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School-wide implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from high-performing high-poverty urban schools

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School-wide implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from high-performing high-poverty urban schools

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SCHOOL-WIDE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE
CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION: LESSONS FROM HIGH-PERFORMING
HIGH-POVERTY URBAN SCHOOLS
by
Kelly D. Lawson
__________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2008
Copyright 2008 Kelly D. Lawson

ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................v
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................vi
ABSTRACT ...........................................................................................................vii
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION................................................................................1
Statement of the Problem ...............................................................................5
Purpose of the Study.......................................................................................6
Research Questions.........................................................................................6
Significance of the Study................................................................................7
Limitations and Delimitations ........................................................................7
Limitations................................................................................................7
Delimitations ............................................................................................8
Definition of Terms ........................................................................................8
Organization of the Dissertation...................................................................10
Chapter 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ....................................................11
Race, Culture, Poverty, and Student Achievement ......................................12
Historical Overview......................................................................................15
Brown v. Board of Education.................................................................15
Elementary and Secondary Schools Act.................................................16
A Nation at Risk .....................................................................................16
A Nation Still at Risk: An Education Manifesto ....................................17
Achievement Gap ...................................................................................18
Barriers to Student Achievement..................................................................19
Overcoming Barriers ....................................................................................21
Standards-Based Reform ........................................................................22
Accountability ........................................................................................22
Organizational Structures and Systems ........................................................23
Organizational Structures .......................................................................23
Organizational Systems ..........................................................................24
Leadership ....................................................................................................25
School Culture ........................................................................................27
Instructional Leadership .........................................................................29
Data-Driven Decision Making......................................................................29
Professional Development............................................................................30
Professional Learning Communities ............................................................31
System of Instruction....................................................................................32
Standard-Based Instruction.....................................................................33
Culturally Responsive Teaching.............................................................34
Coalescing of the Systems............................................................................36
Successful High-Performing High-Poverty Schools ....................................37
Gaps in the Literature ...................................................................................38

iii
Making the Connection and Next Steps .......................................................38
Chapter 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................40
Purpose of the Study.....................................................................................40
Research Design ...........................................................................................41
Sample and Population .................................................................................41
Selection Process ..........................................................................................41
School and Student Characteristics ..............................................................42
Selection of Participants ...............................................................................43
Theoretical Frameworks ...............................................................................43
Data Collection Procedures and Protocols ...................................................45
Interviews ...............................................................................................46
Observations ...........................................................................................46
Documentation........................................................................................47
Data Analysis................................................................................................49
Ethical Considerations..................................................................................50
Limitations of the Study ...............................................................................50
Chapter 4: FINDINGS..........................................................................................51
Research Questions.......................................................................................52
Background Information on Nine West Elementary School ........................54
Findings for Research Question 1: Performance Among Students
of Color...................................................................................................55
Academic Performance Index ................................................................56
California Standards Test .......................................................................58
California English Language Development Test (CELDT) Data ..........62
Reclassification Data ..............................................................................63
Gifted and Talented Education Identification Pattern ............................64
Summary of Findings .............................................................................67
Findings for Research Question 2: Organizational Structures
and Systems ............................................................................................68
Organizational Structures Related to High Student Performance ..........68
Organizational Systems Related to High Student Performance .............69
Role of Leadership............................................................................70
Data-Driven Decision-Making System ............................................72
International Baccalaureate Programme...........................................76
Standards-Based Instruction.............................................................77
School Culture and Climate System.......................................................78
Professional Development......................................................................82
Interventions ...........................................................................................84
Summary of Findings .............................................................................85
Findings for Research Question 3: Effective Classroom Instruction ...........86
Effective Teaching..................................................................................87
Thematic Curriculum Design ...........................................................87
Well-Balanced Curriculum...............................................................88
Research-Based Instructional Strategies ..........................................89
Culturally Relevant Instruction ........................................................90
Assessment and the Use of Data.......................................................92
Summary of Findings .............................................................................94
Findings for Research Question 4: Construct of Race .................................95

iv
The Role of the Administrator................................................................95
Institutional Practices .............................................................................96
Celebrating Diversity/Multicultural .................................................98
Recognition of Abilities Versus Assets..........................................100
High Expectations...........................................................................101
Relationships With Students...........................................................102
Summary of Findings ...........................................................................103
Discussion...................................................................................................104
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusion, and implications ..........................................107
Purpose of the Study...................................................................................107
Methodology...............................................................................................108
Theoretical Framework...............................................................................108
Summary of Findings .................................................................................109
Research Question 1: Performance Among Students of Color ............109
Research Question 2: Organizational Structures and Systems.............111
Research Question 3: Effective Classroom Instruction........................113
Research Question 4: Construct of Race ..............................................115
Conclusion..................................................................................................117
Implications for Policy and Practice...........................................................118
Recommendations for Future Study...........................................................120
REFERENCES .....................................................................................................122
APPENDICES
A. ADMINISTRATOR INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ................................129
B. TEACHER INTERVIEW QUESTIONS...............................................130
C. CLASSIFIED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS...........................................132
D. PARENT INTERVIEW QUESTIONS..................................................134
E. CLASSROOM OBSERVATION GUIDE.............................................135
F. OBSERVATION PROTOCOL .............................................................136
G. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OBSERVATION
GUIDING RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1, 2, 3, AND 4........................138
H. LEADERSHIP TEAM MEETING QUESTIONS FOR
REFLECTIONS .....................................................................................139

v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Percentages of Students Scoring at Proficient and Above in
English Language Arts and Mathematics by Ethnicity, 2003-2006....18
Table 2: Relationships of Interview Questions (IQ) to Research
Questions (RQ)....................................................................................47
Table 3: Relationships of Documents and Artifacts to Research
Questions (RQ)....................................................................................48
Table 4: Background Information on Interviewees ...........................................53
Table 5: Comparison of Nine West and California Scores for English
Language Arts on the California Standards Test, 2007-2008 .............61
Table 6: Comparison of Nine West and California Scores for Mathematics
on the California Standards Test, 2007-2008 ......................................62
Table 7: Trends in the Performance of Nine West English Learners on
the California English Language Development Test (CELDT),
2003-2007............................................................................................63
Table 8: Reclassification of English Learners at Nine West to Fluent
English Proficient Learners .................................................................64
Table 9: Comparison of Behaviors of Effective Leaders and Behaviors
of Principal Green at Nine West Elementary School ..........................71
Table 10: Attitudes and Profiles Presented in the International Baccalaureate
(IB) Primary Years Programme at Nine West Elementary School .....80

vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Socioeconomic status and measures of achievement in
Mathematics and English Language Arts Achievement in
grade 7 .................................................................................................14
Figure 2: Comprehensive school systems...........................................................37
Figure 3: Theoretical framework for high-poverty/high-performing
schools study........................................................................................45
Figure 4: Steps to data analysis...........................................................................49
Figure 5: Nine West Elementary School school-wide Academic
Performance Index (API) scores 2001-2007 .......................................57
Figure 6: Academic Performance Index (API) scores for Nine West
Elementary School and by subgroup ...................................................57
Figure 7: Percentages of students scoring proficient or higher in English
Language Arts on the California Standards Test, 2004-2007 .............59
Figure 8: Percentages of students scoring proficient or higher in
Mathematics on the California Standards Test, 2004-2007 ................60
Figure 9: Multiyear enrollment of Nine West students in the Gifted and
Talented Education (GATE) program by ethnicity, 2006-2008..........65
Figure 10: Comparison of current ethnicity distributions of Nine West
students and Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) program
students ................................................................................................66
Figure 11: Flowchart of the collaborative inquiry process ...................................93
Figure 12: Distributions of ethnicity of students and faculty at Nine West
Elementary School...............................................................................97

vii
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to identify the practices used at one high-
performing high-poverty urban school serving large concentrations of students of
color in order to understand how this school increased student achievement. The
implementation of organizational structures and systems was studied to ascertain
how they supported effective classroom instruction. The study also examined the
leader’s role in creating school-wide conditions that fostered optimal learning envi-
ronments that promoted higher levels of student achievement. Four research ques-
tions guided this study:
1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of
color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the perceived organizational systems and structures imple-
mented to support school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes
student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and
systems?
Results revealed clearly defined organizational structures and systems that
supported classroom instruction that led to higher levels of student performance.
Content standards, district assessments, banking time, professional development
schedule, and daily English language development were structures that maximized

viii
students’ opportunities to learn by supporting teaching and learning. The imple-
mentation of integrated organizational systems such as data-driven decision
making, instruction, professional development, intervention, school climate, and
culture supported and informed teaching and learning. Standards-based instruction,
research-based instructional strategies, data inquiry, inquiry-based learning, and
culturally responsive instruction were school-wide practices used by teachers to
provide students with rigorous activities that resulted in student learning.
As leaders of high poverty urban schools seek to improve student achieve-
ment, the findings from this study can provide insight into how to implement or-
ganizational structures and systems that support school-wide effective classroom
instruction.

1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Historically, high-poverty urban schools with large concentrations of
students of color have been associated with low student achievement. Evidence
from decades of public education demonstrates unsustainable academic success
with poor students of color. Beginning with the problem of racial inequality in
education, students of color have encountered numerous barriers in public schools
that have hindered their academic achievement (Ravitch, 1983). Critical race theory
postulates that beliefs about race relations and racism influence school practices,
policies, and structure (Lynn, 2006; Yosso, 2002). The rules that govern schools
were predicated on the beliefs and values of the middle class (Payne, 2001).
According to Manchaca (1997), in the deficit thinking paradigm educators
blamed the failure of children of color in school on internal deficiencies and
shortcomings instead of looking at teachers, educational system, and structural
inequalities of economy. Educators saw failure by students of color as inevitable on
the basis of race and culture. Valencia (1997) argued that educators attributed the
low achievement of poor students of color to lack of intelligence and familial
shortcomings. This deficit thinking prevented educators from challenging the
intellectual capacity of students of color (Ford, Harris, Tyson, & Trotman, 2002).
Egregious inequities in the educational system can be traced back to the
early 1900s, when African American students were forced to attend substandard
schools with limited resources, poorly qualified teachers, lowered academic
standards, dilapidated facilities, and classroom conditions that were not conducive
to learning (Murphy, 1988). Harris and Herrington (2006) reported that academic

2
content that was readily available to Whites was not accessible to African
Americans. Instruction was disconnected from students’ actual experiences. Poor
teacher student engagement and low teacher expectations have also been reported
as factors that impeded learning by students of color and undoubtedly influenced
the achievement gap between White and African American students (Murphy).
Documented throughout history were attempts to address the disparities in
the schooling of poor students of color. Beginning in 1954, the Supreme Court
declared de jure segregation illegal in Brown v. Board of Education (Zirkel, 2002).
This historical case gave African American children the chance to attend school
with White students. These schools had better facilities, more resources, and quali-
fied teachers. However, there were still gaps in the educational experience of
African American students when compared to their White counterparts.
In 1965 President Lyndon Johnson declared war on poverty. The Element-
ary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was an outcome of this declaration.
Congress acknowledged the impact of poverty on students and the need to expand
and improve educational programs for poor children. Federal funds were earmarked
to service the nation’s poorest and most needy children (Schugurensky, 1996-
2002).
In 1983 A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Education Reform (National
Commission on Excellence in Education [NCEE], 1983) publicly announced
American discontentment with the educational system. This report stirred
Americans’ concern for the public school system and declared the need to improve
the educational system.
In 1998 A Nation Still At Risk (Thomas B. Fordham Foundation, 1998)
declared that American students were still falling far behind other nations in

3
achievement. In 2001 the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) ushered in a new era
of accountability. Public schools were faced with a rigorous requirement to ensure
that all children were making steady academic progress or incur sanctions.
To date, educational reform has not transformed the academic achievement
of students in public schools. However, there are some examples of individual
schools that have achieved high levels of student of achievement with poor students
of color. These schools are mentioned in 90/90/90 Schools (Reeves, 2000), Hope
for Urban Education (Johnson, J. F., & Asera, 1999), Dispelling the Myth (Barth et
al., 1999), They Have Overcome (Izumi, Coburn, & Cox, 2002), and No Excuses
(Carter, 2000).
Research provides evidence that high-poverty urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color can achieve high performance in spite of
poverty. Marzano (2003) identified school-level factors that impact student
achievement. The most salient school-level factors that impacted student achieve-
ment were a guaranteed and viable curriculum, challenging goals and effective
feedback, parental and community feedback, and collegiality and professionalism.
R. Johnson (2002) provided evidence that clear goals, high standards, and expecta-
tions for all, coupled with standards-aligned assessments, can increase student
achievement in all schools. In that study, overall, high-performing schools had a
clear vision for student achievement that was not always evident at low-performing
schools. Most high-performing schools frequently assessed, monitored, and pro-
vided timely feedback related to student progress (Johnson, R.; Marzano).
Organizational structures and systems impact classroom instruction in high-
performing urban schools. Young and King (2002) noted that school leaders
impacted student achievement directly by impacting organizational structures.

4
Research on “beating the odds” schools showed that leadership capacity was
related to school achievement (EdSource, 2003). In these exemplary schools
leaders developed stable and consistent systems that enabled them to make
demonstrable progress with students of color (Carter, 2000; Lyman & Villani,
2004).
Schools with a predictable system for data-driven decision making have
achieved significant gains in student achievement. According to Marzano (2003),
effective use of data allowed schools to identify strengths and weaknesses in school
programs, pinpoint areas of improvement, and evaluate the effectiveness of prac-
tices. It further provided evidence that high academic performance by students of
color was achievable (Skrla & Scheurich, 2001).
Research has documented that a well-designed professional development
system was essential to enhancing student achievement (Fullan, Hill, & Crevola,
2006; Haycock, 2003; Johnson, R., 2002; Marzano, 2003). The results of those
studies emphasized the importance of professional development that supports and
promotes highly trained teachers. Literature provides evidence that teacher content
knowledge and strategies influence student achievement, particularly by students in
high-poverty urban schools (Johnson, R.). Instructional decisions made by teachers
had the greatest impact on in student achievement. Therefore, schools should
ensure that teachers are skilled and equipped with knowledge to make critical
instructional decisions in the classroom. This was accomplished by planning
professional development that used research based practices, integrated teacher
collaboration, and continuously adjusting to meet the needs of all students (Fullan
et al.).

5
Schools have made remarkable gains with students of color as a result of
implanting a comprehensive system of instruction. An effective system of instruc-
tion included of both standards-based instruction (SBI) and culturally relevant
instruction (CRI). SBI gave all children access to challenging curriculum content.
By implementing standards-based lesson designs, teachers communicated that
learning expectations were the same for all children (O’Shea, 2005). CRI embraces
cultural differences and links students’ life experiences with curriculum. As a
result, lessons are more compatible with children’s culture. Acknowledging
students culture has helped to create optimal learning environment in schools
(Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
Statement of the Problem
High-poverty urban schools with high concentrations of students of color
achieve various levels of student achievement. The number of schools in need of
improvement increases annually. Amid the reports of low-achieving schools have
been schools turning around the performance of low-achieving students. Some
high-poverty urban schools with large concentrations of student of color have
produced significantly higher academic performance than lower-performing
schools with similar student populations (Barth et al., 1999; Carter, 2000;
EdSource, 2006).
Researchers have studied high-performing and low-performing schools in
order to identify practices that account for the differences in student achievement.
However, the problem has been the inability to generalize the work done at high-
performing high-poverty schools. Very little research has delineated the systematic

6
approach used by high-performing high-poverty school to address student
performance.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to closely examine the practices used at high-
performing high poverty urban schools serving large concentrations of students of
color in order to understand how these schools improved student achievement.
First, it examined the implementation of organizational structures and systems at
successful high-poverty urban schools. Second, it examined the relationship
between organizational structures and systems and how they supported school-wide
implementation of best practices. Third, it investigated the implementation of
systems that supported higher levels of student achievement despite historical
obstacles for chronically low-achieving schools. Fourth, the study was designed to
understand how historically low-achieving schools transformed into high-achieving
schools, with the hope of adding to the existing body of literature on high-perform-
ing high-poverty schools.
Research Questions
Four research questions were addressed in this case study:
1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of
color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color?

7
3. How are the perceived organizational systems and structures imple-
mented to support school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes
student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and
systems?
Significance of the Study
This study is significant because it increases the level of understanding for
school leaders regarding how organizational structures and systems are imple-
mented to support effective classroom instruction. Given the gaps in current
literature, this study is significant because it adds to the body of literature and
contributes to the ongoing search for “what works” in high-poverty urban schools,
especially regarding closing the achievement gap and school improvement. Finally,
it dispels myths about the relationships among poverty, race, and academic
achievement.
Limitations and Delimitations
Limitations
1. The study relied on accurate reporting from participants.
2. There was no means to control for reporter bias.
3. The data were collected over a 2-month period.
4. A small number of schools actually met the selection criteria.
5. One researcher interpreted the data.
6. Views expressed by interviewees represented their perspectives

8
Delimitations
Delimitations were determined by a group of doctoral candidates who were
focusing on the school-wide implementations of best practices at high-performing
high-poverty urban schools. The school was purposely selected based on the
following criteria: (a) urban public school, (b) Title I school, (c) 75% of student
population participating in the federal free or reduced-price lunch program, (d) at
least 60% students of color, (e) a minimum of 3 years of consistent growth in
Academic Performance Index (API) and achievement of Adequate Yearly Progress
(AYP) targets for all subgroups, (f) moved at least two deciles in their similar
school ranking, and (g) student population of at least 400 students in an elementary
school, 700 in middle school, and 1,000 in high school.
Definition of Terms
The following terms were defined according to EdSource Glossary
(EdSource, 2005).
Academic Performance Index (API): A method of summarizing test score
results into one number; the number can range form 200 to 1,000, with 800 being
the state-defined goal.
Accountability: The notion that people or an organization should be held
responsible for improving student achievement and should be rewarded or
sanctioned for their success or lack of success.
Achievement gap: A consistent difference in scores on student achievement
tests between certain groups of children. The data document a strong association
between poverty and students’ lack of academic success as measured by achieve-
ment tests.
Achievement test: Test to measure a student’s knowledge and skills.

9
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP): A set of indicators to determine whether
schools, districts, and the state are on track in meeting the goal of having 100% of
their students proficient on certain state academic content standards by 2013-2014.
California Standards Test (CST): Part of the state’s standardized testing and
reporting program, based on the state’s academic content standards.
Disparity: Absence of equality.
High-performing: School-wide trajectory of API and AYP growth over 3
years, including all subgroups.
High-poverty: 75% of students receive free or reduced-price lunch.
High concentration: 60% or higher.
Intervention program: Program that provides extra support and resources to
improve student or school performance.
No Child Left Behind (NCLB): Federal legislation enacted in January 2002,
the most recent version of ESEA of 1965. NCLB requires states receiving specified
funding to hold schools accountable for the proficiency of their students on state
academic content standards.
Organizational structures: Institutional mechanisms, policies, and pro-
cedures put in place by federal, state, or district policy and legislation or widely
accepted as the official structure of schools, not subject to change at school sites.
Organizational systems: Coordinated and coherent use of resources at the
school site to ensure that school visions, missions, and goals are met.
Public Schools Accountability Act (PSAA): California legislation enacted in
1999 that created a system of summarizing performance on state standardized tests,
a reward program for schools that met specified levels of improvement, and a

10
school intervention program for lower-scoring schools that did not show sufficient
improvement.
Standards-based reform: A recent shift in education policy and school
reform toward reaching consensus on establishing standards for what students need
to know and be able to do at each grade or developmental level.
Urban: High population density and high concentration of inhabitants.
Organization of the Dissertation
Chapter 1 presents an introduction to the study, the statement of problem,
the purpose of the study, significance of the study, the research questions to be
answered, and operational definitions of terms. Chapter 2 reviews the salient
research on history, barriers to student learning, organizational structures and
systems, and instructional practices. Chapter 3 presents the methodology used in
the study, including the sampling and selections process of participating schools
and individuals, the research design, and the methodology. Chapter 4 presents the
findings of the case study, along with an analysis and discussion of the data.
Chapter 5 provides a summary, conclusions, implications for policies and practices,
and recommendations for future studies.

11
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Historically, high-poverty urban schools with large concentrations of
students of color have been associated with low student achievement. Research
notes that schools in the United States have not sustained high levels of success
with poor African American, Latino, and Native American children (Skrla &
Scheurich, 2001). This pattern was documented in the early 1960s when the
Coleman Report addressed inequities in student learning outcomes between White
and minority students (Lee, 2002). This same pattern of achievement continues
today (Johnson, R., 2002; Lee; NCES, 2007; Slavin & Madden, 2006).
This chapter provides a literature review commencing with an overview of
the influence of race, culture, and poverty on student achievement. This informa-
tion is used to create a contextual framework for the study. A historical overview of
legislation and public concern and reform initiatives is then presented. Schools
have failed to produce high levels of academic achievement among students of
color, which has contributed to the academic achievement gap. An analysis of the
achievement gap spurred a need to address the barriers to learning that hindered the
academic achievement of students of color. Some high-poverty urban schools with
large concentrations of students of color have been defying the odds. Therefore, a
review of the organizational structures and systems that have contributed to this
high achievement is presented. Specifically, research-based systems that have
facilitated school-wide use of best instructional practices are identified. Finally, as
schools seek to improve their practices, they can learn from successful schools.

12
Therefore, effective classroom practices used at high-performing school with large
concentrations of students of color are identified.
Race, Culture, Poverty, and Student Achievement
The role that race plays in determining the quality of education students of
color received has been documented in research (Bamburg, 1994; Lopez, 2003;
Lynn, 2006; Nasir & Hand, 2006; Orfield & Chungmei, 2006; Slavin & Madden,
2006). Students of color have been denied equal education on the basis of race for
decades. Skrla and Scheurich (2001) noted that issues of race have manifested in
the actual practices and programs in public education. Poor students of color have
been pervasively assigned to low-level classrooms, overidentified for special
education, subjected to harsher disciplinary actions, and placed myriad remedial
programs.
Critical race theory posits that race and racism plays a dominant role in the
structure of schools. The educational system was predicated on the social construct
of race that was, according to Solórzano and Yosso (2001), “created to differentiate
racial groups and to show the superiority or dominance of one race over another”
(p. 4). Hence, the educational experiences of African American students have been
inferior to the educational experiences of White students. For example, African
Americans historically were prohibited to attend schools with White students;
instead, they were forced to attend substandard schools. The buildings were
dilapidated, teachers were poorly trained, and textbooks were obsolete and torn
(Ravitch, 1983). To date, according to Lyman and Villani (2004), race and poverty
are still directly connected to inequalities in public education.

13
Bourdieu, Passerson, and Saint Martin (1994) studied the role of culture,
class, and schooling. He found that, as a result of socialization, people acquire
cultural capital that is valued differently by society and social institutions. He
posited that cultural capital associated with middle and upper class culture has
influenced success in schools, whereas cultural capital related to lower class has led
to school failure. This was due to the fact that the cultural capital of students of
color was not validated or acknowledged in the educational system because schools
were modeled on Eurocentric Anglo values and belief system. Researchers have
identified cultural differences between the school culture and home culture of
students of color as one of the reasons for the underachievement of students of
color (Gallimore & Goldenberg, 2001).
In the book titled The Evolution of Deficit Thinking: Educational Thought
and Practice Richard Valencia (1997) argued, “Deficit thinking is the dominant
paradigm that shapes US educators’ explanation for widespread and persistent
school failure among children from low income homes and children of color”
(p. 235). Barton (2004) and Taylor (2005) studied school factors that contributed
to the achievement gap. They found that students from lower socioeconomic status
had higher levels of low academic achievement.
Figure 1 illustrates the differences in seventh-grade Mathematics and
English Language Arts (ELA) achievement on CST between economically disad-
vantaged and noneconomically disadvantaged students (Ed Source, 2007). The
figure shows that 18% of economically disadvantaged students scored at the
proficient level or beyond. However, 42% of noneconomically disadvantaged
students scored proficient or beyond. In the area of ELA, 18% of economically
disadvantaged students scored proficient or beyond. However, 52% of

14

Figure 1. Socioeconomic status and measures of achievement in Mathematics and
English Language Arts Achievement in grade 7. Source: Academic Performance
Index (API) Report, by California Department of Education, 2008a, retrieved June
2, 2008, from http://dq.cde.ca.gov/dataquest

noneconomically disadvantaged students scored proficient or beyond. According to
Lyman and Villani (2004), socioeconomic status accounted for one third of the
achievement gap.
Race, culture, and poverty are manifested in the different levels of perform-
ance between students of color and their White counterparts. Social inequalities
predicated on race and culture influence the education system, thereby contributing
to underachievement by students of color (Solórzano & Yosso, 2001). The average
eighth-grade minority student performed at about the level of the average fourth-
grade White student. Many students of color were at the lower end of the achieve-
ment scale. At the fourth-grade level, 63% of African American and Latino

15
children achieved Below Basic on the National Assessment and Education Progress
in reading. In mathematics, more than 53% of Latino students and 62% of African
American students performed Below Basic. However, 22% of White students
performed Below Basic (as cited in Lyman & Villani, 2004).
Over the past 40 years policymakers have attempted to address the condi-
tions of public schools. Efforts to improve the quality of education has included
legislation such as ESEA, Goals 2000, and NCLB. Despite the wave of reforms
implemented in public education, the quality of education has remained unchanged
for students of color. High-poverty urban schools with large concentrations of
students of color continue to struggle with low academic achievement.
Historical Overview
Brown v. Board of Education
In 1954 a Supreme Court decision was intended to dismantle school segre-
gation. This decision mandated desegregation of historically White schools to allow
equal access to African American students. Years of racial inequality in education
were addressed and abolished. The Brown decision did eliminate de jure school
segregation but it did not significantly increase the level of academic performance
by African American children because societal beliefs and values were entrenched
in the educational systems. Societal beliefs about the intellectual capacity of
African American students influenced the organizational structures and systems
within schools that systematically excluded African Americans from receiving
quality education. Despite efforts to equalize education, the legacy of inequality
continued to plague public education and many schools remained segregated
(Ravitch, 1983). Years after Brown, Congress noted a continued lack of progress by

16
poor students. Congress established that children from low-income families had
specific educational needs associated with being poor. ESEA was enacted as a
result of this policy.
Elementary and Secondary Schools Act
In 1965 Congress declared that every student in public schools had the right
to an education. Basic education provided the skills and knowledge needed to
become productive contributing citizens. The ESEA of 1965 evolved out of this
declaration. ESEA addressed the concerns of the nation’s poorest children by
earmarking federal funds to support educational programs in public schools to
improve the quality of education for economically deprived children. After the
passage of ESEA, the achievement gap decreased slightly, providing proof that the
impact of poverty could be mitigated (Schugurensky, 1996-2002).
A Nation at Risk
In 1983 Secretary of Education T. H. Bell was concerned about “the wide-
spread perception that something was seriously remiss in our educational system”
(NCEE, 1983, p. 1). As a result, the NCEE was created to examine the quality of
education in the United States. The public was concerned that the educational
system was becoming too relaxed in its approach to increase equity by making
schools more appealing to students who would normally drop out. These efforts
were leading to less rigorous academics standards for all instead of more challeng-
ing academic standards (Harris & Herrington, 2006).
The report declared that America’s students were at risk. The educational
foundations of society were being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity. This
mediocrity threatened the nation’s future because people lacked skills to compete in

17
the “information age.” Consequently, America was losing its position as a world
power as other nations matched and surpassed its educational attainments. The
report stated that, if America wanted to continue to compete in the world market,
educational reform was necessary. The report concluded that America must pursue
excellence in education and improve teaching and learning in mathematics and
science. Classroom instruction should be more rigorous, intellectually demanding,
and engaging (NCEE, 1983).
A Nation Still at Risk: An Education Manifesto
On April 3, 1998, a number of the nation’s most prominent reformers,
business leaders, and policymakers met to discuss the state of American education
and make recommendations for reform. They declared that large numbers of
students were still at risk. Since 1983 over 10 million American had reached 12th
grade lacking basic reading skills. The figure doubled for the number of seniors
unable to perform basic mathematics. Over 6 million Americans had dropped out of
high school. The high school dropout rate for African Americans and Hispanics
was even more dismal. Students of color were not receiving the same quality of
education as their White counterparts.
The report, A Nation Still at Risk (Thomas B. Fordham Foundation, 1998),
questioned the nation’s commitment to educate all children. There seemed to be a
lack of concern that the educational system was not benefiting all children. Public
education was more detrimental to student achievement than beneficial because the
longer students stayed in school, the farther behind they became. This report con-
cluded that systemic changes had to occur within public schools. The recom-
mended changes were to implement academic standards, standards-based

18
assessments, accountability, competition, choice, alternative teacher certification,
better teacher compensation, and more parental involvement.
Achievement Gap
Despite reform efforts, legislation, and policies, the achievement gap still
existed between students of color and White students. R. Johnson (2002), in Using
Data to Close the Achievement Gap, stated that gaps existed at the elementary
school level and continued into secondary schools. As Table 1 demonstrates, White
students consistently outperformed African American students on standardized
tests in both ELA and Mathematics for the past 4 years.

Table 1

Percentages of Students Scoring at Proficient and Above in English Language Arts
and Mathematics by Ethnicity, 2003-2006

Subject and ethnic group 2003 2004 2005 2006

English Language Arts
African American 31 32 36 38
White 53 54 58 60
Mathematics
African American 19 19 23 24
White 47 46 51 53

Source: California Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR), by California
Department of Education, 2007a, retrieved February 7, 2007, from http://star.cde.
ca.gov

19
Research on the achievement gap provided evidence that student achieve-
ment was an indicator of a person’s future socioeconomic status. It shifted from
being an indicator of educational inequality to being a direct cause of socioeco-
nomic inequality (Harris & Herrington, 2006). Educated students were more likely
to achieve middle-class status. Hence, schools that failed to educate students of
color perpetuated the cycle of poverty.
Barriers to Student Achievement
Over time social, cultural, and economic factors have created conditions
that hinder the academic achievement of students of color. The literature documents
many factors that have led to the poor performance of students of color. Included
among these conditions, but not limited to them, are school governance (Payne,
2001), low teacher expectations (Bamburg, 1994; Jung-Sook & Bowen, 2006;
Lynch, 2006; Nasir & Hand, 2006; Wong & Nicotera, 2004), deficit thinking (Ford
et al., 2002), and poor instruction (Marzano, 2003; Schmoker, 2006).
The structure of the public educational system cannot be overlooked when
addressing the barriers that impede the learning of students of color. In A Frame-
work for Understanding Poverty Payne (2001) stated that schools operated under
the governance of middle-class norms and rules. These rules shaped the expecta-
tions and culture of schools. Students who lived in poverty were governed by rules
by which they were reared. Therefore, when they entered school, they were already
at a disadvantage because public schools were exclusive by design. Students who
lived in poverty were unaware of middle-class norms and rules. They were not
taught the rules when they entered school but they were expected to meet
expectations set forth in the educational system. Critical race theory posits that

20
Whites view their culture as superior. Therefore, schools were designed to reflect
dominant social and cultural ideology (Solórzano & Yosso, 2001).
Teachers’ negative reactions to students’ cultural differences created
obstacles to learning for students of color. This was due to their lack of knowledge
about diverse cultures. Research by Ford et al. (2002) reported that teachers misin-
terpreted cultural differences as deficits or disadvantages. Research documented
this thinking as the deficit thinking paradigm (Skrla & Schuerich, 2001).
The influence of deficit thinking on beliefs about race and intelligence can
be traced back to late 1890s (Manchaca, 1997). Deficit thinking has hindered
educators from identifying the strengths of African American students (Ford et al.,
2002). Instead of viewing cultural differences as deficits, educators should
acknowledge that students of color bring rich background knowledge to the
classroom and build on their experiences.
Critical race theory declares that teacher expectations have marginalized
students of color. The social construct of race and racism influences the structure of
education (Solórzano & Yosso, 2001). Low teacher expectations have hindered the
academic performance of students of color (Bamburg, 1994; Cotton, 2000; Lynch,
2006; Pressley, Raphael, Gallagher, & DiBella, 2004; Schmoker, 1999).
Bamburg (1994) studied the relationship between teacher expectations and
student achievement. He identified three types of teacher expectations that affected
student performance: teachers’ perceptions of students’ current performance,
expected progress, and teachers’ over- or underestimation of students’ present level
of performance. The results from the study had profound implications for class-
room instruction and achievement by students of color. When teachers had low
expectations, they underestimated the intellectual capacity of their students

21
(Bamburg; Lynch, 2006). As a result, teachers designed learning activities that
lacked rigor, lacked in-depth coverage of material, and focused on basic skill
acquisition (Bamburg; Haberman, 1991; Pressley et al., 2004).
Poor instruction was also a barrier to student achievement. Schmoker
(2006) identified poor instruction as the most salient reason for low student
achievement. Schmoker and Marzano (1999), Haycock (2003), and Carter (2000)
stated that an effective teacher can significantly increase a student’s performance
but an ineffective teacher can hinder a student’s performance. Teachers’ inability to
provide effective instruction was the most significant barrier and detrimental
element in a classroom.
Overcoming Barriers
Pioneering efforts by some leaders at high-poverty urban schools resulted in
high student achievement. These leaders figured out strategies to overcome barriers
that impeded the learning of students of color. EdSource (2006) and Haycock
(2003) found that school practices made a difference in achievement by low-
income students. Schools that have closed the achievement gap have consistently
used practices that increased higher-order thinking skills, promoted and sustained
student engagement, retaught skills, and checked for understanding. Schools that
designed instruction and programs that were more compatible with students’ home
culture improved the academic achievement of students of color (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). Some schools have achieved noteworthy success with students
of color (Edmonds, 1986, as cited in Skrla & Scheurich, 2001). However, more
schools have unsuccessfully educated children of color. To address this issue, state
and federal reform initiatives were enacted.

22
Standards-Based Reform
In the 1990s California embarked on standards-based reform (SBR). The
need to raise the expectations for student performance prompted the State Board of
Education to adopt content grade-level standards in ELA, Mathematics, History,
Social Science, and Science in 1999. This change was one of the most salient
features of SBR because it specified grade-level content to be learned and estab-
lished expectations for student performance (CDE, 2007c).
The core of SBR was the establishment of a common base of knowledge
that every child, regardless of race and economic status, should have. It targeted the
disparity between high- and low-achieving students. Despite this reform effort, the
academic achievement gap remained.
SBR was instrumental in helping policymakers to compel failing schools to
improve. It was an integral component of California’s public schools accountability
system and the NCLB. Elmore (2006) stated that state standards were the most
powerful manifestation of school reform because of the federal accountability
component.
Accountability
In 2001 NCLB was signed. Similar to other reforms, NCLB was a direct
response to the perception that students in the United States were not learning
enough. The goal of this reform was to improve educational opportunities for all
children.
NCLB was the first policy to focus on test-based accountability for all
children. Educators had to give an accounting for student outcomes on achievement
test or face sanctions and consequences. For example, NCLB established annual
achievement goals. Student performance data were disaggregated by race,

23
language, gender, disability, and socioeconomic status. Schools were held account-
able for ensuring that all significant subgroups made significant progress each year.
High stakes were attached to student outcomes in the form of sanctions when
schools did not improve and rewards when schools improved (Reeves, 2000).
NCLB requires all students to be proficient in reading and mathematics by
2014. Schools and districts must make AYP toward meeting targets. Teachers have
the primary responsibility of teaching students and their actions have the greatest
impact on student success. (Marzano, 2003).
Organizational Structures and Systems
Organizational Structures
Despite historical trends, research-based structural and systemic practices
contributed to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools. Studies
document that high-poverty urban schools with large concentrations of students of
color were achieving high academic standards (Reeves, 2000). The catalyst for the
trajectory of growth was the organizational structures and systems. Effective
organizational structures maximized students’ opportunities to learn by providing
the fundamental design for instruction (Danielson, 2002). Some organizational
structures were defined roles, grade-level teams, master scheduling, teacher assign-
ments, grouping of students, planning and collaboration, teacher release time,
allocation of resources, hiring practices, and teacher support (Blankstein, 2004;
Carter, 2000; Danielson; O’Donnell & White, 2005).
A common feature of the structure in high-performing schools was how
leaders structured the schedule to carve out time for collaboration. Scheduling that

24
supported time on task in core curricular areas was also a critical organizational
feature at high-performing schools.
Organizational Systems
Successful schools implemented systems that facilitated the school-wide
use of effective instructional practices. Systems allowed schools to progress despite
external barriers (Johnson, R., 2002). According to Blankstein (2004), systems for
identifying and supporting struggling students were improving student achieve-
ment. Obstacles to learning were addressed through a continuum of integrated
intervention and prevention programs. Some examples of practices were improving
the instruction for students who are disengaged in the learning due to academic
deficits, implementing a systematic approach to identify and provide extra support
for students, using data to systematically identify and build on student strengths
(EdSource, 2007; Reeves, 2000), and providing extending learning opportunities to
address barriers to learning (Blankstein).
Parent involvement was another critical system. Research documented that
greater parental involvement led to greater student achievement, irrespective of
socioeconomic status or ethnic background. Schools that intricately involved
parents in the learning process were more successful in improving student
achievement. Barth et al. (1999) and Carter (2000) found that bridging home and
school by involving parents in the academic aspects of education positively
impacted student achievement.
An approach to parent involvement was based on the notion that, in order to
maximize family and community involvement, schools must use strategic and
explicit interventions (Fullan et al., 2006). A study of the literature on high-

25
performing schools yielded four principles for developing a system of parent
involvement. The first principle was that schools must understand the specific
social and historical conditions that impact families and hinder their ability to
support students (Blankstein, 2004; Haberman, 1999). The second principle was
that schools must acknowledge that parents possess unique backgrounds and utilize
their experiences to benefit the students (Blankstein; Cotton, 2000). The third
principle was that schools must maintain regular communication with parents
(Carter, 2000; Cotton, 2000; Danielson, 2002; Marzano, 2003). The fourth
principle was that schools must hold high expectations for parental involvement in
schools and their child’s learning (Blankstein; Carter; Fullan et al.).
The literature documented various systems. It was difficult to determine
which system had the greatest impact, as they were interrelated. Effective schools
have systems, but so do ineffective schools. The distinguishing characteristic was
not that the schools had systems but rather how the systems were implemented,
monitored, evaluated, sustained, coalesced, and refined; the role of leadership; and
whether systems were culturally relevant and responsive.
Leadership
During the past decade an increasing body of evidence has demonstrated the
impact of leadership on student achievement. Many studies on effective schools
identified leadership as an important factor in successful schools. Bolman and Deal
(2003) addressed four frames of leadership: structural, human resource, political,
and symbolic. Effective leaders know how to operate in the four frames. Structur-
ally, they know which policies and practices to use and how to align them with
school goals. Symbolically, they foster a culture and climate that supports

26
continuous improvement, collaboration, and growth. Politically, they involve
stakeholders in decision making and allocate resources to support organizational
structures and systems. Finally, they value human resources in the organization.
Leaders at high-performing high-poverty schools successfully operated in all four
frames in order to implement organization structures and systems that supported the
school-wide use of effective classroom practices that led to high student
achievement.
O’Donnell and White (2005) stated that the primary role of principal leaders
was to facilitate effective teaching and learning. Principal behaviors were identified
as key to promoting higher levels of student achievement. The Boston School
Leadership Institute identified behaviors of effective principals that have an impact
on student achievement: (a) analyzes instruction and student learning through
regular classroom observations and provides detailed feedback to teachers that
support instructional improvement; (b) uses data to measure student learning and
instructional improvement and to drive planning; (c) develops and communicates a
shared vision and common understandings of effective classrooms and instruction
and organizes the school on it; (d) understands the achievement gap and imple-
ments explicit strategies to close it; (e) creates a collegial environment in which
leadership is shared, professional practices is made public, risk taking and innova-
tion are supported, and consistent high-quality instruction is paramount; (f) creates
a school community devoted to social justice, high expectations for all, and equity
in students’ opportunities to learn; and (g) develops and maintains a safe and
disciplined learning environment and manages building operations in support of
student learning.

27
Studies have shown that the actions of school leaders set the tone for school
improvement (Duke, 2006; EdSource, 2003; Newman, King, & Young, 2000;
O’Donnell & White, 2005). All in all, these actions have influenced the structures
and supports systems created by leaders. Effective leaders have managed organiza-
tional structures and systems to create optimal learning environments for students.
The behaviors of effective leaders are significant to educators seeking to improve
low-achieving schools.
In high-poverty high-performing schools leaders demonstrated attributes
through the following behaviors. They shaped and supported professional develop-
ment and collaboration of teachers; they influenced the school environment in
establishing effective parental involvement; they established an orderly climate;
they assured effective use of data; and they maintained high standards for student
learning (Carter, 2000; Izumi et al., 2002; Mid-Continent Research for Educational
Learning, 2005).
Reeves (2000) identified schools with 90% poor students, 90% ethnic
minorities, and 90% students who achieved high academic standards. Researchers
studied the instructional strategies and their relationship to student achievement at
the “90/90/90 schools.” They found evidence that supported that effective leader-
ship makes a difference. Researchers also found that leaders shaped instruction,
made decisions that directly impacted classroom practices, and maintained a laser-
like focus on teaching and learning.
School Culture
Leaders seeking to improve schools made the greatest impact when they
established an effective culture. It was the single most important means of fostering

28
change that directly impacted student achievement. According to Gallimore and
Goldenberg (2001), schools must understand the impact that significant structures,
processes, and dynamics of culture have on students and the school. Leaders must
foster a school culture that respects cultural differences and fosters tolerance and
acceptance.
Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005) stated that effective leaders directly
influence teachers, which in turns influences students. R. Johnson (2002) noted that
establishing a school culture based on clear goals, high standards, and expectations
for all can help in the effort to raise student performance in all schools.
Leaders at high-achieving schools built a climate and culture that focused
on student learning, fostered professional learning community, and engaged
teachers in a systematic approach to continuous improvement (Dufour & Eaker,
1998; King, 2002; Schmoker, 2006). A shared vision was articulated that promoted
high standards for student learning and clearly communicated expectations to
teachers for meeting academic achieving goals. Teachers were held accountable for
ensuring that all students made progress toward learning goals and outcomes.
At high-performing schools teachers believed that children of color could
learn. Teachers believed that students had the capacity to produce high-quality
work and perform at a high level (Duke, 2006). This idea was congruent with past
findings that documented that, when teachers had high expectations for African
American students and provided support, the students achieved at a much higher
level (Pressley et al., 2004). R. Johnson (2002) found that low-income minority
students achieved at a higher level when educators provided consistent opportuni-
ties to learn, resources, and support.

29
Instructional Leadership
Effective leaders engaged in a systematic approach to curriculum and
instruction. A substantial amount of time was spent on instruction. Instructional
leaders were knowledgeable about instructional programs and were able to guide
and support teachers with delivery of instruction. In addition, instructional leaders
were abreast of research and freely imparted knowledge to staff. Finally, instruc-
tional leaders visited classrooms regularly (Marzano et al., 2005).
In the past, leaders gave teachers too much autonomy. This practice allowed
teachers to work isolation. According to Schmoker (2006), “in the past, school
culture and supervision tend to ignore or divert teachers from implementing and
continuously improving their mastery of effective instructional practices” (p. 23).
This usually resulted in ineffective practices becoming the norm. One of the most
important aspects of instructional leadership was creating professional learning
communities within schools (Dufour & Eaker, 1998).
A practice of leaders at high-achieving high-poverty urban schools was to
discourage autonomy. Leaders monitored instruction regularly and provided
corrective feedback as needed to extinguish the use of ineffective practices (Cotton,
2000; Schmoker, 2006). Leaders held teachers responsible for behaviors and prac-
tices that enforced the school’s vision. A key finding in the literature on leadership
was that instructional leaders spent more time in the classroom observing instruc-
tion, supporting student learning, and helping to improve instruction (Waters &
Cameron, 2006).
Data-Driven Decision Making
According to Datnow, Park, and Wohlsetter (2007), a comprehensive data-
driven decision-making system was based on seven basic tenets. First, long-term

30
goals and explicit expectations were developed and sustained over time. Second,
there was an established protocol to determine relevant data and how they were
collected, analyzed, discussed, and used to inform instructional practices. Third,
data-driven decision making fostered a culture of continuous improvement by
engaging teachers in continuous analysis of student achievement. Fourth, leader-
ship understood data and articulated the importance of data to staff. Fifth, the
system was integrated with standards-based curriculum. Sixth, data informed
instruction, interventions, and professional development. Seventh, a data manage-
ment system organized the information in an accessible format and presented it in a
comprehensible manner.
R. Johnson (2002) and Datnow et al. (2007) studied the use of data to
address student achievement. They found that systematic use of data allowed
schools to examine practices, identify strengths and weaknesses in the instructional
program, identify specific academic gaps, dispel myths about the achievement of
students of color, and improve instruction and student learning. Data influenced
teachers’ attitudes toward low-performing students. According to Fullan (2003),
assessment data provided feedback on teaching and learning and shaped the
instructional process and improved student learning. Assessment data were used to
make informed decisions regarding classroom instruction, student support, and
school reform (Blankstein, 2004; Johnson, R.).
Professional Development
A well-designed professional development system was essential to enhanc-
ing student achievement. High-quality professional development was organized,
purposeful, and driven by data (Picus and Associates, 2006); coordinated with clear

31
learning goals (Danielson, 2002); continually improved the instruction; frequently
focused on student achievement; embedded in daily work (Dufour & Eaker, 1998);
addressed staff knowledge; sustained over time; and emphasized academic
improvement for all children (Fullan et al., 2006; Marzano, 2003; Newman et al.,
2000).
One of the goals of professional developments was to build a strong
instructional force. A comprehensive professional development system addressed
program coherence and deepened the knowledge of district-adopted instructional
programs. It was the cornerstone of a school committed to continuous improvement
in student learning because teachers were immersed in continuous learning.
Because of the changing populations in urban schools, teachers needed professional
development that prepared them to teach effectively the diverse students whom
they served. In other words, professional development had to address culturally
relevant pedagogy. Professional development on culturally relevant pedagogy
prepared teachers to work with students who were culturally different and equipped
them with knowledge to create optimal learning environments (Lopez, 2003).
Teachers learned how to link culturally specific content to the curriculum, making
the lessons more relevant and meaningful (Lynn, 2006). Knowledge of diverse
students’ learning styles, communication styles, and behaviors styles can be
provided through professional development on culturally relevant pedagogy.
Professional Learning Communities
An important form of professional development was the establishment of
professional learning communities (PLC). This approach emphasized the collective
knowledge of teachers and eliminated the individual approach to learning. Research

32
supported that collective knowledge strengthened student performance school wide.
Individual teacher knowledge impacted classroom performance (Young & King,
2002). Therefore, leaders seeking to improve school-wide student performance
needed to cultivate a school culture that supported collective learning opportunities.
Dufour and Eaker (1998) identified five elements of a professional learning com-
munity: (a) a shared mission, vision, and values; (b) collective inquiry among staff;
(c) collaborative teams with common goals; (d) willingness to take action, and (e)
commitment to continuous improvement.
Teachers working together, sharing best practices, planning, and analyzing
data constituted a powerful system of professional development and a PLC.
Improving low-achieving schools cannot happen without quality personnel who are
continuously learning and growing. Since urban schools were more likely to have
more untrained teachers and higher teacher turnover, there was a greater need to
establish PLCs.
Teacher collaboration was an essential element in a PLC. When teachers
collaborated, they engaged in dialogue, sharing best practices and generating new
ideas. Teachers could not be expected to engage in collaboration without guidance.
That was why it was necessary that leaders implement a protocol for collaboration
that ensured that all teachers were focused and working toward a common goal.
System of Instruction
An effective system of instruction focused on teaching and learning.
According to Danielson (2002), teaching was the core of a school’s instructional
program and had the most profound impact on student achievement. A well-

33
developed culturally responsive system of instruction consisted of focused delivery
of both standards-based and culturally responsive instruction.
Standard-Based Instruction
Identifying SBI as a component of an instructional system was a pervasive
approach to ensure that SBI occurred. It established a basis for instructional focus.
EdSource (2003) indicated that implementing a coherent SBI program was strongly
correlated with high API. SBI eliminated the incongruence between assessment and
instruction. It established continuity in curriculum, common belief, clear learning
goals, and standardized data (EdSource, 2007; EdTrust, 1999; Schmoker, 2006).
Mark O’Shea (2005) stated that the planning cycle for developing a
standards-based lesson was a five-step process. The first step was to identify the
specific content standard that would be taught in the lesson. Teachers analyzed the
standards to identify knowledge and skills that students must learn. Once this had
been established, expectations for student learning were determined and delineated
in the lesson objectives. Next, teachers determined resources that were needed to
achieve desired learning outcomes. Teacher knowledge of students’ culture and
past experiences was important in developing learning experiences to ensure that
they were designing learning activities that were culturally relevant and meaning-
ful. To facilitate learning for poor students of color, teachers used conceptual
frameworks during instruction. Payne (2001) described a conceptual framework as
teaching content in relationship to students’ personal experiences. By strategically
linking students’ experiences to the lesson’s content, teachers added relevance and
significance to the activity, especially for poor students of color. Next, teachers
taught the lesson in an explicit, systematic, and sequential manner. Embedded

34
within a standards-based lesson was the opportunity to learn (OTL). OTL essenti-
ally meant that students were given the chance to learn the expected content
standards. Marzano (2003) identified OTL as the most important factor related to
student achievement. The last step was to collect and evaluate students’ work. This
was done to determine whether students met the lesson expectations. This method
of data collection allowed teachers to evaluate their teaching as well as student
learning.
SBI was founded on the notion that all children should have access to more
challenging curriculum content. Standards allowed schools to provide more equit-
able instruction. By implementing standards-based lesson designs, teachers com-
municated that learning expectations were the same for all children. That being
said, the integrity of SBI was contingent on leaders monitoring and holding
teachers accountable for delivering SBI that maintained high expectations for all
students. Reeves (2000) noted that in his “90/90/90 schools” both ineffective and
effective schools had academic content standards. However, the distinguishing
factor for high-performing high-poverty schools was the manner in which
standards-based instruction was implemented, monitored, and assessed.
Culturally Responsive Teaching
An essential component of a culturally responsive system of instruction was
the delivery of culturally responsive instruction. The racial profile of California
schools continued to change due to immigration and differences in birth rates. The
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) projected that, by 2008, 41% of all
students would be students of color but that only 5% of all teachers would be
people of color (McClure, 2006). In light of the significant increases in students of

35
color, teachers need to become more knowledgeable about culture. More important,
schools must recognize the impact that culture has on teaching and learning. The
more teachers are able to demonstrate an awareness of the cultural aspects of
students, the more they are able to maintain establish relationships with students.
According to Ladson-Billings and Tate (1995), culturally relevant pedagogy
empowers students intellectually, socially, emotionally, and politically by using
cultural referents to impart knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Culturally responsive
pedagogy allows teachers to integrate academics with culture. McClure (2006)
studied culturally responsive instruction in four schools. She found that students
who received culturally responsive instruction were more engaged in lesson and
spent more time on task. Increased time on task provided teachers with more
opportunity to address the content.
Donovan, Bransford, and Pellegrino (1999) identified the importance of
understanding cultural differences and how these differences are mirrored in the
background knowledge of students. They concluded that educators seeking to
optimize the learning environment for students must recognize the diverse back-
grounds that they bring into the classroom.
A study of the literature on leadership, data, professional development, and
instruction revealed five actions that leaders took to sustain a culturally responsive
system of instruction. First, leaders helped staff to maintain a focus on the core
beliefs and values of the system (Blankstein, 2004; Fullan et al., 2006). Second,
leaders provided professional development to build teachers’ knowledge of both
standards-based and culturally responsive instruction (King, 2002; Taylor, 2005;
Young & King, 2002). McClure (2006) reported, from her study on culturally
responsive instruction, that teachers needed intensive training and ongoing support

36
to increase their knowledge of the benefits of culturally responsive instruction
Third, leaders held teachers accountable for implementing culturally responsive
SBI (O’Shea, 2005; Reeves, 2000). Fourth, leaders created opportunities to work
with teachers and used data to guide instruction (Armstrong & Anthes, 2001;
Danielson, 2002; Datnow et al., 2007; Johnson, R., 2002). Fifth, leaders held
teachers and staff accountable for student outcomes (Johnson, R.; Reeves;
Schmoker, 1999).
Coalescing of the Systems
The literature describes leadership, curriculum and instruction, data, and
professional development in detail. Each of these systems was discussed in isola-
tion but they were linked to each other. Each system addressed the values and goals
for student learning. Figure 2 shows how the systems were connected.
When all systems coalesced, schools achieved success. Each system was
closely linked. The failure of one system compromised the integrity of the other
systems.
Four main concepts emerged from the literature on organizational structures
and systems that impacted classroom instruction in high-performing schools. First,
the importance of leadership cannot be overstated. Second, strong leadership, use
of data, professional development, and teaching and learning all played a key role
in improving student achievement. Third, a synergism occurred when these systems
were aligned with student learning goals. Fourth, professional development built
capacity and influenced teacher quality. Marzano (2003) declared that effective
teachers had a profound effect on student achievement and ineffective teachers

37

Figure 2. Comprehensive school systems.

hindered students’ learning. All of these systems intertwined and influenced and
impacted classroom practices.
Successful High-Performing High-Poverty Schools
Consistent school-wide implementation of effective practices fostered high
student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large concentration of
students of color. Much can be learned from studying the practices at high-perform-
ing high-poverty schools beating the odds and increasing student achievement.
EdTrust (1999), Duke (2006), Reeves (2000), Carter (2000), and Izumi et
al. (2002) examined the practices that contributed to the schools’ success. The
schools shared common characteristics. First, there was a culture of high expecta-
tions for student learning. Second, there was a focus on improving instruction by
implementing system of quality instruction. Third, there was a system in place to

38
improve the quality of teaching. Fourth, students were assessed regularly to
ascertain their progress. Fifth, there was a clear focus on improvement.
Gaps in the Literature
Some of the same practices used at high-achieving schools were also used
at low-achieving schools. The “90/90/90” study found that both high-achieving and
low-achieving schools used content standards. However, the manner in which
content standards were implemented, monitored, and assessed made the difference
in student achievement. Both high-performing and low-performing schools had
professional development, used some type of data, and offered professional
development. However, the distinguishing characteristic once again was the level
of implementation. That area was not fully addressed in the literature. Research
documented the specifics of effective teaching (Danielson, 2002; Marzano, 2003;
Pollock, 2007). What was lacking was the guidance on what practices worked best
in multiple school settings. The human element could not be ignored. The literature
discussed the importance of the role leadership, professional development, assess-
ment and data, and curriculum and instruction in school improvement and student
achievement. However, what it did not address was the personnel at successful
schools and the impact of their collective beliefs.
Making the Connection and Next Steps
In this era of educational accountability and with the number of failing
schools steadily increasing, schools must make a continuous effort to implement
school-wide practices that foster academic improvement. It is clear to educators
why school change is necessary and who is responsible. More information is
needed about how successful school change happens. Professional development is

39
the vehicle used to build capacity. If teachers are expected to provide high-quality
instruction, then they must be highly skilled professionals. High-performing
schools have addressed this barrier through professional development. This concept
seems simple; however, low-achieving schools are not doing it. What contributes to
the consistent implementation of classroom instructional practices? There is no one
solution to instantaneously transform all low-achieving schools into high-achieving
schools. However, schools need a specific course of action that facilitates con-
sistent improvement. Understanding the practices and strategies of schools can
make a difference in the effectiveness of a school.

40
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
High-poverty urban schools with high concentrations of students of color
are achieving high levels of student learning despite historical trends and patterns
in student achievement. To improve student achievement, these schools have
implemented organizational structures and systems that allow students of color to
succeed in schools.
Purpose of the Study
A case study at a high-performing, high-poverty urban elementary school
was conducted to examine the implementation of organizational structures and
systems and how they support school-wide implementation of best practices that
lead to increased student achievement. The goal of this qualitative research was to
identify effective practices that can be replicated at similar schools to improve
performance by students of color. This chapter describes the study design, sample,
instrumentation, data collection methods, and data analysis.
The following research question will be addressed in this study:
1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of
color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the perceived organizational systems and structures imple-
mented to support school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes
student learning?

41
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and
systems?
Research Design
The dissertation group decided to use a qualitative research case study
design because it offers a holistic account of what is happening at the school site.
According to Merriam (1998), a case study allows the researcher to gain an in-
depth understanding of the situation and to construct meaning from those involved.
Sample and Population
A thematic group of 17 doctoral students in the University of Southern
California’s Rossier School of Education set out to identify high-performing high-
poverty schools with large concentration of students of color in California. The
elementary school chosen for this case study was selected through purposeful
sampling based on an established eligibility criteria listed below: (a) urban public
school, (b) Title I school, (c) 75% of student population participating in the federal
free or reduced-price lunch program, (d) at least 60% students of color, (e) a mini-
mum of 3 years of consistent growth in API and achievement of AYP targets for all
subgroups, (f) moved at least two deciles in their similar school ranking, and (g)
student population of at least 400 students in an elementary school, 700 in middle
school, and 1,000 in high school.
Selection Process
In selecting a school, the location was important. In order to capture the
essence of an urban school, schools in rural areas that were highly populated with
students of colors were excluded from the study. The school selected for the case

42
study was obtained through purposeful sampling. The California Department of
Education (CDE) Web site Schools Moving Up and Just 4 Kids was searched to
gather a pool of schools. A preliminary list of schools was generated. An in-depth
analysis was conducted to make sure that each school met each criterion. Schools
not meeting all criteria were eliminated, leaving a small pool of schools. A school
was then selected from the remaining pool.
After determining which schools met the criteria, the researcher contacted
the site administrator at Nine-West Elementary School in the Sole Unified School
District and extended an invitation to participate in the study. The principal con-
sented to participate in the study. Then the researcher contacted the assistant super-
intendent of elementary education and requested permission to conduct research at
Nine West Elementary School. The assistant superintendent of elementary educa-
tion approved the study and granted the researcher access to the site.
School and Student Characteristics
This case study focused on a K-5 elementary school in the Sole Unified
School District with a student population of 665 students. The school was in a
middle-size tri-city unified school district of 22,000 students. Seventy-three percent
of the students participated in the federal free or reduced-price lunch program (2%
less than the agreed-upon threshold criterion established by the dissertation group).
The school demographics consisted of 68% Hispanic, 12% African American, 11%
White, 8% Asian, and 1% Filipino. Approximately 32% of the students were
English Learners. Since 2000-2001 all significant subgroups had consistently met
the API and AYP targets. This school had made significant gains on its API from

43
its baseline score of 634 in 2000-2001. The school’s current API was 841. Over the
past 6 years the school’s API had increased by 207 points.
Selection of Participants
In order to obtain a panoramic view of what was happening at the school
site, a range of individuals was interviewed and observed; these included certifi-
cated employees, principal, classified employee, and parents. The principal was
selected because strong leadership is an essential element in effective schools
(Bolman & Deal, 2003; Elmore, 2006; Marzano, 2003; Marzano et al., 2005).
Curriculum Resource Teacher (CRT), Language Development Resource Teacher
(LDRT), International Baccalaureate (IB) Coordinator, and novice and veteran
teachers were interviewed. For the purposes of this study, teachers with less than 3
years teaching experience were classified as novice teachers. Conversely, teachers
with 4 years experience or more were classified as veteran teachers. A cross-section
of parents from all ethnic groups was selected, including parents from the School
Site Council, the English Language Advisory Council (ELAC), and volunteers.
Theoretical Frameworks
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theories of learning, Robert Marzano’s and Ron
Edmond’s “effective school correlates” and Gloria Ladson-Billings’s culturally
relevant pedagogy were the three theoretical frameworks that guided this study.
Sociocultural theory espouses that social and cultural processes are integral com-
ponents to learning. It stresses the importance of cultural settings in decisions
regarding student learning and development (Nasir & Hand, 2006).
The Vygotskian approach emphasized the importance of sociocultural
forces in shaping the situation of a child’s development and learning and
points to the crucial role played by parents, teachers, peers, and the

44
community in defining the types of interaction occurring between children
and their environments. (Kozulin, Gindis, Ageyev, & Miller, 2003, p. 2)
Historically, cultural factors were used to discriminate against students of
color. Consequently, cultural differences between African American and White
students were viewed as deficits on the behalf of students of color (Solórzano &
Yosso, 2001). On the basis of the sociocultural theory, this theoretical framework
asserts that when schools use structures and systems to address cultural dissonance
between student and teachers culture, students learn. When schools recognize the
learning experiences of students of color and offer rigorous culturally relevant
instruction, learning and academic achievement are promoted.
Marzano (2003), Edmonds (1979), and other researchers have identified key
factors that impact student achievement at effective schools. Instead of identifying
one main factor, these researchers identified several factors associated with school
effectiveness. On the basis of these shared beliefs, the second theoretical frame-
work posits that multiple school factors should be organized and implemented in a
systematic manner to create optimal learning environments for student of color in
high-poverty schools.
Figure 3 is a visual representation of the framework that guided this study.
As shown in Figure 3, historical and social elements have influenced the educa-
tional system. Pervasive beliefs about African American and Hispanic students
influenced educational practices and policies that created institutional barriers that
have stymied the achievement of students of color (Saddler, 2005). The existence
of contemporary societal and educational influences, such as poverty, less challeng-
ing educational programs, tracking, ineffective teachers, negative teacher attitudes,
and deficit views have negatively impacted schooling structures and practices
(Kuykendall, 2004; Skrla & Scheurich, 2001; Solórzano & Yosso, 2001). However,

45

Figure 3. Theoretical framework for high-poverty/high-performing schools study.

when schools implement organizational structures and systems that address the
importance of students’ social and cultural orientations and provide rigorous
learning activities, student of color learn. Some high-performing high-poverty
urban schools with large concentrations of students of color have identified the
right combinations of structures and systems that support the practices that lead to
high student achievement.
Data Collection Procedures and Protocols
The process of collecting data consisted of 17 interviews, eight classroom
observations, and document analysis. The study utilized a combination of

46
observations, semistructured interviews, and document analysis to validate
findings.
Interviews
Patton (2002) stated that interviews were helpful in capturing the essence of
a participant’s experience. Interviews yielded direct knowledge and participant
perspectives of a particular program or experience. Seventeen semistructured inter-
views were used to collect data. Semistructured interviewing involved asking a
series of structured questions and then probing more deeply with open-ended
questions to obtain additional information (Patton). Eight classroom teachers in
grades K-5 were randomly selected and interviewed. Each interview lasted 30 to 45
minutes, depending on the interviewee. For the purpose of this study, a separate set
of seven interview questions was developed for the principal, the teachers, and the
parents (see appendices A, B, C, and D). The wording of the questions was
tweaked to fit the context of the interviewee. The interview questions were con-
sistent with the research questions (see Table 2). Interviews were tape recorded,
and tapes were destroyed following transcription.
Observations
Observations were completed to capture the essence of the school and class-
room climate and environment. Each teacher who was interviewed was subse-
quently observed, with the intent to identify elements that validated what was
shared in the interviews. The observational data provided a detailed description of
the organizational systems and school-wide classroom instructional practices. This
included describing the practices used during instruction, planned and unplanned
activities, classroom environment, student engagement, teacher-student interaction,

47
Table 2

Relationships of Interview Questions (IQ) to Research Questions (RQ)

IQ RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 RQ4

1 X X
2 X X
3 X X
4 X
5 X
6 X X X X
7 X X X

and elements of the school environment. Data gained from direct observations
provided a first-hand account of behaviors, actions, organizational processes, and
interactions. Observation is was considered to be one of the best research methods
to fully understand the complexities of a phenomenon (Patton, 2002).
The dissertation group developed an observation protocol. The protocol
contained four categories to guide scripting but was not limited to those categories.
The categories were consistent with both the research questions and theoretical
frameworks. Appendix E contains the Classroom Observation Protocol and
Appendix F contains the Physical Environment Observation Protocol.
Documentation
Because of their overall value, documentation and artifacts from the school
site were critical to validate the beliefs and practices. Patton (2002) described

48
document analysis as “studying excerpts, quotations, or entire passages form
organizational, clinical or program records: memoranda and correspondence;
official publications and report” (p. 4). The artifacts of the documents analysis
included the school-wide discipline plan, the single plan for student achievement,
professional development plans, meeting agendas, data protocols, monitoring
assessments, lesson plans, and student work samples. Table 3 aligns each research
questions with a document or artifact collected from the site.

Table 3

Relationships of Documents and Artifacts to Research Questions (RQ)

Documents and artifacts RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 RQ4

Meeting agenda X X
Data protocols X X
School-wide discipline plan X X
Professional development plan X X
Single plan for student achievement X X
Assessment data action plans X X
Student work samples X
Teacher lesson plans X

The dissertation group developed a protocol for observing professional
development and leadership team meetings. The protocol contained four categories
to guide scripting but was not limited to those categories. The categories were

49
consistent with both the research questions and theoretical frameworks. Appendix
G contains the Observation Protocol for Professional Development and appendix H
contains the Protocol for Leadership Team Meeting.
Data Analysis
Data collected from interviews, observations, and documents and artifacts
were analyzed. As shown in Figure 4, Creswell’s six steps to analyze data were
used to facilitate the data analysis process. First, the interviews were transcribed,
notes form observations were charted, and documents were organized according to
topic. Next, interviews, observations notes, and documents were read to determine
common trends, patterns, and themes and then color coded according to common
themes. A description of the people, themes, and setting was written in narrative
form to capture the essence of the environment. Last, data were interpreted and
conclusions were made.

Figure 4. Steps to data analysis. Source: Research Design, by J. Creswell, 2003,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

50
Data were triangulated to enrich to the validity of the results. Patton (2002)
stated that “triangulation strengthens a study by combining methods” (p. 247).
Interviews and observation protocols were consistently used throughout the study.
Ethical Considerations
Site and district administrators were contacted to obtain consent to conduct
research at the school site. Written consent was obtained from teachers, parents,
and administrators prior to interviews. All tape recordings from interviews were
destroyed following transcription and analysis. The identity of the interviewees
remained confidential. All observations took place in the context of normal educa-
tional activities.
Limitations of the Study
Interviewees were randomly selected and gave their consent to participate.
Views expressed by interviewee represent their perspectives and may not have been
truthfully reported. Data collection occurred over a 4-month period. The data were
interpreted by one researcher and may not be free of personal bias.

51
CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS
Chapter 4 reports the findings from a case study of a school that has
improved academic achievement by its students of color. In order to closely
examine the organizational structures and systems used at schools where students
of color have dispelled the myths and beliefs about their academic achievement, a
high-performing high-poverty urban school was selected as the unit of study. The
case study examined the school’s structures and systems that supported the school-
wide implementation of effective classroom instruction that led to increased student
achievement.
This research was guided by four research questions supported by three
theoretical frameworks. The first framework was based on the sociocultural theory
of learning, emphasizing Vygotsky, which asserts that “human thinking and learn-
ing is social and cultural rather than an individual phenomenon” (Kozulin et al.,
2003). Learning is a social endeavor highly associated with family culture and
connection with other human beings. The second theoretical framework was based
on Robert Marzano’s (2003) effective school correlates, which suggests that, when
school-level factors ( school policy and school-wide decisions), teacher-level
factors (specific instructional strategies, classroom management, and curriculum
design), and student-level factors (home environment, background knowledge) are
organized in a systematic manner, optimal learning environments are created. The
third theoretical framework was based on Gloria Ladson-Billing’s theory of cultur-
ally responsive teaching. According to Gay (2000), culturally responsive teaching
is using the cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically

52
diverse students as conduits for teaching. When a child’s culture is linked with
classroom learning, students experience more academic success. Based on these
three frameworks, data were collected by conducting interviews and observations
and examining school artifacts. Findings were triangulated to increase reliability
and validity of results.
Research Questions
The following research questions were addressed in this case study:
1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of
color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the perceived organizational systems and structures imple-
mented to support school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes
student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and
systems?
Data were collected over 5 days. Sixteen interviews were conducted over a
period of 2 months. Table 4 summarizes background information about the
interviewees.
Three data collection instruments were developed for this study to collect
data relevant to the research questions: (a) Administrator Interview Questions
(appendix A), (b) Teacher Interview Questions (appendix B), (c) Classified
Interview Guide (appendix C), (d) Parent Interview Guide (appendix D), and

53
Table 4

Background Information on Interviewees

Years of Type Classroom Fully
Interviewee title experience of class assignment credentialed

Principal 9 X
Curriculum Resource Teacher 30 X
Language Development
Resource Teacher 32 X
International Baccalaureate
Coordinator 28 X
Teacher 1 5 EO X
Teacher 2 1 EO 1st X
Teacher 3 30 SEI 3rd X
Teacher 4 4 SEI 2nd X
Teacher 5 34 GATE 5th X
Teacher 6 31 SEI 3rd X
Teacher 7 5 GATE 4th X
Office Manager 8
Office Clerk 15
Guidance Aide 24
Instructional Aide 14

Note. EO = English only students, SEI = Structured English Immersion, GATE =
Gifted and Talented Education.

(e) three observation guides (appendices E-G). After a description of the case study
school, the findings are reported by research question, followed by a summary. The

54
chapter concludes with a discussion of the salient points and the impact of effective
leadership.
Background Information on Nine
West Elementary School
Nine West Elementary School is a multiethnic, multicultural urban school
with an enrollment of 665 students in grades PreK through 5. The teaching staff
consists of 34 highly qualified and fully credentialed teachers. The school has a
high retention rate for teachers, with the number of years of experience ranging
from 34 years to 1year. The average teacher has 14 years of service. In addition to
25 classrooms, the school has a reading center, computer center, library media
center, and music room. It is a neighborhood school that draws students from its
attendance zone as well as students from outside the attendance zone. Each year the
school has a waiting of list of families requesting permits to enroll.
The school’s mantra, “Committed to Success,” is highly visible in every
classroom and hallway on campus. Four Title I Academic Achievement Award
Banners are hung in the main hallway to celebrate the school’s repeated success in
meeting the needs of its economically disadvantaged students. Another banner that
reads “California Business for Education Excellence 2007” hangs in the foyer; it is
the first thing that visitors see upon entering the main building. The school is
visited by people from throughout the United States as well as from countries such
as Armenia, Canada, and China to see firsthand the school’s effective implementa-
tion of the International Baccalaureate Primary Years Programme.
Nine West has established community and family partnerships that support
the school’s educational program. In the past 5 years the school has received
numerous grants to support the performing arts program, mobile film studio,

55
inquiry science development, instruments for orchestra, violins for third graders,
and campus gardens. The school is supported by a host of community partners that
invest money and time to assist the school in meeting the needs of its students.
Parents work in the main office, volunteer on the playground, and help in the
library at least twice a week. On most days a parent volunteer greets the parents and
students with a smiling face and warm “good morning” when they enter the office.
The students and principal show their school pride by wearing blue and white
uniforms daily. At approximately 7:50 every morning anyone passing the school
hears Principal Green shout,” What type of students are Nine West students?” The
student shout in unison, “Excellent!” Then daily instruction begins.
Findings for Research Question 1: Performance
Among Students of Color
Research question 1 asked, What are the trends and patterns of perform-
ance among students of color? The framework used to analyze findings for this
research question included two theories. First, a variety of data is needed to
understand how schools function on behalf of students’ growth and development.
Second, learning is monitored by tracking a variety of assessment results, such as
test scores and work samples, coupled with other evidence of learning, such as
social interaction and cultural development. Analyzing the trends and patterns in
achievement by students of color was accomplished by collecting data from API,
CST, California English Language Development Test (CELDT); English Learner
Reclassification information, and Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) program
identification. Longitudinal data were disaggregated by ethnicity, language, and
economic status for an in-depth look at the performance by students of color. An
analysis of these data led to the following major findings:

56
1. Nine West has made more growth than any other school in Sole Unified
School District since the CST baseline scores of 2001.
2. African American students have made slow but steady gains in English
Arts.
3. English Learners consistently outperformed African American students in
mathematics during the time period researched.
4. Economically disadvantaged students made continuous gains in ELA and
Mathematics.
5. Nine West reclassified more English Learners than any school in the
district.
6. African American and Hispanic students were underrepresented in the
GATE program.
Academic Performance Index
The school’s API has been on a positive trajectory of growth for the past 6
years. Figure 5 displays the school-wide API scores since the 2000-2001 baseline
year. In 2000-2001 the school’s baseline API was 634. By 2004-0505 the school’s
API had increased to 790. In 2005-2006 the API increased significantly by 47
points, reaching 837. By 2006-2007 the API was 841.
Over the past 6 years Nine West’s API score have increased by 207 points.
As a result of the steady growth, the school now shares the highest API with only
one other elementary school in the district. Nine West has made more progress than
any other school in Sole Unified School District.
Figure 6 shows the trends and patterns in school-wide API as well as the
API scores of Hispanic, Economically Disadvantaged, and English Learner

57
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Figure 5. Nine West Elementary School school-wide Academic Performance Index
(API) scores 2001-2007.

700
720
740
760
780
800
820
840
860
Academic
Performance
Index
2005 2006 2007
Academic Year
Hispanic
Disadvantaged
English Learners
School Wide

Figure 6. Academic Performance Index (API) scores for Nine West Elementary
School and by subgroup.

58
subgroups. African American students make up only 12% of the student population
at Nine West; thus, they are not a numerically significant subgroup and their data
were not available. In 2004-2005 English Learners had the lowest API score of all
subgroups, 756. However, from 2004-2005 to 2006-2007 that subgroup’s API
increased to 821, surpassing that of the Economically Disadvantaged subgroup. In
2004-2005 the Economically Disadvantaged subgroup had an API of 781, which
increased by 45 points to reach 826 in 2006-2007.
The English Learners subgroup made the most significant gains. Since
2004-2005 the English Learner subgroup API has increased by 88 points, from 756
to 844. The Hispanic subgroup made the second highest gain in API, with an
increase of 56 points. Currently, all significant subgroups have an API score over
800.
California Standards Test
The findings based on CST data began in 2003-2004. Figure 7 displays the
percentages of students scoring proficient or higher on the ELA portion of the CST.
In 2003-2004 the scores ranged from as low as 20% of English Learners scoring
proficient or higher to as high as 34% of Hispanic students scoring proficient or
higher in ELA. In 2004-2005 the pattern of achievement demonstrated an upward
trend, with the number of students scoring proficient increasing for each subgroup.
In 2005-2006 the African American students posted notable gains in the number of
students scoring proficient or higher in ELA. However, as shown in Figure 7, there
was a slight drop by 7% in 2006-2007. English Learners doubled the number of
students scoring proficient or higher in ELA from 2003-2004 to 2006-2007, going
from 20% to 42%. The data revealed that, although the number of students scoring

59
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
% scoring
proficient or
higher in ELA
2004 2005 2006 2007
Academic Year
EcoDis
African Am
EL
Hispanic
S c hool wide

Figure 7. Percentages of students scoring proficient or higher in English Language
Arts on the California Standards Test, 2004-2007.

proficient or higher had increased for all subgroups, there was an achievement gap
between the English Learners subgroup and the other subgroups.
The mathematics pattern of achievement was evident as the number of
students scoring proficient or higher was analyzed. Figure 8 displays the distribu-
tion of mathematics proficiency on the CST. In 2003-2004 the African American
subgroup had the least number of students scoring proficient or higher (32%),
compared to 48% of English Learners and 51% of Hispanics. In the following year,
2004-2005, Nine West continued to experience positive growth, with the highest
gain made by African American students. This was demonstrated by an increase in
the number of African Americans scoring proficient or higher from 32% to 51%.
From 2004-2005 to 2006-2007 the rate of progress slowed for African American
students and increased for the English Learners, Economically Disadvantaged, and
Hispanic subgroups. The number of economically disadvantaged students scoring

60
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
% scoring proficient
or higher
2004 2005 2006 2007
Academic Year
Eco Dis
African Am
El
Hispanic
School wide

Figure 8. Percentages of students scoring proficient or higher in Mathematics on
the California Standards Test, 2004-2007.

proficient or higher increased from 49% in 2003-2004 to 72% in 2006-2007.
Between 2003-2004 and 2006-2007 the Hispanic subgroup increased the number of
students scoring proficient or higher from 50% to 75%. By 2006-2007 all sub-
groups, with the exception of African American students, had at least 70% or more
of their students scoring proficient or higher in mathematics. In 2007-2008 English
Learners had the lowest API score of all subgroups, 756. However, from 2004-
2005 to 2006-2007 that subgroup’s API increased to 821, surpassing the Economic-
ally Disadvantaged subgroup. In 2004-2005 the Economically Disadvantaged sub-
group had an API of 781. It increased by 45 points, reaching 826 in 2006-2007.
During an interview Principal Green stated that, while analyzing the CST
data with the staff at the beginning of the school year, the teachers noticed that the
African American students had made minimal gains in ELA and Mathematics when
compared to the English Learner and Hispanic subgroups. To address the African
American students’ limited progress, the staff wrote specific goals that targeted
academic improvement in the Single Plan for Student Achievement.

61
In comparison to 2007 state-wide CST data, Nine West’s subgroups outper-
formed the state in both ELA and Mathematics. Table 5 shows the number of
students scoring proficient or above in ELA compared to the state. The disaggre-
gated data showed that the number of students scoring proficient or higher ranged
from 25% (English Learners) to 32% (African Americans) for the state. The same
pattern held true for Nine West, with the lowest score being 50% (English
Learners) to the highest being 54% (African Americans). Each subgroup at Nine
West outperformed the state-wide subgroups by at least 20 points.

Table 5

Comparison of Nine West and California Scores for English Language Arts on the
California Standards Test, 2007-2008

African English Economically
Group Overall American Hispanic Learners Disadvantaged

State 45 32 31 25 30
Nine West 55 54 51 50 51

As shown in Table 6, the Mathematics performance of students at Nine
West exceeded the state performance in Mathematics. With the exception of
African American students, each subgroup doubled the performance of California
data. African American students were the lowest-performing in Mathematics, as
indicated by state-wide data and this held true for Nine West school-wide data.
Thirty-six percent of the English Learners subgroup in the state of California
scored proficient or higher in mathematics, whereas 75% of the English Learners

62
Table 6

Comparison of Nine West and California Scores for Mathematics on the California
Standards Test, 2007-2008

African English Economically
Group Overall American Hispanic Learners Disadvantaged

State 48 31 36 36 36
Nine West 75 57 72 75 75

subgroup at Nine West scored proficient or higher. For the Hispanic subgroup, 36%
in the state of California scored proficient or higher, but 72% at Nine West scored
proficient or higher. There were marked differences in the performance of African
American students in comparison to other subgroups at the state level and at the
school level. An analysis of the state and Nine West data revealed that African
American students were outperformed in Mathematics by all other subgroups, but
this was not true in ELA.
California English Language Development
Test (CELDT) Data
The CELDT is administered in October each year. Seventy-six of the 161
English Learners at Nine West scored at the early advanced or advanced level on
the CELDT. Table 7 illustrates the Nine West students’ performance levels on the
CELDT for the past 5 years. A disproportionate number of students were stalled at
the intermediate level. The number of students scoring at the intermediate level
remained notably high each year in comparison to the other proficiency levels.
Over the past 4 years the school averaged 10% of students scoring at the
beginning or early intermediate level of the CELDT. Each year at least 50% of the

63
Table 7

Trends in the Performance of Nine West English Learners on the California
English Language Development Test (CELDT), 2003-2007

Performance level 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006 2006-2007

Advanced 12 37 19 18
Early Advanced 79 44 62 58
Intermediate 79 74 62 70
Early Intermediate 18 8 9 8
Beginning 11 3 6 7
Total 199 166 158 161

students scored at the early advanced level or higher. On the one hand, there was
no direct correlation between the number of students scoring early advanced or
higher on the CELDT and the number of students scoring proficient or higher on
the ELA portion of the CST. On the other hand, there seems to be a positive
relationship between the number of students scoring advanced on the CELDT and
the number of student reclassified as Fluent English Proficient.
Reclassification Data
In addition to improved CELDT scores, English Learner students demon-
strated increased achievement in English language development, evidenced by the
percentage of students reclassified as Fluent English Proficient. Table 8 illustrates
the number of English Learners reclassified as a result of achieving English pro-
ficiency. According to the LDRT, the reclassification rate was due partly to the
academic support and instruction provided to English Learners. By the end of the

64
Table 8

Reclassification of English Learners at Nine West to Fluent English Proficient
Learners

English Fluent English Redesignated
School year Enrollment Learners Proficient (FEP) FEP

2002-2003 644 34% 25% 17%
2003-2004 620 39% 26% 17%
2004-2005 630 35% 28% 15%
2005-2006 587 36% 25% 11%
2006-2007 616 33% 23% 16%

2006-2007 school year 16% of English Learner students had been reclassified as
Fluent English Proficient. The school attributed the trend in academic success to
the consistent practice of reclassifying English learners.
Gifted and Talented Education
Identification Pattern
The GATE program is designed to meet the unique needs of gifted and
talented students. There are currently 50 identified GATE students in grades 3
through 5. GATE students are clustered at each grade level and are taught by
GATE-certified teachers. Although second graders are not tested for GATE
identification until the spring of each school year, the school clusters and tracks
students who have demonstrated high academic achievement beginning at
kindergarten. Figure 9 shows the ethnicity of students in the GATE program. Over
the past years the number of students identified as GATE has increased. However,
the data show a lack of representation of African American students. This is

65
0
5
10
15
20
25
2006 2007 2008
white
hispanic
african american
asian

Figure 9. Multiyear enrollment of Nine West students in the Gifted and Talented
Education (GATE) program by ethnicity, 2006-2008.

consistent with research regarding African American students in the GATE
program. According to Ford and Moore (2004), “Gifted education, too often,
remains racially segregated, with students of color being underrepresented and
underserved” (p. 52). African American students and other minorities, with the
exception of Asian American students, are basically nonexistent in programs for
gifted students.
Figure 10 shows a comparison of the distribution of GATE students and the
student body by ethnicity. About 59% of GATE students are White and Asian,
compared to a student population that is 24% Asian and 12% White. Over the past
3 years less than 5% of the GATE students were African American. Currently, 38%
of GATE students are Hispanic, whereas 68% of the student body is Hispanic.
A comparative analysis of the GATE population and the Nine West student
population data revealed inequitable representation, a cause for concern. Eight
percent of the school population is Asian, but 34% of the GATE students are Asian;
12% of all students are White, and 25% of GATE students are White. An analysis

66

Student Population
Hispanic
68%
African
American
12%
White
12%
Asian
8%

GATE Students
Asian
34%
Hispanic
36%
African
American
5%
White
25%

Figure 10. Comparison of current ethnicity distributions of Nine West students and
Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) program students.

67
of the GATE data raised the following questions: Are African American students
are being tracked for the GATE program? Does the school’s belief system assert
that African American students can be intellectually gifted?
Summary of Findings
Findings related to research question 1 demonstrated a positive pattern of
achievement in Mathematics and ELA by all students. All significant subgroups
met the AYP each year since 2001-2002. The number of students scoring proficient
or higher on CST increased annually. In addition, each year a significant percentage
of English Learners score at the early advanced or advanced level on the CELDT.
This school received Title I Academic Achievement Awards in 2005, 2006, 2007,
and 2008. The award is given by the CDE to schools that meet designated median
API scores and AYP and double their API growth target for 2 consecutive years
(CDE, 2007).
While it is true that schools with APIs over 800 are high performing by
California standards, school-wide API and AYP scores often mask the fact that
some subgroups are not achieving at the same level. When closely examined, the
subgroup data often tell a different story. In this school’s case, the subgroup data
revealed that African American students are not progressing at the same rate as
other subgroups. English Learners are outperforming African American students in
Mathematics. The English Learners posted 10 to 12 points gain annually, whereas
African American students made 3 to 4 points gain in ELA.
The GATE data presented a different picture of student performance at
Nine West. While African American and Hispanic students are making academic
progress, they are not readily identified as gifted students. This information poses a

68
question regarding the limited access to GATE programs for students of color,
which is addressed in the report of findings for research question 4.
Findings for Research Question 2: Organizational
Structures and Systems
Research question 2 asked, What are the organizational structures and
systems that are perceived to contribute to high student performance in high-
poverty urban schools with large concentrations of students of color? Structures
and systems that impact student performance are identified in this section. The
theoretical framework for this question postulated that multiple school factors work
together in tandem to create optimal learning environments for students. According
to Marzano (2003), schools can operate effectively and improve student achieve-
ment if they coordinate the right mix of school-wide policies, decisions, and initia-
tives; effective teaching; and student background factors.
Organizational Structures Related
to High Student Performance
Organizational structures were defined by the dissertation thematic group
as institutional mechanisms, policies, and procedures imposed by federal, state, or
district policy and legislation or widely accepted as the official structure of schools,
not subject to change at school sites. Information gathered from school documents,
interviews, and observation revealed the following organizational structures that
support the school-wide implementation of effective classroom instruction:
1. Professional development schedule: The school district ratified an agree-
ment with the teachers’ union implementing a formal professional development
schedule that consists of A and B Mondays. Two Mondays a month are dedicated
to site-driven professional development and two Mondays a month are dedicated to

69
teacher-driven professional development—embedded structured opportunities for
teachers to work collaboratively.
2. Structured English immersion classroom and mainstream English class-
room: All students whose primary language is not English are tested to determine
classroom placement. English Learners who score level 1, 2, or 3 on the CELDT
are placed in SEI classes and are instructed by teachers with a CLAD, BCLAD, or
SB1969 certification. Students who score at level 4 or 5 are placed in Mainstream
English classrooms.
3. Daily English language development instruction: SEI teachers provide 45
minutes of daily oral language development to English Learners with a CELDT
score of level 1, 2, or 3.
4. California content standards are designed to encourage the highest
achievement by every student and to ensure that every student has the same access
to grade-level standards regardless of race, color, or creed. Standards define the
knowledge, concepts, and skills that students should acquire at each grade level
(CDE, 2008b).
5. District assessments: Mathematics assessments are administered
quarterly and Open Court Reading Lion’s Assessments are administered every 6 to
8 weeks.
6. Banking time: School dismisses early every Monday to use banked time
for professional development.
Organizational Systems Related to
High Student Performance
School leaders are responsible for ensuring that schools have the right com-
bination of organizational systems to improve student achievement. Organizational

70
systems are defined as coordinated and coherent use of resources at the school site
to ensure that the school vision, mission, and goals are met. Past research on effect-
ive schools has linked leadership to student achievement (Carter, 2000; Edmonds,
1979; Marzano et al., 2005). According to Marzano (2003), the role of leadership
cannot be overlooked when identifying school-wide conditions that contribute to
high student achievement. This section begins with a discussion of key findings
related to the role of leadership at Nine West, followed by the identification and
description of the school’s organizational systems.
Role of Leadership
Marzano (2003) declared leadership to be the single most important aspect
of an effective school. According to Marzano et al. (2005), an effective school
leader has a plan—a set of coordinated actions taken to enhance the achievement of
students in school. Research has identified an extensive list of the characteristics of
effective leadership (Blasé & Blasé, 2004; Bolman & Deal, 2003; Elmore, 2000;
O’Donnell & White, 2005). Table 9 lists the behaviors of effective leaders in
generic situations that affect student achievement to the behaviors of Principal
Green at Nine West Elementary School.
As noted in Table 9, Principal Green’s behaviors were consistent with the
behaviors of effective leaders documented in the literature. Although many
behaviors were identified, only five are discussed. First, several teachers noted in
their interviews that Principal Green established a clear vision and focus for student
learning. The vision was coupled with high expectations and standards for teacher
professionalism and student achievement. Second, Principal Green maintained
effective communication with teachers, parents, and students. She wrote a weekly

71
Table 9

Comparison of Behaviors of Effective Leaders and Behaviors of Principal Green at
Nine West Elementary School

Effective behaviors of leaders
a
Behaviors of Principal Green

Clear vision
Communicates to staff
Maintains safe and orderly
environment
Monitors school performance
Establishes explicit academic goals
Evaluates instruction
Maintains high visibility
Builds a culture of collaboration
and learning
Maintains the climate of the school

Established a school-wide vision that
prioritizes student achievement
Monthly newsletters, weekly bulletins,
regular meetings
Monitors climate of the school and climate
in individual classrooms
Uses data management system to track
student performance
Holds one-on-one meetings with staff to
discuss student performance
Provides effective feedback on instruction
Visits classroom at least three times a week
Provides structured time for collaborations
Maintains high expectations and standards
for teachers and students

a
Sources: Handbook of Instructional Leadership, by J. Blasé & Blasé, 2004,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press; “Assessing and Developing Principal Instruc-
tional Leadership, by P. Hallinger & J. Murphy, 1987, Educational Leadership,
45(1), 54-61; “Leadership for Excellence: Research-Based Training for Principals,
by R. Blum, J. A. Butler, & N. L. Olson, 1987, Educational Leadership, 45(10),
25-29; What works in schools, by R. Marzano, 2003, Alexandria, VA: Association
for Supervision and Curriculum and Development; “Within the Accountability Era:
Principals’ Instructional Leadership Behaviors and Student Achievement,” by R.
O’Donnell & G. White, 2005, NASSP Bulletin, 89(645, 56-71).

bulletin and monthly newsletters that updated the staff on decisions, progress
toward school-wide goals, current events, and much more. The CRT and the LDRT

72
both stated during their interviews that the principal maintains open lines of
communication with the staff. She holds individual meetings and grade level
meetings to discuss student achievement and school-wide goals. It is not
uncommon for Principal Green to evaluate instruction and give immediate
corrective feedback. She monitors and supports instruction. Teacher 7 stated during
the interview, “Principal Green always gives the teachers feedback on ways to
improve instruction. That is the norm around here.” It was reported by teachers and
documented in the Distinguished School application that the principal supports
teacher collaboration. The principal stated, “We are a community of learners. We
value collaborating and sharing best practices. I work to maintain a culture of
collaboration by giving the teachers time to collaborate.”
All of the aforementioned behaviors and many more impacted student
achievement and created school-wide conditions conducive to academic success.
Principal Green’s behaviors were instrumental in the implementation of structures
and systems that affect student achievement. An analysis of the data for this
research question demonstrated that Principal Green’s behaviors directly influenced
the implementation of the following systems: data, instruction, culture and climate,
professional development, and interventions.
Data-Driven Decision-Making
System
Past research has noted various factors that make up a successful data-
driven school system: common data on student achievement, explicit norms and
expectations regarding data use, data management system, selecting the right data,
training on how to use data, structures to support data use, and specific data
protocol (Datnow et al., 2007). The findings for Nine West’s system were

73
consistent with past research. The features of Nine West’s data-driven decision-
making system were (a) common data on student achievement collected from
regular administration of Open Court Reading weekly assessments, Sacramento
County Office of Education Lions Assessment, SAXON math, district quarterly
mathematics assessments, and teacher-created language arts and mathematics tests;
(b) implementation of inquiry protocol that guides the systematic use of data;
(c) the principal providing the teachers with ongoing training on how to analyze,
interpret, and use data; (d) professional development that provides the teachers with
structured opportunities to analyze data; and (e) regular analysis of student work
samples.
Principal, teachers, and classified staff members attributed increased student
achievement to the school’s systematic approach to using data. According to
Principal Green, “The staff uses data to provide a framework for using student
assessment data as a tool for framing the discussions that guide and positively
impact student learning.”
Data-driven decision making was not a new concept to the staff at Nine
West. The school has practiced data-driven decision making for the past 8 years.
According to the IB Coordinator, “The staff at Nine West has always used data to
guide the decision making and track student performance.” When Sole Unified
School District did not have a formal data management system, the IB Coordinator
developed a system for Nine West to manage assessment, discipline, and attend-
ance data. Now the school uses Edgenuity
®
, the district’s online data management
system. Over the past 5 years the staff has sharpened their data skills and refined
their practices by instituting data teams, using the inquiry protocol and receiving
ongoing training on the use of data.

74
One of the key components in the data-driven decision-making system is
data teams. Data teams are composed of teachers at each grade level that meet
monthly to review, analyze, and discuss student data. The data teams meetings are
guided by a standard protocol for analyzing data known as the inquiry protocol.
This is an essential component of the data system because it provides a framework
that engages the staff in conversations around the use of data to improve instruction
and student learning. This is consistent with research by Marzano (2003) that
confirmed “the use of data allowed for organized, simplified discussions that merge
to create focused priorities and productive action” (p. 6 ).
The staff at Nine West uses a variety of data sources to track student per-
formance, such as work samples, regular assessments, teacher-created assessments,
and informal observation. During a professional development meeting the
researcher observed teachers analyzing student work samples, evaluating IB
projects and calibrating writing samples. The researcher observed teachers asking
many questions about grade-level standards and what grade-level worked looked
like. The teachers used a rubric to evaluate student work samples. They were
engaged in discussions about grade level expectations, standards, and instruction.
One teacher emphatically stated during the professional development session,
We cannot accept anything less than grade-level work. The students must
meet the same standards, regardless of who their teacher is. That’s why it is
important that we reach a consensus and have anchor papers to uphold as
the standard.
The researcher also observed a grade-level team meeting in which teachers
used the inquiry protocol. They were analyzing data disaggregated by ethnicity,
gender, language, and teacher. Teachers addressed the differences in the scores of
African American students and White students on one reading comprehension

75
subtest. One teacher said, “We definitely have an achievement gap. What can we
do differently to move this group of students along? Are we using the best strate-
gies to meet the needs of African American students?” Her questions sparked a
discussion about the achievement gap and the need to make sure that staff members
were meeting the needs of all students at all times. The use of data focused the
meeting and guided the discussion.
The leadership team used a variety of data sources to make informed deci-
sions about student support and intervention. During the leadership meeting the
LDRT gave an update on English Learners. She noted that there was a group of EL
students who were struggling with vocabulary, evidenced by their most recent
vocabulary scores. She shared the results from the Open Court Reading assessment
with the team. After discussion, the team concurred that the students needed sup-
port. The LDRT came up with a plan to pull the struggling students and provide
small group remediation.
The staff at Nine West receives ongoing training on the use of data, speci-
fically the inquiry protocol. The school has a team of teachers who are trained on
the inquiry protocol. They are the site experts. The data team experts meet with
grade levels and train them on how to use common forms, develop action plans,
and use the monitoring tool. Principal Green explained, “In order to reap the bene-
fits of using data, the teachers need guidance on how to analyze, interpret and
discuss data. That is what the data team experts do and we are getting results.”
The principal effectively leads her staff in the continuous use of data. As a
result, she fosters a culture that recognizes the importance of data. The literature
posits that continuous exposure to data helps to build a school culture that values
making informed decisions (Learning Point Associates, 2004). One teacher shared

76
during the interview, “Using data is what we do. It is the culture of the school. I
cannot imagine making decisions without it. It is the expectation and the norm. We
are a data-driven school.”
International Baccalaureate
Programme
Nine West has a system of instruction that composed of school and teacher
factors, such as a guaranteed and viable curriculum, research-based instructional
strategies, and a defined curriculum design. Marzano (2003) identified a feasible
curriculum as “a school factor that has the most impact on student achievement”
(p. 22). A feasible curriculum consists of sufficient time to teach the content and
opportunities to learn. An array of researched-based strategies coupled with the
International Baccalaureate Primary Years Programme, California standards, and
district-adopted programs made up a thematic curriculum design that led to
academic success at Nine West.
In 2004 Nine West became the 32nd school in the United States and second
school in the state of California to be certified as an International Baccalaureate
Primary Years Programme World School. The IB program is founded on the
principles of the constructivist theory of learning, which postulates that learners
construct knowledge for themselves, both individually and socially. The theory
holds that learning is contextual and people learn in relationship to what they
already know making it impossible to assimilate new knowledge without having
some structure developed from previous knowledge on which to build (Inter-
national Baccalaureate Organization, 2007). Therefore, the past experiences of
learners cannot be overlooked.

77
According to the principal in her interview, “The school chose to become an
IB Primary Years Programme because it shared the same belief the school shared
about student learning.” In addition, the staff recognized that there are fundamental
differences between the students’ culture and the school culture. The staff believed
that, in order to foster a learning environment in which students can learn, it was
essential to embrace the cultural differences of all students. The program’s commit-
ment to international education means that students not only become more aware of
their own culture but also become more proficient in the culture of others. The IB
coordinator confirmed,
As a result of this shared belief, teachers provide the students with multiple
opportunities to construct meaning and assimilate new knowledge. The
students are presented with information about different cultures from all
over the world. They are able to draw on this content and construct new
meaning.
Standards-Based Instruction
The most significant factor in the instructional system was the implementa-
tion of standards-based instruction. Standards provided a blueprint for instruction
and a framework for the lessons. Teachers knew what students needed to master by
the end of each grade level. The CRT explained during her interview,
We have a strong knowledge and awareness of standards. We spend a lot of
time studying the standards. We identify the essential standards and amp
out the instruction of the standards to ensure that we allocate enough
instructional time to address them over the course of the year.
Teachers established expectations for student learning based on the
standards. Students were expected to produce work that met or exceeded standards.
Assessments were administered to ascertain students’ progress toward mastering
grade-level standards.

78
School Culture and Climate System
The findings from this study revealed that the school maintains a positive
culture and climate that supports student achievement. The principal strategically
implements practices and procedures that foster a positive culture and climate. Past
research has noted various factors that influence school culture: focus on student
learning, fostering professional learning community, engaging teachers in a system-
atic approach to continuous improvement, clearly stated expectations, shared vision
for student learning, and accountability (Dufour & Eaker, 1998; King, 2002;
Schmoker, 2006). This study noted distinct features that specific to Nine West. The
salient features that repeatedly surfaced throughout the interviews as factors that
shaped the school culture and climate were high expectations, safe and orderly
environment, positive behavior support, collaboration, and a focus on continuous
academic improvement.
Our kids deserve a world class education, foreign language, technology,
rigorous instruction. That is what we give them. As a result we expect them
to perform like world class students. I expect excellence. You can ask any
child on this campus, what do we expect the kids to be and they will say
excellent! We expect excellent behavior and excellence in academics. We
hold the students to this standard and celebrate their excellence consistently.
(Principal Green)
In addition to having high expectations for behavior and academics, the
staff had high expectations for the physical environment of the school. The grounds
were well maintained. Walls were free of graffiti and the grounds were free of
trash. Students understood the importance of maintaining a safe orderly environ-
ment. Once when two students found graffiti on the bathroom door, they immedi-
ately reported it to the principal: “We have an emergency. Someone is not being an
excellent student because they drew a happy face on the bathroom door. Get the
custodian quick!”

79
Throughout the campus are inspirational sayings that represent the staff’s
expectations for academic achievement, student-teacher interactions, choices, and
behaviors. Some of the posters read, “We learn by doing if we reflect on what we
do! Risk takers approach unfamiliar situations without anxiety. Success for all,
failure for none!”
The school has a plan that addresses student behavior. The plan involves
using the IB attitudes and profiles, noted in Table 10, as a vehicle to teach character
education. IB attitudes focus on the development of positive attitudes toward
people, the environment, and learning. As shared in interviews and documented in
the 2008 Distinguished School application, one IB attitude and one profile are
targeted for the month. The teachers provide direct instruction about the targeted
attitudes and profiles using role playing, character development activities, and real
school conflicts. At the end of the month each teacher selects two students who
have exemplified the targeted attitude and profile and recognize them at an
assembly. They are presented with a certificate and their pictures are posted on a
bulletin board in the main hallways.
The student of the month assemblies are powerful and life changing for
students. It is remarkable to watch the students behaviors change once they
are recognized. I believe the instruction and acknowledgement of IB
attitudes and profiles positively affects the school environment and builds
character. (Parent 2)
During the time the researcher collected data “Cooperation” and “Thinker”
were the IB attitude and profile for the month. The researcher noted the targeted
attitude and profile addressed in lesson plans, the school weekly bulletin, the
monthly newsletter, and the monthly news board posted in the hall and on the white
boards in the classrooms.

80
Table 10

Attitudes and Profiles Presented in the International Baccalaureate (IB) Primary
Years Programme at Nine West Elementary School

IB attitudes IB profiles

Appreciation Inquirers
Commitment Thinkers
Confidence Communicators
Cooperation Risk takers
Creativity Knowledgeable
Empathy Principled
Integrity Caring
Enthusiasm Open minded
Independence Well balanced
Respect Reflective
Tolerance

We use the IB profiles and attitudes such as caring and critical thinkers . . .
to communicate to students that these attributes we want in an IB child. So
our student of the month assembly highlights the attributes. When students
display attributes and behavior contrary to the positive attributes, we have
one-on-one discussion with students to reiterate what is expected of an IB
child and a student at Nine West. We eventually see on the playground, in
our sports program, and in the classroom students displaying the attributes
such as being caring and empathetic, . . . the attitudes and profiles eventu-
ally are engrained in students’ minds. Consequently, we see throughout the
school those attitudes and profiles come to life in the words and actions of
the students and teachers. It is a real thing. That alone impacts behavior and
fosters a positive school and classroom climate. (Principal Green)
Through the direct instruction of IB attitudes and profiles the staff shapes
student behavior and reduces incidents of disorderly conduct that could negatively

81
impact the school climate and culture. Marzano (2003) stated that, without a
minimum level of order, a school has limited opportunities to positively affect
student achievement. “If teachers and students do not feel safe, they will not have
the necessary psychological energy for teaching and learning” (p. 53).
The guidance aide had an integral role in developing a positive climate. All
of the staff and parents interviewed acknowledged the support provided by the
guidance aide and her role in shaping students’ behavior and supporting the school-
wide discipline policy. Principal Green said, “The guidance aide is one of the
school’s greatest assets because she holds kids accountable for their behaviors and
reinforces the IB attitudes and profiles.” During an interview the guidance coun-
selor described her role in school-wide discipline and how it directly influences the
school’s climate and culture.
My number one priority is to make sure the children are in class learning. I
do whatever I can to make sure that students display appropriate behavior
so that they can remain in classroom and receive instruction. The IB atti-
tudes and profiles coupled with respect, love and understanding are the key
to my success with students.
Another critical component of the climate and culture was shared beliefs
and values. At the beginning of each school year the staff at Nine West collectively
established the beliefs, values, and actions that govern their behaviors, known as
the Essential Agreements. The Essential Agreements delineated the actions that
teachers take to promote advancement of the school and sustain their commitment
to the IB program. For example, they agreed on what they would teach, the use of
formative and summative assessment data, and grade-level planning. Every teacher
signed the Essential Agreements, making it a binding contract, although they were
not obligated to sign. The signatures reflected their commitment to the school’s
shared beliefs and values.

82
Professional Development
Another system distinctly identified in the findings is professional develop-
ment. The purpose of professional development is to improve teaching and learn-
ing. It is a cyclical process that involves training, application of new skill, reflec-
tion, and feedback. The researcher read the professional development plan and
noted planned dates for 2007-2008 professional development, timelines for com-
pleting tasks, training dates for the inquiry protocol, structured time for collabora-
tion, the school vision for professional development, and the school-wide goals for
2007-2008 school year. The CRT noted that, although a great deal of time went
into planning the professional development plan, “This is a living document and
driven by data and teachers’ needs. It will be evaluated throughout the year for
effectiveness. If the staff determines their needs have changed, then we will revise
the plan.”
One critical component of professional development was to increase
teachers’ knowledge of pedagogy. Marzano (2003) reported a direct link between
teachers’ pedagogical knowledge and student achievement. The current study noted
the distinct manner in which Nine West structured professional development to
address pedagogy. The teachers stated that grade-level meetings and A Monday
professional development sessions provided the teachers with opportunities to
discuss pedagogy. Professional development consisted of multiple opportunities for
teachers to share expertise. Teacher release time, grade-level planning, data team
meetings, and vertical team meeting provide opportunities to share best practices
and knowledge. Resources are used to allow for teachers’ release time to plan IB
planners, collaborate, share best practices, analyze data, and solve problems. The
school pays for substitutes to cover the teachers’ classrooms so that they may

83
attend grade-level planning meetings. During these meetings teachers discuss
instructional practices and decisions. These meetings provide teachers with
opportunities to discuss the most effective means to teach grade-level standards.
Professional development is embedded in our daily work and is all about
working together. Whether it is a planned meeting, grade level meeting,
recess or lunch we our always engaged in conversations about best prac-
tices. We complete lesson plans as a team. We brainstorm strategies that
will allow us to best meet the needs of second language learners. We
calibrate our writing to ensure grade-level consistency. When we identify
challenges our students are encountering we brainstorm instructional prac-
tices and activities we can use to address the challenges to mitigate the
problems. (Teacher 4)
Although A Mondays are the designated days for professional development and
collaborations, the teachers reported that they share best practices all the time.
The researchers observed three instances when teachers shared best prac-
tices. One was during recess while the teachers supervised the students as they ate.
One teacher asked, “How do you get your students to write descriptive journal
entries?” The other teacher replied, “I use prompts that are linked to their personal
experiences.” The second informal meeting took place in the staff lounge while
four teachers were drinking coffee. One teacher stated, “Some of my students are
not reaching the fluency target for this unit. What can I do to build their fluency?”
One of her colleagues responded, “Do quick review of the sound spelling cards
daily, review high frequency words and allow them track their performance.” The
third informal meeting happened in the main office while making copies. One
teacher asked her colleague to read a student writing sample to see whether the
colleague agreed with her rating of the paper. In each of these instances, teachers
were collaborating and sharing best practices. Each of these instances supported the
teachers’ statements that collaboration is embedded within the daily interactions.

84
Interventions
The school has a clearly defined data-driven system of intervention that past
research has shown improves student achievement (Blankstein, 2004; Marzano,
2003). The system is specifically designed to focus on early intervention for
struggling students to circumvent academic failure and disengagement. Nine West
has developed a protocol for intervention to determine the best intervention for
struggling students. The intervention protocol contains four components: identifi-
cation, placement, monitoring of student progress, and communication with
teachers and students.
Marzano (2003) declared that one of the defining characteristics of schools
producing unprecedented gains in student achievement was that they relied on data
to identify probable interventions. Teachers also relied on data to assess the effect-
iveness of interventions. That being said, Nine West relied on English Language
Arts and Mathematics assessment data to identify students and the appropriate
intervention to address the needs of challenged students. Each intervention program
was guided by the needs of the students and “if the existing programs did not meet
the needs of the students, a new one was developed,” stated the LDRT.
The identification and placement components were critical for ensuring
timely support for struggling students. Therefore, when the data showed that
students were not succeeding, the teacher, data team, principal, and resource
teachers immediately intervened. At the slightest sign of challenge, teachers pro-
grammed students into an existing intervention, provided small-group instruction,
or tutored them during lunch.
The staff was also proactive in identifying students. The Curriculum
Research Teacher explained,

85
Our African American population is less than 100 students. We know each
child by name and how they scored the CST. Each child that scored far
below basic or below basic has been placed in an intervention that addresses
their unique needs.
Results from standardized tests as well as ongoing common assessments are
used to monitor students’ academic progress. Students with a history of academic
challenges are automatically placed in an intervention. The school offers regular
intervention programs that target reading and mathematics skills year round. The
school has also developed new interventions as needed.
The school’s interventions are successful because they are organic and
specifically designed to meet the needs of the student. They are constantly
being evaluated for quality control. Once it is determined that an interven-
tion is not achieving the intended goals and outcomes, it is revised in order
to ensure that it is purposeful, meaningful, and influential. (IB Coordinator)
Interventions operate in 6- to 8-week cycles. At the end of each cycle the
students are administered an assessment to measure their progress. If students
demonstrate mastery of the targeted skills, they are dismissed from the class and
new students are identified. Interventions are offered before school, during lunch,
after school, and on Saturday mornings.
Summary of Findings
While many systems were identified in this study, data-driven decision
making, professional development, instruction, school climate and culture, and
interventions were the most defined. The foundation for each system was data-
driven decision making. Instructional decisions, professional development, and
interventions were all driven by data. School climate and culture supported
instruction, professional development, and intervention. The leaders established
high expectations and maintained a standard of excellence that shaped the culture
and climate. Together, these systems influenced teaching and learning.

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Findings for Research Question 3:
Effective Classroom Instruction
Research question 3 asked, How are the perceived organizational systems
and structures implemented to support school-wide effective classroom instruction
that promote student learning? This question guided exploration of how classroom
instructional practices were sustained by organizational structures and systems.
Two theoretical frameworks frame guided the addressing of this research question.
The first theoretical framework was based on Marzano’s guaranteed and viable
curriculum, which he identified as the school-level factor having the greatest
impact on student achievement. The second theoretical framework was based on
Vygotsky’s theory of learning, which posits that children learn through interaction
with social and cultural context. Instruction that emphasizes interactions between
the learners and learning tasks, taking into account a student’s zone of proximal
development (ZPD; the difference between what a learner can do without help and
what he or she can do with help) leads to learning (Vygotsky, 1978). While the
findings from this study identified a variety of practices, only the ones that directly
related to classroom instruction and student achievement are discussed. Information
gathered from school documents, interviews, and observation revealed the follow-
ing major findings related to research question 3:
1. Teachers used thematic curriculum designs, assessment, and data, had
high expectations, and provided the students with multiple opportunities to learn.
2. Nine West teachers implemented a well-balanced curriculum that con-
sisted of ELA, Mathematics, Spanish, Social Science, Visual and Performing Arts,
and Physical Education.

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3. Teachers used a variety of researched-based instructional strategies such
as scaffolding, direct instruction, SDAIE strategies, and culturally responsive
instruction.
Effective Teaching
Findings from this study indicated that the school believed that student
achievement was supported by the delivery of effective teaching. According to
Schmoker and Marzano (1999), effective teachers have a repertoire of instructional
strategies that they skillfully use at the most appropriate times. Components of
effective teaching at Nine West included the use of thematic curriculum designs,
a well-balanced curriculum, and researched-based instructional practices such as
scaffolding, SDAIE strategies, opportunities to learn, culturally responsive
instruction, and common assessment and data analysis.
Thematic Curriculum Design
One of the components of effective teaching was the use of thematic curri-
culum designs. The thematic curriculum designs were based on the IB, the six
transdisciplinary themes of which were Who we are, Where we are in place and
time, How we express ourselves, How the world works, How we organize our-
selves, and Sharing the planet, all addressed every year at each grade level.
Through the themes the students conducted in-depth investigations into six central
ideas. For example, one of the third-grade IB thematic units was how communities
changed over time in relation to political, environmental, and economic factors. As
noted in the IB planner, the students researched various elements of communities
by identifying the political, environmental, and economic forces that promote or
tear down communities. They synthesized the information and constructed a

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written report. Then they represented the content using graphic representations and
physical models and created an ideal community. The communities were displayed
in the auditorium to celebrate the students’ success.
The researcher observed during a professional development session teachers
working in grade-level teams developing thematic curriculum designs. The teachers
asked each other, “What do we want our students to know and be able to do?”
According to Marzano (2003) and consistent with the constructivist theory, learn-
ing was enhanced when a teacher identified specific types of knowledge that were
the focus of a unit or lesson. At Nine West, teachers mapped out the grade-level
content and how the students would demonstrate mastery of the identified
standards. The teachers selected the instructional strategies that allowed them to
develop the most effective lesson design. The thematic curriculum designs were
similar to what Marzano identified as instructional frames for units. The use of
instructional frames enhanced teachers’ effectiveness because it guided them in
using the most appropriate research-based strategies.
Well-Balanced Curriculum
Effective teaching also consisted of teaching a well-balanced curriculum of
ELA, Mathematics, Foreign Language, Visual and Performing Arts, Physical
Education, Technology, Science, and Social Studies. The researcher observed first
hand the implementation of a well-balanced curriculum. The researcher observed
one kindergarten Spanish lesson, third-grade instrumental music class, fifth-grade
mathematics lesson, first-grade language arts, and third-grade social studies and
science lessons. Critical thinking and writing skills were promoted throughout the
curriculum. During classroom observations the teachers were observed asking

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students to infer meaning from the text, summarize literature, develop a hypothesis,
and provide written explanations for mathematics problems. Implementation of a
well-balanced curriculum was also documented in the weekly lesson plans and
validated by student work samples.
Research-Based Instructional
Strategies
Teachers at Nine West used a variety of researched-based instructional
strategies. According to Teacher 4, scaffolding (the temporary support, guidance, or
assistance provided to a student on a new or complex task) was a common strategy
used by the teachers at Nine West. During the interview, Teacher 6 (a SEI teacher),
mentioned the ways in which she scaffolded the vocabulary instruction for her
students.
Each year I have students that are not able to independently use the vocabu-
lary strategies and it is necessary for me to give them support until they can
competently use them independently. So, I begin by modeling how to use
the strategies. Then I allow the students to identify the strategy and I model
how to use it. As the students become more capable of identifying the
vocabulary strategies I ease up on he supports. Eventually the students are
able to identify the strategy and use it correctly to determine the meaning of
unknown words.
The researcher also observed a teacher scaffolding a writing lesson during a
classroom observation. This practice allowed teachers to effectively address a
student’s ZPD. Vygotskian theory of learning asserts that scaffolding is an effective
form of teaching because it not only produced immediate results, but also instills
the skills necessary for independent problem solving in the future.
Teachers used specific research-based instructional strategies that allowed
them to teach English Learners. Teachers used SDAIE strategies, such as slower
speech, visuals, primary language support, and slower pace. Using research-based

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instructional strategies such as Total Physical Response (TPR), realia, scaffolding,
vocabulary development, SDAIE strategies, cooperative learning, inquiry-based
learning, and linguistic patterns, teachers meet the academic needs of English
Learners.
The teachers are remarkable. They do whatever it takes to make the content
comprehensible for the students, especially the English Learners. They use
visual, realia, music, pictures, slower speech, faster speech, linguistic
patterns etc. (LDRT)
While observing in a second-grade SEI classroom the researcher observed a
lesson on kindness. The teacher followed the phases of direct instruction, used
pictures to make the vocabulary and content comprehensible, and provided the
students with opportunities to construct meaning. The teacher oriented the students
to the lesson by stating the objective and learning outcomes. Then she activated
prior knowledge by asking the students what they knew about kindness. As the
students responded, the teacher charted the students’ responses. She showed the
students eight pictures of people engaged in kind acts. Each time she showed the
students a picture, the students talked to a partner about what they observed in the
pictures. Then she called on pairs to share their observations. She waited until she
had shown all the pictures and discussed the action before providing the students
the definition. She said, “Now that you have seen different examples of kindness, I
want you to define kindness.” Every child raised a hand to respond.
Culturally Relevant Instruction
Culturally relevant instruction was another component of effective teaching
noted at Nine West. Ladson-Billings and Tate (1995) defined culturally relevant
teaching as instruction that places the interest of students at the center of the
curriculum. The literature on culturally responsive instruction makes the case that

91
learning is meaningful when it is linked to academic content with students’ cultural
experiences and perspectives (McClure, 2006).
Teachers used making connections to the text, connections to themselves,
and connections to the world to engage the students’ learning. For instance, one
teacher asked her students to link the story in their Open Court Reading Anthology
to a childhood experience. Specifically, the teacher asked the students to think
about a meal that was specific to their culture and describe a time when they had
prepared this meal with a grandparent or parent. To facilitate the discussion the
teacher said, “We don’t all have the same experiences, we don’t all eat the same
foods but your experiences are all valuable and meaningful to you.” Instead of
having the students share immediately, the students were allowed to share their
response with a partner. After 3 minutes the students were asked to share their
responses with the class. The teacher used their experiences as a bridge to establish
a contextual framework for the reading. This practiced was observed in three other
classrooms and was reported as a common practice during the interviews. Some
other practices mentioned during the interviews and observed during classroom
observations were tapping into prior knowledge, wait time, and varying degrees of
questioning.
Vygotsky’s theory of learning postulated the importance of a child’s
language and learning. He posited that, as learning progresses, the child’s own
language comes to serve as the primary tool of intellectual adaptation.” Teacher 6
mentioned the importance of embracing students’ language: “We acknowledge the
language that students bring to school. Instruction is presented in a way that
validates their home language while simultaneously teaching them Standard
English.”

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Studies by sociolinguists have suggested that students experience academic
success when their home language is incorporated into the curriculum (Ladson-
Billings & Tate, 1995). The researcher observed the students reading Too Many
Tamales and the teacher using language as a conduit for instruction in a second-
grade classroom. While reading the story, the teacher periodically integrated
Spanish words and phrases into the story. This seemed to get the students’ atten-
tion. After reading the story, the teacher wrote some of the Spanish phrases on the
board, along with the English translation. The researcher later asked the teacher
why she had integrated Spanish words and how the teacher knew it would impact
the students’ comprehension.
I integrated Spanish words and phrases into the story because I knew it
would peek my students’ interest. Many of them are Spanish-speaking
students and those that aren’t receive weekly Spanish instruction and could
easily relate. I knew the students understood the story when they actively
participated in the discussion.
Assessment and the Use of Data
Effective teaching was also facilitated by the use of student formal and
informal assessment data. The inquiry protocol was a school-wide practice that
provided an arena for teachers to engage in continuous analysis of student achieve-
ment. Teachers completed a series of activities that required them to think deeply
about current student achievement and ways to improve the students’ performance.
There were six steps in the inquiry protocol, as shown in Figure 11.
Prior to engaging in this process, the principal and the staff established the
academic focus for the year: reading comprehension, vocabulary development, and
mathematical operations. Teachers reviewed assessments from the previous quarter
or benchmark assessments. Next, the teachers met in grade-level teams and

93

Figure 11. Flowchart of the collaborative inquiry process.

discussed achievement gaps and the students’ lack of progress toward mastery of
essential standards. Once they had identified the gaps, the grade-level teams
devised one to three student achievement goals and the actions needed to facilitate
meeting the goals. Next, teachers brainstormed instructional practices and deter-
mined which practices allowed them to meet the standards. Then, teachers deter-
mined the indicators that would demonstrate progress. The last phase of the inquiry
protocol was implementing the plan. The plan was implemented and monitored for
progress. Then the cycle was repeated. The resource teacher and the IB coordinator
shared in their interviews, “This practice allows staff to systematically use data to
assess the effectiveness of instructional practices, track students progress toward
mastering grade-level standards and to monitor the academic achievement gap.”
Implement
strategies
and collect
work
Identify
Results
Indicators
Write Team
and
Classroom
Goals
Analyze
results
Review data
and identify
standards of
concern

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One component that separated this practice from other practices used at other
schools was follow-up. Once teachers had analyzed the data and determined the
weaknesses in student learning, an action plan was developed to address the areas
of weaknesses.
Inquiry protocol directly influenced classroom instruction. It served as a
catalyst for improvement. During the inquiry protocol process teachers collabora-
tively explored different research-based strategies to support student learning. For
example, the third-grade team met to discuss results from a reading comprehension
assessment. An analysis of the data revealed that students were struggling with
making inferences. The teachers brainstormed instructional strategies that would
meet the needs of the students. After all strategies were discussed, the teachers
selected the top three. Then they developed an action plan to implement research-
based instructional strategies. They also developed a teacher-created assessment
instrument to gather data to ascertain students’ progress toward mastering this skill.
Summary of Findings
Effective teaching was a school-wide practice that enabled the staff at Nine
West to serve students of color. School-wide use of thematic curriculum designs,
research-based instructional strategies, assessment and data, and culturally respons-
ive instruction were monitored and supported by the principal. Teachers articulated
and demonstrated a clear understanding of effective teaching evidenced by what
was observed during classroom observations, shared during interviews and read in
the documents. One of the teachers at Nine West summed up effective teaching at
Nine West:
It is what we do. We have high expectations, high standards and . . . shared
beliefs about teaching and learning. We use data, collaborate, teach with

95
integrity, and are held accountable by Principal Green for teaching and
student learning!
Findings for Research Question 4: Construct of Race
Research question 4 asked, How is the construct of race reflected in the
school’s structures and systems? Exploration of this question was guided by Gloria
Ladson- Billing’s culturally relevant pedagogy and critical race theory.
The Role of the Administrator
The goal to improve the academic achievement for all students began with
the principal’s plan to achieve educational equity at the school site. Principal Green
indicated during an interview that equity was a priority. She reported that she held
one-on-one goal-setting meetings with teachers at least twice a year. During these
meetings with teachers she engaged in dialogue about their disaggregated assess-
ment data. She shared during an interview, “Regular analysis of the data forces
teachers to take ownership of their student achievement. The disaggregated data
allows teachers to truly ascertain student achievement.”
During the interview the principal indicated that district-wide efforts were
under way to address racial equity at all schools. Sole Unified School District had
hired a consultant to provide principals with equity training. The principal shared in
the interview that she was beginning to discuss the relationship between race and
student achievement and its impact on classroom practice. She recognized that, to
ensure that all students reach grade-level standards, equitable instruction must be
offered. “Equity doesn’t mean equal. It means that students get what they need in
order to achieve academic success.”
The implementation of a data-driven decision-making system allowed the
staff at Nine West to engage in conversation regarding the construct of race and

96
implications for instruction and student achievement. During the interviews the
principal and teachers shared that analyzing student assessment data highlighted
achievement by students of color and led to discussions about instruction, practices,
expectations, and possible institutional barriers. This practice was consistent with
research that states that examining data about which students are not achieving
often leads to identifying underlying issues of race, expectations, and pedagogy
(Taylor, 2005).
Institutional Practices
As schools become more and more ethnically diverse, hiring practices of
principals are critical to ensuring that the teaching staff reflects the ethnic composi-
tion of the student body. Research by R. Johnson (2002) stated that variance
between teacher and student characteristics may impact teachers’ expectations and
relationship with students. The ethnic make-up of the teaching staff can have an
impact on teaching and learning as a result of the teachers’ beliefs influencing their
educational practices. According to critical race theorists, pervasive beliefs about
race have resulted in subordination of students of color by instructional practices,
low expectations, lack of access to rigorous coursework, and tracking. Figure 12
displays variances in the ethnic make-up of the students and faculty at Nine West.
However, there was no evidence that these variance have negatively impacted the
education of students of color at Nine West.
Teachers nurtured and fostered positive relationships with students. During
the classroom observations the researcher saw teachers work closely with African
American and Hispanic students. Teachers engaged the students in dialogue, made
direct eye contact, smiled, and frequently touched students on the back to

97

Student Ethnicity
Filipino
1%
Hispanic
68%
Asian
8%
White
11%
African Am
12%

Faculty Ethnicity
White
38%
African Am
9%
Hispanic
32%
Asian
12%
Filipino
3%
Other
6%

Figure 12. Distributions of ethnicity of students and faculty at Nine West
Elementary School. Source: Dataquest, by California Department of Education,
2008b, retrieved April 7, 2008, from http://dq.cde.ca.gov/dataquest

98
encourage them. During recess and lunch, teachers were observed eating with
students, laughing, and giving “high fives.” Teachers held high expectations for all
students. One teacher declared,
We believe that all students can succeed and we are committed to making it
happen. We recognize that students don’t all have the same background
experiences and this may put them at a disadvantage. But, we are held
accountable for providing support and instruction to give all students access
to rigorous instruction. And that is what we do. We know that it is
impossible to have high expectations for all without differentiated support.
Research documents that urban schools are challenged by the lack of highly
skilled teachers and high teacher turnover, and poor students of color are more
likely to have unskilled, inexperienced teachers (Murname & Steele, 2007). This
was not the case at Nine West. As noted earlier in this chapter, the teachers at Nine
West had an average of 14 years of experience. This has implications for student
achievements based on research which documents that students taught by experi-
enced teachers perform better than those taught by inexperienced teachers (Darling-
Hammond, 1999; Johnson, R., 2002; Marzano, 2003).
Celebrating Diversity/Multicultural
This school celebrates cultural diversity. The researcher found data support-
ing the teachers’ understanding of the individual cultures of the students whom
they serve. Teachers repeatedly stated the importance of exposing students to
different cultures to develop respect for cultural differences and elements.
If schools are to provide culturally responsive instruction, teachers must
have deep knowledge of dynamic expressions and nuances of culture. During the
interviews the teachers and principal stated the importance of acknowledging
students’ cultures. Ladson-Billings (1997) defined culture as “the deep structures of
knowing, understanding, acting and being in the world. It informs all human

99
thought and activity and cannot be suspended as human beings interact with parti-
cular subject matters or domains of learning” (p. 700). According to this definition,
teachers should have a deep understanding of individual cultures to provide cultur-
ally responsive pedagogy. The IB coordinator stated that the staff believed that
students must understand their own culture before they can appreciate the culture
of others. The teachers demonstrated a conceptual understanding of culture as it
related to language, customs, traditions, and respect based on what was shared in
the interviews and observed in the classrooms. As an example, during the holiday
season, celebrations and assemblies were inclusive of Kwanzaa, Las Posadas,
Ramadan, and Hanukah.
The classroom environment at Nine West supports multiculturalism. The
principal said, “We celebrate culture, we celebrate students, and their uniqueness!”
The school has implemented practices that broaden the student knowledge of
multiculturalism and concept of culture. The school has an annual international
dance festival at which students are taught and perform traditional dances of
cultures throughout the world. Parent 2 talked about the impact of the international
dance festival: “The international dance festival exemplifies the school’s apprecia-
tion and commitment to cultural diversity. It’s more than pictures or books. It’s
about recognizing and valuing the culture of others.” Poster-size pictures of past
dance festivals were displayed in the hallways and in classrooms. Every classroom
library had a collection of multicultural books.
We just replenished the multicultural section of each classroom library. We
recognize the importance of having multicultural literature available for
students. Multicultural literature is embedded into every IB thematic and
instruction. (CRT)

100
During her interview a 30-year veteran teacher addressed the teachers’ commitment
to cultural diversity and cultural knowledge. “Teachers take personal inventory of
the cultures in their classrooms to ensure that the study them during the holidays
and embrace cultural differences.”
Another way the school addresses multiculturalism is through the IB
thematic units. One of the themes was “How we express ourselves.” The objective
of this theme was to have students study how people express ideas, feelings, nature,
culture, beliefs, and values. Each grade level was assigned a project to create a
common experience for all students. For example, one of the kindergarten units of
inquiry was titled, “Let’s Celebrate.” While studying this unit the students investi-
gated multicultural celebrations; they inquired into national, religious, cultural, and
family celebrations.
Recognition of Abilities Versus
Assets
Throughout the interviews the teachers consistently stated the importance of
acknowledging students’ prior knowledge. They used CST data and common
assessments to ascertain students’ current levels of achievement in order to plan
instruction to meet their needs. However, the teachers did not mention that they
recognized the assets that students of color brought to the classroom as a result
of their cultural backgrounds and life experiences. Crawford (1996) stated that
cultural experiences give students tools, such as writing and language, to help them
to mediate social environments. Since the school environment is composed of
social and cultural elements, students must use tools acquired by culture to succeed
in the school’s learning environment. According to research by Ford et al. (2002),
educators must recognize cultural differences of students of color in order to see the

101
gifts and talents that they possess. If educators look only at ability and not at assets,
they will be inclined to believe that children of color have deficiencies that hinder
their ability to learn (Valencia, 1997). Therefore, cultural assets must be acknowl-
edged to ensure that students learn; research has demonstrated that teachers’ beliefs
and attitudes influence students’ learning.
High Expectations
Among the many practices in use at Nine West, the principal and staff
attributed high expectations for student learning as the one practice that had highly
influenced student performance. Regardless of students’ baseline knowledge, they
are expected to meet grade-level standards and expectations. By scaffolding,
teachers provide students with supports to access grade-level material.
Nine West teachers, resource teachers, and principal repeatedly conveyed
during the interviews that the school environment was shaped by high expectations.
The principal maintained that this is why the students were succeeding. The
principal stated that she had raised the bar on her expectations for teaching and
learning.
Being an IB school has increased the rigor of our instruction. Every child
engages in inquiry, every child is taught grade-level standards. Every
teacher is held accountable for giving the students support to access grade-
level standards and meet the rigors of IB.
High expectations for student learning were evident in the level of question-
ing used during instruction and the accepted responses. Teachers asked open-ended
questions; they asked students to make inferences and draw conclusions.
Students were not the only ones held to high expectations at Nine West. The
staff members were also held to high standards and expectations. To ensure that
teachers were meeting established expectations, Principal Green held goal-setting

102
meetings, monitored daily instruction, provided written feedback on performance,
and supported instruction. One teacher shared during the interview,
Principal Green is always in the classrooms monitoring teaching and learn-
ing. She asks the students they learning objectives and what they are
expected to do. By golly the students better know or you will know that the
could not articulate the teachers expectations. She leaves positive corrective
feedback. She has high expectations for the teachers and they are clearly
communicated to all.
Relationships With Students
Another critical component of school culture and climate was developing
positive relationships with all students. Through the interviews and observations it
was determined that building relationships with students was a priority. Teachers
invested time into establishing personal relationships with the students. Teacher 3
stated, “The staff is committed to ensuring that students know that we care and
sincerely want the best for them. This is done by connecting with each student on
the first day of school.” The principal made personal connections to students. Dur-
ing classroom visits she left notes for individual students as well as the teachers,
such as “I like the way you are focusing, I liked the way you answered that ques-
tion using a complete sentence, You make a difference in this classroom because
you are unique.” Principal Green said that she leaves notes for students because
“students need to know that they are important and that every adult in this campus
is committed to their success. It is about building relationships.”
One practice used by Nine West was mentoring struggling students. At the
beginning of the school year every staff member identified a student who scored
below basic or far below basic on the CST in ELA and/or Mathematics and
committed to mentor that student.

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We do this to make a personal connection with the students to let them
know that we care about them and are committed to their success in school.
We are committed to this practice because we believe that when students
are positively connected to an adult on campus it makes a difference in the
learning. (Principal Green)
Some of the behaviors of the mentors were to observe the student in class,
talk to the student regularly, meet with the classroom teacher to get updates on
performance, provide feedback on classroom performance, and celebrate successes.
Although not a requirement, some teachers went as far as attending baseball games,
soccer games, and dance recitals.
Parent 1 confirmed during her interview the importance of teacher-student
relationships: “The teachers take time to make a personal connection with each
student in their classroom. They make sure that they give each child what the need
to learn. That is what makes Nine West a great school.”
One unintended outcome of this mentoring practice was the relationships
that developed between staff members and parents. The staff members became a
resource for parents, providing them with valuable information on how to navigate
the public education system, thereby increasing the parents’ and students’ social
capital. According to Lee and Bowen (2006), social capital can be obtained by
gathering information about upcoming events, available enrichment activities, and
access to resources. All of this information helped parents to promote their
children’s school achievement. Hence, by supporting the students, the staff at Nine
West also supported the parents.
Summary of Findings
Overall, the findings related to research question 4 indicated that the prac-
tices at Nine West supported higher levels of performance by all students. The
school climate and culture supported multiculturalism and diversity. High

104
expectations for behavior and academic were maintained for all students. All in all,
teachers and principal nurtured and developed positive relationships and inter-
actions with all students, which supported student achievement.
Discussion
The pattern of achievement documented in this chapter revealed that the
number of students scoring proficient or higher on CST grew at a consistent rate for
all numerically significant subgroups; students were reclassified as Fluent English
Proficient, and English Learners consistently scored intermediate or higher on the
CELDT. These data, along with curriculum assessments, teacher-created tests, and
common assessments, were used to guide instruction. Not only did the staff use
assessment data to monitor students’ progress; they also used authentic perform-
ance assessments such as student work samples and portfolios. Student achieve-
ment data were used to develop interventions and support for struggling students.
Achieving the academic results mentioned at the beginning of this chapter
can be achieved with an effective leader pioneering the efforts to improve student
achievement. An effective leader is characterized as one who monitors instruction,
focuses on the impact of teaching on student learning, uses data to drive decision
making, commits to high levels of achievement by all students, and strategically
uses resources to support teaching and learning (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003).
Principal Green’s actions were deliberate, strategic, and aimed at improving student
learning. The principal provided a structure for implementing a coherent instruc-
tional program that met the needs of all students. Using mantras, celebrations, daily
greetings, and assemblies, Principal Green shaped the culture and sustained a
climate that supported student achievement. By monitoring outcomes, adjusting

105
systems and celebrating student success, the principal made a difference at Nine
West. She visited classroom three to four times a week. While visiting classrooms,
she provided the teachers with feedback to encourage the use of effective classroom
practices or to extinguish the use of ineffective practices.
Marzano (2003) identified school-based features that lead to school
improvement. While parental involvement was noted as a feature (Barth et al.,
1999; Blankstein, 2004; Carter, 2000; Marzano), it was not a distinct finding in this
study. The distinct findings for this study were data system, instruction, interven-
tions, professional development, culture, and climate. All of these systems working
in concert represented an integrated system focused on teaching and learning.
It was well documented that effective teaching had the biggest impact on
student learning. According to the findings from this study, Nine West imple-
mented a guaranteed and viable curriculum that consisted of opportunities to learn
and time (Marzano, 2003). The instructional system was aligned with district-
adopted program, state standards, and the IB curriculum. Teachers backward
mapped the state standards to provide adequate instructional time to teach grade-
level content. By doing this, the teachers identified the essential content that
students needed to master and eliminated extraneous material. Principal Green
protected instructional time from interruptions that detracted from teaching time
enabling teachers to cover content adequately. The staff recognized the role of
culture and social structures in student learning and brainstormed ways to connect
the knowledge that students learn in school with their daily lives. As a result, they
implemented practices such as celebrating diversity and integrating multicultural
literature into instruction, embracing students’ background knowledge and validat-
ing primary language. Nine West used strategies for improving teaching and

106
learning by establishing specific measurable goals and progress monitoring. It was
the combination of these practices that created a clear purposeful plan focused on
teaching and learning that undoubtedly supported student achievement.
Principal Green is an instructional leader. Research defines an instructional
leader as one who defines the school’s mission, manages the instructional program,
and promotes a positive learning climate (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003). Over the past
8 years the principal has maintained a long-term commitment to improving instruc-
tion. As a result, she has fostered a culture of continuous improvement driven by
data. All of the teachers interviewed shared that Principal Green was the instruc-
tional leader on campus. By leading instruction she clearly established standard for
excellent teaching and learning. She modeled the expected behaviors, including
wearing the school uniform daily. Her interactions with students and teachers were
positive and respectful. Principal Green typified adult learning by staying abreast of
current trends in education and imparting knowledge to her staff. Principal Green’s
behaviors undoubtedly contributed to the success at Nine West Elementary.

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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND IMPLICATIONS
Research has documented the plight of students of color living in poverty
and their lack of academic success in urban schools. It has been reported that
students of color encounter a multitude of institutional barriers dating back to the
1900s that have hindered their ability to perform at high levels. Researchers such as
Ravitch (1983), Menchaca (1997), Valencia (1997), Yosso (2002), and Solórzano
and Yosso (2001) asserted that deficit thinking and beliefs about students of color
hinders educators from providing rigorous instruction that leads to high achieve-
ment. Laws, policies, initiatives, and acts have been passed in attempts to address
the lack of achievement by poor students of color, but to no avail. Overall, urban
schools with high concentrations of poor students of color have failed to improve
their performance. However, some urban schools have changed the historical
patterns of achievement by students of color. Overcoming the barriers to low
student achievement has occurred as a result of what research on effective schools
has documented as a systematic approach that provides a framework for school
improvement (Edmonds, 1986, as cited in Skrla & Scheurich, 2001; Lezotte, 1994;
Marzano, 2003).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the practices that positively
influenced academic achievement by students of color in one high-poverty high-
performing urban school. The study researched the role of leadership and its impact
on student achievement. In addition, the study identified the trends and patterns of
performance by students of color, how organizational structures and systems were

108
implemented to support effective classroom instruction, and how the construct of
race was reflected in the school’s structures and systems.
The research questions that guided this study were:
1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of
color?
2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to
contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large
concentrations of students of color?
3. How are the perceived organizational systems and structures imple-
mented to support school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes
student learning?
4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school’s structures and
systems?
Methodology
This case study examined one school’s success in addressing academic
achievement by poor students of color. Data were collected using interviews,
observations, and review of documents. The data from these sources were
triangulated to strengthen the validity and reliability of the findings. The research
questions, theoretical framework and data collections tools were collectively
developed by a thematic group of 17 doctoral students.
Theoretical Framework
Three theoretical frameworks guided the collection of data for this study.
The first framework was based on the sociocultural theories of learning and
included data that demonstrated student and adult learning. This framework

109
asserted that, when schools adopt systems and structures to overcome the disson-
ance between the culture of students and teachers, students learn. The second
theoretical framework was based on Robert Marzano’s (2003) effective school
correlates, which suggests that school-based factors must be organized in a
systematic manner to create optimal learning environments. This framework
focuses on the implementation of organizational structures and systems and how
they support effective classroom instruction. The third theoretical framework was
designed around Gloria Ladson-Billing’s theory of culturally responsive teaching
based on three criteria: an ability to develop students academically, willingness
to nurture and support cultural competence, and development of critical
consciousness.
Summary of Findings
The data collection and analysis led to key findings for each research
question. This section summarizes the key findings and notes their significance.
Research Question 1: Performance
Among Students of Color
Research question 1 asked, What are the trends and patterns of perform-
ance among students of color? Analyzing the trends and patterns of performance of
students of color at Nine West was facilitated by an array of data from CDE,
Dataquest, and the school site database. An analysis of the data led to the following
major findings:
1. Nine West has made more growth than any other school in Sole Unified
School District since the CST baseline scores of 2001.

110
2. Economically disadvantaged students have made continuous gains in
ELA and mathematics.
3. English Learners have consistently outperformed African American
students in mathematics during the time period of the study.
The pattern of student achievement at Nine West has been positive as a
whole. No other school in Sole Unified School District has experienced the same
level of success. The data showed that English Learners demonstrated more growth
than any other subgroup of students at Nine West. Although they were not the
highest-performing subgroup, they were no longer the lowest-performing subgroup.
The economically disadvantaged subgroup were achieving in spite of barriers
posed by poverty. Although the pattern for all subgroups reflected a positive
trajectory, an achievement gap still existed.
More than 50% of each subgroup scored proficient or higher in Mathe-
matics. The number of students scoring far below basic or below basic significantly
decreased while the number of students scoring proficient or advanced increased.
One cause for concern was the Mathematics performance by African American
students. There was a pervasive achievement gap between African American
students and Hispanic students, as wide as 20 points. However, results were
different for ELA.
Overall, the trends and patterns in performance at Nine West were signifi-
cant because they validated that students can learn, regardless of race and socioeco-
nomic background. Given effective instruction and support, students of color
achieved at high levels as evidenced by standardized test data.

111
Research Question 2: Organizational
Structures and Systems
Research question 2 asked, What are the organizational structures and
systems that are perceived to contribute to high student performance in high-
poverty urban schools with large concentrations of students of color? Nine West
demonstrated evidence of the following systems:
1. Principal Green implemented an integrated systems approach that pro-
vided a framework for school improvement.
2. The professional development schedule, English Language Development
instruction, and district assessments and standards were prominent organizational
structures that supported effective classroom instruction and contributed to high
levels of student performance.
3. Inquiry protocol was the tool used to engage teachers in the continuous
process of analyzing data.
4. A culture and climate system driven by high expectations, high standards,
and teacher collaboration existed at Nine West.
5. Nine West had a well-defined system of intervention.
Principal Green stated that structures and systems were important in sup-
porting the work at Nine West and were intended to create an optimum learning
environment. The structures imposed by Sole Unified School District and the CDE
provided a framework whereby the school operated. Data-driven decision making,
professional development, interventions, climate and culture, and instruction were
designed to work in a cohesive integrated manner to improve student achievement.
Data-driven decision making was a dominant system. The findings indi-
cated that inquiry protocol, a practice that facilitated data use, was viewed as
having a major impact on instruction and student achievement. The teachers stated

112
that it provided a springboard to discuss teaching and learning. Initially, some
teachers were reluctant to engage fully in the process. However, the principal held
each staff member accountable for actively participating in the process. Now
teachers follow the protocol because they see firsthand the impact on instruction
and student achievement.
The principal fostered a culture of high expectations, high standards, and
collaboration by modeling. Principal Green indicated that the school climate and
culture was not developed overnight; it took years of consistent behavior, modeling
and building trust with the staff. She modeled collaborative behaviors and created a
collaborative environment for students and teachers. Over time, the staff knew that
they could depend on and trust Principal Green, and the culture evolved into what it
is today.
Nine West had clearly defined system of interventions. Teachers provided a
variety of interventions to meet the needs of each child. They actively sought
alternative safety nets to prevent low academic achievement. However, the need for
so many interventions draws attention to the first teaching for students of color.
Research by Cotton (2000) indicated that what mattered most in whether students
learn is good teaching. Although the interventions are necessary, the first teaching
must be the primary source of intervention. In order to remedy the learning gaps,
culturally responsive instruction that addresses both assets and abilities must be an
integral component of first teaching and intervention.
These findings were significant because they validated that systems work-
ing in tandem lead to improved student achievement. The literature indicated
multiple school-based factors that create conditions for learning. However, there
was limited research that indicated how to implement school-based factors to create

113
optimal learning environments. The findings from this study add to the existing
body of literature by providing insight into how systems are implemented and how
they work in concert to create a school culture and climate that supports achieve-
ment by all students.
Research Question 3: Effective Classroom Instruction
Research question 3 asked, How are the perceived organizational systems
and structures implemented to support school-wide effective classroom instruction
that promote student learning? An analysis of the practices directly linked to class-
room instruction yielded the following findings:
1. There were four prominent organizational structures at Nine West.
2. Effective teaching at Nine West consisted of multiple opportunities to
learn.
3. Nine West implemented standards-based instruction.
4. Nine West believed in inquiry-based learning.
5. Teachers at Nine West used multiple indicators to measure student
achievement.
The findings indicated four main structures that contributed to high student
performance. Principal Green was knowledgeable of the structures and ensured
adherence to their implementation. The professional development schedule pro-
vided structured time to collaborate and improve teaching and learning. District
assessments provided teachers with current information about students’ progress
toward mastery of standards. Principal Green held each teacher accountable for
delivering standards-based instruction, providing all students equal access to the
grade-level content.

114
Additional findings related to this research question indicated that oppor-
tunities to learn were influential in promoting student learning. Teachers allocated
a significant amount of time to teach the essential skills delineated in the key
standards. In addition, teachers used multiple strategies such as reteaching and
regrouping to assure that all students achieved mastery of grade-level content.
Standards-based instruction was the guiding force behind effective teaching.
Teachers collaboratively backward mapped the standards at the beginning of the
year to make sure that essential standards were addressed. Learning goals and
assessment were aligned to state standards. By implementing standards-based
instruction, the teachers ensured that all students equally accessed rigorous grade-
level expectations and knowledge.
Inquiry-based learning allowed teachers to design rigorous learning
activities that required students to construct their own knowledge. Students were
given tasks that developed their natural curiosity and were taught to ask questions
about what they were learning. Furthermore, students were taught to apply critical
thinking skills and drive the learning the process.
Frequent monitoring of students’ academic progress was a practice that the
staff identified as important for effective teaching and student learning. Academic
progress was measured through authentic performance assessments as well as
curriculum-based assessments. Teachers used student work samples and portfolios
to track student individual performance. Using performance assessments as a guide
allowed teachers to monitor students’ mastery of the curriculum and shape
subsequent instruction.
The results related to research question 3 were important because they
provided evidence that, when teachers provide rigorous learning opportunities and

115
students construct knowledge, students learn. The findings also indicated that the
school provided a well-balanced curriculum that focused on inquiry and standards.
This was significant because research on high-performing high-poverty schools has
documented that high-performing schools focus primarily on reading and mathe-
matics. The findings at Nine West were contrary to this position. Instead of extend-
ing learning time, the school focused on essential standards and provided multiple
opportunities to learn key content. This information is important to schools charged
with improving student achievement because it demonstrates that teachers can
teach reading, mathematics, and other curriculum areas without negatively impact-
ing student achievement.
Research Question 4: Construct of Race
Research question 4 asked, How is the construct of race reflected in the
school’s structures and systems? An analysis of the school’s policies and practices
directly related to the construct of race yielded the following findings:
1. Celebrating cultural diversity was a school-wide practice.
2. Classroom environment and instruction supported multiculturalism.
3. Students’ prior academic knowledge was acknowledged more than
students’ assets.
4. Classroom organization could be creating institutional barriers that
perpetuate deficit thinking.
Nine West took advantage of opportunities to celebrate cultural diversity,
ranging from holiday programs to parent presentations. For the past 15 years the
school has hosted a Las Posadas celebration. An international dance festival is held
annually, when students celebrate international cultures by performing traditional

116
cultural dances dressed in traditional garments. While the staff did not demonstrate
complete cultural competency, they clearly articulated the importance of embracing
and celebrating various cultural orientations.
The classroom environments supported multicultural education. Each
classroom library was well stocked with multicultural fiction and nonfiction books.
Teachers integrated multicultural literature as well as art into instruction. Pictures
and life-size posters of children from around the world dressed in traditional
garments were displayed in every classroom. One teacher stated, “The presence of
culturally relevant material creates an inclusive environment that says we value
cultural diversity.”
Teachers used a variety of assessments to ascertain students’ level of
achievement. The results primarily focused on ability. However, teachers did not
address students’ gifts and talents. In order for learning experiences to be meaning-
ful, teachers should acknowledge the gifts and talents that students possess as a
result of cultural and social experiences. If not, teachers may be inclined to see
cultural differences as deficits (Crawford, 1996; Solórzano & Yosso, 2001;
Valencia, 1997).
The staff shared the belief that their practices created positive educational
experiences for all children. However, one practice designed to provide supportive
learning environments for all students may be perpetuating deficit thinking views.
Teachers and the principal reported the following classroom organizations: GATE,
SEI, SEI GATE, Mainstream English, and Mainstream English GATE. Although
these classrooms were organized to create optimal need-based learning environ-
ments, they may be institutionalizing practices embedded with deficit thinking. The
data showed that African American and Hispanic students were underrepresented in

117
the GATE program, SEI classes were composed mainly of Hispanic students, and
“at-risk” students were placed in mainstream English classrooms. This practice
resembled what Valencia (1997) argued as the result of pervasive deficit approach,
where students from low-income homes are routinely placed in low-level classes,
segregated based on their primary language, and underidentified as “gifted and
talented.”
The findings related to this research question were significant because they
identified how the systems at a high-performing high-poverty urban school with
large concentrations of students of color supported the use of effective culturally
relevant practices and their influence on student learning. The findings provided
evidence that, by addressing multiculturalism and celebrating diversity, schools can
alleviate cultural clashes between students’ and teachers’ cultures that could
negatively impact the learning environment.
Conclusion
The findings from this case study of one high-performing high-poverty
urban school confirmed that students of color can achieve at high levels.
Throughout this study the teachers attributed the school’s success to the IB
program focus and inquiry-based learning. Based on findings, the researcher asserts
that it was not the IB program that contributed to the school’s success; rather, it
was the shared beliefs, focus on teaching and learning, value placed on cultural
diversity, and common language that evolved from becoming an IB school that led
to the school’s success. Also, the school’s success resulted from building on
students’ prior knowledge and providing rigorous learning experiences. Teachers
provided scaffolds to facilitate learning. Finally, the school was successful because

118
the teachers fostered classroom interactions and instruction to embrace student
differences.
Overall, Nine West validated that, when schools adapt the right combina-
tion of systems and structures, students learn. The systems must be strategically
designed to meet the unique needs of the school. Therefore, systems will vary from
school to school. However, the success of the systems is contingent on leadership.
An effective leader is responsible for successfully implementing an integrated
systems approach that supports high levels of student achievement. The extent to
which leaders monitor, support, and guide systems determines their impact on
effective classroom instruction and academic achievement. Nine West implemented
clearly defined systems and practices that can be easily be replicated. However, the
degree to which these practices can be replicated at other schools and achieve
similar results is contingent on effective leadership.
Implications for Policy and Practice
Based on the findings of this study and past research on high-performing
high-poverty urban schools, districts and schools seeking to improve achievement
by students of color should consider the following policies and practices:
1. Hiring practices. One finding was the significance of having qualified
experienced teachers. Research supports that staffing urban schools is a challenge
(Jacob, 2007). It is recommended that districts design a recruitment plan that
requires leaders to recruit teachers from teacher credentialing programs that address
research-based instructional practices and culturally relevant pedagogy.
2. Professional development. In order for teachers to continue to improve
instruction and effectively use culturally relevant pedagogy, schools should provide

119
professional development that addresses cultural proficiency. Current practices and
policies respond to diversity by implementing standards-based instruction. How-
ever, access alone is not enough. Students of color cannot be lumped together as
one group of students because each ethnic group has unique needs. Therefore,
teachers need training that shows them how to address the specifics of culture and
standards to design an instructional program that provides equity and success.
3. Assessment and accountability. In this era of accountability, district and
school leaders rely on results from standardized tests to determine student perform-
ance. More authentic standards-based performance assessments are needed to
measure students’ ability to apply knowledge. It is recommended that schools and
districts identify explicit standards and align them with authentic district assess-
ments that assess students’ mastery of essential standards. Mastery implies that
students can independently apply knowledge to new learning and construct
meaning.
4. Instructional practices. Findings from this study indicated that standards-
based instruction was effective because the school prioritized the instruction of the
key standards. It is recommended that schools and school districts prioritize the
essential standards and make sure that they are taught by all teachers at every
school. Districts should adopt a new approach to standards-based instruction by
identifying key standards at each grade level and develop a strategic plan of
instruction that leads to in-depth teaching of key grade-level content.

120
Recommendations for Future Study
The findings of this study resulted in the following recommendations for
future study in the area of practices used at high-performing high-poverty urban
schools to improve academic performance by students of color:
1. This study focused on the organizational structures and systems used at
one particular school. It did not focus on district-wide structures and systems and
their impact on the use of effective classroom practices. It is recommended that
future studies be conducted to examine the impact of district-level organizational
structures and systems and their impact on school organizational structures and
systems.
2. It is recommended that researchers conduct a longitudinal study of a
cohort of students for 3 consecutive years at an elementary site and the first year at
a middle school site to determine whether effective classroom instruction at the
elementary school level leads to high student performance after 1 year of middle
school.
3. This study focused on high-performing high-poverty urban schools. The
challenges experienced by urban schools are well documented. However, rural
schools with large concentrations of students of color experience challenges as
well. It is recommended that the current study be replicated at a high-poverty high-
performing rural school with large concentrations of student of color to find the
commonalties between the schools’ approaches to improve student achievement.
4. Findings from this study revealed that African American students, a
numerically insignificant subgroup, were not progressing at the same rate as the
numerically significant subgroups. It is recommended that future research be
conducted to study what happens academically and instructionally to numerically

121
insignificant subgroups. It is recommended that the study address how numerically
insignificant subgroups are educated and what institutional practices and policies
are implemented to support their academic achievement.

122
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APPENDIX A

Administrator Interview Questions

1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe con-
tribute to your students’ high student performance.
o Has your school encountered any obstacles in maintaining these
practices and policies? If so, how did the school overcome them or
maintain them?
o Which are the three most effective things you have done over the last
3-5 years to improve student performance?
2. How do you create and maintain a climate in the school that engages all stu-
dents and respects cultural diversity?
3. Describe how expectations for meeting academic achievement goals are
made clear for teachers/students/parents?
a. How do you monitor student progress?
b. What assessment tools do you use?
4. How are the needs of students of color addressed in the School-wide Plan?
5. How would you describe effective teaching at your site?
a. In what ways do teachers differentiate instruction in order to meet
the needs of all students?
b. What is your role in helping teachers provide effective instruction?
6. Describe how your school uses data to guide instruction.
a. What evidence do you look for, besides assessment scores, that
demonstrate high student performance?
b. What is your role as a school leader in guiding the use of data to
improve the school climate and classroom instruction?
7. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how it impacts students of
color?
a. Does your discipline policy help students adopt behavior that
contributes to their learning?

130
APPENDIX B

Teacher Interview Questions

1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe con-
tribute to your high student performance.
• (Probe) Has your school encountered any obstacles in maintaining
these (practices and policies)? If so, how did the school overcome
them or maintain them?
• Which are the three most effective things you have done over the last
3-5 years to improve student performance
2. How do you create and maintain a climate in the school that engages all
students and respects cultural diversity? Does this “your” refer the person
individually or the generic “you” meaning the school? (I suggest changing
this to “What role do teachers play in maintaining a climate in the school
that engages all students and respects cultural diversity?)
3. Describe how expectations for meeting academic achievement goals are
made clear for teachers.
a. For students?
b. Parents
i. How do you monitor student progress?
ii. What assessment tools do you use?
4. How familiar are you with the School Plan?
a. How are the needs of students of color addressed in the School-
Wide Plan?
b. How have you modified your instructional practices to reflect the
school-wide plan for students of color?

131
5. How would you describe effective teaching at your site?
a. In what ways do teachers differentiate instruction in order to meet
the needs of all students?
i. You may want to add to this the probing questions “includ-
ing students of color” if the school is highly diverse.
6. Describe how your school uses data to guide instruction.
a. What evidence do you look for, besides assessment scores, that
demonstrate high student performance?
7. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how it impacts students?

132
APPENDIX C

Classified Interview Questions

1. Describe the practices and policies at your school site that you believe
contribute to the high student performance.
• Has your school encountered any obstacles in maintaining these and
(practices and policies)? If so, how did the school overcome them
or maintain them?
• Which are the three most effective things you (the school or the
person? have done over the last 3-5 years to improve student
performance?
2. How would you describe the school climate here?
a. In what ways does the school engage/involve all students and
respect cultural diversity.
b. What do you think your role is in contributing to the school climate?
3. What are the expectations for meeting academic achievement goals here?
a. Do you know how the students here are doing academically?
b. What indicators let you know how they are doing?
4. How are the needs of students of color being met at your school?
a. What is in place to support these students?
b. What is in place to support the staff?
5. How would you describe an effective teacher at your site?
6. How do you know when a teacher is doing a good job?
7. How do you see teachers and administrators using data?
a. Do you know when testing will occur?
b. How do the students react to testing?
c. How do teachers react?

133
d. Is it known throughout the school what is done with the data? How
is it made known?
8. Describe your school wide discipline policy and how it impact students?
a. What happens when a student breaks a rule or makes a bad choice?
b. Does the discipline policy help students engage in behavior that
contributes to their academic success?

134
APPENDIX D

Parent Interview Questions

1. What is the school doing to help all students succeed?

2. How would you describe the atmosphere at the school?

3. How do you know what your child needs to learn?
a. How does the school communicate that information to you?

4. How does the school address the needs of all sub-groups of students?

5. How do you describe a good or effective teacher?

6. What are some of the ways the school lets you know your child is doing?

7. Describe the school’s discipline policy.
a. How does it support the learning of all students?
b. Do you consider the discipline policies fair to all children? Can you
give an example of its fairness?

135
APPENDIX E

Classroom Observation Guide

Research Question # 1, 2, 3, and 4: Is there a range or variety of instructional
practices /strategies used? Are they appropriate for the content and students?
Examples of instructional practices/strategies?
• Cooperative grouping
• Use of time
• Differentiated instruction
• Feedback to students
• Culturally relevant and responsive

Research Question #2: What visuals, symbols and other items are posted in the
classroom?
Examples of items:
• School wide discipline policy
• Images of people of color
• Classroom library
• School vision

Research Question # 2: Physical Class Environment
Example of things to observe:
• Seating arrangement
• Teacher student interaction student
o Discipline
• Student work posted
o Feedback/rubric
o Standard based
• Student Engagement

136
APPENDIX F

Observation Protocol
Physical Setting: To allow readers to visualize the setting, the researcher will
record the following observations during each visit:
School grounds
• Wall postings
• Samples of students’ work
• School calendar for academic year
• Visual of school goals / mission / vision
• Symbolic representations (drug free zone, anti-violence, college
paraphernalia, culturally relevant items)
• Cleanliness (trashy, odor, graffiti, insects)
Classroom specific
• Wall postings
• Samples of students’ work
• Classroom calendar
• Classroom schedule
• Classroom rules or expectations
• Culturally relevant items
• Location of classroom (bungalow, main building, isolated, included)
• Cleanliness (trashy, odor, graffiti, insects)
• Classroom spacing (proximity of students’ desks to one another and
teacher)

137
Social Climate/Environment: During each visit, the researcher will record
elements of human interactions.
School-wide environment
• Adult-Adult and Adult-student interactions (use of greetings, use of names,
friendliness, smiles, affect)
• Group dynamics (how students organize themselves; by gender, ethnicity,
age)
Classroom climate
• Structure, order, rigidity of classroom environment; is teacher in control of
class, students out of their seats, loud talking, on task
• Group dynamics (how students organize themselves; by gender, ethnicity,
age, or teacher assignment)

138
APPENDIX G

Professional Development Observation Guiding
Research Questions 1, 2, 3, and 4

• Does collaboration occur during and after professional development?

• Is there engagement among the staff?

• What types of data are being used? How is data used?

• Is professional development is aligned to the vision?

• How are students discussed among teachers and other staff?

• Is the professional development geared toward teaching to standards
mastery or performance?

• Is the professional development practical and adaptable?

• Are the expectations clear for implementation of the professional
development?

• How are teachers held accountable for the professional development
provided?

• Is an evaluation tool used for the professional development?

139
APPENDIX H

Leadership Team Meeting
Questions for Reflections

To what extent was the meeting focused on the implementation of the school plan?

Does the leadership team analyze student achievement data in order to take
informed actions?

Did (or does) the leadership team discuss and plan for diversity-sensitive (culturally
relevant and responsive) learning environments?

How are the roles/work distributed among members of the leadership team?

Structure: Is the meeting for information or systems planning?

Is the meeting operational- or instructional-focused?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to identify the practices used at one high-performing high-poverty urban school serving large concentrations of students of color in order to understand how this school increased student achievement. The implementation of organizational structures and systems was studied to ascertain how they supported effective classroom instruction. The study also examined the leader s role in creating school-wide conditions that fostered optimal learning environments that promoted higher levels of student achievement. Four research questions guided this study: 1. What are the trends and patterns of performance among students of color? 2. What are the organizational structures and systems that are perceived to contribute to high student performance in high-poverty urban schools with large concentrations of students of color? 3. How are the perceived organizational systems and structures implemented to support school-wide effective classroom instruction that promotes student learning? 4. How is the construct of race reflected in the school s structures and systems?

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Asset Metadata

Creator Lawson, Kelly D. (author)

Core Title School-wide implementation of the elements of effective classroom instruction: lessons from high-performing high-poverty urban schools

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 05/25/2008

Defense Date 04/28/2008

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag best Iinstructional practices,Curriculum and Instruction,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Stowe, Kathy (committee chair), Picus, Lawrence (committee member), Rousseau, Sylvia G. (committee member)

Creator Email klawson@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m1293

Unique identifier UC199756

Identifier etd-Lawson-20080625 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-81479 (legacy record id),usctheses-m1293 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Lawson-20080625.pdf

Dmrecord 81479

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Lawson, Kelly D.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu