry for the word, but I hope that we can have a say, but overall I think the
school board and the superintendent, they're the ones that should make the final decisions on
things.” She suggested that some parents are unfit to be a part of that process, entrusting those
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decisions to school leadership instead and reinforcing a lack of motivation due to a belief that
parents are unqualified.
Parents displayed a gap in knowledge in certain areas, such as goal creation and district
governance. Although, they were able to generally describe the hierarchy of a school district,
their limited knowledge in certain areas implied insufficient confidence in their abilities to make
a difference at-school. Even though some parents recognized that support is available to improve
knowledge and skills, they projected comfort in entrusting school officials with decision making,
effectively deferring those roles. The lack of confidence in their perceived abilities serves as a
barrier and thus affects their motivation for involvement at-school.
Childhood experience and culture. Parents’ culture and childhood experience served as
an additional barrier to involvement. According to the literature, parent involvement in school
settings can be dependent upon the family’s race, ethnicity, heritage as well as the child’s age
(Berkowitz, et al., 2017). Nancy shared her experience growing up:
My dad was really involved with me and just by seeing other friends around me. One of
my best friends, actually, she was a complete opposite. Her parents were just scared of
anything that had to do with school. They didn't want to be involved. They would even
have her come to my dad and say she needed help. And just seeing the effects of that...
The parents who were involved, they would get better grades. They would just do better
overall. There were some that were good if they could do it all on their own. And then,
usually most of the time the ones that were on their own just ... If the parents weren't
involved, they didn't do so well.
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She noticed a difference between involved parents and uninvolved parents in terms of their
children’s academic performance. She also recognized that fear was a factor for her friend’s
parents. When asked why, she stated:
They were just ... I think what their background was is they didn't have much schooling
growing up. They were born in El Salvador and maybe the highest grade level they
completed was maybe some high school. But it was just, I know from stories in El
Salvador. It's just so different. School wasn't important back then. So I think they ... I
don't know. The whole school process, it really, really scared them…Just different
cultures especially if they were born in another country and they don't understand
schooling here. A lot of them if they come from impoverished areas in other countries,
school isn't important at all. So coming here, then it's this whole ... They know school is
important but then actually seeing how complex it is here and how the schools have
gotten better at staying on top of the kids. I think it's intimidating for them. Yeah, because
of their backgrounds, because of where they come from, and how they were raised.
Nancy implied that fear of the unknown was intimidating and parents’ own experiences in other
countries served as a barrier to involvement, as they may have a limited understanding of
schooling here. She continued, suggesting that some parents bridge their own experiences from
childhood into parenthood:
I do know some parents that just their experiences, I feel like when they were kids they
just feel like it should be the same ... Their childhood, they were just on their own. And
they turned out okay so they don't feel like they don't need to be involved because they're
going to do the same thing that they went through during their childhood.
In her statement, she described other parents’ experiences where they “were just on their own”
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and because they “turned out okay,” they justify limited involvement. Consistent with the
literature, parents may develop their role at-school based on their own childhood experiences or
cultural background. This is significant, as parent involvement is increasingly expected and
required, yet parents may be unaware of this expectation or unmotivated due to their own
experiences. Hector described his challenge by stating:
For me, I was never brought up in that type of environment where my parents went to
school or checked and followed up with the teacher. So now I have to force myself to do
it. So I think that's also an important factor that since I'm showing my daughter, following
up with you, she's going to go ahead and continue that in the next generation.
He forced himself to be involved, showing he placed value on his efforts. His belief in the value
of his involvement cultivated his motivation, effecting his self-efficacy (Pajares & Urdan, 2006).
Another parent, Vincent, had a similar childhood. He said “I don’t remember my parents being
involved when I was in school other than taking me to school and driving me home.” When
asked about it, he said:
I think language has a big part of it, but I think it’s more their culture of how they…their
culture is strict one way and so you don’t really participate in school activities because
you’re focused on taking care of the home.
Vincent acknowledged that language plays a factor, but believed culture has a greater influence.
Although parent involvement is mandated, research indicates that there are disproportionate
involvement levels of Latino parents (Jasis & Ordoñez-Jasis, 2012; Gordon & Norcon, 2008).
Given this and the responses from parents, culture may serve as a barrier for involvement along
with parents’ own childhood experiences with their parents’ approaches to involvement.
Language differences. When discussing barriers to involvement, language was
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frequently mentioned. The Beachside Union High School District has a population of
approximately 72% Hispanic with about 20% classified as English Language Learners.
According to the literature, English language learners are the largest growing subgroup in the
United States and whose parents typically face unique barriers for involvement, such as
language, cultural norms, or unfamiliarity with school systems (Arias & Morillo-Campbell,
2008). Language serving as a possible barrier was mentioned in every interview, with several
parents indicating that non-English speaking parents relied on someone else, such as their child,
for translation. Although a translator was not used in this study and this study only sampled
English speaking parents, participants were asked if they knew of and could describe the
experience of non-English speaking parents. Nancy responded:
I do know parents that don't speak English…So the mom has a daughter in high school
now and she has an older 21 year old daughter. And so, the 21 year old daughter just does
everything on behalf of the mom. The mom just ... She uses her as her way to be
involved, I guess. But she'll go with her to the events. So it will be the mom and the sister
all the time together at the high school…. I mean, she can manage some things on her
own but she really relies on the older daughter.
In her statement, she described a mom that greatly relies on her eldest daughter to translate for
her. This establishes a sort of third-party that filters the information that the mom receives from
the school, possibly effecting her knowledge and awareness of her role at school. Additionally,
she mentioned that the daughter goes with the mom to the school, which may suggest she is not
comfortable going on her own, as she “really relies on the older daughter.” Moreover, she
indicated that she knew of other “Spanish speakers that won’t attend meetings” because of the
language barrier. Claudia shared a similar notion, stating “I think the majority of parents do
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speak Spanish and they kind of look to other parents that they know to get answers. Especially
when they get older, then they definitely solely rely on the child, which usually speaks English.”
Her statement reinforced the reliance Spanish speakers have on their child and other bilingual
parents to translate the information for them, again creating a filter that may limit what they are
informed of, consequently affecting knowledge of their role. Juan was a parent that was relied
upon by other parents. He shared:
We have family friends where they're always calling me whenever 'cause their son is in
the same grade level as my son. So a lot of the events or a lot of the invitations are for
similar events. But I notice that they don't get as involved or they don't ask as many
questions because all they need to do is show up and with their presence, as far as they're
concerned, they've already fulfilled their obligation. So they don't ask questions and
sometimes they even call and say and ask us if we could get the information for them.
In this statement, he illustrated his experience with parents that do not speak English and rely on
him to transfer the information. He stated that, when they do show up, those parents feel they
“fulfilled their obligation” by being present, but perhaps not engaging in the event. As it relates
to this study, it seems Spanish speaking parents are not being effectively engaged, as “they don’t
get as involved or don’t ask as many questions” as a result of the language barrier. This may also
suggest limited encouragement by staff to support Spanish speakers directly. However, Rosa
spoke of her recent experience at a college preparation meeting for parents, and in so doing,
contended that language shouldn’t be seen as a barrier for parents. She shared:
I just went to a meeting for my junior at school and they were talking about their grades
and preparing them for college, already, and they had someone translating there. So I
don't see why that would be a barrier either. It was an empty room. There was not that
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many parents, unfortunately. And I did expect that. And it's sad because if they're willing
to help us and take the time and they're having someone translate, I don't see why we
wouldn't go.
In her statement, she described that even though translation services were offered, not many
parents attended, suggesting other reasons for lack of attendance. She stated that she expected
low attendance, but she cannot “see why we wouldn’t go.” From her statement, it showed that
school policy is supporting Spanish speakers by offering translation, but there was still a lack of
attendance, perhaps suggesting knowledge or motivation is the problem. Juxtapose, Ashley, an
African-American mother, shared her opinion on having a translator at meetings:
One pet peeve I have, I would make more meetings, is that they always have to have an
interpreter, which takes a long time. To me, I don't really need an interpreter because
when the person who's speaking English, it seems like all the parents understand. So then
I'm like why do you need to repeat it all Spanish?
She went on to suggest that Spanish speaking parents should “learn English.” This notion
constitutes a divergent perspective on an effort of rectifying a need of translation for Spanish
speaking parents. Her displeasure with having a translator repeat the meeting twice seemed to
serve as a de-motivational force for her, as it makes the meeting longer. This suggests school
policy should consider the affects a translator may have on English speakers and should explore
alternative methods for translation, such as headsets.
Language was a consistent barrier that was mentioned by all parents. Parents believed
that language served as a limitation for parent involvement, with many relying on their children
or other bilingual parents for translation of the information. This is problematic, as the
information is filtered through a third-party, affecting what Spanish speaking parents actually
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receive and understand. Two parents noted that translation was available, with one expressing
frustration and one noticing that no one showed up. Because translation was available, this
suggests a knowledge or motivation gap amongst Spanish speaking parents or an unawareness
that translation services are offered by the school and district.
Grade progression. Parents perceived high school as more difficult to get involved than
elementary school, noting a difference in how they are invited and the types of opportunities that
exist. Vincent, who is active at the elementary level, described his experience:
I know in grade school it's so easy to get involved, middle school is a little harder and
then high school, even though the kids don't want you around them all the time, dad
you're embarrassing us, but I still like to talk to teachers and see how my kids are
doing…High school, I don't get involved as much because I don't know what needs to be
done. I mean a lot of stuff that's going on is during the day, and a lot of my day activities
that I take time off of work is to help middle school and grade school, or elementary
school.
He reaffirmed student invitation plays a role. He said when he did take time off, he focused his
availability on his children in elementary and middle school, again suggesting that parents
perceive more value in their involvement with their younger children, which is consistent with
the literature (Hoover-Dempsey, Bassler, & Brissie, 1992). Further, Vincent indicated that he
does not “know what needs to be done” at the high school level and faces the “embarrassing”
social stigma surrounding parents around teenagers. Research indicated that parent involvement
at the secondary level tended to decline due to a number of factors, such as tension from
adolescents, complexities of high school, and opportunities not being as apparent (Gonzalez-
DeHass & Willems, 2003; Simon, 2000), which all serve as a barrier for involvement. Other
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parents indicated that, due to its structure, high school was different. Rosa described her
experience, noting that in elementary school “they don’t have eight different classes.” For her, it
was easier to focus on one teacher, “and now its seven different teachers.” The number of
teachers at the high school level was also seen as a barrier. When asked about the relationship
with her high schooler’s teachers, Claudia described it as “no relationship. Other than when you
meet them there for the back to school night, after that there’s really no relationship.” She went
on to say “now with the different teachers, it’s harder. I don’t know if it’s because they have so
many students as well.” Based on those responses, it seems an organizational barrier existed, as
having to connect with seven teachers or over 150 parents was seen.as a challenge. Further, the
notion that “no relationship” exists between the parent and the teacher is significant, as parent
involvement is influenced by staff welcomeness and invitation.
When asked about the difference between elementary and high school, Karla stated, “at
elementary school they have field trips, they have making copies for the teacher and it's a
different ball game when you hit high school.” Her statement revealed an awareness of the
opportunities available at elementary school, but she did not describe any at the high school level
other than calling it “a different ball game.” In the context of this study, a limited awareness of
the opportunities available coupled with the social stigma likely affects parent involvement at the
high school level. When asked about the key difference between elementary and high schools,
Brenda said “there's not as many activities during the day that actually involves the kids. It's
more so meetings, or meetings with staff or other parents.” Brenda perceived a different
environment for parents at the high school that consisted of “meetings” and fewer activities that
“actually involves the kids.” Brenda’s statement implied an interest for more parent involvement
activities focused around the students rather than informational meetings. This indicated that
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parents may be motivated to be involved at school should the school designate more
parent/student involvement opportunities. Another key point related to methods of invitation
between elementary and high school. Claudia described her experience:
So elementary was more...I would get the flyers of what needed to get done and I would
be on it. For high school, he just tells me, I took care of this or we did this or I just need
you to sign here. Now it's different, he just asks for my signature and that's it.
Her statement revealed an additional perspective of what parent involvement at high school is
understood to be; consisting only of her child just asking for a signature whereas she used to get
flyers for events during elementary years, implying lack of encouragement or invitation from
school staff and instead the student controls the invitation.
Consistent with the literature, parents noticed a change in their involvement as their child
progressed through school systems. In addition to the social stigma attached to teenagers, parents
noticed that it was more difficult to get involved at the high school, particularly due to a lack of
awareness of what needs to get done. This implied a gap in knowledge related to the
opportunities that exist at-school as well as inadequate staff invitation. A part of the problem was
the number of teachers that high schoolers have, making it more difficult for both teachers and
parents to forge connections. Further, parents described involvement opportunities as mostly
focused on meetings, lacking a student component. This suggests more desired roles need to be
offered, reaffirming the previously discussed notion that parents are more motivated to attend
when their student is present.
Staff welcomeness and training. Aside from student invitation, invitation from staff is
considered to be an influential factor for parent involvement (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler,
1997). If parents did not feel welcomed by school staff, their motivation for involvement at the
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school would be affected. Some parents described mixed experiences when they interacted with
school staff. Brenda described her experience, stating:
I think it could just be the teacher sometimes. I know I've reached out to a teacher and
said, "I can do this, or provide this and this," along with another parent, same thing, and
there was no response. I was like, really? We're willing to give you our time and our
skills, and what we have to offer. That was like, okay. It was interesting…
Brenda took the initiative to offer her time, but received no response from the teacher. When
asked why she thought she did not get a response, she thought “maybe fear we're going to take
over the program or something, I don't know.” Staff fear of reduced authority due to parent
involvement serves as a barrier (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). Ashley described a similar
experience. She generalized the responses she had received from teachers, stating “as the kids get
older, the teachers are like ‘we don’t need your help, we don’t need a room parent, you don’t
have to volunteer.’” These parents described experiences that conveyed a gap in staff
encouragement, welcomeness, and invitation, thus affecting their motivation for involvement.
When parents were asked if school staff should be trained on parent involvement, all
participants agreed that there should be some amount of training. Brenda opined that new
teachers need training that is unique to their community: “If it's a new teacher coming into the
community, they need to know what kind of parents they're dealing with and how to talk to
everyone, and how to talk to the parents of the community that you're working in.” This is
significant since every school is different and may service a wide range of demographics. The
BUHSD has a notable population of English language learners, which school staff are not always
trained to effectively support (Arias & Morillo-Campbell, 2008). Kevin opined that staff should
be trained “as much as possible I believe…let's say a teacher in high school has eight classes, 30
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kids per class. You get 60 parents at best, that's 60 different characters or personalities you've got
to deal with per class. You need as much training as possible in just dealing with parents.” The
notion that staff need to understand the community they are interacting with is significant,
especially in order to achieve a deeper level of involvement from parents and suggests the need
of staff in-service that is tailored to the community that is being served. Juan connected staff
training with a deeper level of involvement from parents. He stated:
I think a lot of administrators themselves don't know what it is they're asking for. 'Cause
again, it goes back to involvement versus engagement. If you want them to come and
help you clean the yard that's one thing, but to be involved in the decision making
committee, that's tougher. But I think that you should work, you should work ... the goal
should be to increase it to regularly…whatever that means, once a week et cetera.
Juan opined that staff may not understand what they are asking for, emphasizing that there are
different levels of involvement that are asked of parents and in order to achieve a deeper level of
involvement, staff need to be trained regularly. According to the literature, staff training helps
develop trust and establishes collaborative relationships (Henderson & Mapp, 2002). Juan’s
statement in conjunction with the literature displays the importance of training staff on parent
involvement in order to build engaging relationships, which leads to improving parents’
knowledge and thus their motivational efficacy.
Policies. School policies can act as a barrier for involvement, as schools with high levels
of involvement have policies that are supportive of community partnerships (Epstein & Sheldon,
2002; Chavkin, 1995; Epstein, 1984). Some parents described barriers that they faced when
attempting to be involved at the high school. Maria described her experience, stating:
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I didn't have some paper they asked me for and so I didn't volunteer for that reason, so
that's why…I think, parents when sometimes they don't volunteer for the same reason,
because some, they don't understand something.
Due to a missing document and not fully understanding the process, she chose not to volunteer,
saying “it’s okay.” Maria acknowledged that a knowledge gap existed, as parents “don’t
understand something.” When she said “it’s okay,” she gave up trying to volunteer, thus
affecting her mental effort caused by the lack of confidence in the process. Further, this suggests
the volunteer policies and procedures may have not been clear, serving as a barrier. Ashley
described her experience with the volunteer policy:
It's a deterrent, and it takes time. When I went they had provided all of that, so it was
free. They brought in the finger printer person and then they brought in the TB test
people 'cause you have to have your TB test and you have to be fingerprinted, and then
you have to wait two days and go back and get your TB results. Yeah, and then you take
all that information back to the people and then they call you and say, "Okay, well we
need you to volunteer in the cafeteria." You're like okay...or to be security guards, watch
the kids, make sure they go from class to class with no problems. They'll give you a vest
and a whistle.
She labeled the policy as a “deterrent” for parent involvement. Further, she suggested displeasure
in the roles available to her after having completed the lengthy process. Research indicates that
school policies have an impact on involvement and can vary well inhibit parent participation
(Epstein & Sheldon, 2002; Chavkin, 1995). The school also requires identification in order to
visit the campus. Ashley considers this policy a “frustrating” barrier. She said “they gotta
understand that they're creating some of the barriers for the parents. That driver's license one is ...
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You know me. You know my kids. I know you.” Her comments suggested some parents view
the policy as unwelcoming, which serve as a “deterrent” for parents to want to come on campus.
She also shared that “they've also implemented a rule that if you have younger kids, you can't
bring your younger kids. That's another way where you can't really volunteer either.” As
previously discussed, many parents have other familial obligations such as taking care of
younger children. Those in such situations may be unable to be involved at the high school due
to this policy, effectively serving as a barrier.
In suggesting policies to support parent involvement, Juan suggested starting with what
you already have.
I would start with things that are already happening. I mentioned school site council. We
have a lot of school site councils and the policies are very pro-parent, however in practice
a lot of times because the administration doesn't trust the parents or doesn't think they can
do it, I think they get too involved that they end up running the meeting as opposed to
parent. So I would make sure that the policy that I would, would be to change words from
may to must, parents must run the meeting. You must provide training for them to do
that. And I would begin with what you already have, instead of trying to create new tasks.
He perceived a lack of trust between those that run the meetings and suggested strengthening the
policy to train parents to lead the meeting. When parents believe their involvement is desired and
role is meaningful, they are more likely to participate regardless of their perceived self-efficacy
(Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997).
Summary of finding 3. The last finding encompasses the barriers parents perceived to
inhibit their involvement, including time constraints, knowledge and confidence, childhood
experience and culture, language difference, grade progression, staff welcomeness and training,
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and policies. Together, these themes depict the reasons parents believed they were unable to be
regularly involved. The most repetitious barrier was time constraints, in which parents described
motivation to be involved at school, but because of work schedules and other obligations, they
could not. They also discussed how important the time of the event was as well as having
advanced notice. Parents also expressed varying levels of confidence in their ability to make a
difference, which served as a barrier for their involvement due to the lack of self-efficacy caused
by a perceived lack of knowledge and skills.
Other barriers included parents’ own childhood experience and culture. Several parents
stated that they believed that the actions of one’s own parents in terms of involvement at school
influenced how involved they will be as a parent. This barrier, as it relates to this study, suggests
parents form their knowledge and motivation for involvement based on their own childhood
experiences, creating a gap in the expectations of today. Additionally, language was known to
serve as a barrier, as parents described the experiences of non-English-speaking friends who rely
on their bilingual counterparts or children for information, effectively filtering the information
that they receive which may affect their understanding of their role at school.
Parents also viewed their child’s progression through grades as a barrier, stating that it
gets harder as they get older. Including the social stigma attached to a teenager’s desire for
independence, parents noted that it was also harder because there are more teachers involved and
the types of involvement opportunities are not as apparent as they are in elementary school. They
perceived high school opportunities to be more focused around meetings rather than the students.
Altogether, this suggests a need to refocus and to to better center opportunities around parents’
interests.
Lastly, parents discussed welcomeness, staff training, and policies. Parents described
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some at-school interactions where they did not feel welcome, partly due to school polices related
to safety acting as a deterrent. All parents agreed that staff should be trained on parent
involvement since they service a wide range of demographics unique to each school. As
indicated by the literature, supportive and transparent policies is linked to greater involvement
levels.
Solutions and Recommendations
The purpose of this study was to examine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational
influences related to parent involvement in the Beachside Union High School District using the
Clark and Estes (2008) Gap Analysis Framework. Through qualitative interviews, parents
described their understanding of a parent’s role, discussed potential barriers for their
involvement, and shared suggestions that they had for improving involvement. The examination
of parents’ understandings and perceptions served as the first step in answering the questions
sought by this study, which were:
1. What are uninvolved parents’ knowledge and motivation as it relates to their own
involvement at the high school level?
2. What is the interaction between the school or district’s culture and context and
uninvolved parent knowledge and motivation for involvement at the high school level?
3. What are the recommendations for the district’s parent involvement efforts in the areas of
parent knowledge and motivation as well as its own organizational resources and
policies?
As discussed in the findings section, parents limited their role at school which conflicts
with the district’s involvement goal as well as state-recognized priorities. Figure 3 depicts a
visual representation of where the parents of this study are and where we want them to be. As
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such, this section will discuss steps that should be taken in an effort to reach the full continuum
and is organized into two topics. First, the recommendations for practice to address the KMO
influences will be presented. Second, the recommendations for future research will be made.

Figure 3. Parent involvement continuum scale.
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge recommendations. As outlined in Table 6, there were two forms of
conceptual knowledge influences assumed to affect parent involvement. Conceptual knowledge
includes knowledge related to principles, theories, and structures of a particular subject (Rueda,
2011; Krathwohl, 2002). When stakeholders are unaware of their expected role, a gap in
knowledge exists (Clark, et al., 2004), affecting the organizational goal. This section will discuss
the two conceptual knowledge influences in terms of this study’s findings.
The first conceptual knowledge influence was that parents need knowledge and
awareness of district goals, their expected role within the district, and the significance thereof.
Based on the interviews with 12 uninvolved high school parents, parents had varying definitions
of what their role entailed, no knowledge of district goals, and a limited understanding of school
district functionality. Parents described separate roles at-home and at-school. The at-home role
focused on supporting their high schooler by ensuring they had the resources needed for
homework and acting in a supervisory capacity to keep them on-task. The parents described their
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understanding of their role at-school to generally include maintaining communication with the
school, knowing what is going on, and acting as a “partner.” Some parents also showed
awareness of other opportunities, such as fundraising and parent meetings as well as an
aspiration for certain types of roles that they would desire at-school. However, in discussing a
parent’s role in the decision-making process, many parents recommended temperament, instead
deferring those roles to school staff, especially when related to academic decisions. Although
parents expressed value in their involvement, this deferral was a result of a belief that parents do
not have enough knowledge to make those decisions.
The second conceptual knowledge influence was that parents need knowledge of general
school district functionality. From the interviews, parents expressed a limited understanding of
school district functionality, primarily related to governance and accountability. Several parents
skipped the question or indicated that they could not answer. Moreover, parents were unable to
describe how the district’s goals are created, which conflicts with the intent of the LCAP process
where goals are established and reviewed. Regarding decision making, parents were comfortable
deferring power to school officials. Generally, parents believed the most important thing for
them to know related to school functionality was whom to contact should the need arise. This
served as an implication, as the district’s Local Control and Accountability Plan requires their
involvement in school decision making and goal creation.
As a result, the recommendation is to develop a learning community for parents that
progressively supports their learning of necessary information that is aligned to school district
goals and parents’ expected roles, as outlined in Table 6. Such a learning community would
include a formalized program geared toward teaching parents how to support and advocate for
their students as well as helping them to understand the roles expected of them by state and local
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goals. Learning communities of this nature have been branded as “parent universities” and have
been implemented in a number of California school district as a result of LCFF/LCAP (Weld, S.,
2014). Additionally, parent knowledge of district goals and their expected roles would support
their knowledge of school functionality. Yough and Anderman (2006) suggest that the design
and implementation of parent-tailored learning tasks that are novel, varied, interesting, and
reasonably challenging are ideal for promoting knowledge mastery in these areas. As such, a
possible strategy is the creation of a learning community for parents that progressively supports
parents’ learning of necessary information that is aligned with school and district goals, available
roles, and the significance thereof.
Table 6
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Conceptual
Knowledge Influence
Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Parents need knowledge and
awareness of district goals,
their expected role within
the school district, and the
significance thereof.
Designing learning tasks that
are novel, varied, diverse,
interesting, and reasonably
challenging promotes mastery
orientation (Yough &
Anderman, 2006).
Create a learning community
for parents that progressively
supports parents’ learning of
necessary information aligned
to school district goals and
parents’ expected roles.
Parents need knowledge of
general school district
functionality.
Creating schemata helps
learners to organize
declarative knowledge in a
domain (Schraw, Veldt, &
Olafson, 2009).
Provide parents an
informational leaflet in
English/Spanish that outlines
essential concepts around
school district functionality.

Chrispeels and Rivero (2001) contend that parent participation in a district parent-
education program improved and strengthened their knowledge and skills of how to interact at
the school and with their children as well as opening opportunities for learning within a
community of peers. Further, this model allowed parents to learn outside of their comfort but
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with the support of other parents and district staff, strengthening their knowledge and skills
around their expected role within the district (Crispeels & Rivero, 2001). Similarly, Henderson
and Mapp (2002) recommend the development of parents’ knowledge, skills, awareness, and
social capital by offering families opportunities to learn about school/district goals, opportunities
for involvement, program options, and academic requirements. Therefore, the recommendation is
to establish a learning community with novel, varied, diverse, interesting, and reasonably
challenging goals and tasks as a means to promoting parent mastery of necessary knowledge,
skills, and awareness around their expected roles and school/district goals.
Parents also need conceptual knowledge related to school district functionality, as shown
in Table 6. According to Schraw, Veldt, and Olafson (2009), creating schemata helps learners to
organize declarative knowledge within a particular domain. In the context of parents, it is
recommended to provide parents an informational leaflet in the primary languages that outline
essential concepts around school district functionality, such as the roles of key school and district
governance staff. Through a meta-analysis of related studies, Henderson and Mapp (2002) found
that the provision of informational material and training of parents led to an increase in parents’
understanding of school district functionality. Therefore, the recommendation is to regularly
provide parents with targeted schemata that will help them understand key concepts around
school district functionality, specifically related to the LCAP process, to better help them
navigate structures that may be unfamiliar.
Motivation recommendations. Table 7 outlines the two assumed motivation influences
that affect parent involvement; self-efficacy and expectancy value. Self-efficacy refers to one’s
perceived ability to accomplish a goal (Bandura, 2000). The first motivation influence was that it
was assumed that parents need a certain level of self-efficacy related to their power to make a
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difference in their child’s education. In the course of this study, parents expressed varying levels
of confidence in their abilities around certain tasks. Generally, parents expressed a belief in the
power to make a difference in their child’s education in areas such as acting as a “cheerleader” or
providing key resources their student may need. However, as previously discussed, parents had
deferred certain roles at-school to school staff due to low self-efficacy. The implication, then, is
to develop parents’ knowledge and skills related to their perceived deficit in order to improve
their self-efficacy for their at-school role.
The second motivation influence was expectancy value. It was assumed that parents need
to perceive value in their involvement and participation with their child’s school. Based on the
interview responses, parents did in fact perceive value, but prioritized their involvement with
their younger children at elementary school, partially as a result of a number of factors
surrounding the high school level. They described value in their home role as well as certain
school roles, such as fundraising. However, because parents described involvement at the high
school level as more difficult, especially with an “embarrassing” social stigma attached to their
presence around their teenager, their expectancy value was diminished.
Since it is assumed that parents need to have confidence in their power to make a
difference in their child’s education, it is recommended that the district provides parents with
meaningful short-term goals that provide a sense of ownership as a means to improve parents’
self-efficacious beliefs around the goal or task, as outlined in Table 7. Hoover-Dempsey (2005)
examined self-efficacy to understand why parents become involved. They found that parents
with meaningful and active roles in the school or district had a stronger sense of self-efficacy for
helping in their child’s education. These roles within the school/district held themes of
empowerment for decision making. Further, Henderson and Mapp (2002) recommend
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developing parents’ sense of efficacy by providing meaningful opportunities and understanding
how they would like to be involved at the school. Based on these concepts, parents’ confidence
in their power to make a difference can be improved through meaningful roles with the provision
of short-term achievable goals, thus providing a sense of responsibility at the school.
Table 7
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence
Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Self-Efficacy: Parents need
to have confidence in their
power to make a difference
in their child’s education.
High self-efficacy can
positively influence
motivation (Pajares, 2006).
Provide parents with
meaningful short-term
achievable goals that provide a
sense of ownership.
Expectancy Value: Parents
need to perceive value in
their involvement and
participation with their
child’s school.
Learning and motivation are
enhanced if the learner
values the task (Eccles,
2006).
Align parent involvement
opportunities with parents’
personal beliefs, aspirations,
life experiences, and values.

Additionally, it is assumed that parents need to perceive value in their involvement and
participation in their child’s school. Wigfield and Eccles (2000) stated that learning and
motivation are enhanced if the learner values the task. Within the context of parent involvement,
the alignment of parent involvement opportunities with parents’ personal beliefs, aspirations, life
experiences, and values may boost individual intrinsic value (Henderson & Mapp, 2002). This
may include understanding the background of parents that includes such beliefs, values, and
experiences to develop meaningful roles within the school or district that are in alignment with
such concepts in an effort to increase the intrinsic value to them. As supported by the literature,
parents described such aspirational roles based on their particular interests or skillset. As outlined
in Table 7, the recommendation is to align parent involvement opportunities that the school or
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district offers with parent beliefs, values, and aspirations. This would require getting to know
parents on a personal level to be able to offer opportunities that align with such elements.
Jasis and Ordoñez-Jasis (2012) examined Latino parent involvement and empowerment
in schools. They found that many parents are motivated through available roles, personal
aspirations, and their own life experiences for deciding to participate in schools. Additionally,
parents’ desire for involvement is also affected by family time, work, sleep, and culture/gender
expectations. In all cases, parent involvement was greater “where their parental roles, their
individual and family aspirations, and life experiences and knowledge were respected and
incorporated into the school communities as valuable educational contributions” (p. 84). As
such, the alignment of parent involvement opportunities with personal beliefs, values,
aspirations, and experiences will help increase expectancy value and thus their self-efficacy.
Organizational recommendations. Table 8 outlines the assumed organizational
influences that affect parent involvement. A major factor in goal accomplishment often relates to
organizational resources, such as employee knowledge and skills, time, or cost (Clark & Estes,
2008). According to Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001), there are two concepts that affect
organizational capacity: cultural models and cultural settings. This section discusses the various
assumed influences for each cultural model and setting within the context of this study’s
findings.
Cultural models. Cultural models pertain to observable beliefs and values within the
individual or team. Concerning this study, the cultural models included staff encouragement of
parent involvement and staff designating roles for parents. Research indicated that staff
behaviors influence parent involvement, and as such, it was assumed that staff needs to
encourage parent involvement. Knowles, Holton, and Swanson (2012) contended that adults are
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more motivated to participate when they see the relevance of information, a request, or task (the
“why”) to their circumstances since they are goal oriented. Parents’ responses indicated that they
are not always encouraged to participate by their high school student nor the teacher. As such, it
is recommended that the organization communicate to students and staff the district’s parent
involvement goal, the power of direct invitation – especially from students – and the significance
thereof.
In relation to the roles staff designate to parents, the findings suggested a few
considerations. Although parents tended to defer academic roles to school staff, they described a
desire and aspiration for specific roles, especially those aligned to their own skill sets and
interests as well as roles linked directly to students rather than just informational meetings.
Following the motivation recommendations, parents displayed a desire for such roles. More so,
parents expressed displeasure in some of the roles that they were offered, such as cafeteria
assistance, which suggested the opportunities designated for parents are not aligned with actual
interest. Since the intent is to increase parent involvement in the long term, it is in the interest to
designate roles parents deem meaningful.
Epstein and Van Voorhis (2010) stated that consistent invitation and encouragement from
staff for parents to engage in school activities has a positive effect on parent involvement rates.
Through the examination of school counselors, they found that counselors play a significant role
in developing parent partnerships. Further, Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) found that some
staff chose not to encourage parent involvement due to fear of taking away authority, suggesting
the importance of recognizing staff behaviors around parent involvement and the need for
continued encouragement. Consistent with that finding, parents described some experiences that
suggested such behavior of some staff. Therefore, it is recommended that the organization
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regularly communicate parent involvement goals and the legal requirements thereof in an effort
to improve knowledge and awareness.
Cultural Settings. Cultural settings relate to the organization's settings in the context of
the goal or activity. Research indicates that certain cultural settings may influence organizational
goals, such as the welcomeness of a setting. As such, it is assumed that staff needs to regularly
welcome and invite parents to the school or district. Based on the responses from this study,
parents did not always feel welcome at-school. Parents’ experiences included inconsistent
communication and unwelcoming or frustrating environments partly due to safety policies,
which will be discussed below. To rectify this issue, staff intervention is needed. Kluger and
DeNisi (1996) state that staff performance is enhanced when participants have clear, current, and
challenging goals. In light of Kluger and DeNisi’s findings, it is recommended that the district
establish school-site goals that are aligned with the district’s goal for parent involvement and
regularly meet with staff to provide feedback and check progress.
Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1997) state that the most influential factor for parents to
become involved with the school is invitation from their child and regular invitation from school
staff. Consistent with the literature, parents of this study indicated that student invitation was a
powerful driving force for their involvement. Moreover, when parents believe that their
involvement is desired by their children and, by extension, school staff, they are more likely to
participate regardless of their sense of self-efficacy. Therefore, it is recommended that district
establish school-site goals for staff to increase parent involvement, thus supporting the district’s
goal.

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Table 8
Summary of Organizational Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence
Principle and Citation
Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Model: Staff need
to encourage parent
involvement
Adults are more motivated to
participate (and learn) when
they see the relevance of
information, a request, or task
(the “why”) to their own
circumstances. They are goal
oriented (Knowles, Holton, &
Swanson, 2012)
Communicate to staff the
organization’s parent
involvement goal along with
its significance to mission.
Cultural Setting: Staff need
to regularly welcome and
invite parents to the school
or district.
Staff performance is enhanced
when participants have clear,
current, and challenging goals
(Kluger & DeNisi, 1996)
Establish school-site goals
that are aligned with the
district’s goal for parent
involvement and regularly
meet with staff to provide
feedback and check progress.
Cultural Model: Staff need
to designate roles for
parents and not fear
reduced authority in the
classroom from increased
parent involvement.
Organizational culture is
created through shared
experience, shared learning
and stability of membership.
It is something that has been
learned. It cannot be imposed
(Schein, 2004).
Create meaningful and
desirable roles for parents that
allow for shared experiences
between staff and parents.
Cultural Setting: The
school and district need to
adopt policies and
procedures that support
parent involvement.
Organizational performance
increases when processes and
resources are aligned with goals
established collaboratively
(Clark & Estes, 2008)
Review and revise district
policies and procedures that
support parent involvement,
including evaluations,
resource allocation, and
training.
Cultural Setting: The
school and district need to
have regular opportunities
for staff in-service and
training for stakeholder
engagement.
Organizational performance
increases when processes and
resources are aligned with goals
established collaboratively
(Clark & Estes, 2008)
School leadership develops a
policy to provide annual
training that is aligned with
district goals for parent
involvement.

Researchers contend that policies and procedures can affect organizational goals. It was
assumed that the school and district need to adopt policies and procedures that support parent
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involvement. Clark & Estes (2008) indicated that organizational performance increases when
processes and resources are aligned with goals that are established collaboratively. In terms of
this study, parents described experiences that suggested some policies served as a barrier. These
included the volunteer process, identification requirements, translation services, and staff
training to support diverse backgrounds. As such, it is recommended that the district review and
revise policies and procedures that were perceived to impede parent involvement to create a
more welcoming and accessible environment.
Clark and Estes’ (2008) analysis of organizational culture and climate highlighted the
significance of aligning policies and procedures with all stakeholders within the organization.
They contend that when policies and procedures are aligned, organizational performance
increased. Further, Epstein and Sheldon (2002) acknowledged the significance of ensuring
organizational policies, procedures, and resources are aligned with the goals of the district,
including employee evaluations and providing financial resources for the accomplishment of
such goals.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study sought to explore uninvolved high school parent’s knowledge and motivation
for involvement, specifically within California’s LCAP environment. Through qualitative
interviews with twelve uninvolved parents, it was revealed that parents had deferred specific
roles to school staff, despite the policy requiring their involvement in these roles. Further
research is needed to also explore the school staff’s perspectives, as well as the perspective of
regularly involved parents. It would be prudent to further investigate the effect of the decline in
parent involvement as their child progresses through school within the context of LCAP and
ESSA requirements, especially in non-unified school districts. Additionally, it is recommended
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that future research examine high school students’ invitation, especially of parents that were
involved during the elementary years.
Conclusion
Having examined the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational influences
that affect parent involvement, it is recommended that a comprehensive parent involvement
program is implemented that includes training for parents and staff, learning communities,
informational leaflets, and revised goals for parents and staff, which should support the desired
outcome of increasing parent involvement across the district. Further, the organization plays a
significant role in support of stakeholders’ critical behaviors. In the context of parents, the
district must provide certain tools and resources for parents to reach the desired behaviors. First,
the district should establish a learning community for parents where they can rely upon learning
in a cohort model and are paired with more experienced parents. The district also must notify
parents of pertinent information related to the critical behaviors via various formal and informal
means, such as social media, website, emails, and flyers. Additionally, district staff must
continually encourage the critical behaviors by personally connecting with parents through
consistent outreach efforts via regular check-ins as well as providing feedback and coaching
during parent meetings, workshops and events. Also, parents should be rewarded and recognized
for making progress toward desired behaviors. Lastly, the district should monitor parents’
progress through surveys to progress is made toward achieving such behaviors.
Due to the ongoing policy expectations for regular parent involvement in school district
decision-making, it is essential to review involvement practices within the context of the findings
of this study in mind. Schools must work to encourage parent involvement while parents must
understand the significance of their involvement. Without parents’ meaningful involvement at
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school, the district lacks diverse perspectives in its decision-making opportunities, which is
especially significant in the era of local control. Additionally, numerous studies have shown
parent involvement to positively affect student performance outcomes, further stressing the
significance of their involvement. Ultimately, the joint efforts of school staff and parents are
essential to achieving these goals. Ergo, educators must work to provide all possible
opportunities for parent involvement.

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Appendix A
Interview Protocol
Section I. Introduction (Purpose, Confidentiality, Consent, Permission)
Thank you for participating in this doctoral study on parent involvement at the Beachside Union
High School District. The time that you have set aside for this research study is greatly
appreciated. As I mentioned, this interview should take about one hour. Will that still work for
you? [if yes, move forward; if no, ask to reschedule]
Before getting started, I want to give you a brief overview of this study and give you the
opportunity to ask any questions that you may have. As a component of my doctoral program, I
am developing a dissertation on parent involvement within the district. All of your responses will
be confidential and no personally identifying information will be shared. If at any time during the
interview you wish to stop, please just let me know.
At this time, do you have any questions that I may answer?
Do I have your permission to begin the interview?
So that I may accurately capture your responses to the following questions, may I record the
audio of this interview? Only my dissertation advisor and myself will have access to the
recordings and they will be destroyed after the completion of this study.
Section II. Interview Questions
To start this interview, I am going to ask you some questions to ensure I am speaking with a
representative group of parents. If you are not comfortable with any of the questions, you may
skip them.
How many children do you have?
How many currently attend a school in this district?
What are/is their grade level(s) and which school(s) do they attend?
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The following questions focus on parent involvement with your child’s education and the school
or district.
What would you say is a parent’s role in the education of their children, if any? [Probe for how
they came to this understanding of their role]
What would you say is a parent’s role in the school their child attends, if any?
[Probe for how they came to this understanding of their role]
What school related activities do you participate in with your child(ren), if at all? How often?
Tell me about the last time you participated in X activity. What did you do? Are there any other
school related activities you participate in? [Repeat]
What are some of the things you do at home to support your child’s education, if any? What
about at school?
In your opinion, how often do you think parents should be involved with the school? With the
district?
Tell me about a time when you were involved as a parent and you thought to yourself “I did a
good job!” What do you think contributed to you feeling like you did a good job? [Probe for
another experience]
Tell me about a time when you were involved as a parent and you felt like you didn’t do such a
good job. What do you think contributed to you feeling like you didn’t do a good job? [Probe for
another experience]
Some people say that it’s not important to become involved because you would only get in the
way of the school and school staff. What would you say to them?
Some parents have felt that they were more involved with the school when their child was in
elementary school. What do you think about that? How has your experience changed? [Probe for
difference between elementary and high school]
Do you know of any other parents that do not speak English? Can you describe their experiences
in the school?
Now I’d like to ask you some questions about your school and district.
What are the district’s goals? Who creates them? Where would you look to find them?
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How does the district accomplish its goals?
Can you describe how a parent may help with school or districtwide goals? [Probe for
significance to school or district]
Can you describe the role of school board? Superintendent? Principal? The community?
Who is responsible for making sure school districts are doing what they should be doing?
How do you feel about parents being involved in school or district decisions? [Probe for
financial decisions]
What specifically do you think parents bring to the table that benefit those decisions?
The next set of questions relate to ways you feel the district can help improve parent
involvement. Please keep in mind that your responses are kept confidential and your honesty is
important to the research.
Few parents attend district meetings and events. Why do you think that is?
How often does the school contact you with information about events and activities? How would
you prefer to be notified? What would you like to receive?
What types of roles should the school or district offer to parents?
In what ways do you think the district can work to increase involvement from parents?
What barriers, if any, do you think are in the way for parents to be regularly involved? How can
they be removed?
How often do you think staff should be trained on parent involvement?
Can you recall a time you approached the school or district and asked a question or shared an
idea or concern? Describe that experience. How did you feel? Would you do it again?
Some parents have said that they don’t feel welcomed when they visit the school. What are your
thoughts on that?
How supportive would you say the district’s policies are for parent involvement?
If you could create a district policy to support parents to be more involved, what would it look
like?
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The following are background questions to help categorize your responses. If you are not
comfortable answering one or more of them, you may skip them.
What racial or ethnic group do you most closely identify with?
What is your highest level of education?
What is your total household income?
Under $30k
$30k – $50k
$51k - $70k
$71k and over

What age range do you fit in?
25 and under
26-30
31-40
41-50
51 and over

Section III. Closing
Is there anything else you would like to add that I might have not covered?
Thank you for your time today. Everything you have shared was really helpful for my research
study. If I have any follow-up questions later, would I be able to contact you for a second
interview?
Section IV. Snowball Sampling
In order for me to continue my research, I will need additional volunteers to interview. Do you
know anyone that would be interested? They would need to 1) speak English, 2) be a parent of a
student currently enrolled in the Beachside Union High School District, and 3) be someone who
is not presently active with school events, workshops, or committees. Could I have the name and
contact information of those that you know to fit that description?

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Section V. Thanks
As a thank you for your time today, please accept this gift card as a token of my appreciation.
Section VI. Clarification
Note: to ensure clarity and understanding, use phrases such as “to ensure I am understanding you,
could you tell me more about …” and “could you walk me through that in greater detail?
Section VII. Follow-up Interviews
[The following set of questions came up as I interviewed other parents and I thought you may
want to share any thoughts you may have]
1. Are there certain events or activities at the high school that are easier or difficult for you
to attend? If so, what makes them easier or difficult to attend?
2. What kind of relationship do you have with your high schooler’s teachers? How about the
Principal or other school/district staff? Do you think the type of relationship you have had
with your child’s teachers has changed since elementary school?
3. Based on the responses I have received, it sounds like when your children are
participating in events or are being honored, there is a higher chance you will attend. Do
you agree? [Probe for their experience]
4. How do you feel when you attend a school based activity that your child invited you to?
5. Some parents have described daily routines when their children get home from school.
Could you describe yours, if any?
6. What, if anything, do you think is your responsibility to teach your children versus the
school’s responsibility?
7. We previously talked about the school and district goals. What are your own goals for
your child(ren)?
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8. Some parents have said they felt they could not help their child with a problem they were
having at school. Can you relate? Describe that experience.
9. How do you define parent involvement?
10. As it relates to your involvement with the school, is there anything you would change? If
so, what?
11. Another parent mentioned that having a different cultural background may be a factor for
involvement at the school. What do you think about that?
12. Is there anything that you thought of adding since our last interview?

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Appendix B
Informed Consent/Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Research Information Sheet

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Daniel Urrutia at the University
of Southern California. This study is part of a dissertation project to receive a Doctor of
Education. Please read through this form and ask any questions you might have before deciding
whether or not you want to participate.

Purpose of the Study
This study intends to better understand parents’ knowledge and experiences related to their
involvement in their child’s education as well as potential barriers that may affect their ability to
be involved.

Participation Involvement
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to complete a one-hour interview at an
agreed upon location. The interview will include questions about your involvement in your
child’s schooling as well as some demographic questions. You do not have to answer any
questions you don’t want to.

Compensation for Participation
You will receive a $15 Amazon gift card as a token of appreciation.

Confidentiality
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. At
the completion of the study, direct identifiers will be destroyed and the de-identified data may be
used for future research studies.

Daniel Urrutia, Dr. Artineh Samkian (his chair), and the University of Southern California’s
Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and
monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research participants like yourself.

Investigator Contact Information
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Daniel
Urrutia at durrutia@usc.edu or Artineh Samkian at samkian@rossier.usc.edu.

IRB Contact Information
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu.

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Appendix C
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The credibility and trustworthiness of this study is influenced by the design of the data
collection protocols and the individual conducting the study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). To
ensure the utmost credibility and trustworthiness, I followed all protocols related to the design,
collection, and analysis as established by the University of Southern California. To ensure
confidence in the findings of this study, I used audio recordings and took notes after each
interview. To ensure accuracy and validate interviewee responses, I checked for understanding
during the interview. Additionally, I invited participants for a follow-up interview to deepen
understanding after having coded the data. Both steps allowed me to “member check” or rule out
the possibility of misinterpreting the meaning of what the participant intended to say (Maxwell,
2013).
In addition to the various protocols that are undertaken, the background of the researcher
is also important for the credibility and trustworthiness of the study. My relationship to the
organization is multilayered. I serve on the school district’s governing board, I am an alumnus of
one of the schools in the district, and I live within the community. As a member of the governing
board, I provide direction to the Superintendent and assist with the development of the district’s
mission, vision, goals, and overall policy. Each member of the governing board is elected by the
community, which may include parents and staff that live within the district’s boundary. Since I
am a member of the community and serve in an elected position, some of the interview
participants may also be constituents, of which I will be sensitive to in order to minimize
potential bias. As a stakeholder in the success of the organization, my interests are aligned with
students, parents, and staff since we share that same stake. My sole intent for this study is to
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improve parents’ connection to the district and vice versa in order to help safeguard the success
of the organization and better inform school and district decisions.

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Appendix D
Ethics
Research involves the cooperation and collaboration from participants, which begs the
need for ethical standards that promote trust, accountability, respect, and fairness (Resnik, 2011).
Ethical standards also build the validity and reliability of the study as well as the researcher's
own trustworthiness (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016; Patton, 2015). Further, in qualitative studies, the
power in the relationship favors the researcher, hence the moral significance of ethical standards
(Glesne, 2011) and the importance of strong safeguards to protect the participant. When
collecting data from people about people, researchers must consider ethical factors, including
relationships to the participant, informed consent, permission, and confidentiality (Punch, 2005).
Additionally, the researcher has an obligation to behave ethically with all participants and must
communicate findings fairly and honestly (Rubin & Rubin, 2011).
This study included an information sheet. The information sheet included the
identification of the researcher, purpose of the study, benefits of participation, the level and type
of participation involvement, risks to the participant, guarantee of confidentiality, ability to
withdraw, and contact information for questions. The information sheet also contained all
recommended elements that acknowledge the protection of human participants (Creswell, 2013).
Further, to ensure all ethical considerations were accounted for before data was collected for this
research study, the University of Southern California’s (USC) Institutional Review Board (IRB)
thoroughly reviewed the proposal.

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Appendix E
Limitations and Delimitations
Due to the time and resources available to this study, there were a few limitations and
delimitations. First, only 12 interviews and nine follow-ups were conducted with uninvolved
high school parents. The study of both involved and uninvolved parents could present a richer
understanding around parents’ knowledge and motivation for involvement with the school
district, but an in-depth exploration of a purposeful sample of uninvolved parents provided
insight on potential gaps. Thus, one limitation was that this study’s findings cannot be
generalized to all parents. Second, the study did not utilize surveys, as they are assumed to have
an inadequate response rate with the hard to reach population that is being studied. Lastly, non-
English speakers were not interviewed, limiting their experiences and insight out of this study.
As such, the study is limited in its ability to know about the uninvolved parent population in its
entirety.
This study was designed to examine just one of the district’s stakeholder groups, parents,
and the performance goal related to their involvement. Of course, there were a number of
stakeholder groups that may have an effect on parent involvement, the initial focus was just the
parent stakeholder group. Specifically, the study is designed to solicit qualitative interview data
from uninvolved parents, a subgroup of the parent stakeholder. Missing from this study was the
perspective of the district staff who play a key role in involving parents and would help to inform
the organizational influences in the conceptual framework. Additionally, this study focused only
on parents and does not consider the potential benefit other family members may have in the
school or district. Lastly, this study utilized Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework to
examine the relationship between stakeholder performance and BUHSD goals. Specifically, the
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framework was used to outline the knowledge, motivation, and organizational factors influencing
stakeholder performance in achieving its goal. Although the framework established structure, it
also restricted the study to those three influences.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Urrutia, Daniel D. (author)

Core Title Understanding the high school parent involvement gap in the era of local control and accountability

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 01/30/2019

Defense Date 12/06/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag California,gap analysis,High School,LCAP,local control,OAI-PMH Harvest,parent involvement,school district

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Samkian, Artineh (committee chair), Hasan, Angela (committee member), Miller, Steven R. (committee member)

Creator Email durrutia@usc.edu,urrutia.dd@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-115636

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Identifier etd-UrrutiaDan-7028.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-115636 (legacy record id)

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