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Uncovered leaders in hidden schools: effective leadership practices in California Model Continuation High School principals
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Uncovered leaders in hidden schools: effective leadership practices in California Model Continuation High School principals
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LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS UNCOVERED LEADERS IN HIDDEN SCHOOLS: EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES IN CALIFORNIA MODEL CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS by Patricia Kling A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION December 2018 Copyright 2018 Patricia Kling LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 2 Preface Some of the chapters of this dissertation were co-authored and have been identified as such. While jointly authored dissertations are not the norm of most doctoral programs, a collaborative effort is reflective of real-world practices. To meet their objective of developing highly skilled practitioners equipped to take on real-world challenges, the USC Graduate School and the USC Rossier School of Education have permitted our inquiry team to carry out this shared venture. This dissertation is part of a collaborative project between three doctoral candidates: Sean Delgado, Tricia Kling, and Xochitl Ortiz. We three doctoral students met with several Model and Non-Model Continuation High Schools with the aim of learning from the principals in these phenomenological settings. However, the process for dissecting and acquiring a thorough constructivist perspective from the selected participants was too large for a single dissertation. As a result, the three dissertations produced by our inquiry team collectively examined the effective practices of principals in continuation education. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 3 Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge and thank my most-favorite-of-colleagues, my “dissertation dream team,” Xochitl Ortiz and Sean Delgado, who chose to take this journey alongside me, through all its ups and downs, tips and turns, and unexpected surprises. Without their collective intellection, late night or early morning brainstorming, long dedicated hours of relentless scrutiny, and unprecedented amounts of support and encouragement, I may very well have lost my way or given up. It has been my honor to call them research partners and cherished friends! I am also beyond grateful and proudly acknowledge the many cherished friendships developed through our 2016 cohort. Their countless acts of encouragement, words of wisdom, and genuine comradery have enabled me to persist, and even laugh, through the long nights and rigorous process, we call dissertation. It is with utmost respect and my deepest appreciation to acknowledge my Dissertation Chair, Dr. David Cash, second Dissertation Chair, Dr. Rudy Castruita, and Dissertation Committee Members, Dr. James Elsasser and Dr. John Garcia. The writing and completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the tireless assistance, support, guidance, and encouragement of these highly inspirational and truly gifted mentors. I am further honored to recognize my incredibly intelligent and patient boyfriend, John Bauer, who tirelessly listened to me lament over unforeseen challenges and helped edit all of my work through a businessman’s lens. For my unbelievably intelligent, thoughtful, inspirational and accommodating USC professors, I am extremely appreciative. Each and every professor challenged and motivated me to work diligently and reinforced my self-efficacy. I am especially honored to recognize Dr. Ruth Chung and Dr. Briana Hinga, who selflessly gave of their time to offer support and guidance, specifically in the data crunching parts of this dissertation. Special LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 4 acknowledgement is expressed for Marie Painter for her meticulous and expedient editing to bring this whole dissertation together. It has been a pleasure learning from and working with such a warm and talented editor. Lastly, I am most privileged and grateful for the anonymous principals and their remarkable teachers who graciously assisted in the data collection and interview process for this vital research. Impactful information gleaned from their participation has left me in awe and inspired from seeing such stellar leadership and true agents of change. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 5 Dedication This dissertation is dedicated, first and foremost, to my amazing children, Elysse and Micaela. Your long-suffering patience, endless encouragement, sacrifice of mom-time, and unconditional love have allowed me to commit countless hours beyond my mom and work responsibilities toward this accomplishment. Thank you for stepping up to the plate and taking on extra responsibilities so that I could focus on my studies. I hope to make you proudly inspired to always follow your dreams. Next, I’d like to dedicate this to my BBE/LBF, Sweet Johnny Bauer, whose incessant love and support have bolstered my confidence and championed me throughout this journey, right from the start. Thank you for being my confidant, my sounding board, my shield, my respite, and my rock! I am also dedicating this to one of my dearest friends, my biggest cheerleader, Mercedes Pittsey. Your confidence in me and positivity have lifted my spirits and encouraged me to keep moving forward. Two enormously cherished people, of whom I have grown so fond and have the utmost respect, Xochitl Ortiz and Sean Delgado, are beyond worthy of this dedication. Xochitl, my chosen sister, and, Sean, my incredibly wise and humble friend, you both will forever hold a special place in my heart. Your undeniable passion, absolute devotion and genuine love for students is an inspiration for all! You are truly transformational leaders who unceasingly touch lives and positively change trajectories of so many at-risk students. It has been one of my greatest honors to be a part of our “dream team!” I am also proud to dedicate this to my brothers: Ricky for inspiring, motivating and helping me begin this journey, and Jeffrey and David for your belief in me, prayers and encouragement. Lastly, this dedication is for my mom and dad, who are watching from above. Your faith, resilience, compassion for others, selfless acts of service, and unconditional love have empowered me to be the person I am today. You taught me to count my blessings, trust the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 6 Lord, and live to serve others. I am grateful for the Lord’s guidance throughout this process and pray that this research can be used as an instrument to help others to be change agents for a better world! LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 7 Table of Contents Preface 2 Acknowledgments 3 Dedication 5 List of Tables 10 Abstract 11 Chapter One: Overview of the Study 13 Introduction 13 Background of the Problem 14 Statement of the Problem 16 Purpose of the Study 17 Research Questions 17 Importance of the Study 18 Limitations 19 Delimitations 20 Assumptions 20 Definitions of Related Terms 21 Organization of the Study 24 Chapter Two: Literature Review 25 Theoretical Framework 25 Leadership Styles and Theoretical Foundations 26 Leadership vs. Management 28 Trait Theories 29 Intelligence 30 Self-Confidence 30 Determination 30 Integrity 31 Sociability 31 Transformational Leadership 34 Full Range Leadership Theory 36 Continuation High School 38 Contextual Background 38 Historical Overview 39 Students 41 Accountability 42 Effective Leadership 46 Model Continuation High Schools 48 Conclusion 50 Chapter Three: Methodology 51 Introduction 51 Restatement of Problem, Purpose, and Research Questions 51 Design Overview 53 Sample and Population 55 Instrumentation 56 Data Collection Procedures 59 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 8 Data Analysis 60 Ethical Considerations 62 Summary 63 Chapter Four: Research Results and Findings 65 Introduction 65 Purpose of the Study 65 Presentation of Findings 67 Organization of Data Analysis 67 Descriptive Characteristics 68 Survey Respondents 68 Interview Participants 70 Research Question 1 71 Findings: Survey Participants Analysis 71 MCHS-A 74 MCHS-B 76 Non-MCHS-C 78 Summary of Findings for Research Question 1 81 Research Question 2 83 Findings: Interview Analysis 84 Servitude 86 Fostering School Cultures of Resilience 88 Disruptive Innovation 91 Advocacy 92 Summary of Findings for Research Question 2 94 Research Question 3 94 Findings: Interview and Document Analysis 95 Servitude 95 Resilience 97 Disruptive Innovation 98 Disciplinary Challenges 98 Earning Credits 100 Scheduling Programs 101 Advocacy 102 Summary of Findings for Research Questions 3 105 Research Question 4 106 Findings: Interview and Document Analysis 106 Attendance 106 Graduation Rates 107 School Culture 109 Summary of Findings for Research Questions 4 111 Discussion 112 Chapter Summary 115 Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusion, and Implications 116 Introduction 116 Statement of the Problem 116 Purpose of the Study 116 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 9 Research Questions 118 Design Overview 118 Key Findings 121 Implications for Policy and Practice 123 Policy 123 Practices 125 Limitations 128 Recommendations for Future Research 129 Conclusion 130 References 131 Appendix A MLQ-5X Mind Garden Permission 148 Appendix B Thematic Coding Matrix 150 Appendix C Ethical Disclosure Form 161 Appendix D Consent to Participate Form 163 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 10 List of Tables Table 1: Interview respondents 71 Table 2: Teacher MLQ-5X responded vs. completion rates 73 Table 3: MCHS-A average score per category of transformational leadership style for Principal-A 74 Table 4: MCHS-A: Average score per category of transactional and passive/avoidant leadership style for Principal-A 75 Table 5: MCHS-B average score per category of transformational leadership style for Principal-B 77 Table 6: MCHS-B: Average score per category of transactional and passive/avoidant leadership style for Principal-B 78 Table 7: Non-MCHS-C average score per category of transformational leadership style for Principal-C 79 Table 8: Non-MCHS-C: Average score per category of transactional and passive/avoidant leadership style for principal-c 80 Table 9: A comparison of leadership styles–Survey respondents 82 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 11 Abstract Based on Transformational Leadership Theory (Avolio, Bass, & Jung, 1999), the purpose of this study was to examine effective leadership qualities and practices of principals from successful alternative school settings. Leaders from California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS) were compared to non-MCHS principals. An Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods design (Creswell, 2014) was used to triangulate quantitative and qualitative data through a Constructivist and Phenomenological lens. The first key finding was that California MCHSs are led by principals who have predominantly transformational leadership traits, intermixed with transactional tendencies, per MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) results. Moreover, Non-MCHSs may also be led by principals highly rated by their teachers as transformational leaders. Second, transformational leaders employ practices which yield laudable outcomes. Third, Model and Non-Model principals concurred that effective leadership fosters school cultures that are driven by a compelling vision/mission and cultivate resilience through disruptive innovation, advocacy, and servitude. Fourth, these principals’ practices aligned with their beliefs and reflected transformational leadership tenets, specifically, through: acts of servitude where caring, nurturing, and trusting environments were created; providing support and coaching ways to build resilience; using disruptive innovation to address disciplinary challenges, create unique programs, and support credit recovery; and advocacy for school, staff, and student unique needs. Fifth, due to the lack of valid and reliable external accountability measures for continuation high school settings, these transformational principals challenged status quo and leveraged internal accountability measures with external sources (i.e., WASC accreditation or LCAP data) to create cultures of data-driven, decision-making pedagogics in the pursuit of exemplary performance for students’ academic and social-emotional benefit. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 12 Keywords: Accountability, Advocacy, Alternative Education, Constructivist, Continuation Education, Data Driven Decision Making (DDDM), Disruptive Innovation, Effective Leadership Practices, Leadership Traits, Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS), Phenomenological, Resilience, Servitude, Transactional Leadership, and Transformational Leadership LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 13 CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY Introduction The California Continuation High School, established in 1919, is an alternative path to achieving a high school diploma for students at risk of dropping out (CDE, 2017e). The mission of continuation schools has evolved over the years, first beginning as a program to serve working students then transitioning to services for maladjusted youth, to the current model which is service to at-risk students (Perez & Johnson, 2008). Since 1965, California State law has mandated that most schools with 100 or more seniors make available a continuation school to assist at-risk students (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). Students at continuation high schools are often between the ages of 16 and 18, arrive to the continuation high school from a comprehensive high school or other location, and have not had a history of academic success. The reasons for the lack of academic success are far-ranging. This non-exhaustive list highlights an example of reasons: low motivation, lack of resilience, learning disabilities, lack of social capital, high transiency, poor behavioral regulation, substance abuse, systemic obstacles, or difficulty connecting in large school settings (Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). Some students voluntarily choose to attend a continuation school, drawn by the small size, the flexibility that comes with a required minimum attendance of 15 hours a week, the alternative approaches to learning, and a chance to have a fresh start. Other students are placed at continuation schools from probation agencies, through district referral processes, or as an alternative means of expulsion (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). In essence, a continuation school is comprised of a diverse group of students that often arrive and leave at varied and unpredictable times. For example, the California Department of Education (CDE) website reported that in 2014-15, there were 460 continuation high schools LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 14 reporting an enrollment of 60,027 students, but that 116,500 students on average are served throughout the entire year (CDE, 2017e). Despite the high risk factors among students and the high mobility, it is the belief and purpose of the CDE to “provide a world-class education for all students,” including these students who face enormous challenges (CDE, 2017c, p. 1). Background of the Problem Given the context, there is a tremendous need for quality leadership who can provide the knowledge and skills required to provide a world-class education. While Traditional Public Schools (TPS) have commonly had an accountability process to ensure that students are learning, continuation schools have not been under the same scrutiny, or have had accountability measures that were ineffective for a variety of reasons (Warren, 2016). At the July 12, 2017 California State Board of Education (SBE) meeting, the SBE approved the development of a new accountability measure, the Dashboard Alternative School Status (DASS), with expected implementation in Fall of 2018 (CDE, 2017b). This will fulfill the obligation of the law under California Education Code (EC) Section 52052(g), which requires: The Superintendent, with the approval of the State Board of Education, shall develop an alternative accountability system for schools under the jurisdiction of a county board of education or a county superintendent of schools, community day schools, . . . and alternative schools serving high-risk pupils, including continuation high schools and opportunity schools. (CDE, 2018b, para. 2) Leaders of these schools have an ethical obligation to uphold the belief and purpose of the CDE to provide a world-class education, and will be held accountable by the State to do so. Until this happens, however, principals will continue to be required to develop their own accountability systems and provide their own sense of leadership to provide what they perceive LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 15 as a world-class education. Additionally, they will need to do so with at-risk students, and this task requires exceptional leadership. The leadership will be required to provide an environment that will foster the graduation of students who are capable of being ready for both college and careers, and who will have skills that will prepare them to be competitive and successful in the 21st century (National Education Association, 2010). Between the 1960s to present day, the local and global marketplace has transformed from an industrial to an informational economy (Care, Griffin, & McGaw, 2012). New skill sets are required to succeed in the 21st century (21C). Consequently, the Framework for 21st Century Learning illustrates a new learning paradigm where traditional pedagogy (e.g. reading, writing, and numeracy) explicitly incorporates fundamental 21C skills (Care et al., 2012). These essential skills are critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity. Moreover, these 21C skills are addressed within four domains: Traditional Core subjects and Skills, Learning and Innovation Skills, Career and Life Skills, and Digital Literacies. If at-risk students are going to be successful in life, they will need a quality education that can socially, emotionally, and behaviorally prepare them, alongside effective instructional leadership required to establish this learning environment (Daunic et al., 2013; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). The need for this exceptional leadership is compounded when there is a scarcity of capable school leaders, especially in high-poverty and high-minority schools, and continuation schools tend to have students with higher concentrations of these students (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). The National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASS) cited the Institute for Education Statistics that one in five principals working in schools during the 2011-2012 school year left during the 2012-2013 school year, and that one of every two principals aren’t retained past their third year (NASS, 2017). Additionally, they reported that the supply of LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 16 qualified principals is diminishing and won’t meet the growing demand for principals due to increase in students attending schools (NASS, 2017). This is important, because when principals stay and exhibit good leadership skills, teachers are retained (Player, Youngs, Perrone, & Grogan, 2017). Therefore, these broad problems in education necessitate the need for this research regarding the diminishing supply of effective principals, the complexity of instructional leadership in a school setting of marginalized students with high needs, the growing demands for instructional leadership that imparts 21st century skills to prepare students for college and careers, and the impending new accountability system that California is preparing for continuation schools. By examining the effective leadership practices that govern successful continuation schools, this study may contribute to the growing body of literature, so that practices can be generalized to influence practitioners and policy-makers. Statement of the Problem There is a tremendous need for leaders to exhibit dynamic leadership qualities to successfully oversee an organization with the complexity of a high school. While there is an abundance of literature on qualities of effective principal leaders in high schools, there is very little research with regard to the essential attributes of effective principal leadership in California continuation high schools. This is an important area to study since the continuation school is a setting often comprised of the most at risk and marginalized student populations, who struggle with more exposure to violence and victimization, alcohol and substance abuse, higher mobility, unstable living arrangements, and are more concentrated groups of minorities (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). Additionally, there is very little research associated with any aspect of continuation high schools, much less the leadership required to effectively service vulnerable populations. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 17 Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to examine the effective leadership qualities and practices of principals from successful alternative school settings that are recognized as California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS), based on Transformational Leadership Theory (Avolio et al., 1999). As such, the researchers of this study analyzed the beliefs and practices of principals that led toward their school’s designation as a Model Continuation High School. The researchers also investigated how teachers perceive the leadership traits in their principal. This is important to ascertain because the principals’ beliefs, style, and practices may or may not align with the research about effective leadership or with how teachers identify his or her leadership style and practices. Moreover, it's important to understand how teachers identify the leadership style of their principal because teacher performance is the primary factor affecting student achievement, while leadership is the second leading predictor of student achievement (Hitt & Tucker, 2016). Consequently, the leader’s role in school effectiveness is pivotal in terms of enabling teachers to improve student achievement (Goldring, Porter, Murphy, Elliott, & Cravens, 2009). The results of this study have both practitioner and policy implications, because findings provide guidance for principals regarding promising practices, as well as policy with respect to training and professional development. Research Questions The following research questions guide this study: 1. Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as identified by their teachers? LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 18 2. What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes? 3. As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success? 4. How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of their schools? Importance of the Study Continuation schools exist in the margins of society. Ruiz de Velasco et al. (2008) described “continuation high schools and the students they serve as largely invisible to most Californians” (p. 1). Invisible could take on different meanings, like diminutive in number, or in social/political/economic capital. As a result of being largely invisible, continuation schools are often overlooked in terms of research, perhaps given that the level of impact among students is relatively small, since continuation students are a small minority of a school district. Consequently, little research in the areas of alternative education and continuation school exists. Ruiz de Velasco et al. (2008) said that “continuation high schools remain among the most understudied sub-sector of secondary education in California (and nationally)” (p. 8). It has also been described that “the research that does exist tends to be narrow in scope and focus” with regard to continuation literature (Villalobos, 2014, p. 17). This study is important to add to the dearth of literature that currently exists for students with the highest of needs, and hopefully serve as a springboard for other forms of research. As a result of the marginalization of continuation schools in society and in the body of research, there is also a lack of coherence in legislation that begins at the State level. Williamson (2008) described alternative education (AE) as a model that operates under ambiguous LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 19 legislation, with an over-generalized mission, a weak accountability system, and a lack of data, all of which give agency to principals and teachers to operate in a manner they see fit. He concluded that this gives students a wide range in the quality of educational programs that they experience. Clearly, this study is important because critical analysis of effective leadership practices in continuation high schools will improve the quality of leadership requisite to meeting the unique needs of at-risk youth in a manner that provides equitable access to world-class education. From an academic, policy, and practitioner viewpoint, more research is needed in the area of effective leadership within continuation high school settings. Limitations A limitation of this study was that it may be difficult to generalize the findings to non- continuation high school settings. One could argue that alternative settings are unique, and what is most effective for alternative settings may not be most effective for mainstream settings. Additionally, there are considerable differences of approach and organization among continuation schools. Ruiz de Velasco et al. (2008) stated “continuation schools can and do look very different in different counties, in different districts within the same county, and even within the same district” (p. 9). This lends to this perception and adage among continuation schools, that “if you’ve seen one continuation school, you’ve seen none of them,” and “100 continuation schools educate the same student in 100 different ways.” Both of these adages speak to the fact that there are very few commonalities among the culture and organization of a continuation school, although the purpose often remains the same, which is preventing dropouts (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). Therefore, it is the responsibility of the reader to discern whether the findings may be appropriately applied to other settings. The second limitation of this study was the sample size, since we are only identifying principals by their work in the CDE-designated, LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 20 Model Continuation High School (MCHS) recognition program. This presents an issue of representativeness because it does not include the contributions potentially offered by other principals who are not at schools with MCHS distinction. Lastly, there were inherent limitations in the data collection instruments of survey, observation, and interviews although efforts were made to establish internal and external validity throughout the data collection process. Delimitations One delimitation of this study was geographical limitation. Principals under this study are those whose schools are in southern California. Another delimitation was the amount of time that principals have been at their school site. In this case, selected principals were at their sites for a minimum of three years, since the State runs a three-year cycle of recognition for the MCHS program. Lastly, the data collection period took place over a three-month period, and more time may be required to adequately observe leadership in practice. Assumptions There were several key assumptions made in this study. The first was that the teachers surveyed will honestly and accurately assess the leadership qualities of their principals. The second assumption was that, in the absence of a meaningful accountability system, the MCHS program represents the best performance of California continuation schools in terms of preparing students to 21st century college and career success (CDE, 2017c). Third, it was assumed that principals can define and articulate qualities that they believe make a positive impact in their schools. Lastly, it was assumed that the data collection tools for this study will produce results that offer objectivity, dependability, and authenticity. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 21 Definitions of Related Terms The terms below were used throughout the study: 1. Accountability: Information regarding how the leadership and staff are meeting the needs of California’s diverse student population based on a terse set of measures (CDE, 2017a). 2. Alternative Education: Any of the four alternative schools that are required by California State law to meet the needs of students vulnerable to academic or behavioral failure, and they include continuation schools, community day schools, county-run community day schools, or independent studies programs (Austin et al., 2008). 3. Alternative Schools Accountability Model (ASAM): A State-sponsored accountability model created following the passage of the Public Schools Accountability Act (CDE, 1999). Schools select from three indicators from the following choices for accountability: behavior, attendance, student persistence, writing achievement, reading achievement, math achievement, high school graduation or General Educational Development (GED) completion (Austin et al., 2008). This system is now obsolete, and will be replaced by the Dashboard Alternative School Status (DASS) in fall of 2018 (CDE, 2018b). 4. Bolman and Deal’s Four Frames: Four leadership orientations identified by Bolman and Deal (1991b) as structural, human resource, political, and symbolic. 5. California Continuation High School (CCHS): Continuation education is a high school diploma program designed to meet the needs of students 16 through 18 years of age who have not graduated from high school, are legally required to attend school, and are at risk of dropping out (CDE, 2018a). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 22 6. Climate: The feelings and attitudes that are elicited by a school’s environment, based upon the physical, academic, and social dimensions (Loukas, 2007). 7. Culture: The belief and attitude influencing every aspect of how a school functions (Lewis, Asberry, DeJarnett, & King, 2016). 8. Dashboard Alternative School Status (DASS): California’s new accountability system that contains State indicators and standards to help identify a school's strengths, weaknesses, and areas in need of improvement, in a dashboard of indicators. This dashboard system replaces the Alternative School Accountability Model, and will be implemented in fall 2018 (CDE, 2018b). 9. Human Resource Frame: The leadership frame that views organizations as existing to meet individuals’ needs. Human needs and skills are aligned to achieve the organization’s goals (Bolman & Deal, 1991b). 10. Leadership: The influence process facilitated by the school principal that motivates stakeholders toward the attainment of a common goal or vision (Northouse, 2016). 11. Marginalized Youth: Students of color who are identified as living within poverty conditions and experience socioeconomic or racialized forms of discrimination (Diemer & Li, 2011). 12. Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ): A questionnaire used to determine leadership traits through the exploration of transactional leadership factors (Contingent Reward and Management-by-Exception) and transformational leadership factors (Charismatic Leadership, Individualized Consideration, and Intellectual Stimulation) (Bass, 1985). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 23 13. Model Continuation High School: A CCHS recognized by the CDE (CDE) as a comprehensive program that provides services to at-risk youth through the use of exemplary pedagogical strategies, flexible scheduling, and guidance and counseling services (CDE, 2018c). 14. Political Frame: The leadership frame that emphasizes the allocation of power and scarce resources. The focus is on bargaining, negotiation, and coalition building (Bolman & Deal, 1991b). 15. Protective Factors: Characteristics provided through a school setting, such as supportive leadership, dedicated staff, schoolwide behavior management, and effective academic instruction which minimize the risks for youth delinquency (Christle, Jolivette, & Nelson, 2005). 16. Resilience: The ability to demonstrate positive adaptation in times of adversity, which is a dynamic process that can change over time (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013). 17. Self-efficacy: The belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations (Bandura, 1997). 18. Social Emotional Literacy (SEL): The ability to understand and regulate the emotions of self and others, discriminate between, and use them to guide one’s actions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). 19. Structural Frame: The leadership frame that emphasizes formal roles and relationships within the organization. Its emphasis is on the division of labor and coordination of individual activities (Bolman & Deal, 1991b). 20. Successful or Effective Educators: Those who have a positive and direct impact on student outcomes, as measured by elevated academic achievement scores, incrementally LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 24 increased daily performance measures, visible student motivation and active engagement, strong academic efficacy beliefs and other constructive social, and behavior or intellectual outcomes (Coggshall, 2007). 21. Symbolic Frame: The leadership frame that utilizes symbols, rituals, culture, and charisma to promote a common vision. The organization is viewed as a tribe working together toward a common mission (Bolman & Deal, 1991b). 22. Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC): A California school accreditation process which consists of a self-study and site visitation by a group of peers. Organization of the Study This study is organized in five chapters. The first chapter included the introduction and statement of the problem, purpose of the study, and research questions. The second chapter includes a review of the literature, with a focus on qualities of effective leadership in traditional high school, as well as continuation high schools settings. The third chapter is a focus on the methodology, data collection, and rationale for this study. The fourth chapter is a discussion of the results, and the fifth chapter is a conclusion and discussion of implications. Recommendations for further study will also be discussed in this chapter. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 25 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW While there is ample literature on qualities of effective principal leaders in traditional settings, research regarding key qualities of effective principal leadership in California continuation high schools is sparse (Goldring et al., 2009; Hitt & Tucker, 2016; Leithwood, Seashore Louis, Anderson, & Wahlstrom, 2004; Winton & Pollock, 2016). This is an important area to study because the continuation school is a setting often comprised of the most vulnerable and disenfranchised student populations at risk of high school dropout (Taylor, 2015; see also Johnson, Morris, Rew, & Simonton, 2016; Malagon & Alvarez, 2010; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Zolkoski, Bullock, & Gable, 2016). Consequently, this literature review provides the theoretical and empirical rationale for conducting a mixed-methods analysis of effective leadership in distinguished Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS). Chapter two includes an introduction followed by an analysis of research regarding the theoretical framework of this study and leadership theory. Then, inquiries regarding characteristics, historical overview, students, accountability, and effective leadership within California continuation high schools will be discussed. Finally, literature regarding Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS) will be examined and concluding comments will be provided. Theoretical Framework It is important to comprehend the conceptual framework on which this study was based. A rationale and theoretical framework for this inquiry, regarding the essential attributes of effective principal leadership in California continuation high schools, was the basis for this research. It is necessary to study the phenomenon of transformation and vital constructs of effective principals who have been identified as having transformed their school populations of marginalized youth into model schools. These model continuation high schools LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 26 phenomenologically yield thriving and resilient students who actively engage in 21st Century pedagogy and evidence college and career readiness upon graduation. Hence, the worldview and conceptual framework, Phenomenological and Constructivist, was the theoretical lens through which this research was examined. The phenomenon of the transformational leadership, coupled with constructs such as why and how these principals guide their schools toward excellence, is key to understanding essential attributes of effective principal leadership in California continuation high schools. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) posited that phenomenology is the study of how people describe and experience different effects and situations. Constructivism asserts that one’s perceptions and beliefs are shaped by individual assumptions, prior experiences, and the reality in which one interacts (Li & Lam, 2005; Phillips, 1995). Through this blended lens, principals are influenced by various constructs like personal experiences, environmental factors, leadership styles, and theoretical foundations. These factors influence how principals proceed in creating environments where teachers are empowered and students develop resilience; consequently, they demonstrate requisite skill-sets for college and career readiness in the 21st century (21C). This study dove deeper into pertinent constructs which will assist in a critical analysis of effective leadership practices in purposefully selected Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS). Leadership Styles and Theoretical Foundations The concept of leadership is so complex that developing one concrete, universal definition is near impossible (Bush & Glover, 2014; Leithwood, Jantzi, & Steinbach, 1999; Northouse, 2016). Northouse (2016) purported that there are virtually as many definitions of the term leadership as there are those who have attempted to define it. Although there is no clear agreement on what adequately defines leadership, there is a general consensus that the construct LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 27 of effective leadership is multifaceted (Bush & Glover, 2014; Elmore, 2004; Leithwood, Jantzi et al., 1999; Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005; McGowan & Miller, 2001; Northouse, 2016; Yukl, 2002). With its complexity, there are many varying degrees of defining what effective leadership involves. While Rubin, Munz, and Bommer (2005) proclaimed that leadership holds power to either shed light or cast shadows onto others, Yukl (2002) described it as an influence over others to perform and achieve a collective task. Elmore (2004) posited that leadership is an actionable word denoting the practice of improvement. Blending descriptive traits with actions, Northouse described leadership as the process in which one takes the lead to sway others within a specific context to follow his or her vision and achieve a common goal. Anybody can be placed into a position of leadership, per Northouse, but to be effective it takes a certain skills-set, which is both innate and learned. Ascertaining a wide-ranging consensus of traits essential for effective leadership is particularly significant to school efficacy (Marzano et al., 2005). Leadership is a vital and most influential factor in the development of efficacious operations for any organization (Bolman & Deal, 2013; Northouse, 2016). Specifically, schools are microcosmic organizations that profoundly need effective leadership to proliferate success (Northouse, 2016). Under this premise, McGowan and Miller (2001) asserted that leadership “requires courage, commitment, risk, and empathy. It builds on concentrated dedication and constructive participation” (p. 2). Belasco and Stayer (1993) further postulated that effective principals foster leadership qualities in staff members, establish goals specific to their student population’s needs, use reflection to address challenges, and are proactive in finding solutions. Efficacious leaders instill a commitment and create cohesive cultures; through vigor, providing a clear focus, and building capacity they lead their school to meet established goals and achieve their mission (Bolman & LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 28 Deal, 2013; Collins, 2001; Gurr, Drysdale, & Mulford, 2006; Northouse, 2016). Although viewed through a diversity of lenses, the construct of leadership concurrently and consistently includes three key tenets: (1) Leadership is a process, not a trait or characteristic, that is solely within the leader, but a transaction between leader and followers; (2) Leadership involves influence and its impact on the followers; and (3) Leadership occurs in groups who have a shared purpose to accomplish common goals (Bolman & Deal, 2013; Collins, 2001; Hallinger, 2011; Northouse, 2016). While the idea of leadership is a popular topic, especially among corporations or mainstream schools, little is known regarding the critical value of leadership within the outliers of society, continuation high schools. Clearly, these tenets of leadership align with meeting the needs of any school population, especially continuation high schools. More profoundly, continuation high schools need effective leaders who can influence all stakeholders with a clear mission and establish goals for students’ academic achievement and social competence (Childress, Elmore, & Grossman, 2006). This kind of leadership has become evident in model continuation high schools, which leaves no doubt that the quality in education is contingent upon quality of its leadership (Elmore, 2004; Nelson, Benner, Lane, & Smith, 2004). Here, it is pertinent to distinguish between leadership and management, especially when pondering the most effective route to achieve success among the most marginalized and challenging population, continuation high schools (Nelson et al., 2004). Leadership vs. Management While both are processes which necessitate working with and influencing others to achieve a goal, leadership is distinct from management (McGowan & Miller, 2001; Northouse, 2016). The primary functions of management are to provide order, maintain stability with LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 29 existing relationships, and perpetuate consistency with procedures that have been proven to be effective in the past (McGowan & Miller, 2001; Northouse, 2016; Zaleznik, 2004). Management, further purported by Zaleznik (2004), is about building capability, control, and an apposite balance of power; consequently, managers prioritize process, pursue stability and control, and attempt to expediently resolve problems, often without entirely understanding their significance. Leadership, in contrast, endeavors to fully understand underlying factors to resolve problems and perpetuate progress by pursuing adaptive and productive change (Northouse, 2016). McGowan and Miller (2001) concurrently noted that leadership is about taking risks, creating visions, challenging status quo, guiding the organization in new directions, expanding people’s mindsets, building enthusiasm about working with children and communities, establishing innovative structures and relationships, and advancing the prevailing cultures. Leadership moves beyond simply managing; essentially, it utilizes challenges to grow and incorporates elements of inspiration, vision, and passion to lead the organization to success (Zaleznik, 2004). Leaders, therefore, are able to manage, or ascertain that the organization is running efficiently and effectively. Both managers and leaders are essential for any organization to succeed, but its growth and direction is contingent upon the style, focus, priorities, and qualities of its leader (McGowan & Miller, 2001; Northouse, 2016; Zaleznik, 2004). The process in which a leader approaches the organization is influenced by his or her theoretical foundation. Trait Theory Trait theory is one of the forerunners in the study of leadership; originally focusing on innate qualities of renowned political, social, and military leaders, such as Abraham Lincoln, Mohandas Gandhi, or Joan of Arc, it evolved into a reconceptualized expansion of the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 30 universality of leadership traits and relationships between people (Northouse, 2016; Oceguera, 2014; Spencer, 2002). Leaders of this caliber, Northouse (2016) suggested, are either born with these traits, have learned them, or are a combination of both. With its focus on leaders and their traits central to the leadership process, trait theory progressed into a list of qualities, accepted by most researchers, that substantially contribute to a leader’s success: intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability (Spencer, 2002). Intelligence. Per trait theory, the effectiveness of a leader is directly related with his or her intelligence (Spencer, 2002). Strong leaders are identified as having a higher than average intelligence, which also includes strong verbal abilities, perceptual strengths, and stellar reasoning skills (Northouse, 2016; Spencer, 2002). Spencer (2002) further asserted that the trait of intelligence significantly subsidizes a leader’s attainment of multifaceted problem solving and social judgement skills. Intelligence is considered an essential trait necessary to have a positive impact on a leader’s capacity for effectiveness (Northouse, 2016; Oceguera, 2014; Spencer, 2002). Self-Confidence. The trait of self-confidence is referred to as a leader’s certainty about his or her competencies and skills required to influence others and make a difference (Spencer, 2002). While based upon the trait theory premise that it is an innate quality, Bolman and Deal (1994) asserted that a leaders' self-confidence comes from a genuine concern with helping others or expanding knowledge, which overcomes an egocentric worry of appearances. When self- confidence is visible, effective leaders are able to build trust and inspire others to follow their lead (Sinek, 2011). Determination. The trait of determination collectively involves the desire, initiative, perseverance, governance, and ambition to accomplish an established goal (Northouse, 2016; LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 31 Spencer, 2002). Linnenbrink-Garcia, Patall, and Pekrun (2016) posited that one’s determination is based upon intrinsic motivation, inherent satisfaction, and extrinsic motivation working toward a separable outcome. A willingness to be proactive and persist in light of complications also contributes to leader’s effectiveness, especially in times where dominance is necessary to influence or direct the followers (Northouse, 2016; Spencer, 2002). Integrity. A leader’s sense that his or her work is valuable and contributes to the betterment of others, an intrinsic motivator, is perpetuated by his or her integrity (Sullivan, 2005). Adhering to a strong set of principles, a leader’s integrity encompasses the qualities of honesty, trustworthiness, and taking responsibility for his or her own actions (Spencer, 2002). Sinek (2011) asserted that integrity is more than just a leadership trait, it is the action of doing the right thing. Through integrity, Gurr et al. (2006) indicated that a leader builds relationships with care and respect and demonstrates successful and effective leadership. Sociability. In conjunction with a strong ethical sense and drive to achieve goals for the betterment of the group, sociability is a key trait for effective leadership (Gurr et al., 2006; Northouse, 2016). Effective leaders evidence highly sociable traits, such as friendliness, courtesy, tact, diplomacy, and sensitivity toward the needs and concern for the well-being others (Spencer, 2002). Through sociability, leaders create and build upon positive relationships and are more apt to influence their followers (Gurr et al., 2006; Northouse, 2016; Spencer, 2002). In the early years of trait theory, many researchers agreed that these qualities are inherent to successful leaders; however, as research has progressed, others have argued that effective leadership requires more than personality traits, physical attributes, or personal values (Oceguera, 2014). The fact that trait theory had focused exclusively on the leader, as opposed to including situational factors or systemic dynamics, cause and effect of discoverable leadership LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 32 traits have not been fully addressed. Moreover, specific traits that would guarantee a leader’s success in any given situation have yet to be discovered (Northouse, 2016; Spencer, 2002; Stogdill, 1948). Northouse (2016) postulated that early trait theorists failed to acknowledge that leadership can be learned, that these specified traits can be developed over time, or that some leaders can be effective in certain situations but not in other circumstances. Concurrently, Pervin (1994) asserted that trait theory describes a leader’s effectiveness by simply narrowing it down to innate personality traits, which is fundamentally flawed in its ability to address factors related to personality dynamics or organizational patterns of all members within an association. Pervin further emphasized the importance of the functionality of a leader’s personality, necessitating further elucidations regarding the dimensions of temperament (e.g., emotionality, activity, sociability) and semantics (e.g., evaluation and potency of effectiveness). Combining traits and attributes into an integrated and meaningful construct, Zaccaro (2007) asserted, are more probable in predicting effective leadership than by singling out any one particular trait. Zaccaro further postulated that defining effective leadership patterns, such as the combination of social acumen, awareness, and insight with appropriate responses to varied social environments and contingent situations, can provide consistent models of effective leadership across a variation of organizations and circumstances. Stogdill (1948), however, challenged this notion by indicating that a leader’s skills or traits that are effective in one organization or situation are not necessarily effective under different circumstances or environments. Further, Stogdill contended that effective leadership is not solely based upon a set of innate qualities; rather, it emerges in different situations where personal relationships are built. In his longitudinal study to identify specific characteristics LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 33 commonly found in effective leaders, Stogdill postulated that successful leaders are: responsible and driven by task completion; pursue goals with vigor and persistence; take risks and apply innovative problem-solving skills; take initiative in social situations; adeptly influence others’ behaviors; confidently exhibit a strong self-concept; actively accept responsibility for own actions and consequences of decisions; willingly take on relational stress; demonstrate a high- frustration tolerance threshold and patience with delayed circumstances; and build social interaction system’s capacity for determined goals (Oceguera, 2014; Sypawka, 2008). One way to access necessary traits for effective leadership is through the concept of emotional intelligence (Petrides, 2010), also considered a critical trait by many (Goleman, 1998; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004, 2008; Salovey & Grewal, 2005; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). According to Salovey and Mayer (1990), emotional intelligence is the ability to understand, regulate, monitor, and access emotions of self and others to guide one's thinking and actions. Here, the interplay between a leader’s emotions and cognitive applications (Petrides, 2010) of necessary traits affect the leader’s choices and actions toward influencing others and leading to common goals (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2001). Some leaders have the capability to reason and utilize emotions to enhance thoughts and actions more effectively than others (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004, 2008). Research yields high correlations between emotional intelligence and efficacious leadership in business settings or like organizations (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2001; Petrides, 2010; Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005; Salovey & Grewal, 2005; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Leaders with higher emotional literacy are considered stronger in their ability to cultivate productive working relationships and perpetuate behaviors conducive to accomplishing set goals for the organization (Cherniss, Goleman, Emmerling, Cowan, & Adler, 1998; Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005; Salovey & Grewal, 2005). Clearly, traits that leaders exhibit LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 34 influence their followers. Traits are not only characteristics of an individual’s personality, but are also actions put into practice (Gurr et al., 2006; Northouse, 2016; Oceguera, 2014; Pervin, 1994; Zaccaro, 2007). In fact, theorists have suggested over the years that emotional intelligence is a primary factor in a leader’s effectiveness in applying pertinent traits in making a difference or leading an organization toward transformation (Cherniss et al., 1998; Gurr et al., 2006; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2008; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2001; Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Caruso, Mayer, and Salovey (2002) posited that accurately recognizing emotion in one’s self and others is critical to a leaders' capacity to inspire and build relationships. Gurr et al. (2006) furthered this postulation through their study which indicated that personality traits and emotional recognition were positively linked to transformational leadership. Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership, also known as charismatic leadership, is based upon the theory that leaders use their influence or charisma to motivate others to strive to rise to their fullest potential and work together to produce results beyond set goals or expectations (Burns, 1978; Bolman & Deal, 1991b; Marzano et al., 2005; Northouse, 2016; Rubin et al., 2005; Spencer, 2002). The concept of transformational leadership, initiated by Burns (1978), is premised on the notion that leadership encompasses a dynamic reciprocity between the leader and followers and which raises the level of morality between both (Northouse, 2016; Özaralli, 2003; Spencer, 2002). Bass (1985) furthered the idea by positing that transformational leadership involves motivating, empowering, and transforming followers by elucidating the critical value in task outcomes with which organizational goals or higher order needs should transcend all self-interests (Özaralli, 2003; Spencer, 2002). Through engagement and creating LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 35 trusting and respectful connections (Northouse, 2016), the leader transforms the followers or organization to adhere to a higher level of ethical standards and reach for long-term goals (Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Spencer, 2002). Research by Podsakoff, Dennis, MacKenzie, Moorman, and Fetter (1990) yielded evidence suggesting that transformational leadership is multidimensional in nature and entails the following key behaviors: identifying, developing, articulating, and inspiring others with visions for new opportunities (e.g., vision behavior); leading by example with which followers can emulate espoused values (e.g., model behavior); promoting cooperation, fostering acceptance of all members of the group and developing a cohesive mentality so that all members work together toward a common goal (e.g., goal behavior); indicating expectations for excellence, quality, and high performance by all followers (e.g., expectations behavior); providing individualized support for all members through demonstrations of respect and concern for their personal feelings and needs (e.g., supportive behavior); and challenging followers to re-evaluate personal assumptions about their work ethic and rethink how work can be achieved (e.g., intellectual stimulation behavior). Through transformational strategies such as these, Özaralli (2003) concurred that the leader empowers the followers and increases team effectiveness. Hence, attentiveness to the needs and motivational factors of all followers is necessary in order for a transformational leader to guide the followers in reaching their full potential (Spencer, 2002). Clearly, much research has been aimed at the theory of transformational leadership (Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Bolman & Deal, 1991a, 1991b; Burns, 1978; Leithwood, 1994; Marzano et al., 2005; Northouse, 2016; Özaralli, 2003; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Rubin et al., 2005). Among this research, a commonality of critical tenets of transformational leadership has LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 36 taken precedence. It is agreed that the skills needed for principals to be effective transformational leaders include: inspirational motivation, where high expectations are conveyed and modeled through the leader’s behaviors and articulated visions; individual consideration, where coaching or personal attention is provided to followers to stimulate learning, enhance professional growth, and empower individuals to rise above status quo; intellectual stimulation, where followers are motivated through new and challenging ideas and are encouraged to use innovative and divergent thinking skills prior to taking action or solving problems; and idealized influence or charisma, where leaders represent strong moral and ethical conduct through personal accomplishments and demonstrate character such that followers hold them in the highest regard with great trust and a desire to emulate their behaviors (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978; Leithwood, 1994; Marzano et al., 2005; Northouse, 2016). Through the applications of these tenets, leaders are able to guide their followers through a transformational process. Full Range Leadership Theory The Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT) was first hypothesized through the work of Bass and Avolio (2001) as they began to explore the tenets of transformational leadership (Abbas, Iqbal, Waheed, & Naveed Riaz, 2012). Initiated with Bass’s (1985) research, they began to extrapolate ideas regarding effective leadership traits and theorize that leadership styles are mostly comprised of three general domains: transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire (Abbas et al., 2012; Antonakis & House, 2014). Whereas transformational leadership is multidimensional and based upon influencing others through building common bonds and creating trusting and respectful connections (Bass, 1985; Northouse, 2016; Spencer, 2002), transactional leadership utilizes the exchange of rewards contingent upon a presentation of desired behaviors (Antonakis & House, 2014). While the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 37 transformational leader articulates a shared vision with the followers and creates reciprocated trust, the transactional leader employs a mutual exchange process to illicit anticipated outcomes from the followers (Antonakis & House, 2014; Burns, 1978; Spencer, 2002; Waldman, Bass, & Einstein, 1987). Both leadership styles actively seek to engage the followers and gain a commitment to progress toward or achieve an established goal; one is accomplished through the leader’s charisma and development of a mutual vision, while the other is by means of specific transactions of rewards for completed responsibilities. In a completely different light, the laissez-faire leadership style takes a passive approach; this leadership style does not proactively engage the followers, but rather reacts to problems once they have become obvious obstacles to goal attainment (Antonakis & House, 2014; Bush & Glover, 2003; Spencer, 2002). The laissez- faire leader does not notice or monitor mistakes as closely as the transformational or transactional leader, and is known to abdicate all leadership roles and responsibilities until absolutely necessary (Antonakis & House, 2014; Spencer, 2002). In reflection of all three leadership styles of FRLT, research indicated that transformational leadership style is considered the most effective in gaining common values and commitment toward a mission, especially for achieving long-term objectives (Antonakis & House, 2014; Spencer, 2002). With the tenets of transformational leadership in mind, the process of comparing the effectiveness of these three types of leadership evolved into the creation of an open-ended questionnaire, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire™ (Avolio & Bass, 2004). This assessment protocol has been utilized and validated across a variation of sectors, such as industry (Hater & Bass, 1988) and the military (Yammarino & Bass, 1990), resulting in the Full Range Leadership (FRL) model and training program (Antonakis & House, 2014; Avolio et al., 1999; Bass, 2009). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 38 Continuation High Schools According to the Legislative Analyst’s Office (Taylor, 2015), continuation high schools are one of six types of alternative school options authorized by the State. The vision of alternative schools is for all students, identified as at-risk, to graduate from high school prepared for college, career, and adulthood (Taylor, 2015). The literature, however, highlighted historical and current challenges in the form of conflicting, inconsistent, and ambiguous policy that serve as impediments toward accomplishing this vision (Taylor, 2015; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). Contextual Background The State indicates that continuation education is a high school diploma program designed to meet the needs of students 16 through 18 years of age who have not graduated from high school, are legally required to attend school, and are at risk of dropping out (CDE, 2017c). The State adds that many students in continuation high school are credit deficient and may need a flexible school schedule due to employment demands, family needs, or other circumstances (CDE, 2018a). Whereas, traditional sites require their students to attend six hours of school per day, students in continuation schools are required to attend a minimum of three hours per school day (CDE, 2018a). Like traditional schools, continuation schools are operated by school districts and required to meet minimum State graduation requirements; yet, the graduation requirements for continuation students may be lower than that of traditional schools and their enrollment size is much smaller than traditional high schools – with a median of about 100 students per school compared to a median of about 1,300 students at traditional high schools (Taylor, 2015). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 39 Due to high rates of mobility, the available demographic and performance indicators for alternative and continuation settings are often estimates (Austin et al., 2008; CDE, 2017d; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Warren, 2016; Williamson, 2008). Annually, alternative schools serve approximately half a million students who are considered at risk of dropping out of school or are not successful in traditional schools (Taylor, 2015). The literature noted that on any given school day, an estimated 5% of students (1 in 20) are enrolled in an alternative school, the majority of students (over 95%) enrolled in alternative education are at the high school level, and nearly two-thirds of alternative school students are enrolled in a continuation education setting (Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016; Williamson, 2008). California has about 468 to 500 continuation high schools which serve approximately 116,000 or 10 to 15% of the student population over the course of a school year (CDE, 2017a; Taylor, 2015; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Warren, 2016; Williamson, 2008). The numbers fluctuate due to schools’ openings and closures. Historical Overview American continuation education was based on British and German 1870s continuation school models which emphasized adaptability to the social, political, and economic needs of the time; local implementation with limited accountability; and site management that falls largely to the continuation educator or principal (Williamson, 2008). Based on this model, the first continuation school was established in Wisconsin in 1911 and in 1917 the Smith-Hughes Act authorized federal funding for local continuation schools throughout the nation (Williamson, 2008). The literature noted that the provisions regarding alternative schools are outdated and do not align with the 21st century demands of a global economy (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016; Williamson, 2008). As an example, the limited requirement for school attendance and vocational emphasis LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 40 in the Education Code suggests tolerance for lowered expectations regarding achievement for continuation students, which patently contradicts the mission of continuation schools to ensure at-risk youth graduate prepared for college, career, and adulthood (Taylor, 2015; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). The literature categorized continuation education’s evolution into four general eras (Kelly, 1993; Williamson, 2008). From 1917 to 1930, continuation education mainly aimed at preparing students for industrial vocation, citizenship, the assimilation of recent immigrants, and placement into work. Between 1931 to 1944 the focus evolved to vocational guidance rather than placement due to increased levels of unemployment and criminalization of loitering and unemployed young men of color and poverty, in particular. During 1945 to 1964, continuation education emphasized the socialization and reforming of students referred to as “maladjusted youth” (Williamson, 2008, p. 10). In the era from 1965 to present time, dropout prevention has been the primary purpose of continuation education. Today, continuation schools are referred to as “a cornerstone of the State’s dropout prevention strategy” (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008, p. 1). Efforts promotive of positive graduation rates are of critical importance because dropping out of high school increases the likelihood of poverty, poor health, unemployment or low-wages, delinquency, family dysfunction, mental illness, inequality, and significant economic strain to the local community and country (Alliance for Excellent Education, n.d.; Anderson, 2014; Bjerk, 2012; Campbell, 2015; Chung, 2015; Gurantz, 2010). While the average public expenditure per pupil enrolled in California elementary and secondary schools is approximately $10,000 (Fensterwald, 2017), a 1998 study by Cohen (as cited in Anderson, 2014), estimated that the cost to society for a high school dropout is about $300,000 over that individual’s lifetime. Other research iterated that LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 41 dropouts are at greater risk of incarceration and mental illness; in California, the average cost per year to incarcerate a minor is $208,338 and $47,421 for an adult (Henrichson & Delaney, 2012; Petteruti, Schindler, & Ziedenberg, 2014). Clearly, it is in the interest of the individual and society at large to invest in research as an impetus to ascertaining empirically validated, best practices towards efforts in positive educational outcomes, including dropout prevention, for students. Continuation high schools face unique contextual challenges. The literature indicated that due to “contradictory, confusing, and inconsistent” State accountability for continuation schools, there is great variance in the educational quality and experiences of the students they serve (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012, p. 6). Based on information from the CDE, California’s overall graduation rate has shown improvement over the last seven years and is currently at 83% (CDE, 2017d). Yet, research indicated great disparities among settings; on average, California’s continuation school students are two and one-half times more likely to dropout compared to peers in traditional settings (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). In the 2012- 2013 school year, from a sample of 258 continuation schools, 86% had a graduation rate below 83% with seven as low as zero percent and nine with a 100% graduation rate (Gordon, 2017). Students Continuation high school youth are exceptionally vulnerable and must confront and overcome harsh obstacles interfering with their path towards graduation. Although continuation education data lacks precision and there is significant variation between schools, research emphasized highly apparent commonalities. As mentioned, compared to peers in traditional settings, continuation students are significantly behind in academic credits and have a higher risk of dropping out (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015). Moreover, a meta-analysis LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 42 of health-related research in alternative high schools from 2010 to 2015 found that these students experience a disproportionate range of risk factors that manifests in much higher involvement in health-risk behaviors and levels of mental health problems (Johnson et al., 2016). This meta- analysis also found that increased parental influence and monitoring correlated with decreased use of illicit drugs and gang involvement among students. Students in alternative education commonly experience low parental involvement (Munoz, 2004). Further, the study by Johnson et al. (2016) found that, compared to traditional settings, alternative schools have greater availability of high-fat/salty foods and described some of the school buildings and resources as being in “despair” (p. 26) suggesting that the alternative school environment may affect the mental health of its students. Continuation students are two to three times as likely to engage in regular and heavy alcohol and drug use (including at school), physical fights, truancy, and sexually risky behaviors (Johnson et al., 2016; Munoz, 2004; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017). Continuation schools enroll a disproportionately high percentage of foster youth, English Learners, Black, Latino, transient, and low-income students; these students are more likely to experience physical victimization in and out of school (Johnson et al., 2016; Malagon & Alvarez, 2010; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Williamson, 2008). In the face of these adversities, research indicated that effective leadership within continuation schools can help set the stage for empowerment, educational success, and social-emotional resiliency among our most vulnerable students at risk of dropping out (Farris, 2014; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Zolkoski et al., 2016). Accountability Despite the important role of continuation education in dropout prevention and supporting positive student outcomes for some of our most neglected youth, the State’s current LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 43 school accountability system does not hold continuation schools accountable for short- or long- term performance objectives. This systemic issue impedes the identification of continuation schools that may or may not be serving students well, or for providing those low-performing schools with appropriate supports, intervention, and incentives for improvement (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016). Primarily due to high mobility rates, existing measures of State accountability based on performance data do not adequately evaluate student progress in continuation schools (Austin et al. 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Warren, 2016; Williamson, 2008). Typically, students enroll for less than one year in a given continuation school, which means that the State’s use of a four-year cohort graduation rate to calculate dropout and graduation rates generally cannot be calculated for continuation schools. Also, due to an average enrollment period of four to five months, student performance on annual State standardized test scores are not likely a reflection of the present continuation school’s effect on his/her learning, but rather that of previous schooling (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). Moreover, the State does not require the systematic data collection/analysis on the rate of transfer to non-alternative settings such as back to the traditional or postsecondary settings (Taylor, 2015). The previously administered Alternative Schools Accountability Model (ASAM) was developed in 2000 by the CDE in conjunction with the 1999 Public Schools Accountability Act (PSAA; Williamson, 2008). Between 2003 and 2009, the State used the ASAM rather than traditional indicators for alternative schools. However, the ASAM system was never fully implemented in large part because the intervening federal No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 required that alternative schools meet the same Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) criteria like other schools (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015). ASAM data collection LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 44 and reporting thus became voluntary, performance indicators varied making comparisons across continuation schools unreliable, and data provided an incomplete picture of continuation schools’ performance in that it only included students who were enrolled for at least 90 days (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Williamson, 2008). In 2009, Governor Schwarzenegger vetoed funding for the ASAM program and was discontinued altogether beginning with the 2010-11 school year. Many continuation schools did not have a sufficient number of applicable test scores to receive an accountability report between 2009 and 2013 (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015). In 2013, the State passed AB 570 in an effort to put districts on notice and create incentives to move more affirmatively towards ameliorating the accountability gap (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017). Also, in 2013, the State adopted the Local Control Funding Formula (LCFF) which significantly changed the school accountability system as indicated in the California School Dashboard (CDE, 2018b). Performance indicators and standards identify the strengths and areas in need of improvement for traditional, K-12 schools. Yet, the Dashboard does not adequately evaluate the performance of alternative schools (CDE, 2017b; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015). In 2014, the first year of implementation of the State’s newest accountability report, many Local Control and Accountability Plans (LCAPs) disregarded alternative schools (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015). The risk of such practice is that if alternative schools’ outcomes are not separately emphasized in LCAPs, then performance indicators of alternative education will continue to be concealed by district or county averages. Further, if issues at alternative schools are ignored then systemic equitable access to appropriate State support and intervention will be denied to our most at-risk youth (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 45 Consequently, in July of 2017, the State approved the Dashboard Alternative School Status (DASS) program (CDE, 2018b). DASS holds alternative schools accountable for modified methods of measurement for indicators that are aligned with the evaluation rubrics of the LCFF to evaluate the success or progress of schools that serve high-risk students. DASS will be incorporated in the Dashboard beginning with the fall 2018 release. The State Board of Education (SBE) has yet to decide the cut points/modified methods at this time (CDE, 2018b). Based on a review of the literature regarding best practices for improving accountability in continuation education, it was recommended that schools measure academic performance on State-approved pre- and post-benchmarks, credits earned, continued use of annual standardized tests to measure the performance of their longer-term students, successful transitions (e.g., return to traditional setting, post-secondary program, etc.), and one-year graduation rates for seniors (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016). It was also recommended that the State collect and publish performance data in accountability reports for all continuation schools regardless of enrollment numbers and that any additional indicators it adopts to measure continuation schools’ performance be comparable across all continuation schools to identify best practices and schools in need of support or intervention (Taylor, 2015). Moreover, it was recommended that DASS include accountability indicators regarding school connectedness (e.g., attendance, punctuality), additional special indicators for vulnerable populations (e.g., pregnant and parenting youth, lesbian, gay, bi-sexual, or transgender youth, etc.), and that continuation schools establish clear identification, placement, orientation, and monitoring procedures for all students (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 46 Effective Leadership Although there are serious challenges inherent to continuation education, effective leadership at the principal level is foundational to high-performing continuation schools (Bush, 2012; Farris, 2014; Hemmer et al., 2013; Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Sumbera, 2017). Research findings proposed that continuation schools are more likely to ensure their students graduate from high school with 21st century skills requisite for post-secondary education and/or career readiness if the following key practices are established (Bush, 2012; Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). First, effective continuation principals have positive expectations for students and clear goals that align with the mission, vision, and practices of stakeholders. For example, Bush and Glover (2012) found that high-performing schools incorporate structural modifications, such as altered course structures, short-term modules, and performance-based credit recovery. With regard to curriculum design, Bush and Glover found that high-performing schools applied a data-driven approach to address learning gaps, backward-mapping to State standards, and online learning. These beliefs and practices are consistent with the vision, expectations, and goal-oriented tenets of transformational leadership (Podsakoff et al., 1990). Second, effective schools have transparent and consistent intake and transfer processes that are reinforced by district administration and aligns with the school’s goals (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). For example, effective continuation schools limit involuntary transfers to other appropriate alternative programs designed to meet the needs of students with behavioral challenges. Third, effective continuation principals drive school improvement by regularly monitoring reliable and meaningful data (e.g., attendance, graduation and transfer rates, etc.) and LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 47 participating in the accreditation process by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) or Model Continuation High School (MCHS) distinction (Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Warren, 2016). Also, partaking in the WASC and MCHS processes are a means of mitigating the negative effects of inadequate State accountability for alternative schools. Further, there is a culture of validation and recognition of students/staff for educational growth and progress (e.g., benchmark assessments, credit recovery). Fourth, high-performing schools apply a variety of innovative methods to expand instructional minutes for students beyond the minimum State requirements of three hours per day so as to facilitate collaboration/planning between teachers, direct instruction, and expanded curricular options (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). These practices are exemplars of transformational leadership in that the principal cultivates collaborative efforts among staff toward a shared goal, high expectations, and intellectual stimulation (Podsakoff et al., 1990). Fifth, effective principals spearhead intentional efforts to analyze school climate data to foster a safe, supportive, caring, and engaging learning environment (Bush, 2012). This fifth element compliments descriptive research by Perez and Johnson (2008) and Ruiz de Velasco and Gonzales (2017) who contended that school connectedness and caring relationships among staff and students are imperative to effective continuation schools. This finding is consistent with that of a mixed-methods study by Brown (2007) and a qualitative study by te Riele, Mills, McGregor, and Baroutsis (2017), both conducted in alternative high school settings, which concluded that fostering a culture of trusting and caring relationships were identified as imperative factors for both students and staff (Brown, 2007). These findings are consistent with transformational leadership as it noted the intentional creation of an engaging and positive school culture LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 48 committed to high expectations and ethical standards (Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Northouse, 2016). Similarly, effective continuation principals are team oriented and consistently utilize and cultivate discipline policies and practices that are restorative, grounded in a system of positive behavioral intervention support, and solution/resolution focused (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). Moreover, high-performing schools had innovative principal and staff leaders that provided a range of academic, social-emotional, post-secondary, and vocational supports on and off campus, including building alliances and working relationships with local agencies and businesses in the interest of students (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). Lastly, effective leaders are supported by district administration in areas of relevant and ongoing professional development tailored to the unique needs of continuation schools and create incentives to attract highly-skilled staff (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017). Overall, despite the challenges inherent to continuation school settings, the literature affirmed a variety of best practices identified within high-performing continuation schools throughout the State under effective principal leadership (Bush, 2012; Farris, 2014; Hemmer et al., 2013; Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Sumbera, 2017). Model Continuation High Schools As noted, effective continuation principals utilized a practice to drive school improvement – initiating accountability via external validation processes, such as through the MCHS distinction or WASC accreditation, as a means of mitigating the negative effects of LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 49 inadequate State accountability for alternative schools (Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; ). Initiated as a joint project, the CDE and the California Continuation Education Association (CCEA) have created a recognition program, the Model Continuation High School (MCHS) Recognition Program, to identify and recognize exemplary continuation high schools (CDE, 2018c). The selected schools are recognized for the comprehensive services provided to their at-risk student population, evidenced through flexible scheduling, pedagogical strategies, guidance, and counseling. Having qualified as model schools, these continuation high schools provide high quality standards that can be emulated in other continuation high schools throughout the State. In fact, an annual list of these purposively selected schools is used as a resource of high caliber programs for school visitations from other California continuation high schools. These programs are selected through a rigorous application process which includes a peer-review panel and on-site visitation to ascertain effectiveness, assessments, and the use of data to provide evidence-based achievement. When the California Superintendent of Schools, Tom Torlakson, announced the Model Continuation High Schools for 2017, he described these schools as being innovative, effective programs that work to motivate and support at-risk youth and help them achieve their fullest potential (CDE, 2017f). He then described their creative programs, such as STEM and Career Technical Education classes, that guide and prepare this population of students for 21st century careers and college. These schools, in essence, have been chosen for their efforts and success in changing the trajectories of their at-risk youth. At the very core of each school, is a leader; an impassioned and driven principal who has modeled a clear vision, firm values, and great influence over the staff, students, and community. Without great LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 50 leadership, continuation high schools will continue to exist in the peripheral of typical high schools and perpetuate the marginalization of its populace. Conclusion Based on a comprehensive review of the literature there are both theoretical and empirical justifications for conducting research regarding effective principal leadership in distinguished Model Continuation High Schools. This is an important area of investigation because continuation students are highly vulnerable youth who generally are at greatest risk of dropout. There is an abundance of research on leadership theory, yet research on the perceptions, practices, and leadership styles of principals of MCHS is limited. The research indicated that the function of continuation schools has varied over the century. Presently, they are meant to prevent dropout, yet they significantly vary in quality, serve the highest numbers of disenfranchised students in the State, and have inadequate and outdated State accountability. Processes such as WASC accreditation and MCHS distinction as well as anticipated improved DASS State accountability system are predicted to positively impact the quality of continuation high schools. Nonetheless, further research is needed to validate this assumption. Chapter Three will include a discussion of the research design, data collection, and data analysis. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 51 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY Introduction This chapter includes a brief summary of the problem, purpose, review of literature, and research questions that guided this study. It also includes an overview of the design of the study, as well as a description of the participants, setting, instrumentation, data collection procedures, and the methods of data analysis. It concludes with a summary of the research methodology and preview of chapters four and five. Restatement of the Problem, Purpose, and Research Questions California Continuation High Schools are multi-faceted organizations comprised of students at risk of not graduating, who often have very high needs and face very difficult challenges (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). The complex challenges in leading these organizations are made more difficult, given the low priority that is placed on the research, administration, and accountability of continuation education (Villalobos, 2014). With regard to the research, it was documented that there is scant research available to influence and improve practices of continuation schools (Ruiz de Velasco et al, 2008; Villalobos, 2014). The administration of a continuation school is inconsistent from school to school, given that alternative education (AE) models operate with ambiguous legislation, an over-generalized mission, a weak accountability system, and a lack of data (Williamson, 2008). Lastly, there has historically been little to no effective forms of State accountability (Warren, 2016). Given these conditions, there is a tremendous need for quality leadership who can successfully shape a school that can provide a world-class education for its at-risk students. The review of the literature showed that while there is ample literature on qualities of effective principal leaders in traditional settings, research regarding key qualities of effective LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 52 principal leadership in California continuation high schools is sparse (Goldring et al., 2009; Hitt & Tucker, 2016; Leithwood, Seashore Louis et al., 2004; Winton & Pollock, 2016). Further, the literature that does highlight continuation principal leadership only highlights a few key qualities, such as being team oriented, consistently utilizing and cultivating discipline policies and practices that are restorative, and solution/resolution focused (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). Based on a review of the literature, there is a need for specific research that captures leadership styles, orientations, or constructs of effective continuation principals. To address this gap in the literature, the purpose of this study was to examine, through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (Avolio et al., 1999), the efficacious leadership qualities and practices of principals from alternative school settings who are deemed successful through recognition as California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS). Hence, the following research questions have been used to guide this study: 1. Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as identified by their teachers? 2. What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes? 3. As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success? 4. How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of their schools? LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 53 Design Overview This study was completed using the Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods design which is a two-phase study that first involves collecting and analyzing data quantitatively, then next builds upon the results through a qualitative study (Creswell, 2014). Moreover, Malloy (2011) purported that a mixed methodology most thoroughly answers all research questions; therefore, this sequential approach is specifically designed to provide qualitative data that expands upon the initial quantitative results (Creswell, 2014), and further supports generated answers to the research questions. The most evident benefits to a mixed-method design is that it draws on the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative designs, is appealing to those at the forefront of research due to its sophistication, and provides a more complete understanding of research problems (Creswell, 2014; Malloy, 2011). The quantitative instrumentation, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire™ 5X (MLQ- 5X, Avolio & Bass, 2004), ideally answers the research question seeking to identify the statistically predominant leadership style of principals, based on the perceptions of their teachers, as indicated on the questionnaires (see Appendix A). Creswell (2014) suggested that quantitative results often guide the researchers in moving toward the second, qualitative, phase of the study. Qualitative research, as described by Creswell (2014), is an inductive method of inquiry that focuses on the meaning and accentuates the importance of the interpretation behind the complexity of given situations or phenomenology. Through this methodology, interviews with Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals were utilized to explore the most efficacious leadership traits and practices in which they believe are essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes, along with the ways in which they measure the effectiveness of their schools (see Appendix B). As a point of comparison, non-MCHS teachers LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 54 were also surveyed through the MLQ-5X and their principals were interviewed to see if there are leadership similarities or differences from their model school counterparts. As the quantitative data, ascertained through the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) results, indicated predominant leadership traits of the selected continuation high school principals, the qualitative portion of the research began to analyze school documents and fine tune the interview questions to learn more about the identified predominant leadership styles. Therefore, the generated results from the data collection instrument, MLQ-5X, were then used to modify the types of probes included on the qualitative interview questions regarding the predominant leadership style of the selected principal participants. To help further explain, or provide more detail to the initial quantitative results, a document analysis was also employed as a phase-two qualitative measure. In short, after analyzing the quantitative data of the MLQ-5X, this study then utilized qualitative measures, such as specified interview questions and document analysis, to support findings aimed at answering all research questions. Validation of data was accomplished through triangulation. The logic of triangulation is based on the premise that no single method adequately solves the problem of rival explanations (Patton, 2002). Triangulation facilitates validation of data through cross verification of multiple data sources, such as the research base, surveys, interviews, and document analysis (Creswell, 2014; Patton, 2002). Accordingly, the researchers performed a document analysis of the Model Continuation High School (MCHS) application as a means of validating reported beliefs and practices as indicated on the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) surveys by the teachers and interviews with principals. Through this means of triangulation, an evaluation of consistency among all gathered information and their findings from the different sources was completed. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 55 Sample and Population Since there are currently no State-sanctioned accountability methods for continuation education, continuation schools largely have to rely on self-accountability. The largest program for continuation schools is the California Model Continuation High School (MCHS) program, which involves a rigorous self study that is submitted to the State (CDE, 2017f). The MCHS program requires that key components are in place for selected schools. With this information in mind, three types of purposeful samplings have been used in this study: unique, convenience, and snowball or network (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The selected sites and participants are considered unique, exemplary and successful, based upon their status as MCHS. The unique organizational attributes and pedagogical practices of selected sites and participants are informative to this research. As a point of comparison, non-MCHS schools were also selected, and these schools and their leaders were based off convenience. Creswell (2014) stated that the sample size depends on the research design and phenomenological studies typically range from three to ten participants. The researchers utilized convenience sampling for the selection of the nine research-worthy sites because this methodology facilitates increased opportune access to the participants in consideration of time limitations, familiarity, location, and availability (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Hence, the setting for the study was limited to six Model Continuation High Schools and three non-Model Continuation High Schools located in southern California. Subsequently, each researcher individually evaluated documents, surveys, and interview data from two separate MCHS and one non-MCHS for this study. The selection of participants in this study is considered snowball or network sampling because the school principal participants were specifically selected through the generated list of LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 56 State-selected Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS). For the non-MCHS’s, information from the teachers’ completing the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) paved the way for interviewing their respective principals. All teachers from the selected continuation high school sites were given the opportunity to complete the MLQ-5X questionnaire, which served for the quantitative data collection and guided the study in determining the predominant leadership type of their principals. The most prolific leadership styles were then distilled from the data collection tool, MLQ-5X, which was then used to craft a purposeful interview from the sample of principals. These principals were then interviewed by the researcher regarding essential leadership qualities, attributes and worldviews that help them lead their programs. Instrumentation The quantitative data was collected using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire™ 5X (MLQ-5X, Avolio & Bass, 2004). The MLQ-5X is the most widely used data collection tool to measure the Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT) developed by Avolio and Bass (Antonakis, Avolio, & Sivasubramaniam, 2003; Muenjohn & Armstrong, 2008). The MLQ-5X FRLT assesses for the three classifications of leadership behavior: transformational, transactional, and passive/avoidant leadership. These classifications are represented and assessed by nine distinct factors (Mind Garden, Inc., 2004). The first five elements constitute transformational leadership: (1) idealized influence–attributed (IIA), (2) idealized influence–behavior (IIB), (3) inspirational motivation (IM), (4) intellectual stimulation (IS), and (5) individualized consideration (IC). The next two components that constitute transactional leadership are: (6) contingent reward leadership (CR), (7) and management-by-exception active (MBEA). The last two factors assessed for passive/avoidant leadership were (8) management-by-exception passive (MBEP) and (9) laissez-faire leadership (LF) (Mind Garden, Inc., 2004). The MLQ-5X contains 45 items LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 57 that represent the nine factors mentioned of the three leadership classifications (Mind Garden, Inc., 2004). Respondents answer how frequently their supervisors display the behaviors that match the leadership style using a 5-point, Likert-scale questionnaire with the responses of 1=not at all, 2=once in a while, 3=sometimes, 4=fairly often, and 5=always (Muenjohn & Armstrong, 2008; Özaralli, 2003). The MLQ-5X is considered the best validated measure of transformational and transactional leadership (Özaralli, 2003). Antonakis et al. (2003) conducted research on the MLQ-5X and found the assessment to be useful and sufficiently valid in measuring for Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT). Muenjohn and Armstrong (2008) conducted a study that examined the structural validity and internal reliability of the MLQ-5X and established that the Cronbach’s alpha was a 0.86, which is considered a relatively strong reliability (Kurpius & Stafford, 2006). Finally, as posited by Muenjohn and Armstrong, the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) is a valid quantitative assessment with which researchers can confidently use as an instrumentation to measure for transformational, transactional, and laissez- faire leadership factors. True to the explanatory sequential mixed methodology, quantitative information gathered from the results of the MLQ-5X paved the way for identifying supportive documents and crafting pertinent, qualitative interview questions that would build upon the initial quantitative results. For this study, gaining an understanding of the principal leadership styles, perspectives, and applications of their worldviews into the school cultures of effective MCHS continuation schools is of primary concern. While the selection of non-MCHS schools were chosen by convenience of location and availability, MCHS principal selection was limited to those who have served at their sites for a minimum of three years, thus matching the MCHS three-year cycle. Being purposeful about the sample allowed the data collection to be gathered from those who were best in a position to offer LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 58 insight and understanding (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) to pertinent leadership practices, specifically as they relate to the continuation high school culture. Therefore, the predominant leadership traits, quantitatively measured through the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004), were used to craft a purposeful interview with the sample of principals as part of the qualitative study. Qualitative data was gathered from interviews of the principals. The research interview, a procedure where the researcher and participant discuss queries related to the topic of inquiry, is considered a major source of the qualitative data necessary for understanding the phenomenon under study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). While research questions formulate what the study intends to understand, the interview asks participants related questions to gain deeper understanding, from their perspectives, of the phenomenon (Maxwell, 2013). Again, gaining an understanding of the MCHS participants’ perspectives and applications of their worldviews into the continuation high school cultures, as compared to non-MCHS, is of primary concern; therefore, interviewing is considered an optimal choice in gathering this data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A semi-structured interview was conducted with each respondent, which offers the strengths of minimizing interviewer effects and bias since several interviewers were used (Patton, 2002). An interview guide was made with a variety of questions (opinion/values, feeling, knowledge, sensory, experience/behavior), so that the respondents could express the totality of their experiences in their own terms (Patton, 2002). This format also served as a guide to assist in gaining specific data from the participants, yet allowed for probing of questions when clarification or extrapolation became necessary to gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenology. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 59 Data Collection Procedures Prior to beginning the research and gaining access/entry to the sites where the study was conducted, Creswell (2014) encouraged researchers to consider codes of ethics, such as professional association standards, while gaining local permission from site and/or district administrators and participants. The lists of California Model Continuation High Schools were retrieved from the CDE website (CDE, 2016, 2017f, 2018d). Online research was conducted and/or phone calls made to ascertain if the current principal had been at the given site for at least three years. Non-MCHSs were identified by convenience of location and availability, by means of internet search and phone contacts. When it was determined that MCHS schools had the same administrator in that position for at least three years, permission was sought from each principal to survey the school teachers with the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) tool. Permission from the non-MCHS principals was also granted to survey the school teachers with the same instrument, the MLQ-5X. Each principal was given information regarding the purpose of the study, the format of the study, their role to help facilitate an introduction with the teachers, and a follow-up principal interview. By means of physical or electronic introduction/explanation, participant teachers were then given the purpose of the study, the method of the study, and a disclosure of the research team’s commitment to ethics, followed by the MLQ-5X survey. This was done during a part of their staff meeting or by an email with a video clip explaining the process and providing the link to the study. The researcher provided an invitation to the teachers to participate, which reiterated the purpose of the study and provided the link to the MLQ-5X survey. Teachers spent about 15 minutes completing the MLQ-5X survey. After each teacher completed the survey, they received a follow-up email thanking them for their participation. After survey data was analyzed, a follow-up interview was scheduled with the principals. The LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 60 principals were interviewed in their respective offices or location of their choosing to ensure that the environment was comfortable and confidential. Each principal was told how he/she was selected and ensured that there was no obligation to partake. For the semi-structured, guided interviews, questions were crafted purposefully, based upon results from the quantitative data, following the criteria described in the instrumentation and protocols section of this chapter. The selected respondents were called and the researcher identified him or herself; restated the background and purpose of the interview; and scheduled a place, time, and date to conduct the interview. A follow-up email was sent to each interviewee to provide background information. Each participant was informed that their real names would not be used, nor would the name of the school be included in the dissertation. With the granted permission of respondents, the interviews were audio recorded for posterity. This allowed the researcher to focus more on the participant and not solely on writing down detailed notes, even though some notes were taken during and after the interview (Patton, 2002). The recordings also assisted with filling in missing gaps when transcribing, or reviewing, when the interview seemed unclear. The recordings were professionally transcribed onto a Microsoft Word document using Rev software. Data Analysis The goal of this study was to examine the effective leadership qualities and practices of principals from successful alternative school settings that are recognized as MCHS based on Full Range Leadership Theory (Avolio et al., 1999). The researchers’ intent was to generate a rich portrayal of the multifaceted phenomena of successful MCHS principals’ worldviews and constructs involved in the creation of environments where marginalized populations of students are transformed into thriving continuation high school campuses who have risen to a level of LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 61 State recognition. The Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods methodology assisted in providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research questions (Creswell, 2014; Malloy, 2011). Quantitative data derived from the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) and qualitative information gathered from the interviews were then triangulated with data from the document analysis of the MCHS application from the purposefully selected sites in this study, along with the research base on effective leadership, framed on theories of constructivism and phenomenology. By means of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting the data acquired from studying these MCHS principals’ worldviews, policies, processes, and practices, the researchers were able to formulate germane assertions that could possibly expand upon current research and create hypothesis for further studies, as well as answer the research questions. After all data was collected, the researchers utilized the Google Highlight Tool to facilitate the examination of the interview and the document analysis of the MCHS Application whereby the results were organized into small detailed categories in an open coding process (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). As new information was identified, a new code was created; each was defined and placed into a codebook. After no new codes could be identified, a second step of axial coding was initiated (Corbin & Strauss, 2008, Corbin, Strauss, & Strauss, 2015). During the axial coding process, the researchers grouped similar pieces of open codes, creating larger pieces of data or themes (see Appendix B). The final step in the coding process was selective coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) where main themes were identified. During each step in the evaluation of the data, the focus was on how the survey, interview, document analysis, and research or theoretical framework triangulated to address the research questions of this study. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 62 Ethical Considerations The validity–or credibility and reliability–or dependability of a study are contingent upon the researcher’s ethics (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Patton (2015) further emphasized that the trustworthiness of a study’s data is directly tied to the trustworthiness of the researcher who collects and analyzes it. Fully aware that the role as a researcher could have a direct impact on the relationship with the participants and outcome of the research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), the researchers embarked to answer several ethical questions, as recommended by Linda Tuhiwai Smith (Tuhiwai Smith, 1999), Who defined the research problem? For whom is the study worthy and relevant? Who says so? What knowledge will the community gain from the study? What knowledge will the researcher gain from the study? What are some likely positive outcomes from the study? What are some possible negative outcomes? To whom is the researcher accountable? (p. 173). The researchers reflected upon these questions throughout the research process, from start to completion. Additionally, the researchers referred to Patton’s (2015 as cited in Merriam and Tisdell, 2016) “Ethical Issues Checklist” which delineates the following, (1) explaining the purpose of inquiry methods to be used, (2) reciprocity . . . , (3) promises, (4) risk assessment, (5) confidentiality, (6) informed consent, (7) data access and ownership, (8) interviewer mental health, (9) ethical advice . . ., (10) data collection boundaries, (11) ethical and methodological choices, [and] (12) ethical versus legal issues (pp. 496-497). (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, pp. 264-265). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 63 Within clearly set ethical parameters, the researchers embarked upon a journey to explore and extrapolate from a rich context of data findings, which guided the process of triangulating emerging constructs to develop assertions. Utilizing these strategies allowed the researchers to verify the credibility and trustworthiness of the findings and assist in addressing potential ethical issues. Specifically, this proposal was submitted to and approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the University of Southern California. There was written consent from the school district representative in which the selected school sites for the study are located. These consent forms ensured that all parties involved were interviewed, questioned, and provided research- related documents voluntarily (see Appendix D). The names of all respondents were altered and their identities were not disclosed. All respondents were asked for permission to digitally record their interviews, and the recorder was left out in plain view. Requests to comment off the record were honored. The transcribed interviews were stored in a secure place and will be destroyed in 2019. Summary Chapter three gave a summary of the research problem, purpose, and a review of the literature review. There is little research with regard to effective practices and leadership styles of continuation principals, creating the need for this study. The study is an Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods study that began with surveys of teachers in southern California Model Continuation Schools, and compared with non-MCHS’s, using the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) data collection tool. The results from this tool were then used to generate specific questions or probes which helped extrapolate more information regarding the predominant leadership style identified from the MLQ-5X, and used for the qualitative part of the study: LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 64 principal interviews and document analysis. MCHS principals selected had been at their sites for a minimum of three years, which is one full cycle of the Model Continuation School cycle, while non-MCHS were selected based upon convenience of location to each researcher and availability. The principals were a part of a semi-structured interview. The results were then transcribed and coded for analysis. Chapter Four includes a discussion of the results of the data collection, while the usefulness of the results, and further areas of study will be presented in Chapter Five. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 65 CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH RESULTS AND FINDINGS Introduction Based on Full Range Leadership Theory (Avolio et al., 1999), the primary purpose of this research was to explore efficacious leadership traits, styles, and practices of principals who have been identified as successfully leading their alternative school settings to the status of California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS), in California Continuation Schools. The results and findings from the study, specifically focusing on effective leadership styles, practices and policies at continuation high schools who have successfully improved the quality of educational experiences of the most marginalized and at-risk students, will be presented in this chapter. Generated results provide valuable information regarding practitioner and policy implications as they relate to professional development and potential trainings specific to successfully creating systematic change through accountability, fostering cultures of resilience, and innovative strategies to meet the unique needs of the students. Purpose of the Study The overarching purpose of this study was to examine efficacious leadership styles, traits, worldviews, and practices of alternative high school principals who have been identified as successful leaders through the California recognition program of Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS). To clearly understand the research questions and move forward into the data collection aspects of this study, the definition of success, as it applies to being an MCHS, must be clarified. What does success mean and why is it important to learn from these selected successful leaders? Evaluated through a peer review panel and on-site visitation, the selection of these MCHS schools is based on a comprehensive and competitive application process, involving LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 66 effectiveness of programs, innovative strategies to address unique needs, varied assessments, and use of data for overall improvement. Collaboratively, both the California Department of Education (CDE) and the California Continuation Education Association (CCEA) oversee this evaluation process to recognize continuation high school leaders for their comprehensive services provided to at-risk youth, specifically through pedagogical approaches, creative scheduling, guidance, and counseling (CDE, 2018d). In the CDE news release (CDE, 2018d) announcing the most recently honored MCHSs, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Tom Torlakson, equated success with leaders who have created and implemented innovative programs that address students’ academic, social, and emotional learning needs. Torlakson (CDE, 2018d) further noted, “Creating an academically challenging yet encouraging school climate can help turn an at-risk student on the verge of dropping out into a high school graduate prepared for a future career or college” (CDE, 2018d, para, 2). Hence, success is delineated through the principal’s ability to transform marginalized school populations (where chronic absenteeism, truancy, or systemic issues from domestic dysfunction are prevalent) into MCHS status, as evidenced in elevated attendance and graduation rates, improved test scores, decreased behavioral infractions, and overall resilient cultures that are cultivated through social emotional literacy (SEL). During this investigation, a tributary purpose of this study also became relevant to compare the leadership qualities and practices of recognized MCHS principals with those who have not been identified as MCHS (e.g. Non-MCHS). Perhaps, without the title of MCHS, continuation high schools can achieve “success” by the same means as those who applied for this title, yet have not been formally recognized. Therefore, focal points for this comparison LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 67 included, accountability measures, governing practices, and guiding worldviews as they relate to student achievement, both academically and social-emotionally. Presentation of Findings This chapter begins with an exploration of two main components of the research, first, a description of the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey respondents and interview subjects is elucidated; second a descriptive analysis of the findings is provided as they address the guiding research questions: 1. Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as identified by their teachers? 2. What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes? 3. As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success? 4. How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of their schools? Lastly, this chapter is concluded with a discussion of findings. Organization of Data Analysis The data analysis begins with a characteristic description of the survey respondents and the interview subjects. The subsequent sections deliver a detailed analysis of the findings for each research question. The first research question addressed the quantitative portion of this study, while the following three move into the qualitative aspects of this research. The data analyzed for Research Question 1 was generated solely from the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 68 2004) survey results, while the data for Research Question 2 was analyzed strictly from the principals’ interviews. Further, the data analyzed from Research Questions 3 and 4 are from an amalgamation of interviews and document analysis of the Model Continuation High School applications or other pertinent documentation. Extrapolating from the quantitative data, a qualitative research design was then employed using two specific data sources–interviews and document analysis. These sources were used, in conjunction with the theories of constructivism and phenomenology, to triangulate findings through a cross comparison of collected data. By means of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting the data acquired from studying these principals’ worldviews, personal experiences, practices, environmental factors, and leadership styles, germane assertions were made to expand upon current research and create hypotheses for further studies regarding effective leadership in continuation high schools (see Appendix B for Thematic Coding Matrix). Descriptive Characteristics Survey Participants Upon approval and granted access from each principal, the researcher provided written and verbal instructions to the teachers at all three schools on the use and ethics of the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) online survey. The researcher went to each school, explained the importance of the study, ethical considerations, as documented on the voluntary participation form (see Appendix C for Ethical Disclosure Form). After the explanation, each teacher was given a copy of the disclosure form, along with a hyperlink and QR code for the teachers to locate and complete the survey online. This process was accomplished after school hours for each site. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 69 Permission to access MCHS-A and MHS-B participants was handled directly through the school site; however, the Non-MCHS-C required the researcher to complete an additional District Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval prior to procuring contact with the participants. While neither MCHS-A or MHS-B required it, all Non-MCHS-C participants were obligated to sign a consent form denoting their voluntary participation prior to beginning the research study (see Appendix D for Consent to Participate Form). Copies of these were sent to the research department at the non-MCHS-C’s District Office. Once approved and participatory agreements were made, teachers at every site were given access to the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey link. Since the data collection for this study was initiated at the end, or busiest time, of the school year, acquiring teacher availability was extremely limited. While two principals (Principal-A and Principal-C) were able to schedule staff meetings, specifically allowing the teachers to complete the online survey, one was not. Through these scheduled staff meetings, the principals at the Model Continuation High School-A (MCHS-A) and the non-model continuation high school (Non-MCHS-C) allotted specific time for the teachers to access and complete the online survey. However, the principal for Model Continuation High School-B (MCHS-B) was unable to do so, but allowed for the teachers to informally meet the researcher at the end of a minimum day, in the teachers’ lounge, as they prepared to leave campus. Prior to that, conveyed information pertaining to this research, ethical considerations, and directions on accessing the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) online survey were explained by the principal (Principal-B), both verbally and in writing. The principal had also forwarded a video clip of the researcher discussing the study, ethical considerations, and MLQ-5X survey directions to the teachers. On the designated day and time, the researcher greeted each teacher individually and explained the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 70 purpose, ethics, and online survey information. The teachers that were not present were given a written copy of all pertinent information in their school mail boxes. All teachers, whether in hand or in their boxes, were given a detailed explanation of the study, ethical rights, and a hyperlink and QR code to locate and complete the survey online. A follow-up email with the video clip explaining the research information was also sent to every teacher. Interview Participants Several interviews were conducted to capture the principals’ unobservable thoughts and feelings, specifically regarding leadership at the continuation high school. All participants were interviewed with a semi-structured protocol for questions, ranging from established years of experience to worldview applications within the continuation high school setting. Each was interviewed within his or her own office, for a minimum of 40-minutes, held after school hours; subsequently, document analyses were completed to gain deeper understanding and firsthand visual accounts of the processes in which their leadership styles and other impactful constructs were manifested through their school policies and practices. All three interviews for MCHS-A (Principal-A), MCHS-B (Principal-B), and Non- MCHS-C (Principal-C) were held at their respective school sites. While the interview with MCHS-B was conducted after the academic school year had ended and extended (summer) school year (ESY) had begun, Principals A and C held interviews during their last days of the academic school year, after school hours. All three principals have been at their school sites for a minimum of four years and in the field of education for a minimum of 25 years (see Table 1). All participants have had multiple positions in education during their careers, having performed in such roles as instructional aide, teacher, teacher on special assignment, assistant principal, principal, or district director. Two participants are male and one is female. One is LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 71 White and two are Latino. All three participants are approaching retirement. Prior to their interviews, each of the principals were rated by their teachers, through the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004), to identify their predominant leadership styles. Therefore, the next section will begin with an analysis of the quantitative data, based upon Research Question 1, which was answered by the participating teachers at each site. Table 1 Interview Respondents Interview Participant Correlated School Identification for Study # of Years in Education # of Roles in Education # of Years at Current Continuation School Length of Interview Principal-A MCHS-A 30 years 5 6 years 85 min. Principal-B MCHS-B 25+ years 5 4 ½ years 50 min. Principal-C Non-MCHS-C 35 years 3 5 years 40 min. Research Question 1 Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as identified by their teachers? Findings: Survey Participants Analysis The first part of this mixed-methods study served to quantitatively determine the most common perception of the teachers regarding their principals’ predominant leadership style. The MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey helped achieve this purpose. Prior to receiving the MLQ-5X, a video of the researcher explaining the value of this study, ethical considerations, and LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 72 how to complete the survey was provided to all participants via email. A hard copy of all discussed information was also given to every potential participant. Through this electronic survey, the participating teachers’ perceptions of their principals’ leadership traits were quantitatively calculated. Only scores from participants who completed the rating survey, leaving no blank spaces or unanswered questions, were utilized in the data analysis. Generated results identified their principals’ leadership style predominantly as transformational, transactional, or passive/avoidant leaders. The MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) rater form consists of 45 questions and uses a 5- point Likert scale with ratings of 0 (“not at all”), 1 (“once in a while”), 2 (“sometimes”), 3 (“fairly often”), and 4 (“frequently, if not always”). The questions were redolent of three leadership styles, transformational (e.g. the leader “seeks differing perspectives when solving problems”); transactional (e.g. the leader “provides me with assistance in exchange for my efforts”); or passive/avoidant (e.g. the leader “fails to interfere until problems become serious”). Each participating school was scored individually and compared with the others. The survey was completely voluntary and anonymous. During survey explanation and dissemination, each principal intentionally left the room, ensuring that participating teachers had privacy to answer the survey questions. Further, absolutely no demographic data were collected about the teachers. This was done to ensure participation, given that the teachers were asked to make judgments about the leadership qualities of their principals, who are also their evaluators. At two schools, the principals (Principals A and C) had scheduled staff meetings solely for this research. Each had made introductions for the researcher, then promptly left the premises. At the site where no staff meeting was scheduled, the principal (Principal-B) had previously shared the research information with the teachers (at their last staff meeting of the school year) and LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 73 suggested they stop by the teachers’ lounge on a scheduled day when the researcher was to be on campus to further explain and provide the survey link. While it was easier to disseminate the survey information from the sites that provided time for completion, the amount of submitted completed ratings was low among all three schools, which was attributed to it being the last weeks of the school year and a very hectic time for all staff. Most teachers at each school volunteered to participate; however, less than half of the submitted surveys were completed, leaving many responses unanswered. Only fully completed surveys were used to derive outcomes of leadership predominance, thus decreasing the sample size and collectible data. Subsequently, results may not be generalizable, yet still provide rich information regarding the value of leadership styles, specifically at the continuation high school. Table 2 indicates the number of teachers at each school site, in conjunction with completed surveys and response rate. For MCHS-A, 5 out of 14 teachers (36%) fully completed and submitted the survey. For MCHS-B, 3 out of 15 teachers (20%) fully completed and submitted the survey. For Non- MCHS-C, 5 out of 10 teachers (50%) fully completed and submitted the survey. Table 2 Teacher MLQ-5X Responded vs. Completion Rates School # of Teachers # of Teachers Who Completed MLQ-5X Completed Response Rate MCHS-A 14 5 36% MCHS-B 15 3 20% Non-MCHS-C 10 5 50% LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 74 MCHS-A. Table 3 provides the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) rating results from the MCHS-A teachers’ perceptions, scores, of their principal in terms of transformational traits. The table shows each rater’s individual average score for the subcategories of transformational leader, alongside the overall transformational leader score. The subcategories for Transformational leadership include, Idealized Influence–Attributes, II-A (e.g. “Builds Trust”); Idealized Influence–Behaviors, II-B, (e.g. “Acts with Integrity”); Inspirational Motivation, IM (e.g. “Encourages Others”); Intellectual Stimulation, IS (e.g. “Encourages Innovative Thinking”); and Individual Consideration, IC (e.g. “Coaches and Develops People”). Table 3 MCHS-A Average Score per Category of Transformational Leadership Style for Principal-A The data in Table 3 showed that Principal-A (MCHS-A) scored a total transformational score of 2.68. With the highest possible score of 4, Principal-A rated particularly higher in the Participant Acts with Integrity (IIB) Builds Trust (IIA) Coaches & Develops People (IC) Encourages Others (IM) Encourages Innovational Thinking (IS) Total Transformational Average Score 1 4.0 3.3 2.0 3.0 1.5 2.8 2 0.8 0.3 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.6 3 3.8 4.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 3.6 4 3.8 3.8 3.5 4.0 4.0 3.8 5 3.0 3.0 2.3 3.3 1.5 2.6 Mean 3.08 2.88 2.26 3.06 2.1 2.68 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 75 transformational sub-categories, IM–Encourages Others, averaging a score of 3.06; IIB–Acts with Integrity, with a score of 3.08; and IIA–Builds Trust, with a score of 2.88. Although slightly higher than transactional, Principal-A’s total transformational score is prominent indicating that this is the most used leadership style identified by participating teachers at MCHS-A. The next data set (Table 4) provides the results that teachers gave principal-A (MCHS- A), regarding the categories of transactional leadership and passive/avoidant leadership. The average score for the subcategories of transactional and passive/avoidant leadership qualities is listed, alongside the overall transactional and passive/avoidant scores. The subcategories for transactional leadership include, CR–Contingent Reward (“Rewards Achievement”), and MBEA–Management-by-Exception (“Monitors Deviations and Mistakes”). The subcategories for Passive/Avoidant leadership include, MBEP–Management-by-Exception Passive (“Fights Fires”), and LF–Laissez-Faire (“Avoids Involvement”). Table 4 MCHS-A: Average Score per Category of Transactional and Passive/Avoidant Leadership Style for Principal-A Participant Rewards Achievement (CR) Monitors Deviations & Mistakes (MBEA) Total Transactional Average Score Avoids Involvement (LF) Fights Fires (MPEP) Total Passive/ Avoidant Average Score 1 2.5 1.3 1.9 0.5 1.0 0.8 2 1.3 0.3 0.8 3.8 3.3 3.5 3 3.8 2.8 3.3 0.0 1.3 0.6 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 76 Table 4 (Cont’d.) Participant Rewards Achievement (CR) Monitors Deviations & Mistakes (MBEA) Total Transactional Average Score Avoids Involvement (LF) Fights Fires (MPEP) Total Passive/ Avoidant Average Score 4 4.0 3.5 3.8 0.0 0.8 0.4 5 2.8 0.8 1.8 1.0 1.5 1.3 Mean 2.88 1.74 2.32 1.06 1.58 1.32 Principal-A (MCHS-A) received an overall transactional score of 2.32, and an overall passive/avoidant score of 1.32. Compared to his transformational score of 2.68, the data suggested that the staff of MCHS-A regard their principal as demonstrating predominantly transformational, closely followed by that of transactional leadership. Here, Principal-A rated particularly higher in the transactional sub-category, CR–Rewards Achievement, with an average of 2.88. Evidenced in his rating of a 1.32 for passive/avoidant, Principal-A is least likely to use a passive/avoidant leadership style. Further, the score of 1.06 for the subcategory, LF-Avoids Involvement, signifies that the teachers believe there is seldom an occasion where Principal-A avoids involvement. Primarily through the transformational leadership style, enhanced with some transactional leadership traits, Principal-A is strongly perceived to act with integrity, build trust, encourage others, and reward achievement. MCHS-B. The MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) rating results from the MCHS-B teachers’ scores of their administrator, Principal-B, in terms of transformational traits, are indicated in Table 5. Each rater’s individual average score for the subcategories of transformational leadership, alongside the total transformational average score, are also revealed (see Table 5). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 77 Table 5 MCHS-B Average Score per Category of Transformational Leadership Style for Principal-B As shown in Table 5, MCHS-B teacher ratings show that Principal-B scored a total transformational average score of 1.97. Among the sub-categories, Principal-B (MCHS-B) rated highest in, IM–Encourages Others, with a score of 2.13; IC–Coaches & Develops People, with a score of 2.1; and IIA–Builds Trust, receiving a score of 2. This indicated that Principal-B is stronger at encouraging others, coaching and developing people, and in building trust. Although slightly higher than transactional, Principal-B’s total transformational score is predominant indicating that this is the most used leadership style identified by the participating teachers at MCHS-B. Table 6 provides the results that MCHS-B teachers gave Principal-B in terms of transactional and passive/avoidant leadership. The average score for the subcategories of transactional and passive/avoidant leadership qualities are listed, alongside the total transactional and passive/avoidant scores. Participant Acts with Integrity (IIB) Builds Trust (IIA) Coaches & Develops People (IC) Encourages Others (IM) Encourages Innovational Thinking (IS) Total Transformational Average Score 1 2.8 3.5 2.5 2.8 2.8 2.9 2 0.3 0.0 1.5 0.8 0.3 0.6 3 2.3 2.5 2.3 2.8 2.3 2.4 Mean 1.8 2 2.1 2.13 1.8 1.97 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 78 Table 6 MCHS-B: Average Score per Category of Transactional and Passive/Avoidant Leadership Style for Principal-B Participant Rewards Achievement (CR) Monitors Deviations & Mistakes (MBEA) Total Transactional Average Score Avoids Involvement (LF) Fights Fires (MPEP) Total Passive/ Avoidant Average Score 1 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.5 2.8 2.1 2 3.0 2.0 2.5 0.8 0.5 0.6 3 2.8 0.5 1.6 0.0 1.5 0.8 Mean 2.37 1.27 1.8 .77 1.6 1.17 Indicated in Table 6, Principal-B received an overall transactional score of 1.8, and an overall passive/avoidant score of 1.17. The highest score under the transactional subcategory is CR–Rewards Achievement, with a rating of 2.37. Falling under the passive/avoidant category, the lowest rating of .77 is identified in LF–Avoids Involvement. Results indicated that Principal- B is least likely to avoid involvement and more likely to reward achievement. Compared to the transformational score of 1.97, the data generated from the MCHS-B participating teachers indicated that Principal-B is predominantly transformational, closely followed with traits characteristic of transactional leadership. Primarily through the transformational leadership style, boosted with some transactional leadership traits, Principal-B is strongly perceived to build trust, coach and develop people, encourage others, and reward achievements. Non-MCHS-C. In comparison, a non-MCHS (Non-MCHS-C) was researched with the same quantitative methodology. The MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) was also used to acquire LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 79 the teachers’ perceptions regarding Principal-C’s leadership tendencies, specifically as they pertain to transformational, transactional, and passive/avoidant traits. Table 7 provides the results of the MCHS-C teachers’ ratings of Principal-C, specially related to transformational leadership. Each rater’s individual average score for the subcategories of transformational leader are indicated, alongside the total transformational average score. Table 7 Non-MCHS-C Average Score per Category of Transformational Leadership Style for Principal-C The data in Table 7 showed that Principal-C (Non-MCHS-C) scored a total transformational score of 3.28. With the highest possible score of 4, Principal-C (Non-MCHS- C) rated particularly higher in the transformational sub-categories, IM–Encourages Others, with an average rating of 3.66; II-B–Acts with Integrity, with an average of 3.66; IS–Encourages Innovational Thinking, with a score of 3.18; and IIA–Builds Trust, with a score of 2.98. This Participant Acts with Integrity (IIB) Builds Trust (IIA) Coaches & Develops People (IC) Encourages Others (IM) Encourages Innovational Thinking (IS) Total Transformational Average Score 1 3.8 2.5 2.5 4.0 3.3 3.2 2 3.5 3.3 2.8 4.0 2.5 3.2 3 3.0 3.3 1.8 2.8 2.5 2.7 4 4.0 2.3 3.8 3.5 3.8 3.5 5 4.0 3.5 3.5 4.0 3.8 3.8 Mean 3.66 2.98 2.88 3.66 3.18 3.28 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 80 indicated that Principal-C was perceived to frequently act with integrity, build trust, encourage innovational thinking, and inspire others. Principal-C also rated high in the sub-category, IC– Coaches and Develops People, with an average score of 2.88. Principal-C was perceived to exhibit a predominantly transformational leadership style. Moving forward, Table 8 provides Non-MCHS-C teacher ratings regarding Principal-C’s transactional and passive/avoidant leadership qualities. Table 8 Non-MCHS-C: Average Score per Category of Transactional and Passive/Avoidant Leadership Style for Principal-C Principal-C received an average transactional score of 2.36, and an average passive/avoidant score of 0.88. The highest score under the transactional subcategory is CR– Rewards Achievement, with a rating of 3.28. This indicated that Principal-C is often seen to Participant Rewards Achievement (CR) Monitors Deviations & Mistakes (MBEA) Total Transactional Average Score Avoids Involvement (LF) Fights Fires (MPEP) Total Passive/ Avoidant Average Score 1 2.5 1.0 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 2 3.0 1.0 2.0 0.0 1.8 0.9 3 3.3 2.0 2.6 0.0 0.5 0.3 4 3.8 1.8 2.8 0.3 1.5 0.9 5 3.8 1.5 2.6 1.0 0.0 0.5 Mean 3.28 1.46 2.36 0.62 1.12 0.88 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 81 reward others for accomplishments. Principal-C had the lowest rating under passive/avoidant, with a total average score of 0.88. The highest score under the passive/avoidant subcategory is MPEP-Fights Fires, with a rating of 1.12. Here, Non-MCHS-C ratings indicated that Principal-C almost never avoids involvement or having to deal with challenges as they arise. Further, ratings indicated that there is seldom an occasion where Principal-C fights fires when they could have been prevented. Compared to Principal-C’s transformational score of 3.28, the data suggested that the staff of Non-MCHS-C regard their principal as a predominantly transformational leader who also frequently rewards others for achievements. Supported with some transactional leadership traits, Principal-C is primarily a transformational leader. Principal-C was strongly perceived to build trust, coach and develop people, encourage innovative thinking, encourage others, and reward achievements. Summary of Findings for Research Question 1 Using the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004), participating teachers rated their perceptions of what they believed to be the most predominant leadership qualities of their principals, using the following scale: 0=Not at all; 1=once in a while; 2=sometimes; 3=fairly often; or 4=frequently, if not always. A blank score means the respondent was unsure or inadvertently skipped a response. The initial sample size of participants decreased when it became necessary to clean the data. Fink (2016) suggested that data becomes dirty if there are incomplete surveys or missing responses, which happened with this research. For example, while 64% of the MCHS-A teachers attempted the survey, only 36% had submitted complete surveys, with no missing or skipped responses. MCHS-B had 33% respond, but 20% actually completed the entire survey and Non-MCHS-C had 90% attempt, but had a 50% full completion rate. Consequently, to clean the data only fully completed surveys were used, and those with missing LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 82 data were eliminated from the analysis (Fink, 2016). Concluding results were contingent upon the final sample size. A comparison of the three principals’ score are in Table 9 Table 9 A Comparison of Leadership Styles–Survey Respondents Principal (School) Transformational Average Score Transactional Average Score Passive/Avoidant Average Score Principal-A (MCHS-A) 2.68 2.32 1.32 Principal-B (MCHS-B) 1.97 1.80 1.17 Principal-C (Non-MCHS-C) 3.28 2.36 0.88 As shown in Table 9, all three principals were perceived as predominantly transformational leaders, per MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey results. Although ratings in transactional leadership more closely followed transformational scores with Principals A and B, all three principals were also rated as demonstrating transactional leadership tendencies, specifically in rewarding achievements. Principals A, B, and C were each perceived to use a combination of transformational and transactional traits. For example, all three generated higher ratings with qualities such as acting with integrity, building trust, coaching and developing people, encouraging others, and rewarding achievements. Through these traits, each principal was perceived to actively seek engagement, motivate, encourage, and coach the teachers either through rapport building and/or by means of specific transactions of rewards for completed responsibilities. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 83 This conclusion allows us to address the next three research questions, to better understand what practices these principals incorporate at their respective schools to achieve laudable outcomes. Although all three principals were rated as predominantly transformational, the non-MCHS-C data revealed a stronger indication of transformational leadership traits of Principal-C than either of the two MCHS principals. Non-MCHS-C was chosen purposively, based on the similarities of programs and supports offered on its school webpage. Overall results can be interpreted to mean that principals don’t necessarily need to have the MCHS status to make great transformations within his or her school. Building upon the generated MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) results, the next section qualitatively researches what each of these principals believe are efficacious qualities of their leadership styles. The following section will then investigate how these leadership traits manifest into practices at their sites, followed by the principals’ ideas of effectiveness and accountability. Research Question 2 What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes? Through an interview process, all participants were queried with a semi-structured protocol for questions, ranging from established years of experience to worldview applications within each school environment. Delving further, all principals were interviewed to gain a sense of what they believe are germane traits required to successfully lead their schools. For Research Question 2, the intent was to learn about their worldviews and beliefs regarding important qualities in leadership necessary for achieving laudable outcomes. Sequentially, this leads into Research Question 3, which sought to connect identified efficacious qualities with implemented practices of these leaders and how they were applied. Research Question 4 concludes the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 84 analysis by discovering how these principals approach accountability and ascertain their effectiveness. Findings: Interview Analysis Interviews were used to generate a rich portrayal of the multifaceted phenomena of effective principals’ worldviews and constructs involved in their ability to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes. Per Maxwell’s (2013) recommendations on key methods of qualitative data analyses, the following strategies were used to generate commonalities among the principals: reading and reflecting upon the interview transcripts, writing thoughtful memos, and creating code brackets. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) defined coding as the process of making notations next to bits of data that may be potentially relevant in addressing the research questions. Through the process of grouping open codes into themes (e.g. axial coding), and using individual interpretations and reflections of their meanings (e.g. analytical coding), germane concepts were developed into assertions, or beliefs, generated from the emerging patterns (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Sifting through data in search of common themes and synthesizing relevant material into meanings helped formulate answers to the research questions (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014). Starting with a predetermined, a priori, set of codes (Harding, 2013) such as social-emotional literacy and resilience, more empirical codes then emerged. As the data increasingly uncovered rich information (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), a multitude of relevant, contributory constructs were discovered: worldview, personal experience, training, systemic issues, environmental factors, stakeholders, accountability, efficacy, policy, practices, pedagogy, rapport-building, collaboration, problem- solving, motivation, flexibility, respect, mindset, empathy, autonomy, resilience, social- emotional literacy, and academic success. The data became so rich that it was necessary to LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 85 develop codes within the codes, or narrow down the findings directly out of the abundance of constructs that surfaced. Consequently, a data analysis matrix was developed to cleanly facilitate comparisons between data within each category and aided in the development of overarching themes and relevant assertions (see Appendix B). This framework assisted in teasing apart and documenting nuanced similarities, differences, and relationships that occurred among the interviews (Harding, 2013; Maxwell, 2013). From this, themes specific to this study became germane. Several themes and similar leadership traits emerged from the MCHS principals’ (MCHS-A and MCHS-B) interviews, as well as the Non-MCHS (Non-MCHS-C). Although not all three were identified as model schools, they had comparable programs, practices, and elevated levels of achievement. Given that Non-MCHS-C was purposively selected, based upon similarity of programs and demographics of the two model schools, all three schools shared strong commonalities in some areas and varied in others. Similar core traits among all three principals, which appeared to be prioritized in their professional lives, emerged as common themes. Concurring with transformational leadership characteristics, these fundamental traits included: rapport-building, role-modelling; encouraging or coaching others; perpetuating a growth mindset; developing caring and trusting relationships; innovative or divergent thinking; collaboration; authenticity; and humility. Funneling these central traits into the most applicable, common beliefs among all three principals sifted into fundamental values or themes. Three overarching themes, from which these principals concomitantly inferred as a personal calling or passion, ultimately encompassed, servitude, fostering school cultures of resilience, disruptive innovation, and advocacy. These themes parallel the five dimensions of transformational leadership including: Coaches and LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 86 Develops Peoples (Individual Consideration–IC); Acts with Integrity (Idealized Influence Behaviors–IIB); Builds Trust (Idealized Influence Attributes–IIA); Encourages Others (Inspirational Motivation–IM); and Encourages Innovative Thinking (Intellectual Stimulation– IS). Since all three principals were rated as predominantly transformational on the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004), it followed that the principals’ perceptions of effective leadership traits also coincided with transformational leadership practices. Additionally, all three principals were also rated higher in displaying some transactional leadership tendencies (e.g. Rewards Achievements–CR), such as rewarding completed responsibilities or desired behaviors. Accordingly, it was also reasonable to assume that their perceptions of effective leadership would include rewards or acknowledgement for accomplishments. Moreover, all three principals’ self-reported and were perceived by their teachers to actively seek engagement, motivate, encourage and coach others. This was accomplished either through rapport building and/or by means of specific transactions of rewards for completed responsibilities. These perceptions appeared to be culminating results of their core beliefs regarding efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes. The first and most prevailing of identified traits was the mindset of servitude. Servitude. Having a strong sense of duty to serve, while prioritizing the identification and meeting the needs of others, characterizes the mindset of servant leadership, servitude (Keith, 1995; Spencer, 2002). Whether their process of meeting these needs was through a predominantly transformational or transactional leadership style, the underlying foundation for Principal-A, Principal-B, and Principal-C was unanimously that of servitude. Servant leaders have a different focus and motivation than most other leaders. Their focus is to make life better for others, not for themselves (Keith, 1995). It was clear throughout each interview that a shared LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 87 desire to be of service for the most at-risk and marginalized students was of utmost importance; moving beyond the power of status, their common vision as principals was to be change agents and transform lives of those in most need, specifically continuation high school students. Through the interview process, it quickly became apparent that these principals were driven by their worldviews, which clearly influenced their beliefs regarding efficacious leadership traits. Through acts of service that promotes positive and caring relationships and convey a compelling vision/mission, all principals expressed a deep desire to create safe, earnest, and trusting environments that fully address and meet at-risk students’ social, emotional, and academic needs. For example, to qualitatively gain insight to their internal belief systems, each was prompted, “Describe what you believe the ideal continuation high school environment would be like.” Principal-B passionately responded, Well, it has to be a place where students feel comfortable and they feel safe; emotionally, psychologically, academically, in every respect. Where you have adults who have a heart, and they use alternative methods to help them reach their goal, which is to graduate. It should be a place where people are just very compassionate. In response to the same question, Principal-C similarly conveyed, “For me, it is a school, small in size, with a lot of caring teachers who support the students.” In response to the query, “What motivates your leadership in this school?” Principal-A succinctly replied, “Servitude!” Punctuating this desire to serve, Principal-A articulated, “It's almost a religious and spiritual call . . . like what I was called to do. That's why I do it.” Further, Principal-A stressed the importance of clear communication and collaboration to establish a common vision/mission, to create an ideal continuation high school environment by stating, LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 88 the most important thing is collaboration and communication with everyone on the campus. As a leader, you need to get everyone's perspective and ideas. There are things that I do, there are things that we do, and there are things that they do. Expressing their quests for servitude, each principal inadvertently exhibited several hallmark traits of the transformational leadership style: Idealized Influence–Attributes, II-A (e.g. “Builds Trust”); Idealized Influence–Behaviors, II-B, (e.g. “Acts with Integrity”); Inspirational Motivation, IM (e.g. “Encourages Others”); and Individual Consideration, IC (e.g. “Coaches and Develops People”). Exhibited in these transformational traits, this attitude of servitude seeks to look beyond self-regard for the greater good, individualizes strategies to address unique needs, and works with others to collaboratively achieve a common vision for the betterment of others (Keith, 1995; Özaralli, 2003; Spencer, 2002). In consensus, all three principals conveyed high levels of transformational leadership and shared the value in servitude to foster school cultures of resilience. Fostering school cultures of resilience. Resilience is the ability to positively adapt in times of adversity (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013; Mansfield, Beltman, Broadley, & Weatherby-Fell, 2016). Creating school cultures of resilience is fostering an educational environment where students feel safe, respected, and valued. They are encouraged to take risks and grow from failures, learn from trials, and succeed despite tribulations. Research stated that educators who cultivate such environments which produce strong skills in communication, collaboration, and social-emotional literacy (SEL) enhance students’ resiliency and academic success (Beets et al., 2009; Shankland & Rosset, 2016). During the interviews, Principals A, B, and C each expressed a passion and commitment to develop resiliency among their students and a culture in which it flourishes. Each expressed genuine compassion and understanding for their students’ hardships LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 89 and implied a moral obligation to provide a place where these most marginalized of students could feel valued, safe, and begin to develop resiliency. Clearly, their beliefs regarding the students’ needs for support, compassion, and positive adult interactions set the tone for campus. For example, in one statement describing the students, Principal-C shared, These kids, even though they've gone through the ringer and have been kicked out of other schools, when they get here, they're a bit stand offish. But they understand right away that this is a place that cares about them and is gonna help them. Concurringly, Principal-A eloquently shared that, “A child doesn't care how much a teacher knows until a child knows how much a teacher cares. It goes to anyone in administration.” When discussing social emotional aspects of these students’ lives, and the need for social emotional literacy to build resilience, Principal-B expressed, “. . .because someone noticed the socio-emotional needs and they send them here, but it's huge. I think every single one of our students needs SEL and they respond. They respond in a positive way.” Principal-B continued with, I think that's essential now with all the stuff that's going on in our schools. I think it should be in every school . . . big part of every school . . . I think our teachers and our staff and everyone and administrators, everyone should have more training on that piece. Another commonality and vital construct revealed with each principal’s vision of fostering cultures of resilience included growth mindset. Growth mindset purports the idea that learning from mistakes builds resilience, enhances social emotional regulation, and strengthens overall abilities (Dweck, 2008). Principal-A expressed how growth mindset and resilience go together by saying, LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 90 So those pieces are very important in creating a very safe environment . . . and it works. It works, you know? They're still kids and, you know, there's . . . there's things that are going to maybe not go well, but we'll . . . we'll pick them up and we'll help them. We'll show them. Face the right direction and keep moving. Similarly, Principal-C explained the importance of growth mindset to this population by sharing, it's obvious that sometimes the kids just don't think that they can do it . . . and we're working on that. And we're working on growth mindset. We figure that approaching those will work towards motivation, and that's our goal is to get these kids to think that they can conquer this. When describing the concept of growth mindset regarding assisting students to change bad habits or negative ways of thinking, Principal-A stated, Part of that is my belief in the power of intent . . . almost all our students, almost all, are coming because they have really bad habits. Our job is to change their habits from bad to good and then once that happens, everything takes care of itself, it really does. Again, interviews with Principals A, B, and C evidenced hallmark subcategories of transformational leadership as predominantly indicated by their teachers on the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004). In their endeavors to coach and encourage teachers and students, specifically regarding growth mindset and social emotional literacy to foster school cultures of resilience, all three principals revealed transformational leadership traits of, Building Trust (IIA), Inspired Motivation (IM), and Individual Consideration (IC). Enabling teachers to perpetuate the constructs of social emotional literacy (SEL), growth mindset and resiliency required innovative strategies to deal with systemic challenges and reasonably embed these concepts into the pedagogy or daily routines. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 91 Disruptive innovation. Dyer, Gregersen and Christensen (2011) described disruptive innovators as those who actively challenge and seek to change the status quo. Moreover, they are “willing to embrace a mission for change and take risks to make change happen” (Dyer et al., 2011, p. 26). Another theme that became apparent through the interviews was the principals’ unique ways of challenging “the system” or status quo for continuation high schools, specifically regarding expected graduation rates, scheduling, standardized testing, and pedagogy. Challenging the norm, or status quo, that continuation high schools should be treated like traditional high schools, with similar accountability in graduation rates and a complete disregard of the unique needs of the alternative school population, was a reoccurring theme throughout the interviews. Principal-A explained it best when stating that the greatest challenge was, “Treating our students as they are academic students, ignoring the social, emotional aspect of our students.” A deep commitment to be change agents for their marginalized, or at-risk student populations was conveyed equally throughout all interviews. By their own means, these principals each discussed patterns of disruptive innovation. For example, when discussing limited support for extra professional development regarding SEL training, Principal-C stated, We do a lot of our own professional development, plus we bring outsiders in. We have three meetings a month. . . . and we do different things. Each month is devoted to each of them . . . here are the 10 months . . . the first month we had leadership, which was the characteristic we were working towards . . . and for the aspect of public service, charities . . . and non-profits, government, social services, law enforcement, education, health care. Thinking outside the box and challenging the status quo of expected pedagogy, Principal- C creatively worked independently with the school staff to prioritize monthly trainings on embedding tenets of SEL into the daily schedule of classes and daily routines. As a creative LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 92 means to address attendance issues, Principal-A also demonstrated disruptive innovation by bringing in a weight room. In this regard, Principal-A proudly asserted, We have a weight room here. Why did I ask for a weight room and I finally got it after two years? I'm a big believer in physical activity–creates a strong mindset and a lot of our boys love to work out. If that's the reason why they're coming to school, God bless them, let's get them to school.” In resourcefully meeting the students’ needs by involving their families, Principal-B shared, “We have counseling for the parents too. Well, workshops for the parents, a lot of workshops.” In all, these principals are equally challenging the system and demonstrating transformational leadership traits of Intellectual Motivation (IM) by encouraging innovative thinking and Intellectual Stimulation (IS) through their assertions that traditional methods of accountability, scheduling, testing, and pedagogy at the continuation high schools be re- examined. Through these assertions, the final theme that emerged from the interviews was the need for advocacy. Advocacy. Principals A, B, and C firmly believed that part of their servitude was to advocate for their students, their staff, and their schools. Equally expressed among all three, the largest need for advocacy was with their districts specifically in understanding the dynamics of the student population, student-teacher ratio, funding for supplies or programs, or simple acknowledgement of accomplishments. In describing the poor reputation of continuation high schools, or “hidden schools,” Principal B, remarked, . . . the continuations, they don't really have a good reputation in the State of California. When you mention high school, people think nothing happens there, no one learns. They just graduate or they get lost. That's a challenge with the community and even within our LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 93 own district, and even a portion of our staff. Sometimes it's difficult to challenge them because deep down inside that, that's the belief that they hold on to. You know, it's like as long as you guys show me your graduation rates and all that, we don't really care what you do. That's message we get which is very sad, you know, because we're just a continuation high school. Principal-A added to this sentiment by stating, “With the district, you have to advocate for your school. As it is, we're double what it should be and we create miracles here. That's one of the biggest challenges . . . the district not understanding.” Addressing class size, Principal-C shared, The district doesn't see that we need to be a 25 to 1! We had an extra teacher here last year, they took him away. We had an extra teacher the year before, they took him away. So, just since I've been here, we went from 9 to 7 staff members.” Principal-A passionately exclaimed the concurring sentiment, “These are my kids, I'm going to fight for them.” To successfully advocate for the students, Principal-A further described the value of building relationships with stakeholders by positing, “What makes a successful leader with the community is you have to build those community relationships, as many as you can.” Each principal expressed an unrelenting commitment to continue advocating and asking for support from the district, school board, and community. Through their sense of equitability for their marginalized student populations and mission to effectively advocate for their unique needs, Principals A, B, and C promulgated pivotal transformational leadership traits such as, Idealized Influence–Attributes (IIA) through building trust with their districts and communities; Idealized Influence–Behaviors (IIB) through acting with integrity on behalf of their students’ needs; Inspirational Motivation (IM) by encouraging their districts and communities to support LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 94 their continuation high schools; and Intellectual Stimulation (IS) by encouraging their districts to consider divergent thinking and innovative strategies to support the unique needs of their alternative settings. Summary of Findings for Research Question 2 Through the qualitative analysis of the semi-structured interviews with the principals in this study, four overarching themes emerged. As revealed through shared passions, these common themes encompassed, servitude, fostering school cultures of resilience, disruptive innovation, and advocacy. These themes parallel the five dimensions of transformational leadership including: Coaches and Develops Peoples (Individual Consideration–IC); Acts with Integrity (Idealized Influence Behaviors–IIB); Builds Trust (Idealized Influence Attributes–IIA); Encourages Others (Inspirational Motivation–IM); and Encourages Innovative Thinking (Intellectual Stimulation–IS). Since all three principals were rated as predominantly transformational on the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004), the principals’ perceptions of effective leadership traits were more likely to coincide with transformational leadership practices. Further, the findings suggested that transformational leaders can be found in schools with and without the Model Continuation High School distinction. The next section will investigate how these leadership traits manifest into practices at their sites, while the final section will explore the principals’ ideas of effectiveness and accountability. Research Question 3 As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success? As described in the qualitative analysis of the principals’ interviews, regarding their beliefs on efficacious leadership qualities, four shared salient transformational leadership traits LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 95 became evident, servitude (IIA, IIB, IM, and IC), fostering school cultures of resilience (IIA, IM, and IC), disruptive innovation (IM and IS), and advocacy (IIA, IIB, IM, and IS). During this investigation, themes began to emerge on how these leadership traits manifested themselves in actual leadership and school practices. The following section will further investigate these findings using the principals’ interviews and document analysis to identify actionable practices that elucidate these shared traits. Interviews from Principal-A, Principal-B, and Principal-C, in conjunction with documentation of the Model Continuation High School applications from MCHS-A and MCHS-B and data collection documentation from Non-MCHS-C will be used to triangulate findings and substantiate the analysis. Findings: Interview and Document Analysis Through the exploratory examination process of qualitative data, the evidence conveyed how the four fundamental transformational leadership traits of servitude, resilience, disruptive innovation, and advocacy manifested as specific practices employed to enhance their alternative school outcomes. Servitude. All three principals expressed a deep commitment to be of service to their student populations, as well as staff members. Each expressed the belief that their mission was to create safe and caring environments for their students, which was to be done through acts of service. This belief became crystalized throughout the study when learning about specific practices employed by each principal. For example, in MCHS-A’s application for the distinction of model school status, it documented that it, “is a service school with its primary purpose being to meet the needs of students who are identified as at-risk of not earning their high school diploma.” Whereas, the MCHS-B application documented, “The faculty, staff, and administration have a dedicated and committed approach in supporting all students (English LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 96 Learners, Foster Youth, Special Education, Socio-Economic) to succeed academically and close the achievement gap.” While Non-MCHS-C had no MCHS application, Principal-C provided documents to substantiate this belief through pages of daily collected data indicating continuous encounters with students regarding the construct of growth mindset and in movement toward their credit recovery. Accompanying this documentation, Principal-C stated, “I'll show them our slide in growth mindset and efficacy. I'll show them what I've done by visiting their classrooms.” Principal-A also discussed practices of encouragement and coaching students to change negative mindsets and create new, productive habits by sharing, “My job actually, at the end of the day, is to change habits.” Another example putting beliefs into practice was expressed in Principal-C’s explanation of an empowerment strategy for all staff to use with the students, I always remind them, 10 by 10 by 10. Ten by 10 by 10 is 10 positive interactions, with 10 different kids, before 10 o'clock. Talk to them about three positives to one delta . . . and I want them to do that with the kids. I want them to always have three positive interactions before they ever have any kind of reprimand. . . I talked to them about building non-contingent relationships, which develops rapport. It is their charge to do that. Regarding making personal connections with students, Principal-B shared a daily routine of greeting students individually, even offering water on hot days or snacks when students appear hungry. Principal-C punctuated this sentiment by stating, “So I think it's a practice here to talk to the students, not just about the work, but about their lives as well, because you make those connections.” Throughout the interviews and document analysis, it was evident that all three schools dynamically practice acts of service toward their students to provide necessary supports in meeting individual needs. The belief that working together to meet the needs of the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 97 greater good, by individually servicing all of their students, MCHS-A, MCHS-B, and Non- MCHS-C provided concrete evidence validating the importance of servitude. Practices of servitude lead to the cultivation of resilience. Resilience. The practice of creating cultures of resilience was clearly evident in all documentation and interviews throughout this research. Each principal voiced the importance of cultivating caring, trusting, and supportive environments to assist their marginalized student populations in developing resilience, despite countless hindrances they may have encountered. For instance, Principal-C shared, it's obvious that sometimes the kids just don't think that they can do it . . . and we're working on that . . . we're working on growth mindset. We figure that approaching of those will work towards motivation, and that's our goal–is to get these kids to think that they can conquer this. Principal-C further provided documentation indicating running records and weekly graphs of students’ incrementally improved responses to isolated LCAP questions regarding growth mindset and resilience. Another example of this concept lies in the MCHS-B application, where a student’s testament is documented, . . . has given me a second opportunity to graduate . . . I feel like I get more done here academically . . . I’m more productive and into more activities . . . The teachers and the staff here are very motivating and encourage students to do more and try more things . . . Another concrete example of this belief in perpetuating resilience though the caring and supportive environment was eloquently noted by a parent in the application for MCHS-A, LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 98 I am extremely grateful that my son . . . has the opportunity to attend a school campus that not only meets educational learning needs, but his emotional needs as well . . . my son has teachers and staff that show them care and respect as young adults. Summing up the mutual sentiment regarding the practice of cultivating resilience, Principal-A poignantly stated, “Let's be a little understanding and compassionate when we have a 17 or 16-year-old in our classroom who has had a lot of trauma and hasn't had good role models at home.” As evidenced in their practices, MCHS-A, MCHHS-B, and Non-MCHS-C can be vital examples of how educators who effectively cultivate safe, trusting, supportive environments also contribute to students’ development of resilience and academic success (Coggshall, 2007; Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schelling, 2011). Once again, consensus occurred when all three principals prioritized the need to foster resilience among their students so that academic achievement could transpire. To do so, they each displayed commonality in sharing creative practices to help their students begin to thrive. Disruptive innovation. The idea of challenging rigid methodology, resulting in traditionally punitive practices, was another common theme that emerged throughout the interviews and documentation analysis. It was evident that the belief in innovatively helping students rise above life’s challenges trumped traditional methods of managing factors like disciplinary challenges, earning credits, and scheduling programs. Disciplinary challenges. All three principals voiced dissent regarding the perpetuation of status quo and articulated the necessity of “thinking outside the box” and being flexible in meeting the students’ unique needs. This practice of innovative flexibility was exemplified in Principal-C’s comment, LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 99 Here, you have 250 and you cannot ignore rules, but you can make rules so they're more flexible. Working with kids, giving them more of a leeway to work through problems versus coming down hard on them . . . whereas some schools have zero tolerance on certain things; this school does have zero tolerance on violence or weapons. But on other things, we can negotiate with the kids, and our goal is to keep them in class and not to get them out of class. Giving a specific example to this like-mindedness, Principal-B stated, We'll help them. We're not, we're not quick on suspending. We do help them a lot. We have worked with . . . which is the counseling company. We contract with them and they offer their counseling services. We have counseling for the parents too. To combat truancy, MCHS-A’s documentation noted a successful solution was in, “finding a better calendar to fit students' attendance patterns.” Principal-A provided another illustration of creatively dealing with the disciplinary challenge of attendance by stating, our attendance is great except for our chronic absentee kids . . . I do home visits. I go to homes and I knock on that door . . . and one of the times I did a home visit, the kid was working to help feed the family and so I put him on independent studies. I would never have known that unless I did a home visit. The MCHS-A application documented such flexibility in this disciplinary challenge by noting, Our principal will make personal visits to the homes himself and talk to the family about possible solutions to the issue . . . understands the hardships that our students may be experiencing and these visits are positive visits, not punitive. The goal is to work as a team to give the student the best possible education and educational experience possible. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 100 Through innovative disruption of common practices regarding disciplinary issues, such as attendance, behavioral infractions, or emotional challenges, Principals A, B, and C have enabled students to focus on earning credits toward graduation. Earning credits. Flexibility and creativity in providing unique ways for students to recover credits was another common theme supported through interview and document analysis. Moving beyond traditional practices of earning credits, MCHS-A’s application document noted that, “Students may earn additional credits by taking after-school classes or taking classes at local community colleges . . . is offering ELAC classes on campus that allow students to earn both high school and college credit concurrently.” Another innovative practice was exemplified MCHS-B’s application document, which reports that all students have the opportunity to recover credits by earning an extended period. Extended day is earned after a student attends 15 consecutive school days with perfect attendance, without any tardiness or truancy from school. Earning extended day allows a student the opportunity to earn up to 120 credits in one school year. From an accountability approach to earning credits, Principal-C shared, every student, whether they're in special ed or not, has an individualized education plan here. We force them, literally, to know how many credits they have, know how many credits they need to graduate, and know the difference . . . these kids are much more knowledgeable about their individual plan for education, than my students at the comprehensive high school ever were. They could tell you exactly how many credits they have. They can tell you where they need to take their test. They can tell you things like that. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 101 Principal-C further evidenced this statement with a graph depicting percentages of students’ responses to the Likert-scale based question, “How many credits will you receive this grading period?” Speaking a common sentiment regarding credit recovery, which resonated throughout all interviews, Principal-C commented, “It's very important to them, because they are working out of a hole . . ..” This flexibility in earning credits was also evident in the principals’ creativity of scheduling relevant and meaningful programs for their students. Scheduling programs. Another theme which emerged through the interview and document analysis was the concept of flexibility and creativity in scheduling a variety of novel programs, with innovative teaching strategies, that would engage the students and provide a clear path toward college and career readiness. For example, in the document analysis for MCHS-A, it was stated, the master schedule is based on student need each quarter. Teachers have been trained to differentiate instruction through SDAIE strategies for all English Learners . . . facilitates access and programs for special needs students to participate in academic courses and school activities that prepare them to be successful in college and career, while meeting IEP goals . . . counselor meets with students as needed to review and discuss courses and graduation requirements . . . teachers work with students on a case-by-case basis on whether homework is required for a specific project/assignment. The application document for MCHS-B expressed innovative disruption to the traditional method of achieving credits by noting, “is in a continual process of utilizing data to improve the instructional programs for all students to guide our focus on closing the achievement gap. Various procedures are used to determine what is working and where improvement is needed.” MCHS-B further documented, LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 102 … has community-based partnerships with agencies that offer students with resources for mental health services at no cost . . . provide school-based counseling . . . who serve not only teens but also parenting and pregnant minors . . . they have a location on the school premises allocated exclusively to their clients which offers confidential rooms for consultations . . . parenting and/or pregnant students on campus are provided additional support from the Cal-SAFE program, which operates a daycare for infants and toddlers.” Innovative programs such as auto shop, SEL, Restorative Justice, parenting support, substance abuse, ROP, UCLA TIP project, technology-based instruction, or other career-based programs were discussed and further supported in MCHS-A’s and B’s documentation. Additional programs, such as “Gay and Lesbian Alliance, MECHA, Book Club, Garden Club, Video Gamer's Club, and Basketball tournaments,” were cited in the application document for MCHS-A. Principal-A punctuated the importance of innovative programs by stating, “All of these clubs provide a safe and welcoming environment where the students have an opportunity to excel, be accepted, and be themselves.” When asked about the effectiveness of alternative programs, Principal-C responded, The ones I've seen effect . . . innovative programs . . . good rapport with the kids . . . better attendance than I have for the students and the parents on campus . . . rigor, warmth, and demanding rigor. To allow for these creative programs, each principal expressed the need for advocacy. Advocacy. Another significant theme which emerged through the interview and document data analysis process, common among all three principals, was the sincerely expressed vocation to advocate on behalf of their students and schools. As leaders, Principals A, B, and C each passionately described the critical need to practice advocacy on behalf of their schools’ at- LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 103 risk student population to ascertain equitability, especially in comparison of traditional continuation high schools and their unique populations. With their respective districts, common areas of need for advocacy included basic acknowledgement regarding their students’ unique needs, support for more flexibility in programming, independence for choosing staff, decreased student-teacher ratios, and basic needs like replacing broken security cameras. Within their school environments, all three principals also indicated a need to advocate for students in building self-esteem, self-confidence, self-advocacy, and self-efficacy, all constructs of social emotional literacy (Coppock, 2007). While Principal-B shared that MCHS-B had smaller student-teacher ratios, Principals A and C articulated the essential need to advocate for smaller class sizes and more teachers. For example, Principal-C stated, “The district doesn't see that we need to be a 25 to 1, we had an extra teacher here last year, they took him away.” Principal-A shared a similar sentiment, “With the district, you have to advocate for your school . . . as it is, we're double what it should be and we create miracles here. That's one of the biggest challenges, the district not understanding.” Principal-A emphasized the need to advocate within the school setting, getting buy-in with the teachers’ regarding novel ideas and modern instrumentation, by sharing, It's kind of challenging because they didn't really want to try too many things . . . the challenge right now is bringing more technology to the classroom... trying to make them see that that's what our kids need, and they want Principal-C also indicated a need to advocate for the students, in attempts to monitor academic needs and progress, by stating, “I'm always asking them about formative assessments. And then, summative assessments. Celebrations and next steps. I share this with them all the time, so that they can see where we are.” Principal-C revealed more data sheets indicating LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 104 charted results students had given when personally asked about various SEL topics (pulled from questions on the LCAP). About advocating for students’ emotional support, all three principals specified the practice of modeling interactions with students, both for the students and the teachers to see. Regarding making connections and building resilience, Principal-C shared comments made with a teacher, Talk to the kid about his football team. Talk to the kid about the dance that happened over the weekend, about a movie that we all saw . . . and we really push that . . . by using the safe and civil strategies, we built the rapport issue . . . and by building the rapport issue, we have students who are not necessarily aggressive and want to please. Another means of advocating for the students, by making connections and being visible on a regular basis, was explained in Principal-A’s comment, “I greet every single one of students in the front when they get off the bus, almost every day. Some days, I just can't so my AP does it.” Principal-A further explained advocacy for students’ safety in the statement, the teachers . . . they bring a paper that they wrote up on a student and what their concerns are, social/emotional, academic, attendance, tardies, behavior . . . they send it to me . . . we get the transcripts, we get the discipline, everything we can . . . then when we get together as a staff . . . then we talk about who has so and so Another method of advocating for students is in making sure they have the support and guidance needed to achieve academic and social-emotional success. This practice was further supported in the MCHS-A application document stating, Class sizes vary from 25-30 students due to fluctuation in enrolment and demand . . . these small intimate classes create a non-threatening atmosphere for students and provide an opportunity for everyone to become involved in class activity . . . students who were LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 105 overlooked or overwhelmed in traditional larger classes feel they have more access to their teachers in order to have their questions answered fully which often leads to lively discussion and better understanding for all students. A student’s opinion of the effects of this type of advocacy (i.e. advocating for accountability) was eloquently stated in MCHS-A’s document, “The principal and staff at . . . pay more attention to your career . . . you want to succeed” A common sentiment between all three principals, was succinctly stated in Principal-C’s comment, “I find that the squeaky wheel gets the grease.” Summary of Findings for Research Question 3 Four overarching themes emerged through the qualitative analysis of interviews with principals A, B, and C were revealed through shared beliefs and verified through document analyses. These encompassed, servitude, fostering school cultures of resilience, disruptive innovation, and advocacy. These essential traits further guided the study inquiring about practices and validated emergent themes which aligned with the five dimensions of transformational leadership. Through this exploration, the identified leadership qualities were manifested through effective practices evidenced in: acts of servitude where caring, nurturing, and trusting environments were created (IIA, IIB, IC, and IM); providing support and modeling ways to build resilience (IIA, IIB, IC, and IM); using disruptive innovation to address disciplinary challenges, create unique programs, and support credit recovery (IS, IC, and IM); and advocacy for school, staff, and student needs (IIA, IIB, IM, and IS). Through continued use of qualitative analysis of interviews and provided documents, the next section will investigate how Principals A, B, and C measure the effectiveness of their leadership skills, as demonstrated in practices at their respective schools. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 106 Research Question 4 How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of their schools? In researching, how the MCHS principals measure effectiveness and comparing that data with the Non-MCHS, all three principals were similar in beliefs and practices regarding their schools’ effectiveness, regardless of having the MCHS distinction. While MCHS-A and MCHS- B could substantiate their measurement outcomes with the provided MCHS application documents, Non-MCHS-C evidenced effectiveness through self-made assessments and data collection methods extrapolated from results on the Local Control Accountability Plan (LCAP). All three schools had also provided proof of accreditation through Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC). Therefore, this section reveals answers to the final research question regarding MCHS principals’ measurements of effectiveness, in conjunction with similar findings that emerged from Non-MCHS-C. Findings: Interview and Document Analysis Through the analysis of the three interviews and documentation of the MCHS applications, corroborated with qualitative data from Non-MCHS-C, the constructs of internal and external systems of accountability surfaced as predominant themes in their endeavor to measure effectiveness. Through internal and external measures of accountability, consensus among Principals A, B, and C identified three essential areas scrutinized for effectiveness, attendance, graduation rates, and school culture. Attendance. Ascertaining students’ attendance is another huge measure of effectiveness for all three principals. For example, in MCHS-A’s application documentation, it noted, LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 107 Student attendance is monitored constantly by the principal. He meets with staff regularly to review attendance issues. Students that are out without an excuse are called in and counseled by the administration about the importance of daily attendance. District home visits occur when a student misses more than five days of school and the district sends an attendance officer to their homes. Our principal will make personal visits to the homes himself . . . Here, the effectiveness of attendance is measured and held accountable both externally and internally. Effectiveness was also found to be measured through attendance rates at MCHS- B, evidenced in school-wide incentive programs, as well as increased academic improvement rates. Document analysis of MCHS-B’s application supported this notion with the excerpt stating that MCHS-B, “. . . has a direct commitment on student success by monitoring grade reports data, eligibility to return to comprehensive school site, attendance incentives, and student of the month . . ..” Regarding both internal and external measures of effectiveness, or accountability, Principal-B further shared that, the dashboard and continuation high schools are not there yet . . . I asked why is that and they say, ‘well they're trying to figure out . . . how to hold you accountable, because they're so different.’ So, I found that very interesting that . . . that piece is still not really there. So, in the district, they hold us accountable as they do the other high schools. Whatever they do, we do . . . which is kind of unfair in some ways, but we do it. We just do it. So, we have to keep up the numbers, attendance, and our graduation rates are everything. Graduation rates. Each principal shared that their districts held them accountable to the State standards of meeting A-G requirements for graduation; however, no consistency between LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 108 external accountability and internal support was evident. Consequently, this created a significant challenge for the principals to validly measure their schools’ effectiveness by means of graduation rates. For example, in response to the question, “How are continuation schools held accountable?” Principal-A replied, “By our board, our superintendent, our graduation rate. The number one thing that we're held accountable is graduation.” Principal-C discussed the common challenge of student’s transiency within their schools, making it difficult to calculate concrete data for graduation rates, based upon external measures of accountability. Principal-C succinctly stated the repeated sentiment of all interviewed principals, regarding external accountability, with the description, “it's nebulous.” The need to move more toward an internal accountability system, to establish a sense of validity in effectiveness, was further expressed by Principal-C in the statement, I was looking for accountability when I first got here. They weren't used to me, when I got here. I spent a lot of time in the classrooms; I guess the previous administrator didn't. I also believe in spending a lot of time in the classrooms. Here, Principal-C revealed documentation of running records or graphs indicating data on incremental progress with all students. This data was based upon student responses to personalized questions regarding individual progress toward graduation. This provided a clear measurement of all students’ progress toward graduation and effectiveness of internal accountability. MCHS-B documentation indicated similar strategies of internal measures of effectiveness or accountability, evidenced in the excerpt, The staff at . . . regularly meet with students to review their transcripts and discuss graduation goals. They discuss the graduation requirements for high school with the students as well as the A-G requirements to get accepted into college. They discuss with LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 109 them their individual timeline for graduation and other possible opportunities to earn additional credits. Taking a different perspective, Principal-B indicated that the district holds the continuation high school accountable through its graduation rates, as well; yet, for internal accountability, Principal-B shared that the graduation rates themselves were actually used to measure effectiveness of social emotional literacy, as noted in the comment, “Graduation rates, definitely . . . The number of students that show up to our office for help because they trust us with things.” Whether it’s measuring academic or social-emotional success, graduation rates are used both internally and externally as forms of accountability. School culture. Another common theme among all three principals was the inherent motivation of measuring their schools’ effectiveness through creating cultures of resilience. The common belief throughout the interviews was that academic achievement increases when students feel safe, valued, and nurtured, which are all tenets of resiliency development (Coggshall, 2007; Coppock, 2007; Durlak et al, 2011). Although all three principals commented on external accountability of effectiveness through LCAP and WASC, each expressed a personal mission, or intrinsic motivation, to continuously measure, monitor, and improve upon their respective school’s effectiveness in producing school cultures of resilience. Likeminded, Principals A, B, and C had each alluded to a shared feeling regarding external accountability and/or measures of effectiveness, which was so poignantly voiced by one principal in the anonymous statement, As long as they're not getting any complaints, then I'm doing a great job. It doesn't mean I am, but that's how most boards and superintendents look at it. They don't ever hear anything from . . . very rarely because we take care of our business. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 110 Each principal shared countless stories of hardships endured by many of their at-risk students and how the simple provisions of compassion, flexibility in understanding, and creatively solving challenges, as demonstrated by school staff, helped change the trajectory of their young lives. Principal-B shared an impactful example, changing that mindset . . . so, with our staff it's very important . . . it's conceptualized in actually reaching out to our kids . . . here they are. Let them be and they'll be okay . . . Here's that connection . . . Actually, both of our students who gave speeches during the graduation, one . . . when she came to us, the first three months she was a mess. She was suicidal. Every so many weeks she was trying to commit suicide. Horrible life . . . and she turned it around with . . . she had the help of the counselors. She had the help of our . . . student assistants, an adult student assistant who helped her a lot . . . and she was a star at the end. Her speech was wonderful and she talked about how she struggled with the, you know, with just being healthy in every way. She has dreams of keeping her dream alive and going to college . . . Stories like this seemed to be the most gratifying and substantial measure of effectiveness for all three principals. Another form of evidence in effectiveness, as documented in the MCHS- A application, was displayed in a teacher’s statement, The entire staff works together to maintain a high level of focus on delivering a quality program to our students. This spirit and focus make it easy to be selfless and for genuine discussions to take place between all staff members. We are each passionate and we each feel heard and valued . . . . is a wonderful place to be, for students and for staff members. Principal-C shared pages of collected data documenting formative and summative, qualitative assessments revealing consistently increased levels of students’ positive regard of LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 111 school culture. This internal accountability was then used to validate effectiveness for the district external measures, as well. Principal-C, although no formal distinction of MCHS, empathically voiced self-efficacy in effectively cultivating a resilient school culture by stating, “I feel good about what I'm doing here, and I like what's going on. And the kids are successful. The staff is very supportive.” Clearly, this efficacy in effectively producing and measuring cultures of resilience was equally conveyed by all three principals. Summary of Findings for Research Question 4 Summatively, qualitative data was collected and analyzed from the interviews and provided documentation from Principals A, B, and C. Since Non-MCHS-C confirmed many similar beliefs, practices, and supportive evidence, all three sites were studied regarding measures of effectiveness at their respective school sites. Systems of external and internal accountability were embedded into the discussions. Here, common themes emerged as being essential in the examination of effectiveness for all three schools including attendance, graduation rates, and school culture. In comparing external and internal accountability, there was a consensus with Principals A, B, and C that validity and reliability of current measures were threatened, due to inconsistencies across district and State requirements between traditional and alternative high schools. Despite these challenges, all three principals revealed transformational leadership tendencies in their acts of service, advocacy, innovative thinking, and cultivating schools where students evidence resilience through academic achievement and social-emotional development. MCHS-A, MCHS-B, as well as Non-MCHS-C, provided evidence through interviews, corroborated with documentation, indicating the use of internal accountability to leverage measures on effectiveness of beliefs, programs, and practices that influence the requisite areas for student success, attendance, graduation rates, and school culture. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 112 Their internal measures were further authenticated with supportive data provided through WASC and LCAP reports for each school site. The next section provides a discussion of the findings as they relate to the research questions that initiated this research. Discussion This chapter presented the findings of this mixed-methods explanatory study, intended to clearly understand and answer the four provided research questions. It began with the quantitative MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey to measure the teachers’ perceptions of their principals’ predominant leadership traits, in terms of transformational, transactional, or passive/avoidant leadership. Next, the survey data was substantiated through a qualitative analysis of principal interviews and school documents. The findings gathered from this study indicated that California Model Continuation High Schools (CMHSs) are led by principals who have transformational leadership qualities as their predominant traits. Moreover, the findings revealed that Non-Model Continuation High Schools may also be led by principals who have been highly rated as transformational leaders by their teachers. Further, the findings also suggested that transformational leaders employ practices that lead to laudable outcomes, as evidenced by internal measures of accountability. Using the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey, teachers rated their perceptions of what they believed to be the most predominant leadership qualities of their principals. Using the survey tool to highlight transformational leadership, on a 0-4 scale (4 meaning always or almost always), the results were as follows: MCHS-A (2.68), MCHS-B (1.97), and Non-MCHS (3.28). Regarding transactional leadership, using the same scale, the results were as follows, MCHS-A (2.32), MCHS-B (1.8), and Non-MCHS (2.36). For the passive/avoidant scale, the results included, MCHS-A (1.32), MCHS-B (1.17), and Non-MCHS (0.88). This data indicates that the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 113 principals for both Model and the Non-Model Continuation schools were predominately perceived as transformational leaders, amalgamated with some transactional traits, such as rewarding achievements or accomplishments. The next part of the discussion was to gain an understanding of what successful leadership traits meant to the principals. Interview data was carefully analyzed to gain an understanding of what the principals believed were efficacious leadership traits. It was discovered that all three principals expressed common leadership traits that aligned with the five dimensions of transformational leadership, based upon fundamental, all-encompassing themes. These overarching themes, commonly identified as their life’s mission or passion, included servitude, fostering school cultures of resilience, disruptive innovation, and advocacy. Moreover, these themes parallel the five dimensions of transformational leadership: Coaches and Develops Peoples (Individual Consideration–IC); Acts with Integrity (Idealized Influence Behaviors–IIB); Builds Trust (Idealized Influence Attributes–IIA); Encourages Others (Inspirational Motivation–IM); and Encourages Innovative Thinking (Intellectual Stimulation– IS). Since all three principals were rated as predominantly transformational on the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004), it follows that the principals’ perceptions of effective leadership traits also coincided with transformational leadership practices. Additionally, all three principals were also rated higher in displaying some transactional leadership tendencies (Rewards Achievements–CR), such as rewarding completed responsibilities or desired behaviors. Again, it seems reasonable that their perceptions of effective leadership would also include rewards or acknowledgement for accomplishments. The consensus of findings, regardless of a MCHS distinction, suggested that principals with a transformational leadership style may not necessarily require a State level distinction of Model Continuation High School to be truly successful in LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 114 transforming lives of at-risk students. The traits that emerged align with the principals’ belief system, as well as the five dimensions of transformational leadership, evidenced in their leadership practices. The next part of the discussion was to understand how these leadership traits manifested in terms of practices for both model and non-model alternative schools. The practices were validated by the qualitative investigation of the interviews and analysis of the MCHS applications and other relevant school documentation. As described in the qualitative analysis of the principals’ interviews, regarding their beliefs on efficacious leadership qualities, several salient transformational leadership traits became actualized through, acts of servitude where caring, nurturing, and trusting environments were created (IIA, IIB, IC and IM); providing support and modeling ways to build resilience (IIA, IIB, IC, and IM); using disruptive innovation to address disciplinary challenges, create unique programs, and support credit recovery (IS, IC, IM); and advocacy for school, staff and student needs (IIA, IIB, IM, IS). Finally, the data collected from the interviews and document analysis revealed a lack of valid and reliable external accountability measures for continuation high school settings. Consequently, MCHS-A and MCHS-B principals showed transformational leadership by leveraging the power of internal accountability practices with measures such as WASC accreditation and Model distinction. Having no MCHS distinction, Principal-C was equally able to convey evidence of transformational leadership effectiveness. Therefore, Non-MCHS-C also leveraged internal accountability, utilizing WASC, LCAP, and evidence-based documentation verifying a culture of data-driven decision-making in pursuit of exemplary performance for students’ benefit. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 115 Chapter Summary This chapter presented the findings of this mixed-method study using three forms of data collection, survey, interviews, and document analysis. A discussion of the findings stated that transformational leaders guide continuation high schools with and without the Model distinction and that their leadership traits are embedded in school practices. Further, the findings of this study revealed a lack of valid and reliable external accountability measures for continuation high school settings. Moreover, hallmark practices of the MCHS principals, commonly found with the Non-MCHS, were the leveraging of internal accountability practices and measures as a way of achieving exemplary performance outcomes, as well as the salient use of quantitative data to validate qualitative data. Chapter 5 includes a summarization of research, practice, and policy implications. There will also be a brief discussion of limitations, as well as recommendations for further study. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 116 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND IMPLICATIONS Introduction This chapter provides a summary of the purpose of the study, research questions, design overview, and key findings. It then concludes with implications for policy and practices, followed by limitations and recommendations for further study. Statement of the Problem There is a significant need for leaders to exhibit dynamic leadership qualities to successfully oversee an organization with the complexity of a high school. While there is an abundance of literature on qualities of effective principal leaders in high schools, there is very little research regarding the essential attributes of effective principal leadership in California continuation high schools. This is an important area to study since the continuation high school is a setting comprised of the most at-risk and marginalized student populations, who struggle with higher levels of exposure to violence, victimization, alcohol and substance abuse, transiency, unstable living arrangements, truancy, domestic dysfunction, and increasingly concentrated groups of minorities (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). Moreover, there is scant research with respect to continuation high schools and principal leadership essential to effectively service these vulnerable populations. Purpose of the Study The primary purpose of this study was to examine the effective leadership qualities and practices of principals from successful alternative school settings with the distinction of California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS). A tributary purpose of this study also became relevant: to compare leadership qualities and practices of recognized MCHS principals with those who have not been identified as MCHS (e.g. Non-MCHS). This comparison helped LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 117 determine whether the distinction of MCHS was absolutely necessary to transform marginalized populations of continuation high school students into cultures of resilience. A hypothesis was made that, perhaps, without the title of MCHS, similarly functioning continuation high schools can achieve “success” by the same means as those who applied for this title, yet have not been formally recognized. Therefore, focal points for this comparison included, accountability measures, governing practices, and guiding worldviews as they relate to student achievement, both academically and social-emotionally. Based on Full Range Leadership Theory (Avolio et al., 1999), with an emphasis on transformational leadership, the primary purpose of this research was to explore efficacious leadership traits, styles, and practices of principals who have been identified as successfully leading their alternative school settings to the status of California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS) in California Continuation Schools. As such, the researchers of this study analyzed the beliefs and practices of principals that resulted in their schools’ designation as a Model Continuation High School. An additional Non-MCHS was purposively selected, based on similarities between the demographic populations, extracurricular supports, attendance and graduation rates, and implemented programs. Therefore, all three schools were investigated with equal curiosity and inquiry. The researchers began with a quantitative study on how teachers perceived the predominant leadership traits of their respective principals, evidenced through the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey. This is important to ascertain because the principals’ beliefs, leadership styles, and practices may or may not align with the available research regarding effective leadership or with teachers’ perceptions of their predominant leadership traits. Parenthetically, an understanding of teachers’ perceptions regarding their principal’s predominant leadership style was essential because these perceptions affect the teachers’ morale, LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 118 which then affects their performance. This is a primary factor affecting student achievement, while leadership is a secondary leading predictor of student achievement (Hitt & Tucker, 2016). Subsequently, the principal’s role in educational effectiveness is pivotal in terms of empowering teachers to help students experience success in school (Goldring et al., 2009). The results of this study have both practitioner and policy implications. The generated findings can provide guidance for principals and policy makers regarding effective practices and efficacious policies that are founded on evidence-based approaches, or best practices, validated by research. Research Questions The following research questions guided this study: 1. Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as identified by their teachers? 2. What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes? 3. As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success? 4. How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of their schools? Design Overview This study was completed using the Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods design which is a two-phase study that first involves collecting and analyzing data quantitatively and then builds upon the results through a qualitative study (Creswell, 2014). Moreover, Malloy (2011) purported that a mixed methodology most thoroughly answers all research questions. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 119 Therefore, the sequential methodology was specifically designed to provide qualitative data that expands upon the initial quantitative results (Creswell, 2014) and further supported the generated findings to the research questions. The most evident benefits to a mixed-method design is that it draws on the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative designs, is appealing to those at the forefront of research due to its sophistication, and provides a more complete understanding of research problems (Creswell, 2014; Malloy, 2011). The quantitative instrumentation, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire™ Form-5X (MLQ-5X, Avolio & Bass, 2004), ideally answered the first research question seeking to statistically identify the predominant leadership style of principals based on the perceptions of their teachers, as indicated on the questionnaires. Creswell (2014) suggested that quantitative results often guide the researchers in moving toward the second, qualitative, phase of the study. Qualitative research, as described by Creswell, is an inductive method of inquiry that focuses on the meaning and accentuates the importance of the interpretation behind the complexity of given situations or phenomenology. Through this approach, interviews with Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals were utilized to explore the most efficacious leadership traits and practices they believed were essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes, along with the ways in which they measured the effectiveness of their schools. As a point of comparison, Non-MCHS teachers were also surveyed through the MLQ-5X and their principals were interviewed to identify leadership similarities and/or differences from their model school counterparts. The quantitative data ascertained from results on the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey indicated predominant leadership traits of the selected continuation high school principals. The generated results from the data collection instrument, MLQ-5X, were then used LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 120 to tailor the types of probes included on the qualitative interview questions, based on the predominant leadership style of the selected principals. Essentially, the semi-structured interview questions were calibrated to gain a deeper understanding of the identified predominant leadership styles. The qualitative aspects of the study then began to analyze the principals’ interviews, coupled with the MCHS applications or other relevant school documentation. To help further explain, or expand upon the initial quantitative results, a document analysis was also employed as a phase-two qualitative measure. In short, after analyzing the quantitative data of the MLQ- 5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004), this study then utilized qualitative measures, such as specified interview questions and document analyses to support findings aimed at answering the research questions. Validation of data was accomplished through triangulation. The logic of triangulation is based on the premise that no single method adequately solves the problem of contending explanations (Patton, 2002). Triangulation facilitates validation of data through cross verification of multiple data sources, such as established research, surveys, interviews, and document analysis (Creswell, 2014; Patton, 2002). Accordingly, the researchers performed a document analyses of the Model Continuation High School (MCHS) applications, as well as other pertinent documents from the Non-MCHS, as a means of validating reported beliefs, practices and leadership styles that were indicated on the teachers’ MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) ratings and principals’ interviews. Through this means of triangulation, an evaluation of consistency among all gathered information and the findings from the different sources was completed. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 121 Key Findings A key finding of this study, per results from the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004), was that California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHSs) are led by principals who have predominantly transformational leadership traits, intermixed with transactional tendencies, such as rewarding accomplishments. Additionally, the findings revealed that Non-Model Continuation High Schools may also be led by principals highly rated by their teachers, if not higher than those with the MCHS distinction, as transformational leaders. Essentially, the distinction of Model Continuation High School is not a requirement to be a change agent or to transform school cultures of marginalized student populations into cultivated environments where resilience leads to academic and social-emotional success. A second key finding suggested that transformational leadership employs practices that lead to admirable outcomes. These identified practices were founded upon the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) results indicating that all three principals were rated as exhibiting predominantly transformational, with some transactional traits intertwined, in their leadership styles. Moreover, all three principals self-reported and were perceived by their teachers to actively seek engagement, motivate, encourage, and coach others. Accordingly, these qualities are the basis for their fundamental practices, which included rapport-building, role-modelling, encouraging or coaching others, perpetuating a growth mindset, developing caring and trusting relationships, innovative or divergent thinking, collaboration, authenticity, rewarding achievements, perpetuating cultures of resilience, and demonstrating servitude and humility. These practices appeared to be culminating results of their core beliefs regarding efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 122 A third key finding was that the MCHS and Non-MCHS principals expressed shared beliefs regarding effective leadership traits. Further, the common beliefs aligned with the five dimensions of transformational leadership. This finding suggests that effective principals with a transformational leadership style may or may not be at the forefront of continuation high schools with a distinction of Model Continuation High School, but can still share mutual tenets of this leadership style. As revealed through collective passions, common themes encompassed servitude, fostering school cultures of resilience, disruptive innovation, and advocacy. These themes parallel the five dimensions of transformational leadership including Coaches and Develops Peoples (Individual Consideration–IC), Acts with Integrity (Idealized Influence Behaviors–IIB), Builds Trust (Idealized Influence Attributes–IIA), Encourages Others (Inspirational Motivation–IM), and Encourages Innovative Thinking (Intellectual Stimulation– IS). A fourth key finding was that there were four overarching themes that emerged from the principals’ interviews, revealing shared beliefs and passions. The traits that emerged align with the principals’ worldviews, and reflect five dimensions of transformational leadership, conveyed through commonality of practice. Specifically, the identified traits were validated as effective practices evidenced in: acts of servitude where caring, nurturing and trusting environments are created (IIA, IIB, IC and IM); providing support and modeling ways to build resilience (IIA, IIB, IC, and IM); using disruptive innovation to address disciplinary challenges, create unique programs and support credit recovery (IS, IC, IM); and advocacy for school, staff and student needs (IIA, IIB, IM, IS). The fifth key finding was that all three principals shared the belief that there is a lack of valid and reliable external accountability measures for continuation high school settings. Each LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 123 principal expressed the need and practice of creating internal accountability measures, which may or may not necessarily align with external measures of accountability. With the exception of providing the MCHS applications used only with the model schools, all three principals revealed transformational leadership by leveraging the power of internal accountability practices and measures. Using disruptive innovation to challenge status quo regarding accountability, all three schools applied internal accountability measures with external sources, such as WASC accreditation or LCAP data, to create cultures of data-driven decision-making pedagogics in the pursuit of exemplary performance for students’ academic and social-emotional benefit. Implications for Policy and Practice This research has implications for both policy and practice. The intent of this study was to add to the scarce body of research for California continuation high schools, specifically regarding effective leadership traits and practices. The following is an enumeration of implications for policy and practices to improve continuation high school education so that negative trajectories for marginalized students are decreased and the probability of positive outcomes for the State’s at-risk youth is increased. Policy First, findings of this study, in conjunction with the available research base, indicated that continuation high school education requires valid and reliable State accountability, which then can be consistently applied within all school districts. This lack of credible external accountability impedes equitable access to quality public education, especially for at-risk students, and potentially convolutes schools’ abilities to adequately apply internal accountability measures. Current research on this matter postulated that “contradictory, confusing, and inconsistent” (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012, p. 6) State accountability for continuation LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 124 schools results in significant discrepancies between the educational quality and the individualized experiences of those whom they serve. Comparatively, California’s overall graduation rate has shown improvement over the last seven years and is currently, on average, at 83% (CDE, 2017d); however, California’s continuation high school students are two and one- half times more likely to drop out, compared to peers in traditional settings (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). This vast discrepancy between traditional and alternative high schools should be critically considered when developing a valid and reliable accountability system that accurately provides equitability for all Californian youth. Further, without considering contextual factors of unique school cultures, it is near impossible to determine significant aspects involved for differentiation of instruction, apposite programming, and equitable systems of accountability. Essentially, accountability systems should be equally matched and consistently reinforced with comparable school cultures (i.e. equating apples to apples and oranges to oranges). Using the same accountability measures between traditional and alternative high school settings, knowing how immensely different each environment is, only perpetuates the marginalization of at-risk youth. However, ignoring the alternative settings and eliminating consistently applied standards or expectations across these settings also sets these at-risk populations up for continuous failure. Hence, it is critical that continuation high schools are not discounted or bypassed, yet appropriately held accountable, given their unique populations. State accountability is essential to address the great variance in outcomes for at-risk students in California continuation high schools. Second, per previous research and this study’s findings, it is also recommended that, regardless of enrollment, the State collect and make public performance data in accountability reports for all continuation schools. Further, any additional indicators implemented to measure LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 125 continuation high schools’ performance should be comparable across all continuation high schools to identify best practices, as well as schools that need support or intervention (Taylor, 2015). Through the provision of public school systems of transparent performance indicators, the State is better able to identify continuation high schools that may or may not be serving students well and/or provide those low-performing schools with appropriate supports, intervention, and incentives for improvement (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016). Third, a clear description of success specific to the alternative school setting should be applied when defining the purpose and value of continuation high schools, especially in regard of rapidly changing economic, technological, political, and social-emotional times. Considering the current times, social-emotional literacy (SEL) should certainly be implemented into the expected pedagogy and included as a critical component necessary for success. As evidenced through research, educators who effectively promote social emotional literacy (SEL) are more apt to create cultures of resilient students and yield substantial academic progress toward meeting 21st century learning goals (Coggshall, 2007; Durlak et al., 2011; Bell, 2016). Further, a central focus of this study’s purpose should elucidate, prioritize, and individualize the needs of these unique student populations, rather than making broad generalizations based upon what is most important to the leaders or community at large. Practices Based on the findings of this study and extensive literature on leadership, it is recommended that principals of continuation high schools be required to participate in ongoing professional development designed to cultivate effective leadership traits and practices evident in high performing continuation high schools and validated by research. Professional development LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 126 should be multifaceted including opportunities for a study of the research, observations in high performing alternative schools, and coaching by mentors in the field. The findings in this study were further supported through the research that postulated effective leadership at the principal level is foundational to high performing continuation schools, although there are serious challenges inherent to continuation education (Bush, 2012; Farris, 2014; Hemmer et al., 2013; Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Sumbera, 2017). Continuation high school leaders should be trained, encouraged, and supported by the district and State in pedagogy that embeds tenets of social-emotional literacy (SEL). The field of brain-based research, or neuroscience, continues to produce mounting evidence indicating that the process of learning and transference of acquired SEL skills across varied contexts is cognitively and neurologically linked to social, emotional, and contextual factors in the students and their environments (Elias, Zins, Graczyk, & Weissberg, 2003; Zaki & Ochsner, 2011). Therefore, school environments which fostered SEL increase students’ behavioral regulation, problem solving, communication and collaboration (Beets et al., 2009; Bryk & Schneider, 2003; Ross & Horner, 2014; Shankland & Rosset, 2016). Further, research showed that continuation high school leaders who cultivate environments rich in the development of SEL, strengthen 21st century learning skills, enhance students’ resiliency and yield elevated levels of academic success (Beets et al., 2009; Ross & Horner, 2014; Shankland & Rosset, 2016). Research findings proposed that continuation high schools are more likely to ensure their students graduate from high school with 21st century skills requisite for post-secondary education and/or career readiness if the following key practices are established (Bush, 2012; Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008), LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 127 Clearly articulate positive expectations for students and set goals that align with the mission, vision, and practices of stakeholders. For example, Bush (2012) found that high performing schools incorporate organizational modifications such as altered course structures, short-term units, and performance-based credit-recovery. A data-driven approach is applied to address learning gaps, backward-mapping to State standards, and online learning. Research showed that high performing schools utilize this method to design curriculum (Bush, 2012). These beliefs and practices are consistent with the vision, expectations, and goal-oriented tenets of transformational leadership (Podsakoff et al., 1990). To drive school improvement, use regular and consistent monitoring of reliable and meaningful data (e.g. attendance, graduation, and transfer rates, etc.); participate in the accreditation process by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) or Model Continuation High School (MCHS) distinction (Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Warren, 2016); and contribute in the WASC and MCHS processes as a means of mitigating the negative effects of inadequate State accountability for alternative schools. Cultivate a culture of validation and recognition of students/staff for educational growth and progress (e.g. benchmark assessments and credit recovery). Use intentional efforts to analyze school climate data to foster a safe, supportive, caring, and engaging learning environment (Bush, 2012). Promote a school connectedness and caring relationships among staff and students, imperative to effective continuation schools (Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017). Research, conducted in alternative high school settings, further LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 128 evidenced that fostering a culture of trusting and caring relationships has been identified as imperative factors for both students and staff (Brown, 2007; te Riele et al., 2017). These findings were also consistent with transformational leadership as they noted the intentional creation of an engaging and positive school culture committed to high expectations and ethical standards (Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Northouse, 2016). Employ discipline policies and practices that are restorative, grounded in a system of positive behavioral intervention support (PBIS), and solution/resolution focused (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). Acquire district administration support in areas of relevant and ongoing professional development tailored to the unique needs of continuation high schools, allowing for school leaders to use expertise in hiring appropriate personnel, using divergent innovation in scheduling unique programs, enforcing a smaller teacher-student classroom ratio, and creating incentives to attract highly-skilled staff (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales & 2017). Limitations There were some limitations to this study. First, the sample size gathered was small which reduced the generalizability of the findings. Further, less than half of the submitted surveys, taken from the original sample size, were completed leaving many responses unanswered. Fink (2016) suggested that data becomes dirty if there are incomplete surveys or missing responses, which happened with this research. Consequently, to clean the data only fully completed surveys were used and those with missing data were eliminated from the analysis (Fink, 2016). Concluding results were contingent upon the final sample size. Results were, therefore, more vulnerable to potential bias because of the lowered response rate, LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 129 particularly for those respondents who may be dissatisfied with their principal. Also, survey responses only reflected participating teachers’ perceptions, not the entire school staff, which further decreased generalizability. Although the data may not be generalizable or definitive, it can be informative when added to the body of research on leadership styles, specifically at continuation high schools. Another limitation to the generalizability was that findings were unique to urban continuation schools in southern California. A final limitation was evidenced in the comparative results of the Non-MCHS to both schools with the MCHS distinction. This study provided strong evidence that principals can certainly be perceived as, and perpetuate practices of, transformational leaders as demonstrated with Principal-C. Leaders do not necessarily need the MCHS distinction to be effective transformational leaders. Simply basing “success” on the distinction of Model Continuation High Schools does not negate the fact that there are highly effective alternative schools in California. There are other continuation schools that are doing transformative work on behalf of students that do not have the title. These schools, also, are worthy of study. Recommendations for Future Research Due to the scarcity of available research and vulnerability of the student population, further empirical studies in the areas of effective leadership traits and practices, within the context of continuation education, is recommended. Adding more schools to the research base would decrease the vulnerability of potential bias and increase potential generalizability. The findings of the present study could have been more robust by adding more schools to the research base, as well as requesting that the principals rate their own leadership styles on the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004). This design would allow the researcher to compare results between principal and teacher respondents. Also, the researcher may consider expanding the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 130 MLX-5X survey to all staff in each school rather than limiting it to teachers. Moreover, this research can be enhanced by the added collection of observational data of leadership traits and practices and an expansion of document analysis to include LCAP, WASC, or other forms of formal measurement. Lastly, it is recommended that this study be replicated across the State across regions, such as northern or central California or rural areas. Conclusion This study adds to the scarce body of literature regarding continuation education through the examination of leadership beliefs and practices of principals in MCHS compared to those of Non-MCHS. The data revealed that leaders with predominant transformational leadership styles are likely to lead schools to laudable outcomes regardless of MCHS distinction. Data further showed that there may be occasions where transactional leadership, such as rewarding accomplishments as incentives, may also be necessary. When transformational leaders embrace their worldviews and apply their leadership traits to their effective practices, true transformation of school cultures can occur. Successful traits and techniques may be universal to all school settings. However, some deemed successful traits may apply more leverage in a continuation setting than others. Further, if these hallmark traits, styles, and practices of transformational leaders can guide continuation high schools, with or without the Model distinction, to laudable levels of success by embedding SEL into the curriculum, using innovative means to meet students’ individual needs, and cultivating cultures of resilience, then these may also be applied across all school systems. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 131 References Abbas, G., Iqbal, J., Waheed, A., & Naveed Riaz, M. (2012). Relationship between transformational leadership style and innovative work behavior in educational institutions. 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LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 148 Appendix A MLQ-5X Mind Garden Permission LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 149 Subsequent to May, 2018, Sean Delgado in September 2018 wrote “Our University (USC) allowed me to do a collaborative themed dissertation with classmates/co-researchers Xochitl Ortiz and Patricia Kling. Are they permitted to use this same information above for their dissertation citation/appendix? (We used the same first three chapters of our dissertation, but are submitting our own results). I am going to CC them, so they can get your response, as well. Thank you!” Following is the response received: From: Mind Garden Inc <info@mindgarden.com> Date: September 14, 2018 at 7:23:24 AM PDT To: Sean Delgado <mrdelgado@rocketmail.com> Cc: "lpatrici@usc.edu" <lpatrici@usc.edu>, "xochitlo@usc.edu" <xochitlo@usc.edu> Subject: Re: Dissertation Appendix information Hello Sean, Xochitl, and Patricia, Yes. Best wishes, Ken Mind Garden, Inc. 650-322-6300 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 150 Appendix B Thematic Coding Matrix Thematic Coding Matrix R2: What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes? R3: As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success? R4: How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of their schools? MCHS-A MCHS-B Non-MCHS-C THEME CULTURES OF RESILIENCE Assertion Growth mindset helps foster cultures of resilience Part of that is my belief in the power of intent. I had a kid one time, another student who we brought him a birthday cake because his birthday is on December 6, ASB, and the kid cried uncontrollably, was sobbing. He said, "I've never gotten a cake. This is my first birthday cake ever." Almost all our students, almost all, are coming because they have really bad habits. Once you have a habit, the problem with the habit is it becomes so So those pieces are very important in creating a very safe environment. And it works. It works, you know, they're still kids and, you know, there's there's things that are going to maybe not go well, but we'll . . . we'll pick them up and we'll help them we'll show them. Face the right direction and keep moving It's obvious that sometimes the kids just don't think that they can do it. And we're working on that. And we're working on growth mindset. We figure that approaching of those will work towards motivation, and that's our goal is to get these kids to think that they can conquer this It's all the stuff, it's the data presentation I just had to do with the district. And if you look at it, self efficacy and growth mindset are both areas that I need to work on. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 151 ingrained, you don't even recognize it Our job is to change their habits from bad to good and then once that happens, everything takes care of itself, it really does. Encouraging students or coaching teachers helps build resilience A child doesn't care how much a teacher knows until a child knows how much a teacher cares. It goes to anyone in administration. …because someone noticed the socio- emotional needs and they send them here, but it's huge. I think every single one of our students needs and they respond. They respond in a positive way. I'll show them our DNF rate, I'll show them our slide in growth mindset and efficacy. I'll show them what I've done by visiting their classrooms. Norms set the tone and empower students My job actually, at the end of the day, is to change habits. I think that's essential now with all the stuff that's going on in our schools. I think they should be in every school. Big part of every school. I think our teachers and our staff and everyone and administrators, everyone should have more training on that piece. I feel good about what I'm doing here, and I like what's going on. And the kids are successful. The staff is very supportive. Beliefs reflected in the tone they set for the campus, play an important role in fostering student’s resiliency. …the way you make someone care about themselves is by having them take care of something or somebody else. A student that takes care of a garden or a kitten or helps another student, starts …it has to be a place where students feel comfortable and they feel safe; emotionally, psychologically, academically, in every respect. Where you have adults who have a heart, and they These kids, even though they've gone through the ringer, and have been kicked out of other schools, when they get here, they're a bit stand offish. But they understand right away that this is a LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 152 gaining what is called true self-esteem of who they are. By giving, and they don't realize this, by giving, they end up getting. Those two things, changing their habits and making them give. That changes their social and emotional, especially the giving. The social emotional is not just for my students, it’s for my staff use alternative methods to help them reach their goal, which is to graduate. It should be a place where people are just very compassionate. place that cares about them and is gonna help them. Role modeling helps students emulate resilient tendencies Let's be a little understanding and compassionate when we have a 17 or 16- year-old in our classroom who has had a lot of trauma and hasn't had good role models at home, … just model that, that we're not going to yell, we're not going to scream at you, we're going to listen to you and it's safe. It's safe to be yourself here. …because these students will not always see adults in their lives that are positive role models. So, I like it when they're mature and positive role models THEME SERVITUDE Assertion Worldviews guide practice / Beliefs and practices match Servitude. I don't want to do this. I don't want to do this. I don't. I have no fear. What the hell is the district going to do me? Send me back to the classroom? I begged them and it trips them out because I go to meetings It has to be a place where students feel comfortable and they feel safe; emotionally, psychologically, academically, in every respect. Where you have adults who have a heart, and they use alternative methods to help them reach their goal, which is to graduate. For me, it is a school, small in size, with a lot of caring teachers who support the students. And students who are eager to make amends for past, maybe indiscretions, but the lack of credits is what it basically is. And who are coming here to serve a purpose so they can LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 153 It should be a place where people are just very compassionate. get a diploma I believe it can be embedded. I believe that, if we can embed public service into academia, which we are doing for our make learning career thing, we can do anything. And we do have, if you look at this, thematic approaches to the different months. We have ten months, right? There is a strong commitment to help students rise above life’s obstacles and foster’ resilience It's almost a religious and spiritual like to call what I was called to do. That's why I do it and I'm going to do it until I'm 55 and then I'm going to go back to the classroom. I feel I have paid my dues to society. We have to see it and practice it on a daily basis. There's no kid left untalked. We talk to them. These kids, even though they've gone through the ringer, and have been kicked out of other schools, when they get here, they're a bit stand offish. But they understand right away that this is a place that cares about them and is gonna help them. Developing caring and trusting relationships provides a safe place where resilience flourishes It's the number one role, social/ emotional. Our kids are here because they have social/emotional issues. They motivate me because I know they love their kids and they're entrusting the most precious, I don't want to say the word thing, but the most …and when they do make the connections, is there a part of it, teaching them how to address conflicts or these difficult situations and thrive despite? Motivation, feeling that they can't doing something because they've not been able to do it in the past. They've been put out of other schools. They've had lack of success with academics. We have to build them up. We're going to work, we have been working on self LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 154 precious entity that they have to me. Not just to educate them but to help them find their vision, their purpose, and to keep them safe efficacy for two years. Traits like authenticity, humility, compassion, genuine care for students leads to serving others No matter where your career takes you, you're being authentic to yourself I created an environment where I want the kids to wake up and would rather be here than at home and that does happen. Of course, we don't get all of them, we don't get the 100% we always strive for So I think it's a practice here to talk to the students not just about the work but about their lives as well, because you make those connections. I support them. I just help them do what they need to do. Try to facilitate and try to smooth out the barriers that are in their way. Rapport-building helps cultivate environments of trust Your word has to be your bond. When you say you're going to do something, you do it, and you have to be consistent If I take care of my support staff, my classified and my teachers, they will then do what needs to be done for my students, so it's a multiplier effect. I created an environment where I want the kids to wake up and would rather be here than at home and that does happen. Of course, we don't get all of them, we don't get the 100% we always strive for …by building the rapport issue, we have students who are not necessarily aggressive and want to please. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 155 THEME DISRUPTIVE INNOVATION Assertion Good school management lends itself to a well- organized routine, clear expectations, safe environments and freedom to make mistakes Our goal is to work with them as much as can and get them to get their high school diploma. You have to understand that our purpose is credit recovery, for them to earn their credits. So the type of lessons the teachers have to have are lessons where the students can catch up, no matter when they come into your class. We're going to visit other alternative schools to see how they're being successful with us because the system is great because it's very individualized academically. But they should not be the hardest working people in the room. This is safe and civil strategies. Did we observe them? This is the evidence of the pathway, public service. Then we have understanding two, which is complex tests for task. Understanding three, collaborative conversations. And this one we're working on right now. PD and opportunities for reflection, self- efficacy, professional feedback, and professional growth to better teaching practices; which in turn, models SEL and supports resilience in their students I have visited two teachers all year long and it kills me because I want to be in the classroom, I want to give feedback, I want to interact with the teachers. I want people to mirror me what I do all day. We think that there has to be a middle ground where you give people time to reflect on issues and ideas and things like that. …they're willing to, to learn more to help our students. They're always willing to go to a conference or learn about a new strategy. They are very compassionate, and they want those skills to learn how to communicate with our kids, so they can help them better with whatever's going on We have, we do a lot of our own professional development, plus we bring outsiders in. We have three meetings a month. They're on Wednesdays, you're at one of them today. And we do different things. I have an ILT team, instructional- leadership team, and I have a safe and civil team. And one of the meetings, each month is devoted to each of them. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 156 their lives. They have a belief that our students are going to be successful. They carry that with them. Innovative or divergent thinking is necessary to create unique environments that meet individual needs We have a weight room here. Why did I ask for a weight room and I finally got it after two years? I'm a big believer in physical activity creates a strong mindset and a lot of our boys love to work out. If that's the reason why they're coming to school, God bless them, let's get them to school. …the counseling company, we contract with them and they offer their counseling services. We have counseling for the parents too. Well, workshops for the parents, a lot of workshops And here are the ten months. And the first month we had leadership, which was the characteristic we were working towards. And for the public service, the aspect of public service, charities, and non profits, government, social services, law enforcement, education, health care. Divergent thinking is used to challenge status quo of continuation high schools …our parents send us the best kids they have. They're doing the best they can ignoring the social, emotional aspect of our students I believe long periods are ineffective It's kind of challenging because they didn't really want to try too many things. The challenge right now is bringing more technology to the classroom. Trying to make them see that that's what our kids need, and they want. I have maybe a couple of staff who are not to convinced, they want to keep the status quo. So, we all need to help them see that it's a good thing. These kids are much more knowledgeable about their individual plan for education, than my students at the comprehensive high school ever were. They could tell you exactly how many credits they have. They can tell you where they need to take their test. They can tell you things like that. Formative assessments, I'm always asking them about formative assessments. And then, summative assessments. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 157 Right now, I'm being told that my kids don't have enough seat time to be considered CTE classes here. Wonderings, these are different questions that I had for them. Celebrations and next steps. I share this with them all the time, so that they can see where we are Creative solutions and flexibility are necessary when dealing with challenging behaviors Motivation is key and keep finding different ways of doing it understanding that sometimes that might work with a student for two or three months may stop working and you need to change strategies and keep changing strategies and keep moving them forward. We'll make them TAs a lot of times. One of my kids, he's my TA, so I touch base with him every day. I try to find out who that student is connecting with, I try to put him in clubs. That's what we do. But I think that challenge of the mindset of what a continuation high school is, it's difficult even among the students. Sometimes they feel like they're coming to the bad school. So, that's difficult to change. The challenge right now is bringing more technology to the classroom. Trying to make them see that that's what our kids need, and they want. Talk to the kid about his football team, talk to the kid about the dance that happened over the weekend, about a movie that we all saw. And we really push that. That has, that's one, I mean by using the safe and civil strategies, we built the rapport issue. And by building the rapport issue, we have students who are not necessarily aggressive and want to please. Here, you have 250 and you can, not ignore rules, but you can make rules so they're more flexible. Working with kids, giving them more of a leeway to work And also, the students are some, are not always a 100% behind the idea of getting a diploma. They throw barriers in their way. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 158 THEME ADVOCACY Assertion District’s support is absolutely necessary to promote constructs such as SEL, growth mindset and divergent thinking These are my kids, I'm going to fight for them With the district, you have to advocate for your school. …the continuations they don't really have a good reputation in the state of California. When you mention high school, people think nothing happens there, no one learns. They just get graduate or they get lost. That's a challenge with the community and even within our own district, and even a portion of our staff. Sometimes it's difficult to challenge them because deep down inside that, that's the belief that they hold on to which is the continuation high school. This (district support) is probably one of the challenges, they cannot leave us alone, which is good and not good. You know, it's like as long as you guys show me your graduation rates and all that, we don't really care what you do. That's message we get which is very sad, you know, because we're just a continuation High School. The district doesn't see that we need to be a 25 to 1, we had an extra teacher here last year, they took him away. We had an extra teacher the year before, they took him away. So, just since I've been here, we went from 9 to 7 staff members. The fact that there isn't any thing that's produced by any one. You have to go out and make it yourself. And you know, I didn't do it in isolation, because of my visits in WASC, I asked other schools and that's been very helpful to me. I also enjoy seeing other schools. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 159 Role modelling in making connections assists students in developing social capital I greet every single one of students in the front when they get off the bus, almost every day. Some days, I just can't so my AP does it. I make sure that I get to know the family because I could start my conversation with that, " How's you mom, what's going on at home? These students will not always see adults in their lives that are positive role models. So, I like it when they're mature and positive role models. Rapport-building and collaboration are crucial for stakeholder buy-in I would say the most important thing is collaboration and communication with everyone on the campus. What makes a successful leader with the community is you have to build those community relationships, as many as you can We have a wonderful community liaison and we tell the parents at our orientations that it is expected for them to attend at least two workshops. They do. It changes their mind. I model that with the staff. I model that a lot so that I get to know the student, get to know them personally. I have a couple teachers that the kids would be upset with another kid, who'd try to make noise in the class. And it's because of the rapport building. …where we talk to the kids, and tell, and build rapport, we feel that rapport is essential to making them understand that we want them here Encouraging and coaching teachers is sometimes necessary in dealing with challenging students The kids have to know that you care about them. Once they know that, then they're willing to learn. One of the things that I tell my teachers, and I use myself as the example, because I need them to understand that our kids have bad habits and not to get so upset and angry with them when they're not doing what they should do. Well, I have to be a role model for all that. You ask the staff, we're a team. We all work together to bring the best education, the best opportunities for our students. I always have something to say not to change them or anything, but just to give them information so they can make a more constructive decision. Not necessarily a better decision, but a more constructive. The ones I've seen effect, innovative programs, good rapport with the kids, better attendance than I have for the students and the parents on campus. Rigor, warm and demanding rigor. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 160 Seeking engagement with teachers, students and parents can be highly motivational, especially when advocating for a cause What makes a successful leader with the community is you have to build those community relationships, as many as you can Our staff is pretty good. They all want to participate and they want their voice heard, and I appreciate that very much, because I like that. I model that with the staff. I model that a lot so that I get to know the student, get to know them personally. I also believe in spending a lot of time in the classrooms. I find that the squeaky wheel gets the grease LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 161 University of Southern California Rossier School of Education 3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089 Appendix C Ethical Disclosure Form Uncovered Leaders in Hidden Schools: Effective Leadership Practices in California Model Continuation High Schools ETHICAL DISCLOSURE FORM You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This research study aims to understand how effective leaders lead effective schools. This is an important area to research, specifically in the continuation schools, because these are often comprised of the most vulnerable and disenfranchised student populations. These are the very students who need effective leadership and practices the most. This study can add important information to the limited research on continuation high school, as well as assist policy makers and educators in developing and implementing evidence-based strategies to become effective continuation high schools. PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to complete a confidential and anonymous online survey which is anticipated to take no more than 10 minutes. You do not have to answer any questions you don’t want to, click “next” or “N/A” in the survey to move to the next question. ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship with your employer will not be affected whether you participate or not in this study. CONFIDENTIALITY This survey is provided through a link provided by Mind Garden (www.mindgarden.com), which assures the maintenance of privacy and anonymity for each participant. All gathered information will be kept confidential and adheres to Mind Garden’s Privacy Policy. Only researchers on this project will have access to the gathered data, which will also be stripped of LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 162 any identifying information before being provided to people who have a supervisory relationship with you, in order to protect the confidentiality of the participant responses. The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. By participating in the provided survey, you are acknowledging that: (1) all information will be held confidential, (2) your participation is voluntary and you may stop at any time if you feel uncomfortable, and (3) we do not intend to inflict any harm. Thank you for your participation!! INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION Principal Investigator: Tricia Kling, via email at lpatrici@usc.edu or Faculty Advisor: Dr. David Cash at dcash@usc.edu or (213) 740-0224 IRB CONTACT INFORMATION University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 163 University of Southern California Rossier School of Education 3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089 Appendix D Consent to Participate Form Uncovered Leaders in Hidden Schools: Effective Leadership Practices in California Model Continuation High Schools CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE FORM You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This research study aims to understand how effective leaders lead effective schools. This is an important area to research, specifically in the continuation schools, because these are often comprised of the most vulnerable and disenfranchised student populations. These are the very students who need effective leadership and practices the most. This study can add important information to the limited research on continuation high school, as well as assist policy makers and educators in developing and implementing evidence-based strategies to become effective continuation high schools. PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to complete a confidential and anonymous online survey which is anticipated to take no more than 10 minutes. You do not have to answer any questions you don’t want to, click “next” or “N/A” in the survey to move to the next question. ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship with your employer will not be affected whether you participate or not in this study. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MODEL CONTINUATION PRINCIPALS 164 CONFIDENTIALITY This survey is provided through a link provided by Mind Garden (www.mindgarden.com), which assures the maintenance of privacy and anonymity for each participant. All gathered information will be kept confidential and adheres to Mind Garden’s Privacy Policy. Only researchers on this project will have access to the gathered data, which will also be stripped of any identifying information before being provided to people who have a supervisory relationship with you, in order to protect the confidentiality of the participant responses. The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. By signing below, you are acknowledging that: (1) all information will be held confidential, (2) your participation is voluntary and you may stop at any time if you feel uncomfortable, and (3) we do not intend to inflict any harm. I agree to participate in this study. ____________________________________ __________________ Name Date Thank you for your participation!! INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION Principal Investigator: Tricia Kling, via email at lpatrici@usc.edu Faculty Advisor: Dr. David Cash at dcash@usc.edu or (213) 740-0224 IRB CONTACT INFORMATION University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Based on Transformational Leadership Theory (Avolio, Bass, & Jung, 1999), the purpose of this study was to examine effective leadership qualities and practices of principals from successful alternative school settings. Leaders from California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS) were compared to non-MCHS principals. An Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods design (Creswell, 2014) was used to triangulate quantitative and qualitative data through a Constructivist and Phenomenological lens. The first key finding was that California MCHSs are led by principals who have predominantly transformational leadership traits, intermixed with transactional tendencies, per MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) results. Moreover, Non-MCHSs may also be led by principals highly rated by their teachers as transformational leaders. Second, transformational leaders employ practices which yield laudable outcomes. Third, Model and Non-Model principals concurred that effective leadership fosters school cultures that are driven by a compelling vision/mission and cultivate resilience through disruptive innovation, advocacy, and servitude. Fourth, these principals’ practices aligned with their beliefs and reflected transformational leadership tenets, specifically, through: acts of servitude where caring, nurturing, and trusting environments were created
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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Kling, Patricia Anne
(author)
Core Title
Uncovered leaders in hidden schools: effective leadership practices in California Model Continuation High School principals
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
10/18/2018
Defense Date
10/04/2018
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
accountability,advocacy,alternative education,Alternative Schools Accountability Model (ASAM),Bolman,constructivism,continuation education,credit recovery,Dashboard Alternative School Status (DASS),data driven decision making (DDDM),Discipline,disruptive innovation,effective leadership,ethical issues checklist,ethical questions,explanatory sequential mixed methods design,fostering school cultures of resilience,Full Range Leadership Theory,leadership traits,leadership vs. management,marginalized youth,Model Continuation High School (MCHS),Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ): pedagogy,OAI-PMH Harvest,phenomenological,policies and practices,protective factors,resilience,school culture,self-efficacy,servitude,snowball or network sampling,social emotional literacy (SEL),successful educators,trait theory,transactional leadership,transformational leadership,triangulation,victimization,Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC),worldview
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Cash, David (
committee chair
), Castruita, Rudy (
committee chair
), Elsasser, James (
committee member
), Garcia, John (
committee member
)
Creator Email
lpatrici@usc.edu,tkling@dusd.net
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-83922
Unique identifier
UC11676751
Identifier
etd-KlingPatri-6880.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-83922 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-KlingPatri-6880.pdf
Dmrecord
83922
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
application/pdf (imt)
Rights
Kling, Patricia Anne
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Tags
accountability
advocacy
alternative education
Alternative Schools Accountability Model (ASAM)
Bolman
constructivism
continuation education
credit recovery
Dashboard Alternative School Status (DASS)
data driven decision making (DDDM)
disruptive innovation
effective leadership
ethical issues checklist
ethical questions
explanatory sequential mixed methods design
fostering school cultures of resilience
Full Range Leadership Theory
leadership traits
leadership vs. management
marginalized youth
Model Continuation High School (MCHS)
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ): pedagogy
phenomenological
policies and practices
protective factors
resilience
school culture
self-efficacy
servitude
snowball or network sampling
social emotional literacy (SEL)
successful educators
trait theory
transactional leadership
transformational leadership
triangulation
victimization
Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC)
worldview