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Closing the achievement gap: successful practices at a middle school -- a case study

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Content CLOSING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP: SUCCESSFUL PRACTICES AT A MIDDLE SCHOOL—A CASE STUDY by Mark Cameron Brown ___________________________________________________ A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION May 2009 Copyright 2009 Mark Cameron Brown ii DEDICATION I am under no illusion that I could have accomplished this goal without the complete devotion and support of my family and I dedicate this manuscript and accomplishment to them. To Allison I cannot fully express the depth of my appreciation for your sacrifice during the past few years, picking up the slack while night after night I typed away on the computer, only to ask you to proof read and make suggestions about my work. Cameron, Austin, Zachary, and Bethany- you have served as my inspiration from the beginning. Thoughts of you kept me going when it at times it seemed like it was getting to be a bit too much. I hope that you are as proud of me as I am of each of you. To Grams and Pops. Your tremendous faith in me is truly amazing! Thank you for your constant encouragement and sometimes excessive bragging. That I grew up believing that I had the strength and ability to accomplish this goal is truly a reflection of the values and principles that you taught and modeled. To each of you, please know that I am eternally grateful for your unwavering support throughout this undertaking! Without your continual and considerable support, sacrifice, understanding and encouragement, I would not have been able to achieve this remarkable goal. I am tremendously fortunate to have such a wonderful family! iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Fundamental to the success of this effort was the support, encouragement, and guidance of many people. This dissertation is built on a solid foundation of work of many researchers, scholars, and practitioners in the field of education and I am grateful for their tireless work and dedication to improving our educational system. I would like to especially thank the individual members of my dissertation committee; Dr. Michael Escalante, Dr. Dennis Hocevar, and Dr. Kathy Stowe, for their exceptional guidance and support throughout this process. I have been truly enriched by the opportunity to work with each of you. To Dr. Stuart Gothold, who as my committee chair has been a beacon of understanding, encouragement and support, thank you for generously sharing your vast experience and expertise. To the many fine professors, and instructors that have helped pave the way to a better understanding of the critical issues facing education and the wealth of promising research-based practices I offer my deepest gratitude. To the many colleagues that I have shared this journey with over the past three years, I am proud to have had the opportunity to collaborate with you and to learn from your varied professional and personal experiences. You have inspired me to continue to grow and develop as an educational leader. And to Allison and Fran, for their exceptional proofreading, editing, and encouragement as I continually grappled with the most effective and efficient way to express my ideas and findings, I am forever grateful! iv I would be remiss if I also didn’t thank the nation’s public school system, and the many fine teachers I have had over the years for giving me a solid foundation of learning that has served me well throughout my life. In particular, Mr. Bill North at John Muir Junior High School, who somehow, someway impressed the importance of education on a distracted and underperforming rapscallion by demonstrating each day his commitment to his students and profession, and finally, for showing that being part of the educational system is the most noble of choices and that one person can have a significant impact. v TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION ………………………………………………………………… ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ……………………………………………………… iii LIST OF FIGURES ……………………………………………………………. vi ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………… vii CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW ……………………………………………….. 1 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ……………………….. 17 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ………………………. 58 CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS/ANALYSIS …………………………………. 84 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ……….. 133 GLOSSARY …………………………………………………………………… 145 REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………… 148 APPENDICES …………………………………………………………………. 153 vi LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1: Conceptual Model …………………………………………….. 73 FIGURE 2: API (Academic Performance Index) Growth Chart ………….. 91 FIGURE 3: Star Decile Rankings …………………………………………. 92 vii ABSTRACT Closing of the achievement gap continues to be one of the most vexing and daunting concerns for educators across the nation. Seemingly, in spite of the tremendous resources and effort targeted at this problem by policy makers, school districts, educational leaders, teachers, and parent and community groups, there remains a persistent disparity in academic performance between groups of students, particularly between white and/or Asian and affluent students and students of color, minority, poverty and second language learners. Through a combination of structured and focused leadership, high-quality instruction, high expectations, efficacy, and the effective use of data, Mid-Valley Intermediate School has experienced phenomenal success in promoting high-levels of student achievement in a traditionally underperforming population. Cultivating a strong instructional team, providing them with meaningful professional training, and promoting a school culture intently focused on academic excellence has helped Mid- Valley Intermediate experience extraordinary growth in student achievement over the past several years. 1 CHAPTER ONE OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY Introduction Why do certain groups of children achieve at higher levels than others? Why do these children do better in school than their counterparts? What causes this discrepancy in student achievement? What can the educational community do about it? These questions have perplexed and plagued educators in the nation’s schools for the past half century, and have been the impetus for countless laws, initiatives, programs, and actions. Student achievement and academic performance is an amazingly complex area of study influenced by a vast array of variables. Student health, environment, cultural and social capital, values, curriculum, teacher ability and attitudes, class size, etc., are all noted repeatedly by studies as having a significant effect on student achievement. Making sense of the available material and properly differentiating between hyperbole and actual data supported findings can be daunting for researchers. While a tremendous amount of rhetoric and resources have been directed by policy makers and members of the educational community toward fully understanding and addressing this issue, seemingly little progress has been made in the nation’s schools to help reduce and/or eliminate this ongoing discrepancy in achievement levels between various demographic groups. 2 Underscoring the importance of addressing this huge concern facing the educational community is the mandate under the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 that all schools eliminate the achievement gap for all students by the end of the 2013-2014 school year (NCLB, 2001). This mandate continues to generate great angst in states, school districts, and individual schools as the deadline for meeting these requirements looms large, particularly for schools challenged to meet the unique learning needs of many diverse groups. No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2001) has clearly left an indelible mark on the public school system in California. From increased accountability for districts and schools, to sanctions for schools who do not make adequate yearly progress, the many provisions, regulations, and requirements contained within the act, have changed the state’s educational system. “…to ensure that all children have a fair, equal, and significant opportunity to obtain a high-quality education and reach, at a minimum, proficiency on challenging state academic achievement standards and state academic assessments.” Title I: Sec. 1001. Statement of Purpose. Background for the Study NCLB shines a spotlight on longstanding inequities in the educational system that is manifest by achievement gaps between various subgroups in the nation’s schools (Darling-Hammond, 2007). This is particularly true in California where large gaps in achievement continue to exist between groups of students, particularly between white and/or Asian and affluent students, and students of color, minority, 3 poverty and second language learners. Suggested causes for the achievement gap are as wide ranging and complex as the gaps themselves. From socioeconomic status, peer pressure, parent involvement, teacher quality, inadequate school resources, television, test bias, and genetics to expectations, leadership, and curriculum, the list of causal factors is seemingly endless. While the list of causal factors is challenging, incorporating suggested reform measures, prescribed to help address this problem is important. However, these extensive curricular reforms, higher expectations and access, smaller classroom sizes, and imitation of successful schools are expensive strategies and can be equally demanding and draining on school districts, leadership, and school staff. California’s student population is extremely diverse, and the districts and schools throughout the state public education system must serve all students. Though challenging, it is of fundamental importance to promote the success of each student in the state. While every student in California is constitutionally guaranteed a free, basic education, the means to that end may not always look the same (EdSource). Attempting to unravel the complexities of student achievement and persistent gaps in academic achievement between various groups has proven to be daunting for even the most diligent educational researchers, academics, and practitioners. This highly publicized problem has been at the fore of educational discussions for decades, and while there has been much rhetoric, the fact remains that children from minority families consistently score below their peers in most measures of academic 4 achievement. The question that legislators, educators, and stakeholders continue to grapple with is how to develop meaningful and doable strategies to reduce and eventually eradicate the achievement gap. While the achievement gap has been defined as the difference in academic performance between various student groups, the difference between current student performance and the level of achievement needed to succeed in school and in life is also important. This dynamic is particularly relevant at the middle school level as those critical developmental years represent a major transitional time in the lives of children. The middle school years present a unique opportunity to dramatically build student efficacy through access to high-level instruction, and to provide the support crucial to future success. There are districts, and individual schools that are making significant progress in bridging the achievement gap and promoting higher levels of achievement in traditionally underperforming groups. Such schools warrant careful study to find out what they are doing so that other schools might emulate the characteristics of these schools in an effort to address this problem. This comprehensive case study carefully examined the programs, staffing, resources, professional development, curriculum, culture, leadership, and stakeholder groups, and their impact on student achievement at a school that has experienced success in reducing the disparity in achievement between student groups. 5 Statement of the Problem Most urban schools have not been successful in closing the achievement gap. The difficult nature of trying to address the many variables that contribute to student success constitutes a major contributing factor. With the benchmark requirements for achievement articulated in NCLB and subsequent deadlines, schools have focused tremendous resources and effort on raising test scores for all students. In spite of these efforts, there still remains a persistent disparity in academic performance between groups of students. Most studies suggest that the achievement gap stems from both home and school based factors. It is also shown in most research that the gap exists before students ever cross the school threshold, and this disadvantage can have a tremendous negative impact on their educational progress (EdSource). It is also noted in the literature that the educational system has not provided students the necessary tools and opportunities to assist all groups to succeed. While over the last four decades, much has been learned about the factors that contribute to the achievement gap, schools are only beginning to understand the strategies and conditions that can narrow this gap (EdSource). It seems reasonable that “business as usual” in our schools will produce results as usual. Thus, if different results are desired, then “business” in the school and classroom will, of necessity, have to be different (Hord, 1990). The challenge to legislators and educators is to quickly find solutions and efficiently move to 6 implement the changes needed to provide all students with a comprehensive and meaningful educational experience. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this qualitative case study was to carefully examine and analyze the programs, practices, and strategies at a school that has successfully closed the achievement gap and to identify factors that have contributed to its success. While there are many internal and external reasons for why students are not achieving academically, the focus for each of the case studies by the members of the thematic group was on identifying specific programs, practices, and strategies that each of the study schools has employed within its instructional program to promote academic achievement, particularly in underperforming groups. Middle grades sometimes do not generate the same degree of vigorous scrutiny or “press” as do other grade levels, but are absolutely critical in the intellectual, social, physical, and psychological development of young people. Students in the middle grades are developing the skills and attitudes that will affect their educational and career options, and their potential for future success. While much focus is on pre-school and early elementary education impact on achievement, the middle grades represent, for many students, the last opportunity to develop and hone the essential social and academic skills necessary to overcome barriers that may lead to failure. 7 Camblin (2003) notes that the middle grades have a critical impact on the postsecondary success of students because it is here that two factors collide. The middle grades are the intersection of students’ need to “get on track” for college and to determine what they will be like as adults. For white, middle, and upper income students, this collision most often results in a sudden focus on college opportunities. For other students, the collision is more challenging. The decisions made during this time have lifelong consequences about how these students engage with learning, and set their goals (Camblin, 2003). Understanding the critical role of the middle school on future success is essential to the development of programs and activities to meet the unique learning needs of students in the middle grades. Studying schools that have been able to address and/or overcome barriers to student success can greatly enhance our understanding of the nuances of improving performance of all student groups. Research Questions In defining our study, it was imperative to specify clear objectives that would provide focus for the development of pointed research questions, observational goals, survey questions, and supporting documents. Careful design of research questions was critical to guide our study and to ensure that particular areas and factors, inclusive of school-based and community-based variables, were clearly defined by the research questions. Questions agreed upon by the committee members included careful study of those variables that have been recognized as 8 having a significant impact on student achievement. The three main research questions that guided this study were: I. Which school wide programs promote student achievement and contribute to the closing of the achievement gap? II. Which school wide practices promote student achievement and contribute to the closing of the achievement gap? III. Which instructional strategies were implemented to target the closing of the achievement gap? Study Methodology To address the many school-based factors impacting student achievement levels, the members of the thematic group adopted a research methodology for examining a school that has continually “outperformed” state averages for traditionally underperforming student groups. A qualitative case study design was used to fully explore the promising programs, strategies, and practices at a middle school that has demonstrated success in ameliorating the performance gap between their student population and state averages. This comprehensive study included surveys, interviews and observations, and critical examination of records and documents. Significance of the Study A thorough examination of one school’s successes in addressing the disparity in achievement between various demographic groups can greatly enhance the available data on the achievement gap and provide practical information. While 9 many studies examine large educational systems, close scrutiny of a single school can provide “ground floor” understanding of the impact of the many factors that promote student success and can be extrapolated to other similar schools. This case study is one of nine such studies that were conducted by the members of the thematic group to ascertain those factors that have been recognized as having a marked impact on improving student achievement and helping to close the gap between various demographic groups. By carefully focusing on a school that has demonstrated success in addressing the myriad of variables and shown promise in building the achievement levels for all student groups, the strategies, programs, interventions, and relationships can be identified that can be applied to other schools to support higher levels of student success. Looking at factors found to have a direct impact on student achievement, such as expectations, teacher quality, access, challenging curriculum, and parent involvement, can help in assessing the quality of individual schools and providing intervention strategies. Utilizing a qualitative case study research methodology, this comprehensive case study carefully examined an outperforming middle school that has successfully reduced or eliminated academic performance gaps between various student demographic groups. These groups will be studied to determine what formal and informal nuances of the instructional program at the study school have been shown to be successful in helping these groups outperform the statewide averages. 10 Additionally, the study examined the programs, activities, culture, leadership, curriculum, and other aspects of the instructional program that have contributed to student academic gains, particularly in traditionally underperforming demographic groups. The results of this comprehensive study provide educational leaders and policymakers with “real world” data on the struggles and triumphs of a school that has demonstrated success in reversing a systemic problem in education. Use of the study findings enhances the available literature by providing concise data on how one school has overcome obstacles to help bridge the achievement gap at their school. Definition of Terms Many terms are used in the field of education that can complicate concise presentation and understanding of information on the complex issues facing public education. Whenever possible, this study attempted to present and break down such terminology into understandable language. However, a basic understanding of essential terms is necessary to fully understand the complexities of a comprehensive case study in the field of education. The following is a list of descriptive terms, acronyms, and names and their definitions as they were used in this study. 11 Definitions of Related Terms The first term, listed below, was defined by the thematic dissertation group: • Achievement Gap According to the University of Southern California’s thematic dissertation group, the achievement gap is the persistent disparity in academic performance between groups of students, particularly white and/or Asian and affluent students and students of color, minority, poverty and second language learners. The next set of terms, listed below, is defined per the California Department of Education Website: • API (Academic Performance Index) The Academic Performance Index is the cornerstone of California's Public Schools Accountability Act of 1999 (PSAA). The purpose of the API is to measure the academic performance and growth of schools. It is a numeric index (or scale) that ranges from a low of 200 to a high of 1000. A school's score on the API is an indicator of a school's performance level. The statewide API performance target for all schools is 800. A school's growth is measured by how well it is moving toward or past that goal (CDE Website). • AYP (Adequate Yearly Performance) The federal No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 requires that California determine whether or not each public school and local educational agency (LEA) is making Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP). (An LEA is a school district or county office of education.) AYP criteria encompass four areas: participation rate, percent proficient (also referred to as Annual Measurable Objectives or AMOs), API as an additional indicator for AYP, and graduation rate. Each of these four areas has specific requirements. Participation rate and percent proficient criteria must be met in both English- language arts (ELA) and in mathematics (CDE Website). • CST (California Standards Test) The California Standards Tests in English-language arts, mathematics, science, and history-social science are administered only to students in California public schools. Except for a writing component that is administered as part of the grade 4 and 7 English-language arts tests, all questions are multiple choice. These tests were developed specifically to assess students' performance on California's Academic Content Standards. The State Board of Education adopted these standards that specify what all 12 California children are expected to know and be able to do in each grade or course (CDE website). • ELL (English Language Learners) “English learner" is defined as an English learner or as a reclassified-fluent- English-proficient (RFEP) student who has not scored at the proficient level or above on the CST in ELA for three years after being reclassified (CDE website). • Growth Targets Schools must meet their annual school wide API growth target as well as API growth targets for each numerically significant ethnic/racial, socio- economically disadvantaged, English learner, and students with disabilities subgroup at the school. If the school's (or subgroup's) Base API is between 200 and 690, the growth target is 5 percent of the difference between the school's (or subgroup's) Base API and the statewide performance target of 800. If the school's (or subgroup's) Base API is between 691 and 795, the growth target is a gain of five points. If the school's (or subgroup's) Base API is between 796 and 799, the growth target is the following: API of 796 - a gain of four points API of 797 - a gain of three points API of 798 - a gain of two points API of 799 - a gain of one point If the school's (or subgroup's) Base API is 800 or more, the school (or subgroup) must maintain an API of at least 800(CDE Website). • SARC (School Accountability Report Card) In November 1988, California voters passed Prop.98, also known as The Classroom Instructional Improvement and Accountability Act. This ballot initiative provides California's public schools with a stable source of funding. In return, all public schools in California are required annually to prepare SARCs and disseminate them to the public. SARCs are intended to provide the public with important information about each public school and to communicate a school's progress in achieving its goals (CDE website). • SED (Socio-economic Disadvantaged) Socio-economically disadvantaged" is defined as a student whose parents both have not received a high school diploma OR a student who participates in the free or reduced-price lunch program (also known as the National School Lunch Program) (CDE Website). 13 • Similar Schools Ranking The similar schools rank compares a school to 100 other schools of the same type and similar demographic characteristics (CDE Website). The next term, is defined per the USDA governmental website. • National School Lunch Program The National School Lunch Program (NSLP) is a federally assisted meal program operating in public and nonprofit private schools and residential child care institutions. It provides nutritionally balanced, low-cost or free lunches to children each school day. The program was established under the National School Lunch Act, signed by President Harry Truman in 1946 (USDA.GOV Website). The last set of terms is defined by working knowledge and discussions of the thematic dissertation group based on our research. • Four Frames Bolman and Deal (2003) research focuses on the four frames or aspects/traits that a leader may or may not encompass: structural, human resource, symbolic or political. • High Performing School A school that is scoring above an 800 on the CST and 2 points or higher from “like” similar schools. Students perform in the upper deciles of the CST’s and the CAHSEE (California High School Exit Exam). • Outperforming School An outperforming school is a school that has outperformed in the upper deciles of similar schools for two or more years. Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations Study parameters provided a fundamental structure for the study that provided reliable, honest, and accurate information from the study school. Interview questions, observations, document examination, and survey questions were carefully 14 designed to provide insight into the programs and activities of the study school in a fair and unbiased manner. Assumptions It is assumed that the study school has provided accurate information and truthful responses to both written and oral questions. It is additionally assumed that all observations have been of typical programs and activities at the school site and not orchestrated events to either present a fictitious picture of the school or to prevent the accurate portrayal of the school. Limitations As the study was conducted at a single middle school, limited data collection may be considered a study limitation. The small sample size represented by the single school research design may also pose difficulties when making observational commentary about particular aspects of the study. Duration of the observations at the school site, constrained by schedules and availability, may have contributed to a partially obstructed view of some school programs and events. Not having first- hand data on certain factors inherent in promoting student achievement at the study school may also be considered as a limitation for this case study. 15 Delimitations Subjectivity of the study (perceptions of programs, practices, and strategies by the researcher) may have additionally been a factor in the establishment of reliability and validity for the study. And, finally, researchers need to be cognizant of any source of bias that may occur during the study. Addressing these and other possible study limitations was imperative to ameliorating the possibility of contaminating the reliability of gathered data. Organization of the Study Chapters 1-5 are organized around a central theme in adherence to dissertation guidelines as adopted by the University of Southern California. Chapter one provides a description of the problem that most urban schools have not been successful in closing the achievement gap and outlines the significance and the purpose of the study conducted aimed at focusing on successful schools that have closed or decreased the achievement gap. Chapter two focuses on the review of the current literature on the achievement gap. The review outlines definitions of the achievement gap, historical perspectives and national reform efforts, variables that contribute to the achievement gap, and the practices schools have implemented to make strides in reducing or eliminating the gap for minority students and low socioeconomic students across the nation. 16 Chapter three discusses the methodology and the research design used in the case study directed at practices and program schools implemented to promote student achievement. This chapter additionally discusses the problem statement, purpose of the study, research questions, and conceptual model used for the study. This chapter also provides data on the sample and population for the study, data collection procedures, and ethical considerations inherent in a case study. Chapter four provides a comprehensive description of the study school, inclusive of background information on the location, neighborhood, and local community. This section also provides a physical description of the plant, staffing, and student population. A complete presentation of the findings and conclusion of the case study, inclusive of transcriptions of interview responses, survey results, observational data, and relevant material gathered during the study are included in this chapter. Chapter five presents findings in response to the developed research questions and any additional pertinent information relevant to this study. This chapter additionally provides connective information from the study findings to the literature base in addition to a discussion of the study research design, influences, and interpretive remarks on study findings. A summary of conclusive findings and implications for future studies is presented at the end of this section. 17 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction For the past half-century, federal and state government officials, local communities, school districts, educational institutions, and individual educators throughout the nation have struggled with the ongoing disparity in academic achievement between various demographic groups. Most studies define this achievement gap as a persistent disparity in academic performance (proficiency) between groups of students; particularly between white or Asian and affluent students, and minority, poverty and second language learners. Anderson (2007) furthers this definition of the achievement gap and offers that the gap is most often defined in relation to the differences in scores on state or national achievement tests between various student demographic groups. It is also important to note that the achievement gap is not a manifestation due to differences in innate ability between various racial or socioeconomic groups, but is a result of many different causal factors. Careful examination of related literature can provide a substantive base for ascertaining if, and to what degree, school-related and home/community related factors including parental involvement, curriculum, culture, teacher quality, leadership, and teacher/parent/student, expectations, impact academic achievement. 18 Study of current literature can additionally help identify which factors figure significantly in the reduction of the ongoing achievement gap between minority and disadvantaged students and their affluent, white, and Asian peers in the nation’s schools. The review of literature on the achievement gap will present a thoughtful and careful examination of recent and relevant literature to detect and note trends in research, studies, and discussions, which can enhance understanding of this critical issue facing legislators, families, and the educational community. A thorough examination of these literary resources can provide a baseline for further study in this critical area. The first section of the literature review (Section I) focuses on providing a clear historical perspective and background information to support the basis for further study. Section II of the literature review identifies causal factors reflected in current research findings, and areas of critical interest in the study of the achievement gap. In Section III of the review, factors that have been consistently identified in the literature as having shown a significant impact on improving student achievement outcomes are reviewed. These factors, including high-quality curriculum, teacher quality, and parent involvement are critically assessed to clarify areas in which there is substantial agreement within studies as to their effectiveness in addressing the issue of improving student achievement. Section IV of the review consists of a synopsis of the information gained in the study of the available literature and provides a succinct summary of pertinent and/or significant findings. 19 The final section of the review (Section V) presents a rationale for further study of student achievement and addressing the gaps between various demographic groups in achievement gains and provides a basis for developing parameters for the study to be conducted. Section V also delineates the projected value and expected contribution of this study to the available literature base. Section I-Background Introduction A tremendous amount of research has been focused on the issue of student achievement and the continuing gap between various demographic groups. Examining major changes, legislation, and social dynamics over the past 50 years can help identify many historical factors that have played a dramatic role in defining the modern educational system in the U.S. This section will reflect on societal changes, causal factors, and legislation that have had a direct and significant impact on the educational system in the nation. WWII The end of WWII signaled the beginning of major alterations to the landscape of public education in the country. Many of these changes have had a significant impact on access and educational opportunities for many minorities and disadvantaged children (Harris & Herrington, 2006). Harris (2006) notes that changes from improved access to educational services to greater national focus on 20 the issues facing students from varied backgrounds, have contributed to this profound impact on the educational system in the U.S. Following the war, many minority soldiers returned from service and took advantage of the G.I. Bill to complete their education. Most of these individuals were the first in their families to complete school and in doing so, created a much higher expectation for career and educational achievement for themselves and their children (Harris, et al. 2006). This led to greater pressures on government and local school districts to provide a wider range of educational opportunities for minorities. Increased access to resources and academic content that had traditionally only been available to white students represented a substantial shift in the representation of minority students in the educational system (Harris, et al. 2006). Brown vs. Board of Education One of the most significant historical actions impacting public education in the past century, the Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954 helped usher in an era of desegregation in American schools (Harris, et al. 2006). The Supreme Court’s action improved access to K-12 education for minority students. Harris (2006) notes that desegregation, which was brought about by the Brown v. Board of Education decision, was pivotal in presenting better educational opportunities and access to better schools and teachers for minority children. 21 The Brown decision has been heralded by many as a monumental action to increase access and equity in the nation’s schools for minority children, while others perceive this landmark decision and subsequent social pressures and reforms during the 1960’s and 1970’s as contributing to the “watering down” of the nation’s schools, and diminishing the ability of the nation’s students to compete in the global arena. Some felt the nation’s response to these reform measures was to reduce curricular requirements, which led to less rigorous standards, thus lessening the competitiveness of the nation’s educational system and standing in the world (Harris et al., 2006). The Coleman Report The Equality of Educational Opportunity report was to provide support for the notion that schools in minority and poor areas were less able to succeed because their schools lacked necessary resources, and to articulate causal factors associated with the poor performance of minority and disadvantaged children. Released on July 4, 1966, the report was intended to document what most assumed to be true: poor and minority children performed poorly in school because their schools lacked resources (Gamoran, A., Borman, G., 2006). Prior to the Coleman report, equal opportunity was conceived as similar levels of inputs to schooling. The Coleman report recognized this view and attended to it by examining school differences in expenditures, laboratories, libraries, and so on, as well as racial composition, which—following the Supreme Court’s declaration 22 that “separate educational facilities are inherently unequal” (Brown v. Board of Education, 1954)—was also viewed as school input (Gamoran, et.al., 2006). Instead, the Coleman report (as it became known) found that most schools had similar resources and that the discrepancy was not nearly as pronounced as thought (Gamoran, et.al. 2006). The Coleman report also found that the impact of school resources on student achievement was modest compared to the impact of students’ family backgrounds. The results of the Coleman report clearly show that school resources, while important in promoting student success, are not as influential in promoting high levels of student achievement as are other factors, such as in parent involvement and family background. The findings of the Coleman report clearly demonstrated that variation between schools in their resource levels mattered little for variation among individual students, a result that remains the seminal finding in the sociology of education in the United States (Gamoran, et.al., 2006). Following the dramatic changes in public education that followed such landmark decisions as Brown v. Board of Education, and the Equality of Educational Opportunity report, schools in the nation began to create policies and adopt various strategies for addressing student achievement concerns in various demographic groups. During the 1970’s and early 1980’s, lower SAT scores and the widespread belief that the nation’s schools had lowered expectations and performance standards as they moved away from rigorous academic content standards caused policy makers and educational leaders to re-examine practices and educational programs in an attempt to address these publicized concerns (Harris, et al., 2006). 23 A Nation At Risk “During this time period, in the eyes of many, was the feeling that equity was being achieved by watering down the standards for all, rather than by raising the bar” (Harris, et al., 2006). This widely held belief that the nation’s schools were on the decline was articulated in the National Commission on Excellence in Education Report, A Nation at Risk (NAR) in 1983, which asserted that the school system had surrendered to social pressures. The A Nation at Risk report gave voice to the many that felt the nation’s public schools were failing to provide the high quality educational experience necessary to help students succeed in the global marketplace. The report presented the assumption that due to the social permissiveness and efforts to make education “friendlier” to students who may have dropped out in a more rigorous and challenging environment during the 1970’s and early 1980’s, the nation’s schools no longer held their prominence in the world. NAR added that these efforts had allowed the “once unchallenged preeminence in commerce, industry, science, and technological innovation, to be overtaken by competitors throughout the world.” A Nation at Risk prompted a major public outcry for greater rigor and higher expectations in the nation’s schools and caused policy makers to enact several changes during the late 1980’s and 1990’s. Following the uproar created by A Nation at Risk, the nation’s schools made a concerted effort to bolster the educational system by implementing increased standards and enacting stronger curricular demands. The 1980’s were particularly characterized by efforts to impose greater standards on academic achievement, such 24 as stricter course requirements for graduation. Throughout the 1990’s, reform measures designed to ensure greater performance in the nation’s schools, added high-stake testing and accountability. These measures established criteria for even more stringent measures for assessing student outcomes and greater consequences for low performance in schools (Harris et al., 2006). These policy changes had a significant impact on achievement levels and the gaps between minority and disadvantaged students and their white, Asian, and affluent peers. Most studies show that achievement gaps between minority and white students actually narrowed somewhat in the 1970’s and 1980’s. Between 1971 and 1988, the white-African American gap in performance for 13-year-olds on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP, 2005) reading test shrank by 22 points on a 500-point scale, or the equivalent of two grade levels. The gap in mathematics narrowed by a similar amount between 1973 and 1986. (NAEP, 2005) In both cases, this occurred because African American performance rose while white performance remained stable. During that same period, the performance of African American and Latino youngsters improved dramatically. Indeed, the gap between white and African American students was cut in half; the gap between whites and Latinos declined by one-third. (Haycock, 2002) However, beginning in the late 1980’s, progress in closing the gaps stalled. Throughout the 1990s, in some subjects and at some grade levels, the gaps started growing again; in others, they were simply stagnant. (Haycock, 2002) 25 These changes reached a plateau during the mid-to-late 1990’s and prompted school ‘accountability’ reforms, adding new measures of outcomes and criteria for assessing district, school, and student achievement. These reforms came with both increased performance expectations for schools, and direct consequences for low performing schools. (Harris, et al. 2006) No Child Left Behind Many educational reform measures during the past several years have been prompted by The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 which is quite possibly one of the most influential and extensive legislative acts in the past decade on public education. The impact of NCLB on districts and schools throughout the nation has been enormous. Hall (2005) posits that while the No Child Left Behind Act represents a renewed national commitment to raising achievement and narrowing the existing gaps between various groups, in many states progress has been inconsistent and, in some cases, progress has yet to be made in addressing this crucial issue. Darling-Hammond (2007) suggests that, fifty years after Brown v. Board of Education, gaps in educational achievement between white and non-Asian “minority” students continue to be large, and the differences in access to educational opportunities are growing. Although achievement gaps remain large, and access continues to plague policymakers and schools, the policy decisions, social movements, and educational reform measures of the past 50 years, culminating with No Child Left Behind have fundamentally altered the landscape of public education 26 and redefined what it means to be successful in school, focusing not only on average standardized test scores, but also on a school’s ability to improve achievement in all demographic groups. (Haycock et al., 2002) Section II-Causal Factors Student achievement and academic performance is an amazingly complex area of study influenced by a vast array of variables. Student health, environment, cultural and social capital, values, curriculum, teacher ability and attitudes, class size, etc., are all noted repeatedly by studies as having a significant effect on student achievement. Making sense of the available material, and properly differentiating between hyperbole and actual data supported findings can be daunting for researchers. It is clear that there are numerous factors that affect student achievement. This study focused on several factors that have been continually recognized for having a major influence on either promoting high-levels of student achievement levels or contributing to exacerbating the gap between various demographic groups. Principle areas of focus in this section include both school-based factors; including curriculum/expectations, school leadership and culture, quality teaching, as well as, home/community-based factors such as parent involvement, and home culture/attitudes/expectations. Studying both internal (School) and external (Home/Community) criteria for improving student achievement is critical to understanding efforts to mitigate the gap 27 between demographic groups. (Anderson, Medrich, & Fowler, 2007) This section additionally examine statistical data on the current achievement gap and explored both school-based and home/community-based factors that have been shown to have a direct impact on student achievement and play an important role in the manifestation of learning gaps between various segments of the student population. Successfully addressing the gap in achievement between minority and disadvantaged students and affluent white and Asian students continues to challenge schools across the nation. Close examination of national statistics can provide a basis for identifying trends in achievement levels and provide information on areas where students continue to under-perform. Manifestations (Statistics) Achievement levels and performance has improved overall in almost all demographic groups over the past 35 years. In 2004, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) report suggested that long-term data have shown improvements in several areas. Reading scores improved from 1971 through 1999, but have reached a plateau for the past several years, showing no measurable changes. Data from the NAEP (2005) found that mathematics proficiency rates varied in the nation’s schools, but 68% of eighth-grade students performed at or above the basic level, and 29% performed at or above proficient level. 28 While gains have been made across the board by most demographic groups improving in overall scores between 1971 and 1994, significant achievement gaps continue to exist between racial/ethnic subgroups throughout the nation’s schools. Many studies support the presence of a significant skill gap between minority and white children even before they enter the school system. According to the NAEP, these learning gaps develop early, and that, by the time students enter kindergarten, the black-white gap is already well established. (Rothman, 2001) Of additional concern is that, by the end of grade four, African American, Latino and poor students of all races are already about two years behind other students. Examining a number of studies, Meredith Phillips of the University of California at Los Angeles and her colleagues found that the average African American child enters school with substantially lower mathematics, reading, and vocabulary skills than the average white child. The researchers conclude that half or more of the black-white test score gap could be eliminated at the end of twelfth grade by eliminating the differences that exist before children enter school in the first place (Rothman, 2001). NAEP (2005) also reports that by the time students reach grade eight, African American, Latino, and poor students are about three years behind other students. An average African American or Hispanic elementary, middle, or high school student currently achieves at about the same level as the lowest quartile of white students. For example, in reading in 2002 the average African American or Hispanic 17-year-old was at the same level as white 13-year-olds (Darling-Hammond, 2007). 29 At age 17, for example, reading achievement among African Americans and Latinos climbed substantially through the 1970’s and 1980’s, but gaps separating them from other students widened somewhat during the 1990s (Haycock, 2002). According to recent studies, only 1 in 50 Latinos and 1 in 100 African American 17- year-olds can read and gain information from specialized text— something like the science section in the newspaper— compared to about 1 in 12 whites. Less than one-quarter of Latinos and one-fifth of African Americans can read the complicated, but less specialized, text that more than half of white students can read (Haycock, 2002). Additional gaps have been identified in mathematics. About 1 in 30 Latinos and 1 in 100 African Americans can comfortably do multi-step problem solving and elementary algebra, compared to 1 in 10 white students. At age 13, the patterns in mathematics achievement look very similar, with the black/white gap reaching its narrowest in 1990, and the Latino/white gap narrowing until 1992. Both gaps widened somewhat thereafter (Haycock, 2002). At a more basic level, only 3 in 10 African American and 4 in 10 Latino 17 year-olds have mastered the usage and computation of fractions, commonly used percents, and averages, compared with 7 in 10 white students. Near the end of high school, in fact, African American and Latino students have skills in both reading and mathematics that are virtually the same as those of white students in 8th grade (Haycock, 2002). 30 Nationally, the dropout rate has declined between 1977 and 2005 from 14% to 9%. While the national level of individuals not completing high-school has declined over the past several decades, the difference in graduation rates between minority and disadvantaged students and their white, Asian, and affluent counterparts continues to be great. Darling-Hammond (2007) states that California children are dropping out of school in increasing numbers with recent statistics showing the graduation rates in the state declining to about 67% in 2006. National figures (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2004) show that ninety percent of whites and ninety-four percent of Asians complete high school or earn a GED while eighty-one percent of African Americans and sixty-three percent of Latinos earn a high school diploma or GED. Dropout rates for disadvantaged and minority students continue to be well above those for white, Asian and affluent children. According to the NAEP (2005), African American and Hispanic youths are much more likely than white youths to drop out of school. In 2000, the dropout rate for Hispanic students between the ages of 16 and 24 was 28 percent, compared with a rate of 7 percent for white students. Among African Americans, the dropout rate was 13 percent. In recent years, dropout rates for African American students have increased from about 13% to 15% (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2004). Darling- Hammond (2007) suggests that these alarming numbers are attributable to inadequate access to the kinds of teachers and other resources that could enable young people to gain the skills to become gainfully employed. 31 School Related Factors Given the propensity of many policy makers and educational institutions to gauge achievement gaps primarily as differences in scores on state or national achievement tests between various student demographic groups, school-related factors receive a tremendous amount of scrutiny in the quest to find solutions to this vexing concern. Careful examination of school factors proven to have a significant impact on student achievement can greatly enhance understanding the problem. This section examined several school factors, including curriculum/expectations, school culture/leadership, and teacher qualities that have been identified as having a profound impact on the academic achievement of students. Unequal Access/Low Expectations Vigorous and challenging curriculum standards and high-expectations are essential to promote high levels of student achievement. In many schools, however, unequal access to high-level courses and a challenging curriculum explains another substantial component of the difference in achievement between minority students and white students (Darling-Hammond, 2007). It is critical that states set standards for proficiency that are both uniform and challenging. Hall (2005) reflects that in many states, standards have been set too low to assure post-secondary success. Testing achievement standards in many states have been set too low to assure that students will be able to meet the challenges of college entry standards and the demands of the global marketplace (Achieve, Inc.). 32 Hall (2005) additionally notes that it is imperative that standards be set appropriately, and that setting achievement goals that are not challenging will ultimately stunt the academic growth of students. In addition to setting high academic standards and challenging curriculum, educators need to promote high-expectations for success for all students. In many instances, low-expectations have been set for certain students, and these low expectations can have a dramatic negative impact on achievement. President Bush has cited the "soft bigotry of low expectations" as one of the most destructive barriers to high achievement. The achievement gap, as educators have found, is a complex problem that will require actions on a number of fronts to solve. Yet one of the most crucial is ensuring that everyone expects all children to achieve at high levels (Haycock, 2002). Access to high-level curriculum is problematic for many students in the nation’s schools, particularly for minority and disadvantaged students. While research makes it very clear that all students will gain from being in a rigorous, college preparatory curriculum, disproportionate numbers of minority and poor students among them—continue to be relegated to the general or vocational track (Haycock, 2002). Another source of inequality mentioned as reflective of the disparity of opportunity for disadvantaged or minority students is the fact that high-minority schools are much less likely to offer advanced and college preparatory courses than 33 schools that serve affluent and largely white student populations (Oakes, 1990, 2004 cited in Darling-Hammond, 2007). Leadership/Culture “A school’s culture has far more influence on life and learning in the school than the President of the country, the state department of education, the superintendent, the school board, or even the principal, teachers, and parents can ever have” (Sparks, 2003). LaRocque (2007) adds that the school principal is the driving force behind increased student achievement (Blasé and Kirby 2000; Cotton, 2003 cited in LaRocque, 2007). Without strong, focused, and knowledgeable leadership, the potential for success in addressing the issues of improvement are greatly diminished. Ineffectual leadership and/or leaders can bring improvement efforts and innovation in a district or at a school to a halt or greatly reduce momentum of creative new programs, practices, and strategies. This would have a detrimental impact on student achievement levels. Many studies support these findings and emphasize the critical importance of effective and innovative leadership in creating and maintaining a positive, productive school environment focused on student achievement. Strong leadership is additionally a key factor in promoting effective instruction, parent involvement, school safety, and resource management. While study after study lauds the importance of strong leadership in setting a tone of high expectations and student-centered learning communities, establishing 34 and maintaining a school culture conducive to promoting high-levels of student achievement is dependent upon recruiting, training, supporting, and keeping highly skilled teachers at the school and including them in the operation and decision making process. Elmore (2003) notes that improving instructional programs requires that people with multiple sources of expertise work in concert on a common problem. Poor or ineffectual leadership resulting in teacher dissatisfaction, attrition, and turnover can be devastating on the effectiveness of instructional programs at a school. Low Teacher Quality (Skills/Efficacy/Attitude) Teachers’ attitudes and beliefs play a significant role in defining the culture of a school. Hoy (2004) asserts that, “Beliefs matter. Self efficacy is a powerful belief, and teachers can make a difference for their students and themselves through self-efficacy.” The term “teacher perspective” has been developed to define the beliefs and ideas of teachers about what are felt to be the essential features of education, including a reflective, socially defined interpretation of experience, a combination of beliefs, intentions, interpretations, and behavior. These attitudes contribute to the overall “tone” of the school and play a dramatic role in promoting either positive or negative outcomes at a school. The collective efficacy of the teaching staff has far reaching implications for defining the culture of a school and the quality of instructional programs. Teachers’ attitudes at a school, additionally, 35 have a tremendous impact on student achievement promoting high-levels of expectation and positive outcomes, or deflating efforts to build and sustain a positive and productive educational environment (Pajares, 1992). Wayne (2003) notes that issues related to teacher supply have captured national attention as a result of concerns about the aging of the teacher force and the need for new teachers. It is clear that stability, leadership, and continuity are paramount in establishing a stable and positive school culture focused on student achievement. Teacher turnover, attrition, poor leadership, and low-expectations all contribute to lower levels of student achievement, parent involvement, depletion of resources, and a much lower quality of educational experience for students. While some studies focus on teacher quantity and attrition, asking how many leave the profession annually, and how many we will need to fill the gaps, a much greater issue is the issue of quality, and developing highly-qualified teachers to take over these positions and move our student population forward (Wayne & Youngs, 2003). The issue of teacher quality is almost universally recognized as one of the most significant school-based factor contributing to achievement. When a student is exposed repeatedly to an under-qualified or ineffective teacher, it can have devastating long-term consequences. This reality is continually reaffirmed and supported in studies which suggest that exposure to successive years of poorly trained and qualified teachers, especially at the formative educational stages, has a significant long-term detrimental impact on achievement. It is clear that no other 36 aspect of the educational experience of children is as important as the teacher in the classroom. (Haycock, 2002) Recruitment, training, and assignment of quality teachers to foster student success are at the top of most lists in ways that school systems can improve student achievement. Rothman (2001) suggests that there is widespread agreement that the knowledge and skills of teachers have been shown to make a huge difference in student achievement. Wayne (2003) notes that significant bodies of study clearly underscore the importance to student achievement for students to have highly-qualified and effective teachers. However, many minority and disadvantaged students continue to be served by lower quality and/or less experienced teachers. Study after study suggests that exposure to poorly qualified teachers has a significant negative impact on student achievement, and many students in lower socio-economic areas continue to be plagued by such teachers (Haycock, 2002; Darling Hammond, 2007). In many cities, increasing numbers of unqualified teachers have been hired since the late 1980s, when teacher demand began to increase while resources were declining. In 1990, the Los Angeles Unified School District was sued by students in predominantly minority schools because their schools were not only overcrowded and less well funded than other schools, but were also disproportionately staffed by inexperienced and unprepared teachers hired on emergency credentials (Rodriquez et al. v. Los Angeles Unified School District cited in Darling-Hammond, 2007). Quality teaching is comprised of many factors. Educational background, pre- service training, beliefs and attitudes, on-going professional development, a 37 command of the curriculum, and the nuances of managing a classroom are all essential components of good teaching. While there are many causal factors that influence student achievement, differences in teacher qualification, training, and attrition/retention play a dramatic role in student achievement (Harris et al., 2006). Understanding the criteria for what makes an “effective teacher” can greatly enhance the ability of a school to recruit, train, and keep high quality teachers. While there are many facets to excellent teaching, including educational background, credentialing, subject matter knowledge, attitude, efficacy, and the ability to connect with students, two components are continually recognized in the literature as having a major impact on a teacher’s ability to provide students with high levels of instruction. The two areas that will be the focus of this review are the areas of skills and knowledge and attitude/efficacy, both which have been shown to play a crucial role in student achievement. Study after study notes that teacher quality has a dramatic impact on student achievement. NCLB emphasizes the need to have highly-qualified teachers in every classroom. Resources are expended and tremendous effort is made “across the board” to put a high-quality, knowledgeable, and effective teacher in every classroom. It is abundantly clear that teachers who lack preparation in either subject matter content or teaching methodologies are significantly less effective in producing student learning gains than those who are fully prepared and certified (Darling- Hammond, 2007). 38 However, students in high-poverty schools continue to be much more likely than other students to be taught by teachers without even a minor in the subjects they are teaching (Haycock, 2002). Rothman (2001) notes that a recent California study found that poor students are five times more likely than others to be taught by teachers who lack full credentials. These differences are often even greater in predominantly minority high schools. In math and science, for example, only about half of the teachers in schools with 90 percent or greater minority enrollments even meet their state’s minimum teaching requirements (Haycock, 2002). Finding and keeping high-quality teachers is becoming increasingly difficult for schools. Teacher dissatisfaction, attrition, and turnover are at all time high levels across the nation, particularly in minority and poor schools. The prevalent assumption is that teachers learn most of what they need to know about how to teach before they enter the classroom, despite massive evidence to the contrary (Elmore, 2003). According to Elmore (2003) most of what they learn after they begin teaching falls into the amorphous category of “experience,” which usually means lowering their expectations for what they can accomplish with students and learning to adjust to an organization that is either hostile to or unsupportive of their work. Haycock (2001) asserts that if students are going to be held to high standards, they need teachers who know the subjects and know how to teach the subject matter. However, many minority and disadvantaged students continue to be taught by 39 teachers who do not have particularly strong backgrounds in the content areas that they teach. By every measure of qualifications-certification, subject matter background, pedagogical training, selectivity of college attended, test scores, or experience-less qualified teachers are found in schools serving greater numbers of low-income and minority students (Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2002; NCES, 1997; cited in Darling-Hammond, 2007, Haycock, 2002). A recent study in Tennessee on the impact of teacher quality notes that the least effective teachers produce gains of about 14 percentile points during the school year. By contrast, the most effective teacher posted gains among low-achieving students that averaged 53 percentile points (Haycock, 1998). Furthermore, there is evidence that the impact of being exposed to poor teachers is long-lived. In a Tennessee study, the performance of fifth-grade students was still affected by the quality of their third-grade teacher (Haycock, 1998). Students whose initial achievement levels were comparable had “vastly different” academic outcomes as a result of the sequence of teachers to whom they had been assigned (Haycock, 1998). Despite the importance of teacher quality, students in high-poverty schools continue to be taught by teachers lacking certification in his or her field or having a great deal less experience far more often than students at more affluent schools (Haycock, 2002; Rothman, 2001). Many studies emphasize the point that teachers’ expectations have a dramatic impact on the achievement of students. Accordingly, low teacher expectations for 40 some students based on race or SES will result in a self-fulfilling prophecy, and will contribute to fostering the continuation of gaps between groups of students. Understanding the belief structures of teachers and teacher candidates is essential to improving their professional preparation and teaching practices (cited in Pajares, 1992). Eccles & Wigfield (2002) conclude that, by focusing on individuals’ beliefs, values, and goals, motivation researchers have learned much about the reasons why individuals choose to engage or disengage in different activities and how individuals’ beliefs, values, and goals relate to their achievement behaviors. All teachers hold beliefs, however defined and labeled, about their work, their students, their subject matter, and their roles and responsibilities (Pajares, 1992). Hoy (2004) suggests that when the sense of efficacy in a given area is high, higher goals are established, there is less fear of failure, and individuals are more resilient in finding new strategies when old ones fail. If the sense of efficacy is low, individuals may avoid a task altogether or give up easily when problems arise. Pajares (1992) suggests that teachers’ individual belief structures include: feelings of confidence, or lack thereof, in their ability to affect students’ performance (teacher efficacy), their understanding the nature of knowledge (epistemological beliefs), knowledge and perceptions of self and feelings of self-worth (self-concept, self-esteem), and about confidence to perform specific tasks (self-efficacy). Understanding the impact of teachers’ feelings of efficacy on classroom management, lesson planning and instruction is imperative to examining the 41 influence a teacher’s attitudes, beliefs, and efficacy has on the instructional process and student achievement. Hoy (2004) suggests that teachers’ motivation and learning are affected both by their own sense of efficacy and the collective efficacy of teachers in the school. These self-efficacy beliefs are strong predictors of behavior. Self-efficacy influences motivation through the choices we make and the goals we set (Hoy 2004). In his self-efficacy theory, Bandura (1997) distinguished between two kinds of expectancies for success. Bandura (1997) identified what he considered outcome expectation, which is the belief that certain behaviors will lead to certain outcomes, and efficacy expectation, which is a person’s belief about whether he can effectively perform the behaviors necessary to produce the desired outcome. Eccles et al. (2002) notes that these expectancies greatly influence beliefs about how one will do on different tasks or activities. Examining self-worth theory, which is defined as the tendency to establish and maintain a positive self-image is critical to understanding motivational factors. Students and their teachers need to believe that they are qualified and competent to achieve expected outcomes (Eccles, et al. 2002). Self-efficacy, a belief in one’s capability to execute the actions necessary to achieve a certain level of performance is an important influence on behavior and effect, relating to an individual’s goal setting, effort expenditure, and level of persistence (Bandura, 1977, 1989, & 1993 cited in Deemer & Minke, 1999). These 42 factors that play a significant role in building and sustaining high levels of confidence to promote high achievement levels. It has been shown repeatedly that teachers’ expectations for their students dramatically affect student performance. When teachers believe that they are teaching a highly capable group of students, the students perform as such. When teachers believe they have a less capable class, the students’ performance matches those lowered expectations. Maintaining high expectations for success can greatly enhance achievement. Holding preconceived low-expectations for a student can have a disastrous impact on a student’s self esteem and academic achievement. It is imperative that teachers are aware just how much an effect their expectations about students can have on students’ abilities and performance. It is recognized in a myriad of studies on achievement that if a teacher expects that a student will perform well, the student will more than likely perform to that expectation. However, if the expectations are low for that student, s/he will meet those expectations. Most research studies clearly reflect on the dynamic of the impact of expectations on achievement. Many students have fallen prey to teachers who hold low-expectations for their success. These students do not succeed because teachers do not expect them to succeed. It is also clear that these low expectations, in turn, may convince some of these students not to try hard in school, and as a result, they perform less well and have a significantly higher probability of dropping out (Rothman, 2001). 43 Distribution and assignment of the best/most-qualified teachers into areas of greatest need is key to reversing this ongoing dilemma. Access to highly qualified teachers has a significant impact on achievement levels (Haycock, 2001). The fact remains that in many high-poverty and/or minority schools, the quality of teaching is substantially below that found in more affluent areas (Haycock, 2001). Haycock (1998) notes that while the teaching force in high-poverty and high- minority communities certainly includes some of the most dedicated and talented teachers in the country, the truth is that these teachers are vastly outnumbered by under-prepared, unqualified colleagues. Teacher dissatisfaction and attrition rates continue to be an area of major concern in districts and schools throughout the state and continue to have a dramatic impact on the quality of instruction available for students in many areas. Every school day, nearly a thousand teachers leave the field of teaching, and another thousand change schools, many in pursuit of better working conditions (Shockley, Guglielmino, & Watington, 2005). While it is clear that the problem of teacher retention is much more dramatic in poor and minority schools where the rate of attrition is roughly 50% higher than in wealthier ones, it remains a critical issue facing schools across the nation and in California (National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future 2003 cited in Shockley, et al. 2005). Shockley (2005) notes the large numbers of teachers leaving schools is sapping the ability of educational institutions to provide quality educational opportunities for students. In an effort to address this troubling dilemma, districts 44 are looking toward a number of incentive programs that have been put in place to encourage individuals to teach in low-performing schools and to help districts recruit qualified teachers in an effort to reverse this trend. Home/Community Factors Quite possibly the most significant factor affecting student achievement, particularly at the elementary and middle school levels, is the home environment and parental involvement (Marzano, 2003). Dysfunctional home environments, low parental expectations, ineffective parenting, language differences and transient or lack of geographic stability can greatly impact the academic achievement levels for many students. Lack of Parental Involvement/Low Expectations Parent involvement, both at home, and through direct involvement with and at the school, and high parental expectations are clearly associated with increased student performance, achievement, and academic successes. Students who live in a home where a member of the family is available to provide high-quality support and interaction with school, perform significantly higher than students from homes where no such support system exists or the support system that does exist is less able or ill- equipped to provide such support (Marzano, 2003). The dynamic of parent involvement is contingent upon many factors, including family income, education, cultural and language issues, and attitudes. All 45 of these factors play a significant role in the ability of parents to provide the level of support necessary to promote student achievement. Conversely, in those homes where language barriers, cultural concerns, or socioeconomic conditions prevent parents and family members from productively participating with schools in promoting high-levels of student achievement, the results can be devastating to a student’s opportunity and ability to meet the levels of achievement necessary for success in the educational system. Section III- What Has Worked Sorting through the multitude of factors that substantially impact the achievement gap between various subgroups continues to be a monumental challenge for many districts and schools. However, many similar findings do appear to recognize specific elements of home and school environments that have been shown to have a direct and significant impact on promoting student achievement. Factors which have proven successful in improving the achievement levels of low achieving students, include parent involvement, maintaining high expectations for student achievement, challenging and rigorous curriculum, assigning the most qualified and experienced teachers to the schools, classes, and students who are most in need, continue to be recognized as having a great impact on student achievement. In his study on correlates of achievement, Barton (2003) put together a comprehensive list of those factors that have been shown to have a significant impact on learning outcomes and achievement. The correlates fall into 6 categories: 46 Teaching and Learning, The Learning Environment, The Developmental Environment, The Home Learning Connection, The Community, and The Home/School Connection (Barton, 2003). Educators across the nation are also looking for lessons from the Department of Defense Schools, where reading and writing performance of African American and Hispanic students is among the highest in the nation. Educators recognize that the achievement gap has multiple causes and that it needs to be tackled on multiple fronts, from changing instructional practices and increasing parent involvement to helping students of color feel more comfortable in school (Rothman, 2001). Barton (2003) and Marzano (2003) note the significant role that parental involvement, learning environment, and teacher quality have on student achievement. This section examines those areas that continually appear in the literature as having a tremendous impact on promoting positive student performance outcomes and improving achievement levels for underperforming student groups. Focusing on the areas of the Learning Environment (Expectations/Curriculum), Teaching and Learning (Teacher Quality/Assignment), and the Home Learning Connection (Parent Involvement), provides a baseline supportive of the thematic study of successful practices at an outperforming school. This section additionally articulates the projected impact of those promising practices that show the greatest potential for successfully ameliorating this complex and difficult problem. High Expectations/High Quality Curriculum 47 Presenting challenging and rigorous curriculum in an appropriate environment is critical to promoting achievement and positive learning outcomes for all students. Strong academic programs are closely related to improved student achievement (Barton, 2003). “High expectations and standards for academic and personal behavior are necessary components for schools to change, along with the recognition that decisions for change must be made as part of a team” (LaRocque, 2007). In an effort to address the issue of teacher attitude and expectations, some districts are tackling the achievement gap by focusing on changing teacher attitudes. In Fort Wayne, the district tried to address the impact on instructional programs of teacher and student attitudes by conducting annual climate surveys. They found that African American students had more negative relationships with teachers than white students. In response, the district instituted diversity training for the staff, changed the curriculum to include more content on contributions of people of color, and changed discipline policies to reduce the perception that African American students were treated more harshly than their white counterparts. "We saw a difference between the way minority students saw their environment and the way the majority students saw their environment," says Fort Wayne's superintendent, Fowler-Finn. "That gap has closed" (Rothman, 2001). Teachers at Department of Defense (DOD) schools hold extraordinarily high expectations for African American and Hispanic students, and that is one reason those schools exhibit such narrow achievement gaps, according to Claire Smrekar, an 48 associate professor of educational leadership and policy at Vanderbilt University and an author of a recent study on DOD schools. In a 1998 NAEP survey, 85 percent of black students and 93 percent of Hispanic students in DOD's domestic schools rated teacher expectations for their performance "very positive," compared with 52 percent of black students and 53 percent of Hispanic students nationwide (Rothman, 2001). Burgess (2007) notes that if you treat the student as a failure or as just average, then they will be just that. However, if you believe that a student is exceptional and has the potential to be and do extraordinary things, then the student will be exceptional and will succeed. Changing the attitude of the educator will change the atmosphere of the class, providing an environment for mutual respect. Standards and high expectations won’t make much of a difference, though, if they are not accompanied by a rigorous curriculum lined up with those standards. Yet, in too many places, some students are taught high-level curriculum, while other students continue to be taught a low-level curriculum that is better aligned with jobs that no longer exist than with state standards. Current patterns are clearest in high school, where students who take more rigorous coursework learn more and perform better on tests. Indeed, the more difficult classes they take, the better they do. In mathematics, for example, students who complete the full college preparatory sequence perform much higher on NAEP than those who complete only one or two courses. The reverse is true with watered-down, and “vocational” courses. In this case, research has demonstrated that the more students take, the lower their performance (Haycock, 2002). Clear public standards for what students should 49 learn at benchmark grade levels are a critical part of solving this problem and need to be accompanied by a rigorous curriculum lined up with those standards. They serve as a guide for all stakeholders including teachers, administrators, parents and students themselves to what knowledge and skills are critical for students to master (Haycock, 2002). While some of these differences are clearly attributable to higher-scoring students being assigned to the tougher classes to begin with, research shows very clearly the positive impact of more rigorous coursework even on students in the bottom quartile (Haycock, 2002). High Quality Teachers/Assignment Recruiting, training, and assigning high-quality teachers to the schools, classrooms, and student who need them most, can greatly enhance success rates and help bridge the ongoing gaps that exist between groups of students. Matching the most talented and experienced teachers with students who need their expertise the most can have significant impact on improving learning outcomes and achievement for these students. In the Charlotte-Mecklenberg schools, where great effort has been made to improve teacher quality for all students, tremendous gains have been made in student achievement for students of color. From 1995-1996, only 35% of African American fifth graders were reading at grade level. That figure doubled by 2000-2001 to 70% reading at grade level (cited in Rothman, 2001). 50 As Eric Hanushek stated, “The difference between a good and a bad teacher can be a full level of achievement in a single school year” (cited in Haycock, 1998). Teacher qualifications were the strongest school predictors of student achievement. In South Carolina, measures of teacher qualifications alone accounted for 64% of the total variance in student outcomes, with the strongest predictor of success being teacher certification status (cited in Darling-Hammond, 2007). A recent Boston study of teacher effects is fairly typical. In just one academic year, the top third of teachers produced as much as six times the learning growth as the bottom third of teachers (Haycock, 2002). Additionally, students’ access to well-qualified teachers is a critical determinant of whether they succeed on the state tests often required for promotion from grade level to grade level, or placement into more academically challenging classes, and graduation from high school (Darling-Hammond, 2007). Studies in Tennessee and Texas make it very clear that these effects are cumulative and hold up regardless of the race, class, or prior achievement of the students. Some of the biggest-gaining classrooms are filled with very poor students, and some with well-to-do students. Findings are the same with the small-gain classrooms. It turns out that it’s not the students after all: something very different is going on with the teaching (Haycock, 2002). With the enormous cost of teacher attrition to districts and schools, designing and funding teacher recruitment and mentoring programs have been shown to help mitigate many of the initial problems new teachers face when entering the 51 profession. It is imperative that school districts design and fund teacher induction and mentorship programs targeted to support and keep effective teachers in the classroom (Shockley, R., et.al. 2005). Education policymakers often say that higher salaries are needed for teachers in general, and even higher salaries than these are needed to attract the most qualified teacher to take jobs in schools where children are most in need (Rothstein, 2004). Districts might also offer scholarships for participating in a high-quality teacher education program, and provide recruitment incentives to attract and retain expert, experienced teachers in high-need schools (Darling-Hammond, 2007). A North Carolina school district offered financial incentives and improved working conditions to attract well-qualified teachers to low-performing schools in addition to offering to subsidize master’s degree programs. The District additionally developed curricula and instructional assistance to help ensure that all teachers, and particularly those with little experience, are able to step into classrooms and be successful. These intervention efforts have been credited for substantial increases in student performance. Enderlin-Lampe (2002) asserts that most researchers and policy analysts note that teacher self-efficacy is a key component in the restructuring of schools. Enderlin-Lampe (2002) notes that teacher attributes are a major element in productive schooling, suggesting that teacher’s competency and self-efficacy, which is, “at the heart of reform and is the sine qua non of meaningful change in schools.” 52 To address this issue, districts and schools have turned toward providing relevant, appropriate, and meaningful professional development and growth opportunities for teachers. There is a great deal of consensus on the specific elements inherent in effective professional development programs and activities. From providing a clear focus and establishing long-term and well-articulated goals to using current and relevant data on student learning to develop activities, relevant and purposeful professional development can be a key ingredient in promoting and supporting high levels of student achievement in schools. Snell (2003) provides a summation on the benefits of quality teaching suggesting that, “It appears that only by creating a school environment where good teaching is fostered and made available to all students that the achievement gap can begin to narrow and close.” Parent Involvement Another area of importance repeatedly identified as having a great impact on promoting and supporting student achievement is parental involvement. High levels of parent involvement at schools, and attitudes and expectations at home may be the singular most influential factor in supporting high-levels of student achievement, particularly at the elementary and middle school levels. Providing students with a warm, responsive home environment that is supportive and emphasizes the importance of school is critical to supporting student success and positive social and emotional outcomes. Parents, additionally, need to 53 establish and support high expectations for student achievement in the home and keep students focused on post-secondary and career goals. Building and supporting a positive and productive home/school relationship is essential to fostering student success. The extent to which parents attend and volunteer at school functions has a consistent positive impact on adolescent academic achievement. Moreover, when parents, especially those from diverse ethnic backgrounds, are involved on a formal level on leadership committees, the youth benefit (Marzano, 2003). Parent support of criteria for learning, homework, and a focus on post- secondary educational opportunities is imperative to providing students with an understanding of the importance of setting high achievement goals (Harvard Family Research Project, 2007). A study by Fan and Chen (2001) support criteria for effective parental involvement presenting three examples of parent involvement that greatly enhances student performance. When parents make a concerted effort to communicate to their children about school, they reflect the value of education and the importance of academic success to future endeavors. Supervising and monitoring after-school activities and homework further emphasizes the importance of school. Also, it is critical that parents project high expectations for learning and communicate academic aspirations of college to their children. Marzano (2003) reflects on the importance of parental involvement and suggests that the ongoing involvement of parents both at home and at the school is 54 one of the most significant factors affecting student achievement. In fact, three major features have been suggested that define effective parental and community involvement which have a significant impact on promoting high-levels of student achievement: communication, participation, and governance. In support of these findings, Camblin (2003) proposes that schools that recognize the need to support parents provide opportunities that encourage participation in school activities and include parent education programs. Camblin (2003) also recognizes that there is a sensitivity among staff members at successful schools to different cultures and a real attempt to bridge cultural understandings, lessening the need for students to negotiate between different cultural contexts. At the end of the day, in order to provide meaningful and effective support at home, it is critical that parents have an awareness of and involvement in schoolwork, understand the interaction between parenting skills and student success in schooling, and have a deep commitment to maintain consistent communication between home and school about student progress (Harvard Family Research Project, 2007). It is clear that the onus of responsibility for providing opportunities for parents and community members to become an integral part of the educational community, particularly in areas with large populations of minority and disadvantaged students falls on the shoulders of the district leadership and individual schools. Fostering productive and positive relationships with families is essential in developing and maintaining an effective partnership between the school and home. The benefit to students of providing opportunities for parents to become involved in 55 school programs and activities cannot be underestimated. Active participation by parents in school-site programs and activities, coupled with enhanced support for school related activities such as discussing school experiences and helping with homework provide an essential degree of support for student achievement. It is abundantly clear that parent and community support and involvement is imperative to achieving improvement in student performance outcomes. Marzano (2003) notes that several strategies have been found to be successful in helping to develop and promote these key relationships between schools and home environments. Improving communication between home and school, developing strategies for enhancing the school-home relationship, and creating opportunities for parents to become involved in the day-to-day running of the school are essential to supporting student success. The Harvard Family Research Project (2007) also notes that success can be furthered by matching an understanding of youth’s developmental needs, parents’ attitudes and practices, and schools’ expectations and support of family involvement. It is almost universally noted in studies of factors affecting student achievement that the ongoing support and involvement of parents, families, and the community can have a long-term positive impact on student achievement and that the foundation for student success is the relationship that is developed and maintained between the home and school. Camblin (2003) notes that when families and parents are seen by the schools as having cultural capital or the ability to 56 contribute in a positive way to their children’s education, students are much more likely to be successful. Section IV-Summary While there are numerous remedies prescribed to address the ongoing discrepancy in achievement, many, if not most, districts and individual schools continue to grapple with this complicated and difficult challenge on a continuous basis. The history of public education in the U.S. is rife with reform measures, legislative action, and ongoing discourse regarding the merits of strategies to improve student achievement. A tremendous amount of research has been conducted on the issue of student achievement and the continual gap between various demographic groups. While most studies are replete with a preponderance of data on the subject, few schools have been able to replicate the curriculum, parent involvement, circumstances, interest, efficacy and leadership needed. Some studies, however, caution that focusing on the “gap” may not be the best measure if the overall goal is to improve achievement for all students. It is imperative that when looking at the achievement gap, researchers note that the goal of public education is improved academic performance for all students, and that by promoting high levels of achievement for all demographic groups there may not appear to be a noticeable reduction in the traditional “gap” that exists between various groups. 57 While a significant achievement gap between minority/disadvantaged students and white/affluent students remains one of the most intractable problems facing our public schools and society, there are a significant number of schools across the nation that have demonstrated success in improving achievement levels for all demographic groups, and seem to bridge the gap. These schools are clearly worthy of a closer look (Anderson et al. 2007). Section V-Review-Add to Literature This study adds to the available literature by examining the nuances, culture, leadership, vision, policies and practices at an urban middle school that have demonstrated success in improving performance outcomes for historically underachieving student groups. This study was not looking for a proverbial “magic bullet”, but to determine what unique qualities stood out as significant factors in reducing achievement gaps between various sub-groups at the school in comparison to statewide similar school averages. 58 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Introduction Presenting a thick, rich description of a study provides the foundation for qualitative analysis and reporting and is key to presenting substantive study findings in an appreciable and useful manner (Patton, 2002). This case study is one of nine similar studies, conducted by a thematic dissertation group of students from the University of Southern California of outperforming schools to ascertain via similar methodologies the programs, practices, and strategies in use at those schools that are recognized as promoting high levels of student achievement and reducing the achievement gap. This comprehensive qualitative case study carefully examined a high- performing middle school that has successfully ameliorated academic performance gaps between various student demographic groups. The achievement gap for the purposes of this case study is defined as the persistent disparity in academic performance between groups of students, particularly between white and/or Asian and affluent students and students of color, minority, poverty and second language learners. Patton (2002) notes that qualitative findings are generally obtained from three types of data collection methodologies: in-depth, open-ended interviews, direct observation, and examination of written documents. This case study will incorporate 59 similar data collection methodologies with the added inclusion of a comprehensive survey designed to support triangulation of study findings. Survey data can greatly enhance the validity of findings by presenting supportive informational data regarding school programs, practices, and strategies that are perceived as playing a significant role in promoting student achievement. The survey utilized in this study covered a range of pertinent issues regarding school programs, practices and strategies that are seen as critical to closing the achievement gap. Included in the survey were questions specific to collaboration, leadership, professional development, expectations, curriculum design, and support systems at the school that promote student achievement. Further enhancement of study findings was captured through personal interviews with school leadership, including administrative staff and teacher leaders at the school. Data gathered from interviews provided in-depth responses about people’s experiences, perceptions, opinions, feelings, and knowledge. The interview protocol included several interviews covering a range of issues, including careful inquiry into specific programs and practices at the school focused on student achievement and the role of school leadership in promoting student success. Observational data includes descriptions of activities, behaviors, actions, conversations, interpersonal interactions, organizational or community processes, or any other aspect of observable human experience (Patton, 2002). Incorporating observational protocols provided a basis for the thick, rich description necessary to present a clear picture of the activities, events, interactions, and dynamics at the 60 school. Observational protocols included review of staff meetings, the physical environment of the school, instructional activities, and the interactions and behaviors of stakeholder groups at the school. Examination of written documents important to the study provided critical background information for the study. Inclusion of organizational, clinical, or program records, memos and correspondence provided essential contextual support for the study (Patton, 2002). A comprehensive review of records and documents greatly enhanced the validity of study findings. The document analysis examined areas inclusive of demographic information, school vision and mission statements, schedules, professional development and learning goals, teacher experience, staff stability, and state testing data. This information provided a substantive baseline for our case study and provides essential information from which to build and compile additional information about the school. This study incorporated a qualitative design methodology that is naturalistic in approach, to the extent that the research takes place in real world settings and the researcher does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon of interest (e.g., a group, event, program, community, relationship, or interaction). Egon Guba (cited in Patton, 2002) defined “naturalistic inquiry” as a “discover-oriented” approach that minimizes investigator manipulation of the study setting and does not place any prior constraints on what the outcomes of the research will be. 61 Problem Statement Most urban schools have not been successful in closing the achievement gap. Addressing each of the myriad of variables that significantly impact student success and contribute to higher achievement levels is difficult at best for most schools. These issues are exacerbated in many instances by school cultural environments and local communities that many times are not supportive of, or capable of supporting substantial improvement efforts. These and other concerns facing educational communities constitute major barriers to the successful amelioration of the achievement gap between student groups. Endemic in many urban schools and adding to the difficulty schools have in addressing the myriad of variables which contribute to student success are school cultures and environments which at many times are resistant to change initiatives. Clarke and Estes (2002) suggest that many performance gaps can be attributed to or hampered by problems in the areas of people’s knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational barriers. Studying schools that have been able to address and/or overcome these barriers to student success can greatly enhance our understanding of the nuances of improving performance gaps between student groups, and contribute to the data on this vexing problem facing many schools in the nation. One pitfall that can greatly hamper qualitative studies according to Clark and Estes (2002) is that some researchers approach the area of study with preconceived notions about the problem and think they understand how others might think and feel regarding the problem. It is imperative that any observer bias be recognized upfront 62 and throughout the qualitative study, and while there is no way to fully abolish or control for bias, it is important to understand and articulate the reference point and perspective of the observer during the study. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this qualitative study was to carefully examine a middle school that has successfully closed the achievement gap in order to identify factors that have contributed to its success. Middle grades sometimes do not generate the same degree of vigorous scrutiny or “press” as do other grade levels, but are absolutely critical in the intellectual, social, physical, and psychological development of young people. Students in the middle grades are developing the skills and attitudes that will affect their educational and career options and potential for future success. While much focus is on pre-education and early elementary’s educational impact on achievement, the middle grades represent, for many students, the last opportunity to develop and hone the essential social and academic skills necessary to overcome barriers which may preclude success in high-school and lead to failure in school. “Middle grades represent the last substantive educational experience for hundreds of thousands of students. If students fail to achieve the integration of their personalities and the motivation required to make a commitment to academic values by the end of the middle grades, many will never do so” (Caught In The Middle: Educational Reform for Young Adolescents in California Public Schools, 1987). 63 A middle school that has developed and implemented successful strategies to dramatically improve academic achievement for all student groups is worth looking at to ascertain how they have been able to accomplish what so many other schools are currently failing to do. In defining the study, it was imperative to specify clear objectives that can provide focus for the development of pointed research questions, observational goals, and supporting documents. Research Design-Questions Utilizing a qualitative case study research methodology, this comprehensive case study carefully examined an outperforming middle school that has successfully reduced or eliminated academic performance gaps between various student demographic groups. This school was studied to ascertain what formal and informal nuances of the instructional program at the study school have been shown to be successful in helping these groups outperform the statewide averages. A single-school case study focused on those specific programs, practices, and strategies at a middle school that have demonstrated measurable success, in comparison to similar schools throughout the state, in promoting higher levels of achievement in various demographic groups. Additionally, the study carefully examined the programs, activities, culture, leadership, curriculum, and other aspects of the instructional program that have contributed to student academic gains, particularly in traditionally underperforming demographic groups. 64 Careful design of research questions was critical to guide this study and to provide distinct parameters for the case study that could be incorporated into summary findings. Design of research questions was critical to guide the study and to assure that particular areas and factors, inclusive of school-based and community-based variables, were clearly defined by the research questions. The thematic group developed a set of questions that helped to provide parameters for each case study and provide data, which was incorporated into the summary of findings for each study. Questions, agreed upon by the members of the thematic dissertation group, provided great latitude for each study, and focused on those variables that have been recognized as having a significant impact on student achievement. The following research questions guided this case study. A. Which school wide programs promote student achievement and contribute to the closing of the achievement gap? B. Which school wide practices promote student achievement and contribute to the closing of the achievement gap? C. Which instructional strategies were implemented to target the closing of the achievement gap? Research Approach-Qualitative Case Study To refine the study, the members of the thematic group adopted a research methodology with the intention of providing clear goals and parameters for each of the studies. A qualitative case study design was used to fully explore the causal factors for the continuing achievement gap, and promising programs, strategies, and 65 practices at a middle school that has demonstrated success in ameliorating the margin of performance gap between their student population and state averages. This comprehensive study included surveys, interviews and observations, and critical examination of records and documents. In designing an effective inquiry or study, it was imperative to address several key questions regarding the purpose of, and for, the study. Patton (2002) suggests several areas of inquiry that need to be addressed to assure that the study is thorough, focused, and will contribute meaningful results to the base of knowledge on our subject. First, we must clearly identify the purpose of the study and articulate how this study will contribute to the knowledge base on this topic. It was essential that the study parameters noted who was the primary audiences for the findings of the study in addition to what questions would guide the study. It was critical to identify the specific data that could help answer or illuminate the inquiry questions, what resources were available to support the inquiry, and finally, which criteria would be used to judge the quality of the findings (Patton, 2002). Clark and Estes (2002) emphasize the necessity for evaluation and assessment tools to be both reliable and valid. It is important to the success of analysis that evaluation methods provide the same results each time and that they measure exactly what it is they are supposed to measure. In order to assure the accuracy and appropriateness of our case-study methodology and findings we needed to adhere to certain prescribed procedures which greatly enhanced the validity and usefulness of our study data. Addressing these key questions helped provide clarity 66 of focus to our study and establish parameters for the collection and processing of data and study findings (Patton, 2002). Clarke and Estes (2002) provide support for developing a somewhat different paradigm in research studies that breaks knowledge for our study into three categories. What is “known to be known” articulates the well-developed and generally accepted scientific knowledge base. What is “known to be unknown” provides support for the development of focused questions on those issues that must be addressed to support our study. And, what is “unknown to be unknown” are those variables that are not known at the time of the study but become evident as the study progresses (Clark et al., 2002). This study utilized an emergent, exploratory, inductive qualitative case study approach. Such studies do not predetermine or restrict the direction the study may take and will present a clear and detailed description of factors, including the school population, leadership, staff, students, stakeholders, and programs and activities that are recognized and reflected by the study components as having a significant impact on student achievement (Patton, 2002). Use of both quantitative and qualitative methodology for this study was appropriate in conducting this study, as the intent of the study was to explore, interpret, and to obtain a deeper understanding of the nuances of the study school. One of the major reasons for doing a qualitative study was to become more experienced with the phenomenon being studied. Qualitative study provided information and findings that provided a better understanding of the beliefs, values, 67 and culture of the study school, in addition to helping to identify the feelings and dynamics at the school that, while not quantifiable, contribute to student success and achievement. The ultimate goal of a qualitative study is to “explore” a topic, and to develop and present a concise and clear picture of the study school. In most cases, a qualitative study necessitates going into the field and “discovering” the “who, what, where, when, why, and how” in addressing our research questions. Effective qualitative study requires studying and assessing the study topic in an effort to “flesh out” what is going on, to describe relationships, and to help understand and articulate the study findings (Patton, 2002). Sample and Population As a base for the study, we pre-determined the criteria that would be utilized to select each study school. In an effort to support continuity between the various studies and to eliminate schools that have not successfully sustained results over time, the thematic dissertation group developed benchmark requirements for the studies. It was determined by the thematic group members that each group member independently select and conduct a thorough case study of an outperforming and/or high performing urban (or not) school, which has demonstrated success in closing the achievement gap between various demographic groups. Each school needed to meet established criteria for minimum standards of achievement, state ranking, and demographics in order to be considered for this 68 study. Included in the establishment of the criteria was the need to select a school that has demonstrated progress in addressing the problem of achievement between various demographic groups at the school. The criteria determined that each study school must align with the following: • The school must have at least 30% of its students qualify for the Free and Reduced Lunch Program. And meet at least one or more of the following criteria: • The school must score 20 points higher than the statewide API for at least two of the following traditionally underperforming subgroups (minority, lower socio-economic status, students with disabilities, and English Language Learners) for at least two or more years. OR • School has shown significant growth in their API for two or more years in one or more traditionally underperforming subgroups. OR • The school has receive a similar school ranking, as defined by the state, of at least a 7 over two years. Statewide sub-group API used for comparison includes: SES Hispanic ELL AF/AM WH/AS Grades 2-6 697 702 690 688 840/880 Grades 7-8 647 651 623 629 807/861 Grades 9-11 661 621 590 596 765/814 69 In conducting this qualitative research study, the thematic group determined and developed data collection procedures that were used as part of each study. They include:  Examination of records/data  Interviews  Observations  And the use of Survey (Questionnaire) Disaggregated data. As each study school must have met the aforementioned criteria when establishing a baseline for our study, it was critical to find a school that in addition to meeting the prescribed criteria also presented openness to participating in such a detailed and investigative study. Description of Case-Study School Mid-Valley Intermediate School meets all the prerequisite requirements for this study. The school is described as a community, “committed to academic excellence, and as such, recognizes that all events, programs, activities, and efforts must demonstrate a connection to this goal.” Mid-Valley’s mission statement reveals the school’s stated commitment to establishing and maintaining a safe, clean, and orderly environment coupled with rigorous standards-based instruction. Mid- Valley Intermediate believes that “all students are capable of achieving their maximum when surrounded by a supportive and focused school community.” Mid-Valley Intermediate is a culturally diverse urban learning environment of about 800 students located in the middle of a large metropolitan area. Mid-Valley 70 is located in a largely lower socio-economic community in a mostly industrial section of the local area. Mid-Valley’s student population is comprised primarily of a large population of Latino students, with that group making up approximately 94% of the student population. Other ethnicities are represented in substantially smaller numbers, with 2.35% Asian, 1.12% white (not Hispanic), 1.24 African American, .74% Filipino, and .37 Native American or Alaska Native students comprising the balance of the school’s student groups. Many of the students at Mid-Valley Intermediate are recognized as coming from socio-economically disadvantaged homes. As much as 81% of the student population is recognized in this category. Of the 800 students at the school, 29% are considered English Language Learners. Students with Disabilities (Special Education) make-up 8% of the students in the school. (2006/2007 SARC) The school is comprised of 6 th , 7 th , and 8 th grade classes, with the 6 th grade class representing about 133 of the total number of students. 7 th and 8 th grade classes are fairly evenly divided with 333 and 342 students in each respective group. About 1/6 of the school’s staff (5 of 31) does not have a full credential, and while some students are taught by non-NCLB compliant teachers, most are instructed by fully NCLB compliant teachers. Mid-Valley Intermediate has improved its API statewide ranking from 1 in 2000/2001 to a 6 in 2007/2008. In comparison to similar schools, the school has a ranking of 10 for 2007/2008, which is up from a ranking of 9 in 2006/2007, but still reflective of excellent gains in this category from 2000/2001when the school 71 received a ranking of 5 in academic performance in comparison to similar schools. From 2003/2004 through 2007/2008, Mid-Valley made significant gains in API in both the Hispanic group, (61 point increase 03/04, 18 point increase 04/05, 35 point increase 05/06, 19 point gain in the 06/07, and 35 point gain for the 07/08 school year-subgroup API = 768 in 2007/2008), and SES group, (51 point gain 03/04, 18 point gain 04/05, 33 point gain 05/06, 23 point gains for 06/07, and 39 point gain for the 07/08 school year- subgroup API= 763 in 2007/2008). English Language Learner (ELL) students have also made significant gains in API during the past several years, with continued growth from 647 in 05/06 to a current API of 721 for the 07/08 school year. Overall API for the school is 770 for 2007/2008 and Mid-Valley was recently recognized as a “School to Watch” Model Middle School by the State of California. Mid-Valley Intermediate School has demonstrated great gains in student academic performance over the past several years, outperforming similar schools over that period of time. Based on the established criteria for study schools, Mid-Valley Intermediate School was an excellent candidate for an in-depth review of the programs, activities, culture and data that contribute to the overall growth and improvement in student achievement. Careful study and review of Mid-Valley will greatly enhance the available literature base on student achievement at the middle school, and will help articulate the nuances of instruction, staffing, and curriculum that have promoted exceptional gains in student achievement and have helped to bridge the achievement gap between various groups at the school. 72 (Research Design) Conceptual Model The Research Design (Conceptual Model) which the thematic group used for the study (Figure 1) was developed to include factors reflected in the literature as having a significant impact on student achievement. The Conceptual Model designed for the study served as a guide for the collection of data and information on each school and is inclusive of factors, including; leadership, personnel practice, programs, culture, teacher instruction and practice, and professional development, each of which are frequently referenced in research-based studies as providing the impetus for student growth and development and have been proven to have an impact on bridging the achievement gap. These critical factors are discussed within the larger framework of legislative and real world structures and dynamics that figure dramatically in defining and influencing public education in the nation. Additionally referenced are those factors that are seen as key to helping to reduce achievement gaps between various subgroups, inclusive of such factors as; Parent Communication, Collaboration and Data Analysis, Early Intervention Programs, and Improved Teacher Quality. While the Conceptual Model for the study is comprehensive, it is by no means definitive in addressing all of the various influences, factors, programs, and dynamics which can and do impact and affect student achievement in our schools, but served only as a guide for our study providing continuity in design and reference points. 73 Parent Communication Collaboration/ Data Analysis Figure 1. Conceptual Model 74 Data Collection Procedures (Instrumentation) Through the use of the four protocols of data collection that was incorporated into the study, the thematic group created detailed parameters for each methodology. Examination of Records and Documents, Surveys, Interviews, and Observations provided detailed information about the many variables that contribute to improving student achievement at the school. To assure a non-biased and comprehensive examination of the study school, each study included a thorough and structured review of school documents and records, surveys, interviews, and observational data. Records and Documents Examination of Documents/Records and review of such documents provided important background information on the study school, including geographic and demographic information, mission and school description, populations, sub-groups, staffing details, course and program offerings, schedules, calendars, materials, and curriculum offered at each school. The document and record review is inclusive of, but not limited to the following: Public documents such as School Accountability Report Card, Single School Plan, Professional Development Plan, and Testing data. A form for recording data from the document review is included in (Appendix A). 75 Surveys Surveys provided a great amount of data and understanding of program offerings and the perceived value of those programs and activities by providing stakeholder groups with an opportunity to provide assessment of each in a structured and non-threatening manner. This study included the dissemination of a one-time survey, with specific focus on professional development, programs, instructional strategies, and lesson preparation. Providing a series of questions which were formatted to support study research questions, the detailed survey utilized in this study provided greater understanding of the nuances and perceived value of school programs and activities as they directly relate to student achievement at the site. The survey was designed to provide reliable and relevant data on activities and strategies currently in use at Mid-Valley in various curricular domains to improve student achievement. Based on a four-point Likert scale, the survey presented staff members (Administrative/Teaching) with the opportunity to reflect on current programs and practices at the school, and provided essential information on the perceived value of such programs and reflection on the overall dynamics at the school site. The survey was disseminated to several staff members, and results were incorporated into the triangulation of study findings with direct observations, interviews, and document review, establishing a basis for understanding the integral 76 components that contribute to student success at Mid Valley Intermediate. (Appendices B.1, B.2) Interviews Patton (2002) suggests that the quality of the information obtained during an interview is largely dependent on the interviewer. Thus, interviewing is an integral part of the data collection for our study, but needs to be undertaken following a clear set of rules and organizational procedures. Interviews can allow us to enter into the other person’s perspective, and find out those things that we cannot directly observe (Patton, 2002). Patton (2002) suggests that program evaluation interviews can capture the perspectives of those active participants, and others associated with the program. Interviewing can help us draw out and better understand the feelings, thoughts, and intentions of individuals that we could not observe under normal circumstances. Use of standardized open-ended interview questions assured that each interview was similar and provided clear parameters for structured questioning, supporting consistency across interviews. Patton (2002) provides four major reasons for using standardized open-ended interviews: The exact instrument used in the evaluation is available for inspection by those who will use the findings of the study. Variation among interviewers can be minimized. The interviews were highly focused, using interviewee time efficiently. Analysis was facilitated by making responses easy to find and compare (Appendices C.1, C.2). 77 Observations “People only see what they are prepared to see”- Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803- 1882) Trochim (2006) notes that while observation is one of the most common methods for collecting qualitative data, it is also one of the most demanding, since the skills necessary to be a good observer are difficult to develop. Patton (2002) notes that skilled observation includes the ability to carefully pay attention to see what there is to see, and hear what there is to hear. Patton (2002) also suggests that it is imperative to use rigorous methods to validate observational data, triangulate observations, and to be acutely aware of the strengths and weaknesses of the observer, noting the strengths and limitations of the observer’s perspective. A particular concern, which has cast a pall over the validity and reliability of observational data and needs to be carefully understood, is the effect of the observer on what is observed. Most people behave quite differently when they know they are being observed, and behave more naturally when they don’t think they’re being observed. This investigative paradigm which assumes profound conflicts of interest, values, feelings, and actions of individuals being observed and is the source of great consternation with those hoping to observe natural occurrences under true and unbiased conditions (Patton, 2002). This study utilized both naturalistic (systematic observations) and empirical methodology (informational data) to ascertain the impact of school programs, activities, and individuals in promoting student achievement at Mid-Valley 78 Intermediate School. Incorporating observation into the study, in combination with empirical data, provided a greater information base regarding the study considerations. Utilizing systemic observation in conjunction with empirical study provided additional detail and greater knowledge about the topic of study (Pass, Riccomini, & Switzer, 2005). The study involved a variety of interactions on site such as faculty meetings, general environment and human factors on the site, as well as instructional practices in the classroom. Observations were conducted randomly over a period of several weeks to ensure reliability of the observational data. Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Four-Frames Model (Organizational Structural Perspective) was incorporated into the gathering and organization of collected data to help develop a comprehensive understanding of the organization and the components that make up the organizational structure (Bolman, et. al, 2003). The Four-Frames include:  The Structural Frame- basic issues that must be addressed/considered in the structural design of an organization.  The Human Resource Frame- the relationship between the organization and people-employee relationships, motivation, and commitment. Contrast between “Lean and Mean” vs. investment in people styles of organizational structure/management.  The Political Frame- views the organization as an arena where individuals and groups compete to achieve their parochial interests. Focus on the need to address political realities, setting agendas, building relationships/networks, and making choices that are both effective and ethical. 79  The Symbolic Frame- understanding those elements within the organization, including culture, myths, heroes, metaphors, stories, humor, rituals, and ceremonies in shaping perspective and performance. (Bolman, et. al, 2003) (Appendix D) Data Analysis Procedures “It wasn’t curiosity that killed the cat. It was trying to make sense of all the data curiosity generated.” Halcome While there are many ways to organize and subsequently analyze, Patton (2002) presents guidelines for both organizing and presenting data gathered in qualitative studies. Noting that organization of data should support the representation and help present a true “picture” of the studied environment, Patton (2002) suggests that a descriptive narrative note the people studied, critical incidents or major events, and background information inclusive of the places, settings, sites, and/or locations relevant to the study. Patton notes that case studies can be considered units of analysis, with each case representing a single or independent event. Patton suggests that a case-study approach to qualitative analysis constitutes a specific way of collecting, organizing, and analyzing data, with the purpose of collecting systematic, comprehensive, and in-depth information about a topic of study. Incorporating inductive analysis involves looking for patterns, themes, and categories in data. After sifting through and organizing the gathered data, deductive 80 analysis will be incorporated to test and affirm the authenticity and appropriateness of the inductive content analysis (Patton, 2002). The researcher needs to provide an accurate and detailed description of the study setting, circumstances, observations, and findings in a manner that will enable readers to clearly comprehend the multiplicity of findings in a “user friendly” manner. Whenever possible, comprehensive qualitative studies need to triangulate findings to provide more accurate information and to substantiate study findings. Considering the goal of qualitative research to evaluate, analyze, and disseminate clear and accurate descriptions and information about the research topic, it remains the challenge of the researcher to collect, review, and present such findings in an understandable and meaningful manner. Key to developing a database supportive of the presentation of meaningful findings was the triangulation of findings from various data sources. Multiple source support for research findings was essential to ascertaining the importance and impact of programs, practices, and strategies at the study school in supporting high levels of student achievement and efforts to bridge the achievement gap at the study school. The convergence of findings from the examination Records and Documents with Survey (s), Interview (s), and Observational findings greatly enhanced the credibility of the study. Presentation of study findings in the form of both naturalistic and empirical data additionally served to provide a “cross-reference” of data for the study and help support the study validity and results. 81 Cresswell (1994) concludes that qualitative research is an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct traditions of inquiry that explore a real social or human problem, and the researcher is charged with building a complex, holistic picture, compiled from the words, observations, and views of the studied topic. Such research involves the collection and analysis of a variety of empirical materials, experiences, and introspective information from individuals combined with additional observational and historical data that is used to describe, in detail, a particular event, action, situation, or problem. Presentation of study findings in the form of both naturalistic and empirical data was also critical to developing an accurate picture of programs, practices, and strategies in use at the study school, which have proven to be successful in helping to promote high levels of student achievement in traditionally underperforming student populations, and also served to provide a “cross-reference” or triangulation of data for the study and help support the study’s validity and results. Ethical Considerations The case study was conducted in compliance with Federal and State guidelines for conducting research involving human subjects and the Institutional Review Board (IRB). The Belmont Report (1979), which is used as a benchmark of acceptable standards for almost all studies using human subjects, provides a framework for conducting studies within ethical boundaries. The Belmont Report has become the primary ethical framework for protecting human research subjects in 82 the United States (Zimmerman, 1997). The three key principles of the report include respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. Strict adherence to these principles was paramount to protecting the integrity of this study and to assure the rights of participants. All participants were treated in a respectful and ethical manner and study parameters served as a clear guide to assure that no harm came to any participant and to maximize benefits to the staff, students, and stakeholders of the study school for their participation in this study (Trochim, 2006). While some components of this and any other qualitative study are recognized as exempt from the requirements of IRB review and approval, including the study or collection of existing records, surveys, interviews, use of educational tests and observations of public behavior, this study carefully complied with all stated ethical guidelines to assure that all activities associated with this study are fully in compliance with IRB requirements. This case study was strictly guided by IRB principles and standards, with all materials, study methodology, instruments, and data collection tools clearly articulated and receiving IRB approval prior to conducting the study. Summary Conducting a comprehensive qualitative case study contributed to providing a deep understanding of the nuances and variables manifested at Mid-Valley Intermediate School which have contributed to the school’s success in addressing the achievement gap between student groups at the school. Utilizing the prescribed 83 methodology and developing clear understandable parameters in the development of the study and selection of the study school, helped foster a better understanding and clarification of the essential components which make up the learning environment and contribute to a thick, rich description of the school and impact on student success. This study will greatly contribute to available literature by presenting tangible strategies to help alleviate the ongoing problem of student achievement gaps between various demographic groups. Careful analysis of the study data provides a concrete foundation for the study findings (themes), and a thorough examination of all of the relevant findings provides a baseline for developing and implementing programs, activities, and strategies to help students from all ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds become successful academically, and to also prepare them for post-secondary academic and career opportunities. 84 CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS Introduction This chapter will articulate the specific data collected in conjunction with the study of the programs, practices, and strategies currently in place at a middle school that has demonstrated substantial success in addressing the causal factors and bridging the achievement gap between various student groups as compared to similar schools. Methodology Data Collection Methods Data for this case study was gathered through the examination of school records and documents, surveys, interviews, and observations. The examination of school records and documents included the SARC’s (School Accountability Report Cards) for the years 1999 through 2007, and the comprehensive school plan. Additionally, the application for Distinguished School (Schools To Watch, 2007) consideration was also reviewed as part of this study as a pertinent document for clarification of the many programs and activities at the school that are considered integral to their success. Cresswell (2003) suggests that examination of documents and records can help to provide excellent information, in that participants have given careful attention to compiling the data. 85 Audio taped interviews were conducted with the school principal, assistant principal, school counselor, and teacher leaders in various curricular departments. Interviews were conducted with each participant following a semi-structured protocol with further probing of participant responses (Gall, Gall & Borg, 2007). The questions focused on asking the participants about the programs, practices, and strategies in use at Mid-Valley Intermediate that have had a significant impact on student achievement at the school. Additional questions were generated and asked if participant responses prompted further exploration on a particular topic. Administrative surveys were distributed to the principal and assistant principal, while teacher surveys were distributed to the entire teaching staff. One administrative survey and 27 of 31 (87%) of the teacher surveys were received from respondents. The comprehensive survey used in this study was developed by the members of the thematic group around the three central research questions. Incorporating a Likert 4-point scale, the survey, adapted from several similar surveys was created to provide detailed information on the numerous programs, practices, and strategies specifically targeted toward improving student achievement. Survey data was particularly beneficial in helping to inform the discovery of emergent themes throughout the study. Survey results additionally contributed to the triangulation of study findings in support of several thematic elements. Specific survey data is integrated into the narrative to support key findings. Observational data was collected during several school visits over a period of six months, and included observations of the general school grounds and local 86 community, participation in Professional Development activities with the staff, and observations in classrooms and of interactions between students/students, teacher/students, teachers/teachers, and staff/parents. Cresswell (2003) notes that such observations can help detect “unusual” aspects and also benefit research findings by providing “first hand” data. Data Analysis Data was initially organized around the main research questions that were developed by the thematic group to provide essential and relevant information regarding the programs, practices, and strategies in use at each study site. Data analysis was conducted following Cresswell’s (2003) 6-steps process of data analysis, and then further organized based on emergent themes. Data was first organized and prepared by sorting, transcription of interviews, typing observational notes and arranging data into different types. Information was reviewed to gather a general sense of the data and reflect on its overall meaning. Data from study procedures was carefully analyzed in an attempt to induce emerging patterns and themes. For this qualitative study, studying the information to deduce the emerging “themes” in the data was critical to identifying those particular areas that were reflected as having a significant impact on improving student achievement at the school. Gathered data was subsequently coded or “chunked” into groups that supported each of the emergent themes. Under the heading of each theme relevant 87 data from each of the protocols (documents/records, surveys, interviews, observations) was collected. Gall (2007) identifies this type of data analysis as analytic induction and notes that it is a component of the process of discovery and involves the careful scrutiny of data bit by bit and the inference that certain findings and events are representative of the same underlying theme or pattern. This process helps to solidify the emergent themes or categories from the collected data and to help generate a clear description of study findings. Gathered data was further examined through the lens of Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Four-Frames of Organizational Structures. Use of the four frames model can help present a clear and comprehensive picture of the components that make up the organizational structure and can help build a greater understanding of the school culture (Bolman, et. al, 2003). These four frames- structural, human resource, political, and symbolic- reflect the various components, roles, and dynamics within an organization and help lead to a better understanding of how each contributes to the success or failure of an organization. Incorporating these tools into the examination of the study data provided greater insight into understanding how the programs, practices, and strategies in use at the school promoted higher levels of student achievement. Findings are presented in a narrative form, inclusive of the discussion of each theme (including sub-themes, specific examples, multiple perspectives, and 88 quotations from individuals). Study findings and data analysis will be presented through a “thick and rich” descriptive narrative (Gall, et.al., 2007). The final step in Cresswell’s (2003) data analysis process is to interpret the data. This is the researchers articulation of “lesson’s learned” from the study. Personal reflection and comparison of findings to literature or extant theories can be utilized to interpret study findings and to inform further studies and/or questions that may yet be asked. Research Questions Each of the three research questions developed for this study were carefully crafted to provide essential information regarding the various elements at each study school that are recognized as helping to foster higher levels of student achievement. These research questions provide parameters for the collection of data and initial analysis of study findings to determine and identify any emerging themes and to help triangulate findings in support of such themes. The following research questions were used to guide the data gathering procedures throughout this study. I. Which school wide programs promote student achievement and contribute to the closing of the achievement gap? II. Which school wide practices promote student achievement and contribute to the closing of the achievement gap? III. Which instructional strategies were implemented to target the closing of the achievement gap? 89 Study School Criteria The thematic dissertation group established specific criteria for participant study schools. Each school needed to meet established criteria for minimum standards of achievement, state ranking, and demographics in order to be considered for this study. Included in the establishment of the criteria was the need to select a school that has demonstrated progress in addressing the achievement of various demographic groups at the school. The criteria determined that each study school must align with the following: • The school must have at least 30% of its students qualify for the Free and Reduced Lunch Program. In addition, the school must meet one or more of the following criteria: • The school must score 20 points higher than the statewide API for at least two of the following traditionally underperforming subgroups (minority, lower socio-economic status, students with disabilities, and English Language Learners) for at least two or more years. OR • The school has shown significant growth in its API for two or more years in one or more traditionally underperforming subgroups. OR • The school has received a similar school ranking, as defined by the state, of at least a 7 over two years. Overview In 2001, Mid-Valley Intermediate School ranked among the lowest 20% of middle schools in the state of California. The community surrounding the school was dominated by a multi-generational gang, whose presence was felt in all aspects 90 of school life from desensitization to violence in the environment to lack of preparation in the home for school (Nelson, 2008). A previous member of the administrative staff, who had served at the school for many years, described the school in the following manner: When I arrived at Mid-Valley during the 1999-2000 school year, the Academic Performance Index was 480 and we were a statewide decile one school. Not surprisingly, student behavior at school was not good. There was a gang presence on campus. Fighting and marijuana use were common. Attendance was poor. Minor vandalism occurred frequently. Classroom disruption was common. The number of student suspensions and expulsions was high. The students came to school for the social life. Learning was not a priority. Mid-Valley suffered a shortage of experienced teachers due, in large part, to difficult working conditions. In the 2000-2001 school year, less than 50% of the teaching staff was fully credentialed. Knowledge of California curriculum standards was superficial or non-existent. Classroom management skills and practices differed from one class to the next, allowing students to play parents against teachers and teachers against administration. (WestEd, 2008) In 2001 Mid-Valley embarked on a program to improve its poor student performance. To achieve this remarkable accomplishment, Mid-Valley began by first conducting a complete review of every aspect of the educational program and made drastic changes in programs, practices, and strategies at the school to raise its API of 480. By 2006, that number had risen to an API of 719. In 2008, the school API was 770. This astonishing growth is practically unmatched by similar schools in the state. With a student population that is 94% Latino, with 79% of students qualifying as economically disadvantaged (SED) based on California Basic Education Data System (CBEDS) data on students qualifying for the Free or Reduced Lunch 91 Program, 31% identified as English Language Learners (ELL), and 45% of parents not high-school graduates, the gains in achievement at Mid-Valley over the past several years have been phenomenal. (Figure 2) API (Academic Performance Index) Growth - School Wide API Base/Target* Growth Comparisons 2000 - 2008** 445 480 530 559 601 667 683 715 735 463 496 544 571 611 674 689 720 740 480 513 546 605 663 683 715 735 770 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Academic Performance Index BASE TARGET GROWTH Figure 2 API (Academic Performance Index) Growth Chart (WestEd, 2008) Once identified as one of the lowest performing (II/USP) middle schools in the state, Mid-Valley Intermediate is now recognized as one of the top performing middle schools in California with their statewide ranking among similar schools moving from a 1/5 in 2000 to a 6/10 for the 2007/2008 school year. 92 Figure 3 Star Decile Rankings (WestEd, 2008) The progress from the bottom 20% of middle schools in the state to “outperforming” similar schools in the state is a testimony to the leadership resiliency, confidence and tenacity of the school’s stakeholder groups. School leadership, staff, and students have genuinely embraced programs, practices, and strategies that made a significant improvement on student achievement at the school. Recognized as a “Schools to Watch”, “Beating the Odds”, and “California Distinguished School”, Mid-Valley Intermediate has demonstrated over time, that a culture of high-expectations, teacher and student efficacy, professional learning, and collaborative environment successfully promotes high levels of student achievement in a traditionally underperforming student population. The story of Mid-Valley Intermediate’s transformation from one of the lowest performing schools in the state to one recognized as a California’s 2008 93 “Schools to Watch”-Taking Center Stage model school with a similar schools ranking of 10 (among the top schools of similar demographics in the state) is the story of what can be achieved through adherence to a clear mission and vision for improvement, stable and effective leadership, talent, belief, and tenacity. 1st Impressions Located in a largely industrial area a few short blocks from a major interstate freeway, Mid-Valley Intermediate School does not look like the place where extraordinary student achievement and exceptional teaching and learning is happening each and every day. In fact, it looks like many other small (800 students) urban middle schools. Bordered by industrial facilities and a railroad track, the school is rather unique in that, except for the main office building, the school consists of a configuration of several round buildings. Mid-Valley Intermediate School sits in the shadow of large gas storage tanks in the middle of a large industrial area featuring a Coca Cola bottling plant, corporate offices for a large fast-food chain, and a 4-screen drive-in movie theater that has been converted to a swap meet venue. While the school “footprint” is very large for a middle school, there are only a handful of permanent structures housing the classroom, offices, and meeting rooms. The physical plant of the school consists of an administrative building and four large cylindrical buildings that house classrooms, counseling and administrative offices, and meeting rooms, including the school library. A newly constructed multi- 94 purpose building recently came on-line for the 2008/2009 school year providing a greatly needed multi-use facility for the school. The facility, including a gym, auditorium, cafeteria, has become a central gathering place for students, and a symbolic reference point for the local community as to the importance of the school (Bolman, et.al., 2003). Another aspect of the campus that is evident, and also makes a clear statement as to the importance of the school, is the overall cleanliness of the school grounds, and the orderly movement of students around the school. In fact, for a school with 800 students, the campus is surprisingly clean and orderly. You do not see trash on the ground, nor do you see students wandering around the campus during class time. Staff members are friendly and professional. The school leadership team, teachers and support staff seem clearly focused on the school mission and their role in moving the organization forward. More importantly, the students themselves appear to have a good understanding of their role and responsibility within the educational community. While school staff are friendly, helpful, and the campus has a very warm and inviting feel, there is a sense that everybody from the administration to the teachers to the support staff take their role and responsibilities very seriously. This professional businesslike feeling extends to all aspects of the instructional environment and is evident in individual contacts, communications, and observations of interactions throughout the school. While there is an excellent feeling of 95 collaboration and community at the school, it is clear that there is a deep underlying seriousness of purpose when it comes to teaching and learning and improving outcomes for student achievement. High expectations for students and staff are evidenced in every interaction, classroom, and office at the school and are continually reinforced on campus in classrooms and various meeting rooms. Each room is organized to support high- levels of instruction and promote a positive and productive learning environment with student work, related materials (“brick and mortar” words, expectations, etc.) displayed in each classroom. These characteristics are evident in every room promoting continuity and supporting school wide goals and objectives for student achievement. In front of the school, a marquee that states, “Prepare To Succeed!” and clearly reminds all staff, students, visitors, and the community of the school’s clear and unambiguous focus on student achievement. The school leadership, staff, students, families and community members all share the same theme, student success! It is clear in examining the campus, classrooms, offices, and facilities and talking with staff members that there is a deep and shared commitment to help students, in many cases, overcome their circumstances and build the skills necessary to succeed in high-school and in college. 96 Summary of Findings-Emergent Themes Introduction The story of Mid-Valley Intermediate School is that of a school that was in pretty dire condition, with ongoing discipline problems, low levels of teaching and learning, and poor student achievement outcomes. However, over the past several years, through a combination of strong and focused leadership, high expectations for student learning, re-organization of almost every facet of the instructional program, and firm belief in both student ability and the ability of staff members to effectively deliver high levels of instruction, Mid-Valley has been able to successfully re-shape itself into one of the top middle schools in the state. Mid-Valley Intermediate has undergone a complete overhaul of almost every aspect of the educational programs, practices, and strategies over the past several years, inclusive of instructional programs, staffing, expectations, focus, culture, and mission. These changes have not been easy, nor did they happen overnight. They required tremendous focus, resolve, and stamina on the part of the many stakeholder groups at the school. They additionally required some very difficult decisions regarding personnel, addressing a long-standing negative school culture, and changing perceptions about the student population and the local community. Many of the changes instrumental in fostering the tremendous growth at Mid- Valley were made possible by a strong administrative team led by a principal who re-configured the operational processes and focus at the school. Major restructuring of many elements of the instructional program included class schedules, teacher 97 assignments, meaningful professional development focused on student learning, and continual assessment of all school wide programs and activities (Nelson, 2008). Many of these changes emerged from an intense study of the school and “best practices” for middle school operation from the document “Taking Center Stage” (California Department of Education, 2001). Outside evaluators were utilized to assess current programs, practices and strategies in order to help inform teaching practices in Language Arts, Math and English Language Development (STW, 2007). Using this study, Mid-Valley adjusted its focus toward intense professional development and data-driven decision making (Nelson, 2008). These observations also led to the development and implementation of a plan of action for school improvement. This plan of action initially focused on five specific programs that were to be implemented throughout the school (STW, 2007): 1. The McTighe-Wiggins backwards design model which fosters school-wide communication, to enable teachers to use instructional time for developing curriculum and instructional practices more efficiently and effectively. 2. The Defour and Eaker model for developing a professional learning community (PLC) whereby teachers and administrators develop collaborative skills to achieve the schools goals. 3. The Fred Jones research-based Tools for Teaching classroom management program that emphasizes students becoming responsible for their own learning and teachers using the principles of positive motivation and rewards. 4. The nationally recognized AVID program (Advancement via Individual Determination), used school-wide, that requires students to be organized using a Mid-Valley Intermediate School binder, Cornell Notes, and critical thinking skills. 98 5. Kate Kinsella’s academic vocabulary development approach of using “mortar and brick words” school-wide to provide learning contexts for students (STW, 2007). Of the many findings (programs, practices, strategies) and emergent themes that became apparent during the study; through examination of data, interviews, surveys, and observations, each seems to stem from an unwavering focus on making Academic Excellence at Mid-Valley the singular most important component of the change efforts. It is clear that each of the emerging themes extends from this “laser” focus on improving student achievement by providing and maintaining an environment that promotes academic excellence in every classroom, program, practice, and strategy used at the school. Several major themes emerged from the study that play a critical role in promoting positive achievement outcomes for the students at Mid-Valley Intermediate School. These themes align with many literary sources and previous studies in the promotion of student achievement and efforts to address the achievement gap. From the data, four major themes emerged; Leadership, Professional Development/High Quality Teachers, High Expectations/Efficacy, and Data Driven Decision Making/Developmental Responsiveness. Discussion of specific programs, practices, and strategies in use at Mid- Valley to help promote high levels of student achievement and considered important to the ongoing success at Mid-Valley in improving student outcomes and achievement, (including extended day programs, AVID, and support services), are included in the discussion of the major themes. 99 Leadership (Constancy to Purpose) Introduction Throughout the school, there are numerous examples of individuals taking on leadership roles at every level of the organization from the administrative staff to teachers, guiding professional development and training activities, to taking ownership of student learning in their classrooms. One particular finding that emerges from the data, and is seen as essential to achieving high-levels of student achievement at the school, is the importance of the administration and leadership team in defining the goals and objectives for the school and shaping the school culture. Bolman (2003) notes that within the organization, structures must be designed to fit an organization’s circumstances (including its goals, technology, workforce, and environment). It is clear that the administrative staff and leadership team is at the heart of the decision making process and dedicated to providing and promoting programs, practices, and strategies throughout the school that will directly impact the achievement levels for each student at Mid-Valley. At Mid-Valley Intermediate, the school leadership plays a significant role in defining the culture of the school and in the development and implementation of the school’s mission and vision for student achievement. Effective leadership at the school and at the district level has had a dramatic effect on the implementation of change initiatives and directing school resources and support. It is the school wide focus for student success that guides all programs, practices, and strategies at Mid- 100 Valley Intermediate, and the current principal is the architect and head cheerleader for these efforts. The principal at Mid-Valley has been in that role for the past eight years, providing consistent leadership and helping to maintain the focus on achieving the mission and vision for student achievement at the school. This consistency at the administrative level is seen as a key element to the successful transformation at Mid- Valley. Continuity in the school leadership role is essential to providing not only direction for the school, but in helping to maintain the focus for continual improvement over time. From enforcement of the school dress code to the implementation of school wide changes in instructional programs and the assessment of practices, stability in the administration has been critical to achieving these goals. Defining the Mission Clearly defining the mission for the school was paramount to paving the way for change. The school vision and mission statements clearly reflect this effort and provide a clear focus for teaching and learning expectations at Mid Valley. “Mid- Valley Intermediate School aspires to be a place where excellent teaching challenges, supports, and encourages all young scholars to achieve academically, socially and personally to their maximum potential in a nurturing, inspiring, and creative environment” (School Vision Statement). Mid-Valley’s mission statement suggests that, “…through the collaboration process, we will provide a grade appropriate, challenging, California Content 101 Standards-Based, educational program for all students that recognizes and addresses the unique needs of all its diverse population” (Mid-Valley Mission Statement). One of the primary goals of the administration at Mid-Valley has been to work with staff to support the mission for the school and to provide the training, resources, and support to implement the components of the mission. Supporting the school mission has been paramount in helping to establish clear goals for student achievement and to guide programs, practices, and strategies at the school. Academic Excellence is the unambiguous goal of Mid-Valley Intermediate School. Early on in the tenure of the new administration, academic excellence was determined to be the clear focus for the school with each subsequent decision regarding programs, practices, and strategies reflective of that goal. The school leadership is clearly committed to guiding the entire instructional program towards academic excellence. The principal maintains a laser focus on developing and supporting programs, practices, and strategies, that build staff skill levels and promote high levels of student achievement. Addressing Barriers to Success Implementing change initiatives has not proven to be without difficulty. Following the determination that the mission of the school is Academic Excellence for all students, the administration asked the staff to identify issues that precluded the school from reaching their goals. During the initial assessment of the programs, 102 practices, and strategies at Mid-Valley, the Principal asked the staff to identify, “What are some of the things within our control that are keeping us from our goal?” By opening up the conversation to discuss those barriers to student success (inclusive of student population, community, etc.), the administration and staff could then begin to develop strategies in an effort to eliminate and/or address those issues. Right People on the Bus “The old adage ‘People are your most important asset’ turns out to be wrong. People are not your most important asset. The right people are.” (Collins, 2001) Key to the successful implementation of programs, practices, and strategies at the school is the conscientious effort on the part of the administrative team to have all the right people in all the right places to assure that everyone is matched to the appropriate content area, proficiency level, and instructional team (Collins, 2001). One of the keys to the success of Mid-Valley Intermediate has been the focus of the school leadership on building a strong team of teachers and staff who embrace the same desire to build strong and effective instructional programs and believe in the capacity of the students at Mid-Valley to not only learn, but to excel academically. Toward this goal, the leadership at Mid-Valley has adopted and advocates many of the principles for moving an organization from Good to Great, as articulated in Jim Collins’ book, Why Some Companies Make the Leap, and Others Don’t. (2001) Good to Great presents several strategies for moving an organization toward 103 success and presents a framework for organizations to set and achieve their goals and objectives. Of the many analogies presented in the book, clearly the most important to the success at Mid-Valley is the “First Who….Then What” strategy for hiring, placing, and moving the right people. Collins, (2001) reflects on what good-to-great leaders do to achieve their goals. “We expect that good-to-great leaders would begin by setting a new vision and strategy. We found instead that they first got the right people on the bus, the wrong people off the bus, and the right people in the right seats---and then they figured out where to drive it.” Recruitment of highly qualified teachers, providing those teachers with the training and tools they need to be successful, new-teacher support, and ongoing professional development are key factors in building and maintaining a strong, effective teaching force (Schleicher, et.al., 2008). Bolman (2003) supports the importance of building a cohesive team, and notes that it is critical to achieving organizational goals, emphasizing the importance of not only hiring the right people, but also investing in them and empowering them. In the words of one staff member, the key is, “finding the right people that feel the same way about student achievement.” To accomplish this, the principal brought key people onboard, or “on the bus.” According to Jim Collins (2001), “you’re either on the bus or out of the bus”. In the words of one staff member, one of the major keys to the success at the school was getting the right people onboard 104 and then from there “…it all took off to where it’s at, but I think that the main thing is having people, or staff that care about student achievement.” While it is imperative to have highly qualified staff members, it is also essential that they be in the right places and share the same vision for student achievement. As Jim Collins put it, it is not only imperative that you have the right people on the bus, but they need to be in the right seats, at the right time (Collins, 2001). Bolman (2003) focuses in the human resource frame on the importance of the relationship between individuals and the organization and the importance of these relationships in both individual job satisfaction and organizational effectiveness. In additional to building and fostering positive and productive relationships at the school, the leadership at Mid-Valley is focused on what Collins (2001) refers to as, “the 5-levels of leadership capabilities.” His Level 5 (Executive) is described as an “individual who blends extreme personal humility with intense professional will.” The leadership at Mid-Valley is clearly focused on modeling the characteristics of Level 5 leaders, noting that in Collins’ study, leaders of this type were found at the head of every good-to-great company during transitional phases in the organization. Leadership Team Leadership at Mid-Valley is not the exclusive domain of the school administration and, as part of the transformation of the school, a leadership team was 105 developed and charged with selecting and helping oversee the implementation of the programs, practices, and strategies at the school. The action plan or focus for the school year begins during the summer when the leadership team meets and creates what’s called a “needs assessment”, and based on that needs assessment one member of the leadership team notes, “prioritizes what’s going to be the main focus for the school year.” Another staff member reflects that in past years the needs assessment for the school has included “AVID, ELD strategies, Fred Jones, pacing plans, benchmarks, GATE, classroom management, and data assessment through Edusoft”, with the current focus on improving outcomes for ELD students at Mid-Valley. Bolman (2003) suggests that successful organizations work to coordinate individual and group efforts and link individual initiatives with organizational goals, through both following a chain of command and also through meetings, committees, and/or network structures. Use of “lateral” techniques, including developing task forces, and building network structures can be much more effective than traditional “chain of command” processes in promoting positive outcomes within the organization. At Mid-Valley, ideas and suggestions come from many sources at the school, and staff members feel encouraged and enabled to suggest new ideas for review by the leadership team. One staff member suggests that each idea is “vetted through our school leadership team, and thoroughly discussed to assure that everybody’s onboard.” 106 They additionally note the importance of staff “buy-in” and suggest that, “….unless everyone is buying into it (new idea), then we don’t go forward with it.” Structured Autonomy Mid-Valley has operated to some extent “under the radar” of the school district for the past several years, and has been able to develop and implement programs, practices, and strategies to improve student outcomes in many cases outside of the influence of the district office. This “accidental” autonomy has played a significant role in allowing the leadership team at Mid-Valley to evolve and move in directions that might have been considered out of sync with district policies, but has resulted in the school being able to study, develop, plan, and implement many of the programs that have proven invaluable and essential to the school’s efforts to improve student achievement. Nelson (2008) reflects on this “unique” situation and suggests that, … in the case of Mid-Valley, one important consideration is that the school was encouraged to develop idiosyncratically in response to their own local nature and needs due to the largely “hands off” response from the district central office. As the district was not able to provide extensive guidance and support for the school, Mid-Valley developed over the past several years independently of other schools in the local district. This allowed the school to function relatively free of some of the regulations and expectations many times foisted upon schools by school district management. Many other schools operate under the direction of district offices that can greatly limit the freedom of individual schools to develop programs that are specific to meeting the demands of their unique demographics and cultures. 107 As such, Mid-Valley did not have to rely solely on state/district assessment tools, but was afforded the opportunity to develop and implement independent assessment tools (benchmarks, instructional materials) to meet the specific learning needs of the student population. Throughout the school programs, practices, and strategies are tailored to meet the unique learning needs of Mid-Valley students. It is clear that a “one size fits all” approach in use in many districts and schools, does not apply at Mid-Valley. In response to the survey question, “The assessment of student learning is based on specific, clearly identified academic standards for student performance,” 100% of the teachers at the school noted that they either agreed (15%) or strongly agreed (85%). This is evident in classes throughout the school and is supportive of the school wide focus on providing high-level standards-based instruction. Teachers were split on survey questions regarding Academic Content with the most positive response suggesting that academic content is selected by individual teachers, instead of informed from specific district curriculum. 20. Academic content you expect your students to learn is dictated by district’s adopted curriculum. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 % Responses 26% 22% 33% 19% Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree 108 21. Academic content you expect your students to learn is selected by teachers. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 % Responses 7% 11% 19% 63% Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree There remains a clear and consistent focus on providing high levels of standards-based instruction throughout the school, and while there is autonomy in the delivery of instruction, fidelity to the core academic standards is key to continued improvement in teaching and learning at the school. “Structured Autonomy” defines the instructional programs at Mid-Valley, which embrace a focused standards-based instructional program, but provide teachers with the latitude of selecting instructional materials and adopting teaching methodologies and “tools” to achieve their instructional goals. Constancy to Purpose “Constancy to purpose is the most important element in changing a school. The tools are relatively easy to find and put into practice (e.g. Taking Center Stage, AVID. Tools for Teachers.) The job is difficult to do because it requires constancy to purpose” (Nelson, 2008). 109 One staff member added that, “we don’t bring in new programs, but whatever programs we do have, we stick to them and make sure that everyone is doing it. For example, the AVID strategies, Cornell Note taking.” The staff at Mid-Valley clearly maintains a “stick to it” approach, incorporating programs, practices, and strategies across the board at the school and staying with those programs that have been determined by the leadership team and staff as being beneficial. This constancy to purpose is essential to a uniform and consistent implementation of programs, practices, and strategies in place at the school, in addition to supporting the school vision and mission for continual growth and improvement. The leadership at Mid-Valley has clearly embraced the principles of organizational leadership found in Good to Great (Collins, 2001) among other strategies for informing school improvement and change. One point in particular, The Stockdale Paradox, suggests that, “you must maintain unwavering faith that you can and will prevail in the end, regardless of the difficulties, AND at the same time have the discipline to confront the most brutal facts of your current reality, whatever they might be.” Zero Ambiguity Perhaps one of the most telling features in the effort to provide for high levels of teaching and learning at the school is the deep commitment of the staff to not only stay the course, but that the course that they are on is correct. 110 There is zero ambiguity in the mind of the school administration and/or the school leadership team regarding the direction the school is heading. When asked about the possibility of reaching an API of 800 for the 2008/2009 school year, the Assistant Principal emphatically stated that the goal was not 800, but, in fact, the goal was to reach 1000! This inalterable commitment to building a better educational environment for the students at Mid-Valley is evident in every area of the school. Professional Development/High Quality Teachers Introduction Not only is it imperative to have the right people on the bus (Collins, 2001), it is important that the bus be heading in the right direction. The need to build the skill-set of teachers to effectively deliver instruction, manage their classrooms, and to promote high-levels of student achievement is critical. It is additionally essential that they work effectively together toward the common goal of academic excellence. Over the past several years, professional development has become an integral part of the overall effort to improve student achievement at the school, with teachers actively engaged in developing and delivering new training, and reinforcing previous successful learning experiences. This is particularly evident as the school continues to evaluate and work toward improving instructional programs at the school. As the school continues to address the specific needs of the student population at the school and to review current programs, practices, and strategies at 111 the school, it is important that professional development provide essential and meaningful learning experiences that directly impact and improve teaching and learning at the school. Collaboration/Professional Learning are seen as key components of continual growth and development at Mid-Valley, and each staff member is viewed as an integral component of the instructional team (Nelson, 2008). Elmore (2007) suggests that as schools gain experience with cycles of improvement and stasis (or decline), they recognize that the process of school improvement is the process of uncovering and solving progressively more difficult and challenging problems of student learning, which in turn demands new learning from adults. Professional development activities at Mid-Valley are clearly focused and structured around providing teachers with the tools they need to improve teaching and learning in their classrooms and to promote greater levels of student achievement at the school. Professional development and training at the school has included the following topics: A Focus on Learning, Student Achievement, Results Orientation, Data Analysis, Academic Excellence, Focus on Academic Achievement, Racial Disparities, Focus on the Future, 90/90/90 Schools, and Self-Efficacy. Mid-Valley Intermediate has a dedicated Professional Development Learning Center in one of the buildings on campus. The room is organized to support staff development activities with round tables placed throughout the room. This further supports the clear commitment to professional growth at Mid-Valley and the 112 importance of high-quality and meaningful professional learning to continual improvements and student achievement at the school. Elmore (2007) notes that, “it’s a lot easier to stay the course if the course is something you anticipated. As educators gain experience, they are more able to explain how what they’re doing will lead to the results they want and choose professional development approaches accordingly.” Professional Development at Mid-Valley is taken seriously and having teachers do the training encourages collaboration, and provides the opportunity for teachers to take a leadership role at the school. Having teachers support and pursue professional growth by participating in learning activities is key to building the skill-set of each staff member and to affecting change in instructional programs at the school. Each summer the staff members attend a Summer Institute where they review data, set goals for the coming year, and participate in professional learning activities. Summer Institute The Summer Institute is an important element in promoting collaboration and the consistent implementation of programs and practices at the school. For the past four years, teachers at Mid-Valley have participated in a (fully paid) two-week Summer Institute (MVSI) during which STAR/CST data is carefully analyzed to determine the overall effectiveness of instructional programs and to identify areas for improvement (STW, 2007). 113 According to one staff member, the Summer Institute is “where we invite all staff members to come and participate and the majority of the time, it’s not mandatory” Participation in the Summer Institute is not mandated, but reflective of “Challenge By Choice” so “teachers choose to be here.” During the Summer Institute, many topics are discussed stemming from the monitoring of programs throughout the school year. From classroom management, to creating standards-based assessments, to backwards planning and the use of technology, the Mid-Valley Summer Institute provides teachers with a unique opportunity to explore best practices and to collaborate in the development and implementation of effective strategies for improving student achievement at the school. The use of Cornell Notes, Blooms Taxonomy and Costa’s Levels of Questioning to develop higher order thinking skills help promote high expectations for teaching and learning at the school (STW, 2007). Teachers, additionally, train in developing and incorporating meaningful benchmark assessments into their instructional programs based on the review of assessment data and findings of previous testing, CST blueprint standards, and CAHSEE blueprints. This “backwards” planning is used to inform the development of a rigorous pacing guide for each course and grade level (STW, 2007). One teacher reflected that, “I think that the teachers find it (Summer Institute) beneficial because, in addition to our professional development meetings, they’re learning something.” 114 Professional Learning Professional Development training at Mid-Valley is seen by many to be a key component of the improvement in teaching and learning at the school and a contributing factor to the increase in student achievement at the school. It is also key to the success of professional development activities at Mid- Valley that the teachers have taken on the leadership role in developing and presenting the activities and learning to the rest of the staff. The principal noted the importance of providing staff the opportunity to take a lead role in the development of programs, practices, and strategies that will improve instructional programs, and to “try as much as possible to avoid mandating things, because that’s probably the worst way to try and get compliance.” Incorporating the tenets of “challenge by choice”, teachers are provided with the opportunity to move forward based on their own motivation without being directed by the school administration. Participation and involvement by choice empowers teachers to take on more responsibility and leadership, and to pursue new and innovative strategies to improve teaching and learning in their classrooms. Having teachers take a leadership role in developing and implementing staff development activities is essential to helping build strong instructional programs and to the successful and consistent incorporation of programs, practices, and strategies throughout the school. One teacher noted the importance of teachers taking the lead in developing and delivering professional training to their colleagues, suggesting that, “it (Professional Development) also builds confidence in the teachers, because 115 some of the teachers are performing the training. They’re training the other teachers. When we started out, we weren’t there.” Survey responses reflected the value of the professional development activities at Mid-Valley with 99% of respondents agreeing or strongly agreeing with the statement that, “My school has a school-wide professional development program or programs for teachers to enable all children in the school to meet the state academic content standards”. A similar response reflected the value of current practices with 100% of respondents Strongly Agreeing or Agreeing that, “Teachers have an active role in identifying and implementing professional development goals and objectives for the school.” Improvement in effectiveness due to the impact of professional development activities is reflected in the very positive response to the statement, “Professional development training over the past year has provided useful information helping me increase my teaching effectiveness”, with more that 96% of respondents agreeing or strongly agreeing with that statement. Collaboration Mid-Valley is focused on providing teachers opportunities to collaborate and work with their peers and colleagues on everything from professional development activities to the examination of data for student placement. One staff member stated that, “Collaboration is all over the place. It’s at the grade level, it’s at the subject level, ….if you look at our master schedule, it’s even in the master schedule.” From teaming of teachers to the physical layout of the 116 school, collaboration of teachers, administrators, and staff is evident and supported throughout the school. One teacher recalled that early on, during the principal’s first year, “When we would develop something (new strategy) he would walk into the classroom and instead of saying ‘good job’ his first question would be, ‘does everybody else have that?’ And immediately that started developing that whole sense of sharing and collaborating with everyone else.” One staff member affirms that, “the emphasis on team is very important! We don’t do anything here without, it is a team concept model but with the focus being high student achievement, and having high expectations” The strong survey response (89% Strongly Agree) to the statement, “Teachers are encouraged to collaborate with other teachers on instructional matters on a regular basis” is further evidence of the importance of working together toward improving student achievement at the school. Of the themes that emerged through the study, teacher collaboration and professional learning are seen as key components of the continual improvement effort at Mid-Valley. It is clear that tremendous effort has been made over the past several years to not only recruit highly skilled teachers, but to, additionally, provide them with comprehensive and meaningful professional learning opportunities to help them develop and hone the skills and build the confidence (efficacy) necessary to provide each student with a high level of quality instruction. 117 High Expectations (Academic Excellence)/Efficacy Introduction Informing many of the changes that have helped lead Mid-Valley to its exemplary growth and achievement levels is the laser focus of the school leadership, staff, and community on continual improvement and high expectations (STW, 2007). At a professional development meeting at Mid-Valley a representative from an outside agency was making a presentation on services and commented that of the many schools they served, Mid-Valley was particularly notable in that they have established and continually reinforce “exceptionally” high expectations for all students, both academically and behaviorally. The representative went on to suggest that at other schools that they worked with, holding students and staff to such high expectations was clearly not the norm. School Culture Maintaining a culture of high-expectations for student behavior, academic performance, and taking responsibility for student learning is evident in classrooms and throughout the school. The school leadership, teachers, and staff all take responsibility for the performance of the students in the school and hold themselves accountable for accomplishing their role in helping the school reach its goals and objectives. One teacher thoughtfully reflected that the bar height for student achievement was only limited by the “height of the (self-imposed) verticals.” Knowing high 118 levels of teaching and learning for all students was both doable and necessary has motivated staff members to develop and implement increasingly more rigorous and challenging learning opportunities for all students at the school. From classroom discipline, to the analysis of student data, teachers and students are held to high standards for performance. Expectations for behavior and preparedness are communicated to students and parents, and are enforced uniformly across the school, and instructional programs are geared to providing students with high levels of standards-based content each and every day. Maintaining high expectations for each student extends not only to academic performance, but also, to classroom behavior and preparedness for learning on the part of students. The school staff takes great pride in the turnaround in student conduct and preparedness for school. Students are expected to arrive each day on time and to come to school each day prepared to learn, with their school supplies, books, agenda, binder, and completed homework (STW, 2007). The school also enforces a strict uniform and dress code. Requiring school uniforms has helped to eliminate gang influence and helps to reinforce appropriate behavior and promotes a professional learning environment throughout the school (STW, 2007). School rules and expectations for learning are enforced throughout the school and are evident in classrooms and on the school grounds. Every classroom has posted the “Mid-Valley Expectations” poster, and each teacher reaffirms these expectations to students continually throughout the school year (STW, 2007). 119 Students are engaged and focused on academic goals in large part because all staff members reinforce behavioral standards consistently and uniformly. Consistency Consistency in the implementation and enforcement of school rules and behavioral expectations is key to developing a “culture” where students clearly understand those expectations and know that in each room, everyday, they will be held to the same standards. One teacher summed up the results of many years of consistently implementing a uniform behavior policy at the school and noted that now, “because the kids have had their brothers and sisters and cousins (attend Mid-Valley), now they know what to expect so they come already very well behaved. It’s amazing! When people visit, they don’t understand why it’s working so well. That over these many years, it’s a process, and now we can relax, but it was hard.” No Excuses One staff member sums up the commitment of school staff toward promoting excellence and notes that, “At this school we don’t have excuses for failure! I think in our field of education, we put the blame on a lot of things, on the parents, on the students, and we don’t assign the responsibility to us.” This feeling is echoed when talking with staff throughout the school, with one teacher suggesting that, “At our school for example, when a student fails, the teacher feels they failed them, rather 120 than the other way around, and when you ask our teachers about the percentage of students who they feel could be successful, they are going to tell you ‘all of them!’ 100%!” High expectations and no excuses for failure are clearly evident throughout the school, with one staff member reflecting that, “…when we walk our campus, we all see the same thing. We see that Jose Cortez or whatever, he’s going to be the next doctor or the next lawyer. But the main thing is that the caring, the nurturing … and the students see that and see that we all work hard for them, and they in return do well.” Efficacy Teacher efficacy, and “buy in” is essential to the successful implementation of programs, practices, and strategies. While district and school administration may be instrumental in setting the bar height, it is the teachers who are charged with holding that bar up daily for their students. They must not only believe that their students can achieve at higher levels, but they must also feel that they have the skills, knowledge, and ability to help each student meet high standards and expectations. This positive attitude and belief that each and every child at the school is fully capable of high levels of achievement and can meet exceptionally high standards is contagious as has been evident by the dramatic turnaround at Mid-Valley Intermediate School. 121 The deep commitment on the part of the school leadership and staff toward promoting high levels of self-efficacy and confidence is evident throughout the school. From interactions with students to classroom environments and instruction, it is clear that the school community is dedicated to helping students build the skills and confidence to be highly successful in high-school and college, and prepare for success in the workplace. Block scheduling and team teaching are effective in promoting positive and productive teacher-student relationships. Reducing the number of student/teacher contacts allows teachers to get to better understand their students’ specific learning needs and background, and helps teachers tailor instruction to individual students. Strengthening relationships and creating opportunities for better and more positive connectivity with school helps to support higher levels of efficacy. Helping students to understand that they can and will be successful is at the core of all aspects of the educational programs, practices, and strategies at Mid- Valley Intermediate. From block scheduling and team teaching to parent conferences and individual support for students, the emphasis at the school is to help students understand that they can and will be successful and to help provide them with the education and skills necessary to achieve their educational and career goals. At every level of the organization are symbolic evidence of the school focus and cultural elements, which serve as reminders to the Mid-Valley Intermediate community of who they are and how they are to do things (Bolman, 2003). These “symbols” help students and staff continually reflect on the importance of their task 122 and challenges them to continue to work toward building a school which fosters high levels of teaching and learning. From the school principal taking the time to learn the name of every student at the school, to college pennants and references throughout the school, Mid-Valley clearly communicates to every student the importance of school, and emphasizes the expectation that each and every student will be successful. Every staff member at Mid-Valley Intermediate communicates to each student the expectation that he or she will attend college. This theme is pervasive and staff members remind students of the A-G requirements for admission to the University of California in class and during parent conferences (STW, 2007). One teacher suggested that, “We have parent meetings, where we educate our parents on A-G requirements, how to get out of the English Learner program, how to get them ready for high-school, and how to get them ready for college.” The school AVID program is specifically designed to help students focus and prepare for success in college. AVID strategies are implemented across the curriculum, with all teachers trained in various aspects of the AVID model and building those strategies into their instructional programs (STW, 2007). Throughout the school there are college pennants, banners, and other “reminders” of the emphasis on getting a college education. Above the door to each classroom is a college banner. Teachers incorporate AVID strategies and focus on college in their instructional programs, and at parent meetings the importance of college is discussed. 123 Bilingual Staff Members Bilingual Staff members provide excellent role models for students at Mid- Valley and provide support for student and their families in their native language. One staff member noted that between 60 to 80% of staff members are bi-lingual, and suggested that, “you still have those teachers who are not (bi-lingual), but the good thing about it is that our schedule is blocked and teachers have a partner teacher so (while) they might not speak Spanish their partner does, so that at a parent meeting the other can facilitate.” Several of the school’s teachers also live in the local community help to build and support relationships with families throughout the area. The importance of having teachers who speak the primary language of many of the local families is key to promoting positive relationship with the community and the success of programs and activities at the school (STW, 2007). Having staff that is bilingual can greatly enhance instructional programs, and communication between the school and parents, in addition to providing students with role models. This is also representative of the symbolic frame in that students see Latino teachers who have successfully completed college and teacher training (Bolman, et.al. 2003). Latino teachers also help provide the largely Latino student population with positive cultural role models, and, through their understanding of the unique nuances of the local community, can help students overcome cultural barriers 124 and to better understand that they can achieve their goals of going to college and being successful in the workplace. Overcoming Excuses Initially, excuses abounded regarding the ability of students to achieve at Mid-Valley and addressing these excuses became paramount to changing the culture of the school. Several excuses presented themselves early on in the discussion, including comments suggesting that “you can’t have a good school in this neighborhood”, and how are we going to be able to teach “these” kids, etc. The school administration has made a concerted effort to address these “excuses” for why the students at the school can’t succeed by working with individual teachers, recruiting and hiring teachers who feel that the students at the school “can” learn and become highly successful, and replacing those who continued to harbor doubt about the ability of the students at Mid-Valley. One teacher at the school summed it up by suggesting that each teacher takes responsibility for the students’ learning: So if my students are not increasing, making progress, it’s not the students, it’s me. … many times, teachers find themselves, saying, ‘you know, this student, they bring them to me too low, they don’t know how to speak English, and the parents are not good parents, and they have all these issues.’… We put all of that aside. NO Excuses. No matter where the student is, or where they are coming from, they’re still going to succeed, they’re still entitled to academic excellence…you know, they have the same rights, to get the same education, as any private school, as parents who pay thousands of dollars for their kid’s education, our kids have the right to get that type of education. We said, “NO MORE EXCUSES!” And I’m 125 going to be held responsible for my student’s gains. I want to make sure that they are making progress. And if they’re not, I need to ask myself, “what am I doing wrong? This sentiment was also reflected by another staff member who noted the, “Go-getting mentality of the staff”, and expressed the feelings of staff emphatically stating, “Nothing gets in the way of these students learning. No excuses, let’s get all students to proficiency.” One teacher summed up the feelings of many at the school and articulated the importance of the school mission for helping students develop the skills, attitude, and build efficacy by, “insuring that they get the highest quality education and that we know that education is for many of our students the only hope, the only ticket out, out of the conditions that they’re in.” Data Driven Decision Making/Developmental Responsiveness Introduction The use of data to inform instruction and to monitor student progress is supported by literature and practice, with the caveat that while many schools profess to use data to guide instructional programs, few have invested the time and effort necessary to build the infrastructure necessary to help teachers become comfortable with the many sources and forms of available data. Mid-Valley Intermediate has invested great time and energy to develop the skills necessary to effectively use student data to not only inform instruction, but to carefully monitor student progress toward specific learning goals and mastery of 126 standards. The principal of the school emphasized that the use of data is, “crucial to charting the course for the school.” From careful review of student/program data (STAR/CST) during the Summer Institute, to the use of Edusoft and Easy Grade Pro, data is continually utilized at Mid-Valley to inform instructional programs, monitor student progress, and to guide decision making at the school. Easy Grade Pro and Edusoft software programs are used to help monitor and communicate student progress and to provide teachers with instant access to student assessment data. Teachers utilize assessment data to help tailor instruction and support for specific students. Information regarding student achievement also serves as a focal point for setting goals and objectives for individual students during parent conferences. This information is also presented to individual students allowing them to use the results to reflect on their own performance toward mastery of the standards (STW, 2007). Teachers use pre- and post benchmark assessments to assess student progress towards mastery of standards, and results are discussed during grade-level meetings to better support individual student progress. Using data on many levels has greatly enhanced the instructional programs at Mid-Valley and has been an essential component of the improvement efforts at the school. 127 Profile/Performance Cards Use of data at Mid-Valley ranges between the development and use of “profile/performance cards” for each student based on CST and teacher assessments, to monitoring student progress and performance bands to assure that students are placed in the appropriate courses and levels. The use of these cards is key to monitoring student progress at the school. Cards are given to feeder elementary schools and ask (elementary) teachers basic information, including CST scores, student placement in ELD, and/or whether the student is a special education student. Elementary teachers are then asked to make a recommendation on the assignment for the coming school year in LA and Math. According to the school counselor, “the performance cards end up with data for two years of CST scores, including the current year, CELT scores, (if the student is an ELD student), and the results for the Algebra readiness test that we administer to all students.” Profile/Performance Cards are utilized to help provide data for each student on their mastery level of Language Arts and Math standards. Such cards are used to help differentiate instruction and meet the unique pacing needs for each student. Performance Bands Beginning in May or June, school staff begins the process for assessing student data to help determine each student’s performance band that is used to tailor scheduling and instruction for that individual student. 128 Several staff members reiterated the importance of student placement according to performance bands, with one suggesting that, “We have High Point, we have Holt, we have Measuring Up, … but I don’t think that’s what makes the students successful. … we group the students based on their needs, based on their skill levels, based on their language level, and that alone is an intervention, because the teacher who is teaching them doesn’t have to teach at the advanced level and the far below basic at the same time so the teacher has a smaller range of students that she has to teach. And from there the teacher knows I have beginners and early- intermediates in my class and these are the things that I need to teach them, whether it’s High Point, or whether it’s extended library, whether it’s listening centers, anything that they need to get their hands on.” Developmental responsiveness to individual student learning needs based on data is an essential component of the instructional program at Mid-Valley and is seen as critical to promoting higher levels of student achievement in all performance bands. Developmental Responsiveness At Mid-Valley student data is continually monitored and reviewed to chart student progress towards mastery of standards and to assess their current status to assure that they are placed in the correct courses. These homogeneous groupings are essential to providing a high level of instruction targeted toward the specific learning needs of each student. 129 One staff member noted that, “During the school year, students are placed according to the performance band, levels.” However, “sometimes you have students who are advanced, but are not working to their potential and we have to take that into consideration.” Student progress is continually monitored throughout the year to assure that the student is placed in the correct classes and movement between classes based on academic performance is common. The use of multiple assessment tools is essential to accomplishing the goal of developing a clear understanding of student progress. Mid-Valley incorporates state, local, and teacher-created assessments to ascertain student strengths and weaknesses and to guide instructional programs. Teacher designed assessments, including quizzes, tests, written assignments, portfolios, dioramas, and performances can help teachers refine instruction and assess student mastery of content standards (Nelson, 2008). Homogeneous Groupings “Because the kids are homogeneously grouped we can tailor the lessons to the exact need of the child. And the child’s need is the exact same thing as the child next to him, and next to him, and next to him. So it’s all very easily tailored to make sure that they all get it.” One teacher further articulated the importance of homogeneous groupings and provided this description. “For example, our class would be primarily Proficient and Advanced. So we spend plenty of time on history, although we really try to 130 integrate it so that we focus on Language Arts, whereas our students who are Below Basic or Far Below Basic would get much less history. It would be a little bit history with the primary focus on Language Arts.” Nelson (2008) reflects on the importance of homogeneous groupings, and suggests, “that any changes, including block scheduling, intervention programs for ELL students, teacher training programs, and homogeneous grouping of students (based on performance bands in each subject area) to help foster “targeted” lesson planning and to limit the amount of differentiated instruction necessary to help students increase their skill levels in various subject areas.” One interview exchange emphasized the frustration many teachers felt before Mid-Valley began to use data to help place students in courses according to performance bands. Question: Has the school always had the homogeneous groupings? Response: No. Question: When you first came did they have that? Response: No. And it was a nightmare! Question: Ok. Response: I had (new to the United States) students with my GATE students, and I couldn’t address the needs of ...(bell in background). I remember his name…..I couldn’t address his needs! I just kind of threw my hands up with him ‘cause I didn’t know Spanish either. So, “do the best you can!”… and with the GATE student, she easily fell in with the rest of the students in the class. “You’re not trying hard!” “What’s wrong with you?” I couldn’t challenge her enough. Motivate her enough. Now with the groups it’s easier to motivate because you know exactly what’s going on with them. And they are not alone in the class. They are not the only ones; there are many of them. So now when we deliver motivational talk to them, they are hearing it, instead of “yeah, she’s just yammering her jaws again.” 131 Incorporating homogeneous groupings based on proficiency levels and achievement bands has enabled teachers to better focus instruction on the specific learning needs of individual students by eliminating the need to differentiate instruction in heterogeneous groupings toward the varied needs of learning groups. Below Basic and Far Below Basic students are provided intense focused instruction in LA and math to increase performance in those areas. Instructional Blocks are designed to provide intervention and appropriate learning experiences for these students. Teachers are assigned to these blocks and are provided training in working successfully with students at these ability levels and academic performance bands. Hybrid scheduling designed to meet the specific learning needs of individual students and continual “re-examination” of placement helps to assure that each student is placed in the appropriate classes and is receiving the most appropriate learning experiences. Having students placed according to performance band enhances the teachers’ ability to provide meaningful instruction and learning experiences for students, and continual assessment of student growth assures that students are correctly placed throughout the school year. Discussion The changes at Mid-Valley Intermediate school did not happen overnight, but required tremendous resolve on the part of the administrative and leadership team to “stay the course” toward positive change and to work collaboratively on developing 132 and implementing programs, practices, and strategies that have proven to be effective in promoting high levels of student achievement. Over the past several years, a combination of factors, including strong and consistent leadership, shared goals and objectives (mission) for student achievement, the adoption of several “best practice” programs, practices, and strategies, personnel changes, building a positive school culture which embraces a “laser” focus on academic excellence coupled with the belief in the ability of each student to succeed, have contributed to the great success at Mid-Valley Intermediate School. 133 CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction This chapter will consider the emergent themes and findings from this study in light of the initial research questions and literature review. This chapter will additionally address the possible impact of study limitations and data collection procedures on the study findings and will look at the implications of the study and recommendations for future research. Purpose and Significance of the Study This qualitative study, which is one of nine similar studies conducted by the members of the thematic dissertation group provides a detailed examination of the programs, practices, and strategies in use at a high performing middle school that has demonstrated tremendous results in promoting high levels of student achievement in a traditionally underperforming demographic group. Understanding the programs, practices, and strategies incorporated into the instructional programs at the school can help inform structures at similar schools that have not been able to achieve similar results within their student populations. The findings of this case study, and detailed explanation of how Mid-Valley Intermediate has transformed the school culture and overcome many difficulties to become a model learning environment that supports high levels of student 134 achievement, can greatly enhance the ability of other schools, who are attempting to address the unique needs of similar demographic student groups, to build their own school culture and to develop and implement instructional programs to similarly promote high levels of student achievement. Methodology A detailed qualitative case-study approach provides excellent insight into the nuances of the instructional programs at the study school and through the use of surveys, the examination of records, interviews, and observations, provided the researcher with great understanding of the programs, practices, and strategies in use at the school that have been recognized as promoting high levels of student achievement and helping to bridge the achievement gap. Incorporating elements of the research design methodologies of Cresswell (2003) and Gall, Gall, & Borg, (2007) into the study presented the researcher with an effective research protocol by which to gather, organize, and disseminate information. Using these tools, this study was able to successfully examine the essential programs, practices, and strategies in use at Mid-Valley Intermediate School and to present such findings as they relate to major emergent themes in a sequential “rich” descriptive narrative manner (Gall, et.al., 2007). 135 Summary of Findings Elmore (2007) notes that, “as schools improve, three different but related processes are occurring.” First, the level of knowledge and skill that teachers and administrators bring to the work of instructional practice is increasing. Second, teaching is moving from an individual to collective activity, and internal accountability—the level of agreement and alignment across classrooms around powerful practices—is increasing. Finally, the school is aligning its organizational resources around support for instructional improvement. Mid-Valley Intermediate has accomplished what many schools only dream about. They have significantly, over time, improved the achievement levels of their students in comparison to state averages and similar schools. To achieve this degree of success required the many divergent stakeholder groups at the school to design and support a clear mission for academic excellence and to work together to achieve the goals and objectives of that mission. Connections to Literature The findings in literature supported many study findings, including the importance of access to high-levels of instruction and curriculum, high expectations for students and teachers, the importance of strong and consistent leadership, and efficacy in promoting high levels of student achievement. The use of data to inform instructional programs, practices, and strategies was clearly evident in the study, and recognized as critical to promoting high-levels of student achievement at Mid- 136 Valley. However, while noted as an important component for guiding instructional programs, the use of data has been inconsistent at many schools. Haycock (2002) notes that research makes it very clear that all students will gain from being in a rigorous, college preparatory curriculum. However, a disproportionate number of minority and poor students continue to be relegated to the general or vocational track. At Mid-Valley Intermediate School, all students have access to high levels of standards-based curriculum and are inundated with information about college planning and preparation. The school has placed great emphasis on getting each student ready for college success by implementing AVID strategies across the board and working with students and their families to help develop the tools necessary for college and career success. Review of literature clearly emphasizes the importance of strong leadership in setting a tone of high expectations, promoting student-centered learning communities, and establishing and maintaining a school culture conducive to promoting high-levels of student achievement. The literature review also identified the recruitment, training, support, and need to keep highly skilled teachers at the school and to include them in the operation and decision making process as a key element of building and maintaining a strong instructional program focused on promoting high levels of student achievement. The administration and leadership team at Mid-Valley are clearly focused on providing every student at the school with rigorous and meaningful learning experiences, and on maintaining a school wide culture of high expectations by building and supporting collaborative relationships. 137 Throughout the study, the importance of having the “right people on the bus”, and in the “right seat on the bus” was noted repeatedly as a key component of the ongoing success at Mid-Valley’s success in promoting high levels of student achievement. Wayne (2003) discusses the importance of having high-quality teachers in key positions, suggesting that while some studies focus on teacher quantity and attrition, a much greater issue is the issue of quality, and developing highly-qualified teachers to move our student population forward. Snell (2003) noted that, “It appears that only by creating a school environment where good teaching is fostered and made available to all students that the achievement gap can begin to narrow and close.” At Mid-Valley there is a clear, and unambiguous effort to bring the right people into the school that can have a meaningful and decisive impact on improving the educational program. There is also a concerted effort to provide each teacher with the training and tools necessary to do the job well. With study after study emphasizing the importance of student access to high quality instruction, developing and maintaining a strong instructional program is a key component of student success at Mid-Valley. Also critical to the success at Mid-Valley has been the belief that every student can and will be successful. This strong sense of efficacy is apparent at every level of the organization. The sense of efficacy and belief in students’ abilities is noted repeatedly in the literature as an essential component of promoting student success. At schools where teachers do not expect students to succeed, or don’t have 138 the confidence in their own ability to teach their students, students do not perform well. Rothman (2001) notes that these low expectations, in turn, may convince some of these students not to try hard in school, and as a result, they perform less well and have a significantly higher probability of dropping out. Mid-Valley maintains extremely high expectations for students’ academic performance and behavior. Mid-Valley also maintains extremely high expectations for each classroom instructor to develop and implement high levels of standards- based instruction in every classroom, everyday. LaRocque (2007) provides support for the efforts at Mid-Valley and notes that “High expectations and standards for academic and personal behavior are necessary components for schools to change, along with the recognition that decisions for change must be made as part of a team.” Belief in each student’s ability to be successful, and concurrent belief in each teacher’s ability to deliver high-levels of meaningful standards-based instruction has been essential to the changes at Mid-Valley in student achievement. Strong and consistent leadership, teacher recruitment and training, peer collaboration, high- expectations for all stakeholder groups, and the promotion of self-efficacy at all levels of the organization have been critical to the successful development and implementation of the programs, practices, and strategies at Mid-Valley. Bandura (1994) notes that maintaining a strong sense of efficacy enhances accomplishment and well being in many ways. Bandura suggests that, “people with high assurance in their capabilities approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered rather than as threats to be avoided.” At Mid-Valley Intermediate School, it is clear that over 139 the past several years, at all levels of the organization and within all stakeholder groups, the belief that they could actually change the culture, programs, practices, and strategies, and ultimately impact student outcomes and achievement levels in a very positive way, has been at the core of each and every decision and action at the school and has led in great part to the tremendous strides toward promoting high levels of student achievement at the school. Furthermore, through this comprehensive study, it has become evident that a sequential and focused approach is key to creating and supporting long-term structural change in organizations. Supporting such change requires an unambiguous focus on promoting excellence at every level of the organizational structure, building a comprehensive delivery system to assure that each student receives appropriate and meaningful instruction focused on his or her specific learning needs, and continual assessment of the impact of every program, practice, and strategy. This study also demonstrates the substantial value of developing a clear mission statement and action plan supportive of specific achievement goals and objectives for improvement. Incorporating a collaborative and uniformly implemented action plan and establishing accountability criteria (expectations) for each stakeholder group clearly informs profound improvements in teaching and learning, has a very positive impact on student achievement levels, and helps to ameliorate achievement gaps between various demographic groups. 140 Conclusions The turnaround at Mid-Valley Intermediate School over the past several years has been exceptional. From one of the lowest achieving middle schools in the state (decile 1-similar schools ranking of 5) with an API of 480 to their current API of 770 (decile 6-similar school ranking of 10), the school has demonstrated that the improbable is possible. Elmore, (2007) notes that there are no “breakthroughs” or dramatic “turnarounds” in the improvement of low-performing schools. It is clear that in the case of Mid-Valley Intermediate that was the case as well. There was no magic wand or short cuts to improving student outcomes and achievement. In the words of the principal of Mid-Valley Intermediate, “How do you eat an elephant? One bite at a time.” This succinct perspective defines the continual improvement efforts at Mid- Valley over the past several years. One step at a time has proven to be key to the ongoing process of continual analysis and review of all aspects of the educational program, development and implementation of programs, practices, and strategies that will enhance teaching and learning at the school. Keeping a vigilant eye on the goal of improving opportunities for students to achieve at the school continues to be at the core of all aspects of the educational community at Mid-Valley. The story of Mid-Valley Intermediate is not over. The school continues to evolve and improve every day through the careful (critical) assessment and evaluation of current programs, practices, and strategies, and exploring new innovations that will better support learning goals for all students, inform stronger 141 instructional programs and practices, and promote academic excellence throughout the school. Implications of Study This study clearly provides an impetus for similar schools to carefully examine their current programs, practices, and strategies and to work toward developing a culture that emphasizes the promotion of high levels of student achievement and the understanding that all students, regardless of race, background, and socio-economic status can meet the same standards and achieve at the same level. Mid-Valley Intermediate is not an anomaly. What has taken place at the school over the past several years can be replicated at schools across the nation, helping to promote high levels of achievement in traditionally underperforming demographic groups. Interpretive Remarks The recipe for success is fairly simple. Develop a clear and unambiguous mission, have the right people in the right places to enact that mission, provide them with the skills (training), support, and resources to get the job done, and stick to it. Elmore (2007) notes that “The discipline of school improvement lies in developing strong internal processes for self-monitoring and reflection- not in meeting an artificially imposed schedule of improvement.” 142 Mid-Valley Intermediate has done just that, and with spectacular results! These are not extraordinary people. These are ordinary individuals driven to do extraordinary things in the quest to help their students succeed. United and focused on helping their students reach beyond perceived barriers to success, the staff at Mid-Valley Intermediate has created a (standards-based) student-centered learning environment that promotes greater and greater levels of student achievement, and helps prepare each student for success in high-school and beyond. During the course of this study it became clear that other schools could adopt similar programs, practices, and strategies and replicate what has been developed and implemented at Mid-Valley. By maintaining a clear focus on academic excellence, building an infrastructure that supports high quality instruction, and understanding that systemic change happens over time, other schools can build similar dynamic student centered learning environments that promote high levels of student achievement for all demographic groups. The example of Mid-Valley Intermediate School can additionally be used to promote change and inspire other schools to recognize that moving traditionally underperforming student groups toward higher levels of achievement is not only possible, it is clearly something that can be accomplished by motivated and committed educational leaders, teachers, staff members, and stakeholders. In spite of the tremendous successes of the past several years, it is clear in conversations with staff members and the school leadership that the job at Mid- Valley is not done. One staff member summed up the feelings of the Mid-Valley 143 staff, suggesting that, “…I don’t feel like staff members feel like they have done anything yet!” We don’t have all our students to be Proficient yet, and I think that until we get to that point, that we are not going to be happy with ourselves. “We’re honest. We haven’t accomplished anything yet. We still don’t have all our students scoring Proficient.” Recommendations for Future Research My study included only one school. If I were going to conduct further research into this area of study, I would expand the study to include additional schools to further assess the impact of specific programs, practices, and strategies on student achievement. I would also include a detailed examination of the relationship between the school site and the school district office to help ascertain the impact of that relationship on the ability of the school to develop and implement programs specifically targeted at improving student outcomes and helping to reduce the achievement gap. I would focus additional study on the affect of strong district office support on the successful development and implementation of programs, practices, and strategies that positively impact student achievement levels and help to bridge the achievement gap. Additional study focused on the impact of strong district office support vs. a “hands-off” approach on the successful development and implementation of programs, practices, and strategies would be particularly beneficial. Building a clear understanding of the unique dynamic within districts and 144 between the central office and individual schools, and how those critical relationships inform the successful development and implementation of programs, practices, and strategies that can help close the achievement gap, would be of great value to districts and schools throughout the country who continually struggle to close the achievement gap between various demographic groups. 145 GLOSSARY • A Nation At Risk- A Nation at Risk: The Imperative For Educational Reform- A 1983 report from the National Commission on Excellence in Education which suggested that in comparison to school systems worldwide, schools in the United States were failing miserably. • Academic Performance Index (API)-Per the California Department of Education, “the Academic Performance Index is the cornerstone of California's Public Schools Accountability Act of 1999 (PSAA). The purpose of the API is to measure the academic performance and growth of schools. It is a numeric index (or scale) that ranges from a low of 200 to a high of 1000. A school's score on the API is an indicator of a school's performance level. The statewide API performance target for all schools is 800. A school's growth is measured by how well it is moving toward or past that goal. A school's API Base is subtracted from its API Growth to determine how much the school improved in a year” (CDE Website). • Achievement Gap-According to the University of Southern California’s thematic dissertation group, the achievement gap is the persistent disparity in academic performance between groups of students, particularly between White and or Asian and affluent students and students of color, minority, poverty and second language learners. • Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP)-Per the California Department of Education, “The federal No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 requires that California determine whether or not each public school and local educational agency (LEA) is making Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP). (An LEA is a school district or county office of education.) AYP criteria encompass four areas: participation rate, percent proficient (also referred to as Annual Measurable Objectives or AMOs), API as an additional indicator for AYP, and graduation rate. Each of these four areas has specific requirements. Participation rate and percent proficient criteria must be met in both English-language arts (ELA) and in mathematics” (CDE Website). • California Standards Test (CST)-Per the California Department of Education, “The California Standards Tests in English-language arts, mathematics, science, and history-social science are administered only to students in California public schools. Except for a writing component that is administered as part of the grade 4 and 7 English-language arts tests, all questions are multiple choice. These tests were developed specifically to assess students' performance on California's Academic Content Standards. The State Board of Education adopted these standards that specify what all 146 California children are expected to know and be able to do in each grade or course” (CDE STAR website). • English Language Learners (ELL)-Per the California Department of Education, "English learner" is defined as an English learner or as a reclassified-fluent-English-proficient (RFEP) student who has not scored at the proficient level or above on the CST in ELA for three years after being reclassified” (CDE website). • Four Frames- Bolman and Deal (2003) research focuses on the four aspects or traits that a leader may or may not encompass; structural, human resource, symbolic or political. • Growth Targets-Per the California Department of Education, “Schools must meet their annual schoolwide API growth target as well as API growth targets for each numerically significant ethnic/racial, socioeconomically disadvantaged, English learner, and students with disabilities subgroup at the school. If the school's (or subgroup's) Base API is between 200 and 690, the growth target is 5 percent of the difference between the school's (or subgroup's) Base API and the statewide performance target of 800. If the school's (or subgroup's) Base API is between 691 and 795, the growth target is a gain of five points. If the school's (or subgroup's) Base API is between 796 and 799, the growth target is the following: API of 796 - a gain of four points API of 797 - a gain of three points API of 798 - a gain of two points API of 799 - a gain of one point If the school's (or subgroup's) Base API is 800 or more, the school (or subgroup) must maintain an API of at least 800” (CDE Website). • High Performing School- A school that is scoring above an 800 on the CST and 2 points or higher from “like” similar schools • Highly Qualified Teachers- Teachers teaching in any core academic subject area (including early childhood and elementary) must hold at least a bachelor’s degree from a regionally accredited institution of higher education in addition to a valid Standard Professional Certificate or Advanced Professional Certificate or Resident Teacher Certificate in the subject area they are teaching. (NCLB) 147 • National School Lunch Program- federally assisted meal program operating in public and nonprofit private schools and residential child care institutions. It provides nutritionally balanced, low-cost or free lunches to children each school day. The program was established under the National School Lunch Act, signed by President Harry Truman in 1946” (USDA.GOV Website). • Outperforming School- Outperforming School- A school that is outperforming the state average within their subgroups • School Accountability Report Card (SARC)-Per the California Department of Education, “In November 1988, California voters passed Prop.98, also known as The Classroom Instructional Improvement and Accountability Act. This ballot initiative provides California's public schools with a stable source of funding. In return, all public schools in California are required annually to prepare SARCs and disseminate them to the public. SARCs are intended to provide the public with important information about each public school and to communicate a school's progress in achieving its goals” (CDE website). • SES (Socio-economic Status)- Socio-economically disadvantaged" is defined as a student whose parents both have not received a high school diploma OR a student who participates in the free or reduced-price lunch program (also known as the National School Lunch Program) (CDE Website). • Similar Schools Ranking-Per the California Department of Education, “The similar schools rank compares a school to 100 other schools of the same type and similar demographic characteristics” (CDE Website). • Socio-Economic Status (SES)-Per the California Department of Education, “Socioeconomically disadvantaged" is defined as a student whose parents both have not received a high school diploma OR a student who participates in the free or reduced-price lunch program (also known as the National School Lunch Program)” (CDE Website). 148 REFERENCES Anderson, Sharon; Medrich, Elliott; and Fowler, Donna, (2007), Which Achievement Gap? 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Association of Clinical Research Professionals. 153 APPENDIX A RECORDS AND DOCUMENTS-DATA COLLECTION Document Questions the document answers Question addressed School background and profile SARC Single School Plan • Class Size • Number of Suspensions/Expulsions • California Healthy Kid Survey Results • Population breakdown (ethnicity, SES, EL’s) • Supplemental Programs • Vision and Mission Statements • Teacher Groups (leadership, advisory, SSC, etc.) 1, 2, 3 List of teachers and Support Staff • Experience • Credentials • Grade Levels • Years at current site 1 Professional Development Plan • Collaboration Plan, Schedule 1, 2, 3 Daily and Instructional Schedule • Number of instructional Minutes 3 English Leaner’s Master, technology and Safe Schools Plan • Plan for ELL and safe campus 3 Achievement Results CST and Local Assessments Data for over a 2 year period. Local Benchmarks SARC Website: CDE • CST data • API, AYP, disaggregated data by demographics, subgroups, etc. 2, 3 Parent/Community Involvement SARC School/Parent handbook Parent surveys from school or district School Website Single School Plan • Parent community/outreach education • Community Partnerships • Parent Survey results • Volunteer Hours • Parent Club • Parent/Community Communications (newsletters, websites) 1, 2, 3 Fiscal Information Single School Plan CPM Report • Categorical Documents & Resources / Compliance Findings 3 Other Information WASC Action Plan/Self-Study/Visiting Team Report • Referral process for Special Ed. • Distinguished School Information • RtI Strategies • Teacher Evaluation • WASC 154 APPENDIX B.1 ADMINISTRATOR SURVEY Research Question 1: Which school wide programs promote student achievement? 1. My school has a school-wide professional development program or programs for teachers to enable all children in the school to meet the state academic content standards. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 2. My school has a school-wide program or programs to increase parental involvement through means such as family literacy services. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 3. My school has a school-wide program or programs providing training to teachers in effective instructional methods and strategies. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 4. My school has a school-wide program or programs that provide effective, timely assistance for students who experience difficulty in attaining the proficient or advanced level of the academic content standards. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5. My school has a school-wide program or programs to assist teachers in the use of academic assessments to provide information on, and to improve, the achievement of individual students and the overall instructional program. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 6. My school has a school-wide program or programs that provide teachers training in effective classroom management and discipline strategies. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 155 Research Question 2: Which school wide practices promote student achievement? 7. Teachers are encouraged to collaborate with other teachers on instructional matters on a regular basis. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 8. Teachers have an active role in identifying and implementing professional development goals and objectives for the school. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 9. I have regular discussions with my teachers regarding their teaching. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 10. The evaluation feedback I give to teachers assists them to improve their teaching effectiveness. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 11. The teachers are aware of specific areas of interest I look at when visiting their classrooms. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 12. Assessment of student learning is directed to improving, rather than just monitoring, student performance. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 13. The assessment of student learning is based on specific, clearly identified academic standards for student performance. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 14. Teachers seek feedback from other teachers to improve their teaching. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 156 15. Decisions about school improvement are always based upon our school improvement plan. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 16. Teachers at this school have comparable expectations regarding student academic performance. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 17. Professional development training over the past year has provided useful information helping teachers increase their teaching effectiveness. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 18. Teachers at this school are encouraged to use the same or similar instructional strategies. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 19. There is an intentional effort to improve home-school relations and parent participation. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 20. Academic content students are expected to learn is dictated by district’s adopted curriculum. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 21. Academic content students are expected to learn is selected by teachers. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 22 Academic content students are expected to learn is selected by the students. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 157 Research Question 3: Which instructional strategies were implemented to target the closing of the achievement gap? 23. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously select content that meets the district’s student competencies and performance standards. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 24. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously select instructional materials based upon their knowledge of their students’ developmental needs and learning styles. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 25. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously select teaching methods and strategies that accommodate individual student needs and interests. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 26. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously prepare lessons with high expectations designed to challenge and stimulate all students. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 27. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously consider how to build upon their students’ existing knowledge and experiences. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 28. When teachers design lessons, they consciously consider how to create active learning experiences for their student to facilitate engagement. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 29. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously consider how to create cooperative learning experiences for their students. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 158 30. When teachers develop lessons, they consciously design lessons that require integration of content from more than one content area. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 31. When teaching, teachers monitor students’ understanding of the content and make adjustments accordingly. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 32. When teaching, teachers move among the students, engaging individually and collectively with them during the learning experience. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 33. When teaching, teachers consciously implement a teaching strategy and instructional materials that stimulates higher-order thinking skills. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 34. When teaching, teachers create social interaction among students by requiring students to work as a team with both individual and group responsibilities. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 35. When teaching, teachers vary the size and composition of learning groups. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 36. When a student is having difficulty with an activity or assignment, the teachers are usually able to adjust it to his/her level. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 37. At my school, peer tutoring is often used to assist struggling students. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 159 APPENDIX B.2 TEACHER SURVEY Research Question 1: Which school wide programs promote student achievement? 1. My school has a school-wide professional development program or programs for teachers to enable all children in the school to meet the state academic content standards. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 2. My school has a school-wide program or programs to increase parental involvement through means such as family literacy services. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 3. My school has a school-wide program or programs providing training to teachers in effective instructional methods and strategies. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 4. My school has a school-wide program or programs that provide effective, timely assistance for students who experience difficulty in attaining the proficient or advanced level of the academic content standards. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 5. My school has a school-wide program or programs to assist teachers in the use of academic assessments to provide information on, and to improve, the achievement of individual students and the overall instructional program. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 6. My school has a school-wide program or programs that provide teachers training in effective classroom management and discipline strategies. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 160 Research Question 2: Which school wide practices promote student achievement? 7. Teachers are encouraged to collaborate with other teachers on instructional matters on a regular basis. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 8. Teachers have an active role in identifying and implementing professional development goals and objectives for the school. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 9. I regularly discuss my teaching with my administrator(s). Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 10. The evaluation feedback I receive from my administrator(s) assists me to improve my teaching effectiveness. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 11. I am aware of specific areas of interest that my administrator(s) looks at when visiting my classroom. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 12. Assessment of student learning is directed toward improving, rather than just monitoring, student performance. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 13. The assessment of student learning is based on specific, clearly identified academic standards for student performance. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 14. Teachers seek feedback from other teachers to improve their teaching. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 161 15. Decisions about school improvement are always based upon our school improvement plan. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 16. Teachers at this school have comparable expectations regarding student academic performance. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 17. Professional development training over the past year has provided useful information helping me increase my teaching effectiveness. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 18. Teachers at this school are encouraged to use the same or similar instructional strategies. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 19. There is an intentional effort to improving home-school relations and parent participation. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 20. Academic content you expect your students to learn is dictated by district’s adopted curriculum. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 21. Academic content you expect your students to learn is selected by teachers. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 22. Academic content you expect your students to learn is selected by your students. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 162 Research Question 3: Which instructional strategies were implemented to target the closing of the achievement gap? 23. When developing my lessons, I consciously select content that meets the district’s student competencies and performance standards. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 24. When developing my lessons, I consciously select instructional materials based upon my knowledge of my students’ developmental needs and learning styles. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 25. When developing my lessons, I consciously select teaching methods and strategies that accommodate individual student needs and interests. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 26. When developing my lessons, I consciously prepare lessons with high expectations designed to challenge and stimulate all students. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 27. When developing my lessons, I consciously build upon my students’ existing knowledge and experiences. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 28. When developing my lessons, I consciously consider how to create active learning experiences for my students to facilitate engagement. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 29. When developing my lessons, I consciously consider how to create cooperative learning experiences for my students. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 30. When developing my lessons, I consciously create lessons that require integration of content from more than one content area. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 163 31. When teaching, I monitor students’ understanding of the content and make adjustments accordingly. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 32. When teaching, I move among the students, engaging individually and collectively with them during the learning experience. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 33. When teaching, I consciously employ teaching strategies and instructional materials that stimulate higher-order thinking skills. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 34. When teaching, I create social interaction among students by requiring students to work as a team with both individual and group responsibilities. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 35. When teaching, I vary the size and composition of learning groups. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 36. When a student is having difficulty with an activity or assignment, I am usually able to adjust it to his/her level. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 37. At your school, peer tutoring is often used to assist struggling students. Strongly Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1 2 3 4 164 APPENDIX C.1 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS Administration Interview Principal and Assistant Principal(s) 1. What is your position and role in the school and how many years have you been a faculty member of the school itself and in education overall? 2. What programs does your school have that promotes student achievement? 3. How does the program work? a. Does it target a specific population? b. Does it require any additional funding? – source? c. How do you measure its success? d. Has it been successful? 4. Does your school have any specific instructional practices that promote student achievement? a. What kind of professional development do you offer your staff? b. How do you measure the effectiveness of the instructional practices? 5. Does your school have specific strategies that target the closing of the achievement gap for all students and what are they? 6. How do you promote enrollment in your most rigorous courses? 7. How do you support your teachers’ efforts in these programs and practices? 8. What does collaboration look like at your school site? 9. How do you feel the teachers support these school wide practices and implementation? 10. What specific aspects of your schools culture support student achievement? 11. How much parent participation do you receive 165 APPENDIX C.2 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS Teacher Interview HS, MS -Core Dept. Chairs ES –One representative per grade level 1. What is your position and role in the school and how many years have you been a faculty member of the school itself and in education overall? 2. What programs do you have in your department/grade level that promotes student achievement? 3. How does the program work? e. Does it target a specific population? f. Does it require any additional funding? – source? g. How do you measure its success? h. Has it been successful? 4. Do you have any specific instructional practices that your department/grade level uses to promote student achievement? i. What kind of professional development have you received in those practices? j. How do you measure the effectiveness of the instructional practices? 5. Does your department/grade level have specific strategies that target the closing of the achievement gap for all students and what are they? 6. How do you promote enrollment in your most rigorous courses? 7. How does the school’s leadership team support your efforts in these programs and practices? k. Who is on your leadership team and what role do they play? 8. What does collaboration look like at your school? 9. What specific aspects of your schools culture support student achievement? 10. How much parent participation do you receive? 166 APPENDIX D OBSERVATION PROTOCOL Trigger Words: Welcoming Environment Engagement Rigor Focus Standards Programs Practices Strategies Stakeholders Four Frames: Structural – Goals and information are clear, cause and effect understood Human Resources - Employee morale, resources, and creativity Political - Power, Conflict, Competition, Organizational Policies Symbolic – Culture, meaningful, ritual, ceremony, stories What is Happening? What do I think is Happening?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Closing of the achievement gap continues to be one of the most vexing and daunting concerns for educators across the nation. Seemingly, in spite of the tremendous resources and effort targeted at this problem by policy makers, school districts, educational leaders, teachers, and parent and community groups, there remains a persistent disparity in academic performance between groups of students, particularly between white and/or Asian and affluent students and students of color, minority, poverty and second language learners.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Brown, Mark Cameron (author)

Core Title Closing the achievement gap: successful practices at a middle school -- a case study

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 03/12/2009

Defense Date 02/11/2009

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag achievement gap,collaboration,efficacy,high expectations,high-quality instruction,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Gothold, Stuart E. (committee chair), Escalante, Michael F. (committee member), Hocevar, Dennis J. (committee member), Stowe, Kathy Huisong (committee member)

Creator Email brnsgarage@aol.com,markcbro@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2023

Unique identifier UC199036

Identifier etd-Brown-2677 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-209124 (legacy record id),usctheses-m2023 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Brown-2677.pdf

Dmrecord 209124

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Brown, Mark Cameron

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu