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Building employers’ capacity to support competitive employment for adults with autism: a promising practice study

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Building employers’ capacity to support competitive employment for adults with autism: a promising practice study

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Content Running head: COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 1
Copyright 2019 Theresa M. Haskins

Building Employers’ Capacity to Support Competitive Employment for Adults with Autism:
A Promising Practice Study

Theresa M. Haskins
University of Southern California

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2019
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 2
Dedication
To Braden and Brock, may you never stop learning; for knowledge is the ticket to
achieving your dreams.
To Brian, you have supported my education endeavors and many other ventures for over
two decades; I am so grateful for your unwavering love and encouragement. I am (fairly)
confident this will be the last degree for me.
To parents of children with autism, I have cried with you, I have smiled with you, and I
continue to stand by your side. Together, we are slowly changing the world for our children.

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 3
Acknowledgments
There are very few endeavors completed without the support and encouragement of
others; this dissertation is no exception. I would first like to thank my chair, Dr. Monique Datta
for her unwavering support, excellent guidance, and encouragement throughout my time at USC.
Her appreciation of my ideas and abilities provided me with the confidence and courage I needed
to conduct this research. She never doubted my ability to complete this study; I am grateful for
her patience, time, and attention. She is a mentor and a true friend.
I would also like to thank my committee members. Dr. Lawrence Picus graciously
offered his expertise and time to my project. His high standards and recommendations raised the
bar on my research and final presentation. Dr. Douglas Lynch embraced my topic regarding
autism employment and continuously encouraged me to refine and share my ideas. He was
generous with his time and helped expand my network to support my research efforts. I cannot
express how much I appreciate the support and encouragement I received from my committee;
beyond their expertise, they are remarkable people who focus their energies to help students
succeed.
Before embarking on this journey, I had the privilege of completing my master’s thesis
under the guidance of Dr. Patricia Pokay and Dr. Alane Starko. I attribute much of my success in
this program to the lessons learned during my time at EMU; I was prepared well to tackle the
rigors of doctoral work. I am thankful for their continued interest in my studies, words of
encouragement, and support throughout the years.
The process of obtaining a doctorate takes a lot of effort and time, which impacts
everyone in the student’s life. I appreciate my family’s patience and understanding over the last
few years. I am especially thankful for my husband, Brian, who held down the fort and kept the
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 4
kids occupied through hours of class time each week. He was patient with late nights, long
weekends, and the presence of a computer or a book always in my lap. I know he believes in me
and the importance of this work, and I love him even more for it. I also want to thank my boys,
Braden and Brock. Like their father, they have been patient and understanding throughout this
process. I hope that seeing me go through the graduate school experience highlights the
importance of education and the value of tenacity and hard work. I hope they always set their
goals high and work diligently to achieve their dreams. I do not want to forget my faithful dog,
Murphy. He was my constant companion through class time and paper writing; patiently napping
at my feet until the computer was turned off for the night. Lucky for him, the wait is almost over.
I also want to thank the autism program leaders and managers who graciously
participated in this study; this research would not have been possible without you. Thank you for
your energies and passion to help people with autism in your workplaces and in our
communities. You are making significant impacts in the lives of so many people on the
spectrum; you are a beacon of hope for many.
Finally, I want to acknowledge my OCL cohort 6 colleagues; they are a group of
tenacious, talented, and rogue change agents. As we come to the end of this adventure together, it
cannot be overstated how helpful they were to me throughout the program. Fight On!

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 5

Table of Contents
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................... 3
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. 8
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. 9
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter One: Introduction ............................................................................................................ 11
Global Context and Goal .......................................................................................................... 12
Related Literature...................................................................................................................... 14
Importance of Promising Practice ............................................................................................. 16
Description of Stakeholder Groups ........................................................................................... 17
Stakeholders Groups’ Performance Goals ................................................................................ 19
Stakeholder Group for the Study .............................................................................................. 20
Purpose of the Project and Questions ....................................................................................... 21
Conceptual and Methodological Framework ............................................................................ 22
Definitions................................................................................................................................. 22
Organization of the Project ....................................................................................................... 23
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ........................................................................................ 24
Employment Issues for Adults with Autism ............................................................................. 24
Autism Incidence Impacting Employment Issues..................................................................... 25
Challenges in Creating Equal Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities .............................. 28
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 6

Corporate Responsibility and Disability Inclusive Cultures ..................................................... 32
Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis Framework .................................................................. 37
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences ...................................... 37
Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................. 54
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 57
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 59
Participating Stakeholders ........................................................................................................ 60
Data Collection and Instrumentation ........................................................................................ 63
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 66
Credibility and Trustworthiness ................................................................................................ 66
Ethics......................................................................................................................................... 67
Limitations and Delimitations ................................................................................................... 69
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 71
Participating Stakeholders ........................................................................................................ 71
Findings..................................................................................................................................... 77
Managers’ Knowledge and Motivation Related to Supporting Employees with Autism ......... 86
Influence of Organizational Culture on Managers’ Knowledge and Motivation ................... 106
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 114
Chapter Five: Recommendations ................................................................................................ 117
Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences ................................................. 119
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 7

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Research Approach ........................................................... 145
Future Research ...................................................................................................................... 148
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 149
References ................................................................................................................................... 151
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................. 163
Appendix B: Documents and Artifacts Collection Protocol ....................................................... 167
Appendix C: Research Information Sheet for Organizations ..................................................... 168
Appendix D: Information Sheet for Research Participants ......................................................... 171
Appendix E: Immediate Evaluation Instrument ......................................................................... 172
Appendix F: Blended Evaluation Instrument ............................................................................. 173

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 8

List of Tables
Table 1. Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals .............. 20
Table 2. Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Types, and Knowledge Assessment ..................... 42
Table 3. Motivational Influences and Assessment for Motivation Gap Analysis ..................... 47
Table 4. Organizational Influences and Assessment for Organizational Gap Analysis ............ 53
Table 5. Participating Organizations and Aligned Autism Program Leaders ............................ 74
Table 6. Manager Participant List and Subgroup Distribution .................................................. 75
Table 7. Alignment of Training, Resources, and Prior Experience with Autism by Manager. . 78
Table 8. Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations ..................................... 120
Table 9. Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations ...................................... 124
Table 10. Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations .................................. 128
Table 11. Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes ..................... 133
Table 12. Critical Behaviors: Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation ........................... 135
Table 13. Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors ........................................................ 137
Table 14. Evaluation of the Learning Components for the Program ......................................... 141
Table 15. Components to Measure Reactions to the Program ................................................... 142

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 9

List of Figures
Figure 1. Conceptual framework for the study of manager capacity to support employees ...... 55
with autism integrating knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences
Figure 2. Percent of participants by years of management experience ....................................... 76

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 10

Abstract
Interpersonal differences in the workplace and a lack of competitive employment opportunities
contributed to a high unemployment rate for adults with autism. A small group of innovative
organizations implemented autism employment programs that placed adults with autism in
competitive roles effectively. The success of the programs, launched by autism employment
collective (AEC) organizations, was attributed to modifications made by managers that bridged
the differences between normative work behavior and patterns characteristic in adults with
autism. The purpose of this study was to determine the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational (KMO) influences impacting managers’ ability to support employees with autism
as part of inclusive teams. Interviews with managers and autism program leaders in conjunction
with document analysis enabled the identification and validation of the KMO influences
affecting managers. The findings showed that managers across AEC organizations were able to
recognize the needs of employees with autism and adjusted their management practices
accordingly. An authentic leadership style, direct communication, detailed tasks, and consistent
workplace structures showed effective in improving work performance and interpersonal
outcomes; these practices were used universally across the managers’ teams. A disability-
inclusive organizational culture also influenced managers’ engagement and motivation to support
employees with autism. Recommendations on implementing and evaluating a management
education and strategic hiring program are provided for organizational leaders seeking to launch
and expand autism employment initiatives.

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 11

Chapter One: Introduction
Over a hundred thousand employable adults with autism are unable to provide for
themselves and left dependent on their families and social welfare systems due to a lack of
competitive employment opportunities and interpersonal differences in the workplace (CDC
2018; Roux, Rast, Anderson, & Shattuck, 2017; U.S. Department of Education, 2011).
Competitive employment is work for persons with disabilities in an integrated work setting,
where the compensation is higher than minimum wage and comparable to non-disabled workers
performing the same tasks (U.S. Department of Education, 2005). Despite many programs
focused on access to education and vocational transition services, adults with autism struggle to
obtain employment with unemployment rates reported as high as 75%. (Baldwin, Costley, &
Warren, 2014; Taylor & Seltzer, 2011; U.S. Department. of Education, 2011; U.S. Department
of Labor, 2016). The number of unemployed adults with autism is predicted to grow as the rates
of autism diagnosis continuously rise with prevalence currently at 1 in 57 (Baio et al., 2018).
While increased education and work-related skills better prepare adults with autism to
enter the workforce, these efforts do not address the issues impacting employers’ willingness and
ability to hire people with autism. Employers’ reluctance to hire adults with autism is the result
of biased beliefs based on societal misconceptions and limited knowledge, which includes a lack
of awareness regarding the capabilities people with autism bring to the workplace (Fassinger,
2008; Kaye, Jans, & Jones, 2011; Markel & Barclay 2009). Limited knowledge regarding how to
accommodate the interpersonal differences inherent to autism is also attributed as a factor that
leads to poor employment outcomes (Baldwin et al., 2014). Increasing organizations’
willingness and ability to hire and accommodate people with autism in competitive roles is
critical to improving employment outcomes for people with autism (Chen, Leader, Sung, &
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 12

Leahy, 2015). To address this need, a collective of public organizations are implementing autism
employment programs with hiring goals as high as at 1% (anonymous, personal communication,
October 5, 2016; Che, 2016; Eng, 2018).
Global Context and Goal
As part of a call to action by the United Nations, many companies implemented autism
employment initiatives to hire people with autism at their organizations; a collective of these
companies actively collaborate and share best practices to improve employment outcomes for
this demographic (Che, 2016; Eng, 2018; United Nations, 2015). This innovative group of
companies will be further referred to as the autism employment collective (AEC). As stated on
AEC organizations’ websites, these companies have a common goal to be good corporate
citizens and be respected world-wide leaders in their respective industries. These organizations
are equal opportunity employers whose employee demographics are a diverse distribution of
identified statuses that include: age, gender, race, ethnicity, and other protected identifiers. AEC
organizations are focused on a multitude of corporate responsibility initiatives regarding
diversity and inclusion, and actively supports human rights and community development
programs. Each AEC organizations’ website highlights strategic goals and efforts aligned to
increase the diversity of employees and create inclusive work environments for people of
differing abilities, including employees with autism. While many companies highlight the
importance of diversity in their workplace, few organizations have programs specifically targeted
to employ adults with autism (Che, 2016).
AEC organizations have successfully implemented and sustained autism employment
programs through the application of practices developed by autism experts (Che, 2016; Eng,
2018). Autism employment programs are designed to provide work opportunities for people with
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 13

autism who struggle to obtain employment through the traditional interview process. Program
information posted on AEC organizations’ websites shows that the implementation of autism
employment programs at AEC’s has led to more accessible and inclusive work environments that
include modified recruiting, management, and communication practices that enhance the
organizations’ ability to hire and support employees with autism. The modifications in the
organization are the result of strategic programs to hire employees with autism that include
targeted internship programs, training programs for managers and recruiters, and autism work
entry programs.
Autism internship programs provided employment experience for adults with autism
through an immersive working and learning experience that included hands-on experience and
guidance to help these individuals transition to competitive workplaces full time (anonymous,
personal communication, July 16, 2018). Training for managers and recruiters on how to support
adults with autism in the workplace was also part of these organizations strategy to help to
upskill these leaders to be ready to identify, recruit, and support talent with autism (anonymous,
personal communication, October 5, 2016). Manager training was important because a
manager’s skills and ability to support adults with disabilities in the workplace is a significant
factor in employment outcomes (Hagner & Cooney, 2005; Hillier et al., 2007). Upskilling and
policy changes were aligned with autism work entry programs and the autism program leaders,
aligned HR professionals, and participating managers who support these strategic efforts. Autism
employment initiatives received considerable media coverage and increased the visibility of
these organizations’ disability-inclusion efforts (Che, 2016; Eng, 2018). These programs
removed the obstacles that traditional recruiting and interview processes created for adults with
autism, by creating a single entry point for recruiting and onboarding. They leveraged and
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 14

increased community partnerships by working with vocational rehabilitation and autism
advocacy groups to increase awareness of these programs to identify and attract potential talent
with autism. Autism employment initiatives are significant because historically, there were
limited employment opportunities in competitive roles for adults with autism (Baldwin et al.,
2014; Taylor, Henninger, & Mailick, 2015; Taylor & Setzer, 2011).
While target hiring goals to employ people with autism vary between organizations, all
AEC organizations had goals to expand their programs to increase the span of roles held by
employees with autism, and the number of locations and countries in which they are represented.
Some AEC organizations increased headcount by 88% year over year (YOY) with targets
ranging from 200 – 1000 total employees with autism to be hired by 2020 (anonymous, personal
communication, October 5, 2016). AEC’s advertised plans to increase the number of adults with
autism they hired incrementally; these goals complemented the UN’s vision to increase access to
equal employment opportunities for people with autism and create equitable and inclusive
societies by 2030 (United Nations, 2016).
AEC organizations also reported increases in productivity on average of 60% on teams
that include employees with autism (anonymous, personal communication, October 5, 2016).
These organizations have successfully hired people with autism in highly competitive roles not
traditionally open to people with developmental disabilities; they are a limited few of institutions
with formal efforts to hire people with autism (Che, 2016; Eng, 2018). Thus, AECs are model
organizations.
Related Literature
As the number of persons diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders increases so does the
body of research that examines the many issues impacting persons with autism in adulthood.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 15

Numerous studies have examined the employment outcomes of adults with autism. Researchers
have found that despite increased education and transition support opportunities to prepare adults
with autism for adulthood, these adults continue to have difficulty in securing and maintaining
competitive employment (Taylor & Setzer, 2011; Taylor et al., 2015). The U.S. Department of
Education (2005) defines competitive employment as work for persons with disabilities in an
integrated work setting, where the compensation is at least minimum wage or higher and
comparable to non-disabled workers performing the same tasks. However, there is a dearth of
research regarding building employer capacity to support employees with autism in competitive
workplaces, and the data that does provide insight to employment outcomes indicate traditional
services are not effective (Rashid, Hodgetts & Nicholas, 2017).
Vocational Rehabilitation (VR) and transition services are the current practice for
supporting the students to adulthood transition; the existing data shows that despite increased use
of VR services, outcomes are not improving. Of 34,501 transition-aged adults who obtained VR
services over a 10-year period, only 36% maintained employment during that time (Burgess &
Cimera, 2014). Despite these low outcomes through traditional VR and education programs,
specifically designed autism work programs implemented by employers are proving to be
effective in helping adults with autism maintain employment (Chappel & Sommers, 2010; Hillier
et al., 2007).
The managers that participated in these work programs had inclusive mindsets, a
commitment to organizational diversity, and were active in various corporate responsibility
initiatives. Organizations that had a culture of inclusion and support corporate responsibility
initiatives were more likely to engage in efforts to hire employees with disabilities, including
people with autism (Segovia-San-Jaun, Saavedra, & Fernandez-de-Tejada, 2017). Leaders in
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 16

these types of organizations were more willing to support employees with disabilities and have
the resources available to provide the accommodation needed for success in the workplace.
Managers who employ adults with autism successfully reported positive working relationships
and collaborative, inclusive team environments; these managers also mentioned the employees
with autism exceeded work expectation and were valued members of the team (Hagner &
Cooney, 2005).
Despite a lack of research on management capacity to support employees with autism in
the workplace, this review indicated that people with autism could be successful with workplace
accommodation and management support (Chappel & Sommers, 2010; Hillier et al., 2007).
Diversity efforts in organizations can help address the under- and unemployment issues
impacting people with autism, by providing employment opportunities for adults with autism,
introducing workplace accommodations, and management practices that that can be implemented
to create inclusive workplaces. Employing adults with autism will also help organizations meet
their corporate responsibility and strategic diversity hiring objectives.
Importance of Promising Practice
It is important to understand AEC’s performance in relation to the successful
implementation of autism employment programs for a variety of reasons. As the number of
persons diagnosed with autism continues to rise, so does the need for employers to create
inclusive organizations and employment opportunities. If this issue is left unaddressed, there will
be millions of adults unable to provide for themselves who will become increasingly dependent
on their families and welfare systems (U.S. Department of Education, 2011).
Solutions to the employment problem for people with autism will affect many practices
of employers. If employers find innovative ways to recruit and assess the talent of adults with
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 17

autism, it will serve as a catalyst to examine the current practices in employing neuro-typical
individuals. Neuro-typical is defined as a person who does not display autistic or other
neurologically atypical patterns of behavior and is often considered the typical or average person.
Implementation of accommodating practices in inclusive environments will also uncover how
managers may create more inclusive and consistent frameworks across people of all abilities.
Employers will need to learn how to differentiate communication and tailor support to individual
needs, much like teachers do in inclusive general education settings today (Machalicek,
O’Reilly, Beretvas, Sigafoos, & Lancioni, 2007). These types of changes have the potential to
become universal design practices that would provide benefits to adults with and without autism
spectrum disorders and facilitate the creation of accessible, inclusive work environments (Lid,
2014).
Numerous organizations independently responded to the autism community’s need for
work and shared best practices to improve employment outcomes. These organizations were
finding success in their programs that proved not only to benefit employees but also showed
benefits regarding capability and productivity for the employer as well (Che, 2016). Many of
these companies were looking to expand their programs and share their knowledge so other
organizations can implement similar practices. Programs that effectively addressed the issue of
underemployment for adults with autism provided autistic individuals with living-wage
opportunities and reduced their dependence on social welfare systems (Allen & Carlson, 2013).
Description of Stakeholder Groups
Many stakeholders benefit from the successful implementation of autism employment
programs. These include managers, organizational leaders, autism program leaders, human
resource professionals, employees with autism, and potential candidates with autism spectrum
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 18

disorders (ASD). Managers in various departments at AEC organizations are critical contributors
to the success of the autism employment programs; their ability to hire and retain employees
with autism by creating inclusive, accessible workplaces is necessary for the success of these
programs. These managers are responsible for meeting department objectives and productivity
goals. It is important that their teams consistently provided quality work for the organizations
they serve.
Autism program leaders at AEC organizations provide oversight and guidance to autism
inclusive departments, aligned managers, and business partners. These leaders provide managers
with the necessary resources to support their employees with and without autism. Autism
program leaders at AECs set the strategic diversity objectives for the divisions that are aligned
with autism employment programs. The success of autism employment programs helps
organizational leaders meet their strategic goals regarding diversity.
Human Resource Business Professionals (HRBPs) at AEC organizations are strategic
partners that support managers and employees through the entire employment cycle. A select
group of HRBPs committed their efforts to learn about inclusive work environments and are
gaining expertise in the onboarding and successful employment of adults with autism. They work
to ensure that accommodations are provided for all employees who need them, and they work
with external providers to ensure that employees with autism have the transition supports they
need to be successful on-the-job. The new processes they have helped to create for the recruiting
and hiring of adults with autism is being leveraged to expand AEC's autism employment
programs to other departments in the organization.
There are numerous employees with autism employed at AEC organizations today. The
performance of these employees shows significant ROI on the implementation of this program.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 19

These employees with autism are fully integrated with their peers and have increased task
responsibilities as well as promotion opportunities. Adults with autism who are seeking
employment at AEC organizations are also stakeholders in this initiative, as these programs are
increasing the number of competitive employment opportunities for people with autism. The
success and continued growth of these programs support the continued hiring of adults with
autism and the expansion of the autism employment programs at AEC organizations.
Stakeholders Groups’ Performance Goals
AEC organizations need to maintain their current performance to achieve their individual
goals regarding employing adults with autism. Each AEC organization has different hiring
targets and roles that align to autism applicant’s abilities; however, each organization has goals
to increase the number of adults with autism that they employ year over year (YOY) in support
of larger diversity inclusion initiatives. To be successful, managers will need to demonstrate
knowledge and skills to support employees with autism as part of inclusive teams by 2020.
Recruiters will need to implement modifications to ensure the interview process is accessible as
part of their standard practices. If managers meet their performance goal, employees with autism
should have the support they need to meet or exceed performance expectations. Table 1
illustrates AEC’s organizational mission statement, performance goals, and the three key
stakeholder goals described.

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 20

Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal, and Stakeholder Performance Goals
Organizational Mission
AEC organizations strive to be good corporate citizens while being world-wide leaders in their
industry.
Organizational Performance Goal
AEC organizations commit to increasing the number of adults with autism employed in a
multitude of data quality, technology, administration, service, and production related roles year
over year (YOY).
Managers Human Resources Employees with Autism
By 2020, managers will
demonstrate inclusive
management practices that
effectively support and
retain high-performing
employees with autism
By 2020, human resource
professionals will routinely
implement autism accessible
recruiting practices that support the
hiring and retention of adults with
autism.
Employees with autism will
meet or exceed performance
expectations set for all
employees in the department
(YOY).

Stakeholder Group for the Study
While multiple stakeholders were identified as impacting employment outcomes for
people with autism, managers that lead teams at AEC companies that include employees with
and without autism were the stakeholders of focus for this study. These managers are charged to
supervise employees, provide workplace accommodations, and tasked to maintain productivity
and meet organizational goals in their departments. Research shows employment outcomes for
people with autism are affected by management practices and the work-relationship between
managers and their employees (Chappel & Sommers, 2010; Muller, Schuler, Burton, & Yates,
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 21

2003; Parr & Hunter, 2014). Managers’ ability to effectively hire and support employees with
autism as part of inclusive work teams has potentially significant impacts on the success of
autism employment programs at participating organizations.
Purpose of the Project and Questions
The purpose of this project was to examine the management practices of AEC
organizations with autism employment programs. The study was to understand how these
companies implement programs and diversity practices to address the larger problem of practice,
the limited number of organizations effectively hiring and retaining employees with autism in
competitive work environments. This analysis focused on the knowledge, skill, motivation, and
organizational resources needed to support the employment of adults with autism in competitive
workplaces.
The following questions guided the gathering of data to determine the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences impacting managers’ ability to support employees with
autism in the workplace:
1. What are managers’ knowledge and motivation related to supporting employees with
autism that would lead to increased capacity to hire and retain these adults in their
organizations?
2. What is the interaction between AEC organizations’ culture and context, and managers’
knowledge and motivation on their ability to increase the number of adults with autism
they hire and support on competitive work teams across their organizations?
3. What are recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources that will support 2020 diversity goals across AEC organizations, and help
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 22

inform other leaders on how to build employer capacity to employ adults with autism in
their organizations?
Conceptual and Methodological Framework
The conceptual framework for this study was based on Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis model, which is a systematic, analytical method that helps to identify the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences impacting organizational and stakeholder performance.
The assumed knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences (KMO) impacting managers’
ability to support employees with autism will be generated based on personal knowledge and
related literature. A qualitative methodology was used for this study. The identified KMO
influences were validated by review of literature and data collected through semi-structured
interviews and document analysis to compare managers’ experiences in relation to AEC
organizations’ reported program results. Promising practices and research-based solutions were
identified and evaluated comprehensively.
Definitions
Autism or autism spectrum disorder (ASD): a mental condition, characterized by difficulty in
communicating and forming relationships with others, often marked by challenges in
using language and abstract concepts, nonverbal communication, differences in speech
and display of repetitive behaviors.
Autism Employment Collective (AEC): organizations that publicly announced and implemented
initiatives to hire people with autism.
Competitive Employment: work performed by a person with a disability within an integrated
setting that is paid a wage comparable to non-disabled workers in the same role.
Culture: the behavior and attitudes characteristic of a particular group of people.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 23

Image Cost: the perception that disclosure will damage a person’s professional image.
Inclusive Design: the design of products or services that are accessible to, and usable by, people
of various abilities without requiring additional modifications or special adaptations.
Micro-inequities: instances of bias that accumulate over time and create a disadvantage for the
impacted employee(s).
Neuro-typical: not displaying or characterized by autistic or other neurologically atypical
patterns of thought or behavior.
Under-employment: not having enough paid work or not performing work that makes full use of
a persons’ skills and abilities.
Universal Design: refers to broad-spectrum ideas meant to produce buildings, products, and
environments that are inherently accessible to people with and without disabilities.
Organization of the Project
Five chapters were used to organize this study. This chapter provided the reader with the
key concepts and terminology aligned with the current state and issues impacting the
employment outcomes for adults with autism. The global goal and stakeholders were also
introduced. Chapter Two provides a review of the current literature surrounding the scope of the
study, introduces the gap analysis framework, and details the assumed influences impacting the
knowledge and motivation of managers and organizational factors impacting the ability to
support employees with autism in the workplace. Chapter Three details the methodology in
choosing participants, data collection, and analysis. In Chapter Four, the data and findings are
presented and analyzed. Chapter Five provides solutions, based on the data collected and
literature reviewed, for closing the perceived gaps impacting stakeholders. Recommendations for
the implementation and evaluation of plans are also provided.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 24

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
In this chapter, literature was reviewed to examine factors that contribute to the
increasing number of under- and unemployed adults with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in
the United States. This review begins with data regarding autism incidence rates and its
relationship to unemployment statistics for people with autism. The issue of underemployment
was explored highlighting the experiences of adults with autism when trying to secure and
maintain competitive employment. Due to the dearth of research on employer capacity, this
review focused on employer practices and attitudes that contribute to the challenges adults with
autism experience when trying to obtain gainful employment. Review practices implemented by
managers in competitive workplaces that led to successful employment outcomes for adults with
ASD were also provided. Following the general review of the literature, factors that impact
employer capacity to support employees with autism was further examined with the Clark and
Estes Gap Analysis Model. Specific focus was on research that presents gaps in manager
knowledge and motivation related to supporting employees with autism in inclusive, competitive
work environments, and the types of organizational influences that impact employers’ capacity
to include employees with autism in their workplaces.
Employment Issues for Adults with Autism
The increase in autism diagnoses and a limited number of competitive employment
opportunities for people with autism contributes to the growing unemployment rate for adults
with autism (Chen et al., 2015; Christensen et al., 2016; U.S. Department of Education, 2011;
U.S. Department of Labor, 2016). Adults with ASD who do obtain employment report low job
satisfaction and indicate they are underemployed, meaning they are overqualified for the current
roles they hold (Baldwin et al., 2014; Taylor et al., 2015; Taylor & Setzer, 2011). Biased beliefs
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 25

impacted employers' unwillingness to hire people with disabilities; these beliefs were based on
societal misconceptions and lack of knowledge, which included a lack of awareness regarding
the capabilities employees with autism bring to the workplace (Fassinger, 2008; Kaye et al.,
2011; Markel & Barclay 2009).
Despite employer beliefs, studies indicate that people with autism can successfully be
employed in competitive roles if the employer provides accommodations to meet the specific
needs of employees with autism (Chappel & Sommers, 2010; Hillier et al., 2007; Wehman et al.,
2013). However, competitive employment opportunities for adults with autism are limited in
number and is a significant factor contributing to the high unemployment rates for this
population (Che, 2016; Chen et al., 2015). If adults with ASD cannot provide for themselves, it
will increase the need for welfare programs and other resources to support these individuals
(U.S. Department of Education, 2011). Left unaddressed, the issue of under- and unemployment
of adults with autism could have wide-spread financial and societal implications in the United
States.
Autism Incidence Impacting Employment Issues
Increasing rates of autism diagnosis and high quality of life expectations for adults with
autism contributes to the growing unemployment issue for adults with autism in the United
States. The CDC’s (2015) report showed that autism diagnosis is on the rise and that these
numbers have significantly increased over the past decade (Christensen et al., 2016). This data
also indicated there would be a growing number of adults with autism that will need transition
services to obtain employment in the future. Taylor and Setzer’s (2011) data collected from a
longitudinal study supports this claim. The researchers followed 66 adults with autism and no
intellectual impairment over 4.5 years, and their results showed extremely low levels of
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 26

employment. Only 11.8% of the participants had secured and maintained competitive
employment for the duration of the study. Other studies support these findings. The U.S
Department of Education (2011) found that the employment rate for adults with autism is
significantly lower than the general population and other types of disabilities. The longitudinal
study comparing employment outcomes for ages 21-25 found that while rates of employment for
people with disabilities was similar to the general population (60% compared to 66%), the rates
of employment for young adults with autism was significantly lower at 37.2%. The
unemployment of adults with autism is such a significant issue that the issues impacting their
ability to obtain employment must also be understood.
Underemployment of Adults with Autism
Adults with autism who secure employment are often underemployed, overqualified, and
struggle to maintain the roles they secure. Baldwin et al. (2014) learned that many adults with
autism felt they were overeducated and overqualified for their current roles. Their empirical
study explored the employment activities of 130 adults with autism and no intellectual disability.
The respondents indicated they were overeducated for their current roles, they desired more
interesting work, and are working in roles many levels below their capability. Seventy-two
percent were not receiving any support or accommodation in the workplace. Taylor and Setzer
(2011) had similar findings showing that competitive employment was low for adults with
autism (11.8%) and that the roles participants did secure were often in low-wage and low hour
roles. These adults also had difficulty maintaining these opportunities. Additional research by
Taylor et al. (2015) focused on the outcomes of employees with autism maintaining
employment. They monitored the employment of 73 adults over a 12-year period and found that
while 67% of the participants obtained competitive employment at some point during the
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 27

duration of the study, only 25% were able to maintain these activities during the study period.
The inability of adults with autism to secure and maintain competitive employment implied that
challenges impact their ability to make successful transitions into the workplace.
Lack of Competitive Work Opportunities
Competitive employment opportunities are difficult for adults with autism to secure due
to the ineffectiveness of traditional job placement programs and limited employment
opportunities that provide competitive wages and utilize the full capabilities of people with ASD.
Traditional vocational rehabilitation and transition services are not successful in placing adults
with autism in positions that are competitive to market and align with the person’s capabilities.
Burgess and Cimera (2014) found that despite the increase in the number of adults with autism
seeking vocational services and pursuing post-secondary education, employment outcomes are
not improving. Data collected on 34,501 transition-aged adults who obtained services from state-
funded vocational rehabilitation agencies found only 36% were successfully employed over a 10-
year period. Additional research showed adults with autism struggled to obtain meaningful
employment and had difficulty on the job due to lack of supports with up to 72% of these
employees reporting that they received no support in the workplace (Baldwin et al. 2014).
Transition to work programs and services are only successful when the strategies
implemented are specifically designed for adults with ASD (Chappel & Sommers, 2010; Hillier
et al., 2007; Wehman et al., 2013). This claim is reinforced by the findings of a controlled
experiment conducted by Wehman et al. (2013). They compared 24 adults with autism who
received specially designed autism transition to work supports and 16 control subjects who used
traditional vocational rehabilitation services. At the end of the study, 21 of 24 in the
experimental condition acquired employment compared to only 1 of 16 in the control group.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 28

Challenges in Creating Equal Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities
Government requirements, privacy laws, and the direction of corporate strategies make
identifying and hiring persons with disabilities a challenging task. The ADA requires employers
to provide equal opportunities to people with disabilities who are qualified for the roles in which
they apply; this requirement has been in effect since 1990 (DRC, 2012). Unless
accommodations are needed, an employee is not required to disclose their disability, and an
employer is prohibited from asking.
Despite laws that encourage equal opportunities, the unemployment rate for persons with
disabilities is significantly high. The U.S. Department of Labor (2016) reported the
unemployment rate in 2015 was 10.7%, more than twice the rate of individuals without a
disability (5.1%). To address this issue, the U.S. Department of Labor (2013) made amendments
to Section 503 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and now requires that federal contractors and
subcontractors take affirmative action to recruit and employ qualified persons with disabilities
with a utilization goal of 7%. Also, they require employers to invite applicants and employees to
self-identify as having a disability. Employers must also track and provide data on the
effectiveness of their outreach efforts for individuals with disabilities that include targeted
recruitment efforts, internal support programs, and voluntary identification initiatives (U.S.
Department of Labor, 2013).
In addition to government requirements placed on employers, organizations also face
internal challenges in their ability to identify and hire employees with disabilities. Erickson, Von
Schrader, Bruyere, and Van Looy (2014) surveyed 675 senior HR professionals that showed
55.4% of companies were not actively recruiting people with disabilities at the time of the study.
Sixty-two percent of these companies did not require sub-contractors and suppliers to meet
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 29

disability employment minimums, stating a difficulty in identifying persons with disabilities as a
primary issue. When asked to further elaborate on this point, the respondents felt they were
taking the right steps to encourage employees with disabilities to self-identify through outreach
efforts. Despite encouragement through these initiatives, employees with disabilities are
unwilling and hesitant to self-report. Understanding why individuals with disabilities are
reluctant to self-identify will impact an employer’s ability to create effective disability-hiring
initiatives.
Employee Fear of Disability Disclosure
Employees are reluctant to disclose their disabilities to employers due to a fear of
discrimination. Allen and Carlson (2003) found employees attempted to conceal their
disabilities from their employers to preserve their self-esteem and reduce potential discrimination
from supervisors and peers. These findings are significant as this data was collected 13 years
after the American Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) was implemented to protect individuals with
disabilities against discrimination from employers. The researchers’ interviews with participants
revealed that the rationale for non-disclosure fell into four main themes: (a) the desire to preserve
self-esteem, (b) to avoid emotional pain, (c) to prevent negative attitudes toward them, and (d) a
belief that reporting issues is seen as complaining. This data supports Baldridge and Veiga’s
(2001) findings that employees are reluctant to disclose their disability to their employer and
peers due to potential discrimination and perceived “image cost,” which the researchers defined
as the perception that disclosure of a disability will damage a person’s professional image.
Despite potential image costs, some individuals with disabilities do tell employers about
their disability. Von Schrader, Malzer, and Bruyere (2013) surveyed 780 people with disabilities
to understand what influences an individual’s decision to disclose their disability to an employer.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 30

The researchers identified multiple factors aligned to the participants’ decision to conceal their
disability that included: the risk of being fired/not hired (73%), concern that the employer would
focus on the disability (62%), limited promotion opportunities (61%), and concern about being
treated and viewed differently by their supervisor and co-workers (56%).
People with disabilities report having mixed feelings regarding disclosing a disability to
their employer. Jans, Kaye, and Jones (2011) conducted focus groups with 41 people with
disabilities and determined consistent themes amongst their responses. The researchers showed
that the severity of the disability and need for accommodation during the various stages of the
recruiting and employment process were the primary determining factors as to whether the
participants disclosed their disability to their employer. The concerns people with disabilities
have about discrimination in the workplace are not unfounded as employer bias has an impact on
employment outcomes.
Bias Regarding People with Disabilities
Employer bias and lack of knowledge regarding people with disabilities impacts work
relationships and the organization’s ability to hire and support these employees effectively.
Stankova and Trajkovski (2010) found that 84% of the 33 employers surveyed did not know
what autism was nor did they have direct experience with autistic people. Fifteen percent of the
employers who reported familiarity with ASD often described autism based on stereotypical
characterizations, pop culture figures, or mental retardation. Most of the employers were
unfamiliar with the social deficits that are the primary issue for employees with autism in the
workplace. Seventy-five percent did not know about the workplace supports that can be adapted
in the workplace to improve employment outcomes for adults with autism.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 31

Kaye et al. (2011) also discovered that lack of awareness and knowledge regarding
persons with disabilities results in bias against them. In a survey of 463 participants in
remediation training for ADA employer infractions, the researchers found that 55.8% of those
surveyed believe people with disabilities cannot do the basic functions of the jobs for which they
apply. Fifty-three percent of these professionals admitted they discriminate against job
applicants with disabilities and said they think of workers with disabilities as “problem
employees.” These views from the employer often lead to minor infractions and actions of bias
that result in micro-inequities. Micro-inequities are isolated instances of bias that accumulate
over time and create a disadvantage for the impacted employee (Fassinger, 2008; Markel &
Barclay, 2009). In the workplace, micro-inequities manifest as seemingly harmless jokes,
repeated disregard of a colleague’s comments in meetings, or showing more/less enthusiasm
toward an employee that impacts their self-esteem and work performance.
Research supports that employer feelings of bias and hostility accumulate. Crampton and
Hodge’s (2003) research indicates that during the employment relationship, behaviors and
actions on the part of corporate employers resulted in hostile treatment toward the employee.
The researchers found that 82% of ADA claims indicate reports of multiple infractions from
direct supervisors and colleagues in the work environment. Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission (2008) data supports that employment relationships are not improving, and issues
are on the rise. The EEOC received 17,734 charges of disability discrimination and recovered
$54.4 million in monetary benefits for charging parties and other aggrieved individuals. In 2006
EEOC reported 15,575 charges received and indicates that despite awareness and organizations’
commitment to diversity initiatives, workplace culture and relationships are not supporting these
efforts.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 32

Corporate Responsibility and Disability Inclusive Cultures
Corporate responsibility to help improve the lives of individuals in local communities has
led to disability inclusive cultures in organizations that promote diversity of abilities in the
workplace. Increasing employment levels of persons with disabilities are perceived as “socially
responsible” practices and impacts an organizations reputation as a good corporate citizen in the
community (Markel & Barclay, 2009). In addition to impacting public opinion and perception,
researchers have found that organizations whose cultures support inclusivity and fairness are
effective in supporting employees with disabilities in the workplace (Baldridge & Veiga, 2001;
Segovia-San-Juan et al., 2017).
Segovia-San-Juan et al. (2017) found that 91% of companies expressly address inclusive
behaviors and protections for people with disabilities in their code of conduct or similar
documents. Additionally, 38% of the organizations surveyed have taken formal actions in favor
of supporting people with disabilities (Segovia-San-Juan et al., 2017). These actions are highly
visible to corporate stakeholders and the public at large and are often related processes that align
with employee behavior, formal code of conducts, training and awareness, and recruitment
efforts.
Corporate values were also found to be a greater indicator of inclusion of people with
disabilities than anti-discrimination legislation or financial incentives. Kuznetsova and Yalcin
(2017) discovered that companies engaged in inclusive programs cited the benefits of positive
image and the importance of awareness-raising activities to be the drivers for their participation
in disability awareness and employment initiatives. These activities included a high degree of
personal engagement among the managers aligned to employees with disabilities.

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 33

Management Practices
Employer capacity to support employees with autism is impacted by the practices
managers engage in with their employees. Manager communication, leadership style, and on-the-
job supports are three areas identified that significantly impact employment outcomes for adults
with ASD (Hagner & Cooney, 2005; Hillier et al., 2007).
Communication. Employers’ lack of understanding and knowledge regarding autism and
the impairments inherent to people with ASD manifest in communication issues that can lead to
challenging work relationships between the employee, their peers, and management. Autism is
categorized as a neurological disorder that results in significant impairments for the individual,
such as repetitious behavior, difficulty with reciprocal communication, and limited
understanding of social norms and cues that impact interpersonal relationships (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013). The inability to build effective work relationships can negatively
impact work performance and limit job opportunities for employees with autism. Scott, Falkmer,
Girdler, and Falkmer (2015) determined that differing expectations in the work environment and
communication issues between the employer and the employee have a significant impact on the
ability of adults with ASD to retain employment. Survey data collected from 40 adults with
autism and 35 employers indicated that managers lacked confidence in their ability to implement
workplace modifications and miscommunication often resulted. The employees with autism
were committed to their employers and wanted to make the relationship work though they
struggled in their interactions with others.
Past research shows that issues of miscommunication between managers and employees
negatively impact employment outcomes. Hiller et al. (2007) evaluated adults with autism in a
vocational support program over a 2-year period and found that interpersonal interactions are
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 34

difficult for adults with autism in the workplace despite on the job supports. The employers in
this study reported positive employer satisfaction scores throughout the program, though the
employees with autism experienced continuous challenges communicating with their managers.
The participants with autism also struggled to form peer relationships and had limited
understanding of social cues and norms in the workplace. Communication issues greatly limit
the engagement of adults with ASD in social interactions which also impacts job satisfaction
(Hiller et al., 2007; Lorenz, Frischling, Cuadros, & Heinitz, 2016; Trembath, Tacono, Lyon,
West, & Johnson, 2013).
Ability to understand cultural norms and expectations from key stakeholders are also
factors contributing to communications issues in the workplace. Trembath et al. (2013) found
that organizational practices and limited cultural knowledge led to ongoing communication
difficulties on the job for adults with autism. These researchers examined six workers and their
support personnel and found the communication supports needed for these adults were varied
and complex. Specific measures to ensure clarity between managers and employees were needed
to ensure understanding between parties. Even when the necessary communication supports are
in place, adults with autism have difficulty maintaining competitive employment (Baldwin et al.,
2014; Taylor et al., 2015). Competitive employment is defined by the U.S. Department of
Education (2005) as work for persons with disabilities in an integrated work setting where
compensation is at least minimum wage or higher and at a rate comparable to non-disabled
workers performing the same work tasks.
Leadership style. Management leadership style impacts work-life quality and
employment outcomes for employees with autism. Research found that management and
leadership styles have a significant impact on employee attitudes and work performance (Hagner
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 35

& Cooney, 2005, Parr & Hunter, 2014; Parr, Hunter, & Ligon, 2013). Parr et al. (2013)
reviewed the applicability of transformational leadership to manage employees with autism in
inclusive workplaces. Transformation leadership was chosen because prior research suggested
that transformational leadership is a universally beneficial and effective approach to lead all
types of employees in the workplace (Bass, 1985; Bass & Bass, 2008). However, employees
with autism whose leaders used transformational leadership and charismatic leadership styles
often experienced high levels of anxiety; this is because adults with autism often have difficulty
with emotionally driven behaviors, abstract symbols, and ideas (Christensen et al. 2013; Parr et
al., 2013). The anxiety experienced on the job decreased employee performance and resulted in
lower levels of organizational commitment (Lorenz et al., 2016; Parr et al., 2013).
Though transformation leadership can cause anxiety in employees with autism, this issue
can be mitigated by managers. Parr and Hunter (2014) discovered that transformation leaders
were effective with employees with autism when they provided coaching and communicated
their ideas; they found that an authentic leadership model where the leader is self-aware and
understands their impact on others; these leaders can adjust their approach to meet the needs of
others. Research supports that managers need to provide clear direction, confirm instructions,
and provide scaffolding when employees need to learn new processes or skills (Hagner &
Cooney, 2005; Parr & Hunter, 2014). Hagner and Cooney (2005) noted that a directive
leadership style improved employer/employee relationship and the employees work experience.
The managers interviewed stated that clear communication and review of expectation helped
reduce anxiety and uncertainty for employees and improved overall employee productivity.
Employer programs and on-the-job supports. Employers who develop programs to
support employees with autism in competitive roles in their organizations are effective in
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 36

improving employment outcomes for people with ASD. Transition to work programs
specifically created for adults with ASD increase employment outcomes. (Hagner & Cooney,
2005; Hillier et al., 2007; Wehman et al., 2013). Hillier et al. (2007) determined that income
levels of adults with autism increased by 78% as well as the number of working hours reported
when provided transition supports in competitive work environments; the employees also
maintained their employment for over one year after placement. Hagner and Cooney (2005)
found that adults with autism can excel in inclusive work environments if on the job transition
supports are provided by the employer. Through a series of interview and observations, the types
of transition supports that improved outcomes in these work relationships were determined; these
supports included supervisor and employee training, coaching on site, and job modification. All
employees were successfully employed due to these supports and modifications; they also
reported having positive working relationships with colleagues.
Chappel and Sommers (2010) identified effective strategies to support the employment of
adults with autism that include post-secondary education activities, vocational training, job
placement, independent living, and employment-related activities. Wehmen et al. (2013) research
examined the effectiveness of these strategies and found significantly improved outcomes when
employers provide supports. In a randomized trial, 87.5% of participants (21 out of 24) who
received the identified strategies acquired and maintained employment compared to 25% (1 of
16) in the control group using traditional vocational rehabilitation resources without direct
employer involvement. The findings indicate that employer-sponsored supports are needed for
successful transitions from education to employment (Chappel & Sommers, 2010; Wehman et
al., 2013).

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 37

Clark and Estes’ (2008) Gap Analysis Framework
The Clark and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis framework provides a systematic process to
analyze the effectiveness of stakeholder performance in relation to organizational goals. The
framework focuses on the motivation, knowledge, and organizational influences (KMOs) that
impact the performance of individuals and team level stakeholders. The KMOs are critical
factors in the analysis of performance problems (Clark & Estes, 2008). Knowledge and skills of
stakeholders are first examined to determine if there is a knowledge gap contributing to the
performance issue. The motivation of stakeholders toward performance goals is then examined.
Some issues that impact motivation includes individual commitment toward the goal and
competing priorities (Clark & Estes, 2008). Organizational influences and cultural impacts are
also considered. Organizational influences can manifest as barriers to company climate,
availability of resources, or work processes that contribute to performance issues (Clark & Estes,
2008). Understanding the impact of KMO influences on stakeholder behavior is a critical step in
conducting root-cause analysis and aids the process of identifying solutions to address
organization performance problems (Clark & Estes, 2008). The KMO influences on managers’
capacity to support employees with autism in competitive workplaces and their impact on
performance will serve as the framework for the study.
Stakeholder Knowledge, Motivation, and Organizational Influences
Knowledge and Skills
There is a dearth of research aligned with management knowledge, ability, and practices to
support employees with autism (Rashid, Hodgetts & Nicholas, 2017). To date, “there has been
no knowledge synthesis related to building employer capacity” to manage people with autism
competitive work environments (Rashid et al., 2017, p. 165). However, there is research that
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 38

indicates that employers have a significant impact on the employment outcomes for people with
autism (Hagner & Cooney, 2005; Martin, Woods, & Dawkins, 2015). Results show that
managements’ lack-of-knowledge contributes to the employment issues employees with autism
experience (Houtenville & Kalargyrou, 2012). Understanding knowledge and performance gaps
help to identify the types of knowledge stakeholders need to resolve issues and improve
outcomes (Clark & Estes, 2008).
The literature reviewed regarding knowledge influences for the stakeholder group in this
study is taken from research regarding employer perceptions of employees with disabilities and
data related to employment outcomes for persons with autism. This research highlighted that
there are management knowledge needs and potential gaps in how to support employees with
autism that need further examination and is the basis for the knowledge influences identified
(Houtenville & Kalargyrou, 2012; Kaye et al., 2011).
Knowledge Influences. Management skills and the ability to support employees with
disabilities are impacted by knowledge influences categorized into four domains: factual,
conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Understanding the types of knowledge needed to
manage others and reach organizational goals successfully allows for the identification of
management knowledge gaps and solutions to remediate them (Clark & Estes, 2008; Krathwohl,
2002; Rueda, 2011).
Factual knowledge is a basic component of knowing; it provides the details, terms, and
domain-specific knowledge that aid in problem-solving and discipline expertise (Krathwohl,
2002). Facts arm managers with the information they need to make informed decisions.
Conceptual knowledge, much like schema, is aligned with the principles, categorizations, and
models of knowing on topics, and the interrelations between these concepts and how they
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 39

function (Rueda, 2011). Conceptual knowledge can impact how a leader generalizes information
and opinions related to groups of people, that in turn, can impact team behavior as they adopt
their manager's assumptions (Schein, 2016). Procedural knowledge impacts a manager’s ability
to know how and when to apply a specific skill or technique to address workplace situations
(Rueda, 2011). Procedures include models and understanding of criteria to determine appropriate
action. Metacognition is an individual’s awareness of their existing knowledge and appreciation
for what they do not know (Rueda, 2011). Metacognition is aligned to a leader’s ability to reflect
on their ways of thinking and ability to learn from recollection of experience and personal
thoughts to increase their knowledge and awareness of abilities (Immordino-Yang,
Christodoulou, & Singh, 2012; Mayer, 2011).
All four types of knowledge contribute to the understanding and skills managers need to
meet the organizational objectives to support employees with autism and other developmental
disabilities in their work department. This study will focus on three knowledge influences
identified that align to the conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive domains. Each influence
will be described in order of knowledge type identified and analyzed based on the literature
reviewed to highlight the knowledge and skills managers need to support employees with autism
in competitive work environments effectively.
Understanding people with autism and their abilities in the workplace. The conceptual
knowledge managers have regarding people with autism needs to be addressed to ensure their
understanding of employees with autism and other developmental disabilities is reflective of the
skills and abilities these individuals bring to competitive work roles. Research suggests that
managers are making employment decisions and forming opinions on people with disabilities
based on misinformation (Fraser et al., 2009; Kaye et al., 2011). Many of these opinions are
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 40

based on stereotypes and a lack of direct experience working with people with disabilities (Kaye
et al., 2011). Misinformation not only impacts employer opinions but their ability to assess
people with disabilities as potential talent. Researchers found that many employers believe that
people with disabilities lack the experience and skills necessary to do the jobs for which they
apply (Houtenville & Kalargyrou, 2012; Kaye et al., 2011).
Addressing this knowledge issue is important because when managers increase their
awareness and have direct experience working with employees with autism, managers’ report
that adults with ASD are exceptional, productive workers (Hagner & Cooney, 2005). Additional
research showed that when managers understand employee issues and the types of workplace
adjustments that can be implemented, people with disabilities are successful and able to meet the
rigors of competitive workplaces (Martin et al., 2015.)
Implementing Accessibility Supports. Managers need to know how to identify and
implement workplace accommodations to support employees with autism in the workplace.
When workplace accommodations are readily provided, employees report job satisfaction,
sustained employment, and positive working relationships with their manager (Hagner &
Cooney, 2005). However, research shows that many employers’ lack the procedural knowledge
to manage and effectively support employees with autism which perpetuates the unemployment
issues currently faced by people with autism (Hagner & Cooney, 2003; Kaye et al., 2011).
The lack of procedural knowledge is due to managers having little to no training, nor
experience, in managing people with disabilities (Hagner & Cooney, 2003). Termination of the
employee was often the result when employers did not possess the knowledge needed to manage
and evaluate the work performance of adults with autism. (Houtenville & Kalargyrou, 2012).
The inability to provide the accommodations employees with autism need negatively impacts
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 41

employment outcomes and impacts management beliefs in their ability to adapt their processes to
the situation and needs of the employee. Employers need to understand workplace implications
and how to develop a response and provide appropriate supports (Martin et al., 2015).
Adaptive communication and leadership style. A manager’s metacognition regarding
their leadership and communication style significantly impacts employment outcomes for adults
with autism. Research shows that communication difficulties and awkward social interactions are
a primary manifestation of autism spectrum disorders in the workplace (Hendricks, 2010).
Providing consistent work routines, clear explanations regarding work and related changes, and
continuous communications with opportunities for feedback improve employment outcomes for
employees with severe disabilities (Hagner & Cooney, 2003; Scott et al., 2015).
Managers can effectively support the communication needs of employees with autism if
they are reflective of their actions and adopt an adaptive mindset (Parr & Hunter, 2014). Leaders
must be aware of their communication and management preferences, the needs of their
employees, and the ability to adapt their leadership style to the situation (Obolensky, 2010).
When leaders are situationally aware and cognizant of the modifications they make regarding
their approach to employees with autism, they have positive impacts on employee morale and
performance (Hagner & Cooney, 2005).
Table 2 provides the organizational mission, global goal, and breakdown of the
knowledge influences identified in this literature review that include knowledge type and
knowledge influence assessment examples.

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 42

Table 2
Knowledge Influence, Knowledge Types, and Knowledge Assessment

Global Organizational Mission
AEC organizations strive to be good corporate citizens while being world-wide leaders in their
industry.
Global Organizational Performance Goal
AEC organizations commit to increasing the number of adults with autism employed in a
multitude of data quality, technology, administration, service, and production related roles year
over year (YOY).
Knowledge Influence Knowledge Type Knowledge Influence Assessment
Managers understand
disabilities and potentially
related work issues, specifically
for employees with autism.
Declarative
(Conceptual)

Interview managers regarding their
understanding of employees with
disabilities, specifically autism;
assess knowledge regarding
disability, accommodations in the
workplace, and roles that utilize the
strengths and skills of people with
autism
Managers know how to
implement accommodations to
support job performance for
employees with autism.
Procedural Have managers provide information
on the processes they use to support
job performance for employees with
autism.
Managers understand the
adaptability of communication
and management styles is
related to employee
performance and workplace
outcomes.
Metacognitive Managers asked to describe how
they manage and include employees
with autism as part of the overall
(neuro-typical) team and
maintain/exceed current
performance goals.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 43

Motivation
There is a dearth of research regarding manager motivation to employ and make
accommodations to support employees with autism in their workplaces (Rashid et al., 2017).
However, there is research that provides employer perspectives regarding supporting employees
with disabilities in the workplace and offers insight into the types of motivation influencing
manager behavior (Rashid et al., 2017). This literature review will focus on goal-orientation
theory and how it impacts managers’ motivation to meet organizational goals, utility value that
impacts managers’ appreciation of value employees with autism bring to the workplace, and the
self-efficacy of managers regarding the ability to support employees with autism.
Goal-orientation theory. Managers’ motivation to achieve organizationally directed
goals can be explained through performance goal-orientation. Goal-orientation theory is aligned
to achievement motivation, where the motivation is derived from an individual’s focus on
achievement of goals, demonstrated ability, or performance expectations set by superiors (Yough
& Anderman, 2006). When managers have a performance orientation, they will direct their
energies toward the achievement of a goal for recognition and rewards (Rueda, 2011).
Employers can use goals to increase motivation to increase management willingness to learn
practices to support employees with autism in the workplace.
Managers and goal-orientation. Leaders are setting specific diversity goals to increase
employment outcomes for adults with autism in their organizations. These goals are aligned with
corporate social responsibility initiatives that are designed to address the growing societal issue
of unemployment and underemployment for people with autism; diversity goals do not directly
address performance issues related to the organization's profitability and industry related mission
(Markel & Barclay, 2009). Achieving performance goals that serve altruistic diversity missions
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 44

can increase shareholder trust and loyalty to the company; this recognition and impact on
profitability can be a motivating factor for managers to meet autism employment diversity goals
(Markel & Barclay, 2009; Rueda, 2011). However, many managers feel pressured to fulfill
employment targets while striving to meet increasingly aggressive productivity and profitability
goals.
Multiple performance goals result in managers choosing to hire individuals they deem as
“100% fit or able” for the roles to which they apply (Rashid et al., 2017, p. 171). Competing
priorities and goals can result in managers choosing to direct their energies toward the most
attainable goals that will bring recognition and success (Clark & Estes, 2008). Employer
diversity goals must be clear and attainable to ensure managers are motivated to achieve them;
these goals also need to be part of managers’ overall performance measures (Clark & Estes,
2008; Erickson et al., 2014). Accountability for performance can increase goal-orientation
toward attention in supporting employees with autism in addition to recognition for achieving
goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). These factors contribute to manager perception regarding the value
of diverse individuals on their teams.
Utility value. Value is the importance given to a goal or task (Rueda, 2011). Utility value
is one dimension of expectancy theory, which aligns with the usefulness and benefits an
individual believes can be obtained from participating in an activity (Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011).
If a manager does not believe there is a benefit to adding employees with autism to their team, or
worse, that they will have a negative impact on the attainment of business goals, they will not
work toward the goal. Utility value is fueled by an individual’s belief that the cost of engaging in
the task will lead to desired results (Eccles, 2006)
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 45

Managers and utility value. Managers need to believe there is utility value in hiring
people with autism into their departments. Current research shows that employers today do not
appreciate the value these employees bring to the workplace (Kaye et al., 2011). If managers do
not see value in hiring employees with autism, they will not actively seek to hire or make efforts
to provide workplace accommodations for people with autism.
Managers’ perceptions regarding the value of employees with disabilities impact their
decision to hire and support these employees; this perpetuates the high rate of unemployment and
underemployment for PWA (Domzal, Houtenville, & Sharma, 2008). Researchers found that
72% of employers cited the nature of the work was too challenging for people with disabilities;
managers did not believe that these employees would be productive assets on their team (Domzal
et al., 2008; Kaye et al., 2011). To improve employment outcomes, employers need to
understand the skills adults with autism can bring to the workplace and the value they can
contribute to the team. Employers want information and supporting data regarding performance
productivity of workers with disabilities and the specific ways these employees can benefit a
company’s “bottom line” (Domzal et al., 2008).
Self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy beliefs are the perceptions people have about their
skills and abilities (Rueda, 2011). An individual's beliefs in their abilities toward a goal can
impact their actions to work toward desired outcomes or to direct their attention elsewhere
(Pajares, 2006). If a manager has high self-efficacy regarding their management ability, they are
more willing to learn and try new techniques in the workplace. Prior success and failure
experiences impact an individual’s thought patterns and future action in related situations
(Pajares, 2006). Understanding employers’ beliefs regarding their ability to manage employees
with autism will impact their motivation to support people with autism in the workplace.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 46

Manager self-efficacy. Employers do not believe they are prepared to handle problems or
provide appropriate accommodations for employees with disabilities (Hagner & Cooney, 2003).
Managers’ lack of knowledge regarding employees with disabilities impacts their motivation to
seek out talent with autism (Houtenville & Kalargyrou, 2012). However, increased knowledge
regarding people with disabilities and direct experience working with employees with autism
improves managers’ self-efficacy in their ability to support these employees. Researchers found
that managers who had direct experience working with employees with autism were confident in
their decision and ability to accommodate these employees in the workplace (Hagner & Cooney,
2005; Rashid et al., 2017).
In addition to higher self-efficacy in their ability to manage employees, managers who
employed people with autism also stated that the accommodations they made for these
employees are modifications they would make for any individual to be successful (Hagner &
Cooney, 2005). Researchers also found that employers felt personal satisfaction from hiring and
successfully supporting employees with disabilities (Rashid et al., 2017). Successful outcomes
contribute to positive self-image and individual self-esteem, which can lead to increase self-
efficacy and motivation to employ adults with autism (Rueda, 2011).
Table 3 reiterates the organizational mission and global goal as stated in Table 1. It also
shows the motivational influences and aligned assessments on the goal-orientation, utility value,
and self-efficacy of managers in competitive work environments.

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 47

Table 3
Motivational Influences and Assessment for Motivation Gap Analysis
Global Organizational Mission
AEC organizations strive to be good corporate citizens while being world-wide leaders in their
industry.
Global Organizational Performance Goal
AEC organizations commit to increasing the number of adults with autism employed in a
multitude of data quality, technology, administration, service, and production related roles year
over year (YOY).
Assumed Motivation Influences Motivational Influence Assessment
Goal-Oriented (performance approach):
Managers support the performance of
adults with autism to meet the
organization’s goal and commitment to be
a diverse, disability-inclusive employer.
Human resource data including hiring and attrition
rate data; Interview: “How do you evaluate the
performance of employees.” “How do you manage
performance issues on the team.” “How do you
address performance development opportunities.”
Utility Value:
Managers see the value to team
productivity by having employees with
autism on their teams.

Data collected: productivity data month to month,
quality analytics; Interview: “Has employee
productivity changed since adding employees with
autism to the team?” “Does your team consistently
meet SLAs (service level agreements).”
Self-efficacy:
Managers believe they can effectively
manage employees with autism.
Interview: What accommodations are provided to
employees? What are current issues experienced
managing employees (w/ and without autism)?
What support and resources are needed to handle
employee issues (with and without autism)?

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 48

Organizational Influences
Organizational influences are also a factor that impacts managers’ abilities to support
inclusive, diverse work environments. Organizational influences include culture, resources, and
processes that serve as the framework in which managers and employees operate (Clark & Estes,
2008; Schein, 2016). Alignment of workplace culture, the behavior of employees, adherence to
policies and processes, and access to necessary resources can improve motivation and support
the attainment of organizational goals (Schein, 2016). This section of the literature review will
focus on the cultural models of organizations to highlight the shared beliefs held within, and the
cultural setting that includes managers’ behaviors that influence employment outcomes for
people with disabilities.
Cultural Models. The implementation of diversity-related programs in organizations can
be explained through cultural model influences. A cultural model is the espoused values, beliefs,
goals, and shared understanding of the expectations and purpose of an organization (Schein,
2016). Over time, as corporate cultures shift to represent the beliefs and mindset of the
communities they serve, shared understanding and organizational processes evolve, creating a
new belief system and normative expectations in the organization (Gallimore & Goldenburg,
2001). Cultural model influences can provide insight into organizations’ increased focus and
commitment to supporting diversity in the workplace.
Cultural model influences and manager appreciation of diversity in the workplace.
There was an increased focus amongst Fortune 100 organizations regarding diversity and
inclusion, equal opportunity, and corporate social responsibility in the communities they serve
(Che, 2016; Chen et al., 2015). For diversity and inclusion strategies to be successful in large
organizations, it is necessary for the corporate-wide mindset to appreciate the value and
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 49

importance of diversity in the workplace (Spataro, 2005). This mindset change can be seen in the
messages organizations share with employees and other stakeholders, the inclusion of strategic
goals related to diversity and inclusions efforts, and the promotion of differences in the
workplace. The introduction of new ways of thinking, the introduction of new practices and
expectations, and celebration regarding diversity created a new climate that impacts the culture
of the entire organizations (Schein, 2016). The shift to an inclusive corporate culture promotes a
change in employees and organizational actions, which become the artifacts of the newly
espoused ideals. Appreciation of diversity in organizations impacts the culture of managers and
employees in both visible and invisible ways (Kuznetsova, 2016). Visibly, culture can be seen
through publicized initiatives, employee engagement activities, and internal policies regarding
inclusion and diversity requirements in interactions with both employees and customers.
Invisible culture manifestations include the presence of inclusive interpersonal interactions
between employees, corporate messaging that is focused on social responsibility and accessible
in format, and training that is focused on value creation and meaningful tasks promote diversity
indirectly ways (Kuznetsova, 2016).
Cultural model influences and manager acceptance and willingness to provide
workplace accommodations. While organizations promote appreciation of diversity, manager
acceptance and willingness to provide workplace accommodations to people with disabilities has
been slow to change. While managers believe in the ideals of diversity many do not feel they
have adequate resources available to effectively support employees with disabilities (Cavenah et
al., 2017). Without adequate resources, organizations fail to deliver on promoted ideas and
initiatives (Erikson et al., 2014; Kuznetsova, 2016). Managers’ willingness to hire and provide
needed accommodations for employees with disabilities increased when there was easy access to
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 50

resources and managers were held accountable to diversity metrics as part of their performance
measures and business scorecards (Erickson et al., 2014).
Managers’ willingness to support employees with autism is also impacted by the costs
associated with hiring people with disabilities. The potential increased costs of providing
accommodations can be a deterrent to the willingness of managers to include these employees on
their teams (Hernandez, Keys, & Balcazar, 2000). However, in workplaces where attitudes
regarding fairness and responsiveness were highly valued, the corporation and its managers were
more responsive to the needs of employees with and without disabilities and more willing to
incur any costs associated with employing them (Hernandez et al., 2000; Schur, Kruse, Blasi, &
Blanck, 2009).
Cultural Setting. Cultural settings are the beliefs and opinions that are specific to a
group, location, or another collective of people that are brought together to achieve a specific
outcome (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001). These beliefs impact the group's reaction to
organizational changes and their willingness to adopt new processes and ideas. Cultural settings
can be observed through the actions individuals take in their interactions with others (Gallimore
& Goldenberg, 2001). Group actions can result in cultural artifacts that provide insight into
potential gaps that impact the attainment of an organization’s strategic goals (Clark & Estes,
2008)
Cultural setting influences and managers promotion of diversity hiring and inclusion
in the workplace. Managers feel competing pressures regarding their organization’s commitment
to hire and include employees with disabilities in the workplace. Some of the initiatives
organizations are implementing have very specific diversity target numbers that HR
professionals feel are hard to achieve (Erikson et al., 2014). Publicity of these efforts may also be
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 51

adding to the demands on managers (Che, 2016; Erikson et al., 2014). Historically, managers felt
pressure to meet production goals and would choose to hire people whom they believe could
help meet these targets over “goodwill” hires because they felt that meeting production quotas
was their primary responsibility (Cooper, 1995). However, there has been a shift in mindset and
definition of performance expectations over the last decade which has resulted in an increased
willingness to include employees with disabilities in the workplace.
Research indicates the cultural settings of individual work teams are becoming more
aligned with corporate culture and diversity-minded ideals (Cavanagh et al., 2017; Hagner &
Cooney, 2005). Managers reported that they felt their employees with autism were exceptional
workers and took a great amount of pride in their work (Hagner & Cooney. 2005). However,
there is evidence some managers are holding stricter standards and provide more rigorous and
unwarranted supervision of the employees with disabilities they hire (Cavanagh et al., 2017; Von
Schrader et al., 2013). These differences in managers’ experience indicate that corporate and
team cultures have an impact on work relationships and management attitudes.
Cultural setting influences and management responsiveness to requests for
accommodations in the workplace. Managers in organizations that culturally support and
provide the resources managers need to accommodate employees with disabilities are more
likely to favorably respond to requests for accommodations and be more willing to modify
practices to support disabilities in the workplace (Hagner & Cooney, 2005; Schur et al., 2009).
Managers that provided extra accommodations for employees with autism felt that it was “no big
deal” and that they “would do this for any of their employees” to ensure success (Hagner &
Cooney, 2005). These managers were willing to provide resources for additional costs, such as
assistive technology and modified workspaces; they were also willing to modify their approach
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 52

to interpersonal interactions and leadership in the workplace. The managers found that these
changes benefited the entire team and resulted in increased productivity for all employees
(Hagner & Cooney, 2005).
Not all managers in inclusive organizations are onboard to support employees with
disabilities. Other employers were reticent to provide accommodations to employees with autism
in the workplace. Some managers expressed attitudes that were unhelpful to improving diversity;
they stated they should not have to “change their ways” to accommodate differences in others
(Richards, 2012). While managers’ willingness to accommodate employees with autism in the
workplace is improving, the resources they provide are often limited to structural adjustments,
and there is limited professional support provided for these employees (Cavanagh et al., 2017).
Table 4 shows the organizational influences and aligned assessments in relation to the
cultural model and setting influences on managers in organizations who support employees with
autism.

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 53

Table 4
Organizational Influences and Assessment for Organizational Gap Analysis
Global Organizational Mission
AEC organizations strive to be good corporate citizens while being world-wide leaders in their
industry.
Global Organizational Performance Goal
AEC organizations commit to increasing the number of adults with autism employed in a multitude
of data quality, technology, administration, service, and production related roles year over year
(YOY).
Assumed Organizational Influences Organizational Influence Assessment
Cultural Model Influence 1:
Managers need an appreciation of diverse
cultures and abilities in the workplace.
Interview questions that pulse manager
perception on the value of diversity (disability
included) in the workplace.
Cultural Model Influence 2:
Managers need acceptance and willingness to
provide accommodations to support employees
with disabilities.
Interview questions that pulse manager opinion
on accommodation in the workplace and their
perception of supporting employees with
disabilities.
Cultural Setting Influence 1:
Managers should promote diversity in hiring
and increased inclusion of people with
disabilities on their teams.
Quantitative data on hiring/employee
demographics; interview questions
Cultural Setting Influence 2:
Managers need to respond to employee requests
for accommodations and ensure employees with
disabilities have tools and resources they need
to be successful.
Interview questions; data regarding
accommodations requested and currently being
used by employees.

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 54

Conceptual Framework: The Interaction of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Motivation and
the Organizational Context
A conceptual framework is a systemic theory that is generated about the assumed
relationships between key factors and concepts as they relate to an identified phenomenon
(Maxwell, 2013). The framework serves as a model that guides the search for related literature,
study methodology, sampling strategy, data collection, and interpretation of the data. Conceptual
frameworks, represented in visual and narrative forms, are constructed by the researcher through
a combination of empirical data, theoretical literature, individual experiences, and beliefs
(Maxwell, 2013). The conceptual framework represents the researcher’s assumptions regarding
the interactions of stakeholders and key influencers as they relate to the research problem and
serves to justify the scope of the study (Maxwell, 2013).
The conceptual framework for this study considers the interrelationship of organizational
culture and influences (knowledge and motivation) on managers’ ability to hire and support
employees with autism in competitive work environments. While organizations and manager are
distinct stakeholders related to this phenomenon they do not operate in isolation from the other.
The conceptual framework represents the connected relationship between organizations and their
managers that were identified through the researcher’s experience and empirical literature
reviewed and provided context to guide this study.
Figure 1 illustrates how manager knowledge and motivation are connected; it specifically
highlights the influence organizations and managers have on management practices that impact
employment outcomes for people with autism.

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 55

Figure 1. Conceptual framework for the study of managers’ capacity to support employees with
autism integrating knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences

Autism Employment Collective (AEC)
Cultural Models: Diversity minded and inclusive organization;
Organizational set expectations to increase and support diversity
Cultural Setting: People with autism are being hired across departments in organizations;
Managers respond to employees needs and support inclusive teams;
Organization provides resources to help managers accommodate employees
Manager Knowledge

Increased need for knowledge
• Understanding people with autism
and their abilities in the workplace
(conceptual)
• How to implement accessibility
supports (procedural)

Awareness of leadership style and ability to
adapt situationally (metacognitive)

Manager Motivation

Motivation to support employees with
autism in the workplace
• Motivated to meet company
requirements (goal-oriented)
• See the value of diversity on their
teams (utility value)

Belief they can effectively lead diverse
employees (self-efficacy)

Autism Employment Programs
Stakeholder Goal
AEC managers will demonstrate inclusive management practices that effectively support and retain high-
performing employees with autism (attrition rate/ performance goals).
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 56

Figure 1 outlines the relationship between the factors influencing management practices
and engagement in the autism employment programs that impact managers’ ability to meet the
stakeholder goal of supporting employees with autism. The large blue circle represents the
organizational influences of AEC affecting the cultural setting and models in which managers
and autism employment programs reside. Organizational influences are impacted by cultural
models that include diversity minded and inclusive organizations (Erikson et al., 2014; Spataro,
2005) and organizational set expectations to increase and support the diversity of employees
(Erikson et al., 2014; Schur et al., 2009). The organizations are also influenced by the cultural
setting that includes increased hiring efforts of employees with autism across their organizations
(Che, 2016), managers’ responsiveness to employees with disabilities needs and support of
inclusive teams (Cavanagh et al., 2017; Hagner & Cooney, 2005), and access to necessary
resources to allow managers to provide workplace accommodations to employees (Hagner &
Cooney, 2005; Schur et al., 2009).
Autism employment programs reside within AEC organizations. Represented as the black
circle, autism employment is the global goal that unites these organizations as a collective.
Within the global goal is the interrelated knowledge and motivation influences that affect
manager capacity to support employees with autism in the workplace; interlinked green circles
represent this. The interaction of the motivation and knowledge influences are reciprocal and
critical factors impacting managers’ ability to achieve the stakeholder goal (Clark & Estes,
2008).
Manager knowledge influences include conceptual knowledge regarding people with
disabilities and their abilities in the workplace (Houtenville & Kalargyrou, 2012; Kaye et al.,
2011), procedural knowledge on how to provide accommodations (Hagner & Cooney, 2003;
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 57

Kaye et al., 2011; Martin et al., 2015), and metacognitive awareness of their ability to
situationally adapt their leadership and communication style (Hagner & Cooney, 2005; Parr &
Hunter, 2014). Knowledge influences seem to significantly impact managers’ ability to support
employees with autism in competitive workplaces.
Manager motivation influences include goal-orientation toward meeting performance
goals (Clark & Estes, 2008; Erickson et al., 2014; Rashid et al., 2017), utility value regarding
diversity on their teams (Domzal et al., 2008; Kaye et al., 2011), and self-efficacy regarding their
ability to lead diverse employees (Hagner & Cooney, 2005; Rashid et al., 2017; Rueda, 2011).
Motivational influences appear to impact managers’ willingness to learn as knowledge affects
managers’ motivation toward supporting employees with autism.
This conceptual framework suggests attainment of the stakeholder goal is probable if
organizational cultures support diversity and inclusiveness through embedded processes and
accessibility resources, and managers’ knowledge and motivation issues about supporting
employees with autism in the workplace are addressed.
Conclusion
Understanding how to build employer capacity to support people with autism in
competitive workplaces is necessary to address the growing issue of under and unemployment of
people with autism. The literature presented highlighted that the issue of under and
unemployment is impacted by many factors including increasing rates of autism diagnosis, lack
of competitive work opportunities for people with autism, and incorrect assumptions made by
managers regarding the capabilities of employees with autism in the workplace. Focusing on
managers as a primary stakeholder and reviewing literature through the Clark and Estes (2008)
Gap Analysis conceptual framework themes emerged that showed influences impacting
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 58

managers’ knowledge and motivation as well as the organizational construct that impacts
employment outcomes for people with autism.
The conceptual framework presented the theory that AEC’s cultural influences and
managers’ knowledge and motivation may have a direct impact on the outcomes of
organizational initiatives to hire and retain employees with autism in competitive roles in the
organization. While the literature reviewed presented managers’ perceptions regarding
employees with autism and data on employment outcomes, there is a dearth of literature
regarding building employer capacity to support employees with autism. Therefore, Chapter
Three will outline the methodological approach that will be used to examine manager
knowledge, organizational processes, and other potential factors that impact AEC and their
managers’ abilities to attain employment goals as part of their autism employment and strategic
diversity initiatives.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 59

Chapter Three: Methodology
Chapter Three presents the research design and methodology for data collection and
analysis to examine the management practices at AEC organizations with autism employment
programs. Specifically, this research is to understand better how these companies implement
diversity programs that help to address the larger problem of practice, the limited number of
competitive employment opportunities for adults with autism. The analysis is focused on the
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences (KMO) and resources needed to support
the employment of adults with autism in competitive workplaces. The following research
questions guided the design of this study:
1. What are managers’ knowledge and motivation related to supporting employees with
autism that would lead to increased capacity to hire and retain these adults in their
organizations?
2. What is the interaction between AEC organizations’ culture and context, and managers’
knowledge and motivation on their ability to increase the number of adults with autism
they hire and support on competitive work teams across their organizations?
3. What are recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources that will support 2020 diversity goals across AEC organizations, and help
inform other leaders on how to build employer capacity to employ adults with autism in
their organizations?
This chapter includes a description of participating stakeholders, the data collection and
analysis methods to be implemented, a discussion regarding credibility and trustworthiness of the
study design. The chapter concludes with ethical considerations as well as identified limitations,
and delimitations of the study.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 60

Participating Stakeholders
While multiple stakeholders were identified as impacting employment outcomes for
people with autism, managers at AEC organizations currently leading teams that included
employees with and without autism are the stakeholders of focus for this study. These managers
were charged to supervise employees, provide workplace accommodations, and tasked to
maintain productivity and meet organizational goals in their departments. Research indicates that
employment outcomes are affected by management practices and the work-relationship between
managers and their employees with autism (Chappel & Sommers, 2010; Muller et al., 2003; Parr
& Hunter, 2014). The managers’ ability to effectively support and retain employees with autism
as part of inclusive work teams had potentially significant impacts on the success of autism
employment programs at AEC organizations. Each AEC organization had autism program
leaders that oversaw the onboarding of employees with autism and provided related training and
resources for managers. The autism program leaders are also participating stakeholders, as they
aided in the recruitment of managers for this study and provided organizational context, program
data, and views on the overall effectiveness of managers and the autism employment initiatives.
Interview Sampling Criteria and Rationale
Criterion 1. Managers of teams or departments that include people with autism currently
or within the past six months. Managers who led teams that include people with autism as part of
a larger neurotypical team will provide perspectives and insight regarding potential differences in
management styles, communication practices, organizational context, and other critical
knowledge and leadership skills needed to lead inclusive teams. Collecting data on managers’
knowledge, skills, motivation, and organizational influences related to supporting employees
with autism on inclusive teams is necessary to answer research question two and increase
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 61

understanding on the types of knowledge and organizational influences impacting the ability to
support employees with autism in their organizations.
Criterion 2. Managers that were not in disability or diversity aligned departments or
roles. Managers in human resource, diversity, or disability aligned departments are excluded
from this stakeholder group. The focus was on general managers (non-disability specialists)
ability and knowledge to support people with autism in inclusive workplaces.
Criterion 3. Managers at AEC companies that had more than two years of supervisory
work experience (with or without employees with disabilities). This criterion was to ensure
managers interviewed have adequate team management and supervisory experience to provide
insight into potential differences in managing employees with and without disabilities such as
autism.
Interview Sampling (Recruitment) Strategy and Rationale
The sampling for interviews was purposeful, convenience, and non-probability (Creswell,
2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This purposeful selection was designed to provide detailed
qualitative information to increase understanding of managers that have direct supervisory
responsibility for employees with autism on inclusive work teams. To recruit participants for this
study, autism program leaders and HR leaders at each target organization were contacted via e-
mail. Follow-up telephone meetings to discuss the nature of the research and request for
participation were then held with each autism program leader. These leaders were identified
through media news articles, LinkedIn profiles, and business contacts through the researchers’
professional network. Eight organizations were invited to participate in the study. Interested
organizations were provided with detailed information (Appendix C) regarding the research
project, methodology, and expectations for participant involvement. Four organizations agreed to
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 62

participate. The sample of managers was obtained through a convenience method by
identification of participants for interviews through the autism program leaders at each
organization. The target was to sample 4-5 managers from each participating organization, which
resulted in 11 participating managers. This sample size allowed for representation of managers
that support employees with autism at each organization (Creswell, 2014) while being a realistic
sample size to interview and analyze given the limited resources to conduct the study.
Autism program leaders led the recruitment of participants in their respective
organizations. These leaders identified a small group of managers in their organizations who met
the stakeholder criterion to participate in interviews for this study and provided contact
information so individual meetings could be scheduled with each participant. The autism
program leaders were also interviewed to provide details regarding the implementation and status
of their autism employment programs, as well as provide additional insights on managers and
employee experiences. The chosen sampling method created a purposeful, convenience, non-
probability sample because the recruitment of managers was impacted by the autism program
leaders’ choice in manager selection, as well as the researcher’s criteria (Creswell, 2014;
Maxwell, 2012).
Document (Report Data) Collection
Data was collected from each participating organization that included metrics regarding
hiring and manager participation aligned with the autism employment program. The researcher
pulled publicly accessible data, and each program leader confirmed and compiled additional data
as needed. These data reports were used to provide quantitative measures regarding the current
state of autism at work initiatives at each organization and allow triangulation of data against the
interview responses collected (Creswell, 2014). Employment data and reports compiled by
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 63

government agencies were also collected for comparison to data provided by the AEC
organizations.
Document artifacts regarding each organization’s diversity, disability, and autism-related
initiatives were examined. These documents included articles and other related media content
published in the last five years that are aligned with programs and stories that highlight AEC
organizations’ autism-related initiatives. The researcher searched for these articles on publicly
accessible websites that include reputable news sites and each participating organizations’ media
pages. This data was used to provide organizational context to autism employment programs as
well as provide insight into the perceived effectiveness of autism employment programs.
Explanation for Choices
Interviews and document collection were chosen as the methods for this study because
the data would provide insight on the perceptions and knowledge of managers regarding their
ability and willingness to support employees with autism in the workplace (Creswell, 2014). The
interviews provided insight from managers with direct experience supporting teams that include
employees with autism, focusing on the manager's leadership, communication, and management
styles currently used to support their employees with and without autism. These interviews were
necessary to answer the research questions to determine the “how” and “why” these managers
are successful in supporting employees with autism on their teams (Creswell, 2014). The
documents and organizational data collected provided context and verification on the status and
effectiveness of autism employment programs implemented at participating AEC organizations.
Data Collection and Instrumentation
Interviews and document analysis were used for the data collection process. Interview
data provided insight into the types of knowledge managers need to support employees with
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 64

autism and what motivates them to include and accommodate these employees. Interviews
allowed managers to describe their experiences and opinions which will provide context
regarding the environment and organizational culture. Document analysis provided current and
historical insights about the culture and contextual influences on the managers of the AEC
organizations. The following section provides details and rationale for the instruments selected
for data collection.
Interviews
One-time interviews with eleven managers and four autism program leaders from four
participating AEC organizations was conducted. The interview approach was semi-structured.
The protocol (Appendix A) included a fixed set of open-ended interview questions and
additional probe questions to allow the researcher to obtain further insight into the participant’s
responses. A semi-structured protocol provides a fixed set of questions for the interviews and
increases the reliability of the protocol. (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) The open-ended style of the
questions provided the opportunity for a deeper understanding of the participant's experiences
and contributes to increased validity in the responses received (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam &
Tisdell, 2016). The interviews were held virtually to overcome the geographical disbursement of
participants and allowed increased flexibility regarding place and time for the interviews.
Virtual, real-time interviews allowed for interactions similar to in-person meetings and helped
the researcher to build rapport with the participant and observe visual cues as part of the
observation process (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
The researcher’s approach to the interviews provided insight into management practices
at AEC organizations. Questions were designed to examine managers’ leadership experience and
style, communication practices, and direct experience supporting employees with autism to
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 65

understand the types of knowledge and motivations impacting managers’ ability to support
people with autism in the workplace. By examining managers’ organizations, information
regarding organizational culture and other influences that may impact managers’ ability and
willingness to support employees with autism was also obtained. The interview structure was
designed to provide a holistic picture of management practices at AEC organizations
Documents and Artifacts
Data was collected from each organization that includes attrition rates and other
employment measures for employees in the departments that comprise employees with autism
for comparative analysis. The data provided historical program information to determine trends
in hiring, retention, and work quality at AEC organizations. Organizational statistics were
important to collect to gather data that “cannot be observed” and is necessary to determine trends
over time (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The data was compared to reports produced by
government agencies and special interest groups regarding employment statistics for people with
autism.
Organizational artifacts that included publicly accessible stories and marketing materials
regarding AEC diversity efforts and autism-related initiatives was also collected. The materials
collected from AEC organizations’ websites and reputable news sources reporting on these
organizations such as business journals and trade publications. A document and artifacts
collection protocol was used to track the gathering of the data described (Appendix B). Once
documents were obtained, the authenticity was accessed to ensure the source and content were
credible (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The intent of gathering public data from primary and
secondary sources was to gain insight into the espoused culture and perception regarding these
organizations and their diversity initiatives. The information was used to provide additional
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 66

context and historical data regarding the rationale and continued implementation of autism
employment programs.
Data Analysis
Interview data analysis began during data collection. Analytic memos were written after
each interview that included thoughts, concerns, and initial conclusions in relation to the study’s
conceptual framework and research questions. The interviews were transcribed and coded with
transcription software. In the first phase of analysis, open coding was used to look for empirical
codes and application of priori codes from the conceptual framework. The second phase of
analysis was the aggregation of empirical and priori codes into analytic/axial codes. In the third
phase of data analysis, pattern codes and themes that emerged in relation to the conceptual
framework and study questions were identified. Analysis of documents and artifacts was
conducted for evidence consistent with the concepts in the conceptual framework.
Credibility and Trustworthiness
The credibility and trustworthiness of research data are associated with the ethics of the
researcher (Merriam & Tisdell, 2009). Trustworthiness is influenced by the methods chosen to
generate data for the study. The research methods should align with the research questions posed,
and the approach to collect data should be well defined and consistently applied (Maxwell,
2013). Credibility is influenced by the quality of the protocols used and the resulting data’s
ability to answer the research question posed. To increase the credibility of this study,
interviews, documents, and artifacts will be used. The protocols were designed to generate data
that align with specific components of the research questions posed. Using multiple data
collection methods will allow for triangulation to determine if there are congruence and validity
in the data collected (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 67

Bias held by the researcher can also impact credibility and trustworthiness. Transparency
regarding vested interests can increase trustworthiness and reliability of the data collected; the
existence of bias does not reduce the validity of data if the researcher acts with integrity in
conducting their research (Maxwell, 2013). The researcher took steps to mitigate potential bias in
the collection and analysis of data. The researcher was transparent regarding a vested interest in
the results of this study and shared her background during interviews and meetings with
participants and other stakeholders. The bias that can manifest with an activist mindset is aligned
with the promotion of capabilities and value of people with autism. The researcher’s activist
mindset was the result of significant research and study on autism inclusion issues as well as
direct personal experience supporting a child with autism.
The researcher’s exposure to disability issues data also resulted in a belief that many
employers lack knowledge regarding people with disabilities, which contributes to the
perpetuation of myths and unsupportive actions. Awareness of this bias resulted in the creation
of non-leading interview questions; the questions were phrased to elicit natural responses from
the participants. Researchers have an ethical duty to collect and report data as it is presented
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Analyzing the data using the KMO framework
helped to answer the research questions posed in this study and tested the researchers’
assumptions regarding managers’ beliefs and actions toward people with autism in the
workplace.
Ethics
When working with human subjects, an Institutional Review Board (IRB) requires
researchers to implement thoughtful and ethical procedures to ensure that the rights and well-
being of participants are protected throughout the research process (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). To
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 68

comply with IRB requirements at USC, the researcher of this project created an approach to
ensure this study was ethically executed to protect the research participants. Ethical
considerations include informed consent, notice of voluntary nature of participation, protecting
the confidentiality of the study participants and their data, obtaining permission to record
participant responses, and the process to secure and store data collected (Glesne, 2011; Rubin &
Rubin, 2012).
An information sheet was provided electronically to each participating organization and
human subject to ensure they had the information necessary to give consent regarding their
participation in the research. Appendix D shows the information sheet had standard components
found in research consent forms that include: the purpose and type of the research being
conducted and the voluntary nature of participation, confidentiality, and privacy information, and
participant’s right to withdraw without repercussion at any time (Glesne, 2011; Rubin & Rubin,
2012). Additional approvals were also obtained from executive leaders at each organization
through verified corporate e-mails; additional approvals are often necessary to ensure employee
participation is permitted by their organization (Creswell, 2014).
For virtual interviews, the consent form was sent before the meeting. Consent to
participate and permission to record was obtained as part of the interview process. The
participants were informed that the recording was for consent and transcription purposes only.
The confidentiality of interviewed participants was protected by using pseudonyms in all
transcriptions and documents. Masking responses obtained from participants reduces the
potential to identify participants from the information shared during interviews (Glesne, 2011).
The interview data collected was stored and password protected on an external drive that
resides in the researcher’s home. Notes and transcriptions created from interviews used the
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 69

pseudonyms selected for the interview participants, and electronic documents were secured with
a password on a (non-cloud) computer drive.
The researcher was an external third party to the programs and departments at the
organizations participating in this study and has no existing relationship with the participating
managers, autism program leaders, or their employees. The role of a researcher is to investigate
organizations and empirically validate the phenomenon of focus (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). In this
project, the investigation was to understand the effectiveness and replicability of autism
employment programs at large public organizations and the practices of managers who lead
inclusive teams in these competitive work environments.
The interest in competitive organizations’ abilities to accommodate people with autism
was stemmed from the researcher’s concern regarding employment and life quality outcomes for
adults with autism; as the researcher has a child with autism. Creswell (2014) stated that vested
interests could lead to assumptions that inform the central thesis of the dissertation. The
researcher believed that inclusive management practices could improve employment outcomes
for people with autism and may also benefit employees of all abilities, much like inclusive
design principles used in education, and architectural design standards benefit people with and
without disabilities today (Lid, 2014).
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations and delimitations were identified that impact the instruments and populations
selected for this study. The instruments selected to collect data for this research are limited by
policies at AEC organizations regarding the solicitation of employees. Due to these
organizational policies, surveys and employee observation were not permitted. Surveys would
have allowed the anonymous collection of data regarding employer perceptions of employees
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 70

with disabilities in the workplace that participants may be less willing to share through other
collection methods (Creswell, 2014). Observations would have provided data to compare with
manager interview responses regarding management practices, communication style, and overall
interactions with their employees. Publishing of data collected for document analysis was also
limited in order to maintain the anonymity of the participating organizations.
Another limitation is the dependency of participants fully sharing their experiences and
perception of effectively managing employees with autism. Even though responses were
protected by the researcher and reported anonymously, the participants may alter their answers to
reflect what they believe should be the correct response. This type of reflexivity of participants is
consistently represented as a limitation in qualitative research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Delimitations to the study were aligned with stakeholder selection. While multiple
stakeholders are impacted by autism employment programs and could provide insight into
employers’ ability and effectiveness in supporting employees with autism, only managers were
selected. The researcher made this choice due to limited resources, access to participants, and
time. The researcher understands that obtaining only the experiences and perceptions of
managers regarding their practices may differ greatly from employee experiences; however,
there is considerable existing research regarding employees with autism’s experiences and
perceptions in working in competitive work environments and a dearth of literature regarding
how to build employer capacity from managers’ perspectives (Rashid et al., 2017). Obtaining
data directly from managers would provide insight into the rationale for choices made regarding
management style and communication with employees.

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 71

Chapter Four: Findings
The purpose of this project was to examine the practices of managers in autism inclusive
departments at autism employment collective (AEC) organizations. The study was to understand
how these managers can support adults with autism in their workplaces, as AEC programs are
helping to address the larger problem of practice, the limited number of organizations effectively
hiring and retaining employees with autism in competitive roles.
The following questions guided the gathering of data to determine the knowledge,
motivation, and organizational influences impacting managers’ ability to support employees with
autism in the workplace:
1. What are managers’ knowledge and motivation related to supporting employees with
autism that would lead to increased capacity to hire and retain these adults in their
organizations?
2. What is the interaction between AEC organizations’ culture and context, and managers’
knowledge and motivation on their ability to increase the number of adults with autism
they hire and support on competitive work teams across their organizations?
3. What are recommendations in the areas of knowledge, motivation, and organizational
resources that will support 2020 diversity goals across AEC organizations, and help
inform other leaders on how to build employer capacity to employ adults with autism in
their organizations?
Participating Stakeholders
The participating stakeholders for this study were managers at organizations part of the
AEC, which are organizations with known autism employment programs that are focused on the
hiring and retention of adults with autism in competitive roles. These organizations represent a
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 72

small, innovative field of companies that currently have targeted initiatives to increase the
diversity of employees in their organizations that include a focus on disabilities such as autism,
and actively collaborate regarding best practices and information sharing regarding these
initiatives.
Four AEC organizations agreed to participate in the research. Eleven out of nineteen
(58%) managers invited to participate in the study from these organizations agreed to be
interviewed. Autism program leaders from each of the four participating organizations which
oversee the AEC autism employment programs were also included in interview data collection to
provide insight and details regarding the implementation of these programs. While one
organization did not permit managers to participate in the study, the autism program leader
offered valuable information regarding the organization’s program and insight on employing
adults with autism. Information from autism program leaders provided context regarding the
structure of programs, recruiting implementation considerations, and perspective on management
practices and employment supports provided for adults with autism.
Analysis of Participating Organizations
The four organizations that participated in this study represent 50% of organizations
identified as AEC organizations at the time of data collection. (anonymous, personal
communication, March 30, 2018). Each organization was represented by an autism program
leader that provided data and context into their aligned organization’s initiatives. Table 5
provides an overview of each participating organization highlighting their collective distribution
and aligned autism program leader. Seventy-five percent of the participating organizations were
large with over 10,000 employees. The organizations established their autism employment
programs within four years of each other (2012-2015). This time-frame aligns to the increased
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 73

focus on autism employment needs and the United Nations call to action (United Nations, 2012,
2015). The exact number of employees with autism currently hired at each organization was not
disclosed to protect the identity of the participating organizations. Most organizations reported
having more than 50 employees with autism presently employed at the time of data collection;
this number of employees with autism did not align to organization size. Each organization had
media coverage regarding their programs and the success of their initiatives.
Additionally, these organizations promoted their autism employment programs on their
corporate web pages. While each organization varies in how they recruit employees, each
company’s initiatives focused on recruiting, hiring, training, and the onboarding process for
adults with autism. Each organization had a formal work entry program that included targeted
recruiting, internships, and cohort entry programs. The organizations provided various levels of
training and resources for managers that included: autism awareness training, job-aids and tip
sheets, external autism coaches as resources for managers, and on-the-job supports to support
employee with autism onboarding.
Autism program leaders were interviewed to verify data collected from public websites
and articles as well as to provide their perspective on management practices and training in their
organizations. Two of the autism program leaders had prior experience managing employees
with autism; these managers were asked additional questions from the interview protocol for
managers regarding their past experiences (Appendix A). The organization data and autism
program leader data were used to verify organizational influences and outcomes that support
themes that generated from the manager interviews; however, it is important to note that detailed
organizational data is limited in the reported findings to ensure anonymity of the participating
organizations.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 74

Table 5
Participating Organizations and Aligned Autism Program Leaders
Company*
Organization
Size
Autism
Program
Established
Employees with
Autism
Autism
Training
Provided
Autism Program
Leader*
A >10,000 2015 >50 Yes Michael**
B >10,000 2012 < 50 Yes Lauren
C < 1,000 2013 >50 Yes Oscar**
D >10,000 2015 >50 Yes Pete
Note. * Codes and pseudonyms replaced actual names. **Prior experience managing employees
with autism.

Analysis of Participating Managers
Due to the small size of the field of AEC organizations and a limited number of managers
actively participating in these programs, detailed demographic and work-related details were
withheld to assist in the protection of respondent identities. However, the scope of
responsibilities for all departments had the commonality of delivering procedure and task-
oriented work that included data analytics, quality assurance, computer system repair, research,
and process-aligned manual work. Table 6 provides an overview of the participating managers
highlighting their collective distribution across demographic categories that include years of
management experience, number of employees with autism they supported at the time of data
collection, and their company alignment.

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 75

Table 6
Manager Participant List and Subgroup Distribution
Managers* Gender
Years of Management
Experience
# of Employees
with Autism
Company
Alignment
Alex M 1-10 3 + A
Clara F 11 + 3 + A
Diane F 1-10 < 2 A
Edward M 1-10 < 2 A
Barry M 11+ < 2 B
Frank M 11+ < 2 B
George M 11+ < 2 B
Henry M 11+ < 2 B
Isaac M 11+ < 2 B
Jackson M 1-10 3 + C
Kyle M 1-10 3 + C
Note. * Pseudonyms replaced actual names.

Nine of the 11 managers were male; while gender was captured as part of demographic
information, the unequal representation did not allow analysis of the data from this lens. Years of
management experience of the participants was an average of 11 years, with a range of 2 – 24
years. Fifty-four percent of the managers had 11 or more years of management experience
compared to 46% with 10 years or less. The distribution of years of experience across managers
allowed for consideration and analysis of data and experiences shared between the two groups
(Figure 2).

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 76

Figure 2. Percent of participant manager by years of management experience.

All participants managed employees with autism as part of larger, inclusive teams. Sixty-
three percent of the managers had less than two employees with autism on their team. There was
no pattern between the total years of management experience and the number of employees with
autism supported on the team. On average, employees with autism represented 27% of the
managers’ team overall makeup. Company alignment was also included in Table 6 to analyze
data and understand the similarities or differences in the experiences of the managers across
organizations. The participants from Organization B had 11 + years of management experience;
however, their experience managing employees with autism was less than five years. In contrast,
all participants from Organization C had less than 10 years of management experience and
always had employees with autism as part of their teams. The data was also analyzed based on
previous (or lack of) management experience with typical employees prior to managing people
with autism to determine if any differing themes emerged from these two groups; no significant
patterns in theme analysis was found between the two groups.
1 - 10 Years
45%
11 + Years
55%
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 77

Findings
The following section explores the themes and overall findings from the interviews held
with managers, autism program leaders, and data collected from organizations and media outlets
regarding autism employment programs. This compilation of data provides insight into the
culture at organizations that chose to implement formal autism employment programs and the
experiences of managers aligned to these initiatives. Findings have been grouped into sections:
first, general themes that arose from interviews and document analysis will be explored; then
themes from the manager and autism program leader interviews will be examined in alignment
with the research question focused on the knowledge and motivation of managers, followed by
organizational and cultural influences. The thematic structure of the findings section is designed
to determine if data supports the influences identified as requirements to manage people with
autism in competitive workplaces effectively.
Managers Successfully Supported Employees with Autism Regardless of Training
The presence or absence of training was not an indicator of managers’ ability to support
employees with autism. Each participating organization reported that they provided training and
resources to managers as part of their autism employment processes (Table 7). Training and
resources included training for managers, job-aides, tip-sheets, peer mentoring programs, autism
coaches, and training for team members. Throughout the interviews, managers reported varying
levels of training and support received to date. Fifty-five percent of managers said they received
training and resources to help them to support employees with autism in the workplace, though
one manager did not receive training and resources until months after working with the employee
with autism (Table 7). The other managers said they did not receive autism training or resources.

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 78

Table 7
Alignment of Training, Resources, and Prior Experience with Autism by Manager.
Managers*
Training
Resources
Available
Manager
Training
Team Training
Autism Coach
or Mentor
Prior
Experience
with Autism
Alex Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Clara Yes Yes Yes Yes No
Diane Yes No No Yes No
Edward Yes No No No Yes
Barry Yes No No No Yes
Frank Yes No No No No
George Yes No No No** No
Henry Yes Yes No No No
Isaac Yes Yes*** Yes*** No No
Jackson Yes Yes Yes No No
Kyle Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Note. * Pseudonyms replaced actual names. **Autism mentor was provided but not used by manager.
***Training received after employees with autism joined the team.

Even though training was not consistently received across managers, 10 out of 11
managers reported successful outcomes for the employees with autism on their teams, indicating
good work productivity, attention to detail, and overall integration with the team. Program
retention rates supported the manager's perception of success. Retention of employees with
autism in the organizations was approximately 92% over a 3-year period. This retention rate is
higher than average retention of an employee (YOY) in the US (Baldwin et al., 2014) and
significantly better outcomes previously reported in research for people with autism in
competitive workplaces (U.S. Department of Education, 2011; U.S. Department of Labor, 2016).
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 79

However, managers with and without training indicated periods of low self-efficacy
during the onboarding of the employee with autism. For managers with training and prior notice
of receiving an employee with autism, some participants described increased apprehension and
anxiety in how they would approach the employee with autism. Multiple managers shared the
concern that they would do or say something that would negatively impact the employee. Diane
recalled how she felt when onboarding the new employee with autism, “When I knew that I was
getting an employee with autism, I was just nervous. I didn't know how to approach it, you
know, like, what do I do differently?” This sentiment was echoed by Alex who received training
before the onboarding of employees with autism:
I was walking on eggshells when we first hired these folks because I wasn’t sure how to
work with them. It wasn’t that they were going to do anything to upset me, I just didn’t
want to do anything to upset them. I didn’t want to affect them in a negative way.
Diane, Alex, and other managers were concerned in their ability to manage their employees with
autism and discuss issues if they arose without causing upset or negative outcomes. These
concerns demonstrate low self-efficacy to support their employees with autism during initial
onboarding. For the managers who had the opportunity to discuss their concerns with an autism
coach, they were able to adapt quickly and implement the coach’s suggestions successfully.
Twenty-seven percent of the managers said they received guidance or coaching from an autism
expert (Figure 3). The supports the managers received included team briefings, situation-specific
resources and coaching, on-the-job assistants, and technical support.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 80

Figure 3. Count of manager responses (yes/no) regarding the receipt of autism training and
related resources prior to onboarding employees with autism.

Ultimately, time and experience reduced managers’ concerns and increased their
confidence in the ability to provide guidance and feedback to the employee during the
onboarding period. For managers without prior notice or training to support the employee with
autism, they described a longer adjustment period that included learning by trial and error and
eventually led to open conversations with the employee to learn how to accommodate them best.
Learning from past success and failure experiences impact a manager’s actions and beliefs in
their ability to perform a task (Pajares, 2006); the interview data showed that the managers’ self-
efficacy increased over time. Whether the managers had prior training or not, they all learned not
to hesitate when engaging an employee with autism and be as direct as possible; nine of the
managers said their confidence in the ability to support employees with autism had significantly
increased since onboarding their first employee with autism.
While managers indicated training for team members was helpful to prepare individuals
to interact with employees with autism, it was not required to integrate the employee with autism
on the team successfully. Fifty-five percent of managers reported that their teams did not receive
6
8
5
5
3
6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
TEAM TRAINING
AUTISM COACH
MANAGER TRAINING
Yes No
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 81

training (Figure 3), with a few of these respondents indicating that team members learned about
the employee having autism many months after joining the team. Diane said, “I don't even think
the team knew [the employee] was autistic until they did [a company] article on him… they just
knew him as the new guy”. Diane’s experience revealed that her employee with autism was
successfully interacting with the other employees with little or no issues, without the typical
employees having prior knowledge or instruction regarding how to work with people with
autism. However, not all managers echoed this sentiment. Frank suggested that training for teams
could be helpful to eliminate issues:
I feel like if the individuals on the team had received the training prior to [the employee]
coming on board, they would be less likely to make the statements and react the way that
I've seen them act. A little less of a learning curve would be a lot easier of a transition for
all parties.
Frank and other managers’ experiences showed that preparing employees to work with
employees with autism can reduce interpersonal issues between the employees with autism and
their typical peers. Responses also implied that increased knowledge regarding the employee
with autism improved employee interactions and their willingness to support the new employee’s
differences in the workplace.
The managers’ demonstrated training and autism-specific resources could be helpful
when onboarding an employee with autism, though training alone did not seem to be a
significant factor in a manager’s ability to successfully support employees with autism on
inclusive, competitive teams. Regardless of training, the managers were able to adapt to the
needs to their employees with autism and support them on the job successfully. However,
training seemed to reduce the length of time it took for managers to adopt effective practices.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 82

Managers Viewed Employees with Autism from a Cultural Diversity Perspective
Managers’ responses regarding employees with autism were less from a deficit, disability
perspective, and more from a cultural diversity perspective. A cultural diversity perspective is
when a group respects and appreciates the differences between people of different cultures
(UNESCO, 2018). The managers mentioned that, over time, they realized that people with
autism are part of a unique culture and that they are individuals that should be treated like
“everyone else.” Most managers (9 of 11) believed that they treated their employees equitably;
they were focused on the individual needs and skills and felt they did not need to treat employees
with autism differently. Isaac said, “I wouldn’t say they are different. I think every employee has
their nuances that need to be considered.” These managers said that they modify their approach
to the needs of all their employees, and would expect that with or without autism, employees
would have this type of management support.
While managers believed in equitable approaches across employees, the managers shared
that employees with autism were noticeably different in their approach to work, how they
processed information and engaged in social interactions. These identified differences led to the
view that they were collectively unique, like a culture. Many of the managers had experience
working with global teams and highlighted the importance of being cognizant of differences and
having the ability to change your approach to ensure understanding in the workplace. Alex said,
“I compare it to a cultural thing, they are a little different than we are. It’s like interacting with
folks in [another country], I might say something there that I would say differently here”.
Managers like Alex expressed that learning how to interact with their employees was much like
learning how to work with people in other countries. Autism was described as a language or
customs barrier that can make interactions bumpy at the start. Culture is defined as a shared
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 83

pattern of human behavior, people with autism do have similar patterns in how they
communicate and interact with others; over time, people of varying cultures, or in this case
autism and neurotypicals, can learn how to approach each other through the acceptance and
understanding of differences (Mesibov et al., 2004).
The autism program leaders noted the cultural differences they saw between people with
autism and typical employees. They used the analogy of different computer operating systems to
describe these differences. Lauren explained, “Neurotypical people and neuro-diverse people
[with autism] are like a Mac and a PC. They both do the same function. They just go about it a
different way.” Lauren’s description highlighted that people with autism process information
differently, yet they come to the same (or similar) result none the less. Interestingly, Michael
used the same analogy as Lauren during his interview. He said, “[Autism] is a different operating
system, meaning how data comes in, and how it's processed, and how it goes out, is unique.” The
concept of “operating differently” was the most common descriptor when asked if there were
differences in how employees with and without autism approached their work. A few of the
managers compared working with employees with autism to working with employees in other
countries. Barry said,
Working with people with autism is like working with people from a different culture.
How you would phrase something for folks in India is not the way you would phrase
something for people in Texas, you approach them differently. So if you think about it,
autism has its own culture, they just don’t socially interact the way we do.
Barry’s comparison of working with autistic people to working with people in another country
highlights the concept of culture, where the language, customs, and social norms are different
and need to be learned to be understood.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 84

Many of the managers highlighted this idea of “getting to know their employees'
differences” and supports the concept that autism can be approached as a culture with a unique
set of behaviors and communications needs. Despite tangible differences, managers believed that
people with autism, just like typical employees, need to be viewed as individuals, respected and
provided opportunities in the workplace. This sentiment is a primary driving factor in the
implementation of these programs in competitive organizations and supports the call to equity in
the workplace by the United Nations (Che, 2016).
Management Practices were Consistent across Organizations
Although there are minor differences in the recruiting and onboarding of adults with
autism at AEC organizations, the same communication and management practices were
consistently referred to as essential components of employees with autism succeed in the
workplace. All data from the manager and autism program leader interviews, as well as
organization and external media content, highlighted the importance of the manager-employee
relationship and how these work relationships were significant to retaining these employees with
autism. Prior research showed that issues between the managers and employees with autism in
the workplace often resulted in poor workplace outcomes with employment lasting less than one
year (Taylor et al., 2015).
Data from these programs showed that these organizations are retaining the employees
they onboard; most of the employees with autism that joined the AEC organizations at the
inception of the autism employment program were still employed at the time of data collection,
which was an average of four years. The autism program leaders explained that the retention
rates were equal other employees in similar roles and that a few of the employees with autism
had been promoted to new roles in the organization. Michael said, “When you see promotion
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 85

rates, that speaks to strong performance in the aggregate, and I think we've got other indicators
that these employees are excelling as well.” Michael shared that employees with autism were
being promoted in his organization, the scope of roles they are aligned to are becoming more
varied, and managers are increasingly helpful in preparing their employees with autism for their
next move. Of the managers interviewed who helped support the promotion of these employees
within their organization, many still provided mentoring and direct guidance to their former
employee and had a vested interest in their future outcomes. Clara shared how she continuously
supports her former employees with autism:
I prepare my employees; we work on confidence; when they go to a new role, they will
text me, we will talk about their transition to the new role, and I remind them, ‘there is
nothing stopping you, you were hired because of what you can do.
Clara indicated that her employees with autism were strong producers, and with her support and
coaching, they excelled in the workplace; many were able to take on additional responsibility
and successfully integrate on new teams. Despite the differences in how AEC organizations
recruited employees and trained managers, they all successfully retained and promoted these
employees. This finding is important because a prior study showed vocational rehabilitation
training and increased education did not improve employment outcomes for adults with autism
(Burgess & Cimera, 2014). This fact was highlighted in media interviews with employees with
autism that highlighted that they struggled to find employment despite having required education
and other qualifications for the desired role; when employees with autism did secure
employment, they struggled to keep the job (Baldwin et al., 2014).
With organizations increasing the numbers of employees with autism entering the
workplace, AEC organizations worked to ensure correct placement of these employees, choosing
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 86

to align them to strong managers and roles where skills aligned and were in demand. Even with
the need to ensure cultural (manager) fit and role alignment, the organizations felt they had more
need than they can currently fill. Pete shared, “Honestly it isn’t about the numbers for us, it’s
about the talent. I would hire 200 if I could find them.” As a program and talent manager, Pete
was more focused on finding the right talent for the organization, than setting an arbitrary
number goal for hiring people with autism. His challenges were finding and recruiting people
with autism to come and work at the organization. The other autism program leaders shared that
they are inundated with resumes; however, the employees are often not located near the open
roles and not able to relocate.
The data and media from the AEC organization also showed that they had similar
experiences in their interactions with autistic adults. The manager's interviews highlighted that
the types of knowledge and motivation that influenced their ability to support these employees in
the workplace was consistent across organizations. The consistency of management practices
across organizations is important because it cannot be attributed to training or prior experience
working with people with autism. The following findings highlight the themes regarding
manager knowledge and motivation that cross organizations, years of management, and previous
experience with autism.
Managers’ Knowledge and Motivation Related to Supporting Employees with Autism
The first research question that guided this study was to determine what knowledge and
motivation managers had regarding supporting employees with autism and what other
organizations may need to adapt to implement similar programs. The conceptual framework
showed that managers needed to understand disability inclusion and autism in the workplace
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(conceptual knowledge), how to support employees with autism (procedural knowledge), and
awareness regarding adaptability as leaders to support diverse team members (metacognitive).
Throughout the interviews, managers focused most on how they approached leading
these employees and often reflected on the choices they made in their experiences of supporting
their employees with autism. The following themes primarily align to the conceptual, procedural
and metacognitive knowledge domains, focusing first on managers increased awareness and
ability to adapt to employees’ needs, the importance of direct communication, and the need for
consistency and structure in the workplace. Managers’ self-efficacy regarding the ability to adapt
and lead employees is further explored in alignment to the knowledge domains identified. The
utility value of including employees with autism on inclusive teams was also identified as a
motivational influence on these managers.
Managing Employees with Autism Enhanced Leadership Abilities
The managers interviewed showed high metacognition regarding their management and
communication style in the workplace. Metacognition is aligned to a managers’ awareness of
their existing knowledge and practices and an appreciation of what they do not know and may
need to learn (Rueda, 2011). A manager’s ability to reflect on their practices and learn from their
experiences helps to increase their ability to learn and apply new approaches in the workplace
(Immardino-Yang et al., 2012). Managers were able to articulate changes in their management
practices since onboarding employees with autism leading to universal practices and leadership
aligned to an authentic leadership model; their responses also indicated they had higher self-
efficacy in their ability to support employees with autism at the time of the interview than they
did during initial onboarding. Managers acceptance of differences and importance of equity in
the workplace that align with the conceptual knowledge domain was also identified as a theme.
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Managers’ were aware of their leadership style and need to adapt to employees.
Managers referenced an awareness of the leadership abilities in relations to supporting
employees with autism throughout the interviews. The managers indicated that they became
more aware of their style after they learned that existing practices could not easily be applied to
their new employees with autism. Often, this required the manager to self-reflect on their
methods and make changes. Edward said, “Sometimes you have to leave your ego at the door
because when you take on an autistic employee, it can highlight some flaws in your management
style about how you communicate.” Edward’s comment not only highlights awareness of
managerial effectiveness but a willingness to accept that despite years of experience; there is still
a need to develop and learn new skills. George’s experience highlighted this phenomenon:
I assumed that it was going to be easy. I thought I've got 20 plus years management
experience. I've managed all sorts of people and thought this is going to be a piece of
cake. Yeah, no. I've been trying different approaches. Some have been successful; some
have not been successful. I'm still learning is basically what I'm trying to say.
George acknowledged that despite his years of experience he still had opportunities to learn; this
shows high metacognition. It also shows that his self-efficacy regarding his ability to manage
employees with autism lowered after onboarding his first employee with autism.
Other managers indicated that their self-efficacy increased after onboarding employees.
Alex shared, “Once I got over the initial walking around on eggshells, because like you hear
autism and think, oh gee; it was getting past that initial apprehension of not saying or doing
anything wrong. It wasn’t them; it was me.” Alex’s concerns regarding his ability to support
employees with autism stemmed from schema based on media and misconceptions. He thought
that perhaps they would be quick to tantrum or have difficulties with the work, which are traits
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 89

often identified as typical in children with autism (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
While Alex’s concerns were alleviated once he onboarded employees with autism, modifications
were still necessary for the employees to be successful.
The managers mentioned the need to change their communication approach, and many
increased the amount of detail and structure they implemented into daily routines. Henry shared
his experience in modifying his style, “I'm a more extroverted person, and I can deal with
ambiguity and stuff like that. I realized that some people could not, and that's where we came up
with more structure.” Henry was aware that his default leadership and communication style
needed to be modified to ensure his employee's success. Changes in his leadership and
communication style included increasing structure and keeping consistency in meeting routines,
as well as giving the employees more time to process new information. Being able to bridge the
different needs and styles between managers and employees with autism impacts the
effectiveness of the working relationship (Scott et al., 2015). The need to add more structure and
modify communication style was indicated by all managers. Isaac shared how he modified his
style, “I think the management style, you have to be a little bit more attentive for them, but also,
uh, the clarity in the type of work and the roles and responsibilities within the team; really define
the success.” The managers’ awareness of the need to change their management and
communication style, and willingness to adjust their approach demonstrated these leaders had an
authentic leadership style. An authentic leader is self-aware, understands their impact on others,
and can adapt their approach to meet the needs of others; these leaders also provide clear
direction, provide scaffolding when needed (Hagner & Cooney, 2005; Parr & Hunter, 2014).
While many managers had an authentic and adaptive leadership style, a few felt that the
employee also needed to fit within the culture of the team and not receive special treatment. This
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view was a minority opinion in those interviewed; however, the managers who expressed this
view had the most experience working with autistic employees and had the largest number of
employees with autism aligned to their teams. Clara who had multiple employees with autism
and has helped many others find promotions and jobs outside her organization explained:
I try not to change my management style to fit them; I try to get them out, not to treat
them with special treatment. I want them to be ready and effective in the outside world.
Not for me to give them special treatment. We have to make them feel like normal
because they are normal. Communication takes a little bit of consideration. Frankly, we
are all different; they are all different, everyone has a different personality.
Despite Clara’s belief that management practices should not be changed drastically to
accommodate a few employees, she did recognize that employees, both with and without autism,
are unique and may require additional consideration and accommodations to be successful in the
workplace. These managers also had a direct communication and structured management
approach. The managers’ opinion in “not needing to change” may because they already embody
the styles and practices that were identified as effective with autistic employees. The opinion of
these managers supports the finding in Hagner and Cooney’s (2003) study that managers were
successfully able to help employees with autism when they made minor modifications to their
existing management practices, and when direct communication and coaching is provided.
The managers stated that including employees with autism on their teams made them
examine the effectiveness of their management practices and of how they communicate and lead
others. Many indicated they felt they were better managers after learning how to support
employees with autism on their team. Michael, an autism program leader, explained,
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Interestingly, a lot of people who have managed people on the spectrum will say, oh gee,
I'm a better manager for everyone using more direction and clarity in practices. These
changes are really important for autistic people, but by doing it for the whole team,
everyone benefits.
Michael believed that managers were very aware of the changes they were making and began
applying more direction and structure for the whole team, which resulted in benefits for all
including the manager. Edward’s experience supported this idea, “I think as time went on, there
wasn't a huge difference in how I would, um, manage the autistic employee compared to others
because it changed my management style.” The need to for managers to adjust their approach to
employees with autism resulted in improvement in overall managerial skills and consistency in
their approach.
The ability of managers to use a single management practice to accommodate their
employees with and without disabilities would be considered a universal practice; universal
practices designed to support a specific need yet provide benefit and increase accessibility for all
(Lid, 2014). The managers were aware of the changes they made to their management style and
believed these changes benefited employees across the team. The changes made in their
leadership approach also provided them with a deeper appreciation of diversity and differences
in the workplace.
Managers accepted differences in the workplace and strived for equity on the team.
Managers indicated that experience working with autistic employees modified their beliefs
regarding the abilities of people with autism in the workplace. Many of the managers
interviewed stated that they felt employees with autism were “just like everyone else.” The
researcher pressed to understand what the managers meant by their statement. The managers
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intended that they recognized people with autism were different, but that they accepted those
differences, and appreciated that people without autism have differences too, and may need
support and accommodations in the workplace as well. Alex said, “I just try to treat people the
way I want to be treated. If someone is doing a good job, I recognize that; if someone is
struggling, then we say let’s get you through this and get you back where you need to be.” Alex’s
comment highlights that he recognizes that all employees can struggle and excel on the job and
that as a manager, it is his job to ensure employees have the support they need to succeed.
Some managers indicated that they feel they treat all employees as individuals, and
therefore differences are to be expected based on ability and employees’ needs. George said,
“Everyone's measured differently. In other words, people are at different levels. So, you can't
have one template for everyone. The expectations are higher for someone who's in a higher
position than someone who is in an entry-level position.” The concept of treating employees with
autism like “everyone else” or a “regular employee” was repeatedly said. While the managers
recognized differences, they tried to keep treatment equitable across their team. Edward strived
to implement consistent methods across his team; being consistent became easier as he gained
more experience. He said, “I think as time went on, there wasn't a huge difference in how I
would manage the autistic employee compared to others because it changed my management
style.” Many of the changes the managers made were aligned to being more adaptive to
employees’ individual needs.
Managers also did not like to think that they treated employees differently. When asked
if there were differences in how the managers communicated with employees, Isaac responded,
“I don't do that because that would single them out and treating them, all the same, is important.”
Diane echoed this statement, “I don't think I treat anybody differently. I coached [my employee
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with autism] the same and gave him the same objectives as everyone else.” These views are in
alignment with the AEC organizational culture and perspectives on disability inclusion and the
rights of the employee; each of these organizations had policies regarding diversity and
inclusion, and the manager's statements align to these ideals.
It is evident that the managers strived to embody their organization’s values in their work
and support inclusive interactions with their teams. Equitable treatment of employees with
autism was important to the managers; they focused on employees’ skills and recognized that
people with and without autism have differences that may require accommodations and
additional support. Providing equal opportunity for people with disabilities also helps employers
meet ADA requirements in the workplace (DRC, 2012). The managers' views and aligned
actions supported the success of autism employment initiatives and assured ADA compliance.
Importance of Direct Communication
The managers interviewed in this study indicated that direct communication was the most
effective communication style when working with adults with autism. The managers described
direct communication as being frequent, candid discussion that is explicit in the meaning of
messages and requests. The experiences of the managers highlighted the importance of clear
communication which effectively addressed the issue of miscommunication; misunderstandings
were identified as common workplace challenge between managers and employees with autism
(Hillier et al., 2007). Throughout the interviews, frequent, direct communication was highlighted
as a critical component to employees work performance and the prevention of workplace issues
due to miscommunication.
Direct communication increased understanding between manager and employees.
The managers interviewed modified their communication styles as their knowledge increased
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regarding the needs of employees with autism; they made a conscious effort to ensure their
employees understood the message communicated. For example, Clara, who has managed many
employees with autism over the years, listed what she felt was essential to her employees’
success:
Communication meetings daily, as much as possible; detailed tasks with expectations.
Everybody likes to know the whole story, from the beginning to the end, and they excel
more when they know what we want. Everything has to be clear; this is the key.
Here Clara was deliberate regarding the type and frequency of communication she believed was
necessary for her employees to be successful. She indicated that frequent check-ins with
employees with autism were necessary to make sure everyone is aligned with work objectives.
Clara also reported clarity of requests and ensuring the employee understood expectations was
critical to their success on the job. Clara understood that a direct communication style aligned
with the type of supports people with autism need to follow work expectations. Clarity between
managers and their employees with autism was critical to ensure understanding between parties
(Trembath et al., 2013). Other managers echoed Clara’s sentiment. Barry stated, “I feel direct
communication works best, and the more direct, the better.” He went on to explain that indirect
and visionary approaches to communications, which is how he described his style in the past,
were not effective with employees with autism:
I may have thought I communicated something well, only to find out that I actually
didn’t. People didn’t quite get the message. So of course, I needed to shift and give more
direction and be more specific with them.
Barry’s comment exemplifies the metacognitive awareness the respondents had regarding the
need to adapt their leadership and communication style to the needs of their employees. When he
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became aware that his communication was not being received as intended, he reflected on the
interaction and made a purposeful shift in his approach with the employee. Managers like Barry
became increasingly aware of their communication approach and recognized that minor
modifications were sometimes needed. The need and benefit to tailoring approaches to suit the
needs of the individuals and the task at hand was the predominant view of the managers
interviewed.
The managers described how their ability to communicate expectations and objectives
across all employees improved since including employees with autism on their teams. While
each of the managers had preferences, each recognized and commented on the importance of
adapting to the needs of employees, and how the clarity of requests and follow-up
communications increases understanding and productivity in the workplace. Despite the
awareness of change in communication style since the inclusion of employees with autism,
managers said that these changes were easy to make, and it was more important for their team to
be on board than to leverage any single communication style. Alex said, “We just need to make
sure we communicate to each of them what it is that we expect; we don’t want people to be
surprised.” Alex expressed that direct communication improved employees’ action alignment to
goals and overall readiness toward change. Regular communications helped ensure that
employees with autism had the information they needed and provided them the opportunity to
ask questions; it also allowed managers to test for understanding. In addition to regular staff
meetings, Alex and other managers held 1:1 meetings routinely with each employee where issues
and questions could be addressed between the employee and their manager.
Managers needed to ensure clarity of messages to avoid misunderstandings. The
concept of misunderstanding directives and expectations set by the manager was also disclosed
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 96

during the interviews. Once managers were aware of the differences between how their
employees with autism interpret common phrasings and metaphors, it helped prevent
misunderstandings between the team, clients, and each other, which also helped to improve
interpersonal dynamics and workplace outcomes. The managers stated that there were cultural
differences between how typical employees and those with autism may interpret messages, and it
was up to managers to be aware of this difference and ensure that employees interpret what was
said correctly.
Of the managers interviewed who experienced issues with their employee due to
misinterpretation of a statement, each took responsibility for the problem occurring. Barry said,
“That's where perhaps it can be challenging; you interpret it one way, and they interpret
another.” Edward shared an example of a time he told his employee to ignore a client who was
being difficult. The employee took the comment literally and stopped responding to further
emails and phone calls from the offending client. When the issue was escalated, he realized that
the employee took his comment literally, and not figuratively, which he knew was his error.
Edward reflected on his experience:
The issue was my fault. I told [the employee] to ignore a person. So instead of slightly
deflecting or brushing them off, [the employee] literally ignored them. You know, this is
where it comes back to me and improving as a manager. You have to really look at
yourself and go, well, what message am I giving?
In the instance with Edward and his employee, once the issue arose, he realized that the
employee with autism was doing as instructed and that he, as the manager, contributed to the
problem. Barry, Edward, and other managers realized they needed to be specific, to say what
they meant when speaking to employees with autism, and not use figurative language. People
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with autism often have a limited understanding of social norms and cues, which may include the
use of metaphor and figurative language (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). These types
of issues can negatively impact work performance and cause issues in the workplace (Scott et al.,
2015). In Edward’s case, his acknowledgment regarding his contribution to the employee-client
issue indicates that he appreciated the need to be precise with his employee with autism. The
other managers interviewed stated there were differences in how they needed to communicate,
and they were willing to adapt their communication style to ensure their employees’ with autism
succeeded in the workplace. This finding aligns with the metacognitive knowledge identified in
the conceptual framework as a critical component in a managers’ capacity to support employees
with autism.
Managers could be more direct with employees with autism than typical employees.
Managers indicated that they were more direct with their employees with autism compared to
neurotypical employees. This difference is significant because the type of direct communication
that helps employees with autism is very straightforward and blunter than discussions with
typical employees. People with autism have difficulties with figurative language; direct and
literal communication improves understanding (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Pete,
an autism program leader, explained that many managers come to see this difference among their
employees. He said, “At first [the manager] will treat them like they're fragile, only to find out
that they could be more direct with an employee with autism. Like you just say stop it, and
there's no additional neurotypical weight added to that.” Pete’s stories highlighted that managers
might have modified their communication style out of apprehension and uncertainty only to
realize they needed to be clear, concise, and to the point with their employee with autism.
Managers mentioned this difference during the interviews, and many indicated that they did not
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feel they could be as blunt or straightforward with their typical employees. Many indicated that
it was easier to correct people with autism and deal with performance issues due to this
difference. Isaac said, “To be honest, people with autism take direct messages as fact-based, and
people without [autism] sometimes layer in their own opinions on the message, and then they get
offended when people with autism do not.” Isaac saw this as a benefit because you could address
a work issue, provide guidance to correct it, and move on. Many of the managers said that
delivering direct or difficult messages with neurotypical employees often took more
consideration. Jackson provided his view on the differences between employees with and
without autism:
It takes a little bit of finesse with a neurotypical. I can be direct with them too, but I have
to take in to account their feelings, how they are going to react verse someone on the
spectrum, where I can say something point blank and their feelings aren’t an issue.
Jackson’s experience indicated that he felt he had to be more careful in how he crafted messages
for typical employees compared to an employee with autism. He was able to raise issues with his
employees with autism without pushback, emotional reactions, or “rumor mill” discussions
afterward. He found the ability to address issues head-on with employees with autism a
“refreshing quality” that made it easier to discuss work and performance.
The communication differences experienced by managers highlights the importance of
tailoring messages to meet the needs of employees, no matter if the employee has a documented
disability or not. The manager's experiences indicated that all employees have sensitivities that
leaders need to consider and accommodate in the workplace. To support individual differences,
the managers needed to tailor their messages to ensure employees’ understanding and adherence
to directives.
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Need for Consistent Workplace Structures and Detailed Tasks
Providing a consistent structure, detailed expectations and tasks, coupled with the direct
communication style previously discussed, was indicated by the managers interviewed as a critical
component to effectively managing employees with autism. Research showed that employees with
autism were successful in inclusive settings when the managers provided consistent workplace
routines and the employees had clear guidelines regarding their tasks (Hagner & Cooney, 2003,
2005). The managers indicated that workplace structures improved employee focus and
performance and detailed tasks supported task execution and consistency in work performed.
Workplace structure improved employee performance. The managers described the
need for consistency in structure as a necessary construct in the workplace for employees with
autism. Consistency and structure included having defined processes and ensuring employees have
the skills to perform the tasks as expected.
The employees with autism were able to perform tasks and adhere to processes outlined by
their manager consistently. Kyle said, “Once they learn a process they will be consistent; you really
don’t have to worry about it.” Isaac’s response echoed this sentiment, “If you provide them the
structure to do something, they will do that very well.” When consistent structure and detailed
expectations were in place, the employees with autism met or exceeded their managers’
performance expectations. The experiences of these managers aligned to findings of the literature
reviewed that showed that consistent work routines improved employment outcomes for
employees with autism (Hagner & Cooney, 2003; Scott et al., 2015); work routines included
defined work times and breaks, a dedicated workspace, and time to plan out work for the day.
While all the employees with autism had routines and structures that helped them focus in the
workplace, the structure varied by the employee and their individual needs and cannot be
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generalized consistently across; this highlights the importance of managers understanding their
employee’s needs and implementing structures and accommodations accordingly.
Detailed expectations support task execution and consistency. The managers indicated
that in addition to a consistent routine and structured processes, providing detailed tasks and
setting clear expectations on how to execute work, and providing frequent feedback on
performance were helpful in supporting employees’ performance. The relationship between the
need for detailed tasks and clear job expectations was important to ensure employees with autism
understood performance expectations and could successfully execute repeatedly in the
workplace. Clara and other managers focused on attention to detail when assigning tasks and
ensuring processes and procedures are in place. Clara explained, “When I assign a task, it has to
be very detailed until they learn. Everything has a reference to what is expected.” Clara realized
that providing attention to detail reduced questions and clarified expectations that help the
employee succeed in task completion; this detailed-tasks orientation also resulted in high-levels
of consistency of these employees when performing their duties.
Other managers indicated that the clearer they were with employees regarding the desired
output of a deliverable, the more likely the work produced would meet their expectations. Barry
said, “What has to happen is more precise, direction on my part. Along the lines of OK, here are
three papers that you may find useful, read them, summarize them, tell me what you think.”
Barry explained that ensuring clear expectations from the employee and detailing the process to
follow was critical to the success of his employee with autism. Barry and the other managers
experience aligned to the findings by Hagner and Cooney (2003) that showed consistent work
routines and clear guidelines regarding task requirements were critical to managers success
supporting employees with autism. Consistency from the manager also resulted in highly
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consistent work from employees with autism. Jackson said, “One of the greatest attributes is that
once you show them a process and they learn it, they will follow it every single time the same
way.” Jackson’s employee with autism did not deviate from processes outlined and was helpful
in ensuring others followed protocols. The manager knew he could depend on his employee’s
consistency on the job. Barry echoed a high-level of consistent performance, “They go and do it
exactly, precisely as defined by the scope of the assignment and what needs to be done is done,
and then, you know, everything will be done to the letter.” Barry explained that there was no
deviation from the procedure, which helped improve quality and reduced errors. Barry and the
other managers felt that their employees with autism were just as capable as the other employees
and trusted them to complete their work independently. Alex felt that managers needed to trust
and appreciate autist employees’ skill set. He said, “Trust that it if you train them on how to do
something, they can do it.” The precision of work and ability to follow processes exactly as
outlined of employees with autism was repeatedly noted as a strength by the managers. The
managers said they needed clear processes and details in place to ensure execution was in
alignment with scope, the employees excelled.
Managers also shared that when performance issues or the need for change arose, it was
easy to address with open communication and follow-up with the employee to ensure
understanding. Frank shared how he ensured alignment and understanding of expectations with
his employees with autism:
I also ask, do you have any additional questions? Like, I know we brought it up in our
team meeting, but you know, this is how this change is going to affect you. I just want to
make sure you're 100-percent sure and clear on your responsibilities based on the
changes. If you’re not clear, please let me know; and then I still follow-up.
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As Frank highlighted, direct communication is a significant factor in aspects of leading
employees with autism and carries to the ability to provide detailed tasks, setting clear
expectations and providing adequate follow-up with the employee to be certain that they
understand and can perform in their role as expected. The steps this manager took to ensure
employees understood expectations and could execute on tasks is important because a prior study
indicated that communication, difficulty adapting to new job routines, and failure of employee to
understand instructions were primary hurdles impacting adults with autism effectiveness in the
workplace (Muller et al., 2003).
The managers described communication and follow-up as critical to their teams' success.
Edward provided an example of how follow-up with his autistic employees ensured
understanding of duties:
So, one of the things we did originally was sit down and go through the book of work and
what they needed to do and really prioritize the work for the week. We did that, and it
was really helpful. You just have to be a bit clearer and a bit more explicit in what you
wanted.
As Edward described, the managers felt that having meetings to ensure understanding improved
their employees understanding work performance expectations. Frequent follow-up reduced
errors, and continuous communication between managers and employees supports motivation
toward work and helps improve performance (Hagner & Cooney, 2003).
In addition to the direct instruction to execute on expected work, employees with autism
were also receptive to feedback on issues and accepted direction to resolve them quickly. Diane
explained that providing feedback that quickly fixed the employee’s error, “So you know, he
would take notes of an error discussed, and he would document everything about that; then I
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gave him detail on how he could have approached it better, and then that same mistake never
happened again.” Diane’s ability to coach her employee when errors were made helped eliminate
future issues and increased the employee’s skill to perform the job successfully. She also trusted
the employee and provided him the opportunity to try and rectify the matter himself. Providing
employees with autonomy supports motivation toward goals and increases the receptivity of
directives from a superior (Deci, Hodges, Pierson, & Tomassone, 1992; Ryan & Deci, 2000).
The managers appreciated that they could be directive with their employees with autism and that
these employees were focused on work quality and receptive to feedback to improve
continuously.
Managers Recognized Potential and Value in Employees with Autism
Throughout the interviews, managers indicated that their employees with autism brought
skills, insight, and intelligence that was unique to their team and enabled the employee to excel
in their role, often finding issues in processes that others may not catch, the ability to retain large
amounts of information quickly and complete work fast and efficiently. People with autism are
known to have powerful memories and the ability to store a lot of information; this ability is
attributed to declarative memory compensation that scientists believe helps compensate for other
deficits that manifest in people with autism (Ullman & Pullman, 2015). Many of the managers
described their employee ability to learn information quickly and easily recall facts when needed.
Managers shared that their employees’ unique skill set helped identify issues and mitigate risks.
In a few cases, the employees with autism were able to solve long-standing problems in months
that others had been unable to rectify. Edward shared his experience,
She is really good at looking at a process and directing it. I think it’s just how her brain
works, she can see every single thing that is part of the process and whereas I may make
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one or two points the broader issue; she'll be like, you're going to have a problem at point
number three, point number seven, point number nine, point number, just like that!
Edward’s experience with a process and detailed oriented employee was not unique. Many of the
managers indicated that their employees followed processes precisely and quick to identify errors
and resolve issues; this skill was a differentiator from the broader teams’ skills. Alex explained,
“[The employees with autism] are all high producers, they make very few errors. They are
smarter than any of the folks I’ve got on the floor.” Alex was impressed with the quality of work
that his employees provided and felt they were among his top performers. Many managers had
similar stories, indicating their employee had high intelligence and a sharp memory to retain
information and complete tasks. Frank shared his experience, “He is extremely, extremely
intelligent. His memory or whatever way he uses to track information - he does it extremely well.
It could be a systematic approach, but whatever he does, he doesn't let anything fall by the
wayside.” This systematic approach to work and the ability to identify errors is a strength aligned
to the types of roles these managers led and supports the theory that employee with autism had
powerful memory systems. These employees excelled where clear procedures and processes
were in place, agnostic of industry or type of work being completed.
The differences the managers experienced between their employee with and without
autism regarding their approach to work were not always easy to articulate, but the belief that
there was a value with autistic employees that could not easily be replicated was often expressed.
Henry said, “I do see autism now as a strength, and I can't really generalize out to everybody but
really the employee that I managed can do things, I don't think others can.” Henry provided
details regarding the employee’s approach to work that he could not attribute to a learned skill,
but rather an innate aptitude or intelligence. Multiple managers said, “They just see things
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differently.” In addition to this difference in approach to work, many of the managers indicated
their employees had a strong desire to learn and often sought continuous learning outside of
training requirements. George said, “He even goes off on his own and is trying to learn other
new technologies; so, I know he has this huge appetite to learn.”
Once communication differences and detailed tasks were in place, managers shared that
they saw tremendous value in having employees with autism as part of their team. Kyle was fully
onboard to include employees with autism on his team, “I will say that if I had the option
between managing a neurotypical staff and a staff full of people with autism, I would definitely
choose the people with autism.” Kyle felt that his employees with autism were very dedicated
employees and came to work “ready to work”; he did not worry about their commitment or
productivity while in the office. The other managers also felt that more people should consider
hiring employees with autism, Clara said, “I encourage everybody to hire more and more [people
with autism], they are very smart, and they deserve a chance.” Clara explained that her
employees with autism are very talented, and it is disheartening to think that these folks, which
are high performers, struggled to keep a job before joining her team.
The managers interviewed were not the only ones to recognize the value, human resource
professionals and business leaders are seeing a high-potential talent pool that is waiting to be
tapped. Sara explained, “People are realizing this is an untapped pool of talent. We really need to
be investing in these folks.” Lauren and other autism program leaders are approaching autism
employment as a talent management strategy, and many of them are focused on this
demographic to help address the talent gap they are facing in their industries. The value of these
employees was seen both managers, human resource and organizational leaders and
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organizational leader, which is why more organizations have joined the AEC of the last few
years. Pete said,
Other organizations are trying to figure out should I do a program like this, one of the
benefits, you know, is the ROI, the new talent. There are certain managers that have
really embraced this; it has really opened up more doors for all of us.
Pete and the other autism program leaders were often consulted by other organizations
who are seeking talent and interested in onboarding people with autism. The value of employees
with autism expressed by the managers and promoted by the AEC organizations drove awareness
in the community of these inclusion efforts.
The managers and autism program leaders felt there were tangible benefits to including
adults with autism in the workplace. The managers saw value in the work provided by these
employees; this utility value enhanced managers’ motivation to continue to include adults with
autism on their teams (Eccles, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Employees with autism skills enhanced their
teams’ overall performance and brought measurable value to their managers and respective
organizations. In turn, more organizations are looking for ways to include this untapped pool of
talent.
Influence of Organizational Culture on Managers’ Knowledge and Motivation
The second research question explored the influence of organizational culture on
managers’ knowledge and motivation to increase the number of employees they hire on their
teams and enhance their ability to support them on competitive teams. The manager and autism
program leader interviews indicated that disability inclusion expectations were ingrained as part
of the overall organizational culture. These expectations align with policies and behavior
expectations that cultivated a cultural model of diversity mindedness and inclusivity. The
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implementation of autism employment programs brought awareness regarding the need for
autism inclusion throughout the organization and increased management engagement to hire and
support adults with autism. This awareness changed the cultural setting as the managers’ agreed
to be part of the autism employment initiatives and hire adults with autism on their teams. The
inclusion of adults with autism also impacted team members, creating an inclusive work setting
and increasing advocacy to support autistic employees in the organization. In response to the
high interest and continued growth of autism employment programs, the organizations are all
enhancing their training and support model to ensure managers and team members have the
resources they need to accommodate employees with autism across the organizations.
Autism Employment Programs Drove Organization Culture and Manager Engagement
The implementation of autism employment programs drove manager engagement and the
mindset of an autism inclusive culture. Each of the organizations that decided to participate in
autism employment programs came to this decision due to multiple reasons. The following
supporting evidence is based on data from organizational website and media coverage. The
content is not directly cited to protect the anonymity of the organizations in the study.
The largest organizations adopted autism employment entry programs during a time
when special interest organizations designed to help adults with autism find employment in
competitive roles began reporting the success of their endeavors. Many of the AEC organizations
leveraged the model of these special interest organizations at the start of their programs. A few
of the organizations had leaders with personal experience with autism and advocated to create
gainful employment opportunities for autistic adults. AEC organizations have pulled together to
share their best practices and experiences implementing autism employment programs, often
holding summits and collaborative recruiting efforts. They are a unique group of organizations
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 108

that publicly share best practices on how to implement autism employment programs and
advocate for other organizations to follow suit. Autism employment programs were necessary
because people with autism struggled to obtain gainful employment; the inability to secure a job
contributed to high under-employment and unemployment rates (Baldwin et al., 2014; Taylor &
Seltzer, 2011; U.S. Department. of Education, 2011).
The success of autism employment programs was aligned to two critical factors, having
accessible recruiting processes so that adults with autism had the opportunity to showcase their
skills to potential employers, and having managers who are willing and able to support adults
with autism on their teams. AEC organizations supported autism employment programs and
made diversity and disability-inclusion a central tenet of their culture; in turn, the managers and
employees embodied these policies in action and word.
Managers supported the strategy of autism employment programs. Organizations
having a clear strategy and policies regarding disability inclusion and autism employment are
critical components to implementing such initiatives successfully. However, it is crucial that
managers support the organization's strategy as well. Without manager support, the espoused
culture of an organization will struggle to manifest into thought and action, which is necessary to
implement change in an organization. The managers interviewed had values in alignment with
their organizations and were committed to the success of the autism employment program. For
many of the managers, they wanted their organization to be viewed as responsible corporate
citizens making a difference in their communities. George said, “You want to give people with
difficulties a chance to succeed in the world. At the end of the day, I want this program to be a
known success here at [Organization B].” George’s support of the mission of autism
employment programs is critical to the success of these initiatives. Because he shared the
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company’s goals, his actions with his staff and the promotion of the program help to make it a
success. The desire to help and make a difference was a common theme amongst the managers;
most of the managers volunteered to onboard an employee with autism on their team. These
managers made a conscious choice to help support the organization’s goals. Michael elaborated
on manager selection and volunteering, “Before we ask a manager to raise their hand, we are
very selective. The manager has to be an exceptional communicator, clear and direct but
empathetic; and they need to be on board with the mission.” The other autism program leaders
indicated that they approached managers they felt would be successful in managing employees
with autism based on their current style and ability to lead diverse teams effectively. Being able
to align current skills with a willingness to support employees with autism seemed to be a critical
component to the success of these employees.
While many of the managers were asked to participate in autism employment programs, a
few of the managers eagerly volunteered to support the employment initiative due to personal
experience. Barry shared, “When the program was announced, I really wanted to help any which
way I could because I have seen a lot of those challenges.” Barry was unique in the group of
managers because he had a family relation who had autism, and he understood the challenges
people with autism face when they become adults. Barry was excited that he had an opportunity
to make a positive difference and that his organization supported disability-diversity in her work
group. A few of the other managers also had familial relationships or had friends that had
children on the autism spectrum; while those with personal relationships were a minority of the
managers interviewed, their passion for supporting organizations with autism employment was
evident. Kyle, who has a brother on the spectrum shared his experience, “I was very mission
aligned and wanted to be part of the organization; I ended up getting the job after my brother was
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employed.” Kyle and Barry had personal reasons to be vested in the success of autism
employment programs, and they were eager to direct their efforts to help others be successful.
However, the lack of prior experience did not reduce managers’ willingness to support the
programs. Most of the managers had the opportunity to interview the employee with autism
before having them join the team and believed that being an inclusive organization and
supporting these employees was the right thing to do. Diane shared, “I had never had an
employee with autism, he was my first. Before we brought him on to the team, we met with him
and ensured he would be a good fit, basically what we do for anybody.” While Diane had never
worked with a person with autism, she was open to the idea and eager to meet the potential
employee. Diane and the other managers showed their support of their organization’s strategy by
agreeing to support autism on their teams and modifying their styles and approach to ensure the
employee and overall teams’ success.
The team supported collaboration and included employees with autism. Another area
discussed with managers during the interviews was the impact on the team (if any) when a
person with autism joined the group. The managers indicated that the team was open to including
the employees and would discuss work-related issues. While the managers indicated that they did
not see employees interacting a lot socially, they felt the relationships between the neurotypical
and autistic employees were positive. Clara shared, “So they communicate, I mean I don’t see
them sitting in the break room together, but they communicate when it comes to working. They
care about each other, but they don’t talk as much.” Clara further explained that her employees
all seem to be introverts, and she did not really see that lack of social communication between
those with and without autism to be much different from the level of personal interactions
between the other employees on her team. Despite limited social engagement, the managers
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indicated that their teams were collaborative. George shared, “There is a lot of close
collaboration, and I'm trying to get [the employee with autism] to collaborate increasingly more
with the team.” George indicated that his neurotypical employees actively reached out to include
the employee with autism through the employee was originally reluctant. With encouragement
and coaching to help his employee with autism build confidence to engage with peers, he saw
increased willingness to engage in more collaborations and discussions with the team.
In addition to encouraging employees with autism to collaborate, many of the employees
made extra efforts to help the new employees succeed. Edward said, “I will say that the team
really embraced the employee having autism and went out of their way to help her when the
environment changed.” Edward shared that employees were willing to spend extra time getting
to know the employee with autism; they shared their best practices and resources, took her
around the building to get acclimated to the work environment, and helped the employee during
potentially stressful times like office moves and building fire drills. Other managers indicated
similar behavior on their teams and described how team members were willing to help the
employee with autism as needed. Kyle said, “The team, they work really well together. A lot of
the guys if they have the process down and they see one of their partners are struggling, they're
willing to help pick up the pace.” On Kyle’s team, production can be slowed when a team
member struggles. He shared that teamwork is critical to their team’s success, and everyone
works together to achieve their production goals.
In addition to team members’ willingness to help employees with autism, the managers
indicated that their teams believed that people with autism should be provided equitable
opportunities despite their disability. Isaac said, “the team understands that you can't, you can't
push people aside because they're different because we're all different in some way.” The teams’
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appreciation of differences and the value of diversity align with the corporate culture and values
of the AEC organization. Kyle believed that everyone on his team was an individual and that no
one should ever be treated any less because of differences. Many of the managers noticed that
their employees actively worked to engage their peers with autism and ensured they felt included
on the team. Relationships also deepened between employees as they learned more about the
employee with autism and gained an appreciation of their abilities and contribution as a team
member. Frank shared his team’s experience,
His strengths were being highlighted a little more, and he's being pushed a little more by
the team to be social and engage; he is actually communicating and displaying his talents
more. I feel this naturally brings forth relationships to help find common ground and
shared interests.
Frank’s experience highlighted that it took time for the employee with autism to feel comfortable
interacting with his team members, and in turn, a longer period for the team to get to know the
new employee. He found that aligning them on projects and sharing work-related knowledge
facilitated conversation, that over time, led to more social interactions. Having difficulty with
social interactions is a common manifestation of autism (American Psychiatric Association,
2013). However, communication barriers can be overcome; as indicated by the managers
interviewed, and previous research reviewed, managers and teams can help improve employees
with autism engagement and communication on the team with encouragement and coaching on
how to interact with others in the workplace (Hagner & Cooney, 2005). Teams can build the
aptitude to support employees with autism through autism-disability awareness and training.
Managers wanted more autism-related training and resources. Managers indicated
that organizations should continue to provide training and resources to help educate employees
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about the importance of diversity-inclusion, and managers and teams should be provided more
intensive training before the onboarding of employees with autism when possible. As stated
earlier, while the AEC organizations had training available at the time of data collections, some
of the managers interviewed did not receive that training prior to their employee joining the
team; for others, they never received any formal support from the organization. While all
managers were able to adapt to the needs of their employees and came to similar conclusions as
how to best interact with autistic people, a lot of this learning was by trial and error. Since the
direct communication, providing clear instruction, detailed task, and having a supportive
coaching style are practices that managers could easily adopt, it would save time and help
integrate the employee, while improving the managers’ ability to support their employee. Isaac
elaborated on areas he felt organizations should help prepare managers and teams:
You understand what autism is, understand how people with autism interact and what
they need to focus on, you know, the roles and responsibilities that would enable them to
be successful, as well as understanding the communication patterns. So, directness,
details, those type of things. Then prep your team and teammates for someone with
autism joining the team, so they can be understanding, and everyone can operate together
as a highly functioning team.
Isaac’s comment highlights the importance of training on autism inclusive communication and
management methods, and belief that these methods would benefit everyone in the workplace.
Providing everyone with an understanding of differences and an appreciation of how
those differences can be beneficial to all people is helpful. Oscar shared his thoughts on the type
of training that would benefit employees and their managers:
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I would want to provide as much training as possible. How to effectively give feedback
would be the number one thing and being clear with communications. The biggest thing
with employees with autism is not treating them like a charity, not treating them any
differently than a typical team member, but I'm having the same standards and coaching
them to meet those standards.
Oscar’s view on training was beyond process and management skills. He wanted to ensure
disability acceptance was part of the manager and team training and ingrained overall
organizational culture. Developing disability acceptance would support managers and
employees’ awareness regarding the value people with autism bring to the workplace.
An inclusive culture, providing expectations for behavior, and increasing awareness of
the challenges and abilities people with autism face helps to improve team members’ perception
toward people with autism and related disabilities (Erickson et al., 2014). The AEC program
leaders recognized that it is critical to promote and educate their employees regarding disability-
inclusion in the workplace and to outline the process and expectations in the workplace. Each of
the autism program leaders indicated plans to continue expanding their autism employment
programs and shared that those initiatives included more robust training for managers and teams
prior to onboarding an employee with autism, and on-demand autism coaching support to help
transition teams to be autism-inclusive.
Summary
This study sought to understand how managers in organizations with autism employment
programs were able to support and retain employees with autism when previous research showed
employees struggled to keep employment due to communication and job demand problems
(Lorenz et al., 2016). The conceptual framework of this study identified key factors that
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impacted the success of these programs with managers at the center. The research found that
managers were critical to employee success and their actions directly affect the employment
outcomes for people with autism (Chappel & Sommers, 2010; Muller et al., 2003; Parr &
Hunter, 2014). The interviews showed that managers played a significant role in the success of
the employees with autism at AEC organizations.
The influences identified in the conceptual framework as critical factors to reaching the
stakeholder goal were confirmed during the interviews. The types of knowledge managers
needed to support autistic employees successfully was examined, and consistent practices were
identified and included: an authentic style of leadership that led the managers to adapt to their
employees’ needs and ensure adequate coaching and support was provided to the employee. The
managers identified these behaviors as necessary skills that should be applied across all
employees with and without autism. Necessary procedural knowledge included communication
and management practices that the managers consistently leveraged; specifically, direct
communication, providing detailed tasks, follow-up to ensure understanding, and consistent
workplace structures for their employees with autism. These seemingly straightforward practices
enhanced the managers' ability to support their employees with autism, and in turn, resulted in
high-performance outcomes.
Another important aspect to highlight is that the almost half of the managers did not
receive formal training prior to onboarding employees with autism, which means that training,
while helpful, was not required to manage these employees successfully. Although all managers
came to leverage similar practices to communicate and manage their employees with autism,
training may have reduced the amount of learning by trial and error and potentially increased
managers’ self-efficacy in their ability to manage these employees during initial onboarding.
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Regardless of training and level of self-efficacy, these managers had values and beliefs
that were aligned to the organizational culture and strategy to be autism-inclusive. This cultural
and value alignment helped the managers seek ways to accommodate their employees’
differences and try new methods until they were successful. Due to the diversity-inclusive
culture of these organizations, these managers saw autism as a unique culture to be understood
rather than a disability that needed to be helped. These managers recognized the talents
employees with autism brought to the team and often mentioned their employees had exemplary
knowledge retention and focus toward work.
The success of these programs is primarily due to these managers willingness to learn and
accept the differences that are inherent in people with autism. AEC organization and their
managers exemplified the conceptual framework and aligned KMO influences identified. The
AEC organizations autism employment programs were identified as a promising practice to be
explored because their programs were gaining traction on hiring and training employee with
autism where vocational rehabilitation and traditional employment opportunities had not
(Burgess & Cimera, 2014). The data collected confirmed that managers are the key to the
success of these programs and that investment in manager leadership and skills development will
help improve their ability to support employees with and without autism.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations
From the examination of promising practices across organizations who employ adults
with autism, three approaches were implemented by the participating organizations that
improved their capacity to support adults with autism in the workplace: autism internship
programs, training for managers and recruiters, and autism work entry programs. These
programs provided a point of entry and helped managers support autistic adults in competitive
roles. Organization sponsored programs showed promise to address the un- and under-
employment issue of people with autism and improve lifetime outcomes for this demographic.
Historically there were limited employment opportunities for adults with autism (Baldwin et al.,
2014; Taylor et al., 2015; Taylor & Setzer, 2011). Examining approaches to implement solutions
to address the employment issues of people with autism served as an alternative to a perpetuating
a lack of employment opportunities. If left unaddressed, these employment issues will perpetuate
the need for support from social welfare systems and result in wide-spread financial impacts on
society (U.S. Department of Education, 2009).
Implementing an autism employment initiative would support organizational efforts to
create a more diverse and inclusive organization. In addition to supporting the strategic
objectives aligned to diversity in the organization, improving the organization’s ability to support
people with disabilities in the workplace is critical to ensure ADA compliance to meet federal
regulations as an operating institution. The ADA requires employers to provide equal
opportunities to people with disabilities who are qualified for the roles in which they apply; this
requirement has been in effect since 1990 (DRC, 2012). While ADA compliance is the intent of
organizations, employees with autism at organizations with targeted employment programs
indicated to autism program leaders that they were not successful at being hired until the autism
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hiring program was put in place. This feedback indicates that qualified candidates were applying
for roles and did not have equal opportunity to obtain them through traditional recruiting and
interviewing methods.
While all the AEC autism employment programs had effective components that increased
the organization’s ability to hire and retain qualified adults with autism, manager education and
organization culture are the focus of the proposed solution. Recommendations to support
knowledge, motivation, and organizational influences that impact managers’ ability and
willingness to employ adults with autism were identified through the data collection and research
reviewed. A formalized education and strategic hiring program, along with corporate policies
regarding disability-inclusion are proposed.
Though the findings showed that managers learned to support employees with autism
regardless of training provided, the managers’ who received training and coaching were able to
recognize the employees' needs and employ effective methods more efficiently than the
managers who learned by trial and error. The experience of managing employees with autism
indicated enhancement of management and communication skills that were applied across all
employees on these inclusive teams effectively; this suggests that autism inclusion training and
autism employment programs can help support the continued leadership development of high
potential managers in inclusive organizations. To monitor the progress and evaluate the
effectiveness of the proposed program, four levels of evaluation from Kirkpatrick and
Kirkpatrick’s (2016) New World model was used; this framework helps to define the metrics and
critical behaviors necessary to achieve the organizational goal to enhance managers’ abilities to
employ adults with autism, and in turn, increase the number of employees with autism in the
organization.
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Recommendations for Practice to Address KMO Influences
Knowledge Recommendations
Introduction. Knowledge regarding disabilities and people with autism impacts managers’
abilities and willingness to support them in the workplace (Houtenville & Kalargyrou, 2012).
The data from managers’ interviews indicated that procedural and metacognitive knowledge was
a significant influencer in their ability to support adults with autism. Conceptual knowledge
regarding how disabilities manifest in the workplace helped to assuage fears and dispel myths
regarding the capabilities of people with disabilities and behavior concerns specific to people
with autism due to limited to no direct prior experience with autism. Table 8 highlights the types
of knowledge that influence managers’ ability and willingness to support adults with autism in
the workplace; aligned recommendations are also provided.
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Table 8
Summary of Knowledge Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Knowledge
Influence
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Managers understand
disabilities and potentially
related work issues,
specifically for employees
with autism. (D-Conceptual)
The creation of schemata
influences how information is
generalized and applied to
groups of people, that in turn,
impacts behavior (Schein,
2016; Schraw & McCrudden,
2006).
Provide e-learning
information on diversity
inclusion that incorporates a
focus on disability and
neurodiversity in the
workplace.

Managers know how to
implement accommodations
to support job performance
for employees with autism.
(P)

Procedural knowledge
impacts a manager’s ability to
know when and how to apply
a specific skill or technique to
address workplace situations
(Rueda, 2011; Schraw &
McCrudden, 2006).

Provide expert-led
information sessions, and
tip-sheets regarding the
steps managers can take to
support employees with
autism.

Provide job-aids on how to
request accommodations
regarding technology,
facilities, or other workplace
modifications.

Managers understand the
adaptability of
communication and
management styles is related
to employee performance and
workplace outcomes. (M)

Awareness and ability to learn
from recollection of
experience increases
knowledge and awareness of
abilities (Baker, 2006;
Immordino-Yang et al., 2012;
Mayer, 2011).

Provide managers training
on alternate communication
and management styles by
diversity experts and peer
models.

Provide opportunities for
managers to reflect on their
proposed adaptable
communication strategies.
Note: The knowledge type for each assumed influence is indicated by the following abbreviations:
(D) Declarative; (P) Procedural; (M) Metacognitive

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Declarative knowledge solutions. Managers need conceptual knowledge to understand
disabilities and potentially related work issues, specifically for employees with autism (D).
Declarative, conceptual knowledge is based on the interrelationships of information that result in
how an individual creates classifications, generalizations, models, and structures regarding
people and concepts (Krathwohl, 2002). As indicated in Table 8, researchers found that the
creation of schemata influences how information is generalized and applied to groups of people,
that in turn, impacts behavior (Schein, 2016; Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). This research
suggests that new information can influence the creation of new schemata regarding people with
disabilities, and in turn, affect behavior towards these individuals. Therefore, it is recommended
that managers receive e-learning information on diversity inclusion that focuses explicitly on
neurodiversity and autism in the workplace.
E-learning allows corporations to disseminate critical information to a global workforce
to ensure they have the right tools and knowledge needed for the job. Providing information via
electronic dissemination allows tracking of completion, consistency in information received, and
the ability for interactive and illustrative elements (Chen, 2008; Mancuso, Chlup, & McWhorter,
201; Rawson, Thomas, & Jacoby, 2014). Being able to provide illustrative elements to support
new information enhances conceptual learning and retention (Rawson et al., 2014). Through the
dissemination of information via e-learning, organizations can provide managers with the
information they need and provide context through illustrative components and examples which
aids the development of new schemata regarding the capabilities of people with autism in the
workplace.
Procedural knowledge solutions. In addition to an increased understanding of people
with disabilities, managers need procedural knowledge in order to implement accommodations to
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support job performance for employees with autism (P). Procedural knowledge is information
that informs how to do something and includes criteria for using skills, methods, and techniques
to achieve the desired result (Krathwohl, 2002). Research shows that procedural knowledge
impacts people’s abilities to know when and how to apply a specific technique to address a
workplace situation (Rueda, 2011; Schraw & McCrudden, 2006). This finding suggests that
providing specific procedures and instructions can improve a manager’s knowledge and ability to
support their employees with autism in the workplace. The recommendation was that managers
be provided expert-led information sessions and tip sheets regarding the steps they can take to
support employees with autism (Table 8). Job-aids on how to request accommodations regarding
technology, facilities, and other types of workplace modifications should also be included.
Managers can learn how to best support employees with autism in the workplace through
a blended approach that includes expert lead training sessions and job-aids (Phillips, Deiches,
Morrison, Chan, & Bezyak, 2015). Job aids and training support the transfer of procedural
knowledge that can be applied in the workplace (Clark & Estes, 2008; Mayer, 2011). The blend
of training and job-aids would provide managers’ the necessary knowledge and resources they
need to support employees with autism. Expert-led sessions would provide the guidance
managers need to understand the implications of implementing the procedures in the context of
the workplace (Merriam, 2008).
Metacognitive knowledge solutions. Managers need metacognitive knowledge to
understand how their adaptability of communication and management style is related to
employee performance and workplace outcomes (M). Metacognitive knowledge is the
individual’s knowledge and awareness of their own cognition. Researchers found that leaders’
awareness and ability to learn from recollection of experiences increased knowledge and
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awareness of abilities. (Baker 2006; Immordino-Yang et al., 2012; Mayer, 2011). This finding
suggests that managers can learn and improve their ability to lead and communicate through self-
reflection and self-awareness of how they interact and affect others. Self-reflection can be
facilitated through management and communication style training, where managers can increase
their awareness of their current management and communication style and learn alternate
methods that are effective with employees with and without autism. The training would include
peer modeling and opportunities to reflect on their ability to implement the proposed strategies
(Table 8).
Managers’ ability and knowledge to adapt their communication and management style to
the needs of employees can be enhanced through reflection and awareness training. Reflection is
a developmental process that is fostered in adult learning settings (Merriam, 2008). Adult
learning that focused on meaning-making through dialogue is a recommended strategy when the
transformation of thoughts and behaviors is required (Merriam, 2008). Training the incorporated
reflection and discussion of action would support the metacognitive development of management
aptitudes that are needed to support employees with autism in the workplace successfully.
Motivation Recommendations
Introduction. Multiple factors impact managers' motivation to employ adults with
autism in competitive workplaces. Understanding managers’ motivation is important because
employers have a significant impact on employment outcomes for people with autism (Hagner &
Cooney, 2005; Martin et al., 2015). The data showed that motivation is impacted by managers’
ability to meet organizational goals, the perceived value that employees with autism bring to the
workplace, and their self-efficacy regarding their ability to support employees with autism on
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their teams. Table 9 summarizes the motivation influences and aligned recommendations to
directionally influence managers’ motivation to support adults with autism in the workplace.
Table 9
Summary of Motivation Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Motivation
Influence
Principle and Citation Context-Specific
Recommendation
Goal-Oriented
(performance
approach):
Managers support the
performance of adults
with autism to meet the
organization’s goal and
commitment to be a
diverse, disability-
inclusive employer.
Goal orientation is aligned
with achievement motivation,
where the individual is
focused on achieving the
goals and performance
expectations set by
organizational leaders
(Yough & Anderman, 2006)
Organizational leaders need to set
clear performance goals for
managers that align with the
diversity strategy and vision of the
company.

Utility Value:
Managers see the value to
team productivity by
having employees with
autism on their teams.
Utility value is the
importance an individual
aligns to a goal based on their
belief in the usefulness and
benefits of participating in an
activity (Eccles, 2006; Rueda,
2011).
Share success stories and provide
collaborative discussion
opportunities across departments
and managers regarding the value
to team productivity experienced
by including people with autism
on their teams.
Self-efficacy:
Managers believe they
can effectively manage
employees with autism.
Self-efficacy is an
individual’s perception of
their ability and skills to
achieve a desired goal or
outcome. (Pajares, 2006;
Rueda, 2011)
Managers receive continuous
feedback and support regarding
their management and
communication skills from peers
and leadership; focus on strength
and provide resources where
opportunities are identified.

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Goal-oriented performance approach. When managers’ motivation is influenced by
performance goals set by their organization, they have a goal-oriented performance approach to
work (Rueda, 2011). Managers with a goal-oriented approach to performance are willing to
support the performance of adults with autism to meet the organization’s goal and commitment
to be a diverse, disability-inclusive employer. Goal-orientation is aligned with achievement
motivation, where the individual is focused on achieving the goals and performance expectations
set by organizational leaders (Yough & Anderman, 2006). This finding suggests that managers
who are part of organizations with clear values, goals, and performance expectations are
motivated toward performance achievement. To encourage goal-oriented performance in
managers, organizational leaders need to set clear performance goals that align with the diversity
strategy and vision of the company (Table 9).
When organizations set expectations regarding the type of performance they expect from
their managers and employees, they encourage a performance goal orientation. Goal-orientation
toward performance can be an effective motivator when achievement is aligned to clearly
defined goals and actions (Rueda, 2011). Additionally, motivation to perform is effective in
encouraging desired behavior and outcomes in competitive environments as long as there is
personal or team value and reward for engaging in the behavior (Elliot, 2006; Rueda, 2011).
When managers were recognized for achievement of performance goals it influenced continued
motivation to support diversity in the workplace (Markel & Barclay, 2009). With recognition for
performance, managers would be encouraged to take the initiative to engage these employees
with autism.
Utility Value. Managers see the value added to team productivity by having employees
with autism on their teams. Utility value is the importance an individual aligns to a goal based on
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their belief in the usefulness and benefits of participating in an activity (Eccles, 2006; Rueda,
2011). To help managers see the utility value of including employees with autism on their teams,
other managers who successfully employ adults with autism can share success stories and
provide collaborative discussion opportunities; managers can share the value employees with
autism bring to team productivity and work quality.
Utility value is fueled by the belief that the cost of engaging in a task or activity will lead
to desired outcomes (Eccles, 2006). Managers’ beliefs regarding the value that employees with
disabilities bring to the workplace impact their decision to support adults with autism in their
organizations (Domzal et al., 2008). Research showed that managers’ values and beliefs could be
influenced by information and performance data regarding the productivity and benefits of
including people with disabilities in the workplace (Domzal et al., 2008). The sharing of success
stories and collaboration across organizations and managers promotes the view in the value of
autism inclusion in the workplace.
Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is an individual’s perception of their ability and skills to
achieve a desired goal or outcome (Pajares, 2006; Rueda, 2011). Managers’ motivation to
support employees with autism is influenced by the belief that they can effectively manage
employees with autism. To support and increase the self-efficacy of managers, leaders need to
provide their managers with continuous feedback, resources, and support regarding their
management and communication skills.
Managers with high self-efficacy regarding their abilities are more willing to learn and
try new techniques and embrace novel situations in the workplace. Recognition of prior success
and learning from failure impact an individual’s thought patterns and future action in related
situations (Pajares, 2006). Managers self-efficacy increased over time and was impacted by their
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direct experience supporting employees with autism on their teams. In addition to recognition
and feedback, ensuring managers have the resources and knowledge they need also support their
self-efficacy to support adults with autism on their teams. When managers have adequate support
and resources to support employees with autism, it improves managers’ self-efficacy in their
ability to support these employees (Hagner & Cooney, 2005; Rashid et al., 2017).
Organization Recommendations
Introduction. Organizations have a significant influence on the culture, resources, and
process that act as the framework in which managers operate (Clark & Estes, 2008; Schein,
2016). The data showed that culture and conduct expectations influenced managers in the
organizations. Managers opinions regarding acceptance of diversity in the workplace and
willingness to provide accommodations were supported through the existing cultural models in
the organization. Managers willingness to hire and provide accommodations increased when they
were held accountability to diversity metrics as part of their performance scorecards (Erickson et
al., 2014) The setting also encourages managers to actively support autism in the workplace, as
they are encouraged to participate in organizational programs and recognized for doing so. Table
10 outlines the cultural models and setting influences that contribute to managers’ mindset and
actions to support employees with autism in the workplace.

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Table 10
Summary of Organization Influences and Recommendations
Assumed Organization
Influence
Principle and Citation

Context-Specific
Recommendation
Cultural Model Influence 1:
Managers need an
appreciation of diverse
cultures and abilities in the
workplace.
Appreciation of diversity in all
dimensions supports the
integration of differences into
management practices
(Angeline, 2011).
Organizational leaders need
to clearly articulate their
vision and values regarding
disability diversity in the
workplace.
Cultural Model Influence 2:
Managers need acceptance and
willingness to provide
accommodations to support
employees with autism.
Acceptance of diversity
promotes an atmosphere of
disability inclusion (Bensimon,
2005).
Managers need to cultivate
opportunities for their staff
to demonstrate inclusivity
of people with disabilities
on their teams.
Cultural Setting Influence 1:
Managers should promote
diversity in hiring and
increased inclusion of people
with autism on their teams.
Commitment to diversity is
observable through inclusive
actions (Angeline, 2011).
Managers and recruiters
actively seek out and recruit
employees with autism.
Cultural Setting Influence 2:
Managers need to respond to
employee requests for
accommodations and ensure
employees with disabilities
have tools and resources they
need to be successful.
Access to resources and
accommodations to support
employees’ needs on the job is
aligned with improved
workplace outcomes (Waters,
Marzano, & McNulty, 2003).
Organizations need to
ensure managers are aware
of the resources available
for employees who need
accommodations.

Cultural models. Managers appreciation of diverse cultures and abilities is needed to
support other cultural models and settings identified; this cultural influence impacts managers’
ability to support employees with autism in the workplace. An appreciation of diversity supports
the integration of individual differences into management practices (Angeline, 2011). The
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appreciation of diverse cultures also influences the other cultural model identified and resulted in
managers’ acceptance and willingness to support employees with disabilities in their
organization. An appreciation and acceptance of diversity are required to cultivate a culture of
diversity (Bensimon, 2005). To support this cultural model, organizations and their leadership
need to clearly articulate their vision and values regarding disability diversity in the workplace,
and managers need to support their staff to cultivate a disability inclusive culture.
The manifestation of diversity acceptance as part of organizational culture included the
presence of corporate messaging that is focused on social responsibility and accessible in format
and a focus on value creation and meaningful initiatives that promote diversity (Kuznetsova,
2016). Managers at organizations with autism inclusion initiatives have a greater appreciation of
people with disabilities. Managers and individual work teams that included people with autism
had values that strongly aligned with corporate culture and diversity-minded ideals regarding
inclusion and accessibility toward people with disabilities. (Cavanagh et al., 2017; Hagner &
Cooney, 2005). Organizations that promote and encourage an inclusive culture influence the
mindset and actions of managers and their employees.
Cultural settings. Managers in diversity-focused organizations promoted disability
inclusion through the hiring and continued support of people with autism on their teams. The
promotion and commitment to diversity in an organization lead to other influences in the cultural
setting that include managers’ ability and willingness to respond to employee requests and needs
for accommodation in the workplace. Research shows that commitment to diversity is observable
through inclusive actions that include actively recruiting people with disabilities and providing
workplace accommodations that employees need to be successful (Angeline, 2011; Waters et al.,
2003). To support the inclusion of employees with autism in the workplace, managers need to
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model inclusive behaviors by actively seeking out and recruiting diverse employees with
disabilities. Organizations also need to ensure that managers are aware of the resources and
accommodations available to the employee to be successful in the workplace.
Managers of disability-inclusive organizations actively supported diversity resource
groups and to provide outreach and recruitment efforts targeted to attract persons with
disabilities (Hagner & Cooney, 2005; Schur et al., 2009). These managers were also willing to
provide accommodations such as assistive technology and modified workspaces. In addition to
assistive tools, managers were also willing to modify their approach to interpersonal interactions
and leadership in the workplace. The changes made to accommodate employees with autism
were also found to benefit the entire team and resulted in increased productivity for the
department (Hagner & Cooney, 2005). When organizations proactively implement disability
inclusion initiatives and have accommodations readily available for candidates and employees
with disabilities, it improves managers’ abilities and willingness to include these employees on
their teams.
Integrated Implementation and Evaluation Plan
Implementation and Evaluation Framework
Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s (2016) Four-Level Model of Evaluation was used as the
framework to create the implementation and evaluation plans to support the recommendations
previously identified. This model focuses on identifying success factors and aligning processes,
learning, and other resources to support the adoption of desired learning and behavior. While the
levels are number 1-4, the sequence of planning and goal identification takes place in reverse
order.
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Beginning with Level 4 we focus on measures that align with the target organizational
goal, focusing on progress toward target measures, these indicators lead to Level 3 and the
evaluation of the adoption of key behaviors. Level 2 evaluation provides indicators that
stakeholders acquired the learning intended during training and information dissemination, and
Level 1 measures the perception of satisfaction of participants regarding the overall
implementation experience (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016). Designing the implementation
and evaluation plan with these levels in mind ensures that success is achieved by providing
multiple levels of targeted support and evaluation to support the target stakeholder learning
needs, behavior change, and key metrics, processes, and procedures to support overall
organizational goals.
Organizational Purpose, Needs, and Expectations
While Autism Employment Collective organizations (AEC) goals vary between
organizations, all have goals to expand their disability-diversity and autism employment
programs, focusing on increasing the number of departments, locations, and span of roles held by
employees with autism. These organizations are all focused on a multitude of corporate
responsibility initiatives and actively support human rights and community development
programs; they collaborated on hiring initiatives and shared best practices to improve
employment outcomes for people with autism (Che, 2016; United Nations, 2015). The proposed
solutions are designed to support AEC goals to continuously increase the number of adults with
autism they hire while implementing more inclusive and accessible management and recruiting
standards in their organizations. These goals complement the UN’s visions and call to action
from corporate leaders to create equitable and accessible opportunities for people with
disabilities by 2030 (United Nations, 2016).
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Level 4: Results and Leading Indicators
To ensure AEC organizations meet their autism hiring and corporate-wide diversity
objectives, each organization needs to set metrics so ensure progress is being made toward the
achievement of their goals. These outcomes will support both external and internal outcomes that
can be measured. Table 11 shows the proposed Level 4 outcomes, metrics and methods that if
met, will indicate AEC organizations and their managers have the resources and knowledge they
need to support a culture of diversity and accommodate adults with autism in their workplaces.
These outcomes also will lead to external measures such as increased direct recruiting and hiring
of adults with autism, as well as serve as best practice and promotion of the benefits of autism
and disability inclusion in the workplace. These changes will impact corporate culture and the
behavior changes needed to improve employment outcomes for adults with autism globally, each
organization

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Table 11

Outcomes, Metrics, and Methods for External and Internal Outcomes
Outcome Metric(s) Method(s)
External Outcomes
Increase in the number of
adults employed in
competitive roles at AEC
organizations.
The number of employees
hired/retained with autism
YOY.
Comparison of quarterly
hiring and retention data.
Increased promotion of the
importance (value) of autism
inclusion and diversity in the
workplace.
The frequency and number of
press coverage regarding
disability, autism, and
diversity-related initiatives at
the organization.
Track the frequency of
autism and disability
inclusion mentions in the
press.
Increased disability
recruiting and hiring efforts
at AEC organizations.
The number of employees
with autism recruited through
targeted programs.
Comparison of recruiting
data and placement
outcomes across AEC
organizations YOY.
Internal Outcomes
Accessible and/or Universal
management practices to
hire and support employees
with disabilities at AEC
organizations.
Number of documented
policies and procedures, and
attestations collected from
managers acknowledging
awareness of policies.
Audit of documented
policies and procedures
accessed by hiring
managers.

The number of attestations
(policy acknowledgments)
completed in the LMS.
Increased manager
confidence and employee
satisfaction regarding
disability, diversity, and
inclusion in the workplace.
Percentage increase on
questions aligned with
diversity and employee
satisfaction scores (YOY).
Compare annual (or bi-
annual) survey results.

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Level 3: Behavior
Critical behaviors. Managers are the key stakeholders whose behaviors are critical to
the achievement of the organization's autism disability inclusion goals. Table 12 highlights
critical behaviors that managers need to exhibit to employ and support adults with autism. The
first critical behavior is the need for managers to include and encourage employees with
disabilities in their recruiting efforts. The second critical behavior is that managers must provide
workplace accommodations for employees who request them promptly. Managers must also
demonstrate the ability to adapt their communication and management style to the needs of their
team members with autism; this is the third critical behavior that needs to change for autism
inclusion initiatives to be successful. The fourth critical behavior is that managers must actively
include employees with autism as part of the broader team, which includes inclusion at critical
meetings and integration of work on team projects. The managers need promote their successes
and share stories regarding the benefits of diversity in the workplace; this will encourage more
(other) managers and peer employees to increase inclusion of people with autism on their teams.

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Table 12
Critical Behaviors: Metrics, Methods, and Timing for Evaluation
Critical Behavior Metric(s) Method(s) Timing
1. Managers openly
encourage
employees with
autism, and other
disabilities, to
apply to open
roles.
Number (TBD) of
recruiting efforts
targeted toward
employees with
autism per quarter.
Managers will update
HR systems with
recruiting and hiring
data; HR will
compile the report.
Reminder to
managers 30 days
after training;
monitored quarterly
(standard)
2. Managers provide
workplace
accommodations
promptly.
Length of time
(TBD) between
request and
implementation of
accommodation for
employees.
HR/disability office
will pull reports
regarding the number
of requests sent to
Employee Relations,
or direct submission
for accommodations
for employees.
HR will monitor the
number of
accommodation
requests submitted;
follow-up survey
with new employees
with to ensure
workplace
accommodations (if
needed) are in place-
30 days after hire.
3. Managers modify
communication
and management
practices to meet
the needs of
employees with
disabilities.
Manager provides
notes after meetings
to ensure clarity of
discussion.

Manager provides
clear direction
regarding tasks with
follow-up
instructions and /or
job-aids to follow.
Senior sponsor will
visit managers to
observe and check-in
with employees.
30-60 days after
manager training and
employee with
autism onboarding.
4. Managers
encourage
teamwork and
inclusion of
employees with
disabilities.
Number of projects
that include team
members with
disability comparable
to projects worked on
by typical members.
Manager monitors
projects across the
team to ensure
employees with
autism, and other
disabilities are
proportionally
represented.
Manager reviews
book of work and
makes modifications
monthly.
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Required drivers. The organization must provide resources and continuous reminders to
encourage and support the inclusion of employees with autism in the workplace. Organizations
can drive the value of diversity and promote an inclusive workplace through success stories,
recognition of managers and their teams, and ensuring employees have the resources they need
to be successful. Managers need to learn new ways of communicating and managing their teams,
so they accommodate different needs of their employees. They must be intentional and inclusive
in their recruiting and hiring efforts to ensure they are providing equal access to people with
disabilities; importantly, they need to be recognized for their efforts. Table 13 highlights the
drivers that are necessary to drive the achievement of these outcomes.

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Table 13
Required Drivers to Support Critical Behaviors
Method(s) Timing
Critical Behavior
Supported
Reinforcing
Reminders of recruiting events
and opportunities to participate
in autism hiring initiatives.
Quarterly to managers across the
organization.
1, 2
Job-aids with best practices for
modifying communication and
management style.
Available on-demand; reminders
sent during new hire onboarding
1, 3, 4
Process manuals for providing
accommodations.
Available on-demand; reminders
sent during new hire onboarding.
2, 3
Encouraging
Feedback from diversity coaches
and senior sponsors.
Quarterly as part of Performance
Review Process
1, 2, 3, 4
Rewarding
Recognition in company intranet
and external website.
Monthly/Quarterly as success
stories are raised.
1, 2, 3, 4
Recognition from senior
sponsors during Town Halls or
team meetings.
Quarterly as success stories are
raised.
1, 2, 3, 4
Monitoring
Metrics regarding recruiting
efforts, hiring and retention of
employees with autism
Measured quarterly and
compared to firm-wide hiring
metrics.
1, 3, 4
KPI aligned to employee (team)
and manager performance.
Comparison of disaggregated
data monthly.
3, 4

Accountability to achieve goals starts with ensuring the drivers are in alignment with
corporate-wide objectives. If autism and diversity inclusion are marked as critical initiatives,
values, and goals, then the drivers would be integrated into the fabric of the organization;
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accountability of these drivers would be at multiple levels. The diversity or HR team would be
key to ensure that recruiting, hiring, and retention data are collected and analyzed to determine
measures toward the success of the organization’s goals. HR and diversity professionals would
also be vital to ensuring that leaders know that actively supporting and promoting inclusion
would be included as performance measures that are routinely monitored and included in the
annual performance appraisal process. Employee Relations and HR professionals would ensure
that employees and managers had the information they need to accommodate employees with
autism and would be key to escalating issues if they arise.
Organizational support. Organizations can support the implementation of these drivers
by ensuring they clearly articulate their vision and values regarding disability and autism
inclusion in the workplace. As recommended in Table 10, multiple levels of support will be
necessary to influence cultural change and inclusive behavior adoption. In addition to
organizational leadership communicating their values and expectations, managers at all levels
also need to communicate and cultivate their staff to disability and diversity inclusive.
Managers and leaders need to model the behavior they seek, by actively recruiting adults with
disabilities to work on their teams. Leaders also need to align resources to support these goals
and values to departments across the organization; these resources include training, job-aid, and
workplace accommodations such as specialized software and modified desk/workspaces.
Level 2: Learning
Learning goals. Following the completion of the recommended solutions, managers at AEC
organizations will be able to:
1. Recognize disability-related and autism-specific matters and determine appropriate
action. (D)
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2. Provide guidance to team members regarding disability-inclusion and autism in the
workplace
3. Respond to accommodation requests and other needs related to autism in the workplace.
(P)
4. Use the appropriate communication and management styles to support autism and other
developmental disabilities in the workplace (M)
5. Indicate confidence in the ability to modify communication and management practices to
meet individual employee needs (Self-Efficacy)
6. Create plans to ensure recruiting process for open requisitions are inclusive in approach
and format for candidate evaluation and hiring (P)
Program. The learning goals for managers at organizations with autism employment
programs will be achieved with a series of training and support programs that provide
foundational knowledge regarding disabilities and autism in the workplace, the corporate policies
and expectations for disability inclusion, and the resources and expectations of conduct in the
organization. Managers will be provided with e-learning modules, job-aids, process guides, and a
2-hour seminar for autism inclusion in the workplace once they have been identified as an autism
employment participating manager. The total time for completion of the foundational program is
5 hours. Additional support from an autism coach will be provided on an as-needed basis.
The asynchronous e-learning modules will provide managers with an overview of the
disability-inclusion and facts regarding autism in the workplace, policies regarding workplace
accommodations and other ADA standards. Each module will provide case studies, role-based
scenarios, and knowledge checks to ensure understanding and application in the workplace.
Managers will also be provided with links to job-aids, discussion guides, and procedures for
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obtaining accommodation, and other workplace resources will be provided that are accessible via
the autism employment and other HR resource sites. An electronic attestation will be completed
by managers after all asynchronous e-learning modules are completed; the attestation indicates
an understanding of policies and agreement to adhere to the standards outlined by the company.
The synchronous learning session will provide time for discussion, peer modeling, and
additional role-based scenarios for managers to apply what they have learned. More experienced
managers will discuss their experiences and the benefits of including employees with autism on
their teams. Additionally, coaching and resources will be made available to managers as needed,
for just-in-time and situation specific support.
Evaluation of the components of learning. Confirming managers have the knowledge
they need is necessary to ensure they can apply new information to solve issues regarding
accommodations and interpersonal interactions in the workplace. Program leaders must evaluate
participants to ensure managers understand key concepts and can apply this knowledge on the
job. In addition to knowledge acquisition, managers’ beliefs regarding the applicability of the
learning to their setting and that they feel ready to apply their new knowledge and skills in the
workplace need to be assessed. Lastly, managers’ perception of value regarding the learning
experience should be evaluated, to ensure that the methods leveraged are effective and increase
the receptivity of managers in future cohorts. Table 14 lists the evaluation methods and timing
that align with the components outlined.

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Table 14
Evaluation of the Learning Components for the Program
Methods or Activities Timing
Declarative Knowledge: “I know it.”

Knowledge checks using multiple choice. During e-learning courses after key
content sections.
Knowledge check through discussions and activities. During live-session.
Procedural Skills: “I can do it right now.”

Completion of scenarios with multiple-choice items. Practice during e-learning courses at
the end of each module/lesson/unit
Retrospective learning evaluation. After the live-session.
Attitude: “I believe this is worthwhile.”

Discussion of the value in including employees with
autism in the workplace.
During the live-session.
Retrospective learning survey and evaluation. After the live-session.
Confidence: “I think I can do it on the job.”

Discussion following role-playing exercises and
feedback.
During the course.
Retrospective learning evaluation. After the live-session.
Commitment: “I will do it on the job.”

Completion of Attestation After asynchronous e-learning
modules.
Retrospective learning evaluation. After the live-session.

Level 1: Reaction
The autism and disability-inclusion learning program is designed to ensure that
participants have multiple opportunities to provide feedback on the various course components
throughout the learning program. Continuous feedback throughout the learning experience helps
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autism program leaders determine participant satisfaction with the courses and relevance of the
content to the manager's role. Table 15 highlights the measures that will be leveraged to gauge
participant reactions to the program.
Table 15
Components to Measure Reactions to the Program
Method(s) or Tool(s) Timing
Engagement

Time to complete online
modules/lessons/units.
Ongoing during asynchronous portion of
course.
Attending live-session as scheduled. During live-session
Learning Program Evaluation Two weeks after live-session
Relevance

Course Evaluation Survey After every e-learning learning course
Learning Program Evaluation Two weeks after live-session
Customer Satisfaction

Course Star Ratings After every e-learning learning course
Course Evaluation Survey After every e-learning learning course
Learning Program Evaluation Two weeks after live-session

Evaluation Tools
Immediately following the program implementation. Data regarding the duration and
completion of asynchronous modules by the participants will be collected by the learning
management system (LMS). The LMS completion data in conjunction with Level 1 surveys will
confirm participant engagement with the course materials. As indicated in Appendix E,
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the immediate evaluation instrument designed to measure participant engagement with the
course, the perceived relevance of the content and materials in relation to their role, and the
participants' overall satisfaction with the facilitation and delivery of the course. This evaluation
includes Level 1 and Level 2 data to measure reaction and learning that occurred immediately
after the program. The evaluations will also be leveraged to ensure understanding of new
concepts; this includes knowledge checks aligned with role-based scenarios and quizzes
throughout each course.
Delayed for a period after the program implementation. Eight weeks after the live-
learning session and asynchronous modules are completed, participants will receive a second
survey to evaluate their post-learning reaction (Level 1), knowledge retention (Level 2) and
behavior (Level 3) impacted after the program. Through the use of a blended evaluation
instrument (Appendix F), the program can evaluate the participants’ ability to apply new
knowledge and skills on the job and obtain feedback on what components and content from the
course are believed to be the most relevant on the job. This second evaluation also provides a
feedback opportunity to understand what could be modified to improve the program in the
future.
Data Analysis and Reporting
The outcomes identified in the evaluations highlight the importance of the managers'
actions in support of the organization's autism disability-inclusion goals. To determine if progress
is being made, the organization will need to have quarterly reporting on key metrics and
compilation of outcomes from learning programs and other diversity initiatives. These metrics will
provide the status of autism hiring and retention efforts in relation to manager learning outcomes
and direct feedback regarding the implementation of inclusive practices. Senior leaders, HR, and
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disability-inclusion professionals will evaluate the program and metrics quarterly. The program
would be continuously monitored through the analysis of data compiled from multiple metrics
collected from the autism employment program team and provided in a status dashboard. The
autism employment quarterly report would highlight the successes and opportunities shown by the
data and serve as the benchmark for future reports.
Summary
Providing autism and disability-inclusive hiring programs and training would enhance
managers’ ability to employ adults with autism and support the effectiveness of the
organizations’ diversity-inclusion. The New World Kirkpatrick Model allowed the segmentation
of critical areas that are essential to the development of a strategic, measurable program that
helps the organization reach its goals. Evaluation aligned to organization goal metrics, behaviors,
and skills exhibited in the workplace, knowledge attained, and satisfaction with learning program
and autism program experience are critical to ensuring that modifications and additional supports
can be made if needed. Continuous evaluation allows leaders to assess progress and enhance
plans to ensure alignment of behaviors to strategic goals (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2016).
The framework ensures that the program focuses on the multiple levels needed to create a
systemic culture and behavioral change in the organization. Organizations that implement autism
employment programs were diversity-minded and believed inclusion-programs were good
business and the socially responsible thing to do (Che, 2016; Markel & Barclay, 2009). Autism
employment programs also open access to a talent pool with unrealized potential that if
supported, could result in additional gains for employers from increased productivity to
innovation in the workplace. While the inclusion of adults with autism in the organization
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required a cultural mind-shift, these changes were necessary to stay current and reflective of the
demographics served (Markel & Barclay, 2009).
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Research Approach
The Clark and Estes (2008) framework guided the approach to this case study research.
The KMO model examines issues impacting stakeholders from a knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influence perspective. With this framework, leaders can identify gaps that may be
impacting one of the domains and implement aligned solutions to rectify the issue (Clark &
Estes, 2008). While all methodological approaches have strengths and weaknesses, the KMO
model was an effective lens to explore the knowledge, motivation, actions of managers that
enabled them to support employees with autism on their teams effectively.
This framework also guided the exploration of organizational influences and constructs
than aided in the success of these programs. Additionally, this framework aligned to the
researcher’s domain of expertise which is aligned to adult education, directional motivation, and
organizational change, and her philosophy that change begins with a catalyst that causes
awareness, motivates learning, and in time results in behavior change. While not all change
managers and organizational leaders adopt a person-centric view to change the other models
often provide rigid constructs and steps to force adoption of new practices and do not provide
guidance on deep needs and gap analysis to identify where the issue resides. Identifying the gaps
that prevent a stakeholder from achieving their goals and facilitating learning to address the gaps
leads to long-term change and cultural mind shifts (Brophy, 2010; Clark & Estes, 2008). The
KMO framework helps provide a more holistic approach, focused on the external and internal
mechanisms that impact humans to feel inspired, or rather, motivated to change; in turn, helping
organizations to meet their strategic goals.
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Limitations and Delimitations
This research was a case study, which also had strengths and weaknesses. A case study
was necessary because there was limited information regarding the management practices that
were being implemented at AEC organizations that were resulting in successful employment
outcomes for employees with autism. Researchers prior to this study made recommendations
based on the ineffective practices and experiences they studied, but few had identified or
confirmed through their research management methods that could be replicated for success
(Hagner & Cooney, 2003; 2005; Rashid et al., 2017; Scott et al., 2015). Due to this limited
knowledge on how to build manager capacity to support employees with autism, a field-based
case study was a logical first step to gather this information.
The case study method allows allowed to gain insight on managers thought process and
help to explore the organizational influences and manager’s motivation to support these
employees; factors that would be hard to measure through observations or surveys. However,
observations would have provided additional insight beyond the views of managers that would
have provided additional insight into these programs. Observations would have allowed a third-
party view into the work environment to observe and see if the ideas espoused were being used
on the job. While this additional method would have provided more weight to the findings, it was
not an available option to the researcher due to site-access restrictions. A quantitative survey
was not chosen for this study due to the limited number of managers currently engaged in autism
employment programs and limited knowledge regarding the types of practices that the survey
would be looking to validate and quantify.
Another limitation of this study is due to the lack of transparency of data collected that
would validate the findings from the interview data presented. While triangulation of data was
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conducted as part of the analysis and generalized themes were presented, the researcher could
not present specific organizational specific results and protect the anonymity of the participant
organizations; however, the researcher was in possession of data that validated the finding of the
research.
Another challenge with this study was the limited resources available to the researcher.
Since this study was not funded or supported by an external party, the researcher invested their
own time and finances to execute data collection. As a full-time student, employee, and parent,
time was constrained to schedule interviews and analyze data; this resulted in a longer timeframe
to compile and write-up the data results. The researcher also had to leverage her social network
to gain access to the AEC organization leaders that needed to approve the research she wanted to
conduct; it was a benefit that she had a professional network to leverage and support from her
university committee members as well. Additional time and additional human resources may
have led to more AEC organization participation and additional managers to interview; however,
the managers interviewed led to saturation of themes and provided a foundation of knowledge on
this topic. Despite these limitations, the researcher took additional time to transcribe and analyze
data to ensure the accuracy and completeness of the data presented.
The recommendations in this paper would apply to organizations that want to implement
the promising practice of autism employment programs in their organizations. The research
suggests that the success of these programs should be agnostic of industry or organization size,
as the AEC organizations included business from small companies to large, publicly traded
organizations. Rather, the requirement to implement an autism employment program
successfully would be an organization that is cultural inclusive from a disability-diversity
perspective, and ready to expand their efforts to target the sub-population of people with autism.
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 148

At the time of the study, all AEC organization planned to continue expanding their programs in
the future.
Future Research
The findings from the manager interviews revealed several key areas and processes that
impacted employers’ capacity to support employees with autism in competitive workplaces.
These finding included the type of management and communication practices that managers
believed were most effective on their teams. To better understand managers self-efficacy and
beliefs regarding people with autism, the interviews were effective in gathering and analyzing
this data. However, due to the small sample, these beliefs and views cannot be generalized. It is
recommended that further analysis of managers at other organizations be conducted; a survey to
confirm the applicability of recommended communication and management styles would help
determine if these methods could be generalized across managers who support employees with
autism.
Although the focus of this study was on the knowledge and motivation of managers’ and
the impact of organizations on their behavior, there would be benefits to observing these
managers, to determine if there is alignment in action to the experiences shared. As part of this
further review to verify findings, employees with autism who report to these managers should
also be studied. Understanding autist employees’ perspectives regarding their managers’
effectiveness and their overall satisfaction in their department would round out the understanding
of the impact autism employment programs have on all primary stakeholders.
Additionally, AEC and other organizations should continue to share their best practices
and data that supports the implementation and value of these programs. At the time of data
collections, AEC organizations share limited information regarding productivity, hiring, and
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 149

retention data, though they were willing to discuss high-level outcomes and benefits. Future
reports that leverage hiring, retention, and program cost data for autism employment programs
would be beneficial to organizations and interested parties looking to invest in similar programs.
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to examine how to build employers capacity and
willingness to support people with autism in competitive workplaces. This issue was relevant to
examine because the rates of under- and unemployment for people with autism was reported as
high as 75% at the time of the study (U.S. Department. of Education, 2011; U.S. Department of
Labor, 2016). The need to address the employment inequity for people with autism was raised by
the UN, and multiple organization responded to the call to action (Che, 2016; United Nations,
2015). While a few large, influential organizations and other special interest companies took
action to hire people with autism, organizations with autism employment initiatives were limited.
Highlighting the promising practice of autism employment initiatives at AEC organizations
might help solve for two issues; the need to improve employment outcomes for people with
autism (Chen et al., 2014), and to help companies address the growing talent gap and need for
skills development in their organizations (ATD Staff, 2017). While AEC organizations drove the
inclusive culture and provided the resources needed to implement these programs in their
organizations, it was the daily interactions between managers and employees with autism that
sustained these programs.
This study sought to identify management practices that could be easily adopted and
improve employment outcomes for people with and without autism. The managers had increased
awareness and appreciation of differences, and this impacted how they viewed and recruited
talent. The managers also showed that simple modifications to management practices and
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 150

communication style helped bridge the cultural differences between normative work behavior
and patterns characteristic in people with autism. Not only were these managers able to support
these employees effectively and retain them on their teams, they believed they were better
managers after working with people with autism; there was also an indication that typical
employees benefited from the changes the managers implemented. Continued leadership
development and autism inclusion programs will provide organizations an opportunity to
develop their managers’ skills to be more effective leaders and enhance their ability to manage
diverse employees; in turn, these leaders lay the foundation of disability inclusion in their
organizations that will support the continued hiring of diverse employees.
With the prevalence of autism currently at 1 in 57 (Baio et al., 2018), more efforts and
resources are being directed toward improving the lifetime outcomes for people with autism
(U.S. Department. of Education, 2011); this includes organizations like the AEC and special
interest groups that are striving to improve employment opportunities for this population (Che,
2016; Chen et al., 2015). Research that can help identify practices that are easily implemented
yet impactful, with the ability to be universally applied across employees, will enable the
development of accessible, inclusive workplaces and support a needed cultural shift regarding
disability-inclusion in society at large.

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 151

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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Interviewees will be managers that have confirmed they have supported employees with autism
on their team (past or present).
Introduction to Interview
● Introduce self (name, background regarding people with autism and inclusive design, a
doctoral student studying organizational change leadership)
● Thank the participant for their time and agreement to participate in the interview
● Explain the purpose of the interview is to understand their experience working with
employees with autism
● Explain that participation is voluntary, they can decline to answer questions, and that the
interview can be stopped at any time.
● Explain that responses are anonymous: participants will not be named nor, will identifiable
characteristics be used in relation to themes and comments shared. The conversations are
confidential, and the data will only be used to provide insight into the questions being
researched as part of this study.
● Permission to Record
○ Press Recording
○ Reiterate Permission to Record
Questions
Manager Experience
1. Tell me about your people management experience.
i. How many years of working experience do you have?
ii. How many years have you worked as a manager?
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 164

iii. How long have you been at the current company?
iv. How large of a team do you currently lead?
2. Tell me about your department’s objectives and the scope of your team’s responsibilities.
i. Nature of work (internal or external function/client provider)
ii. Current goals (productivity, objectives, type of work)
3. How do you evaluate the performance of employees?
i. How do you manage performance issues on the team?
ii. How do you address performance development opportunities?
Manager Experience with Employees with Autism
4. Describe your experience working with employees with autism in the workplace.
5. What factors do you consider when hiring an employee with autism on your team?
(can use factors shared as additional probes)
6. How do feel employees with autism differ from other employees in the workplace, if at all
7. What have you found to be employees with autism greatest strengths?
8. What do you think employees with autism need the most help?
9. What types of accommodations have you used to support employees with autism in your
workplace?
(can ask for more details regarding accommodations: what, how, when implemented)
Manager Leadership and Communication Style
10. Describe your leadership and management style
(can prompt for additional information regarding adapting style to needs of team members
(typical or with autism) such as:
i. How do you adapt your style to the needs of team members?
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 165

ii. Has your management style changed since adding employees with autism on your
team?
iii. When, if ever, do you modify style?
iv. What management skills do you think help support people with autism? (can prompt
for additional information regarding adapting style to needs of team members (typical
or with autism)
11. How do communicate change and work expectations with your team?
(can prompt for additional information regarding any changes to communication style or
providing accommodations to meet the needs of team members (typical or with autism) such as:
i. Do you feel you communicate differently with your employees with autism? If so,
what is different?
ii. What communication methods do you think is most effective for people with autism?
iii. Do you think there are communication methods that would be effective for both
people with and without autism?
Team Effectiveness
12. Tell me about the teams’ overall productivity and work quality.
(can prompt for additional information regarding potential shifts in productivity or work quality
over time and potential differences between employees in this area)
13. Tell me about team dynamics – can you describe a recent interaction between employees?
i. How typical is this type of interaction(s)?
Organizational Influences
14. What training or resources were made available to the team to support the inclusion of
employees with autism?
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 166

15. What advice would you give to managers as they prepare to lead employees with autism on
their teams?
16. What do you think organizations can do to support managers and employees with autism in
the workplace?

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 167

Appendix B: Documents and Artifacts Collection Protocol

Document/Data Request Source Date Requested
(if applicable)
Date Collected /
Received
Organization employee with
autism new hire count and
retention rate data
(quarterly/annual reports
2015- 2018)
[each participating
FOC organization
program manager]

Autism employment
program documents
[processes, and procedures
regarding
recruiting/onboarding
employee/manager training,
other key components]
[each participating
FOC organization
program manager]

Autism employment
program [stories / strategy /
recruiting] and related media
materials (2015-2018)
[each participating
FOC organization
website]
[news-media
organizations]

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 168

Appendix C: Research Information Sheet for Organizations

University of Southern California
Research Information for Organizations

Building Employers’ Capacity to Support Employees with Autism
in Competitive Work Environments: A Promising Practice Study

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Theresa Haskins, M.A., principal
investigator, and Monique Datta, Ed.D., faculty advisor at the University of Southern California.
Please read through the information sheet and ask any questions you have before deciding whether
to participate.

ABSTRACT OF STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand the management practices and organizational
influences at organizations with autism employment programs that result in the successful
employment and retention of adults with autism in their workplaces. Research shows managers
have a significant impact on employment outcomes for people with and without disabilities.

The target participants for this study are managers of inclusive teams at organizations with
autism employment programs. These managers must have direct experience leading people with
and without autism in competitive work settings. Participants will be identified by leaders of
autism employment programs at each participating organization.

Interviews will be conducted to understand the knowledge and motivation of managers, and
organizational influences that support these organizations ability to successfully hire people with
autism in competitive work roles. This data will be analyzed to identify themes.

Organizational data (program hiring and retention rates, work productivity and quality metrics),
autism employment program information, and publicly accessible media regarding autism
employment programs will be collected. Analysis of documents and artifacts will be conducted
for triangulation with interview data for evidence of solutions aligned to management practices
and themes identified.

DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
A qualitative methodology will be used to validate the knowledge, motivation, and
organizational influences identified as part of the principal investigator’s conceptual framework.

Data will be collected through semi-structured interviews with managers and document analysis
of organizationally produced records and publications to compare managers’ responses to
organizations’ reported program results.

The principal investigator will interview participants via virtual meeting rooms to accommodate
the geographical disbursement of participants. The interviews will be approximately one hour
per participant. Discussions will be recorded for review and transcription purposes only. The
COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 169

interview will be guided by protocols that allow for flexibility to ask follow-up questions to
obtain additional details and clarification.

Document analysis will be conducted from organizational data reports (generated by each
participating organization) and program materials collected from each organization's autism
employment program leader. Publicly accessible program documents will also be obtained from
each organization’s website. This information will provide insight regarding overall program
results and processes regarding hiring and retention of employees with autism as well as team
productivity and work quality in departments that include employees with autism.

The principal investigator will analyze information to triangulate data collected from interviews,
organizational documents, and reports. The principal investigator will conduct a detailed coding
process to organize the data and identify themes. Once the analysis is complete, the principal
investigator will construct a descriptive interpretation of the data collected and provide
recommendations for research and practice.

DESCRIPTION OF STUDY POPULATION
Managers at organizations with autism employment programs. Managers must have experience
leading employees with and without autism (currently or within the last six months).

Program leaders of autism employment programs at each participating organization will assist in
identification of managers to invite as participants in this study. Program leaders will also
provide documents for analysis and information on autism employment program processes that
include hiring and training efforts.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. At
the completion of the study, direct identifiers will be destroyed. A pseudonym will be assigned to
all participants and organizations for purposes of inclusion in research reports. All data will be
coded for similarities in responses and stored on a password-encrypted computer. De-identified
data may be used for future research studies. If you do not want this data used in future studies,
you should not participate.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the collected data. The HSPP reviews and monitors
research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION REGARDING PRIMARY INVESTIGATOR
The principal investigator does not work at the participating organizations for this study except
for JPMorgan Chase.

The principal investigator’s employment at JPMorgan Chase is unrelated to the autism
employment program or related departments. She does not work with managers or employees
aligned with autism employment programs nor does she supervise any of the participants aligned
with this research.

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 170

To avoid the potential risk of participants feeling coerced or pressured to participate, the
principal investigator will ensure participants know that she is a USC doctoral candidate and
emphasize that the data collection is for research purposes only and participation is voluntary.
Participants will be informed that their responses will be kept confidential and data reporting will
be used in themes and in aggregate to ensure anonymity of participants. Participants will be
informed that there are no consequences if they choose not to participate.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Theresa
Haskins at thaskins@usc.edu or 330-606-4987.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the
research in general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone
independent of the research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board
(UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or
upirb@usc.edu.

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 171

Appendix D: Information Sheet for Research Participants

University of Southern California
Information Sheet for Research

Building Employers’ Capacity to Support Employees with Autism
in Competitive Work Environments: A Promising Practice Study

You are invited to participate in a research study conducted by Theresa Haskins, M.A. at the University
of Southern California. Please read through this form and ask any questions you might have before deciding
whether you want to participate.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This research study aims to understand the management practices and organizational influences at Fortune
100 corporations that result in the successful employment and retention of employees with autism in their
workplaces

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a one-hour online interview; an
additional follow-up interview may be requested if more time is needed. You do not have to answer any
questions you don’t want to.

CONFIDENTIALITY
Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. Direct
identifiers will be destroyed after data collection, and the de-identified data may be used for future research
studies. If you do not want your data used in future studies, you should not participate.

The members of this study’s research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data collected. The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies
to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact Theresa Haskins at
thaskins@usc.edu or 330-606-4987.

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have questions, concerns, or complaints about your rights as a research participant or the research in
general and are unable to contact the research team, or if you want to talk to someone independent of the
research team, please contact the University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower
Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 172

Appendix E: Immediate Evaluation Instrument

Indicate agreement with responses 1= Strongly Disagree to 5= Strongly Agree
(5-point Likert scale)
Rating
The course held my attention and aided me in learning the concepts.
(Engagement)

What I learned will help me manage employees with disabilities better.
(Relevance)

I am confident I can find the resources and information I need regarding autism-
inclusion in the workplace. (Confidence)

I understand what is expected of me in my role as a manager because of this
course. (Relevance)

I will recommend this program to my colleagues (Customer Satisfaction)

Open-ended feedback
How do you plan to apply what you learned when you return to the workplace. (Commitment)

COMPETITIVE EMPLOYMENT FOR ADULTS WITH AUTISM 173

Appendix F: Blended Evaluation Instrument

I have had the opportunity to apply what I learned in the autism and
disability inclusion program. (commitment)

What information from this course has been the most relevant to your job?
(attitude)

What information should be added to this course to make it more relevant
to managers of inclusive teams? (declarative knowledge)

How have you used what you learned in training on the job? (declarative
knowledge or procedural skills)

What has helped you implement what you learned? (declarative
knowledge or procedural skills)

What impact is participation in the program having on your department?
(attitude, confidence, or commitment)

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Interpersonal differences in the workplace and a lack of competitive employment opportunities contributed to a high unemployment rate for adults with autism. A small group of innovative organizations implemented autism employment programs that placed adults with autism in competitive roles effectively. The success of the programs, launched by autism employment collective (AEC) organizations, was attributed to modifications made by managers that bridged the differences between normative work behavior and patterns characteristic in adults with autism. The purpose of this study was to determine the knowledge, motivation, and organizational (KMO) influences impacting managers’ ability to support employees with autism as part of inclusive teams. Interviews with managers and autism program leaders in conjunction with document analysis enabled the identification and validation of the KMO influences affecting managers. The findings showed that managers across AEC organizations were able to recognize the needs of employees with autism and adjusted their management practices accordingly. An authentic leadership style, direct communication, detailed tasks, and consistent workplace structures showed effective in improving work performance and interpersonal outcomes

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Asset Metadata

Creator Haskins, Theresa Marie (author)

Core Title Building employers’ capacity to support competitive employment for adults with autism: a promising practice study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Publication Date 02/20/2019

Defense Date 01/23/2019

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag authentic leadership,autism,autism at work,autistic,competitive employment,direct communication,Disability,employee,employment,inclusion,leadership development,Management,manager,OAI-PMH Harvest,organization

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Datta, Monique Claire (committee chair), Lynch, Douglas Eugene (committee member), Picus, Lawrence O. (committee member)

Creator Email thaskins@usc.edu,theresahaskins@att.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c89-122775

Unique identifier UC11676805

Identifier etd-HaskinsThe-7088.pdf (filename),usctheses-c89-122775 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-HaskinsThe-7088.pdf

Dmrecord 122775

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Haskins, Theresa Marie

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA