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Uncovered leaders in hidden schools: effective leadership practices in California Model Continuation High School principals

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Uncovered leaders in hidden schools: effective leadership practices in California Model Continuation High School principals

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Content Running Head: LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS UNCOVERED LEADERS IN HIDDEN SCHOOLS: EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP PRACTICES IN CALIFORNIA MODEL CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL PRINCIPALS by Xochitl Ortiz A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION December 2018 Copyright 2018 Xochitl Ortiz LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 2 Preface Some of the chapters of this dissertation were co-authored and have been identified as such. While jointly authored dissertations are not the norm of most doctoral programs, a collaborative effort is reflective of real-world practices. To meet their objective of developing highly skilled practitioners equipped to take on real-world challenges, the USC Graduate School and the USC Rossier School of Education have permitted our inquiry team to carry out this shared venture. This dissertation is part of a collaborative project between three doctoral candidates: Sean Delgado, Tricia Kling, and Xochitl Ortiz. We three doctoral students met with several Model and Non-Model Continuation High Schools with the aim of learning from the principals in these phenomenological settings. However, the process for dissecting and acquiring a thorough constructivist perspective from the selected participants was too large for a single dissertation. As a result, the three dissertations produced by our inquiry team collectively examined the effective practices of principals in continuation education. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 3 Acknowledgments I would like to thank the members of our dissertation committee: Dr. David Cash (dissertation chair), Dr. Rudy Castruita, Dr. James Elsasser, and Dr. John Garcia for all of their guidance and mentorship throughout this process. I want to acknowledge our 2016 cohort brothers and sisters, USC Rossier professors and supporting staff for such a rewarding experience. I will forever cherish the many days and nights we spent learning and celebrating together. Fight On! Lastly, I would like to especially thank and acknowledge the districts, principals, and teachers for your participation and allowing me to conduct this important research. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 4 Dedication First and foremost, this dissertation is dedicated to my husband and my children. Without your constant encouragement and support, I could not have completed this important journey. Thank you for staying with me through this incredible process and I so look forward to the next chapter in our lives. I’d also like to thank my dissertation partners, Sean Delgado and Tricia Kling! I could not have had a better team! You lead with your heart, are strong, fun, driven, high-achieving, incredibly bright and creative, and most importantly have a committed passion for learning and improving the quality of education for at-risk youth. Last but certainly not least, I dedicate this to my father and Gordo (en paz descansen) who I know sent me strength from up above and to my mother, siblings, suegros, and Ortiz family for your uplifting and encouraging words. May this work help others. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 5 Table of Contents Preface 2 Acknowledgments 3 Dedication 4 List of Tables 8 Abstract 9 Chapter One: Overview of the Study 11 Introduction 11 Background of the Problem 12 Statement of the Problem 14 Purpose of the Study 15 Research Questions 15 Importance of the Study 16 Limitations 17 Delimitations 18 Assumptions 18 Definitions of Related Terms 19 Organization of the Study 22 Chapter Two: Literature Review 23 Theoretical Framework 23 Leadership Styles and Theoretical Foundations 24 Leadership vs. Management 26 Trait Theories 27 Intelligence 28 Self-Confidence 28 Determination 29 Integrity 29 Sociability 29 Transformational Leadership 32 Full Range Leadership Theory 34 Continuation High School 36 Contextual Background 36 Historical Overview 37 Students 39 Accountability 41 Effective Leadership 44 Model Continuation High Schools 46 Conclusion 48 Chapter Three: Methodology 49 Introduction 49 Restatement of Problem, Purpose, and Research Questions 49 Design Overview 51 Sample and Population 53 Instrumentation 54 Data Collection Procedures 57 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 6 Data Analysis 58 Ethical Considerations 60 Summary 61 Chapter Four: Results and Findings 63 Introduction 63 Purpose of the Study 63 Findings 65 Organization of Data Analysis 65 Descriptive Characteristics 66 Survey Respondents 66 Interview Participants 66 Findings for Research Question 1 68 Findings: Survey Participants 68 Summary of Findings for Research Question 1 78 Findings for Research Question 2 79 Findings: Interview 80 Resilience 80 Innovation 83 Lifelong Learning 85 High Expectations 86 Summary of Findings for Research Question 2 87 Findings for Research Question 3 88 Findings: Interview and Document Analysis 88 Resilience 88 Hiring 89 Visibility and Modeling 90 Social-Emotional Learning 92 Innovation 95 Lifelong Learning 99 Professional Development 99 College and Career Readiness 101 High Expectations 104 Organizational 104 Rigorous and Standards-Based Curriculum 105 Assessment of Student Learning 106 Discipline 107 Summary of Findings for Research Question 3 108 Findings for Research Question 4 108 Findings: Interview and Document Analysis 108 External Accountability 109 Internal Accountability 110 School Evaluation Processes 110 Assessment of Student Learning 113 Engagement and School Climate 116 Summary of Findings for Research Question 4 118 Discussion 118 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 7 Auxiliary Finding 121 Summary 122 Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusion, and Implications 124 Statement of the Problem 124 Purpose of the Study 124 Research Questions 125 Design Overview 125 Key Findings 128 Auxiliary Findings 130 Implications for Policy and Practice 130 Policy 130 Practice 131 Limitations 134 Recommendations for Future Research 135 Conclusion 135 References 137 Appendix A MLQ-5X Mind Garden Permission 153 Appendix B Qualitative Semi-Structure Interview 155 Appendix C Sample Email to Site Principal 159 Appendix D Thematic Coding Matrix 160 Appendix E Dissertation Consent Ethical Consideration for MLQ-5X - Teacher Survey 169 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 8 List of Tables Table 1: Interview Respondents by Experience 67 Table 2: Average Score per Category of Transformational Leadership for the Principal of MCHS-A 69 Table 3: Average Score per Category of Transactional and Passive/Avoidant Questions for the Principal of MCHS-A 71 Table 4: Average Score per Category of Transformational Leadership for the Principal of MCHS-B 73 Table 5: Average Score per Category of Transactional and Passive/Avoidant Questions for the Principal of MCHS-B 74 Table 6: Average Score per Category of Transformational Leadership for the Principal of Non-MCHS 75 Table 7: Average Score per Category of Transactional and Passive/Avoidant Questions for the Principal of Non-MC 77 Table 8: A Comparison of Leadership Styles–Survey Respondents 78 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 9 Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine the effective leadership beliefs and practices of principals from California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS) based on Transformational Leadership Theory (Avolio, Bass, & Jung, 1999). Quantitative and qualitative data was collected and triangulated using an Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods design. As a point of comparison, a Non-MCHS was researched utilizing the same methodology. Based on survey results from the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004), principals from the MCHS and Non- MCHS settings were rated by their teachers as predominantly transformational leaders. The second most prevalent leadership style was transactional; they were least rated as passive/avoidant leaders. Five salient transformational leadership traits and practices that surfaced from this research across principals are: cultivating a school culture of resilience through caring and positive relationships (IIA and IC) and a compelling vision and mission (IIB and IM), innovation (IS), lifelong learning (IIA, IC and IM), and high expectations (IM). The principals expressed state accountability is needed to improve equity and access to quality education for at-risk youth. Consequently, principals demonstrated transformational leadership by leveraging the power of internal accountability within their respective sites for their students. The findings coincide with the research base which states although there are serious challenges inherent to continuation education, effective leadership at the principal level is foundational to high performing continuation schools (Bush, 2012; Farris, 2014; Hemmer, Madsen, & Torres, 2013; Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Sumbera, 2017). Keywords: Continuation Education, Transformational, Leadership, Resilience, Innovation, Lifelong Learning, High Expectations and Accountability LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 10 CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY Introduction The California Continuation High School, established in 1919, is an alternative path to achieving a high school diploma for students at risk of dropping out (CDE, 2017e). The mission of continuation schools has evolved over the years, first beginning as a program to serve working students then transitioning to services for maladjusted youth, to the current model which is service to at-risk students (Perez & Johnson, 2008). Since 1965, California State law has mandated that most schools with 100 or more seniors make available a continuation school to assist at-risk students (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). Students at continuation high schools are often between the ages of 16 and 18, arrive to the continuation high school from a comprehensive high school or other location, and have not had a history of academic success. The reasons for the lack of academic success are far-ranging. This non-exhaustive list highlights an example of reasons: low motivation, lack of resilience, learning disabilities, lack of social capital, high transiency, poor behavioral regulation, substance abuse, systemic obstacles, or difficulty connecting in large school settings (Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). Some students voluntarily choose to attend a continuation school, drawn by the small size, the flexibility that comes with a required minimum attendance of 15 hours a week, the alternative approaches to learning, and a chance to have a fresh start. Other students are placed at continuation schools from probation agencies, through district referral processes, or as an alternative means of expulsion (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). In essence, a continuation school is comprised of a diverse group of students that often arrive and leave at varied and unpredictable times. For example, the California Department of Education (CDE) website reported that in 2014-15, there were 460 continuation high schools LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 11 reporting an enrollment of 60,027 students, but that 116,500 students on average are served throughout the entire year (CDE, 2017e). Despite the high risk and high-mobility factors among students and the high mobility, it is the belief and purpose of the CDE to “provide a world-class education for all students,” including these students who face enormous challenges (CDE, 2017c, p. 1). Background of the Problem Given the context, there is a tremendous need for quality leadership who can provide the knowledge and skills required to provide a world-class education. While Traditional Public Schools (TPS) have commonly had an accountability process to ensure that students are learning, continuation schools have not been under the same scrutiny, or have had accountability measures that were ineffective for a variety of reasons (Warren, 2016). At the July 12, 2017 California State Board of Education (SBE) meeting, the SBE approved the development of a new accountability measure, the Dashboard Alternative School Status (DASS), with expected implementation in Fall of 2018 (CDE, 2017b). This will fulfill the obligation of the law under California Education Code (EC) Section 52052(g), which requires: The Superintendent, with the approval of the State Board of Education, shall develop an alternative accountability system for schools under the jurisdiction of a county board of education or a county superintendent of schools, community day schools, . . . and alternative schools serving high-risk pupils, including continuation high schools and opportunity schools. (CDE, 2018b, para. 2) Leaders of these schools have an ethical obligation to uphold the belief and purpose of the CDE to provide a world-class education and will be held accountable by the State to do so. Until this happens, however, principals will continue to be required to develop their own LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 12 accountability systems and provide their own sense of leadership to provide what they perceive as a world-class education. Additionally, they will need to do so with at-risk students, and this task requires exceptional leadership. The leadership will be required to provide an environment that will foster the graduation of students who are capable of being ready for both college and careers, and who will have skills that will prepare them to be competitive and successful in the 21st century (National Education Association, 2010). Between the 1960s to present day, the local and global marketplace has transformed from an industrial to an informational economy (Care, Griffin, & McGaw, 2012). New skill sets are required to succeed in the 21st century (21C). Consequently, the Framework for 21st Century Learning illustrates a new learning paradigm where traditional pedagogy (e.g. reading, writing, and numeracy) explicitly incorporates fundamental 21C skills (Care et al., 2012). These essential skills are critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity. Moreover, these 21C skills are addressed within four domains: Traditional Core subjects and Skills, Learning and Innovation Skills, Career and Life Skills, and Digital Literacies. If at-risk students are going to be successful in life, they will need a quality education that can socially, emotionally, and behaviorally prepare them, alongside effective instructional leadership required to establish this learning environment (Daunic et al., 2013; Stanton-Salazar, 1997). The need for this exceptional leadership is compounded when there is a scarcity of capable school leaders, especially in high-poverty and high-minority schools, and continuation schools tend to have students with higher concentrations of these students (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). The National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASS) cited the Institute for Education Statistics that one in five principals working in schools during the 2011-2012 school year left during the 2012-2013 school year, and that one of every two principals aren’t LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 13 retained past their third year (NASS, 2017). Additionally, they reported that the supply of qualified principals is diminishing and won’t meet the growing demand for principals due to increase in students attending schools (NASS, 2017). This is important, because when principals stay and exhibit good leadership skills, teachers are retained (Player, Youngs, Perrone, & Grogan, 2017). Therefore, these broad problems in education necessitate the need for this research regarding the diminishing supply of effective principals, the complexity of instructional leadership in a school setting of marginalized students with high needs, the growing demands for instructional leadership that imparts 21st century skills to prepare students for college and careers, and the impending new accountability system that California is preparing for continuation schools. By examining the effective leadership practices that govern successful continuation schools, this study may contribute to the growing body of literature, so that practices can be generalized to influence practitioners and policy-makers. Statement of the Problem There is a tremendous need for leaders to exhibit dynamic leadership qualities to successfully oversee an organization with the complexity of a high school. While there is an abundance of literature on qualities of effective principal leaders in traditional high schools, there is very little research with regard to the essential attributes of effective principal leadership in California continuation high schools. This is an important area to study since the continuation school is a setting often comprised of the most at risk and marginalized student populations, who struggle with more exposure to violence and victimization, alcohol and substance abuse, higher mobility, unstable living arrangements, and are more concentrated groups of minorities (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). Additionally, there is very little research associated with any aspect of LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 14 continuation high schools, much less the leadership required to effectively service vulnerable populations. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to examine the effective leadership qualities and practices of principals from successful alternative school settings that are recognized as California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS), based on Transformational Leadership Theory (Avolio et al., 1999). As such, the researchers of this study analyzed the beliefs and practices of principals that led toward their school’s designation as a Model Continuation High School. The researchers also investigated how teachers perceive the leadership traits in their principal. This is important to ascertain because the principals’ beliefs, style, and practices may or may not align with the research about effective leadership or with how teachers identify his or her leadership style and practices. Moreover, it's important to understand how teachers identify the leadership style of their principal because teacher performance is the primary factor affecting student achievement, while leadership is the second leading predictor of student achievement (Hitt & Tucker, 2016). Consequently, the leader’s role in school effectiveness is pivotal in terms of enabling teachers to improve student achievement (Goldring, Porter, Murphy, Elliott, & Cravens, 2009). The results of this study have both practitioner and policy implications because findings provide guidance for principals regarding promising practices, as well as policy with respect to training and professional development. Research Questions The following research questions guide this study: LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 15 1. Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as identified by their teachers? 2. What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes? 3. As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success? 4. How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of their schools? Importance of the Study Continuation schools exist in the margins of society. Ruiz de Velasco et al. (2008) described “continuation high schools and the students they serve as largely invisible to most Californians” (p. 1). Invisible could take on different meanings, like diminutive in number, or in social/political/economic capital. As a result of being largely invisible, continuation schools are often overlooked in terms of research, perhaps given because that the level of impact among students is perceived as relatively small, since continuation student enrollment are a low percentage of a school district. Consequently, little research in the areas of alternative education and continuation school exists. Ruiz de Velasco et al. (2008) said that “continuation high schools remain among the most understudied sub-sector of secondary education in California (and nationally)” (p. 8). It has also been described that “the research that does exist tends to be narrow in scope and focus” with regard to continuation literature (Villalobos, 2014, p. 17). This study is important to add to the dearth of literature that currently exists for students with the highest of needs, and hopefully serves as a springboard for other forms of research. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 16 As a result of the marginalization of continuation schools in society and in the body of research, there is also a lack of coherence in legislation that begins at the State level. Williamson (2008) described alternative education (AE) as a model that operates under ambiguous legislation, with an over-generalized mission, a weak accountability system, and a lack of data, all of which give agency to principals and teachers to operate in a manner they see fit. He concluded that this gives students a wide range in the quality of educational programs that they experience. Clearly, this study is important because critical analysis of effective leadership practices in continuation high schools will improve the quality of leadership requisite to meeting the unique needs of at-risk youth in a manner that provides equitable access to world-class education. From an academic, policy, and practitioner viewpoint, more research is needed in the area of effective leadership within continuation high school settings. Limitations A limitation of this study was that it may be difficult to generalize the findings to non- continuation high school settings. One could argue that alternative settings are unique, and what is most effective for alternative settings may not be most effective for mainstream settings. Additionally, there are considerable differences of approach and organization among continuation schools. Ruiz de Velasco et al. (2008) stated “continuation schools can and do look very different in different counties, in different districts within the same county, and even within the same district” (p. 9). This lends to this perception and adage among continuation schools, that “if you’ve seen one continuation school, you’ve seen none of them,” and “100 continuation schools educate the same student in 100 different ways.” Both of these adages speak to the fact that there are very few commonalities among the culture and organization of a continuation school, although the purpose often remains the same, which is preventing dropouts (Ruiz de LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 17 Velasco et al., 2008). Therefore, it is the responsibility of the reader to discern whether the findings may be appropriately applied to other settings. The second limitation of this study was the sample size, since we are only identifying a total of six principals by their work in the CDE- designated, Model Continuation High School (MCHS) recognition program. This presents an issue of representativeness because, as a point of comparison, we are only including a total of three principals who are at schools without a MCHS distinction. Lastly, there were inherent limitations in the data collection instruments of survey, observation and interviews, and document analysis although efforts were made to establish internal and external validity throughout the data collection process. Delimitations One delimitation of this study was geographical limitation. Principals under this study are those whose schools are in southern California. Another delimitation was the amount of time that principals have been at their school site. In this case, selected principals were at their sites for a minimum of three years, since the State runs a three-year cycle of recognition for the MCHS program. Lastly, the data collection period took place over a three-month period, and more time may be required to adequately study leadership in practice. Assumptions There were several key assumptions made in this study. The first was that the teachers surveyed will honestly and accurately assess the leadership qualities of their principals. The second assumption was that, in the absence of a meaningful accountability system, the MCHS program represents the best performance of California continuation schools in terms of preparing students to 21st century college and career success (CDE, 2017c). Third, it was assumed that principals can define and articulate qualities that they believe make a positive impact in their LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 18 schools. Lastly, it was assumed that the data collection methods for this study will produce results that offer objectivity, dependability, and authenticity. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 19 Definitions of Related Terms The terms below were used throughout the study: 1. Accountability: Information regarding how the leadership and staff are meeting the needs of California’s diverse student population based on a terse set of measures (CDE, 2017a). 2. Alternative Education: Any of the four alternative schools that are required by California State law to meet the needs of students vulnerable to academic or behavioral failure, and they include continuation schools, community day schools, county-run community day schools, or independent studies programs (Austin et al., 2008). 3. Alternative Schools Accountability Model (ASAM): A State-sponsored accountability model created following the passage of the Public Schools Accountability Act (CDE, 1999). Schools select from three indicators from the following choices for accountability: behavior, attendance, student persistence, writing achievement, reading achievement, math achievement, high school graduation or General Educational Development (GED) completion (Austin et al., 2008). This system is now obsolete, and will be replaced by the Dashboard Alternative School Status (DASS) in fall of 2018 (CDE, 2018b). 4. Bolman and Deal’s Four Frames: Four leadership orientations identified by Bolman and Deal (1991b) as structural, human resource, political, and symbolic. 5. California Continuation High School (CCHS): Continuation education is a high school diploma program designed to meet the needs of students 16 through 18 years of age who have not graduated from high school, are legally required to attend school, and are at risk of dropping out (CDE, 2018a). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 20 6. Climate: The feelings and attitudes that are elicited by a school’s environment, based upon the physical, academic, and social dimensions (Loukas, 2007). 7. Culture: The belief and attitude influencing every aspect of how a school functions (Lewis, Asberry, DeJarnett,, & King, 2016). 8. Dashboard Alternative School Status (DASS): California’s new accountability system that contains State indicators and standards to help identify a school's strengths, weaknesses, and areas in need of improvement, in a dashboard of indicators. This dashboard system replaces the Alternative School Accountability Model, and will be implemented in fall 2018 (CDE, 2018b). 9. Human Resource Frame: The leadership frame that views organizations as existing to meet individuals’ needs. Human needs and skills are aligned to achieve the organization’s goals (Bolman & Deal, 1991b). 10. Leadership: The influence process facilitated by the school principal that motivates stakeholders toward the attainment of a common goal or vision (Northouse, 2016). 11. Marginalized Youth: Students of color who are identified as living within poverty conditions and experience socioeconomic or racialized forms of discrimination (Diemer & Li, 2011). 12. Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire-5X (MLQ-5X): A questionnaire used to determine leadership traits through the exploration of transactional leadership factors (Contingent Reward and Management-by-Exception) and transformational leadership factors (Charismatic Leadership, Individualized Consideration, and Intellectual Stimulation) (Bass, 1985). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 21 13. Model Continuation High School: A CCHS recognized by the CDE (CDE) as a comprehensive program that provides services to at-risk youth through the use of exemplary pedagogical strategies, flexible scheduling, and guidance and counseling services (CDE, 2018c). 14. Political Frame: The leadership frame that emphasizes the allocation of power and scarce resources. The focus is on bargaining, negotiation, and coalition building (Bolman & Deal, 1991b). 15. Protective Factors: Characteristics provided through a school setting, such as supportive leadership, dedicated staff, schoolwide behavior management, and effective academic instruction which minimize the risks for youth delinquency (Christle, Jolivette, & Nelson, 2005). 16. Resilience: The ability to demonstrate positive adaptation in times of adversity, which is a dynamic process that can change over time (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013). 17. Self-efficacy: The belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations (Bandura, 1997). 18. Social Emotional Literacy (SEL): The ability to understand and regulate the emotions of self and others, discriminate between, and use them to guide one’s actions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). 19. Structural Frame: The leadership frame that emphasizes formal roles and relationships within the organization. Its emphasis is on the division of labor and coordination of individual activities (Bolman & Deal, 1991b). 20. Successful or Effective Educators: Those who have a positive and direct impact on student outcomes, as measured by elevated academic achievement scores, incrementally LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 22 increased daily performance measures, visible student motivation and active engagement, strong academic efficacy beliefs and other constructive social, and behavior or intellectual outcomes (Coggshall, 2007). 21. Symbolic Frame: The leadership frame that utilizes symbols, rituals, culture, and charisma to promote a common vision. The organization is viewed as a tribe working together toward a common mission (Bolman & Deal, 1991b). 22. Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC): A California school accreditation process which consists of a self-study and site visitation by a group of peers. Organization of the Study This study is organized in five chapters. The first chapter included the introduction and statement of the problem, purpose of the study, and research questions. The second chapter includes a review of the literature, with a focus on qualities of effective leadership in traditional high school, as well as continuation high school settings. The third chapter is a focus on the methodology, data collection, and rationale for this study. The fourth chapter is a discussion of the results, and the fifth chapter is a conclusion and discussion of implications. Recommendations for further study will also be discussed in this chapter. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 23 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW While there is ample literature on qualities of effective principal leaders in traditional settings, research regarding key qualities of effective principal leadership in California continuation high schools is sparse (Goldring et al., 2009; Hitt & Tucker, 2016; Leithwood, Seashore Louis, Anderson, & Wahlstrom, 2004; Winton & Pollock, 2016). This is an important area to study because the continuation school is a setting often comprised of the most vulnerable and disenfranchised student populations at risk of high school dropout (Taylor, 2015; see also Johnson, Morris, Rew, & Simonton, 2016; Malagon & Alvarez, 2010; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Zolkoski, Bullock, & Gable, 2016). Consequently, this literature review provides the theoretical and empirical rationale for conducting a mixed-methods analysis of effective leadership in distinguished Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS). Chapter two includes an introduction followed by an analysis of research regarding the theoretical framework of this study and leadership theory. Then, inquiries regarding characteristics, historical overview, students, accountability, and effective leadership within California continuation high schools will be discussed. Finally, literature regarding Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS) will be examined and concluding comments will be provided. Theoretical Framework It is important to comprehend the conceptual framework on which this study was based. A rationale and theoretical framework for this inquiry, regarding the essential attributes of effective principal leadership in California continuation high schools, was the basis for this research. It is necessary to study the phenomenon of transformation and vital constructs of effective principals who have been identified as having transformed their school populations of marginalized youth into model schools. These model continuation high schools LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 24 phenomenologically yield thriving and resilient students who actively engage in 21st Century pedagogy and evidence college and career readiness upon graduation. Hence, the worldview and conceptual framework, Phenomenological and Constructivist, was the theoretical lens through which this research was examined. The phenomenon of transformational leadership, coupled with constructs such as why and how these principals guide their schools toward excellence, is key to understanding essential attributes of effective principal leadership in California continuation high schools. Merriam and Tisdell (2016) posited that phenomenology is the study of how people describe and experience different effects and situations. Constructivism asserts that one’s perceptions and beliefs are shaped by individual assumptions, prior experiences, and the reality in which one interacts (Li & Lam, 2005; Phillips, 1995). Through this blended lens, principals are influenced by various constructs like personal experiences, environmental factors, leadership styles, and theoretical foundations. These factors influence how principals proceed in creating environments where teachers are empowered and students develop resilience; consequently, they demonstrate requisite skill-sets for college and career readiness in the 21st century (21C). This study dove deeper into pertinent constructs which will assist in a critical analysis of effective leadership practices in purposefully selected Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS). Leadership Styles and Theoretical Foundations The concept of leadership is so complex that developing one concrete, universal definition is near impossible (Bush & Glover, 2014; Leithwood, Jantzi, & Steinbach, 1999; Northouse, 2016). Northouse (2016) purported that there are virtually as many definitions of the term leadership as there are those who have attempted to define it. Although there is no clear agreement on what adequately defines leadership, there is a general consensus that the construct LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 25 of effective leadership is multifaceted (Bush & Glover, 2014; Elmore, 2004; Leithwood, Jantzi et al., 1999; Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005; McGowan & Miller, 2001; Northouse, 2016; Yukl, 2002). With its complexity, there are many varying degrees of defining what effective leadership involves. While Rubin, Munz, and Bommer (2005) proclaimed that leadership holds power to either shed light or cast shadows onto others, Yukl (2002) described it as an influence over others to perform and achieve a collective task. Elmore (2004) posited that leadership is an actionable word denoting the practice of improvement. Blending descriptive traits with actions, Northouse described leadership as the process in which one takes the lead to sway others within a specific context to follow his or her vision and achieve a common goal. Anybody can be placed into a position of leadership, per Northouse, but to be effective it takes a certain skills-set, which is both innate and learned. Ascertaining a wide-ranging consensus of traits essential for effective leadership is particularly significant to school efficacy (Marzano et al., 2005). Leadership is a vital and most influential factor in the development of efficacious operations for any organization (Bolman & Deal, 2013; Northouse, 2016). Specifically, schools are microcosmic organizations that profoundly need effective leadership to proliferate success (Northouse, 2016). Under this premise, McGowan and Miller (2001) asserted that leadership “requires courage, commitment, risk, and empathy. It builds on concentrated dedication and constructive participation” (p. 2). Belasco and Stayer (1993) further postulated that effective principals foster leadership qualities in staff members, establish goals specific to their student population’s needs, use reflection to address challenges, and are proactive in finding solutions. Efficacious leaders instill a commitment and create cohesive cultures; through vigor, providing a clear focus, and building capacity they lead their school to meet established goals and achieve their mission (Bolman & LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 26 Deal, 2013; Collins, 2001; Gurr, Drysdale, & Mulford, 2006; Northouse, 2016). Although viewed through a diversity of lenses, the construct of leadership concurrently and consistently includes three key tenets: (1) Leadership is a process, not a trait or characteristic, that is solely within the leader, but a transaction between leader and followers; (2) Leadership involves influence and its impact on the followers; and (3) Leadership occurs in groups who have a shared purpose to accomplish common goals (Bolman & Deal, 2013; Collins, 2001; Hallinger, 2011; Northouse, 2016). While the idea of leadership is a popular topic, especially among corporations or mainstream schools, little is known regarding the critical value of leadership within the outliers of society, continuation high schools. Clearly, these tenets of leadership align with meeting the needs of any school population, especially continuation high schools. More profoundly, continuation high schools need effective leaders who can influence all stakeholders with a clear mission and establish goals for students’ academic achievement and social competence (Childress, Elmore, & Grossman, 2006). This kind of leadership has become evident in model continuation high schools, which leaves no doubt that the quality in education is contingent upon quality of its leadership (Elmore, 2004; Nelson, Benner, Lane, & Smith, 2004). Here, it is pertinent to distinguish between leadership and management, especially when pondering the most effective route to achieve success among the most marginalized and challenging population, continuation high schools (Nelson et al., 2004). Leadership vs. Management While both are processes which necessitate working with and influencing others to achieve a goal, leadership is distinct from management (McGowan & Miller, 2001; Northouse, 2016). The primary functions of management are to provide order, maintain stability with LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 27 existing relationships, and perpetuate consistency with procedures that have been proven to be effective in the past (McGowan & Miller, 2001; Northouse, 2016; Zaleznik, 2004). Management, further purported by Zaleznik (2004), is about building capability, control, and an apposite balance of power; consequently, managers prioritize process, pursue stability and control, and attempt to expediently resolve problems, often without entirely understanding their significance. Leadership, in contrast, endeavors to fully understand underlying factors to resolve problems and perpetuate progress by pursuing adaptive and productive change (Northouse, 2016). McGowan and Miller (2001) concurrently noted that leadership is about taking risks, creating visions, challenging status quo, guiding the organization in new directions, expanding people’s mindsets, building enthusiasm about working with children and communities, establishing innovative structures and relationships, and advancing the prevailing cultures. Leadership moves beyond simply managing; essentially, it utilizes challenges to grow and incorporates elements of inspiration, vision, and passion to lead the organization to success (Zaleznik, 2004). Leaders, therefore, are able to manage, or ascertain that the organization is running efficiently and effectively. Both managers and leaders are essential for any organization to succeed, but its growth and direction is contingent upon the style, focus, priorities, and qualities of its leader (McGowan & Miller, 2001; Northouse, 2016; Zaleznik, 2004). The process in which a leader approaches the organization is influenced by his or her theoretical foundation. Trait Theory Trait theory is one of the forerunners in the study of leadership; originally focusing on innate qualities of renowned political, social, and military leaders, such as Abraham Lincoln, Mohandas Gandhi, or Joan of Arc, it evolved into a reconceptualized expansion of the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 28 universality of leadership traits and relationships between people (Northouse, 2016; Oceguera, 2014; Spencer, 2002). Leaders of this caliber, Northouse (2016) suggested, are either born with these traits, have learned them, or are a combination of both. With its focus on leaders and their traits central to the leadership process, trait theory progressed into a list of qualities, accepted by most researchers, that substantially contribute to a leader’s success: intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability (Spencer, 2002). Intelligence. Per trait theory, the effectiveness of a leader is considered to be directly related with his or her intelligence (Spencer, 2002). Strong leaders are identified as having a higher than average intelligence, which also includes strong verbal abilities, perceptual strengths, and stellar reasoning skills (Northouse, 2016; Spencer, 2002). Spencer (2002) further asserted that the trait of intelligence significantly subsidizes a leader’s attainment of multifaceted problem solving and social judgement skills. Intelligence is considered an essential trait necessary to have a positive impact on a leader’s capacity for effectiveness (Northouse, 2016; Oceguera, 2014; Spencer, 2002). Self-Confidence. The trait of self-confidence is referred to as a leader’s certainty about his or her competencies and skills required to influence others and make a difference (Spencer, 2002). While based upon the trait theory premise that it is an innate quality, Bolman and Deal (1994) asserted that a leaders' self-confidence comes from a genuine concern with helping others or expanding knowledge, which overcomes an egocentric worry of appearances. When self- confidence is visible, effective leaders are able to build trust and inspire others to follow their lead (Sinek, 2011). Determination. The trait of determination collectively involves the desire, initiative, perseverance, governance, and ambition to accomplish an established goal (Northouse, 2016; LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 29 Spencer, 2002). Linnenbrink-Garcia, Patall, and Pekrun (2016) posited that one’s determination is based upon intrinsic motivation, inherent satisfaction, and extrinsic motivation working toward a separable outcome. A willingness to be proactive and persist in light of complications also contributes to leader’s effectiveness, especially in times where dominance is necessary to influence or direct the followers (Northouse, 2016; Spencer, 2002). Integrity. A leader’s sense that his or her work is valuable and contributes to the betterment of others, an intrinsic motivator, is perpetuated by his or her integrity (Sullivan, 2005). Adhering to a strong set of principles, a leader’s integrity encompasses the qualities of honesty, trustworthiness, and taking responsibility for his or her own actions (Spencer, 2002). Sinek (2011) asserted that integrity is more than just a leadership trait, it is the action of doing the right thing. Through integrity, Gurr et al. (2006) indicated that a leader builds relationships with care and respect and demonstrates successful and effective leadership. Sociability. In conjunction with a strong ethical sense and drive to achieve goals for the betterment of the group, sociability is a key trait for effective leadership (Gurr et al., 2006; Northouse, 2016). Effective leaders evidence highly sociable traits, such as friendliness, courtesy, tact, diplomacy, and sensitivity toward the needs and concern for the well-being others (Spencer, 2002). Through sociability, leaders create and build upon positive relationships and are more apt to influence their followers (Gurr et al., 2006; Northouse, 2016; Spencer, 2002). In the early years of trait theory, many researchers agreed that these qualities are inherent to successful leaders; however, as research has progressed, others have argued that effective leadership requires more than personality traits, physical attributes, or personal values (Oceguera, 2014). The fact that trait theory had focused exclusively on the leader, as opposed to including situational factors or systemic dynamics, cause and effect of discoverable leadership LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 30 traits have not been fully addressed. Moreover, specific traits that would guarantee a leader’s success in any given situation have yet to be discovered (Northouse, 2016; Spencer, 2002; Stogdill, 1948). Northouse (2016) postulated that early trait theorists failed to acknowledge that leadership can be learned, that these specified traits can be developed over time, or that some leaders can be effective in certain situations but not in other circumstances. Concurrently, Pervin (1994) asserted that trait theory describes a leader’s effectiveness by simply narrowing it down to innate personality traits, which is fundamentally flawed in its ability to address factors related to personality dynamics or organizational patterns of all members within an association. Pervin further emphasized the importance of the functionality of a leader’s personality, necessitating further elucidations regarding the dimensions of temperament (e.g., emotionality, activity, sociability) and semantics (e.g., evaluation and potency of effectiveness). Combining traits and attributes into an integrated and meaningful construct, Zaccaro (2007) asserted, are more probable in predicting effective leadership than by singling out any one particular trait. Zaccaro further postulated that defining effective leadership patterns, such as the combination of social acumen, awareness, and insight with appropriate responses to varied social environments and contingent situations, can provide consistent models of effective leadership across a variation of organizations and circumstances. Stogdill (1948), however, challenged this notion by indicating that a leader’s skills or traits that are effective in one organization or situation are not necessarily effective under different circumstances or environments. Further, Stogdill contended that effective leadership is not solely based upon a set of innate qualities; rather, it emerges in different situations where personal relationships are built. In his longitudinal study to identify specific characteristics LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 31 commonly found in effective leaders, Stogdill postulated that successful leaders are: responsible and driven by task completion; pursue goals with vigor and persistence; take risks and apply innovative problem-solving skills; take initiative in social situations; adeptly influence others behaviors; confidently exhibit a strong self-concept; actively accept responsibility for own actions and consequences of decisions; willingly take on relational stress; demonstrate a high- frustration tolerance threshold and patience with delayed circumstances; and build social interaction system’s capacity for determined goals (Oceguera, 2014; Sypawka, 2008). One way to access necessary traits for effective leadership is through the concept of emotional intelligence (Petrides, 2010), also considered a critical trait by many (Goleman, 1998; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004, 2008; Salovey & Grewal, 2005; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). According to Salovey and Mayer (1990), emotional intelligence is the ability to understand, regulate, monitor, and access emotions of self and others to guide one's thinking and actions. Here, the interplay between a leader’s emotions and cognitive applications (Petrides, 2010) of necessary traits affect the leader’s choices and actions toward influencing others and leading to common goals (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2001). Some leaders have the capability to reason and utilize emotions to enhance thoughts and actions more effectively than others (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, 2004, 2008). Research yields high correlations between emotional intelligence and efficacious leadership in business settings or like organizations (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2001; Petrides, 2010; Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005; Salovey & Grewal, 2005; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Leaders with higher emotional literacy are considered stronger in their ability to cultivate productive working relationships and perpetuate behaviors conducive to accomplishing set goals for the organization (Cherniss, Goleman, Emmerling, Cowan, & Adler, 1998; Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005; Salovey & Grewal, 2005). Clearly, traits that leaders exhibit LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 32 influence his or her followers. Traits are not only characteristics of an individual’s personality, but are also actions put into practice (Gurr et al., 2006; Northouse, 2016; Oceguera, 2014; Pervin, 1994; Zaccaro, 2007). In fact, theorists have suggested over the years that emotional intelligence is a primary factor in a leader’s effectiveness in applying pertinent traits in making a difference or leading an organization toward transformation (Cherniss et al., 1998; Gurr et al., 2006; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2008; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2001; Rosete & Ciarrochi, 2005; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Caruso, Mayer, and Salovey (2002) posited that accurately recognizing emotion in one’s self and others is critical to a leaders' capacity to inspire and build relationships. Gurr et al. (2006) furthered this postulation through their study which indicated that personality traits and emotional recognition were positively linked to transformational leadership. Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership, also known as charismatic leadership, is based upon the theory that leaders use their influence or charisma to motivate others to strive to rise to their fullest potential and work together to produce results beyond set goals or expectations (Burns, 1978; Bolman & Deal, 1991b; Marzano et al., 2005; Northouse, 2016; Rubin et al., 2005; Spencer, 2002). The concept of transformational leadership, initiated by Burns (1978), is premised on the notion that leadership encompasses a dynamic reciprocity between the leader and followers and which raises the level of morality between both (Northouse, 2016; Özaralli, 2003; Spencer, 2002). Bass (1985) furthered the idea by positing that transformational leadership involves motivating, empowering, and transforming followers by elucidating the critical value in task outcomes with which organizational goals or higher order needs should transcend all self-interests (Özaralli, 2003; Spencer, 2002). Through engagement and creating LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 33 trusting and respectful connections (Northouse, 2016), the leader transforms the followers or organization to adhere to a higher level of ethical standards and reach for long-term goals (Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Spencer, 2002). Research by Podsakoff, Dennis, MacKenzie, Moorman, and Fetter (1990) yielded evidence suggesting that transformational leadership is multidimensional in nature and entails the following key behaviors: identifying, developing, articulating, and inspiring others with visions for new opportunities (e.g., vision behavior); leading by example with which followers can emulate espoused values (e.g., model behavior); promoting cooperation, fostering acceptance of all members of the group and developing a cohesive mentality so that all members work together toward a common goal (e.g., goal behavior); indicating expectations for excellence, quality, and high performance by all followers (e.g., expectations behavior); providing individualized support for all members through demonstrations of respect and concern for their personal feelings and needs (e.g., supportive behavior); and challenging followers to re-evaluate personal assumptions about their work ethic and rethink how work can be achieved (e.g., intellectual stimulation behavior). Through transformational strategies such as these, Özaralli (2003) concurred that the leader empowers the followers and increases team effectiveness. Hence, attentiveness to the needs and motivational factors of all followers is necessary in order for a transformational leader to guide the followers in reaching their full potential (Spencer, 2002). Clearly, much research has been aimed at the theory of transformational leadership (Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Bolman & Deal, 1991a, 1991b; Burns, 1978; Leithwood, 1994; Marzano et al., 2005; Northouse, 2016; Özaralli, 2003; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Rubin et al., 2005). Among this research, a commonality of critical tenets of transformational leadership has LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 34 taken precedence. It is agreed that the skills needed for principals to be effective transformational leaders include: inspirational motivation, where high expectations are conveyed and modeled through the leader’s behaviors and articulated visions; individual consideration, where coaching or personal attention is provided to followers to stimulate learning, enhance professional growth, and empower individuals to rise above status quo; intellectual stimulation, where followers are motivated through new and challenging ideas and are encouraged to use innovative and divergent thinking skills prior to taking action or solving problems; and idealized influence or charisma, where leaders represent strong moral and ethical conduct through personal accomplishments and demonstrate character such that followers hold them in the highest regard with great trust and a desire to emulate their behaviors (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978; Leithwood, 1994; Marzano et al., 2005; Northouse, 2016). Through the applications of these tenets, leaders are able to guide their followers through a transformational process. Full Range Leadership Theory The Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT) was first hypothesized through the work of Avolio and Bass (2001) as they began to explore the tenets of transformational leadership (Abbas, Iqbal, Waheed, & Naveed Riaz, 2012). Initiated with Bass’s (1985) research, they began to extrapolate ideas regarding effective leadership traits and theorize that leadership styles are mostly comprised of three general domains: transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire (Abbas et al., 2012; Antonakis & House, 2014). Whereas transformational leadership is multidimensional and based upon influencing others through building common bonds and creating trusting and respectful connections (Bass, 1985; Northouse, 2016; Spencer, 2002), transactional leadership utilizes the exchange of rewards contingent upon a presentation of desired behaviors (Antonakis & House, 2014). While the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 35 transformational leader articulates a shared vision with the followers and creates reciprocated trust, the transactional leader employs a mutual exchange process to illicit anticipated outcomes from the followers (Antonakis & House, 2014; Burns, 1978; Spencer, 2002; Waldman, Bass, & Einstein, 1987). Both leadership styles actively seek to engage the followers and gain a commitment to progress toward or achieve an established goal; one is accomplished through the leader’s charisma and development of a mutual vision, while the other is by means of specific transactions of rewards for completed responsibilities. In a completely different light, the laissez-faire leadership style takes a passive approach; this leadership style does not proactively engage the followers, but rather reacts to problems once they have become obvious obstacles to goal attainment (Antonakis & House, 2014; Bush & Glover, 2003; Spencer, 2002). The laissez- faire leader does not notice or monitor mistakes as closely as the transformational or transactional leader, and is known to abdicate all leadership roles and responsibilities until absolutely necessary (Antonakis & House, 2014; Spencer, 2002). In reflection of all three leadership styles of FRLT, research indicated that transformational leadership style is considered the most effective in gaining common values and commitment toward a mission, especially for achieving long-term objectives (Antonakis & House, 2014; Spencer, 2002). With the tenets of transformational leadership in mind, the process of comparing the effectiveness of these three types of leadership evolved into the creation of an open-ended questionnaire, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire™ (Avolio & Bass, 2004). This assessment protocol has been utilized and validated across a variation of sectors, such as industry (Hater & Bass, 1988) and the military (Yammarino & Bass, 1990), resulting in the Full Range Leadership (FRL) model and training program (Antonakis & House, 2014; Avolio et al., 1999; Bass, 2009). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 36 Continuation High Schools According to the Legislative Analyst’s Office (Taylor, 2015), continuation high schools are one of six types of alternative school options authorized by the State. The vision of alternative schools is for all students, identified as at-risk, to graduate from high school prepared for college, career, and adulthood (Taylor, 2015). The literature, however, highlighted historical and current challenges in the form of conflicting, inconsistent, and ambiguous policy that serve as impediments towards accomplishing this vision (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Taylor, 2015). Contextual Background The State indicates that continuation education is a high school diploma program designed to meet the needs of students 16 through 18 years of age who have not graduated from high school, are legally required to attend school, and are at risk of dropping out (CDE, 2017c). The State adds that many students in continuation high school are credit deficient and may need a flexible school schedule due to employment demands, family needs, or other circumstances (CDE, 2018a). Whereas, traditional sites require their students to attend six hours of school per day, students in continuation schools are required to attend a minimum of three hours per school day (CDE, 2018a). Like traditional schools, continuation schools are operated by school districts and required to meet minimum State graduation requirements; yet, the graduation requirements for continuation students may be lower than that of traditional schools and their enrollment size is much smaller than traditional high schools – with a median of about 100 students per school compared to a median of about 1,300 students at traditional high schools (Taylor, 2015). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 37 Due to high rates of mobility, the available demographic and performance indicators for alternative and continuation settings are often estimates (CDE, 2017d; Austin, et al., 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Warren, 2016; Williamson, 2008). Annually, alternative schools serve approximately half a million students who are considered at risk of dropping out of school or are not successful in traditional schools (Taylor, 2015). The literature noted that on any given school day, an estimated 5% of students (1 in 20) are enrolled in an alternative school, the majority of students (over 95%) enrolled in alternative education are at the high school level, and nearly two-thirds of alternative school students are enrolled in a continuation education setting (Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016; Williamson, 2008). California has about 468 to 500 continuation high schools which serve approximately 116,000 or 10 to 15% of the student population over the course of a school year (CDE, 2017a; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016; Williamson, 2008). The numbers fluctuate due to schools’ openings and closures. Historical Overview American continuation education was based on British and German 1870s continuation school models which emphasized adaptability to the social, political, and economic needs of the time; local implementation with limited accountability; and site management that falls largely to the continuation educator or principal (Williamson, 2008). Based on this model, the first continuation school was established in Wisconsin in 1911 and in 1917 the Smith-Hughes Act authorized federal funding for local continuation schools throughout the nation (Williamson, 2008). The literature noted that the provisions regarding alternative schools are outdated and do not align with the 21st century demands of a global economy (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016; Williamson, 2008). As an example, the limited requirement for school attendance and vocational emphasis LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 38 in the Education Code suggests tolerance for lowered expectations regarding achievement for continuation students, which patently contradicts the mission of continuation schools to ensure at-risk youth graduate prepared for college, career, and adulthood (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Taylor, 2015). The literature categorized continuation education’s evolution into four general eras (Kelly, 1993; Williamson, 2008). From 1917 to 1930, continuation education mainly aimed at preparing students for industrial vocation, citizenship, the assimilation of recent immigrants, and placement into work. Between 1931 to 1944, the focus evolved to vocational guidance rather than placement due to increased levels of unemployment and criminalization of loitering and unemployed young men of color and poverty, in particular. During 1945 to 1964, continuation education emphasized the socialization and reforming of students referred to as “maladjusted youth” (Williamson, 2008, p. 10). In the era from 1965 to present time, dropout prevention has been the primary purpose of continuation education. Today, continuation schools are referred to as “a cornerstone of the State’s dropout prevention strategy” (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008, p. 1). Efforts promotive of positive graduation rates are of critical importance because dropping out of high school increases the likelihood of poverty, poor health, unemployment or low-wages, delinquency, family dysfunction, mental illness, inequality, and significant economic strain to the local community and country (Alliance for Excellent Education, n.d.; Anderson, 2014; Bjerk, 2012; Campbell, 2015; Chung, 2015; Gurantz, 2010). While the average public expenditure per pupil enrolled in California elementary and secondary schools is approximately $10,000 (Fensterwald, 2017), a 1998 study by Cohen (as cited in Anderson, 2014), estimated that the cost to society for a high school dropout is about $300,000 over that individual’s lifetime. Other research iterated that LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 39 dropouts are at greater risk of incarceration and mental illness; in California, the average cost per year to incarcerate a minor is $208,338 and $47,421 for an adult (Henrichson & Delaney, 2012; Petteruti, Schindler, & Ziedenberg, 2014). Clearly, it is in the interest of the individual and society at large to invest in research as an impetus to ascertaining empirically validated, best practices towards efforts in positive educational outcomes, including dropout prevention, for students. Continuation high schools face unique contextual challenges. The literature indicated that due to “contradictory, confusing, and inconsistent” State accountability for continuation schools, there is great variance in the educational quality and experiences of the students they serve (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012, p. 6). Based on information from the CDE, California’s overall graduation rate has shown improvement over the last seven years and is currently at 83% (CDE, 2017d). Yet, research indicated great disparities among settings; on average, California’s continuation school students are two and one-half times more likely to dropout compared to peers in traditional settings (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). In the 2012- 2013 school year, from a sample of 258 continuation schools, 86% had a graduation rate below 83% with seven as low as zero percent and nine with a 100% graduation rate (Gordon, 2017). Students Continuation high school youth are exceptionally vulnerable and must confront and overcome harsh obstacles interfering with their path towards graduation. Although continuation education data lacks precision and there is significant variation between schools, research emphasized highly apparent commonalities. As mentioned, compared to peers in traditional settings, continuation students are significantly behind in academic credits and have a higher risk of dropping out (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015). Moreover, a meta-analysis LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 40 of health-related research in alternative high schools from 2010 to 2015 found that these students experience a disproportionate range of risk factors that manifests in much higher involvement in health-risk behaviors and levels of mental health problems (Johnson et al., 2016). This meta- analysis also found that increased parental influence and monitoring correlated with decreased use of illicit drugs and gang involvement among students. Students in alternative education commonly experience low parental involvement (Munoz, 2004). Further, the study by Johnson et al. (2016) found that, compared to traditional settings, alternative schools have greater availability of high-fat/salty foods and described some of the school buildings and resources as being in “despair” (p. 26) suggesting that the alternative school environment may affect the mental health of its students. Continuation students are two to three times as likely to engage in regular and heavy alcohol and drug use (including at school), physical fights, truancy, and sexually risky behaviors (Johnson et al., 2016; Munoz, 2004; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017). Continuation schools enroll a disproportionately high percentage of foster youth, English Learners, Black, Latino, transient, and low-income students; these students are more likely to experience physical victimization in and out of school (Johnson et al., 2016; Malagon & Alvarez, 2010; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Williamson, 2008). In the face of these adversities, research indicated that effective leadership within continuation schools can help set the stage for empowerment, educational success, and social-emotional resiliency among our most vulnerable students at risk of dropping out (Farris, 2014; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Zolkoski et al., 2016). Accountability Despite the important role of continuation education in dropout prevention and supporting positive student outcomes for some of our most neglected youth, the State’s current LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 41 school accountability system does not hold continuation schools accountable for short- or long- term performance objectives. This systemic issue impedes the identification of continuation schools that may or may not be serving students well, or for providing those low-performing schools with appropriate supports, intervention, and incentives for improvement (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016). Primarily due to high mobility rates, existing measures of State accountability based on performance data do not adequately evaluate student progress in continuation schools (Austin et al., 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Warren, 2016; Williamson, 2008). Typically, students enroll for less than one year in a given continuation school, which means that the State’s use of a four-year cohort graduation rate to calculate dropout and graduation rates generally cannot be calculated for continuation schools. Also, due to an average enrollment period of four to five months, student performance on annual State standardized test scores are not likely a reflection of the present continuation school’s effect on his/her learning, but rather that of previous schooling (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). Moreover, the State does not require the systematic data collection/analysis on the rate of transfer to non-alternative settings such as back to the traditional or postsecondary settings (Taylor, 2015). The previously administered Alternative Schools Accountability Model (ASAM) was developed in 2000 by the CDE in conjunction with the 1999 Public Schools Accountability Act (PSAA; Williamson, 2008). Between 2003 and 2009, the State used the ASAM rather than traditional indicators for alternative schools. However, the ASAM system was never fully implemented in large part because the intervening federal No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 required that alternative schools meet the same Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) criteria like other schools (Taylor, 2015; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017). ASAM data collection LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 42 and reporting thus became voluntary, performance indicators varied making comparisons across continuation schools unreliable, and data provided an incomplete picture of continuation schools’ performance in that it only included students who were enrolled for at least 90 days (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Williamson, 2008). In 2009, Governor Schwarzenegger vetoed funding for the ASAM program and was discontinued altogether beginning with the 2010-11 school year. Many continuation schools did not have a sufficient number of applicable test scores to receive an accountability report between 2009 and 2013 (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015). In 2013, the State passed AB 570 in an effort to put districts on notice and create incentives to move more affirmatively towards ameliorating the accountability gap (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017). Also, in 2013, the State adopted the Local Control Funding Formula (LCFF) which significantly changed the school accountability system as indicated in the California School Dashboard (CDE, 2018b). Performance indicators and standards identify the strengths and areas in need of improvement for traditional, K-12 schools. Yet, the Dashboard does not adequately evaluate the performance of alternative schools (CDE, 2017b; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015). In 2014, the first year of implementation of the State’s newest accountability report, many Local Control and Accountability Plans (LCAPs) disregarded alternative schools (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015). The risk of such practice is that if alternative schools’ outcomes are not separately emphasized in LCAPs, then performance indicators of alternative education will continue to be concealed by district or county averages. Further, if issues at alternative schools are ignored then systemic equitable access to appropriate State support and intervention will be denied to our most at-risk youth (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 43 Consequently, in July of 2017, the State approved the Dashboard Alternative School Status (DASS) program (CDE, 2018b). DASS holds alternative schools accountable for modified methods of measurement for indicators that are aligned with the evaluation rubrics of the LCFF to evaluate the success or progress of schools that serve high-risk students. DASS will be incorporated in the Dashboard beginning with the fall 2018 release. The State Board of Education (SBE) has yet to decide the cut points/modified methods at this time (CDE, 2018b). Based on a review of the literature regarding best practices for improving accountability in continuation education, it was recommended that schools measure academic performance on State-approved pre- and post-benchmarks, credits earned, continued use of annual standardized tests to measure the performance of their longer-term students, successful transitions (e.g., return to traditional setting, post-secondary program, etc.), and one-year graduation rates for seniors (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016). It was also recommended that the State collect and publish performance data in accountability reports for all continuation schools regardless of enrollment numbers and that any additional indicators it adopts to measure continuation schools’ performance be comparable across all continuation schools to identify best practices and schools in need of support or intervention (Taylor, 2015). Moreover, it was recommended that DASS include accountability indicators regarding school connectedness (e.g., attendance, punctuality), additional special indicators for vulnerable populations (e.g., pregnant and parenting youth, lesbian, gay, bi-sexual, or transgender youth, etc.), and that continuation schools establish clear identification, placement, orientation, and monitoring procedures for all students (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 44 Effective Leadership Although there are serious challenges inherent to continuation education, effective leadership at the principal level is foundational to high-performing continuation schools (Bush, 2012; Farris, 2014; Hemmer et al., 2013; Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Sumbera, 2017). Research findings proposed that continuation schools are more likely to ensure their students graduate from high school with 21st century skills requisite for post-secondary education and/or career readiness if the following key practices are established (Bush, 2012; Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). First, effective continuation principals have positive expectations for students and clear goals that align with the mission, vision, and practices of stakeholders. For example, Bush and Glover (2012) found that high-performing schools incorporate structural modifications, such as altered course structures, short-term modules, and performance-based credit recovery. With regard to curriculum design, Bush and Glover found that high-performing schools applied a data-driven approach to address learning gaps, backward-mapping to State standards, and online learning. These beliefs and practices are consistent with the vision, expectations, and goal-oriented tenets of transformational leadership (Podsakoff et al., 1990). Second, effective schools have transparent and consistent intake and transfer processes that are reinforced by district administration and aligns with the school’s goals (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). For example, effective continuation schools limit involuntary transfers to other appropriate alternative programs designed to meet the needs of students with behavioral challenges. Third, effective continuation principals drive school improvement by regularly monitoring reliable and meaningful data (e.g., attendance, graduation and transfer rates, etc.) and LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 45 participating in the accreditation process by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) or Model Continuation High School (MCHS) distinction (Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Warren, 2016). Also, partaking in the WASC and MCHS processes are a means of mitigating the negative effects of inadequate State accountability for alternative schools. Further, there is a culture of validation and recognition of students/staff for educational growth and progress (e.g., benchmark assessments, credit recovery). Fourth, high-performing schools apply a variety of innovative methods to expand instructional minutes for students beyond the minimum State requirements of three hours per day so as to facilitate collaboration/planning between teachers, direct instruction, and expanded curricular options (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). These practices are exemplars of transformational leadership in that the principal cultivates collaborative efforts among staff toward a shared goal, high expectations, and intellectual stimulation (Podsakoff et al., 1990). Fifth, effective principals spearhead intentional efforts to analyze school climate data to foster a safe, supportive, caring, and engaging learning environment (Bush, 2012). This fifth element compliments descriptive research by Perez and Johnson (2008) and Ruiz de Velasco and Gonzales (2017) who contended that school connectedness and caring relationships among staff and students are imperative to effective continuation schools. This finding is consistent with that of a mixed-methods study by Brown (2007) and a qualitative study by te Riele, Mills, McGregor, and Baroutsis (2017), both conducted in alternative high school settings, which concluded that fostering a culture of trusting and caring relationships were identified as imperative factors for both students and staff (Brown, 2007). These findings are consistent with transformational leadership as it notes the intentional creation of an engaging and positive school culture LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 46 committed to high expectations and ethical standards (Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Northouse, 2016). Similarly, effective continuation principals are team oriented and consistently utilize and cultivate discipline policies and practices that are restorative, grounded in a system of positive behavioral intervention support, and solution/resolution focused (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). Moreover, high-performing schools had innovative principal and staff leaders that provided a range of academic, social-emotional, post-secondary, and vocational supports on and off campus, including building alliances and working relationships with local agencies and businesses in the interest of students (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). Lastly, effective leaders are supported by district administration in areas of relevant and ongoing professional development tailored to the unique needs of continuation schools and create incentives to attract highly-skilled staff (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017). Overall, despite the challenges inherent to continuation school settings, the literature affirmed a variety of best practices identified within high-performing continuation schools throughout the State under effective principal leadership (Bush, 2012; Farris, 2014; Hemmer et al., 2013; Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Sumbera, 2017). Model Continuation High Schools As noted, effective continuation principals utilized a practice to drive school improvement – initiating accountability via external validation processes, such as through the MCHS distinction or WASC accreditation, as a means of mitigating the negative effects of LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 47 inadequate State accountability for alternative schools (Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). Initiated as a joint project, the CDE and the California Continuation Education Association (CCEA) have created a recognition program, the Model Continuation High School (MCHS) Recognition Program, to identify and recognize exemplary continuation high schools (CDE, 2018c). The selected schools are recognized for the comprehensive services provided to their at-risk student population, evidenced through flexible scheduling, pedagogical strategies, guidance, and counseling. Having qualified as model schools, these continuation high schools provide high quality standards that can be emulated in other continuation high schools throughout the State. In fact, an annual list of these purposively selected schools is used as a resource of high caliber programs for school visitations from other California continuation high schools. These programs are selected through a rigorous application process which includes a peer-review panel and validation site visitation to ascertain effectiveness, assessments, and the use of data to provide evidence-based achievement. When the California Superintendent of Schools, Tom Torlakson, announced the Model Continuation High Schools for 2017, he described these schools as being innovative, effective programs that work to motivate and support at-risk youth and help them achieve their fullest potential (CDE, 2017f). He then described their creative programs, such as STEM and Career Technical Education classes, that guide and prepare this population of students for 21st century careers and college. These schools, in essence, have been chosen for their efforts and success in changing the trajectories of their at-risk youth. At the very core of each school, is a leader; an impassioned and driven principal who has modeled a clear vision, firm values, and great influence over the staff, LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 48 students, and community. Without great leadership, continuation high schools will continue to exist in the peripheral of typical high schools and perpetuate the marginalization of its populace. Conclusion Based on a comprehensive review of the literature there are both theoretical and empirical justifications for conducting research regarding effective principal leadership in distinguished Model Continuation High Schools. This is an important area of investigation because continuation students are highly vulnerable youth who generally are at greatest risk of dropout. There is an abundance of research on leadership theory, yet research on the perceptions, practices, and leadership styles of principals of MCHS is limited. The research indicated that the function of continuation schools has varied over the century. Presently, they are meant to prevent dropout, yet they significantly vary in quality, serve the highest numbers of disenfranchised students in the State, and have inadequate and outdated State accountability. Processes such as WASC accreditation and MCHS distinction as well as anticipated improved DASS State accountability system are predicted to positively impact the quality of continuation high schools. Nonetheless, further research is needed to validate this assumption. Chapter Three will include a discussion of the research design, data collection, and data analysis. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 49 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY Introduction This chapter includes a brief summary of the problem, purpose, review of literature, and research questions that guided this study. It also includes an overview of the design of the study, as well as a description of the participants, setting, instrumentation, data collection procedures, and the methods of data analysis. It concludes with a summary of the research methodology and preview of chapters four and five. Restatement of the Problem, Purpose, and Research Questions California Continuation High Schools are multi-faceted organizations comprised of students at risk of not graduating, who often have very high needs and face very difficult challenges (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). The complex challenges in leading these organizations are made more difficult, given the low priority that is placed on the research, administration, and accountability of continuation education (Villalobos, 2014). With regard to the research, it was documented that there is scant research available to influence and improve practices of continuation schools (Ruiz de Velasco et al, 2008; Villalobos, 2014). The administration of a continuation school is inconsistent from school to school, given that alternative education (AE) models operate with ambiguous legislation, an over-generalized mission, a weak accountability system, and a lack of data (Williamson, 2008). Lastly, there has historically been little to no effective forms of State accountability (Warren, 2016). Given these conditions, there is a tremendous need for quality leadership who can successfully shape a school that can provide a world-class education for its at-risk students. The review of the literature showed that while there is ample literature on qualities of effective principal leaders in traditional settings, research regarding key qualities of effective LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 50 principal leadership in California continuation high schools is sparse (Goldring et al., 2009; Hitt & Tucker, 2016; Leithwood, Seashore Louis et al., 2004; Winton & Pollock, 2016). Further, the literature that does highlight continuation principal leadership only highlights a few key qualities, such as being team oriented, consistently utilizing and cultivating discipline policies and practices that are restorative, and solution/resolution focused (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). Based on a review of the literature, there is a need for specific research that captures leadership styles, orientations, or constructs of effective continuation principals. To address this gap in the literature, the purpose of this study was to examine, through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (Avolio et al., 1999), the efficacious leadership qualities and practices of principals from alternative school settings who are deemed successful through recognition as California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS). Hence, the following research questions have been used to guide this study: 1. Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as identified by their teachers? 2. What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes? 3. As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success? 4. How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of their schools? LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 51 Design Overview This study was completed using the Explanatory Sequential Mixed-Methods design which is a two-phase study that first involves collecting and analyzing data quantitatively, then builds upon the results through a qualitative study (Creswell, 2014). Moreover, Malloy (2011) purported that a mixed methodology most thoroughly answers all research questions; therefore, this sequential approach is specifically designed to provide qualitative data that expands upon the initial quantitative results (Creswell, 2014), and further supports generated answers to the research questions. The most evident benefits to a mixed-method design is that it draws on the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative designs, is appealing to those at the forefront of research due to its sophistication, and provides a more complete understanding of research problems (Creswell, 2014; Malloy, 2011). The quantitative instrumentation, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire™ 5X (MLQ- 5X, Avolio & Bass, 2004), ideally answers the research question seeking to identify the statistically predominant leadership style of principals, based on the perceptions of their teachers, as indicated on the questionnaires (see Appendix A – MLQ-5X). Creswell (2014) suggested that quantitative results often guide the researchers in moving toward the second, qualitative, phase of the study. Qualitative research, as described by Creswell (2014), is an inductive method of inquiry that focuses on the meaning and accentuates the importance of the interpretation behind the complexity of given situations or phenomenology. Through this methodology, interviews with Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals were utilized to explore the most efficacious leadership traits and practices in which they believe are essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes, along with the ways in which they measure the effectiveness of their schools (see Appendix B – Interview). As a point of comparison, non- LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 52 MCHS teachers were also surveyed through the MLQ-5X and their principals were interviewed to see if there are leadership similarities or differences from their model school counterparts. As the quantitative data, ascertained through the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) results, indicated predominant leadership traits of the selected continuation high school principals, the qualitative portion of the research began to analyze school documents and fine tune the interview questions to learn more about the identified predominant leadership styles. Therefore, the generated results from the data collection instrument, MLQ-5X, were then used to modify the types of probes included on the qualitative interview questions regarding the predominant leadership style of the selected principal participants. To help further explain, or provide more detail to the initial quantitative results, a document analysis was also employed as a phase-two qualitative measure. In short, after analyzing the quantitative data of the MLQ-5X, this study then utilized qualitative measures, such as specified interview questions and document analysis, to support findings aimed at answering all research questions. Validation of data was accomplished through triangulation. The logic of triangulation is based on the premise that no single method adequately solves the problem of rival explanations (Patton, 2002). Triangulation facilitates validation of data through cross verification of multiple data sources, such as the research base, surveys, interviews, and document analysis (Creswell, 2014; Patton, 2002). Accordingly, the researchers performed a document analysis of the Model Continuation High School (MCHS) application as a means of validating reported beliefs and practices as indicated on the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) surveys by the teachers and interviews with principals. Through this means of triangulation, an evaluation of consistency among all gathered information and their findings from the different sources was completed. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 53 Sample and Population Since there are currently no State-sanctioned accountability methods for continuation education, continuation schools largely have to rely on self-accountability. The largest program for continuation schools is the California Model Continuation High School (MCHS) program, which involves a rigorous self study that is submitted to the State (CDE, 2017f). The MCHS program requires that key components are in place for selected schools. With this information in mind, three types of purposeful samplings have been used in this study: unique, convenience, and snowball or network (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The selected sites and participants are considered unique, exemplary and successful, based upon their status as MCHS. The unique organizational attributes and pedagogical practices of selected sites and participants are informative to this research. As a point of comparison, non-MCHS schools were also selected, and these schools and their leaders were based off convenience. Creswell (2014) stated that the sample size depends on the research design and phenomenological studies typically range from three to ten participants. The researchers utilized convenience sampling for the selection of the nine research-worthy sites because this methodology facilitates increased opportune access to the participants in consideration of time limitations, familiarity, location, and availability (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Hence, the setting for the study was limited to six Model Continuation High Schools and three non-Model Continuation High Schools located in southern California. Subsequently, each researcher individually evaluated documents, surveys, and interview data from two separate MCHS and one non-MCHS for this study. The selection of participants in this study is considered snowball or network sampling because the school principal participants were specifically selected through the generated list of LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 54 State-selected Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS). For the non-MCHS’s, information from the teachers’ completing the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) paved the way for interviewing their respective principals. All teachers from the selected continuation high school sites were given the opportunity to complete the MLQ-5X questionnaire, which served for the quantitative data collection and guided the study in determining the predominant leadership type of their principals. The most prolific leadership styles were then distilled from the data collection tool, MLQ-5X, which was then used to craft a purposeful interview from the sample of principals. These principals were then interviewed by the researcher regarding essential leadership qualities, attributes and worldviews that help them lead their programs. Instrumentation The quantitative data was collected using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire™ 5X (MLQ-5X, Avolio & Bass, 2004). The MLQ-5X is the most widely used data collection tool to measure the Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT) developed by Avolio and Bass (Antonakis, Avolio, & Sivasubramaniam, 2003; Muenjohn & Armstrong, 2008). The MLQ-5X FRLT assesses for the three classifications of leadership behavior: transformational, transactional, and passive/avoidant leadership. These classifications are represented and assessed by nine distinct factors (Mind Garden, Inc., 2004). The first five elements constitute transformational leadership: (1) idealized influence–attributed (IIA), (2) idealized influence–behavior (IIB), (3) inspirational motivation (IM), (4) intellectual stimulation (IS), and (5) individualized consideration (IC). The next two components that constitute transactional leadership are: (6) contingent reward leadership (CR), (7) and management-by-exception active (MBEA). The last two factors assessed for passive/avoidant leadership were (8) management-by-exception passive (MBEP) and (9) laissez-faire leadership (LF) (Mind Garden, Inc., 2004). The MLQ-5X contains 45 items LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 55 that represent the nine factors mentioned of the three leadership classifications (Mind Garden, Inc., 2004). Respondents answer how frequently their supervisors display the behaviors that match the leadership style using a 5-point, Likert-scale questionnaire with the responses of 1=not at all, 2=once in a while, 3=sometimes, 4=fairly often, and 5=always (Muenjohn & Armstrong, 2008; Özaralli, 2003). The MLQ-5X is considered the best validated measure of transformational and transactional leadership (Özaralli, 2003). Antonakis et al. (2003) conducted research on the MLQ-5X and found the assessment to be useful and sufficiently valid in measuring for Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT). Muenjohn and Armstrong (2008) conducted a study that examined the structural validity and internal reliability of the MLQ-5X and established that the Cronbach’s alpha was a 0.86, which is considered a relatively strong reliability (Kurpius & Stafford, 2006). Finally, as posited by Muenjohn and Armstrong, the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) is a valid quantitative assessment with which researchers can confidently use as an instrumentation to measure for transformational, transactional, and laissez- faire leadership factors. True to the explanatory sequential mixed methodology, quantitative information gathered from the results of the MLQ-5X paved the way for identifying supportive documents and crafting pertinent, qualitative interview questions that would build upon the initial quantitative results. For this study, gaining an understanding of the principal leadership styles, perspectives, and applications of their worldviews into the school cultures of effective MCHS continuation schools is of primary concern. While the selection of non-MCHS schools were chosen by convenience of location and availability, MCHS principal selection was limited to those who have served at their sites for a minimum of three years, thus matching the MCHS three-year cycle. Being purposeful about the sample allowed the data collection to be gathered from those who were best in a position to offer LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 56 insight and understanding (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) to pertinent leadership practices, specifically as they relate to the continuation high school culture. Therefore, the predominant leadership traits, quantitatively measured through the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004), were used to craft a purposeful interview with the sample of principals as part of the qualitative study. Qualitative data was gathered from interviews of the principals. The research interview, a procedure where the researcher and participant discuss queries related to the topic of inquiry, is considered a major source of the qualitative data necessary for understanding the phenomenon under study (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). While research questions formulate what the study intends to understand, the interview asks participants related questions to gain deeper understanding, from their perspectives, of the phenomenon (Maxwell, 2013). Again, gaining an understanding of the MCHS participants’ perspectives and applications of their worldviews into the continuation high school cultures, as compared to non-MCHS, is of primary concern; therefore, interviewing is considered an optimal choice in gathering this data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A semi-structured interview was conducted with each respondent, which offers the strengths of minimizing interviewer effects and bias since several interviewers were used (Patton, 2002). An interview guide was made with a variety of questions (opinion/values, feeling, knowledge, sensory, experience/behavior), so that the respondents could express the totality of their experiences in their own terms (Patton, 2002). This format also served as a guide to assist in gaining specific data from the participants, yet allows for probing of questions when clarification or extrapolation becomes necessary to gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenology. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 57 Data Collection Procedures Prior to beginning the research and gaining access/entry to the sites where the study was conducted, Creswell (2014) encouraged researchers to consider codes of ethics, such as professional association standards, while gaining local permission from site and/or district administrators and participants. The lists of California Model Continuation High Schools were retrieved from the CDE website (CDE, 2016, 2017f, 2018d). Online research was conducted and/or phone calls made to ascertain if the current principal had been at the given site for at least three years. Non-MCHSs were identified by convenience of location and availability, by means of internet search and phone contacts. When it was determined that MCHS schools had the same principal in that position for at least three years, permission was sought from each principal to survey the school teachers with the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) tool (see Appendix C – Email to Principals). Permission from the non-MCHS principals was also granted to survey the school teachers with the same instrument, the MLQ-5X. Each principal was given information regarding the purpose of the study, the format of the study, their role to help facilitate an introduction with the teachers, and a follow-up principal interview. By means of physical or electronic introduction/explanation, participant teachers were then given the purpose of the study, the method of the study, and a disclosure of the research team’s commitment to ethics, followed by the MLQ-5X survey. This was done during a part of their staff meeting or by an email with a video clip explaining the process and providing the link to the study. The researcher provided an invitation to the teachers to participate, which reiterated the purpose of the study and provided the link to the MLQ-5X survey. Teachers spent about 15 minutes completing the MLQ-5X survey. After each teacher completed the survey, they received a follow-up email thanking them for their participation. After survey data was analyzed, a follow- LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 58 up interview was scheduled with the principals. The principals were interviewed in their respective offices or location of their choosing to ensure that the environment was comfortable and confidential. Each principal was told how he/she was selected and ensured that there was no obligation to partake. For the semi-structured, guided interviews, questions were crafted purposefully, based upon results from the quantitative data, following the criteria described in the instrumentation and protocols section of this chapter. The selected respondents were called and the researcher identified him or herself; restated the background and purpose of the interview; and scheduled a place, time, and date to conduct the interview. A follow-up email was sent to each interviewee to provide background information. Each participant was informed that their real names would not be used, nor would the name of the school be included in the dissertation. With the granted permission of respondents, the interviews were audio recorded for posterity. This allowed the researcher to focus more on the participant and not solely on writing down detailed notes, even though some notes were taken during and after the interview (Patton, 2002). The recordings also assisted with filling in missing gaps when transcribing, or reviewing, when the interview seemed unclear. The recordings were professionally transcribed onto a Microsoft Word document using Rev software. Data Analysis The goal of this study was to examine the effective leadership qualities and practices of principals from successful alternative school settings that are recognized as MCHS based on Full Range Leadership Theory (Avolio et al., 1999). The researchers’ intent was to generate a rich portrayal of the multifaceted phenomena of successful MCHS principals’ worldviews and constructs involved in the creation of environments where marginalized populations of students LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 59 are transformed into thriving continuation high school campuses who have risen to a level of State recognition. The Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods methodology assisted in providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research questions (Creswell, 2014; Malloy, 2011). Quantitative data derived from the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) and qualitative information gathered from the interviews were then triangulated with data from the document analysis of the MCHS application from the purposefully selected sites in this study, along with the research base on effective leadership, framed on theories of constructivism and phenomenology. By means of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting the data acquired from studying these MCHS principals’ worldviews, policies, processes, and practices, the researchers were able to formulate germane assertions that could possibly expand upon current research and create hypothesis for further studies, as well as answer the research questions. After all data was collected, the researchers utilized the Google Highlight Tool to facilitate the examination of the interview and the document analysis of the MCHS Application whereby the results were organized into small detailed categories in an open coding process (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). As new information was identified, a new code was created; each was defined and placed into a codebook. After no new codes could be identified, a second step of axial coding was initiated (Corbin & Strauss, 2008, Corbin, Strauss, & Strauss, 2015). During the axial coding process, the researchers grouped similar pieces of open codes, creating larger pieces of data or themes. The final step in the coding process was selective coding (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) where main themes were identified (see Appendix D – Thematic Coding Matrix). During each step in the evaluation of the data, the focus was on how the survey, interview, document analysis, and research or theoretical framework triangulated to address the research questions of this study. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 60 Ethical Considerations The validity–or credibility and reliability–or dependability of a study are contingent upon the researcher’s ethics (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Patton (2015) further emphasized that the trustworthiness of a study’s data is directly tied to the trustworthiness of the researcher who collects and analyzes it. Fully aware that the role as a researcher could have a direct impact on the relationship with the participants and outcome of the research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016), the researchers embarked to answer several ethical questions, as recommended by Linda Tuhiwai Smith (Tuhiwai Smith, 1999), Who defined the research problem? For whom is the study worthy and relevant? Who says so? What knowledge will the community gain from the study? What knowledge will the researcher gain from the study? What are some likely positive outcomes from the study? What are some possible negative outcomes? To whom is the researcher accountable? (p. 173). The researchers reflected upon these questions throughout the research process, from start to completion. Additionally, the researchers referred to Patton’s (2015 as cited in Merriam and Tisdell, 2016) “Ethical Issues Checklist” which delineates the following, (1) explaining the purpose of inquiry methods to be used, (2) reciprocity . . . , (3) promises, (4) risk assessment, (5) confidentiality, (6) informed consent, (7) data access and ownership, (8) interviewer mental health, (9) ethical advice . . ., (10) data collection boundaries, (11) ethical and methodological choices, [and] (12) ethical versus legal issues (pp. 496-497). (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, pp. 264-265). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 61 Within clearly set ethical parameters, the researchers embarked upon a journey to explore and extrapolate from a rich context of data findings, which guided the process of triangulating emerging constructs to develop assertions. Utilizing these strategies allowed the researchers to verify the credibility and trustworthiness of the findings and assist in addressing potential ethical issues. Specifically, this proposal was submitted to and approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the University of Southern California. There was written consent from the school district representative in which the selected school sites for the study are located. These consent forms ensured that all parties involved were interviewed, questioned, and provided research- related documents voluntarily (see Appendix E – Consent). The names of all respondents were altered and their identities were not disclosed. All respondents were asked for permission to digitally record their interviews, and the recorder was left out in plain view. Requests to comment off the record were honored. The transcribed interviews were stored in a secure place and will be destroyed in 2019. Summary Chapter three gave a summary of the research problem, purpose, and a review of the literature review. There is little research with regard to effective practices and leadership styles of continuation principals, creating the need for this study. The study is an Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods study that began with surveys of teachers in southern California Model Continuation Schools, and compared with non-MCHS’s, using the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) data collection tool. The results from this tool were then used to generate specific questions or probes which helped extrapolate more information regarding the predominant leadership style identified from the MLQ-5X, and used for the qualitative part of the study: LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 62 principal interviews and document analysis. MCHS principals selected had been at their sites for a minimum of three years, which is one full cycle of the Model Continuation School cycle, while non-MCHS were selected based upon convenience of location to each researcher and availability. The principals were a part of a semi-structured interview. The results were then transcribed and coded for analysis. Chapter Four includes a discussion of the results of the data collection, while the usefulness of the results, and further areas of study will be presented in Chapter Five. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 63 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND FINDINGS Introduction This chapter is a presentation of findings from an examination of effective leadership styles and practices of principals in continuation high schools to leverage systematic change to improve the quality of education experiences of at-risk students. Two of the three continuation high schools selected for this study by the researcher had the Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS) distinction. The overall purpose of the study was to develop a better understanding of effective leadership and practices as a resource for practitioners in utilizing and implementing specific reform strategies throughout their leadership to improve the educational experiences and outcomes of at-risk youth. As such, based on Full Range Transformational Leadership Theory (Avolio et al., 1999), this study examined the predominant leadership style of principals from alternative school settings that are distinguished by the California Department of Education (CDE) as California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS). The secondary purpose of this study was to compare the leadership beliefs and practices of principals from schools identified as MCHS with a principal from a school not identified as a MCHS. The third purpose was to understand what accountability looks like at a MCHS compared with a Non-MCHS. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to examine the effective leadership qualities and practices of principals from successful alternative school settings that are recognized as California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS), based on Transformational Leadership Theory (Avolio et al., 1999). As such, the researchers of this study analyzed the beliefs and practices of principals that led their schools towards the designation of a Model Continuation High School. The researchers also investigated how teachers perceive the leadership traits in their principal. This LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 64 is important to ascertain because the principals’ beliefs, style, and practices may or may not align with the research about effective leadership or with how teachers identify his or her leadership style and practices. Moreover, it’s important to understand how teachers identify the leadership style of their principal because teacher performance is the primary factor affecting student achievement, while leadership is the second leading predictor of student achievement (Hitt & Tucker, 2016). Consequently, the leaders’ role in school effectiveness is pivotal in terms of enabling teachers to improve student achievement (Goldring et al., 2009). The results of this study have both practitioner and policy implications, because findings provide guidance for principals regarding promising practices, as well as policy with respect to training and professional development. Based on the purpose of the study, two Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS) were selected because both are continuation high schools with the MCHS distinction and their principals have been at their respective site for a minimum of three years, which is one full cycle of the MCHS cycle. The MCHS sites are referred to as MCHS-A and MCHS-B. The third school site in this study was selected because it is a Non-MCHS which allowed the researcher to compare the leadership style and practices between MCHS and Non-MCHS settings. Moreover, the Non-MCHS was also selected based upon convenience of location to the researcher and availability. All three school sites met the criteria of location within southern California. The data collected in the study consisted of MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey data from 34 teachers across the three school sites, semi-structured interviews with their three principals, and the MCHS applications from MCHS-A and MCHS-B. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 65 Findings The overall findings of this study identified the predominant leadership styles, best practices, and accountability measures within continuation high school settings with and without the MCHS distinction. The use of multiple measures, quantitative and qualitative, in this study strengthened the validity of the findings. The first part of this chapter is a brief description of descriptive characteristics of the survey respondents and interview subjects. The second part of this chapter is a descriptive analysis of the findings that were organized around the following four research questions: 1. Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as identified by their teachers? 2. What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes? 3. As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success? 4. How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of their schools? The last part of this chapter concludes with a discussion on the findings. Organization of Data Analysis The first part of the data analysis consists of a description of the characteristics of the survey respondents and the interview subjects. Sections two through five provide analysis of the findings for each research question. The data analyzed for Research Question 1 is exclusively from the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey data, and the data analyzed for Research LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 66 Question 2 is from the interviews of the principals. Lastly, the data analyzed from Research Questions 3 and 4 are from interviews, and a document analysis of the schools’ Model Continuation School applications. Descriptive Characteristics Survey Participants The survey was administered directly to the teachers by the researcher for the Non-model continuation high school principal (Non-MCHS) and the principals for Model Continuation High School A and B (MCHS-A and MCHS-B). During the months of May and June, the researcher visited each school site and, during a staff meeting, gave a hyperlink and QR code for the teachers to locate and complete the survey online. The links to the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey was hosted at www.mindgarden.com. The link immediately opened into the survey where respondents completed the survey anonymously. For the Non-MCHS, nine teachers completed the survey regarding their principal. For MCHS-A, there were 17 teachers, and for MCHS-B, there were eight teachers that completed the survey about their principal. Demographic data regarding the teachers who participated in the survey was not collected; the survey was completely anonymous. Anonymous responding was done to foster voluntary participation given that the teachers were asked to make judgments about the leadership qualities of their principals, who are also their evaluators. Interview Participants The interviews for the Non-MCHS, MCHS-A and MCHS-B were held in their respective school office. The researcher conducted interviews with each principal in the month of June. Each of the principals had served at their respective site for more than five years each. Table 1 illustrates the experience levels for each principal participant. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 67 Table 1 Interview Respondents by Experience Principal # of Years in Education # of Roles in Education # of Years at Current Continuation School MCHS-A 25 5 7 MCHS-B 17 3 5 Non-MCHS 31 5 12 All participants have had multiple roles in education during their career, having performed in such roles as teacher, coach, counselor, assistant principal, principal, school activities director, or director. Two of the principals are male and one is female. Also, two of the principals are Caucasian and one is Latin. Participants from the Non-MCHS and MCHS-A have similar number of years in public education and are both within 10-years of retirement. The principal of MCHS-B is mid-career with 17-years of experience in public education. The principal of the Non-MCHS has served at his site the longest compared to the other two principals. Also, the Non-MCHS was awarded the MCHS distinction in 2015; however, the distinction was not renewed in 2018. MCHS-A and MCHS-B have been awarded the MCHS distinction in three of three consecutive opportunities including 2012, 2015, and 2018. All three principals have had a similar number of roles in education. Before these principals were interviewed, they were rated by their teachers to gain an understanding of their leadership styles based on teachers’ responses. Therefore, the next section of this chapter will begin with an analysis of Research Question 1 which was answered by the teachers’ ratings and perceptions. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 68 Findings for Research Question 1 ● Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as identified by their teachers? Findings: Survey Participants As indicated, the initial portion of this mixed-methods study was to discover what the teachers perceived was the prevalent leadership style of their principals. This was calculated using the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) rater form that gathered and yielded the perceptions of teachers toward their principal, and defined their ratings to show their principals as transformational, transactional, or passive/avoidant leaders. The MLQ-5X survey is 45 questions, and uses a 5-point Likert scale for rating the frequency of observed leader behaviors including: 0 (not at all), 1 (once in a while), 2 (sometimes), 3 (fairly often), and 4 (frequently, if not always). According to the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire™ (Avolio & Bass, 2004), a blank score means the respondent was “unsure.” The questions were revealing of leadership traits including: passive/avoidant leader (e.g. wait for things to wrong before taking action), transactional (e.g. make clear what one can expect to receive when performance goals are achieved), or transformational (e.g. go beyond self-interest for the good of the group). Table 2 provides the results that teachers rated for the principal of MCHS-A, in terms of transformational traits. The table shows each rater’s individual average score for the subcategories of transformational leader, alongside the overall transformational leader score. The subcategories for transformational leadership are the following: II-A is Idealized Influence– Attributes (Builds Trust); II-B is Idealized Influence–Behaviors (Acts with Integrity); IM is LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 69 Inspirational Motivation (Encourages Others); IS is Intellectual Stimulation (Encourages Innovative Thinking); and IC is Individual Consideration (Coaches and Develops People). Table 2 Average Score per Category of Transformational Leadership for the Principal of MCHS-A Participant Acts with Integrity (IIB) Builds Trust (IIA) Coaches & Develops People (IC) Encourages Others (IM) Encourages Innova- tional Thinking (IS) Total Transfor- mational Average Score 1 3.0 4.0 * 3.5 3.0 * 2 4.0 3.8 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 3 3.8 3.8 2.8 3.8 2.3 3.3 4 3.8 4.0 3.3 4.0 3.3 3.7 5 3 3.5 3.8 3.8 3.0 3.4 6 3.3 3.8 3.3 4.0 3.5 3.6 7 3.8 3.8 4.0 4.0 3.8 3.9 8 3.3 3.0 2.3 3.8 3.0 3.1 9 3.0 3.0 * 3.8 2.3 * 10 3.0 4.0 * 3.3 2.3 * 11 3.5 4.0 * 3.5 2.8 * 12 3.8 4.0 * 4.0 3.8 * 13 3.5 4.0 2.8 3.8 2.0 3.2 14 4.0 4.0 4 4.0 4.0 4.0 15 3.3 3.5 3.8 3.5 3.3 3.5 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 70 Table 2 (Cont’d.) Participant Acts with Integrity (IIB) Builds Trust (IIA) Coaches & Develops People (IC) Encourages Others (IM) Encourages Innova- tional Thinking (IS) Total Transfor- mational Average Score 16 2.5 4.0 4.0 3.8 4.0 3.7 17 3.0 4.0 3.8 4.0 3.8 3.7 M 3.4 3.8 3.5 3.8 3.2 3.6 * Participant chose not to respond to one or more items for this cell The data in Table 2 showed that the principal scored a total transformational score of 3.6. The principal was rated as demonstrating personal leadership strength in the transformational sub-categories of IIA–Builds Trust and Encourages Others (IM), with scores of 3.8 in each out of 4 possible. Encourages Innovational Thinking (IS) was rated, on average, as a relative area of weakness for the MCHS-A principal. This transformation leadership trait was overall rated as “fairly often” (score of 3.2) exhibited by the MCHS-A principal with a range of 2 (sometimes) to 4 (frequently, if not always). Table 3 provides the results that teachers gave the principal for MCHS-A, with regard to the categories of transactional leadership and passive/avoidant leadership. The average score for the subcategories of transactional and passive/avoidant leadership qualities is listed alongside the overall transactional and passive/avoidant score. The subcategories for transactional leadership are the following: “Rewards Achievement – Contingent Reward” (CR); and “Monitors Deviations & Mistakes – Management-by-Exception Active” (MBEA). The subcategories for Passive/Avoidant leadership are the following: MBEP is “Fights Fires – Management-by- Exception Passive” (MBEP) and “Avoids Involvement – Laissez-Faire” (LF). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 71 Table 3 Average Score per Category of Transactional and Passive/Avoidant Questions for the Principal of MCHS-A Participant Rewards Achieve- ment (CR) Monitors Deviations & Mistakes (MBEA) Total Transac- tional Average Score Avoids Involve- ment (LF) Fights Fires (MBEP) Total Passive/ Avoidant Average Score 1 3.3 * * 0.0 0.8 0.4 2 4.0 2.3 3.1 0.3 0.0 0.1 3 2.8 2.5 2.6 0.0 0.8 0.4 4 3.5 * * 0.0 0.5 0.3 5 4.0 0.5 2.3 0.0 0.8 0.4 6 3.5 * * 0.0 * * 7 3.8 * * 0.5 0.0 0.3 8 3.5 * * 0.0 * * 9 3.5 * * 0.3 0.5 0.4 10 3.5 1.5 2.5 0.0 0.5 0.3 11 4.0 * * 0.0 1.0 0.5 12 3.8 3.8 3.8 1.0 * * 13 3.0 1.5 2.3 0.5 1.3 0.9 14 4.0 * * 1.0 * * 15 3.8 1.0 2.4 0.5 0.8 0.6 16 4.0 2.8 3.4 0.0 2.0 1.0 17 4.0 2.0 3.0 0.0 0.8 0.4 M 3.7 1.98 2.8 0.2 0.8 0.5 * Participant chose not to respond to one or more items for this cell. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 72 The principal received an overall transactional score of 2.8 and an overall passive/ avoidant score of 0.4. Compared to her transformational score of 3.6, the data suggested the staff of MCHS-A regard their principal as a transformational leader, followed by occasional occurrences of transactional leadership. The MCHS-A principal was rated as demonstrating Rewards Achievement, Contingent Rewards (CR), and leadership traits fairly often by her teachers. Her overall score in this sub-category was 3.7 out of 4. She was rated as exhibiting leadership traits once in a while or sometimes (score of 1.98 out of 4) in the transactional sub- category of Monitors Deviations & Mistakes, Management by Exception – Active (MBEA). There is a very low rating of “not at all” to “once in a while” (0.5 out of 4) with regard to display of leadership traits for her that could be classified as Passive/Avoidant. The scores under each subcategory of Avoids Involvement (LF) and Fights Fires (MBEP) fell below 1, 0.2, and 0.8, respectively. The teacher participants believed that there is almost never an occasion where the MCHS-A principal avoids involvement or displays a “fight fires” approach. Table 4 provides the results that teachers gave for MCHS-B for transformational leadership. The table shows each rater’s individual average score for the subcategories of transformational leader, alongside the overall transformational leader score. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 73 Table 4 Average Score per Category of Transformational Leadership for the Principal of MCHS-B Participant Acts with Integrity (IIB) Builds Trust (IIA) Coaches & Develops People (IC) Encourages Others (IM) Encourages Innova- vational Thinking (IS) Total Transfor- mational Average Score 1 4.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 3.8 2 3.3 1.8 1.3 2.8 1.8 2.2 3 3.5 2.8 3.0 4.0 2.8 3.2 4 3.0 2.0 1.8 3.5 * * 5 4.0 3.5 3.5 4.0 3.5 3.7 6 3.3 3.0 2.8 2.5 2.8 2.9 7 2.8 2.3 2.5 3.3 2.0 2.6 8 3.8 3.0 2.8 4.0 * * M 3.5 2.8 2.6 3.5 2.8 3.1 * Participant chose not to respond to one or more items for this cell The data showed that the principal of MCHS-B has an average rating of 3.1 out of 4 for transformational leadership indicating that overall his teachers believe he displays transformational leadership traits “fairly often.” The principal was also rated notably high in the subcategories of Acts with Integrity (IIB) and Encourages Others (IM) with each leadership trait scored as 3.5 meaning his teachers perceive him to act with integrity and encourage others fairly often or frequently, if not always. The subcategories of Builds Trust (IIA), Coaches & Develops People (IC), and Encourages Innovational Thinking (IS) were similarly rated with scores of 2.8, 2.6, and 2.8, respectively. This means that overall, teachers believe MCHS-B principal displays these leadership traits “sometimes” or “fairly often.” Further, each of the three subcategories LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 74 reveal variable responses per respondent ranging from a high of 4 (frequently, if not always) to 1.8 or 2.5 (once in a while or sometimes). Table 5 charts the scores teachers gave the principal for MCHS-B regarding the categories of transactional and passive/avoidant leadership. The median score for the subcategories of transactional and passive/avoidant leadership qualities are noted alongside the overall transactional and passive/avoidant scores. Table 5 Average Score per Category of Transactional and Passive/Avoidant Questions for the Principal of MCHS-B Participant Rewards Achieve- ment (CR) Monitors Deviations & Mistakes (MBEA) Total Transac- tional Average Score Avoids Involve- ment (LF) Fights Fires (MPEP) Total Passive/ Avoidant Average Score 1 4.0 * * 0.0 0.0 0.0 2 1.8 * * 2.3 3.0 2.6 3 * * * 1.5 2.8 2.1 4 1.8 1.5 1.6 1.0 2.0 1.5 5 3.5 1.3 2.4 0.3 1.5 0.9 6 3.0 * * * 2.3 * 7 2.5 1.3 1.9 1.5 2.0 1.8 8 2.8 * * 0.5 0.8 0.6 M 2.8 1.4 1.96 1.0 1.8 1.4 * Participant chose not to respond to one or more items for this cell LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 75 As noted in Table 5, the principal received an overall transactional score of 1.96, and an overall passive/avoidant score of 1.4. Compared to his transformational score of 3.1, the data suggested that the staff of MCHS-B view their principal as a transformational leader, followed by infrequent occurrences of transactional leadership. The teachers’ lowest leadership rating is in the passive/avoidant category with a score of 1.4 out of 4. The highest score under that subcategory is 1.88 for MBEP–Fights Fires. The staff believed that “once in a while” their principal may react with a “fights fires” approach when the fires could have been prevented. As a point of comparison, a Non-MCHS was researched utilizing the same methodology: using the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) as a tool for surveying teachers to discover their perceptions regarding the leadership qualities of their principal in the categories of transformational, transactional, and passive/avoidant. Table 6 provides the results that teachers gave for the Non-MCHS principal for transformational leadership. The table shows each respondent’s individual median score for the subcategories of transformational leadership, alongside the total transformational leader score. Table 6 Average Score per Category of Transformational Leadership for the Principal of Non-MCHS Participant Acts with Integrity (IIB) Builds Trust (IIA) Coaches & Develops People (IC) Encourages Others (IM) Encourages Innova- tional Thinking (IS) Total Transfor- mational Average Score 1 3.5 3.8 3.5 3.8 2.5 3.4 2 3.8 3.5 2.5 3.8 2.3 3.2 3 3.8 4.0 3.5 4.0 2.8 3.6 4 4.0 3.8 3.5 4.0 2.8 3.6 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 76 Table 6 (Cont’d.) Participant Acts with Integrity (IIB) Builds Trust (IIA) Coaches & Develops People (IC) Encourages Others (IM) Encourages Innova- tional Thinking (IS) Total Transfor- mational Average Score 5 2.5 2.5 2.8 3.5 2.5 2.8 6 4.0 3.8 * 4.0 3.8 * 7 3.5 4.0 3.5 3.8 3.8 3.7 8 3.0 3.8 3.8 4.0 2.8 3.5 9 3.8 3.8 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.8 M 3.5 3.7 3.4 3.9 2.97 3.5 * Participant chose not to respond to one or more items for this cell As noted in Table 6, the data illustrates that the Non-MCHS has a high average rating of 3.5 out of 4 for transformational leadership indicating that overall, his teachers believe he displays transformational leadership traits “fairly often” to “frequently, if not always.” The principal was also rated especially high in the subcategories of Builds Trust (IIA) and Encourages Others (IM) with scores of 3.7 and 3.9, respectively. Moreover, the scores within each of these subcategories are very consistent with a range of 3.5 – 4 across 17 out of 18 opportunities. Only one score in the subcategory of Builds Trust (IIA) was an outlier with a score of 2.5. These scores signal that generally, teachers view the Non-MCHS principal as displaying leadership traits that build trust and encourage others “fairly often” to “frequently, if not always.” Encourages Innovational Thinking (IS) was a relative area of weakness as rated by teachers with a score of 2.97, yet the responses within this subcategory varied between 2.3 (sometime) to 3.5 (fairly often to frequently, if not always). LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 77 Table 7 charts the scores teachers gave the Non-MCHS referent to transactional and passive/avoidant leadership. The median score for the subcategories of transactional and passive/avoidant leadership qualities are noted alongside the overall transactional and passive/avoidant scores. Table 7 Average Score per Category of Transactional and Passive/Avoidant Questions for the Principal of Non-MCHS Participant Rewards Achieve- ment (CR) Monitors Deviations & Mistakes (MBEA) Total Transac- tional Average Score Avoids Involve- ment (LF) Fights Fires (MPEP) Total Passive/ Avoidant Average Score 1 3.8 0.8 2.3 0.3 1.8 1.0 2 3.5 0.3 1.9 1.0 0.5 3 3.3 * * 0.3 * * 4 3.3 0.5 1.9 1.5 0.8 5 2.3 1.0 1.6 1.0 2.3 1.6 6 4.0 0.5 2.3 0.5 0.8 0.6 7 3.5 1.8 2.6 0.0 0.5 0.3 8 3.8 1.0 2.4 0.0 0.5 0.3 9 4.0 2.5 3.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 M 3.5 1.1 2.3 0.3 1.1 0.7 * Participant chose not to respond to one or more items for this cell As noted in Table 7, the principal received an overall transactional score of 2.3 and an overall passive/avoidant score of 0.7. Compared to his transformational score of 3.5, the data LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 78 revealed that the teachers at the Non-MCHS perceive their principal as a transformational leader, followed by low-level, overall, incidences of transactional leadership. However, the Non-MCHS was rated by his teachers as “fairly often” to “frequently, if not always” displaying leadership traits that reinforce achievement as indicated by a score of 3.5 in the subcategory of Rewards Achievement (Contingent Rewards). The teachers’ lowest leadership rating of their Non-MCHS wais in the passive/avoidant category with a score of 0.7 out of 4. The lowest score within Passive/Avoidant is Avoids Involvement (LF) indicating that teachers believe their Non-MCHS principal is “not at all” likely to demonstrate Lassie Faire leadership traits. Summary of Findings for Research Question 1 Based on Full Range Leadership Theory (Avolio et al., 1999), researchers identified the prevalent leadership styles of MCHS principals. Researchers utilized the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey as a tool whereby teachers rated the leadership traits of their respective principals. Research at a Non-MCHS site was also conducted as a point of comparison. Table 8 illustrates the similarities and differences in predominant leadership styles, based on results from the MLQ-5X survey of principals in alternative education settings with and without the MCHS distinction. Table 8 A Comparison of Leadership Styles–Survey Respondents Principal Transformational Score Transactional Score Passive/Avoidant Score MCHS-A 3.6 2.80 0.5 MCHS-B 3.1 1.96 1.4 Non-MCHS 3.5 2.30 0.7 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 79 The teachers from each site, irrespective of a MCHS distinction, rated their principals similarly. First, each principal received their highest score (3+) in the area of transformational leadership meaning their teachers believe they display leadership traits consistent with a transformational style of leadership “fairly often” to “frequently, or almost always.” The second most prevalent leadership style displayed across principals and settings, as rated by teachers, was transactional. Lastly, all principals were rated as demonstrating a low-level (once in a while) of passive-avoidant leadership. These findings suggested that continuation high schools do not have to have the MCHS distinction to have a principal that is regarded as a transformation leader by teachers. Moreover, these findings lay the foundation for a qualitative study of the next three research questions regarding what these transformational principal leaders believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve commendable outcomes; what practices they utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success; and how they measure effectiveness of their schools. Findings for Research Question 2 ● What do MCHS and Non-MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes? Principals were asked questions during their interviews to arrive at a sense of what they believe are the traits required to successfully lead their schools. For Research Question 2, the intent of the question was to arrive at their sense of leadership worldview, and what they think are important qualities in leadership. Sequentially, this is important because Research Question 3 looks to understand what practices these leaders implement in practical terms, and how they implement it. Research Question 4 concludes the analysis by discovering how these principals approach accountability, and knowing they are effective. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 80 Findings: Interview There were themes that emerged from the interviews of the principals of the MCHS A and B as well as the Non-MCHS that were similar in some respects and varied in others. Some of the beliefs that emerged as common core values or themes were a passion or life purpose of: cultivating a school culture of resilience, innovation, lifelong learning, and high expectations. These themes parallel the five dimensions of transformational leadership including: Coaches and Develops Peoples (Individual Consideration – IC); Acts with Integrity (Idealized Influence Behaviors – IIB); Builds Trust (Idealized Influence Attributes – IIA); Encourages Others (Inspirational Motivation – IM); and Encourages Innovative Thinking (Intellectual Stimulation – IS). Since MCHS-A and MCHS-B rated high under transformational leadership, it follows that the principals’ perceptions of effective leadership traits also coincide with transformational leadership practices. Moreover, the Non-MCHS serves as an important point of comparison because that principal was also highly rated as a transformational leader by his teachers. Resilience. All principals interviewed shared a common core value of cultivating a school culture that fosters resilience in at-risk youth, their students, through a compelling vision, mission, and positive and caring relationships. Clear articulation of a compelling vision of the future and emphasis on the importance of having a collective sense of mission with your organization’s constituents are hallmarks of the transformational leadership subcategories, Inspirational Motivation (IM) and Acting with Integrity (IIB). Each principal in this study was rated as “fairly often” to “frequently, if not always” demonstrating leadership traits that align with Inspirational Motivation and Integrity with scores ranging from 3.4 to 3.9. Belief in the power of positive and caring relationships for the purpose of cultivating resilience in at-risk youth exemplifies the transformational leadership subcategories of Building LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 81 Trust (IIA) and Coaching and Developing of People (IC) because it entails going beyond self- interest for the greater good, differentiation as a strategy to addressing unique needs, and the assessment and development of individual strengths. The MCHS-A and Non-MCHS principals in this study were rated as exhibiting the leadership trait of Building Trust “frequently, if not always” with scores ranging from 3.7 to 3.8. The MCHS-B principal was rated as demonstrating this trait “sometimes” to “frequently, if not always” with scores ranging from 1.8 to 4. Similarly, the MCHS-A and Non-MCHS principals were rated as showing the leadership trait of Coaching and Developing of People “fairly often” to “frequently, if not always” with scores ranging from 3.4 to 3.5. Teachers rated the MCHS-B principal as demonstrating this trait “once in a while” to “frequently, if not always” with scores ranging from 1.3 to 3.5 with an average of 2.6 (sometimes to fairly often). As a way of qualitatively investigating the principals’ internal belief system, the researcher asked each leader, “What do you believe is ideal in a continuation high school environment?” The following responses illustrate each principal’s worldviews regarding cultivating a school culture that fosters resilience for their students, through a compelling vision, mission, and relationships. To begin, the MCHS-A principal answered the question with conviction and confidence, Ideal is that every teacher here wants to be here. Every staff member here is committed to working with at-risk youth. I firmly believe that teaching is a vocation, it’s not a profession. And nowhere is that more important than here . . .. I tell my teachers, as we get better and better at doing interventions at the comprehensive high schools, and we do a lot of interventions at the comprehensive high schools. It’s, it’s like a, a net and the, the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 82 holes in the net are getting smaller and smaller. And so the kids that are still falling through those holes have tremendous need. Further, the MCHS-A principal illustrated caring interactions with one of her students, Rose. Rose is on track to graduate, has excellent attendance, and shows prosocial behavior in school. Yet, she is in foster care, has a history of serious abuse, has attended two to three high schools in the 2017-2018 school year, and countless more before that, and is pregnant at the age of 16-years. In this scenario, given the options of utilizing a “no tolerance to absences” versus an empathic approach, the principal elected to program foster care services for her under AB 216 and engaged with her student in the following manner, She was having some problems with the pregnancy and spotting, and the doctor had her out on bedrest for, for a week. And so we’re gonna give her the summer off and see her in August. I’m hoping that she’ll, you know, take it easy. The MCHS-B principal also expressed his worldviews regarding his core leadership beliefs or values in the power of positive and caring relationships. The principal stated, I think the ideal environment has to have a framework, or foundation, of caring relationships. I’ve kind of evolved in that. I think when I first started I, I thought it [continuation high schools] really had to be able to offer . . . like a comprehensive school. Everything, except a student center, needing more . . . activities, athletics, ASB, whatever. I thought that was more the ideal, but just on a smaller scale . . . I’m thinking access. But, I really came to see that, that stuff is fine and dandy. But at the end of the day, they [students] just want to really feel loved. So, I think the ideal [continuation high school] campus would have a lot of patient, kind, and caring staff members. Everybody, from your secretary to your custodian to whomever. That really just genuinely love the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 83 kids and the kids feel that and their parents feel that . . . So that’s like the first part . . . That’s the foundation. Like the other principals, the Non-MCHS was too very straight forward and answered with confidence and conviction in his response to the researcher’s question, “What do you believe is ideal in a continuation high school environment?” The principal stated, Number one, you gotta care about kids. Nothing is gonna happen unless that happens. You know, I’m lucky too here, the staff, these folks, they treat them like it’s their own kids. I think too, . . . empathy. . . you have to know the person’s story. The researcher probed the Non-MCHS by asking him, “What drives you?” He paused as if to reflect for a moment and with what appeared to be humility, responded, What drives me? Well, I mean, me personally–I’m called to do my best to help people out. I’m there to be a servant leader. I know it sounds kinda, but that’s . . . I can’t take that away from who I am. When you’re serving, everything seems to work better. Innovation. The principals in the study were similarly rated by their teachers as “fairly often” demonstrating the transformational leadership trait of Encourage Innovative Thinking – Intellectual Stimulation (IS) with scores ranging from 2.8 to 3.2. Qualitatively, as noted above, the MCHS-A and Non-MCHS principals asserted that working at a continuation high school fulfills a higher calling and life purpose in the form of vocational versus professional commitment on behalf of teachers or servant leadership. Such claims are examples of Intellectual Stimulation (IS) because those assertions require the teachers and leadership to critically re-examine assumptions, seek unorthodox solutions, analyze issues from a differing perspective, and suggest a new approach. Teachers or co-leaders who are not committed nor find purpose in working with at-risk youth within the continuation school settings of the MCHS- LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 84 A and Non-MCHS principals are not likely to “fit-in” with that school’s culture. Furthermore, the MCHS-A principal described how her staff value creativity to address a gap in the data such as between juniors who were on track to graduate compared to sophomores. The MCHS-A principal shared, When you look at the on-target rate for 11th graders going into 12th grade, it’s 91% . . . [to] . . . 94%, it’s really high. When you look at the sophomores going into juniors, there’s a bit of a dip. But it’s really freshmen going into sophomore year that is the lowest on-target rate in the district. So, it just makes sense that that’s our clientele. And we experimented with how we brought sophomores in and we did it a couple of different ways until we found something that works. And, so because we are bringing in kids that are younger and less far behind we’re able to remediate more of them. And I think it . . . at the semester of this school year in January, I believe we sent 30 . . . [to] . . . 35 . . . kids back. So, we’ve been averaging about 85 kids a year going back to the comprehensives. Also, the principals of MCHS-B and Non-MCHS too shared their value of innovative and divergent thinking. Both used the analogy of “planting seeds” in others, teachers or students, to foster innovation. The principal of MCHS-B stated, I really had to learn to just kinda back off, and kind of lead from behind . . . I don’t care that I get the recognition or credit . . . I just care that the idea gets done. But I’ve had to learn that . . . there’s this movie that came out that was a really good movie, called Inception, with Leonardo DiCaprio. About taking ideas and planting them in other people’s brains. And then they grow, and all of a sudden, ‘Hey, I have this idea!’ Well it’s because I incepted it into your brain, you know? But it’s kinda like the same thing LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 85 . . . I really had to learn how to um kind of pull inception into my own staff, to plant ideas here and ideas there, and ‘Hey what would it look like if we did this?’ Or, ‘What’s stopping us from doing that?’ Or you know, just getting people to see different possibilities, and then want to take that ownership and run with it. Because then it’s got a better chance of success. Similarly, the Non-MCHS principal stated he values “planting of seeds” in his students’ minds by way of exposure to career endeavors his students may not have otherwise considered. The principal shared, I try to bring in some guys who, you know, just throughout the year, to talk to the kids. . . like, one of the probably, the most high-powered attorneys around. He’s had all the big cases like, you know, like on TV. So, he’s explaining to the kids, you know, just about how their choices. So, we’re constantly trying to plant seeds. You know? Maybe it’ll make a difference. . . Lifelong learning. All principals in this study demonstrated a value for lifelong learning which is articulated in the qualitative data of this study and expressed in their livelihoods. Consequently, lifelong learning as a core value is an exemplar of the transformational leadership trait of coaching and developing people (IC) and encouraging others (IM) as it fosters hope for a better future by empowering others through education. Also, the core value of lifelong learning is a leadership trait of Acting with Integrity (IIA) because what the principals articulate coheres with their personal and vocational vison and mission. As noted, the principals in this study were rated as exhibiting the leadership traits of Building Trust and Acting with Integrity “fairly often” or “frequently, if not always.” For example, the MCHS A and B principals either have or are in the process of attaining their doctorate in education and the Non-MCHS principal was recently LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 86 ordained as a deacon. Essentially, these principals are role models for others and “practice what they preach.” Moreover, each principal extended their belief in lifelong learning to the constituents of their organization by driving a school culture that prepares their students for postsecondary endeavors, including college and career readiness. For example, the researcher asked, “What role, if any, does college and career readiness play at your school?” The MCHS-B principal stated, College and career readiness is a huge, huge role. To me that’s more important than CASSPP scores, although they’re related. . . it’s more important than you know, culture indicators like suspension rate and attendance. I had a mentor once who told me, ‘We’re in the business of selling futures.’ And I really kind of like taking that to heart. We do sell futures. Whatever your future is, that’s what we’re trying to give you. We’re trying to give you a future. And our kids, unless we help them build that, most of them aren’t gonna do it on their own. You could go and teach an AP class, and just sit there and let the book teach the AP kids, and they’re gonna form their own study groups, and they’re gonna be very motivated to try to pass that AP biology test at the end of the year. Our kids aren’t gonna do that. They succeed because of you, not in spite of you like in an AP class, right? And, so my push these past five years has been to really, really blow up college and career.” High expectations. A final theme that emerged was evidence of how each principal addressed the unique needs of their students not only with compassion and empathy, but also through the common, core belief in leading an organization grounded in high expectations that are attainable via student-centered learning. High expectations and student-centered learning are transformational leadership traits in that they encourage and inspire motivation in others (IM) LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 87 through the establishment of a goal-oriented school culture. As noted, the principals were similarly rated by their teachers in this leadership trait with scores ranging from 3.5 to 3.9. Further, teachers rated each principal as “frequently, or almost always” expressing confidence that goals will be achieved. For example, the response to the question, “Applying for Model Continuation High School is additional work, is it worth it?” by the MCHS-B principal was, I think it’s worth it for one reason alone – it forces you to practice self-accountability, which we do not get from the state. From the perspective of a ‘feather in your cap’ it’s probably worth it for a small group of people, not the majority. But the fact that you actually have to get together and really analyze your practices, that’s probably . . . in fact, that is tremendous benefit. Summary of Findings for Research Question 2 Four central themes emerged from the qualitative analysis of the semi-structured interviews with the principals in this study. The shared beliefs that materialized across the MCHS and Non-MCHS principals are a passion or life purpose of: cultivating a school culture of resilience, innovation, lifelong learning, and high expectations. These themes parallel with the five dimensions of transformational leadership including: 1. Builds Trust (Idealized Influence Attributes – IIA) 2. Acts with Integrity (Idealized Influence Behaviors – IIB) 3. Encourages Others (Inspirational Motivation – IM) 4. Encourages Innovative Thinking (Intellectual Stimulation - IS) 5. Coaches & Develops Peoples (Individual Consideration – IC) The findings suggested that principals with a transformational leadership style may or may not vanguard a continuation school with a distinction of Model Continuation High School. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 88 Findings for Research Question 3 ● As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success? Five salient transformational leadership traits that surfaced from the analytical examination of the semi-structured interviews across principals were: cultivating a school culture of resilience through caring and positive relationships (IIA and IC) and a compelling vision and mission (IIB and IM), innovation (IS), lifelong learning (IIA, IC and IM), and high expectations (IM). Findings: Interview and Document Analysis Through the exploratory investigation process of qualitative data, the evidence conveyed how the four central transformational leadership traits of resilience, innovation, lifelong learning, and high expectations manifest, in practical terms, as leadership strategies that are highly rated by teachers across principals in continuation schools with or without the Model distinction. The following sections will investigate these findings using the principal interviews, and substantiate the findings in the document analysis of the Model Continuation High School applications. Resilience. The three principals in this study expressed the belief that caring relationships are central to helping at-risk youth succeed in school. For example, the MCHS-B principal shared, I would say the relational piece is huge and probably the most important . . . People don’t care what you know until they know that you care. I feel like in all the settings I’ve been at . . . urban . . . suburban . . . comprehensive . . . alternative ed. I really feel like that’s the same throughout, that you really have to not only know, but care. You really have to LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 89 effectively communicate to people that you care. Cause they’re two different things. I care so much about my teachers and my kids.” The research validated the principals’ beliefs as studies showed that caring relationships foster a positive school environment which is correlated with the educational resilience in at-risk students (Gilmore, Campbell, Shochet, & Roberts, 2013; Kosciw, Palmer, & Kull, 2015; Sanders & Munford, 2016; Strolin-Goltzman, Woodhouse, Suter, & Werrbach, 2016; Turner, Hartman, Exum, & Cullen, 2007; Wallace, 2012; Williams & Nelson-Gardell, 2012; Zolkoski et al., 2016). Moreover, educational resiliency is the heightened likelihood of school success despite adverse biological or environmental conditions (Strolin-Goltzman et al., 2016). Hiring. One strategy the principals in this study utilized was hiring of staff that care about students. Hiring staff committed to working with at-risk youth was validated by both the interviews and document analysis. Hiring practices is an example of the tenet of transformation leadership with regard to Acting with Integrity because their expressed beliefs align with their actions as it relates to hiring and working with staff committed to helping at-risk youth. When actions align with beliefs, the leader cultivates trust in their organization; Builds Trust is one of the five tenets of transformational leadership. For example, the MCHS-A application validated hiring practices and noted, “Only teachers committed to working with at-risk students are approved.” Similarly, in the interview with the principal of MCHS-A, she expressed, “I am really lucky as a principal. I’ve been able to hire 40% of the people that work here. Every staff member here is committed to working with at-risk youth.” Similarly, the principal of MCHS-B shared, The other part I can control though is me, my behavior, how I approach people, the kind of people I hire. Are they relationship builders, are they wanting to teach kids or are they LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 90 wanting to punish kids? You know, how do they approach when kids make poor choices? The money part is an obstacle I can’t, I can’t really control. But people, I have more influence over. Lastly, the principal of the Non-MCHS stated, Our counselor does a fantastic job, along with the English IV teacher . . . the bottom line is that she understands that her kids are more important than the curriculum. . . she happens to be a former district teacher of the year for [district]. So, just a great gal. She’s been like, she’s an elementary teacher of the year at her school, and middle school teacher of the year, and now district-wide teacher of the year a few years back. And she’s teaching here now. Yeah, she gets it. Visibility and modeling. The principals of this study utilized high visibility and modeling as strategies to ensure the cultivation of a positive school environment. The practice of visibility and modeling was not explicitly stated in the document analysis. However, the MCHS- B principal described this practice in the interview as follows, Be ever present, ever vigilant, and model that to the rest of your staff, that there’s always people out there. You know I kinda subscribe to the broken windows theory that says if you have a broken window, it’s gonna add another broken window, and another one, and all of a sudden litter shows up. Once the litter shows up, maybe you have some vagrants that show up. Maybe you have um, you know, prostitution, public drunkenness. Then all of a sudden you have drug dealing, and then drug dealing leads to botched robberies. And botched robberies lead to homicide. So if you really kind of attack things at the back, at that broken window, and repair the broken window–You’re not gonna see the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 91 litter, and you’re not gonna see everything else. So that’s part of it, is just making sure campus looks good, making sure you’re out there all the time. Further, the principal of MCHS-A indicated that she moved from one building to the attendance building so as to better support staff and address concerns with enrollment and attendance. This required the principal of MCHS-A to be situated in an office within the attendance building. Her office was crammed, lightly dimmed, windowless, and about six by twelve feet in size. This principal exclaimed, So, I moved in here in part because I was over here all the time anyway going you know . . . How’s this going? Have you called about that? You know, how are we documenting this? Could we pass the audit?’ The principal’s decision to move her office into the attendance building was a way of building respect by going beyond self-interest for the good of the group, both of which are elements of trust building (IIA). In like manner, the Non-MCHS principal also expressed his use of visibility and modeling to cultivate a positive learning environment. The principal shared, Be outside and in those classrooms and be out with the kids and the staff. You want to be a leader, then lead people. I’m the principal. If there’s trash all over the ground, I’m gonna pick it up. If I’m gonna ask that kid to pick it up, I’ll pick it up. You know, if I want people to treat people respectful, I’m gonna do the same thing. They want to see the principal walking through their room. I try to be out every single passing period. Every time the bell rings I’m outside. Every lunch, every break, you know, every day at the beginning of the day I’m out. I try to shake every kids’ hand. Its being visible. Being out there, working on those relationships. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 92 Social-emotional learning. Lastly, the principals of this study exemplified the transformational leadership trait of individual consideration (IC) by ensuring that their organizations include access to systems of support tailored to the social-emotional needs of their students. Practices that cultivate social-emotional learning was validated by information gathered from the document analysis of the Model applications and interviews with the principals. For example, the MCHS-A principal created the Orientation class which provides a transition cohort and support model for incoming sophomores. The principal shared that Orientation is an elective class that was created three years ago and is offered during one period, five days per week, over the course of five to nine weeks depending on sophomore enrollment needs. A mental health clinician participates in the Orientation class once per week to lead a pro-social lesson from Skillstreaming the Adolescent (Goldstein & McGinnis-Smith, 1997) curriculum. Moreover, the MCHS-A explained the Orientation as, In that class, they do something on how to earn credits at the continuation school. They do the, the pro-social skills training group once a week. They have one day a week where they do credit recovery. So they are introduced to our online-credit recovery program. The other two days are basically teacher choice. And one of my teachers does a lot of education about, you know . . . here are the bad things that happen with marijuana use for long-term. Here’s the bad side of Xanax. It kinda depends on when my computer teacher is doing it, she’ll do a day a week on, on cyber literacy . . . and cyber bullying. We’re having a good cyber footprint and digital citizenship. The principal went on to share that the “cohort model of staying together for five weeks or nine weeks really bonds them [students].” The principal also shared, “The kids have talked about it [Orientation] in our graduation speeches for the last couple of years.” The principal LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 93 expressed that a quantitative indicator on the effectiveness of the Orientation class for sophomores is that their attendance rate improved to 90%. Though not stated in the interview, the MCHS-B application stated, “we continually work to establish a nurturing environment where students still have the means to thrive and succeed.” Additionally, the document analysis revealed, “[MCHS-B] emphasizes whole child development with an Associated Student Body, extra-curricular sports (volleyball, football, soccer, and basketball), and clubs like a Key Club and Video Club.” Both of the MCHS-B and Non-MCHS principals described positive and individualized discipline methods they utilize with their students as a way of coaching and developing (IC) social-emotional learning. For example, the MCHS-B principal applied a combination of coaching, restorative, safe outlets, and advocacy for students rather than a zero-tolerance policy. When asked to describe his discipline strategy for students, the MCHS-B principal responded, Building relationships with kids, trying to teach them and coach them to make good decisions, as opposed to being punitive. But sometimes you gotta drop the hammer a bit too. So there’s wisdom coming, knowing what, when to do what. You know sometimes they [students] don’t realize that discipline, for example, is a form of caring. I care about you, so I have to discipline you because I have to correct this behavior because it’s a harmful behavior. Make sure you’re really providing students with a safe outlet to do something positive . . . There’s this one student for example, that was, you know he made a lot of poor decisions. He kept vaping, he couldn’t stop. I put him on a shortened schedule, but that’s all he did, he was a peaceful kid. He just liked to vape a lot. So I put him on a half-day schedule because he just, he burnt through a lot of bridges. But then teachers were like, ‘Hey why don’t you just kick this kid off campus? Like as soon as the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 94 bell rings tell him bye-bye, he needs to go.’ What he wanted to do was, he didn’t wanna go home. Even though he got the early schedule, he actually just wanted to stay there and just play basketball with his friends. To me that’s a positive activity. Endorphins are flowing–He’s with his friends doing a, a positive collaborative activity. Or he could go home and vape some more. I’m gonna have the kid play basketball. Sorry. I know you guys think I’m a jerk, but I’m gonna have him play basketball because that’s a good, positive activity for him. So, that speaks to the fact that you gotta provide kids something positive to do . . . art, whatever. Giving different outlets to just make good decisions, and be happy and healthy. The Non-MCHS utilized alternatives to suspension and community service to foster prosocial-emotional learning. For example, provided parent consent was given, rather than a suspension, a student may be given a time-away so that he or she can regroup and start fresh. While this is not a blanket approach, the principal shared that this strategy has been effective in that it holds the student accountable for their actions while conveying to the student, “we’re not giving up on you.” Moreover, the principal shared that this strategy has “worked out well” and is “seen more as an opportunity like, try again. It’s a restart.” The Non-MCHS principal shared that community service is an integral component of their school culture as it relates to social-emotional learning in that it helps students develop empathy, belonging, and pride. Instilling pride in oneself or in association with an organization is an element of transformational leadership with regard to building trust (IIA). Teaching and coaching students on how to help others through community service exemplifies the transformational leadership trait of coaching and developing people (IC). The principal shared, LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 95 If they [students] can do some things where they’re giving up of themselves and they kinda learn that’s important. So, one day usually in February, the whole day is dedicated to, we run a Special Olympics basically on our campus. So, every one of my guys [students] here is either paired up with a [special needs] kid. We have kids from all over the district, probably about, we’re up to about like, 250 kids now. The principal further explained that his students also participate in a large scale Special Olympics at a local college and volunteer in elementary schools. Overall, all three principals in this study expressed that caring relationships are central to helping at-risk youth succeed in school. Practices that they utilized to cultivate caring relationships within a positive school environment were the hiring of staff with beliefs that aligned with those of leadership and the school organization, visibility and modeling, and systems of support that addressed the social-emotional needs of their students. Innovation. The principals in this study encouraged innovative thinking through networking and observation outside of their school organization as a means of creating learning environments that spark intellectual stimulation (IS). Moreover, the principals shared that networking and observation are strategies for building external support and resources for the school. For example, the MCHS-B principal stated, I feel like me building relationships with my board members, for example . . .. And it’s the same thing with the superintendent and everybody else . . . I think by building relationships and making them champions of you is very strategic in getting them to support what you’re trying to do. So they’re not like, ‘Hey what are you doing?’ They’re like ‘Hey keep doing it and whatever you need me to do to support you just let me know.’ LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 96 Similarly, the MCHS-A and Non-MCHS principals network with others to observe and learn new ideas that are applied within the school. For example, the Non-MCHS principal got the idea of creating a site-based Special Olympics event from participation in a similar event at a local Cal State college. He also got the idea of Senior Exit Interviews by observing this process at another continuation high school and later applied that process within his school organization. The principal shared, “I kinda watched what they did. We put it [Senior Exit Interviews] in. And so, we’ve been doing it for about 10 years. Hands down, the best thing I’ve ever done as a principal.” The principal estimated that of about a thousand Senior Exit Interviews he’s done over the years, about 99% of the students say the staff are the best thing about their school. Moreover, the Non-MCHS expanded resources for his students via positive role-models, job-shadowing, and scholarships through the networking of relationship he builds with members in the community as a coach. The principal shared, “Part of the benefit of living in this community is that I’ve coached a lot of kids over the years. I know many parents and so, I have a lot of contacts.” The principal shared that many of the parents serve as networks for job shadowing opportunities for his students in their area of interest, such auto-mechanics or police work. The MCHS-A principal indicated that she got the idea for the Orientation cohort model through observation. She stated, “I saw an orientation program at [a local continuation high school] when I was doing a WASC there. I really liked it. I took a couple of my teachers over there to see it.” The principal also shared, When I was at [a local continuation school], I saw these devices that they were using for group work that were like little interactive whiteboards that go through the LCD projector and project out Mimio, you know, Mimio devices. And so, I took a couple teachers over LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 97 there to see that. They liked it. I had some extra Title I money and bought them for all the classrooms. Both MCHS principals shared that a strategy they use to foster a school culture that encourages innovative thinking (IS) is by enabling their staff to take charge of creative ideas. For example, the MCHS-B principal shared, One of the things that you learn about leading a Model Continuation High School is that creativity is a valuable part of that leadership, but also leading from behind and celebrating the ideas. I really had to learn to just kinda back off, and kind of lead from behind. That’s been part of my growth [mindset]. I’m being very vulnerable with you. Because I don’t really like to admit some of those shortcomings, but at the end of the day that’s kinda what it’s been, is, is how do you really try to put everybody else on stage, give them the idea, put them on stage, let them get the applause, and then you just kinda sit back and watch it all unfold the way you want it to unfold? I feel like I’ve really been blessed. I feel like God’s given me this ability to really think outside the box and come up with really creative solutions and . . .. Really different ways of approaching what learning in education looks like. I mean as a side note, I think that’s one of the reasons why I love continuation so much. Cause it’s small enough where you can make quick changes. Similarly, the MCHS-A shared, One of my teachers just got elected to be the board for CCEA. I was briefly on their advisory committee, but because he and I were both on it and there couldn’t be two people from the same LEA, I’m like, ‘You know, you go and party, I’ll step back. It is fine.’ LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 98 As a final example, both MCHS principals were innovative in how they tailored their schools’ scheduling to meet the unique learning needs of their students, which is an example of the transformational leadership trait of coaching and developing people (IC). For example, the document analysis of the MCHS-A application validated the practice of creative scheduling to meet student needs. In the interview with the MCHS-A principal shared, We have students on two different sessions. We have an AM session, periods one through four, and that’s where all our fifth-year seniors are. And then we have a PM session, periods five, six, and seven, and that’s where our sophomores all start out. The principal also used the AM and PM Session model to address other student learning profiles. For example, the principal stated, If you are a low producer in the mornings or you have poor attendance, you get dropped to afternoons. And the kids . . . who are in afternoons who are high producer, high attenders, they can apply to move to mornings.” The two-session model allows for student and teacher voice. For example, the principal shared, When an AM student comes in and says, ‘I want a seven-period day,’ then I tell them and the counselors tell them, ‘Then you go ask teachers, and you bring me back a written note from the teacher and they’ll add you to their class.’ So they have . . . the teachers have control over that. They do like having some of those afternoon, some of those morning kids in the afternoon, because they are the older, more mature kids. A lot of the teachers have found that having some of those morning kids in the afternoon classes really brings a little bit more maturity, a little more modeling of what appropriate behavior looks like. The MCHS-B principal utilized innovative scheduling at his school to meet the individual needs (IC) of his students’ endeavors towards college readiness. The Model application noted a LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 99 modified block schedule is used, “to better facilitate learning.” In the interview, the principal shared, It is just really creating the framework in our schedule, our master and our bell schedule, so that way they can get together and practice it [university approved courses]. So we have a block schedule so those projects you’re supposed to be doing in your Changing Hearts and Minds English class, they actually have 90 minutes to knock it out instead of 45 or 40 minutes. Lifelong learning. All principals in this study demonstrated a value for lifelong learning which is an exemplar of trust building (IIA), encouraging others (IM), and coaching and developing people (IC) because it fosters hope for a better future by empowering others through education. Each principal extended their belief in lifelong learning to the constituents of their organization by advancing a school culture that enables staff to support their students through professional development and prepares their students for postsecondary demands, including college and career readiness. Professional development. The document analysis of the Model applications validated the practice of professional development that is both district mandated and specifically designed to address the unique needs of their schools. Information from the document analysis validated statements from the interviews with the MCHS principals. They described professional development for staff as relevant and tailored to the needs and goals of the school. For example, the MCHS-A principal stated, “I believe in staff development as long as it’s gonna actually show up in the classroom.” Professional development at MCHS-A that is district mandated and tailored to site needs addressed the academic and social-emotional needs of students, including trauma-informed practices, Capturing Kids Hearts (CKH), and English Language Development. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 100 With regard to tailoring district mandated professional development to site needs, the principal shared, So where I get some push from the district that, ‘Oh, you know we wanna come in to do a workshop for your teachers on trauma informed practice.’ And I’m like, ‘You know what, give me the materials, I’ll do it myself.’ In like manner, regarding ELD training tailored to site needs based on teachers’ feedback, the principal shared, Our categorical programs director for the district, she brought in [an ELD expert for professional development]. So, I took an English teacher and a social studies teacher to the four-session series on EL shadowing. They thought it was great. So we spent the following year with [the ELD expert] at all of our staff meetings. I gave up our staff meetings for four or five of our staff meetings to have [the ELD expert] come in and talk about academic language.” Site-driven professional development at MCHS-A included the practice of the principal and teachers serving on WASC and Model Continuation High School committees. The principal shared, I believe WASC visits are fantastic professional development. Six of my teachers, counselors, myself participate in WASC visiting committees annually. It’s voluntary. We also do a lot of model school visits for CCEA. I have four or five. I would say. who do model school visits on a regular basis and three or four who go and do the model school readings. Similarly, the Non-MCHS principal shared that a lot of their professional development is district driven, yet tailored to site needs. For example, the principal shared, “This year every LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 101 teacher has been assigned to work with a digital coach where teachers have to use technology to implement common core strategies.” The principal added that on late-start Wednesdays teachers share what they learned to the whole group, including what worked and didn’t work. The principal shared that the process was informal yet innovative adding, “I’m not gonna be all fired up at them. Cause we gotta be a little bit innovative. We can’t give them [students] what they already had over at the bigger school ‘cause it wasn’t working, right?” Lastly, the MCHS-B principal shared that district-driven professional development includes Positive Behavior Intervention Supports (PBIS) and intervention. He shared that at his site, We’re really looking more at data, and coming up with interventions. If a kid is really struggling, or . . . you know, more global, ‘How are we gonna approach this problem of too many F’s in math?’ or ‘Let’s look at student learning, and student work.’ Moreover, teachers at MCHS-B participate in site-driven professional development regarding University of California Curriculum Integration (UCCI) coursework, which is tailored to address student needs as it relates to curriculum and instruction that prepares them for post- secondary demands of college and career. The principal shared, What the UCCI courses do is . . . they’ll have these little institutes for each course, like biology and community health. And they’ll host it in city, let’s say. And all the teachers that are teaching that course could go and talk to other teachers teaching that course and kinda learn, what’d you do, and how’d you make it work? College and career readiness. The document analysis of the Model applications validated the practices as they relate to preparing students for college and career. Likewise, each principal in this study indicated in the interview that their school offers their students a range of LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 102 accessibility to high school coursework that is A-G approved and college-level coursework. For example, the MCHS-B principal shared, We changed all of our courses to be UC approved. But not just regular UC approved courses, they’re the University of California curriculum integration courses, which means they tie together some sort of CTE, career technical sector. So biology is not just biology, it’s biology and community health. So you’re learning, A through G biology; however, it’s in the context of public health. Our English class is called Changing Hearts and Minds. It’s an English 12 A through G course, however it’s um really kind of targeted toward um media. So in those courses alone they’re getting both college and career. Now we can actually issue them A through G, it’s got A through G backing. So they can do what they do in your class already, but they can use it to get to a Cal State or UC school now. And the second thing we did was we worked on bringing dual enrollment to our campus. So we have an early college program. Last year we had students take two college courses, which is life and career planning. And then they took strategies for college success. If they finished both of those courses, they got six UC transferable college credits, plus we gave them 10 credits of high school credit. So they got 20 high school elective credits, and six college elective credits that’s totally transferable. So our kids are not only . . . when we first got there we were just signing them up for college, and we felt like, hey we’re cool because we signed them up for college. Forget that, now we’re actually getting them college credit already, so they can already have almost their first semester done by the time they actually enroll. Students enrolled in the Non-MCHS also have access to dual enrollment. The principal shared, LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 103 We do a college counseling class, it’s called academic counseling one where it’s a partnership between the college, us, and the district where our kids have the opportunity– the professor comes over here and teaches a group of seniors in the fall. It’s a basic class that a kid would take if they were in their first semester of college. About like, taking notes, time management, transferring to the four-year. It’s been good. We had about 20 kids in the class. You get the most struggling kids in the whole district now have college credit before they graduate from high school. And, I give them elective credit here too. The counselor from [the college] comes and works with [the school counselor]. And then they see the kids already signed up for college. He’s already in their system for next year. So, all the red tape, all that stuff, they don’t even have to worry about it. It’s like a bridge. Although not stated in the interview, the document analysis of the MCHS-A application indicated a move towards curriculum that is A-G approved and dual-enrollment. For example, the MCHS application stated, “This fall we are piloting an online credit platform that is UC A-G aligned offering our students extended learning opportunities. Regarding dual enrollment, the MCHS-A application indicated, Our local community college offers one class per semester on our campus and students can transfer those credits in as well (10 credits per 3-unit college course). Students are encouraged to try this class on campus and LCAP funds were set aside last year for a tutor to support student success in the college class. A [college] outreach worker is on campus weekly to meet with students. We offer assessment testing, enrollment workshops, and FAFSA workshops several times a year through our partnership with [the college]. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 104 High expectations. The principals in this study applied practices that demonstrate their value of high expectations for their organization and students, both of which are transformational leadership traits in that they encourage and Inspire Motivation in others (IM) through the establishment of a goal-oriented school culture. High expectations are validated by information gathered from the document analysis of the MCHS applications and interviews with the principals. Organizational. Each principal in this study expressed the shared belief and practice of having their students meet the same graduation requirements compared to the traditional high schools. Moreover, both MCHS principals have led their school organization in the distinction of Model for two consecutive cycles, including 2015 and 2018 (CDE, 2018d). The MCHS-A application noted, The culture of [MCHS-A] is one of high expectations, in a caring and nurturing environment. The small class sizes allow students to develop relationships of trust with their teachers. Teachers are expected every day to provide a welcoming and inclusive environment. Similarly, the MCHS-B application stated, “I have known [MCHS-B] to be a place which continually challenges the very notion of ‘continuation school’ in order to meet the complex needs of our students.” It also stated, “Staff are dedicated to the students and committed to the idea of improvement.” In the interview, the principal shared that his school voluntarily establishes the goals of attaining quality distinctions for the school organization, such as WASC accreditation and MCHS distinction. Moreover, he shared the goal of having his school attain the designation as an Apple Distinguished School. He stated, LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 105 We’re trying to become an Apple Distinguished School. Apple Distinguished is almost like a Master’s program, where like you kinda stay in these courses, and learn all the latest and greatest apps, and practice with them, and get coaching on how to use them in class. Rigorous and standards-based curriculum. The document analysis of the Model applications validated the practice of developing rigorous curriculum aligned with State standards. Likewise, both MCHS principals expressed in the interviews the goal of providing their students with a rigorous and standards-based curriculum. For example, the MCHS-A principal stated, There has to be some rigor in what we do. We have to do standards-aligned curriculum in WASC. I’ve talked to my teachers about that, because as we get these younger kids and we send more kids back, I want them to be successful when they go back into those standard aligned A to G more rigorous courses. In like manner, the MCHS-B principal stated that observation and questioning are strategies he utilizes to monitor the rigor of instruction and learning within classrooms. The MCHS-B application stated that pedagogy entails, “teacher-led direct instruction or project- based that is standards-driven, content rich, and meeting UC standards.” In the interview, the principal illustrated possible queries and observation process when assessing quality instruction and learning as, They have technology in the classroom, great. But how are they using the technology? Are they using it to just research on Google? Or are they using it to actually create new knowledge? Things that can impact other people? How do they talk to each other? LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 106 With regard to observation and analysis of student learning, the principal shared he may ask a student who looks disengaged, “What are you doing on that iPad?” He shared that one student explained, We’re using Book Creator to create this book. I had to do research using Safari. I dumped all my stuff on Notability. Now that I had made my notes on Notability look a certain way, I’m gonna publish all that onto Book Creator, drop in some images, and publish a book. Hence, the student’s response and production serve as evidence of 21st century literacy development grounded in rigorous instruction. Assessment of student learning. The practice of utilizing assessments to inform instructional practices and monitor student learning was validated by the document analysis of the Model applications. As part of the interview process, the MCHS principals discussed how they utilize assessments to inform and guide instruction and learning. The MCHS-A principal shared, I told the teachers last year I want you to come up with a common department assessment to give twice a year. And you pick a standard that is common across the curriculum. We’ve written that into our Title I and LCAP plans to have money to sub them [teachers] out to do those things to design common assessment to have data to grade the common assessment. And, actually, that’s our staff meeting today is for them [teachers] to show their data for this year. The MCHS-B principal indicated that he too facilitates weekly inter-department meetings that analyze student data to inform practice. He stated teachers look at data as a way of LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 107 understanding student learning. For example, he expressed teachers use questioning techniques when analyzing student work samples such as, I wonder what this student was thinking here? He’s writing outside the lines, or he’s going off topic . . . it seems like they’re really hitting standards here, but here it doesn’t really seem like the rigor is meeting quite what the standard’s supposed to be. And then we start to say, I wonder what the, the directions were like? And then we have a discussion, then afterward you would hear us have that discussion, you get inside in your own practice. Okay, I, I didn’t really quite see it before, but after hearing you guys talk, I discovered that maybe I wasn’t very clear in this part of the discussion, or the instructions. So next time we do this Venn diagram activity I’m gonna be very clear to tell them, ‘This is what I need to see, or stay inside the lines,’ or whatever. So, by having these analysis of, of student work, it really informs practice. Also, though not mentioned in the interview, the MCHS-B application describes the school’s “No ‘D’ Policy” and noted, “This is most exemplified in the practice that no unsatisfactory data metrics will be allowed to continue without intervention. Nearly every poor performance or indicator receives careful attention and may see programmatic changes.” Discipline. While both the MCHS-A and Non-MCHS generally expressed flexible and restorative practices of discipline, in the case of fighting, both expressed high expectations for student behavior as a means of maintaining a safe-school climate including a zero-tolerance policy for fighting. Both stated that fighting results in a change of placement for the student. For example, the Non-MCHS shared, Here the one thing that’s non-negotiable is fighting. Physical contact. None. I’ve been steadfast with that. And, honestly, we’ve had, in the 12 years I’ve been here, maybe a LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 108 total of four or five fights. Hardly ever happens. They know I’m not gonna have a WWF wrestling ring here. Summary of Findings for Research Question 3 There were four dominant themes of predominant leadership traits that emerged from the interviews of the MCHS and Non-MCHS principals. The traits that emerged align with the five dimensions of transformational leadership and were validated as practices by the qualitative examination of the interviews and document analysis of the MCHS applications, including: cultivating a school culture of resilience through caring and positive relationships (IIA and IC) and a compelling vision and mission (IIB and IM), innovation (IS), lifelong learning (IIA, IC and IM), and high expectations (IM). Practices that cultivate high expectations that did not surface through the interview process with the Non-MCHS were organizational expectations, rigorous standards-based curriculum, and assessment of student learning. A review of that school’s WASC report may or may not reveal information validating these practices. The succeeding section examines how the principals in this study measure the effectiveness of their schools. Findings for Research Question 4 ● How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of their schools? Findings: Interview and Document Analysis Two prominent themes that emerged regarding measuring the effectiveness of their schools are external and internal systems of accountability. Based on the analysis of interviews and document analysis, the MCHS principals use a high level of quantitative data to validate qualitative data. The following sections will investigate these findings using the principal interviews, and substantiate the findings in the document analysis of the MCHS applications. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 109 External accountability. The principals in this study shared the belief that while important, continuation schools lack credible data and external accountability from the State. This belief was evident in the interviews with the principals and in the Model applications. For example, the Model application noted, “Currently, the State of California does not have an accountability system with which [MCHS-B] can measure itself.” Moreover, in the interview, the researcher asked, “With regard to external mandates for accountability, how are continuation schools held accountable?” The MCHS-B principal responded, We’re not really held accountable. I’ve heard other principals say that, and I’ve come to believe it. There’s no real strong way to hold us accountable because, we have a very interesting population, and we’re all very different. So, until Sacramento comes up with a solid way–I mean, in theory, we’re supposed to have a new way of being held accountable this fall, but–And I still don’t think we’re gonna actually see something. And I say that because, even during the CAHSEE days, there was no really strong way to hold us accountable then, either. So, they came up with ASAM, the Alternative School Accountability Model, but that was kind of voluntary, and you didn’t really need to do it if you didn’t want to, and–You know, what’s the purpose of that kind of thing? So, I don’t know. Hopefully we’ll be able to develop something, ‘cause I think it’s good for us to grow. Moreover, the MCHS-A application stated, SBAC results and PSAT results are consistently poor: below state, county, and district averages in both English and math. The number of valid scores is low and teachers questioned how long students had been with us when they took the test. Last year less LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 110 than 50 of our 11th graders tested had been at MCHS-A since the beginning of the year. None of the 10th graders tested on the PSAT had been with us longer than six weeks. The Non-MCHS expressed, “I think that’s [accountability] good for all schools. Because you know, tons of schools, especially in the areas that maybe are impoverished are really making a lot of gains.” Internal accountability. The MCHS principals in this study shared the belief that self- accountability is important and indicated common practices they utilize to drive internal accountability. This belief and practices were evident in the interviews with the MCHS principals and in the Model applications. For example, the MCHS-A principal stated, “I think teachers deserve to know that they’ve improved students’ skill level . . . as a result of being in their classroom.” The MCHS-B principal stated, I think the other thing we do to practice accountability, though, is voluntarily do things like Model Continuation School, or WASC. You know, those are . . . the self- accountability measures that we do, in the absence of other forms of, more formalized accountability models. School evaluation processes. The MCHS principals evaluated the effectiveness of their school through the active participation in the WASC accreditation process and application for distinction as Model schools. As noted in the MCHS-B application, The WASC process is a self-study used to assist the school in identifying areas of need or gaps. The school then creates an action plan to fulfill these needs. The current recommended areas of need are: creating a detailed learning plan for each student, expand electives and classes that meet university requirements, enhance communication with families and increase parent participation, and continue to develop formative LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 111 assessment. Through the WASC self-study, the school creates SLO’s [Student Learning Objectives] that give focus of what students are expected to be able to do by the time they graduate. The MCHS applications also indicated that survey data from staff, parents, and students is utilized to establish measurable goals, drive decision-making, and monitor progress that relate to a positive school climate. For example, the MCHS-A application stated, In order to get input as to how our school is doing, we rotate every other year from an anonymous student survey to an anonymous staff survey. We have high morale and expectations for our entire [school] family, students and staff. Surveys consistently indicate that students feel safe and that they feel that they are making progress in their lives. Staff are comfortable in the environment and are all pulling in the same direction. Additionally, in an effort to capture data to inform program and budgeting decisions, both graduates and students returning to a traditional high school are surveyed as part of their exit process. From these students, we have learned that tutors in the math classes are more valued than tutors in English classes, the Orientation program and cohort model under which students enter [this school] is valuable, and the technology in the classrooms is used routinely by students. Similarly, the MCHS-B application indicated survey data is collected from multiple stakeholders and utilized to drive decision-making. The application stated, Among the additional data we collect are surveys of parents, teachers, and students. These surveys and processes have been beneficial in identifying areas of need growth that may not have been evident through the examination of the traditional data. An example is the Annual Parent Survey. The last year of low participation was during the 2012-2013 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 112 school year, when one parent turned in a completed survey, and it was overwhelmingly negative. The very next year, nearly 60% of [MCHS-B] families turned in surveys. The trend of survey submission has maintained that level since. [MCHS-B] receives a positive response that validates the good work of the staff. We have come to see that parents are impressed with the quality of care, level of instruction, and personal relationships that thrive with each student. What it also highlights is our need to improve in a couple specific areas: most notably is improving the resources offered to parents. Only 81% of parents agreed or strongly agreed that the school provides parents resources for parents to support their students with instruction. As a result, parent workshops were developed and implemented for the 2016-17 school year that centered on college, careers, financial aid, and disciplinary practices. During the workshop on how to create a disciplined home structure, data came forward that more parents want assistance specifically in this area. As a result, budget will be set aside for monthly Parenting Groups for [MCHS-B] parents. Based on data from the interview and MCHS applications, data analysis and staff collaboration during regular staff meetings are common practices in the Model schools. For example, the MCHS-A application indicated, “Meetings are data driven and provide time for assessment analysis and collaborative revisions to instructional approaches. In these meetings, teachers share successful formative assessments of student progress and academic comprehension.” Additionally, the application stated, “Through this approach, curriculum and instructional approaches are modified to meet the learning needs of our students.” Moreover, the Model application also noted, LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 113 In spring 2017, teachers conducted peer observations both inside their own department (in departments with more than one teacher) and cross-department. The notes they made during these observations were entered into Wordle. We were pleased to see the most significant observation was that ‘students’ were ‘working.’ Similarly, the MCHS-B application specified staff meetings are organized within a Professional Learning Community (PLC) context where data analysis and collaboration are key components and drivers of change. The application stated, As a staff, we meet every Wednesday for a variety of purposes. The first Wednesday is a staff meeting, where progress toward our goals is discussed. The second Wednesday is devoted to departments, where they often discuss related issues, such as benchmarks and results. The remaining Wednesdays are devoted to PLCs where teachers either do planning of interdisciplinary work, or will start discussing data tied through students, through the PBIS or RtI framework . . . The other PLC meeting is planning to answer three PLC questions–what do we want students to know, how do we know that they’ve learned it, and how do we respond if they haven’t learned? Assessment of student learning. The MCHS principals assess, analyze multiple sources of data, establish goals, and monitor progress of student learning of State standards. As noted in the MCHS-A application, “Assessment of student performance is an ongoing process with an emphasis on meeting the needs of all students.” A similar philosophy and practice is reflected in the MCHS-A application, “Everything [MCHS-A] does is meant to be a benchmark for growth/improvement for the following year, and there is a lot of growth that has occurred across the board. Both MCHS applications note the use of benchmark assessments and State test data to monitor learning, identify areas of strength and weakness, and monitor growth. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 114 For example, the MCHS-A application offers an in-depth description of how various assessments are analyzed, used to establish goals, and monitor progress of student learning of State standards. The application noted, As can be expected, in an alternative educational environment, the standardized State assessments have little relevance to our students. Overall, our SBAC and PSAT scores are consistently poor and well below district averages. These tests have no bearing on graduation as the CAHSEE did and we are looking to site-based assessments that have a credit/grade component to them to get a better idea of where our students’ skills are. Consequently, the MCHS-A application described the use of benchmark and common assessments to improve the credibility as it relates to assessment of student learning based on State standards. The application noted, Department common assessments are scheduled to be administered quarterly. These assessments are based on Common core standards and are used to inform instructional practices that meet Common Core. Each department reviews the results of the various assessments to help inform changes in curricula and instruction methodologies. The MCHS-A application demonstrated results and data analysis from common, benchmark assessments in all core subjects, including math, science, social science, and English. For example, the application noted, The Social Studies common assessments are administered according to course and grade level and are given quarterly. The assessment includes a written performance task and also a common assessment with specific questions in some courses. Both assessments are designed in correlation with the Common Core standards and California History Social Science Framework. For the Quarter 3 Performance Task, the group average for LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 115 U.S. History was 57.3%, World Civ was 55.3%, Economics was 63.3%, and Government was 70.4%. The Social Studies Department concluded that students need to further develop their literacy and comprehension abilities in order to meet the requirements of the ELA Standards. The MCHS-B application also had an in-depth description of assessment of student learning and data-driven decision making. For example, the application noted, The data we traditionally focused on was high stakes testing: CST and CAHSEE being most of it. That is now replaced with a focus on CAASPP results in English and math, while the 2016-2017 school year was the pilot for NGSS. Memorialized in our 2016-17 SPSA are two goals centered on achievement in English and math: raise the English scores from 24% to 28% of students meeting and exceeding standard, and raise the math scores from 2.9% to 12.9% of students meeting and exceeding standard. [MCHS-B] is also getting results–at this latest CAASPP administration, for example, nearly an identical number of Whites’ and Hispanics’ scores meeting and not meeting standards. There was not the imbalance of mostly White students scoring as meeting standards, and mostly Hispanic students not meeting standards. This data was analyzed in August of 2016 and goals were discussed both with staff and with School Site Council. With direction from the Board, the goals were developed to raise the proficiency levels to the aforementioned thresholds. The results came back that English levels of students meeting or exceeding standards went from 24% to 53%–an exceptional gain. Our hypothesis is that the largest contributor to the gain is the benchmark exam system, which gave students familiarity with the device used to take the exam, in addition to the format of the test, and the types of performance tasks required of them. The math benchmarks LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 116 were also used, but the results were more dismal for students taking both the Integrated Math I and Integrated Math II benchmark exams. This gave the staff a low sense of expectation that students would perform well, especially considering that the CAASPP assesses through Integrated Math III. No student at [MCHS-B] was taking Integrated Math III in a direct instruction math class. One student was taking higher level math online. The results were predictably flat–2.9% in 2015-16, and 3.1% in 2016-17. Given this data, the staff will implement in the 2017-2018 school year an intervention period during 7th period, where students will be assigned when they start scoring less than 70% as a grade, which is a failing grade at [MCHS-B]. This is part of a Response to Intervention framework that will be instituted for both English and math. Staff will also implement an Integrated Math III course, offered as a combination course with Integrated Math II. Engagement and school climate. The principals in this study monitored several other performance indicators of student engagement and school climate, such as rates of credit recovery, college and career indicators, attendance, graduation, and discipline. For example, the MCHS-A application noted, Quarterly student awards nights recognize students for a variety of accomplishments including outstanding attendance, credit productivity, test results, student of the term (teacher recognition), after-school lab hours completed, and most improved students. Approximately 15% - 25% of students receive awards each quarter... The MCHS-A application also indicated that, As a result of the Orientation cohort, the 10th grade students had better attendance and fewer discipline issues but earned few credits. After Orientation, shifting to LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 117 heterogeneous grade cohorts increased credit production as older students set the tone for younger ones and credit production rose. Similarly, the MCHS-B application noted, “some of the data analyzed are school climate- related, like truancies, tardies, and suspensions . . . Other data analyzed centers on diploma attainment, such as credit completion rate, attendance rate, and students on track for graduation.” The MCHS-B application also provided an in-depth description of data used to measure students’ college and career readiness. The application stated, During the 2016-17 school year, Accuplacer Data was used as a motivational tool for student achievement. When the results came forward of the students who took the [college] Accuplacer, students were informed of their scores and their math and English placement for [college]. Most of the students scored as needing remedial courses at the community college level. When made aware that they would need to take up to five remedial courses to be eligible for college-level math, it was an eye-opening experience that made students aware of the importance of performing well in classes in high school. Skills learned in high school and applied to college exams like Accuplacer have the potential of reducing or eliminating the number of courses needed in community college. The MCHS-B application also described a practice of, “collecting data that measures growth in student engagement, as evidenced by participation in extra-curricular activities and discipline.” Moreover, the MCHS-B application noted that data is used to benchmark how many students participate in extra-curricular activities, and use that as a guide to recruit more students and provide more offerings. Lastly, the interview with the Non-MCHS revealed that the attendance and graduation rates are used as measures of school effectiveness. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 118 Summary of Findings for Research Question 4 In summary, the data collected from the interviews and document analysis revealed two prominent themes that emerged regarding measuring the effectiveness of their schools, including external and internal systems of accountability. Moreover, in spite of lack of valid and reliable external accountability measures, the principals at the MCHS showed transformational leadership by leveraging the power of internal accountability practices and measures, such as WASC accreditation, Model distinction, and a culture of data-driven decision-making in the pursuit of exemplary performance for students’ benefit. Further, a hallmark practice of the MCHS principals was a high use of quantitative data to validate qualitative data. Practices that cultivate high degree of internal accountability did not emerge through the interview process with the Non-MCHS. However, a review of that school’s WASC report may or may not reveal information about practices that validate internal accountability. The subsequent section is a discussion of the findings as they relate to the hypothesis that initiated this research. Discussion This chapter presented the findings of this mixed-methods study, using the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey to understand the teachers’ perceptions of their principals’ predominant leadership traits, in terms of transformational, transactional, or passive/avoidant leadership. Next, the survey data was substantiated through a qualitative analysis of both interviews and documents. The purpose was to arrive at a thorough understanding of four research questions. The findings gathered from this study indicated that California Model Continuation High Schools are led by principals who have transformational leadership qualities as their predominant traits. Moreover, the findings revealed that Non-Model Continuation Schools may too be led by a principal highly rated as a transformational leader by teachers. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 119 Further, the findings also suggested that transformational leadership employ practices that lead to laudable outcomes as measured by internal measures of accountability. Using the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey, teachers rated their perceptions of what they believed to be the most predominant leadership qualities of their principals. Using the survey tool to highlight transformational leadership, on a 0-4 scale (4 meaning always or almost always), the results were as follows: MCHS-A (3.6), MCHS-B (3.1), and Non-MCHS (3.5). This data tells us that the principals for both Model and the Non-Model Continuation schools are perceived as transformational leaders, as they exhibit these qualities most of the time, if not all of the time. The next part of the discussion was to gain an understanding of what successful leadership traits meant to the principals. Interview data was carefully analyzed to gain an understanding of what the principals believed were efficacious leadership traits. It was discovered that these principals expressed common leadership traits that align with the five dimensions of transformational leadership, including: cultivating a school culture of resilience through caring and positive relationships which demonstrates the transformational leadership traits of trust (Idealized Influence Attributes - IIA) and the coaching and developing of people (Individual Consideration - IC); a compelling vision and mission which demonstrates the transformational leadership traits of integrity (Idealized Influence Behaviors - IIB) and encouragement of others (Inspirational Motivation - IM); encouragement of innovative thinking which is a transformational leadership trait that stimulates intellect (Intellectual Stimulation - IS); lifelong learning which is a transformational leadership trait of building trust (IIA), coaching and developing people (IC), and encouragement of others (IM); and high expectations which exemplifies the leadership trait of encouragement of others (IM). The findings suggested that LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 120 principals with a transformational leadership style may or may not vanguard a continuation school with a distinction of Model Continuation High School. The next part of the discussion was to understand how these leadership traits manifested in terms of practices for both model and non-model continuation schools. There were four prominent themes that emerged from the interviews with the MCHS and Non-MCHS principals. The traits that emerged align with the principals’ belief system as well as the five dimensions of transformational leadership. The practices were validated by the qualitative examination of the interviews and document analysis of the MCHS applications. Specifically, resilient-based practices (IIA, IIB, IC, IM) included hiring of staff that care and are committed to working with at-risk students; high visibility and modeling as strategies to ensure the cultivation of a positive school environment; and access to systems of support tailored to the social-emotional needs of their students. Innovative practices (IS) included a culture of encouraging creative thinking through networking and observation outside of their school organization as a means of creating learning environments that spark intellectual stimulation and equitable access to quality instruction. Lifelong learning practices (IIA, IC and IM) included professional development as a means of preparing students for postsecondary demands, including college and career readiness. High expectation practices (IM) included the establishment of a goal-oriented school culture; the development of a rigorous curriculum aligned with State standards, assessment of student learning; and behavioral expectations for safe school climate. As a comparison, practices that cultivate high expectations that did not surface through the interview process with the Non- MCHS were organizational expectations, rigorous standards-based curriculum, and assessment of student learning. A review of that school’s WASC report may or may not reveal information validating these practices. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 121 Finally, the data collected from the interviews and document analysis revealed a lack of valid and reliable external accountability measures for continuation high school settings. Consequently, the principals at the MCHS showed transformational leadership by leveraging the power of internal accountability practices and measures such as WASC accreditation, Model distinction, and a culture of data-driven decision-making in the pursuit of exemplary performance for students’ benefit. Further, a hallmark practice of the MCHS principals was a high use of quantitative data to validate qualitative data. By comparison, practices that cultivate a high degree of internal accountability did not emerge through the interview process with the Non-MCHS. However, a review of that school’s WASC report may or may not reveal information about practices that validate internal accountability. Auxiliary Finding During the analysis of data collection, an auxiliary finding emerged as a common challenge expressed by the three principals in this study, which is the level of drug use on campus by students. The MCHS-A principal shared, Drug use is more prevalent in continuation school. Drugs are more difficult to detect in one way and easy too because of a small campus. Students may need inpatient or outpatient help. [The principal went on to share that,] Drug use is a huge issue right now. The drugs are just huge. You know with the, my suspension expulsion rate is hideous. You know the Dashboard data, it’s horrible. And, we suspend for drugs and alcohol, weapons and fighting. And that’s about all we suspend for. And you know, we’re not gonna stop suspending for that stuff. And it’s so much easier to get caught than at the comprehensive sites. I mean, we only have you know, a hundred, 110 kids in the afternoon, 320 kids in the morning. There are 35 adults on this campus. The adults use LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 122 the same restroom the students use. I mean . . . So that is our biggest issue. The number of kids that use Xanax. Last week just did two more expulsions. And then I get all of those second-time expelled kids. It’s, it’s . . . Most of them go the stipulated expulsion and they come to me . . . it sets the tone. Similarly, the MCHS-B principal stated that a student was placed on a modified schedule due to high frequency use of a controlled substance. The principal stated, “He just liked to vape a lot. So, I put him on a half-day schedule because he just, he burnt through a lot of bridges.” Finally, the Non-MCHS indicated that students at his campus engage in the use of “vape pens with the THC.” The common challenge of substance abuse among their students suggested there may be a need for additional supports in continuation high school settings as it relates to the prevention or intervention of substance abuse. Summary This chapter was a presentation of the findings of this mixed-method study using three forms of data collection: survey, interviews, and document analysis. A discussion of the findings stated that transformational leaders lead continuation schools with and without the Model distinction and that their leadership traits are embedded in school practices. Further, the findings of this study revealed a lack of valid and reliable external accountability measures for continuation high school settings. Moreover, hallmark practices of the MCHS principals compared to the Non-MCHS are the leveraging of internal accountability practices and measures as a way of achieving exemplary performance outcomes as well as the salient use of quantitative data to validate qualitative data. Chapter five includes a summarization of research, and practice LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 123 and policy implications will be shared. There will also be a brief discussion of limitations, as well as recommendations for further study. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 124 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND IMPLICATIONS This chapter provides a summary of the purpose of the study, research questions, design overview, and key and auxiliary findings. It then concludes with implications for practice and policy, followed by limitations and recommendations for further study. Statement of the Problem There is a significant need for leaders to exhibit dynamic leadership qualities to successfully oversee an organization with the complexity of a high school. While there is an abundance of literature on qualities of effective principal leaders in high schools, there is very little research with regard to the essential attributes of effective principal leadership in California continuation high schools. This is an important area to study since the continuation school is a setting comprised of the most at-risk and marginalized student populations, who struggle with higher levels of exposure to violence and victimization, alcohol and substance abuse, higher mobility, unstable living arrangements, and increasingly concentrated groups of minorities (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). Moreover, there is scant research with respect to continuation high schools and principal leadership essential to effectively service vulnerable populations. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to examine the effective leadership qualities and practices of principals from successful alternative school settings with the distinction of California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS), based on Transformational Leadership Theory (Avolio et al., 1999). As such, the researchers of this study analyzed the beliefs and practices of principals that resulted in their school’s designation as a Model Continuation High School. The researchers also investigated how teachers perceived the leadership traits in their principal. This was important to ascertain because the principals’ beliefs, style, and practices may or may not align LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 125 with the available research regarding effective leadership or with how teachers rate his or her leadership traits. More so, an understanding of how teachers identify the leadership style of their principal was essential because it affects the teachers’ morale and teachers’ performance, the primary factor affecting student achievement, while leadership is the second leading predictor of student achievement (Hitt & Tucker, 2016). Subsequently, the principal’s role in school effectiveness is pivotal in terms of empowering teachers to help students experience success in school (Goldring et al., 2009). The results of this study have both practitioner and policy implications, because findings provide guidance for principals regarding promising practices as well as policy with respect to best practices that are validated by research. Research Questions The following research questions guided this study: 1. Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as identified by their teachers? 2. What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes? 3. As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success? 4. How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of their schools? Design Overview This study was completed using the Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods design which is a two-phase study that first involves collecting and analyzing data quantitatively and LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 126 then builds upon the results through a qualitative study (Creswell, 2014). Moreover, Malloy (2011) purported that a mixed methodology most thoroughly answers all research questions. Therefore, the sequential methodology was specifically designed to provide qualitative data that expands upon the initial quantitative results (Creswell, 2014) and further supports the generated findings to the research questions. The most evident benefits to a mixed-method design is that it draws on the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative designs, is appealing to those at the forefront of research due to its sophistication, and provides a more complete understanding of research problems (Creswell, 2014; Malloy, 2011). The quantitative instrumentation, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire™ 5X (MLQ- 5X, Avolio & Bass, 2004), ideally answers the research question seeking to identify the statistically predominant leadership style of principals based on the perceptions of their teachers, as indicated on the questionnaires. Creswell (2014) suggested that quantitative results often guide the researchers in moving toward the second, qualitative, phase of the study. Qualitative research, as described by Creswell (2014), is an inductive method of inquiry that focuses on the meaning and accentuates the importance of the interpretation behind the complexity of given situations or phenomenology. Through this approach, interviews with Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals were utilized to explore the most efficacious leadership traits and practices they believe are essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes, along with the ways in which they measure the effectiveness of their schools. As a point of comparison, Non-MCHS teachers were also surveyed through the MLQ-5X and their principals were interviewed to see if there were leadership similarities or differences from their model school counterparts. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 127 The quantitative data ascertained from results on the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) survey indicated predominant leadership traits of the selected continuation high school principals. Then, the qualitative portion of the research began to analyze the MCHS application via the document analysis process. Further, the semi-structure interview questions were calibrated to gain a deeper understanding of the identified predominant leadership styles. The generated results from the data collection instrument, MLQ-5X, were then used to tailor the types of probes included on the qualitative interview questions based on the predominant leadership style of the selected principal participants. To help further explain, or provide more detail to the initial quantitative results, a document analysis was also employed as a phase-two qualitative measure. In short, after analyzing the quantitative data of the MLQ-5X, this study then utilized qualitative measures, such as specified interview questions and document analysis, to support findings aimed at answering the research questions. Validation of data was accomplished through triangulation. The logic of triangulation is based on the premise that no single method adequately solves the problem of rival explanations (Patton, 2002). Triangulation facilitates validation of data through cross verification of multiple data sources, such as the research base, surveys, interviews, and document analysis (Creswell, 2014; Patton, 2002). Accordingly, the researcher performed a document analysis of the Model Continuation High School (MCHS) applications as a means of validating reported beliefs and practices as indicated on the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004) surveys by the teachers and interviews with principals. Through this means of triangulation, an evaluation of consistency among all gathered information and their findings from the different sources was completed. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 128 Key Findings California Model Continuation High Schools are led by principals who have transformational leadership qualities as their predominant traits was a key finding of this. Moreover, the findings revealed Non-Model Continuation Schools may too be led by a principal highly rated as a transformational leader by teachers. Further, the findings also suggested that transformational leadership employs practices that lead to laudable outcomes as measured by internal measures of accountability. A second key finding was that, based on results from the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004), the principals for both Model and the Non-Model Continuation schools are perceived as transformational leaders by their teachers. Each principal was rated as leaders that exhibit transformational leadership much, if not all, of the time. A third key finding was that the Model and Non-Model principals expressed shared beliefs regarding effective leadership traits. Further, the shared beliefs aligned with the five dimensions of transformational leadership. This finding suggested that principals with a transformational leadership style may or may not be at the forefront of a continuation school with a distinction of Model Continuation High School. The shared beliefs include: cultivating a school culture of resilience through caring and positive relationships which demonstrates the transformational leadership traits of trust (Idealized Influence Attributes - IIA) and the coaching and developing of people (Individual Consideration - IC); a compelling vision and mission which demonstrate the transformational leadership traits of integrity (Idealized Influence Behaviors - IIB) and encouragement of others (Inspirational Motivation - IM); encouragement of innovative thinking which is a transformational leadership trait that stimulates intellect (Intellectual Stimulation - IS); lifelong learning which is a transformational leadership trait of LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 129 building trust (IIA), coaching and developing people (IC), and encouragement of others (IM); and high expectations which exemplifies the leadership trait of encouragement of others (IM). A fourth key finding was that there were four prominent themes that emerged from the interviews with the MCHS and Non-MCHS principals. The traits that emerged align with the principals’ belief system as well as the five dimensions of transformational leadership. Specifically, resilient-based practices (IIA, IIB, IC, and IM) included hiring of staff that care and are committed to working with at-risk students; high visibility and modeling as strategies to ensure the cultivation of a positive school environment; and access to systems of support tailored to the social-emotional needs of their students. Innovative practices (IS) included a culture encouraging of creative thinking through networking and observation outside of their school organization as a means of creating learning environments that spark intellectual stimulation and equitable access to quality instruction. Lifelong learning practices (IIA, IC, and IM) included professional development as a means of preparing students for postsecondary demands, including college and career readiness. High expectation practices (IM) included the establishment of a goal-oriented school culture; the development of a rigorous curriculum aligned with State standards, assessment of student learning, and behavioral expectations for a safe school climate. As a comparison, practices that cultivate high expectations that did not surface through the interview process with the Non-MCHS were organizational expectations, rigorous standards-based curriculum, and assessment of student learning. The fifth key finding was that the MCHS principals shared the belief that there is a lack of valid and reliable external accountability measures for continuation high school settings. Consequently, the principals at the MCHS schools showed transformational leadership by leveraging the power of internal accountability practices and measures, such as WASC LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 130 accreditation, Model distinction, and a culture of data-driven decision-making in the pursuit of exemplary performance for students’ benefit. Further, a hallmark practice of the MCHS principals was a high use of quantitative data to validate qualitative data. By comparison, practices that cultivate a high degree of internal accountability did not emerge through the interview process with the Non-MCHS. Auxiliary Findings During the analysis of data, an auxiliary finding emerged that was a common challenge expressed by the three principals in this study, which was the level of drug use on campus by students. The common challenge of substance abuse among their students suggests there may be a need for additional supports in continuation high school settings as it relates to the prevention or intervention of substance abuse. Implications for Policy and Practice This research has implications for both policy and practice. The intent of this study was to add to the scarce body of research for continuation schools, specifically regarding effective leadership traits and practices. The following is an enumeration of implications for policy and practice to improve continuation education so as to decrease negative trajectories for students and increase the probability of positive outcomes for the State’s at-risk youth. Policy Based on findings of this study and the available research base, continuation education requires valid and reliable State accountability. Lack of credible external accountability obstructs equitable access to quality, public education for at-risk students. The literature indicated that due to “contradictory, confusing, and inconsistent” State accountability for continuation schools, there is great variance in the educational quality and experiences of the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 131 students they serve (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012, p. 6). Moreover, though California’s overall graduation rate has shown improvement over the last seven years and is currently at 83% (CDE, 2017d), on average, California’s continuation school students are two and one-half times more likely to dropout compared to peers in traditional settings (Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Taylor, 2015). Further, in the 2012-2013 school year, from a sample of 258 continuation schools, 86% had a graduation rate below 83% with seven as low as 0% and nine with a 100% graduation rate (Gordon, 2017). Clearly, State accountability is essential to address the great variance in outcomes for at-risk students in continuation schools. Secondly, based on the findings of this study and the research base, it is also recommended that the State collect and make public performance data in accountability reports for all continuation schools regardless of enrollment numbers and that any additional indicators it adopts to measure continuation schools’ performance be comparable across all continuation schools to identify best practices and schools in need of support or intervention (Taylor, 2015). Failure to create public systems of transparency of performance indicators impedes the identification of continuation schools that may or may not be serving students well, or for providing those low-performing schools with appropriate supports, intervention, and incentives for improvement (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Taylor, 2015; Warren, 2016). Practices Based on the findings of this study and the literature base, it is recommended that principals of continuation schools be required to participate in ongoing professional development designed to cultivate effective leadership traits and practices evident in high performing continuation schools and validated by research. Professional development should be multifaceted including opportunities for a study of the research, observation in high performing LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 132 continuation schools, and coaching by a mentor in the field. The findings in this study coincided with the research base which stated that although there are serious challenges inherent to continuation education, effective leadership at the principal level is foundational to high performing continuation schools (Bush, 2012; Farris, 2014; Hemmer et al., 2013; Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Sumbera, 2017). Research findings proposed that continuation schools are more likely to ensure their students graduate from high school with 21st century skills requisite for post-secondary education and/or career readiness if the following key practices are established (Bush, 2012; Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008): • Positive expectations for students and clear goals that align with the mission, vision, and practices of stakeholders. For example, Bush (2012) found that high performing schools incorporate structural modifications, such as altered course structures, short-term modules, and performance-based credit- recovery. • With regard to curriculum design, Bush (2012) found that high performing schools applied a data-driven approach to address learning gaps, backward-mapping to State standards, and online learning. These beliefs and practices are consistent with the vision, expectations, and goal-oriented tenets of transformational leadership (Podsakoff et al., 1990). • Transparent and consistent intake and transfer processes that are reinforced by district administration and aligns with the school’s goals (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). For example, effective continuation schools limit involuntary transfers to other appropriate alternative programs designed to meet the needs of students with behavioral challenges. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 133 • Driving school improvement by regularly monitoring reliable and meaningful data (e.g. attendance, graduation, and transfer rates, etc.) and participating in the accreditation process by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) or Model Continuation High School (MCHS) distinction (Perez & Johnson, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008; Warren, 2016). Also, partaking in the WASC and MCHS processes are a means of mitigating the negative effects of inadequate State accountability for alternative schools. • Cultivation of a culture of validation and recognition of students/staff for educational growth and progress (e.g. benchmark assessments, and credit recovery). • Application of a variety of innovative methods to expand instructional minutes for students beyond the minimum State requirements of three hours per day so as to facilitate collaboration/planning between teachers, direct instruction, and expanded curricular options (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). These practices are exemplars of transformational leadership in that the principal cultivates collaborative efforts among staff toward a shared goal, high expectations, and intellectual stimulation (Podsakoff et al., 1990). • Intentional efforts to analyze school climate data to foster a safe, supportive, caring, and engaging learning environment (Bush, 2012). • Cultivation of school connectedness and caring relationships among staff and students imperative to effective continuation schools (Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017; Perez & Johnson, 2008). This finding is consistent with that of a mixed-methods study by Brown (2007) and a qualitative study by te Riele et al. (2017), both conducted in alternative high school settings, which concluded that fostering a culture of trusting and caring LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 134 relationships were identified as imperative factors for both students and staff (Brown, 2007). These findings are also consistent with transformational leadership as it noted the intentional creation of an engaging and positive school culture committed to high expectations and ethical standards (Bass, 1985; Bass & Avolio, 1993; Northouse, 2016). • Discipline policies and practices that are restorative, grounded in a system of positive behavioral intervention support, and solution/resolution focused (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). • Provide a range of academic, social-emotional, post-secondary, and vocational supports on and off campus, including building alliances and working relationships with local agencies and business in the interest of students (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco et al., 2008). • Are supported by district administration in areas of relevant and ongoing professional development tailored to the unique needs of continuation schools and create incentives to attract highly-skilled staff (Bush, 2012; Ruiz de Velasco & Gonzales, 2017). Limitations There were some limitations to this study. First, the sample size was small which reduced the generalizability of the findings. In addition, in the case of the Non-MCHS, self- reported data from surveys and interviews regarding effective leadership traits and practices did not include document analysis and was limited to the perceptions and beliefs of respondents on a survey or interview. Also, survey responses only reflect teachers’ perceptions; they did not reflect the entire school staff and are, therefore, difficult to generalize. Another limitation was that findings were unique to urban continuation schools in southern California and are, therefore, also difficult to generalize. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 135 Recommendations for Future Research Due to the paucity of available research and vulnerability of student population, empirical studies in the areas of effective leadership traits and practices within the context of continuation education is recommended. The findings of the present study may be made more robust by requesting that the principal rate their own leadership style on the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004). This design would allow the researcher to compare results between principal and teacher respondents. Also, the researcher may consider expanding the MLX-5X survey to all staff in a given school rather than limiting it to teachers. Moreover, this research can be enhanced by the added collection of observational data of leadership traits and practices. Lastly, it is recommended that this study be replicated across the State across regions, such as northern or central California or rural areas. Conclusion This study adds to the scarce body of literature regarding continuation education through the examination of leadership beliefs and practices of principals in MCHS compared to those of Non-MCHS. Key is that transformational leaders lead continuation schools with and without the Model distinction and that their leadership traits are embedded in school practices. Further, the findings of this study are consistent with the research base as it revealed a lack of valid and reliable external accountability measures for continuation high school settings. Another key finding was that hallmark practices of MCHS principals compared to the Non-MCHS are the leveraging of internal accountability practices and measures as a way of achieving exemplary performance outcomes as well as the salient use of quantitative data to validate qualitative data. It is the hope of the researcher that this study will serve as a resource to those interested in effective leadership beliefs and practices for continuation schools and will inspire further LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 136 empirical study regarding how to improve the quality of continuation education in the best interest of at-risk students. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 137 References Abbas, G., Iqbal, J., Waheed, A., & Naveed Riaz, M. (2012). Relationship between transformational leadership style and innovative work behavior in educational institutions. Journal of Behavioural Sciences, 22(3). Alliance for Excellent Education. (n.d.). The high cost of high school dropouts: The economic case for reducing the high school dropout rate. Retrieved from https://all4ed.org/take- action/action-academy/the-economic-case-for-reducing-the-high-school-dropout-rate/ Anderson, D. M. (2014). In school and out of trouble? The minimum dropout age and juvenile crime. 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LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 153 Appendix A MLQ-5X Mind Garden Permission LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 154 Subsequent to May, 2018, Sean Delgado in September 2018 wrote “Our University (USC) allowed me to do a collaborative themed dissertation with classmates/co-researchers Xochitl Ortiz and Patricia Kling. Are they permitted to use this same information above for their dissertation citation/appendix? (We used the same first three chapters of our dissertation, but are submitting our own results). I am going to CC them, so they can get your response, as well. Thank you!” Following is the response received: From: Mind Garden Inc <info@mindgarden.com> Date: September 14, 2018 at 7:23:24 AM PDT To: Sean Delgado <mrdelgado@rocketmail.com> Cc: "lpatrici@usc.edu" <lpatrici@usc.edu>, "xochitlo@usc.edu" <xochitlo@usc.edu> Subject: Re: Dissertation Appendix information Hello Sean, Xochitl, and Patricia, Yes. Best wishes, Ken Mind Garden, Inc. 650-322-6300 LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 155 Appendix B Qualitative Semi-Structure Interview Uncovered Leaders in Hidden Schools: Effective Leadership Practices in California MCHS Semi-structured Interview Protocol Researcher: Xochitl Ortiz Interviewee: School: Date: Time frame: I. Introduction (Appreciation, Purpose, Line of Inquiry, Plan, Confidentiality, Reciprocity, Consent to Participate, Permission to Record): Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate the time that you have set aside to answer some of my questions. Transition Before we begin, I’d like to share some important information regarding confidentiality and this interview process. Confidentiality Disclosure To assist with note-taking, I would like to audio record our conversation today. For your knowledge, only researchers on this project will have access to these recordings which will be destroyed after they are transcribed. Will you please sign a release form which states that: (1) all information will be held confidential, (2) your participation is voluntary, and (3) we do not intend to inflict any harm. Thank you for your agreeing to participate. I apologize in advance, but it may be necessary to interrupt you, if time begins to run short, to push ahead and complete the interview questions. II. Research Questions: The questions we will be discussing are based upon four main research questions: 1. Through the lens of Full Range Leadership Theory (FRLT), what is most commonly identified as the predominant leadership style used by these MCHS principals, as identified by their teachers? 2. What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes? 3. As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success? 4. How do Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of their schools? III. Setting the Stage (Developing Rapport and Priming the Mind, Demographic items of interest (e.g. position, role, etc.) I’d like to start by asking you some background questions. 1. First, could you tell me about your background in education? a) Why did you become interested in continuation education? b) How long have you worked in the field? LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 156 2. How did you become a principal in a continuation high school setting? 3. Any other information you would like to share before moving on with the interview? IV. Heart of the Interview (Interview Questions are directly tied to RQ2): Now I’d like to ask you some questions about your beliefs regarding leadership traits essential to successfully lead your school to achieve commendable outcomes. 1. Describe what you believe the ideal CHS environment would be like. Probe: What does your ideal day look like? 2. What are challenges you face unique to continuation schools? 3. What are some strategies you use to meet those challenges? 4. What motivates your leadership in this school? 5. Probe: How do interactions with your staff affect your motivation to apply effective leadership? Probe: …. students … Probe: …. parents/guardians… 6. Are there some leadership strategies or dispositions you find ineffective in a continuation school? Probe: Have you ever tried any techniques, you later deemed ineffective? Probe: What was the outcome? 7. Are there leadership strategies and dispositions that are effective in any school setting? Probe: Please provide an example. Probe: …that are more effective in continuation school settings? Probe: Please provide an example 8. As a leader, what have you learned in leading your school to be an effective CHS? 9. Some would say that strategies are unique to the situation. How would you respond to that assertion? Probe: Please provide an example. 10. Name characteristics you associate with transformational leadership? 11. Is there a need for your leadership to be: a.) Transformational? What does that look like? b.) Transactional? What does that look like? LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 157 c.) Laissez-Faire? What does that look like? 12. Name characteristics you believe associate with CHS teachers who are interested in innovative leadership/learning strategies? 13. What role, if any, does social-emotional learning play at your school? V. Interview Questions are directly tied to RQ (1 and 3) Now we’re going to switch gears and talk about strategies you use to measure effectiveness and practices employed to drive success in your school. 14. What is your process in creating a safe school climate? Probe: What are some barriers that prevent you from creating a safe environment? Probe: How has your District support you in creating a safe environment? 15. What types of professional development opportunities are available on your campus? Probe: What type of PD is there, if any, as it relates to SEL or resilience? Probe: …instruction? Probe: …technology? Probe: …assessment? 16. How are continuation schools held accountable? Probe: How are you, principal, held accountable? Probe: …teachers… Probe: …students… Probe: …parents/guardians… 17. What are the hallmarks of an effective continuation school? Probe: What does that hallmark look like on your campus? 18. How do you know you are personally being an effective leader? 19. How would you measure your school as effective? Probe: How is your school effective in terms of instruction? Probe: …achievement… Probe: …social-emotional/behavior functioning of students… Probe: …College and Career Readiness… 20. What are obstacles to effective accountability or continuation schools, including yours? LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 158 21. Some would say that continuation schools need to be held to a different standard, since they have an alternative population to Traditional Public Schools (TPSs). What is your response to that? VI. Closing Question (Anything else to add) I am wondering if there is anything that you would add to our conversation today that I might not have covered? VII. Closing (thank you and follow-up option): Thank you so much for you sharing your thoughts with me today! I really appreciate your time and willingness to share. Everything that you have shared is really helpful for my study. If I find myself with a follow-up question, I am wondering if I might be able to contact you, and if so, if email is ok? Again, thank you for participating in my study. As a thank you, please take (gift card, school supplies, etc.). VIII. Post interview summary and reflection [ADD shortly after each interview] LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 159 Appendix C Sample Email to Site Principal Dear Principal, I hope you are doing well. My name is Xochitl Ortiz. I am the Assistant Principal at Columbus Continuation High School in Downey USD. I am also a doctoral student at USC conducting research regarding Effective Leadership in Continuation High Schools. I believe this study will help address the gap in the literature regarding effective leadership in effective continuation high schools and will be useful to both practitioners and policy makers. I would be very appreciative of the opportunity to conduct research at your site regarding effective leadership styles and practices within your continuation school. Below is some additional information regarding the study: Methodology: Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods design Quantitative: Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ—5X) Teacher survey, which is online, anonymous and takes about 10-minutes to complete Qualitative: 30-minute semi-structured interview with the principal and document analysis of model application My dissertation chairs are USC professors Dr. David Cash and Dr. Rudy Castruita. If you have any questions or would like more information, please do not hesitate to reach out to me via email or my cell. Respectfully, Xochitl Ortiz USC Rossier School of Education EdD Student in Educational Leadership LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 160 Appendix D Thematic Coding Matrix Thematic Coding Matrix R2: What do MCHS principals believe are efficacious leadership traits essential to successfully lead their schools to achieve laudable outcomes? R3: As compared to traditional continuation high schools, what practices do MCHS principals utilize to demonstrate these identified traits and lead their schools to success? R4: How do Model Continuation High School (MCHS) principals measure effectiveness of their schools? MCHS-A MCHS-B Non-MCHS-C THEME CULTURE OF RESILIENCE Assertion Caring relationships Ideal is that every teacher here wants to be here. Every staff member here is committed to working with at-risk youth. …the relational piece is huge and probably the most important… People don’t care what you know until they know that you care… the ideal environment has to have a framework, or foundation, of caring relationships… at the end of the day, they [students] just want to really feel loved… genuinely love the kids and the kids feel that and their parents feel that… That’s the foundation. Number one, you gotta care about kids. Nothing is gonna happen unless that happens. I think too, . . . empathy. . . I’m called to do my best to help people out. I’m there to be a servant leader. When you’re serving, everything seems to work better. Hiring I am really lucky as a principal. I’ve been able to hire 40% of the people that work here. Only teachers committed to working with at-risk students are approved. The other part I can control though is… the kind of people I hire. Are they relationship builders, are they wanting to teach kids or are they wanting to punish kids? …how do they approach when kids make poor choices? The money part is an obstacle I can’t, I can’t really control. But people, I have more influence over.” Our counselor does a fantastic job, along with the English IV teacher… the bottom line is that she understands that her kids are more important than the curriculum… she happens to be a former district teacher of the year for [district]. So, just a great gal. She’s been… an elementary teacher of the year at her school, and middle school teacher of the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 161 year, and now district-wide teacher of the year a few years back. And she’s teaching here now. Yeah, she gets it. Visibility and modeling So, I moved in here in part because I was over here all the time anyway going you know . . . ‘How’s this going? Have you called about that? You know, how are we documenting this? Could we pass the audit? Be ever present, ever vigilant, and model that to the rest of your staff… I kinda subscribe to the broken windows theory that says if you have a broken window, it’s gonna add another broken window, and another one, and all of a sudden litter shows up… Then all of a sudden you have… drug dealing leads to botched robberies… So if you really kind of attack things at… that broken window, and repair the broken window—You’re not gonna see the litter, and… everything else. So that’s part of it, is just making sure campus looks good, making sure you’re out there all the time. Be outside and in those classrooms and be out with the kids and the staff. You want to be a leader, then lead people. I’m the principal. If there’s trash all over the ground, I’m gonna pick it up. If I’m gonna ask that kid to pick it up, I’ll pick it up. You know, if I want people to treat people respectful, I’m gonna do the same thing. They want to see the principal walking through their room. I try to be out every single passing period. Every time the bell rings I’m outside. Every lunch, every break, you know, every day at the beginning of the day I’m out. I try to shake every kids’ hand. It’s being visible. Being out there, working on those relationships. Social-Emotional Learning the cohort model of staying together for five weeks or nine weeks really bonds them [students]. The kids have talked about it [Orientation] in our graduation speeches for the last couple of years. The principal expressed that a quantitative indicator on the effectiveness of the Orientation class for sophomores is that their attendance rate improved to 90%. we continually work to establish a nurturing environment where students still have the means to thrive and succeed… you gotta provide kids something positive to do… Giving different outlets to just make good decisions, and be happy and healthy. Make sure you’re really providing students with a safe outlet to do something positive… rather than a suspension, a student may be given a time- away so that he or she can regroup and start fresh. This strategy holds the student accountable for their actions while conveying to the student, “we’re not giving up on you.” This strategy is “seen more as an opportunity like, try again. It’s a restart.” …community service is an integral component as it relates to social-emotional learning in that it helps students develop empathy, belonging, and pride. “If they [students] can do some things where they’re giving LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 162 up of themselves and they kinda learn that’s important. So, one day usually in February, the whole day is dedicated to, we run a Special Olympics basically on our campus. So, every one of my guys [students] here is either paired up with a [special needs] kid. We have kids from all over the district, probably about, we’re up to about like, 250 kids now.” THEME CULTURE OF INNOVATION Assertion Creativity, Networking and Observation Uses creative scheduling to meet student needs. “We have students on two different sessions. We have an AM session, periods one through four, and that’s where all our fifth-year seniors are. And then we have a PM session, periods five, six, and seven, and that’s where our sophomores all start out.” One of my teachers just got elected to be the board for CCEA. I was briefly on their advisory committee, but because he and I were both on it and there couldn’t be two people from the same LEA, I’m like, ‘You know, you go and party, I’ll step back. It is fine.’ The principal got the idea for the Orientation cohort model and technology use through observation. She stated, “I saw an One of the things that you learn about leading a Model Continuation High School is that creativity is a valuable part of that leadership, but also leading from behind and celebrating the ideas. Uses creative scheduling (modified block schedule) “to better facilitate learning.” “It is just really creating the framework in our schedule, our master and our bell schedule, so that way they [students] can get together and practice it [university approved courses]. So we have a block schedule so those projects you’re supposed to be doing in your Changing Hearts and Minds English class, they actually have 90 minutes to knock it out instead of 45 or 40 minutes.” I feel like me building relationships with my board members, for example . . .. And it’s the same thing with the superintendent and everybody else . . . I think by building relationships and making them champions of you is very strategic in Part of the benefit of living in this community is that I’ve coached a lot of kids over the years. I know many parents and so, I have a lot of contacts… many of the parents serve as networks for job shadowing opportunities for his students in their area of interest. The principal got the idea of creating a site-based Special Olympics event from participation in a similar event at a local Cal State college. He also got the idea of Senior Exit Interviews by observing this process at another continuation school and later applied that process within his school organization. “I kinda watched what they did. We put it [Senior Exit Interviews] in. And so, we’ve been doing it for about 10 years. Hands down, the best thing I’ve ever done as a principal.” The principal LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 163 orientation program at [a local continuation high school] when I was doing a WASC there. I really liked it. I took a couple of my teachers over there to see it.” getting them to support what you’re trying to do. So they’re not like, ‘Hey what are you doing?’ They’re like ‘Hey keep doing it and whatever you need me to do to support you just let me know.’ estimated that of about a thousand Senior Exit Interviews he’s done over the years, about 99% of the students say the staff are the best thing about their school. THEME CULTURE OF LIFELONG LEARNING Assertion Professional Development “I believe in staff development as long as it’s gonna actually show up in the classroom.” Professional development at MCHS-A that is district mandated and tailored to site needs addresses the academic and social- emotional needs of students, including trauma-informed practices, Capturing Kids Hearts (CKH), and English Language Development. “I believe WASC visits are fantastic professional development. Six of my teachers, counselors, myself participate in WASC visiting committees annually. It’s voluntary. We also do a lot of model school visits for CCEA. I have four or five I would say who do model school visits on a regular basis and three or four who go and do the model school readings.” District-driven professional development includes Positive Behavior Intervention Supports (PBIS) and intervention. Site-driven professional development includes University of California Curriculum Integration (UCCI) coursework, which is tailored to address student needs as it relates to curriculum and instruction that prepares them for post- secondary demands of college and career. “What the UCCI courses do is . . . they’ll have these little institutes for each course, like biology and community health. And they’ll host it in city, let’s say. And all the teachers that are teaching that course could go and talk to other teachers teaching that course and kinda learn, what’d you do, and how’d you make it work?” “This year every teacher has been assigned to work with a digital coach where teachers have to use technology to implement common core strategies.” On late-start Wednesdays teachers share what they learned to the whole group, including what worked and didn’t work. The principal shared that the process was informal yet tailored to site, “I’m not gonna be all fired up at them. Cause we gotta be a little bit innovative. We can’t give them [students] what they already had over at the bigger school ‘cause it wasn’t working, right?” College Career Readiness This fall we are piloting an online credit platform that is UC A-G aligned offering our students extended learning We changed all of our courses to be UC approved… which means they tie together some sort of CTE, career technical sector. So biology is not just biology, We do a college counseling class… it’s a partnership between the college, us, and the district where our kids have the opportunity, the LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 164 opportunities. Our local community college offers one class per semester on our campus and students can transfer those credits in as well (10 credits per 3-unit college course). Students are encouraged to try this class on campus and LCAP funds were set aside last year for a tutor to support student success in the college class. A [college] outreach worker is on campus weekly to meet with students. We offer assessment testing, enrollment workshops, and FAFSA workshops several times a year through our partnership with [the college]. it’s biology and community health. So you’re learning, A through G biology, however it’s in the context of public health. Our English class is called Changing Hearts and Minds. It’s an English 12 A through G course… in those courses alone they’re getting both college and career. And the second thing we did was we worked on bringing dual enrollment to our campus. If they finished both of those courses, they got six UC transferable college credits, plus we gave them 10 credits of high school credit. professor comes over here and teaches a group of seniors in the fall. We had about 20 kids in the class. You get the most struggling kids in the whole district now have college credit before they graduate from high school. And, I give them elective credit here too. The counselor from [the college] comes and works with [the school counselor]. And then they see the kids already signed up for college. He’s already in their system for next year. So, all the red tape, all that stuff, they don’t even have to worry about it. It’s like a bridge.” THEME CULTURE OF HIGH EXPECTATIONS Assertion Organizational Principal has lead school organization in the distinction of Model for two consecutive cycles, 2015 and 2018. The MCHS-A application notes, “The culture of [MCHS-A] is one of high expectations, in a caring and nurturing environment. The small class sizes allow students to develop relationships of trust with their teachers. Teachers are expected every day to provide a welcoming and inclusive environment.” Principal has lead school organization in the distinction of Model for two consecutive cycles, 2015 and 2018. MCHS-B application states, “I have known [MCHS-B] to be a place which continually challenges the very notion of ‘continuation school’ in order to meet the complex needs of our students.” It also states, “Staff are dedicated to the students and committed to the idea of improvement.” The principal shared that his school voluntarily establishes the goals of attaining quality distinctions for the school organization, such as WASC Principal lead school organization in the distinction of Model for the 2015 cycle. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 165 accreditation, MCHS distinction, and the designation as an Apple Distinguished School. Rigorous and Standards Based Curriculum There has to be some rigor in what we do. We have to do standards- aligned curriculum in WASC. I’ve talked to my teachers about that, because as we get these younger kids and we send more kids back, I want them to be successful when they go back into those standard aligned A to G more rigorous courses. The MCHS-B application states that pedagogy entails, “teacher-led direct instruction or project-based that is standards-driven, content rich, and meeting UC standards.” The principal commented “They have technology in the classroom, great. But how are they using the technology? Are they using it to just research on Google? Or are they using it to actually create new knowledge? Things that can impact other people? How do they talk to each other?” Assessment of Student Learning I told the teachers last year I want you to come up with a common department assessment to give twice a year. And you pick a standard that is common across the curriculum. We’ve written that into our Title I and LCAP plans to have money to sub them [teachers] out to do those things to design common assessment to have data to grade the common assessment. And, actually, that’s our staff meeting today is for them [teachers] to show their data for this year. Principal facilitates weekly inter-department meetings that analyze student data to inform practice… teachers look at data as a way of understanding student learning… teachers use questioning techniques when analyzing student work samples such as, “I wonder what this student was thinking here? …it seems like they’re really hitting standards here, but here it doesn’t really seem like the rigor is meeting quite what the standard’s supposed to be… by having this analysis of student work it really informs practice. MCHS-B application describes the school’s “No ‘D’ Policy” and notes, “This is most exemplified in the practice that no unsatisfactory data metrics will be allowed to continue without intervention. Nearly every poor performance or indicator receives careful LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 166 attention and may see programmatic changes.” Discipline Principal has a zero- tolerance policy for fighting; fighting results in a change of placement for the student Building relationships with kids, trying to teach them and coach them to make good decisions, as opposed to being punitive. But sometimes you gotta drop the hammer a bit too. So there’s wisdom coming, knowing what, when to do what. You know sometimes they [students] don’t realize that discipline, for example, is a form of caring. I care about you, so I have to discipline you because I have to correct this behavior because it’s a harmful behavior. Here the one thing that’s non-negotiable is fighting. Physical contact. None. I’ve been steadfast with that. And, honestly, we’ve had, in the 12 years I’ve been here, maybe a total of four or five fights. Hardly ever happens. They know I’m not gonna have a WWF wrestling ring here. Fighting results in a change of placement for the student. THEME INTERNAL ACCOUNTABILITY Assertion External The number of valid scores is low and teachers questioned how long students had been with us when they took the test [SBA, PSAT]. Last year less than 50 of our 11th graders tested had been at MCHS-A since the beginning of the year. None of the 10th graders tested on the PSAT had been with us longer than six weeks. We’re not really held accountable. I’ve heard other principals say that, and I’ve come to believe it. There’s no real strong way to hold us accountable because, we have a very interesting population, and we’re all very different. So, until Sacramento comes up with a solid way—I mean, in theory, we’re supposed to have a new way of being held accountable this fall, but— And I still don’t think we’re gonna actually see something. Hopefully we’ll be able to develop something, ‘cause I think it’s good for us to grow. I think that’s [accountability] good for all schools. Because you know, tons of schools, especially in the areas that maybe are impoverished are really making a lot of gains. School evaluation processes …teachers deserve to know that they’ve improved students’ skill level… as a result of being in their classroom… Surveys consistently indicate that students feel safe and that they feel that …the other thing we do to practice accountability, though, is voluntarily do things like Model Continuation School, or WASC. You know, those are . . . the self-accountability measures that we do, in the absence of other forms of, LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 167 they are making progress in their lives. Staff are comfortable in the environment and are all pulling in the same direction. Additionally, in an effort to capture data to inform program and budgeting decisions, both graduates and students returning to a traditional high school are surveyed as part of their exit process. Meetings are data driven and provide time for assessment analysis and collaborative revisions to instructional approaches. In spring 2017, teachers conducted peer observations both inside their own department (in departments with more than one teacher) and cross-department. more formalized accountability models. Among the additional data we collect are surveys of parents, teachers, and students. These surveys and processes have been beneficial in identifying areas of need growth that may not have been evident through the examination of the traditional data. …staff meetings are organized within a Professional Learning Community (PLC) context where data analysis and collaboration are key components and drivers of change… we meet every Wednesday for a variety of purposes… the PLC meeting is planning to answer three PLC questions—what do we want students to know, how do we know that they’ve learned it, and how do we respond if they haven’t learned? Assessment of student learning “Assessment of student performance is an ongoing process with an emphasis on meeting the needs of all students.” “Department common assessments are scheduled to be administered quarterly. These assessments are based on Common core standards and are used to inform instructional practices that meet Common Core. Each department reviews the results of the various “Everything [MCHS-A] does is meant to be a benchmark for growth/ improvement for the following year, and there is a lot of growth that has occurred across the board.” “…English levels of students meeting or exceeding standards went from 24% to 53%–an exceptional gain. No student at [MCHS-B] was taking Integrated Math III in a direct instruction math class. The results were predictably flat—2.9% in 2015-16, and 3.1% in 2016- LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 168 assessments to help inform changes in curricula and instruction methodologies.” 17. Given this data, the staff will implement in the 2017- 2018 school year an intervention period during 7th period, where students will be assigned when they start scoring less than 70% as a grade, which is a failing grade at [MCHS-B].” Engagement and School Climate “Quarterly student awards nights recognize students for a variety of accomplishments including outstanding attendance, credit productivity, test results, student of the term (teacher recognition), after-school lab hours completed, and most improved students. Approximately 15% - 25% of students receive awards each quarter...” “As a result of the Orientation cohort, the 10th grade students had better attendance and fewer discipline issues but earned few credits. After Orientation, shifting to heterogeneous grade cohorts increased credit production as older students set the tone for younger ones and credit production rose.” “…some of the data analyzed are school climate-related, like truancies, tardies, and suspensions . . . Other data analyzed centers on diploma attainment, such as credit completion rate, attendance rate, and students on track for graduation.” LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 169 University of Southern California Rossier School of Education 3470 Trousdale Pkwy, Los Angeles, CA 90089 Appendix E Dissertation Consent Ethical Consideration for MLQ-5X - Teacher Survey Uncovered Leaders in Hidden Schools: Effective Leadership Practices in California Model Continuation High Schools ETHICAL DISCLOSURE AND CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY This research study aims to understand how effective leaders lead effective schools. This is an important area to research, specifically in the continuation schools, because these are often comprised of the most vulnerable and disenfranchised student populations. These are the very students who need effective leadership and practices the most. This study can add important information to the limited research on continuation high school, as well as assist policy makers and educators in developing and implementing evidence-based strategies to become effective continuation high schools. PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to complete a confidential and anonymous, 10-minute, online survey. You do not have to answer any questions you don’t want to, click “next” or “N/A” in the survey to move to the next question. ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION Your alternative is to not participate. Your relationship with your employer will not be affected whether you participate or not in this study. CONFIDENTIALITY This survey is provided through a link provided by Mind Garden (www.mindgarden.com), which assures the maintenance of privacy and anonymity for each participant. All gathered information will be kept confidential and adheres to Mind Garden’s Privacy Policy. Only researchers on this project will have access to the gathered data, which will also be stripped of any identifying information before being provided to people who have a supervisory relationship with you, in order to protect the confidentiality of the participant responses. The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects. LEADERSHIP PRACTICES OF MCHS PRINCIPALS 170 Through your participation, you are acknowledging that: (1) all information will be held confidential, (2) your participation is voluntary and you may stop at any time if you feel uncomfortable, and (3) we do not intend to inflict any harm. Thank you for your agreeing to participate! INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION Principal Investigator: Xochitl Ortiz, via email at xochitlo@usc.edu Faculty Advisor: Dr. David Cash at dcash@usc.edu or (213) 740-0224 IRB CONTACT INFORMATION University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine the effective leadership beliefs and practices of principals from California Model Continuation High Schools (MCHS) based on Transformational Leadership Theory (Avolio, Bass, & Jung, 1999). Quantitative and qualitative data was collected and triangulated using an Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods design. As a point of comparison, a Non-MCHS was researched utilizing the same methodology. Based on survey results from the MLQ-5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004), principals from the MCHS and Non-MCHS settings were rated by their teachers as predominantly transformational leaders. The second most prevalent leadership style was transactional

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Asset Metadata

Creator Ortiz, Xochitl Soto (author)

Core Title Uncovered leaders in hidden schools: effective leadership practices in California Model Continuation High School principals

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 10/17/2018

Defense Date 10/16/2018

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag continuation education,high expectations and accountability,innovation,leadership,lifelong learning,OAI-PMH Harvest,resilience,transformational

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Cash, David (committee chair), Castruita, Rudy (committee member), Elsasser, James (committee member), Garcia, John A., Jr. (committee member)

Creator Email xochitlo@usc.edu,xortiz@dusd.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-83365

Unique identifier UC11676861

Identifier etd-OrtizXochi-6872.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-83365 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-OrtizXochi-6872.pdf

Dmrecord 83365

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Ortiz, Xochitl Soto

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA