University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

A case study of an outperforming urban high school: the relational pattern between student engagement and student achievement in a magnet high school in Los Angeles

(USC Thesis Other)

A case study of an outperforming urban high school: the relational pattern between student engagement and student achievement in a magnet high school in Los Angeles

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content A CASE STUDY OF AN OUTPERFORMING URBAN HIGH SCHOOL: THE
RELATIONAL PATTERN BETWEEN STUDENT ENGAGEMENT AND
STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT IN A MAGNET HIGH SCHOOL IN LOS ANGELES

by

Julio Cesar Fonseca

______________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2008

Copyright 2008 Julio Cesar Fonseca

ii
DEDICATION
I would like to dedicate the completion of this journey to my family. I am
grateful for the their belief and unwavering support in me as person.
To my wife, Erika, I am so fortunate to have you in my life. You’ve inspired
me to improve as a man, a husband, and a father each and every day. I greatly
appreciate you as a wife, a friend, and as a strong woman. Thank you for your
unconditional love and for being so patient with me. I cannot imagine having
persevered through this process if I did not have you standing by my side.
To my children, Carolina and Emiliano, I dedicate this to you as a message
and vision of what you can do in life. I would like to convey my desire for each of
you to reach high and far with your dreams. Each of you brings a special gift to this
world and whether this is manifested for you through higher education or another
path, I wish for you happiness. I will make sure you have everything you will ever
need to help you achieve your dreams. Believe in yourself, never give up and go
about your business with passion, drive, and enthusiasm.
To my parents, Irma and Julio, I am truly appreciative of the values and
principles you have conveyed to me throughout my life. Without your support and
guidance, I would not be where I am today. The fact that I was able to complete this
journey is a reflection of what you have instilled in me: a sense that I could do
anything I put my mind to and that giving up is never an option. Papa, you conveyed
the importance of mental strength and the need to maintain a positive attitude
through whatever challenges I may have to endure. Mama, you conveyed the

iii
importance of knowledge, integrity, perspective, empathy, strength, and humility as
principles essential in life. I am a good man because of the guidance you both gave
me.
To my brother, Denny, I remember when very few people gave us a chance
to succeed at anything. It felt like it was the two of us against the world. The
challenges we’ve endured together are unforgettable and it has been an honor to live
through these experiences with you. You are my brother, my friend, and a man who
I can always count on. Your character is the real meaning of integrity and trust.
This work is also dedicated to my grandparents, Bertha and Humberto
Olmos, whose strong belief in the power of education and learning has been, and will
continue to be, an inspiration to the generations that follow them. Although you are
both in heaven, your family will carry on your tradition of love and excellence.
To all of you I am grateful, for each of you in a different way have
contributed to my life and this journey.
This is also dedicated to all the children who have heard, “you’ll never
amount to anything.” Please know that people, who never quit, even when there
seems to be no hope at all, have accomplished most of the important things in this
world. Keep your head up.

iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This dissertation would not have been possible without the guidance and
encouragement of Dr. Stuart Gothold. I greatly appreciate all you have done to help
me through this process.
Special thanks go to my committee members, Dr. Kathy Stowe and Dr.
Dennis Hocevar who provided insight and suggestions that strengthened my
dissertation.
I would also like to thank the staff, students, and parents of Win Medical
Magnet High School for taking their time to take part in this process.
Finally, I would like to thank the nine other members of my cohort who kept
me on track towards the ultimate goal of obtaining three letters; Ed.D.

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION …………………………………………………………. ii

ACKNOWLDEGMENTS ……………………………………………… iv

LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………… vi

ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………….. vii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ………………………………………. 1

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………….. 16

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ……………………………………… 59
Figure 1: Conceptual Model …………………………………………… 62

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION …………. 78

CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS ……………………………………………… 123

REFERENCES ………………………………………………………… 137

APPENDICES …………………………………………………………. 145

vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Demographic Characteristics ……………………………………….. 68

Table 2: Expected Schoolwide Learning Results …………………………….. 97

Table 3: Results of the Teacher Survey: Survey of High School
Teachers Regarding Student Engagement …………………………………… 100

Table 4: Results of the Administrator Survey: Survey of High School
Administrators Regarding Student Engagement …………………………….. 102

vii
ABSTRACT
Each year in America, thousands of students who attend school in urban
school districts are dropping out of school at alarming rates. Therefore, improving
the quality of America’s urban schools is critically important if children living in
these areas are to have an equal opportunity to achieve academically and beyond.
However, increasing student achievement is unlikely to be accomplished by solely
raising standards, increasing state-designated school funding, requiring
accountability, or without students being engaged in their education.
Research indicates that engaged students have far better outcomes in school
than disengaged students. Although student engagement has been studied in several
schools across the nation, the literature regarding the relational patterns of student
engagement and academic achievement in urban schools is limited.
The purpose of this study was to determine what factors, including student
engagement, were linked to student achievement in an outperforming urban high
school.
This was a case study of one outperforming urban high school in Los
Angeles, that utilized a mixed methods approach: both qualitative and quantitative
that included document analysis, surveys, observations, and interviews as data
collection instruments. A concurrent research study conducted at the school site by
Indiana University as part of the High School Survey of Student Engagement was
also utilized in this study as a secondary data source. The multiple methods of
collecting data supported triangulation of the data.

viii
This study examined four emergent themes: leadership, school culture,
student resilience, and student engagement and the role each played in shaping,
directing, and impacting the school’s high achieving status. Analysis of the data
indicated that these factors had positive influences on student achievement at the
school under study.

1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Every year in America, thousands of students face the ultimate form of
disengagement: failure to complete their high school education. Despite
socioeconomic status, ethnicity, or the type of school a student attends, learning in
school requires active engagement. The core principles that underlie engagement are
applicable for all schools; whether they are in urban, suburban, or rural communities
(National Research Council, 2003). However, when students from privileged
backgrounds become disengaged, they may learn less than they could, but will
usually get by or get second chances. These students will eventually graduate from
high school and continue to have more opportunities. In contrast, when students
from disadvantaged backgrounds become disengaged with their education, their
opportunity to advance academically and socially quickly deteriorates. Without the
most basic skills to function in adult society, these children are more likely to
dropout of high school, thereby dramatically increasing their risk of unemployment,
poverty, poor health, and involvement in the criminal justice system (Rothstein,
2004).
Throughout the course of America’s history, public high schools have been
expected to prepare generations of youth to become leaders who can think critically
and incisively so they can undertake domestic and global challenges. The charge for
America’s public school system has been to comprehensively educate children so
they can master, at least, basic skills in literacy and mathematics, among other

2
subjects (Goldin, 1998). Collaboratively, educators and other stakeholders have
made great gains in developing educational environments where children can excel
academically. However, there are monumental obstacles that have yet to be
overcome that prevent schools from raising achievement and closing the gap.
For most of today’s youth, life after high school holds both opportunities and
challenges. The opportunities arise from the large number of well-paying, high-
skilled jobs available in the global economy. The challenges involve remaining
engaged with their education to acquire the skills necessary to be hired and then keep
those jobs. Students must complete high school with a solid grounding in the
academic, social, and workplace skills needed for future endeavors; whether it is
postsecondary education, an apprenticeship, or a career. Undeniably, children living
in urban school districts have had limited opportunities to fulfill this goal. Alas, not
all high schools in the United States have the resources or the needed conditions to
educate students for the societal complexities of tomorrow. Many of those schools
are located in the most disenfranchised inner cities of America. What’s more, this
lack of ability to provide the needed experiences has created a culture of disengaged
students who simply choose to dropout of school.
With the era of educational accountability at its apex, the current wave of
reform places unprecedented pressure on public schools to educate all children.
Since the No Child Left Behind Act was enacted in 2001, educators have been hard-
pressed to produce measurable evidence that all students are learning. As a result of
NCLB’s strict mandates, the creativity and fluid nature with which education was

3
once delivered has, to a large extent, been eliminated (Recschovsky and Imazeki,
2003). Consequently, scores of schools have prioritized the development of
formulas that will prove to the government that their standardized test scores meet
the federal requirements, but have minimized the attention and time for developing
improved human relations (Joftus and Maddox-Dolan, 2003). With unfunded
mandates, and the relentless demands to raise standardized test scores, it is apparent
that urban schools will disproportionately face the negative repercussions of the
nation’s unreasonable accountability measure. Along with all the other debilitating
challenges that inner cities encounter, urban schools often face public humiliation
and threats of state takeover because they are struggling, without funds or resources,
to meet the federal accountability requirements.
Conditions in a large majority of urban schools are so dysfunctional that
students are not expected to have success in school, nor are they given the
opportunity to do so (Hood, 2003; Katz, 1999). Most notably, evidence of this is
presented in the staggering dropout rates of urban city youth. In several instances,
data show that students who represent the majority of the nation’s urban school
populations (African Americans and Latinos) have had as high as a fifty percent
dropout rate (Goldin, 1998; Greene and Winters, 2002). Even when urban city high
school students stay long enough to advance through grade levels, a considerable
number perform much lower academically than their suburban counterparts.
However, to blame schools for the poor state of the educational system would
be unfair. Research indicates that there is a strong correlation between severe

4
environmental stressors (e.g. poverty, gangs, drugs and alcohol, lack of parental
involvement, and homelessness) and disengagement from school. These stressors
that are found primarily in inner cities also hinder urban schools’ ability to
confidently promote students to higher levels of learning.
California, home to the second largest school district in the nation, has had
great difficulty in effectively educating students. California currently ranks 43
rd
in
the nation in per-pupil expenditures, and some schools are not getting a fair share of
even those reduced state resources (Futernick, 2007). In addition, California faces a
shortage of teachers since a considerable number of educators leave the profession
early due to the obstacles, shortage of resources, and lack of support from their
administrators. Moreover, these problems hit hardest in high-poverty areas where
few teachers remain long enough to make any type of positive impact in these most
challenging schools. Futernick (2007) states, “in schools with high concentrations of
underprivileged students, teachers were more likely to encounter shortages of
instructional materials, unsupportive principals, poor support for special education
students, disruptive bureaucracies, and unclean and unsafe work environments” (p.
viii). According to the National Research Council (2003):
It is commonplace for the weakest and least experienced teachers to be
assigned to the neediest students and for course offerings to preclude most
students from meeting college entry requirements. School buildings are
frequently dilapidated and nonfunctioning, and provide no opportunities for
recreation. These conditions make it difficult to establish trust, respect for
authority, and the kinds of relationships in the school community among
students, teachers, staff, and parents that are needed for students to develop
and achieve their potential. (p. 21)

5
Los Angeles has a large concentration of the most underprivileged students in
the nation, and it is common that fewer than half of the ninth grade students who
enter leave with a high school diploma (California Department of Education, 2006).
Students attending urban schools in Los Angeles find themselves in antiquated
buildings without the quality of educational services they deserve. As with many
other urban school districts, the educational challenges in Los Angeles have become
so complex that some educators have lost faith in the educational system and don’t
believe that student success is possible; others don’t know where to begin, and still
others lack the courage to act (Noguera, 2004). According to Skiba and Leone
(2002), “many educators are so desperate for improvements that they have turned to
punitive disciplinary practices such as ‘zero-tolerance’ to weed out problem children
so teachers can provide instruction to those students who are serious about their
education” (p. 19). Research suggests that these strategies rarely work, run a grave
risk of contributing to racial/ethnic disparities; and may indeed be associated, in the
long term, with lower academic productivity (Casella, 2003; Skiba, 2007).
Statement of the Problem
For too long, many educational systems have operated on the assumption that
they can somehow improve student achievement by simply funneling financial
resources for instructional purposes and operational improvements. Although such
an assumption may seem feasible on the face of it, mounting evidence shows that it
is not enough; educating children is not that simple.

6
Furthermore, merely expecting a lot from students does not, by itself, guarantee that
children will succeed academically, especially if the school they attend is
dilapidated, ill-equipped and without adequate educational resources, and staffed
with teachers who leave soon after they are hired (Jackson, 2005).
In spite of the multifaceted problems urban schools must endure, several have
successfully taken the necessary steps to become outperforming. Jackson (2005)
states, “successful schools are those that have provided students with the means to
master challenging content and skills, develop habits of mind that support complex
problem solving and creativity, allow students to engage with positive role models
and people from around the world, provide meaningful work which students can
apply to their daily lives, and opportunities to participate in democracy” (p. 196).
What's more, studies have found that school culture, a rigorous curriculum with
quality instruction, and effective leadership strongly relate to improved student
learning. In turn, students are more likely to display high levels of engagement in
their academic life.
School districts across the nation have strategically factored into their
missions the idea that quality instruction, plus a receptive student, will result in
academic achievement. However, as a consequence of having such strict federal
standards of accountability, and of uncontrollable environmental factors, the variable
that is often overlooked is the student’s perception of how to be “receptive” in the
first place.

7
The University of Indiana at Bloomington took an enormous step towards
understanding how student engagement impacts academic achievement. The High
School Survey of Student Engagement (HSSSE) was developed by the University’s
researchers to determine to what extent high school students are involved in the
kinds of things that will help them develop both the habits and the skills they will
need later in life. Several thousand students from across the nation have taken part
in this study. Analysis of the survey responses determined that students are less
interested in their education and more interested in activities that take them further
away from a quality education. The HSSSE study also found several factors that
may help educators change their current methods of delivering services for strategies
that may help engage their students for optimal learning. However, the study did not
extend to urban schools, thus leaving a limited body of research and very few
examinations of outperforming urban high schools. Therefore, it is unclear whether
student engagement is a factor that contributes to high performance in urban high
schools.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine what factors, including student
engagement, were linked to student achievement in an outperforming urban high
school. This was a qualitative case study of one outperforming urban magnet high
school in Los Angeles, which provided knowledge derived from triangulated data
regarding the perceived factors that contribute to academic achievement in that
specific high school.

8
Significance of the Study
Improving the quality of America’s urban schools is critically important if
children living in these areas are to have an equal opportunity for health and
prosperity. Increasing student achievement is unlikely to be accomplished by solely
raising standards, requiring accountability, or increasing state-designated school
funding. Research indicates that engaged students have far better outcomes in school
than disengaged students. Although student engagement has been studied in several
schools across the nation, the literature regarding the relational patterns of student
engagement and academic achievement in urban schools is limited.
Nearly every inner-city in the nation has at least a few outperforming high
schools that serve economically disadvantaged students. This gives reason to hope
that all students can achieve academic success regardless of the circumstances
students and schools must contend with. To date, however, numerous school reform
efforts have languished and attempts to improve academic achievement for urban
high school students have faltered. For one thing, recent trends of accountability that
enforces the use of standardized tests, cause schools to teach to the test rather than to
the needs of their charges. Consequently schools have been hindered in their ability
to provide a quality education for the students who need it most. Although the High
School Survey of Student Engagement is a powerful tool in the assessment arena and
can complement performance tests, there has been very little study on the influence
of student engagement as it relates to academic achievement in outperforming urban
high schools; this study aims to add to the limited literature.

9
Although the focus of this dissertation is primarily on what factors contribute
to high performance in an urban high school, the policies and practices found in the
case study may have important implications for many issues beyond its scope. This
case study may help raise awareness among those who are unacquainted with the
potential applications and benefits within their educational institution. Policymakers
and educators may revisit their hiring processes of school staff, as well as their
leadership training, credentialing policies, state and federal testing policies, high
school graduation requirements, and school funding and allocation of resources.
On a practical level, this study may inspire urban city students to excel and
persevere in light of the difficulties they face, motivate and encourage teachers in
low-performing urban schools to promote high achievement in all subject areas, and
drive school administrators to create and maintain a school culture that is conducive
to learning in spite of the stigmas that may be associated with low-performing
schools.
Lastly, as more studies accumulate on this topic, more will be known about
the factors that may lead to high student achievement in all schools.
Research Questions
The following questions are addressed in this study:
1. What perceived factors contribute to academic achievement in an
outperforming urban high school?
2. Is there a link between student engagement and student
achievement in an outperforming urban high school?

10
Methodology
The methodology used in this study was a qualitative case study to provide
for details from the viewpoint of the participants about the relational patterns
between student engagement and student achievement in a outperforming urban
magnet high school. Case study is an ideal methodology when a holistic, in-depth
investigation is needed (Yin, 2003). Four data collection instruments were used in
this study (documents, surveys, interviews, and observations) to find themes that
could be used to describe the phenomena under study.
Limitations
A number of constraints served as limitations for this study, which included:
1. The number of individuals who voluntarily chose to participate in the study
was an inherent limitation.
2. The study cannot be generalized to other schools or school districts.
3. The findings of this qualitative study are subject to alternative interpretations.
4. Using interviews increased the probability of studying opinions or thoughts
rather than facts.
Delimitations
The following delimitations applied to this study:
1. The case study was delimited to the duration of the study, which included
five full days of field research at a outperforming urban high school.

11
2. The case study was delimited to a single, outperforming, urban high school in
Los Angeles that met the criteria of outperforming and urban as set by the
researchers in the thematic dissertation group.
3. The case study was delimited to the research instruments, developed by the
researchers in the thematic dissertation group that focused on school
practices, student activities, and student engagement.
Definitions
For the sake of this study, each of the terms below will be operationally
defined as follows:
• Academic Performance Index (API)-a measurement in California of academic
performance and progress of individual schools. API scores range from a low
of 200 to a high of 1000. The statewide API performance target for all
schools is 800. A school’s score of placement on the API is designed to be
an indicator of a school’s performance level and is calculated annually by the
California Department of Education, primarily based on the CST and
CAHSEE tests (California Department of Education, 2006).
• Achievement gap-a persistent, pervasive, and significant disparity in
educational accomplishment among groups of students, as determined by a
standardized measure. When analyzed according to race and ethnicity,
achievement disparities negatively impact educational outcomes for poor and
children of color on a consistent basis (Pearson, 2001).

12
• Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP)-an accountability system mandated by the
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 which requires each state to ensure that all
schools and districts make Adequate Yearly Progress. Districts, campuses,
and the state are required to meet AYP criteria on three measures:
Reading/Language Arts, Mathematics, and either Graduation Rate (for high
schools and districts) or Attendance Rate (for elementary and middle/junior
high schools) (Sunderman and Kim, 2004).
• California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE)-a California State law, enacted
in 1999, authorizing the development of the California High School Exit
Exam (CAHSEE), which students in California public schools would have to
pass to earn a high school diploma. The purpose of the CAHSEE is to
encourage improved student achievement in high school and to help ensure
that students who graduate from high school can demonstrate competency in
reading, writing, and mathematics (California Department of Education,
2006).
• Magnet High School- A public high school or a program within a school that
has the following four characteristics: a special curricular theme or method of
instruction, a role in voluntary desegregation within a district, choice of
school by student and parent, and access to students beyond a regular
attendance zone (Steel & Levine, 1994).

13
• Outperforming-Exceeding academic performance of like or similar schools,
when ranked by an academic indicator such as the Academic Performance
Index (API).
• Public Schools Accountability Act of 1999 (PSAA)-California’s first step in
developing a comprehensive system to hold students, schools, and districts
accountable for improving student performance. The program includes a
Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) system, testing at the
elementary levels, known as the California Achievement Test (CAT), and a
high school exit exam (CAHSEE), both aligned with academic content
standards, plus an Academic Performance Index (API) for measuring
progress (California Department of Education, 2006).
• School Accountability Report Card (SARC)-Since November 1988, State law
has required all public schools throughout California to provide information
about themselves to the community in the form of an annual School
Accountability Report Card (SARC). These report cards provide a variety of
data to allow the public to evaluate and compare schools in seven major
areas: demographic information, school safety and climate for learning,
academic data, class size, teacher and staff information, curriculum and
instruction, and fiscal and expenditure data (California Department of
Education, 2006).

14
• School Culture-Refers to a structure, process and climate of values and norms
within a school that channel staff, students, parents, and community in the
direction of successful teaching and learning (Noguera, 2006).
• Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) system-In California, this system
administers all standardized tests and results are used for student achievement
and school accountability purposes (California Department of Education,
2006).
• Student Engagement-can be described as the student’s relationship with the
school community: the people (adults and peers), the structures (rules,
facilities, schedules), the curriculum and content, the pedagogy, and the
opportunities (curricular, co-curricular, and extracurricular) (Yazzie-Mintz,
2007).
• Urban schools-are schools located in an urban environment rather than rural,
small town, or suburban. Student populations have a relatively high rate of
poverty, as measured by the Free and Reduced Lunch data provided by the
California Department of Education (CDE); are composed of a relatively
high proportion of students of color, as reported by the CDE; and consist of a
relatively high proportion of students who are Limited English Proficient as
reported by the CDE. Not all schools meet all of the characteristics;
however, they are all very close in possessing all the criteria (California
Department of Education, 2006).

15
Organization of the Study
The remainder of this study is divided into the following chapters: Chapter II
reviews the literature, Chapter III explains the methodology of the study, Chapter IV
presents the results, and Chapter V summarizes and discusses the results.

16
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
For decades, Americans have relied on the public educational system to
ensure that their children obtain the knowledge and skills that are necessary to
effectively contribute to an ever-growing society (Codding, Rothman, and Tucker,
1999). Moreover, Americans have depended on the public high school to educate
their youth to positively function in all areas of society. However, not all high
schools are equipped to develop the constructive citizen of tomorrow, and many are
failing to educate the students they serve. A considerable number of public high
schools in urban America face great disadvantages as they work to educate their
young adults. Several studies have found that many urban high schools are failing to
engage their students, thereby neither providing them with the kind of social
environment that fosters healthy psychosocial development nor offering an
environment that is conducive to learning (National Research Council, 2003).
The evidence is clear that the high school experience plays an enormous part
in determining the future of an individual’s life (Karoly & Panis, 2004). In today’s
global market, the American economy requires workers to demonstrate a
combination of technical skills, be able and willing to work collaboratively in teams,
think both creatively and incisively, and produce quality products. Therefore, to take
full advantage of what high school has to impart will well serve any student. A
positive high school experience may pave the way for entrance into higher levels of

17
learning and can be an indicator of future economic success (Rothstein, 2004). It is
fortunate that many high schools today do give students an opportunity to excel
academically and to showcase their athletic or artistic talents. However, high
schools attended by children living in urban areas, according to research, may not
support the special needs of inner-city youth so students’ educational and economic
futures may not be so bright (Iceland, 2003).
The intention of this chapter is to determine what factors have led to the
current state of public high schools in urban America. Why, in spite of all the
challenges these schools encounter, have some succeeded in earning the title of
“high-performing” and others have not? The following sections of this chapter are
dedicated to the relevant literature associated with:
(1) historical factors that have been significant in the evolution of inner-city public
high schools, (2) reform efforts intended to improve school accountability, (3) the
current condition of urban high schools in America, (4) the risk factors that urban
students must contend with, and (5) best practices for keeping students engaged in
their education.
A Brief History of American Education
In the early decades of America, a large majority of United States citizens
were not overly concerned with a formal education since most work was largely in
and around agricultural commerce. The adults taught their children important life
lessons and good quality work habits necessary for life on the farms and plantations
(Good, 1999).

18
Although schools did have a place in America, large inequities existed in the
system. In the late 1800’s, and early in the 1900’s, reformers such as Horace Mann,
the secretary of education for the state of Massachusetts, discovered that there were
major discrepancies in schools in that they varied widely in their composition and
purpose (Mondale & Patton, 2001). Schools at that time were mostly attended by the
children of the wealthy who could stay in school for longer periods of time due to
their parents’ ability to finance their education, and the fact that they were not
needed to help support the family; whereas the poorest couldn’t even consider
attending since they could not afford to, and they were needed by their families to
labor at home (Good, 1999).
Throughout the latter part of the 1800’s, reformers argued that “common
schooling” would serve to ensure that all Americans (including the poor) obtain, free
of charge, a formal education. Reformers were hopeful that formal schooling would
teach citizens to be responsible, prepare them for a respectable trade or profession,
and work to “break down class distinctions while providing an opportunity for
intellectual growth free from biased doctrines” (Allen-Mears, Washington, & Welsh,
2000. p. 2).
Despite efforts for common schooling, most of the African American
population in the latter part of the1840’s lived in the South under slavery, which
prevented them from gaining access to any type of formal education. While African
Americans and other ethnic minority groups attempted to live alongside Whites in a
desegregated society and have access to the same public and educational institutions,

19
in 1896 they were held back from achieving that goal due to the U.S. Supreme Court
decision of Plessy v. Ferguson. The court ruled in favor of “separate but equal”
accommodations for African Americans and Whites, which pervaded the American
South for fifty years following the decision (Good, 1999). As a result of this court
ruling, schools also implemented the “separate but equal” doctrine, which kept
“colored” and Whites away from interacting with each other in the educational
system. In addition, the best educational facilities were inaccessible to African
American and other ethnic minority students.
At the turn of the century, high schools were accessible mostly to those
individuals who were college bound (Codding, Rothman, and Tucker, 1999). As
time progressed, Americans began to regard education as a solution to many social
problems. For instance, as America shifted from the agrarian way of life to an
industrial and technologically advanced society, more and more Americans started
moving into the big cities, seeking better opportunities to work at higher wage jobs,
and those jobs required the ability to handle machinery. In the 1900’s, three quarters
of the workforce were expected to work in large factories using more of their
physical strength yet still having to show some degree of mental acuity (Codding,
Rothman, and Tucker, 1999). What emerged was that workers were required to be
literate (at a minimum 7
th
or 8
th
grade level), though not quite developing and
exercising their ability to think logically, critically, or incisively, in order to obtain
jobs in the factories and assembly plants. High schools were now called upon to
teach to this minimum requirement; they were taking in millions of students, native

20
as well as immigrants, most barely literate in any language (Mondale and Patton,
2001).
Nevertheless, the quality of education remained unequal and it was evident
that an “educational class structure” continued to exist in spite of America’s need for
an educated society. Families with better financial resources continued to have
better access to a higher quality education and their children were placed in a
position to extend their education for improved social mobility and at a minimum
maintenance of their family’s social and economic status. In light of the inequities
that existed, the high school had three separate tracks: one for the elite who would
later take leadership positions in society, one for those training in the skills trades,
and one for everyone else. Individuals with the least opportunity to obtain a
“quality” education were those who took on the frontline jobs offered in the nation’s
factories (Codding, Rothman, and Tucker, 1999, p. 18).
In the wake of what many historians have called the “darkest time” in
American history (Farrell, 1996) it was almost impossible for the majority of the
population to obtain an education during the Great Depression. Children were not
able to attend school because they did not have enough money for their basic
necessities (food, clothing, medicine) nor for school supplies or textbooks that were
needed in class. Many of these children were malnourished. Many schools closed
for lack of enough money to remain open. Due to the severe problems that
Americans faced, many of the teachers who were available turned to alcohol to better
cope. In fact, the alcoholic schoolteacher became a well-known stereotype (Collins,

21
2003). Although many worthwhile programs were created under the New Deal as a
response to ameliorating the nations social and economic shortcomings, the
American education system continued to deteriorate.
In the 1940’s Americans grew more concerned with the education, or lack
thereof, of citizens. By the end of World War II, it was discovered that over five
million men had not been allowed to provide military service due to their illiteracy
and other educational deficiencies (Mondale & Patton, 2001). The once under-
funded, poorly organized, and inefficient secondary educational system became just
the opposite during this period. Education was in a period of transition, and the
federal government involved itself in providing better opportunities for the soldiers
who were returning home.
The GI Bill of 1944 provided federal aid to veterans to help them more easily
adjust to civilian life, in the areas of medical need, the purchase of homes, the
starting up of businesses, and especially, education. The GI Bill provided for tuition,
subsistence, books and supplies, equipment, and counseling services for veterans so
they could continue their education, either in high school or college (Gutek, 1986).
Enrollment in colleges and universities skyrocketed and their facilities soon became
overcrowded, which led to an increasing need for larger classrooms, better-equipped
laboratories, a greater number of faculties, and more resources.
Students, who now came from all walks of life, became interested in many
different fields such as the humanities, agriculture, engineering, commerce, and
mining. This phenomenon shattered the idea that higher education should be

22
reserved for the well-born elite (Farrell, 1996; Gutek, 1986). However, another
impediment to equality was born: Americans developed a tracking system, based on
the belief that “academic achievement is a function of inherited ability, and only a
few are capable of serious learning and the American high school became the keeper,
the symbol, and the implementor of that system” (Codding et al., 1999).
It’s evident that the period from 1900 to 1940 witnessed key shifts in
American public schooling, which produced the highest educational attainment for
the majority of America’s youth (Goldin, 1998). Nonetheless, ethnic minority
children (primarily African American and Latino) were among those who, year-after-
year, attended schools that had neither the means to maintain a rigorous academic
program nor the well-qualified teachers to prepare students for college.
Reform Efforts to Improve the Quality of Education
In the 1950’s, Americans were becoming better educated and students across
the nation were completing high school at higher rates. On the other hand, sparked
by several unexpected incidents, the question of whether public schools were
providing an adequate education was at the forefront of many political conversations.
These debates brought about questions about what, if any, regulatory mechanisms
existed to ensure that the different educational systems were delivering the best
quality education to students.
The launching of the Russian satellite Sputnik rocked America causing the
public to criticize the educational system for failing to provide children with
sufficient teaching in basic skills, especially in the areas of mathematics and science.

23
In 1958, fueled by the reality of Sputnik, Americans jumped into action, and passed
the National Defense Education Act (NDEA). The NDEA provided federal aid to all
levels of education in the United States, including both public and private institutions
(Barrett, 2005). The one-billion-dollar-law paid for college student loans, academic
scholarships, and scientific equipment for public and private schools. It was hoped
that the NDEA would encourage students to pursue study in the fields that were
critical to national security and regain U.S. dominance in mathematics, science, and
technology. This law held school districts accountable by being firm with their
request that school districts develop more rigorous courses, upgrade teaching
materials, and add requirements for science and math, which involved more hands on
tasks in subjects such as biology and chemistry. Slowly, high schools across the
nation began to provide students with improved instruction that integrated the use of
biology labs and real-life experiments in chemistry.
Despite valiant efforts, America fell short in accomplishing its objective of
having an elite world status in math and science. Bunting (1999) states, “there was
no direct evidence that students had learned more, or that society was any better
served, as a consequence of the redoubled focus on academics. There was, in fact, a
strong suspicion that the function of education had been too narrowly drawn, that
other important goals had been sacrificed in the quest for excellence” (p. 213).
Meanwhile, the problems of society, not being resolved, were evolving into a
moral and ethical crisis. The concern about improving math and science skills lost a
lot of luster because of the 1954 hallmark Brown v. Board of Education court ruling

24
which explicitly outlawed racial segregation within public education facilities, thus
creating a new concern. The law stated that “separate but equal” could never truly
provide African Americans with facilities of the same standards as was available to
White Americans. In spite of the excellent opportunity Americans had to improve
equity within schools under the guidance of this monumental decision, the public lost
interest in education due to the heightened racial tension between African Americans
and Whites. What Americans needed at that time required a more humanitarian
approach rather than mathematic or scientific methods to resolve social issues.
As a result of the NDEA and the Brown decision, the federal government had
an unprecedented role by being more involved in the advancement of education than
ever before, resulting in a number of ambitious federal initiatives in years to come.
In the past half-century, national attention has been on the emphases of academic
standards of the 1950’s that then gave way to a concern for equity in the 1960’s.
The Rise of Magnet Schools in America
A magnet school is a public school, most often located in urban areas, which
offers specialized courses and curricula concentrating on a particular discipline or
area of study such as math, science, engineering, performing arts, or career
exploration. In the late 1960’s and early 1970’s, many states and school districts
created magnet schools as a tool to promote desegregation in American schools. The
intended outcome was to attract students from across different school zones that
would then voluntarily attend the magnet school in locations that hey would have
otherwise thought to be undesirable. Often, magnet schools were placed in racially

25
isolated schools or neighborhoods to encourage students of other races to enroll in
those schools. If significant numbers of White and minority students enrolled in
schools outside of their neighborhoods, districts could promote school desegregation
without resorting to mandatory measures (Steel & Levine, 1994).
Federal government support for magnet school programs began in the early
1970’s, during the early stages of the effort to desegregate schools (Blank, 1989).
Under the federal Emergency School Aid Act (ESSA), which supported all types of
desegregation activities, funding for magnet schools in many cities reached up to 30
million dollars per year. At that time, magnets would have to show annual evidence
that at least five percent of their student population was of mixed ethnicities (Blank,
1989). Explicit federal support continued throughout the 1980’s with the
authorization of the Magnet Schools Assistance Program (MSAP) under the
Education for Economic Security Act. Under MSAP, the requirements for federal
support expanded beyond desegregation as the focus shifted to include improving the
quality of education.
Enrollment in magnet schools was usually regulated in a variety of ways to
ensure that schools remain racially balanced through specific admissions criteria,
including lotteries, an application and interview process, and/or set-asides for
neighborhood residents (Archbald, 1991; Education Commission of the States,
2007). This system of selecting students, as well as the general mission of magnet
schools, had both proponents and critics.

26
Proponents of magnet schools believed that families were given more choice
within the public school system helping to desegregate public education.
Furthermore, the specialized programs that emphasized a consistent theme or method
of teaching, facilitated students’ and teachers commitment to the school and
education. Recent studies on magnet schools found that students with low
socioeconomic status achieve better academically than like students who remain at
regular public schools (Blank, 1989).
Critics of the magnet school generally argued that magnet’s often “hurt”
neighboring public schools by taking away their brightest students. Since magnets
would attract students with the strongest academic abilities, many believed that the
specialized schools encouraged segregation of students based on ability and talents.
According to Steel and Levine (1994), “critics expressed concerns over the potential
for elitism and inequity that they feel is inherent in magnet schools” (p. 9). In
addition, parents of students who applied to a magnet and were denied enrollment
filed grievances against the school stating that the selection process for accepting
students was in itself a form of discrimination. The selective admission criteria of
magnet schools often acted as a hurdle for students with low- income, English
Language Learners, students with special needs or those with failing grades or
records of poor behavior or truancy who wanted to attend these schools (Archbald,
1991; Blank, 1989; Steel & Levine, 1994). Hence, magnet schools were not really
open to all students who wanted to pursue a specialized field of study.

27
Although magnet schools showed great promise, more research is needed to
learn about the prevalence of, and trends in, magnet schools, about magnet schools’
role and effectiveness in desegregation plans, and about their effects on educational
quality (Archbald, 1991, p. 2).
A Nation at Risk: Reagan’s Bold Critique of the Public Educational System
In the 1980s, President Reagan’s National Commission on Excellence in
Education (NCEE) criticized the public education system for being a dysfunctional
service agency. In a report titled A Nation At Risk the NCEE stated that American
students’ outcomes were abysmal and claimed that lazy and unengaged students
were responsible for public education’s lack of productivity. In addition, the report
asserted that schools were below par due to slack, uneven standards and poorly
qualified teachers (Abedi, 2004). Furthermore, the NCEE predicted that the nation
had a “rising tide of mediocrity” which threatened the economic well being of the
nation, which would ultimately create high levels of social unrest. Led by this
conviction, the federal government pressured schools to increase their standards, and
passed laws designed to make licensing for teachers and administrators more
rigorous (Kowalski, 2005).
A Nation At Risk was a proposed reform based on the development of
standards-based curricula to improve student learning. The focus was based on
standards of achievement, and the idea was that both student achievement and
instructional programs were likely to improve. To create and improve the
educational system, the NCEE made several recommendations that included: an

28
enahnced language arts, science and math curriculum, an extended school day and
school year, and programs that better prepared teachers to perform their duties
(Wikipedia, 2006).
Despite the widespread acceptance of the report, it was not without flaws.
For example, in the analysis of achievement, the positive trends in achievement
among disadvantaged students was overlooked (Guthrie and Springer, 2004).
Nevertheless, A Nation at Risk drew wideapread attention, launched a nationwide
dialogue about education reform, and led to the statewide standards and
accountablilty testing programs that are prelevant today (Gordon, 2006). In addition,
comprehensive education reform legislation was enacted, which called for added
prerequisites for graduation, a decrease in the average class size, teachers to take and
pass literacy exams, students to take and pass standarized tests, and a redesign of the
teacher licensing process (Guthrie and Springer, 2004). Almost a quarter-century
later, there is compelling evidence that the educational system in America remains
outdated and the concerns that were documented in the report remain as relevant now
as they did then.
Goals 2000: The Attempt to Reverse the Trends of Mediocrity
Following the 1992 election, President Bill Clinton made his attempt to
reform education. In response to the concerns illustrated in the Nation at Risk report
as well as those echoed in other reports published regarding the poor performance of
American students, on March 31, 1994, Predisdent Clinton signed into law Goals
2000: Educate America Act. Goals 2000 introduced the idea of curriculm standards

29
as a key element of the reform movment. The law was based on The National
Education Goals initiative which outlined eight goals that were to be achieved by
American schools by the year 2000. The goals included: ensuring that all children
will start ready to learn; increasing the high school graduation rate; improving
learning by establishing challenging academic standards for all students, particularly
in math and science; and making schools safe and drug-free (Manno, 1995).
The legislation supported states to focus more on the outcomes of distrtict
and school efforts (e.g., student achievement and changes in instruction ) and less on
compliance with rules and regulations (Puma, Raphael, Olson, and Hannaway,
2000). Specifically, states were encouraged to develop content and performance
standards in core subject areas, and to align their entire educational systems
including assessement, curriculum, instruction, professional development, and
parental and community involvement around the standards (Puma, et. al., 2000,
p. I-3).
For many, the goals seemed sensible. However, the reality of attainment of
the goals was overly ambitious. Critics from both the field of Education and the
general public centered their arguments on the overly ambitious and restrictive
federal control as well as the imposition of uniform educational standards. Many
began their criticisms with disclaimers about the goals themselves followed by harsh
remarks against the government for not providing sufficient funds for the the
implementation, maintencance, and evaluation of the reform efforts.

30
Others argued that American schools could not, nor should they have been
mandated to, confront the social problems that were on the rise during the 1990’s.
Urban areas where poverty was endemic had a rising number of single mothers with
an average income within $1,000 of the poverty line, increased parental drug abuse
with approximately 350,000 children born to cocaine addicted mothers annually, as
well as many other dibiltating conditions caused by poverty (Hodgkinson, 1995).
According to Smith (1999), Goals 2000 was a top-down system that extended from
the federal level down to the states and communities. Education reform was
implemented for the pupose of achieving healthcare reform, and schools served as an
infrastructure because they provided access to children and to grassroots citizens
(p. 1).
Many believed that the goals had unitended consequences that included the
devaluation of the high school diploma; schools already tagged with unreasonalbe
accountability mandates would be unable to measure the subjective mandate
ensuring that all students learn to use their minds well, be prepared for resonsible
citizenship, further learning, and find productive employment; adding redundant
mandates to activities already provided to educators and students would create
unecessary work for educators already overwhelmed; and implementing
unreasonable expectations from schools that were ill-equipped to engage
communities that were disenfranchised.
Although the Goals 2000 reform movement funneled billions of dollars into
America’s public education system, there was little to show in return. What’s more,

31
a deep analysis showed that the objectives set forth in the law had negative
consequences for school’s and the children they served.
The Challenges of Leaving No Child Behind
The most significant, and controversial, federal educational reform policy to
date is the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) which was signed into law on January
8, 2002. The law was enacted as a means to hold states, school districts, and schools
more accountable for improving the academic performance of each and every student
regardless of the student’s economic status, race, ethnicity, proficiency in English, or
disability.
Under NCLB, states are required to develop a set of high-quality, yearly,
student academic assessments that include, at a minimum, assessments in
reading/language arts, mathematics, and science (Abedi, 2004). There are number of
equally compelling goals of the legislation, including improving early reading
instruction, upgrading the quality of teachers in high-poverty area schools, and
having all groups of disadvantaged students make substantial progress every year
(Sunderman & Kim, 2004).
Every year a school that accepts federal funding must report student progress
in terms of students scoring at the proficient level or higher on standardized exams.
The data reported are referred to as the school’s adequate yearly progress or AYP
(Reschovsky & Imazeki, 2003). The law includes changes in educational policy
many of which, some educators believe, hinder teachers’ ability to teach the
students’ individual and group needs.

32
The No Child Left Behind Act:

• tells states how often they have to test students and what subjects must be
emphasized, forcing the great majority to change the assessment
processes they had decided were best and to give absolute priority to
scores on reading and math tests from grades 3 to 8.
• tells states how much progress schools must make every year for every
subgroup of students.
• mandates goals that have never been achieved on any scale in high
poverty school districts.
• requires that students with limited English proficiency and students
receiving special education services perform at the same high levels as
other students and that schools employ “highly qualified” teachers.
• contains funding set-asides and sanctions for schools that do not meet the
AYP.
• mandates funding for supplemental service voucher programs that no
school district had ever operated.
• imposes new requirements on state resources without providing federal
reimbursement to cover many costs.
• requires the states to assume a role with the local schools and districts that
goes beyond what any state has ever done to such a large degree
(Sunderman and Kim, 2004, p. 1).

33
As a result of this legislation, high school leaders now have less authority and
practically no autonomy to individualize and target the education specifically to their
students. The seemingly unattainable requirements have burdened school
administrators and teachers from being creative; they are in a federal headlock and
their ability to improve student outcomes at all grade levels has been decreased by
the very law that seeks to enhance the educational experience. According to the
National Research Council (2003), some education analysts have expressed concern
that “raising standards for students who are performing poorly will increase their
alienation or disengagement from school rather than motivate them to exert more
effort, or that the concentration on English and math only will impoverish the
curriculum” (p. 16).
Added Accountability in California
In addition to all of the mandates of the NCLB legislation, the state of
California implemented its own system of mandates and accountability. In 2006, the
California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE) was implemented as a requirement for
receiving one’s high school diploma. According to the legislature, increasing student
graduation requirements will ensure that students graduating from California’s high
schools are truly and properly prepared to meet the challenges of an ever-growing
society. The CAHSEE assesses whether students who graduate from high school can
demonstrate grade-level competency in accordance with the State content standards
for reading, writing, and mathematics. Regardless of any other graduation

34
requirements, students who do not pass the CAHSEE will not be eligible to obtain
their high school diploma.
As with other systems of accountability, this method of holding students and
school level personnel responsible for student achievement has been met with high
levels of controversy. Supporters of the exam believe that the large number of
failing students brings into question the value of passing grades in California. Non-
supporters argue that the exam is culturally biased and non-indicative of the progress
a student made throughout the years he or she was in high school. Although more
research is needed to determine the effectiveness the CAHSEE, the 2006 report the
number of students who passed the CAHSEE was quite disturbing in that only 50
percent of the African American and Latino students who took the exam passed
(California Department of Education, 2006).
Summarizing Accountability Efforts in American Education
There is little doubt that America needs and deserves an educational system
that prepares all students for a prosperous future. However, as a result of the
onslaught of governmental mandates, educators are constantly exposed to barriers
and limitations that make it more difficult to design curricula that will adequately
prepare students to function in a global economy. The current wave of reforms puts
unprecedented pressure on public schools to educate all children, meet a specific set
of academic standards, and produce evidence of learning using high-stake
standardized tests as the only assessment tool (Jackson, 2005). As a consequence of
the well-intended reform efforts, American schools may be perceived as overly

35
concerned with developing curriculum designed to transmit information as opposed
to empowering students to assume responsibility for their learning. It is more
important that students be prepared to navigate a constantly changing and complex
world than to ingest meaningless information (Knudsen & Morrissette, 1998). When
closely examined, many, if not most of the objectives set forth in the reform efforts
were designed without a full understanding of the social factors that influence
American families and schools. Without the necessary support systems in place,
such grandiose goals cannot be realized and reform will not be forthcoming.
Although several attempts have been made to reform the structure of the
public school system to improve the educational outcomes for all of America’s
children, the need to reform high schools to places where students can be safe and
can reach their ultimate academic potential has never been more urgent. Despite all
of the aforementioned obstacles built into the attempts at creating reliable systems of
accountability, the pressure is on for urban high schools to produce measurable
evidence that proves their students are learning.
High Schools Today
Under the right circumstances, challenging students to learn in a school that
provides a curriculum that is demanding and rigorous increases their motivation and
engagement. Regrettably, few high schools to date have provided the context or
supports that would enable most students to achieve to their potential (National
Research Council, 2003). The basic nature of American public high schools
throughout the twentieth century remained relatively unchanged and thousands of

36
students continue to be left out and left behind. Students across the nation are
expected to learn in an educational system that was built to educate a different type
of learner for a different type of society. Many students in American public high
schools spend their days in large antiquated buildings, with approximately 10 to 30
students per room (depending on the school and district), attend classes for a period
of fifty to ninety minutes, and usually sit in single file rows. According to Simmons
(2002), “many schools expect students to spend most of each day in isolation:
listening to lectures, waiting, taking tests, and doing ‘seat work’” (p. 2). Moreover,
what students are learning in conventional secondary schooling (most notably high
school) is dissociated from the life and work of the community in which they live in
(Simmons, 2002).
Critics of the American public high school eloquently articulate that the
educational system has failed to keep up with the needs of a changing student body
and knowledge-based economy (Codding, Rothman, & Tucker, 1999; Hood, 2003;
Predmore, 2004). They argue that the “reality” of today’s public schools: educate
children to function in about the same social and economic stratum as their parents,
preserve and pass on the existing system, have students who are often powerless to
share in their own educational planning, and incorporate inappropriate disciplinary
procedures because of their preoccupation with controlling pupils (Allen-Mears et
al., 2000).
In such a culturally diverse society as that of the United States, many public
high schools today lack focus for a much needed multicultural education and remain

37
ethnically and economically segregated, notwithstanding the Supreme Court ruling
which prohibited “separate but equal” education over fifty years ago (Bennett, 2001;
Noguera, 2003). To shed light on this development, according to the U. S. Census
Bureau (2006), African American, Latino, and poor children make up the majority of
the student population for those schools located in the largest urban school systems
across the nation.
What has emerged over time and continues today is a separate and unequal
educational system in which privileged and primarily White students attend
reputable schools in suburban areas while poor mostly non-White students attend
inner-city schools. Duvall (2006) states, “demographically, urban public schools
enroll students who are twice as likely as their peers nationwide to be eligible for a
free or reduced priced lunch and to be an English language learner” (p. 4). Clearly
stated, individuals who have been fortuitous enough to have the means to relocate to
wealthier suburban schools have done so to escape from the deprivation of large city
schools, leaving behind all of those individuals who have been historically oppressed
(Holme, 2002).
Our nation’s educational system is still facing overwhelming and daunting
challenges. A careful analysis of the number of students graduating from high
school can provide valuable insights into the performance of the American
educational system. Research indicates that the structure and instruction process of
America’s educational system is simply failing to prepare the next generation for

38
societal challenges which seriously threatens our nation’s economic and civic health
(Greene & Winters, 2002; Goldin, 1998; Richman & Bowen, 1997; Rothstein, 2004).
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2005),
approximately ten percent of the Nation’s population of 16-24 year olds in the year
2004 did not complete their high school education. Distressing is the fact that the
highest percentage of those dropouts was among students attending school in urban
cities. It is estimated that one out of every two Latino and African American
students living in inner-city areas will not graduate from high school (Greene
&Winters, 2002; The Civil Rights Project, 2005).
In California the number and rate of students dropping out of school s a
problem. According to statistics generated by the California Department of
Education (2005), over sixty thousand of California’s students were deemed to be
high school dropouts in the 2005 academic school year. That same year, it was
reported that within grades 9 through 12, over eleven thousand dropouts came from
the largest urban school district in Los Angeles. It needs to be noted that the data
presented may not be accurate because the numbers reported by school districts often
underestimate the extent of the dropout problem.
Nevertheless, these rates are very disturbing and may indicate that American
high schools, as they now exist, are failing to prepare youth for the challenges of
tomorrow. Several studies illustrate that high school dropouts are more likely to rely
on welfare and other social service agencies as adults and have a higher probability

39
of entering into the prison system, which are both factors that keep the cycle of
poverty alive (Noguera, 1996).
Given that the American educational system is interconnected and based on
comprehensive mastery of basic skills in reading and mathematics in the early years
of schooling, it is important to consider how students are prepared to meet the
challenges of the high school curriculum. While urban school achievement in
reading and mathematics on state-mandated tests continues to climb (McCarthy and
Kuh, 2006), it is still true that a significant number of pupils who attend large city
elementary and middle schools enter high school with test scores that are below
proficient in both reading and mathematics (Noguera, 2004). For example, by the
time African American and Latino students reach the eighth grade, over 40 percent
“are performing one grade level or more below expected and normal achievement
levels” (Stanton-Salazar, 1997). Consequently, these students are ill-equipped to
excel in advanced-level courses (Duvall, 2006; Ravitch, 1998; Roscigno,
Tomaskovic-Devey, and Crowley, 2006) and they feel discouraged to continue with
their education.
A large number of American high schools face many challenges as educators
are hard pressed to deliver the best possible education for their students. Yet the
challenges of urban city high schools are more daunting and intimidating than those
schools located in more affluent areas. Although schools and teachers are expected
to provide equal educational services and opportunities for all students regardless of
ethnicity or economic status, this responsibility cannot be accomplished when the

40
resources vital to the educational process are not readily available to all. Schools in
suburban neighborhoods have many more resources to educate students than urban
schools and, therefore, those students are more likely to perform at a higher level
than inner-city students (Predmore, 2004).
In addition to all of these challenges, inner-city schools must also meet
problems such as: high crime rates and violence, being physically located in
impoverished neighborhoods, servicing students in dilapidated school facilities in
over-crowded classrooms, working with a major shortage of financial support and
current textbooks, and outdated technology, high rates of student disciplinary
problems and truancy, lacking the resources vital in teaching English language
learners, persistent student achievement gaps, and the threat of being taken over by
the state if specific academic standards are not met (Predmore, 2004).
Unfortunately, urban high schools are presenting very little evidence that they
are succeeding in their responsibility to educate the students they serve. Quite often,
these schools are left unaided to react to new societal conflicts, as well as to those
that have been deeply embedded into the American society for many years. In urban
cities across the nation, public schools have the monumental task of educating the
poorest and most disenfranchised children in the country with limited possibility of
providing individualized attention to student needs.
As a result of these barriers, there is an overabundance of urban students who
drift through high school without the adult attention they need or the relevant and
rigorous coursework that is necessary to keep them engaged in their education

41
(Skiba, 2002). According to McCarthy and Kuh (2006) “high school students do not
spend a lot of time preparing for their classes and generally feel that they are meeting
teacher expectations for their courses without devoting much time to preparation” (p.
666). Hence, countless students fall through the cracks and perform at significantly
lower levels than students that have been provided with coordinated educational and
support services.
The current data on dropout rates, educational attainment, and student
performance are of serious concern. In addition, the signs of wasted intellectual
potential continue to raise concerns about the ability of most urban adolescents to
succeed as adults. McCarthy and Kuh (2006) add that, even when students do
graduate from urban high schools, there is consensus from several top level
universities and employers that many urban high school graduates are not prepared
to meet the requirements of college coursework or to perform adequately on the job.
The Challenge of Finding and Retaining Urban School Teachers
One of most significant challenges that urban schools face is being able to
find highly qualified teachers who will stay long enough to make a noticeable
difference in student outcomes. After all, teachers are the catalysts through which
children learn. They are at the front line, having day-to-day contact with the students
and are, in essence, the glue that holds schools together. However, it is not
uncommon that teachers do not want to work in inner-city schools because they are
either afraid of the neighborhoods, the schools, or the challenges.

42
As a result of the complicated working conditions for teachers in urban
schools, which include low salaries, increased responsibilities, unsafe working
conditions, and a lack of support, quality teachers are themselves “dropping out” of
the urban educational system (Ingersoll, 2001). Many of those who make the
attempt to provide quality teaching services simply cannot connect to the needs of
these school’s and soon after taking a position with urban schools give up on the
personalization aspect of teaching due to the many compliance regulations that they
face. For instance, many teachers in urban school districts often lose the passion for
the field of education since they must worry about personal safety, the stifling
atmosphere of the inner city and then are discouraged to have to conform to the
fixation of standardized testing which highly reduces the flexibility and spontaneity
of teaching. Without hesitation, too many highly qualified teachers move on to
school systems that offer both better pay and better working conditions.
There is a major problem in retaining urban school teachers in that teachers
who begin their careers in urban city schools are, as soon as possible, apt to move to
suburban schools or leave the teaching profession entirely (Buckley, Schneider, &
Shang, 2005). Dissatisfied former teachers, those who actually left the profession,
cited serious problems within their working environment. More than half these
teachers expressed concerns over inadequate supports, such as lack of time for
planning or professional development and bureaucratic impediments such as
classroom interruptions, unnecessary meetings, and too little say over the way their
schools are run (Futernick, 2007).

43
Inner-City Students and Urban Factors that Lead to Educational Breakdowns
A large majority of urban high schools are located in the most impoverished
and disenfranchised areas of the nation, and no factor contributes more to the
academic failure of children than poverty (Brooks-Gunn & Duncan, 1997; Vail,
2003). Scholars have documented that low “socioeconomic status,” whether
measured by family income, parent education, or parent occupation, is usually one of
the most powerful predictors of academic achievement and test score performance,
sometimes swamping all other known contributing factors (Krashen, 2005).
According to a recent study on child poverty in the United States, it is estimated that
11.7 million children are living in poverty, most of whom live in urban communities
(Anderson-Moore & Redd, 2002). More specifically, within the last five years, 30
percent of African American children and 28 percent of Latino children live in
poverty (Anderson-Moore & Redd, 2002).
Poverty is a multi-dimensional problem: it deprives the stricken population of
good standing either economically, politically, or socially; it limits opportunities to
move up the social stratum as a result of inadequate education, poor development of
social capital, little or no access to adequate health care, and reduced levels of basic
social service (Iceland, 2003; Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
All too often, it is assumed by many education stakeholders that a student’s
personal traits are the sole determinants in terms of the success or failure of schools,
overlooking the effects of the surrounding environment. Although the outlook for
America’s urban schools is troubling, a focus on the characteristics of the children it

44
serves will reveal that the situation is more complex than it initially appears to be
(Noguera, 2004). The fact of students living in second-rate (or worse) conditions has
significantly contributed to the severe, ongoing difficulties of, and obstacles faced
by, students attending schools in inner cities not experienced by students in the more
affluent areas of the country.
Children who are raised in poverty are faced with an array of risk factors that
begin from the time they are born and extend into adulthood (Bracey, 2004). For
example, a lack of educational resources (e.g. books, computers, etc.) early in a
child’s life inhibits many of these youth from achieving their potential in school and
in society. According to Bracey (2004), African American and Latino parents living
in poverty are less likely to read to their children are likely to believe that their
children’s formal education is a duty that should be handled by their child’s school.
Consequently, over half of the 15-to-18-year olds from poor families have reading
and math problems and score at the bottom 20 percent of all teens (Salamon, 1991).
Moreover, children from high-poverty environments come to school less
receptive to learning and have difficulty capturing classroom instruction because
they are more frequently exposed to illnesses that require medical attention, live with
extreme levels of family stress, have to deal with threats and/or influence from street
gangs, are exposed and tempted by alcohol and controlled substances, lack parental
involvement in all facets of their lives, and must fight negative stereotypes from
adults.

45
Educational researchers have found that impermanent housing, school
mobility, and food deprivation are factors that many children living in urban areas
must contend with which decrease their chances of being successful in school (Vail,
2003). A national study of transciency showed that 25% of students whose families
fell under the poverty line were likely to move from their place of residence during
their elementary and secondary school careers. It is estimated that 24 % of children
living in poverty have an insecure food supply and that 13% of those children go
hungry every day (Bracey, 2004). It should not be surprising that children who come
to school hungry have less energy and, therefore, are less likely to pay attention or
participate in class. These data are important because, if “school success depends
upon regular and unobstructed opportunities for constructing instrumental
relationships with institutional agents across the key social spheres and institutional
domains dispersed throughout society,” (Stanton-Salazar, 1997) children in urban
communities are not given those opportunities.
In spite of these barriers, the children of the inner city begin their academic
careers with a certain level confidence, optimism, and a positive outlook on school
since many adults teach them that education will be their ticket out of deprivation
and hardship. For most, the initial feeling is that they are part of a social structure
that is secure and stable with individuals who genuinely care about their well-being.
However, as children progress through the early grades and reach high school,
something changes. Either students get drawn into and become victims of urban
street life (gangs, drugs, prostitution, etc.) or become disengaged and disconnected

46
from the formal educational process because they no longer see how what is taught
in school will help them survive the street life they learn to embrace. In addition,
factors such as punitive and reactive disciplinary policies, poorly qualified teachers,
and unsafe school environments are associated with the “pushing-out” of these
students from the academic environment. These children simply lose their
motivation to complete their high school education.
According to Clark and Estes (2002), “motivation gets us going, keeps us
moving, and tells us how much effort to spend on work tasks” (p. 80). Clark and
Estes (2002) offer three areas, which may reveal potential problems in motivation: a
person’s active choice, persistence, and mental effort. In order to escape the pressure
brought about by being academically under-prepared and having a sense of
disconnectedness with the school system, many African American and Latino
students simply choose to dropout (Llagas, 2003). Particularly in the secondary
grades, many urban city youth who have not been academically prepared often do
not persist in school and complain that school is boring and a complete waste of
time. They believe that the material taught in school is irrelevant to their daily lives
and, therefore, invest very little mental effort in the classroom (Lara & Pande, 2001).
Another factor with which students in urban schools must often contend and
which impedes their opportunity to achieve academically is the lack of social support
networks. Supportive relationships serve as buffers against the stressful life events
that all children encounter. Children who live in urban areas encounter stress on a
daily basis and desperately need support networks. However, Stanton-Salazar

47
(1997) states, “decades of educational research strongly suggest that
urban/metropolitan, working-class schools have historically not been strategically
oriented toward the development of students’ social support networks. It may,
therefore, be reasonable to intimate that conventional educational provisions for
working-class minority students, while officially designed to educate, may have
always played an inadvertent yet key role in reproducing social inequality” (p. 5).
The accumulation of social capital is very problematic for low-status children. For
example, many African American and Latino students who are motivated to pursue
their high school education are easily persuaded, quickly ridiculed, and reminded by
peers who show no interest in their schooling that wanting to learn a “white man’s”
education is a clear sign of being a “cultural sell-out” (Verdugo, 2002).
In addition to negative peer relationships, too many urban students face
rejection from too many adults in the school system. For example, teachers’
unfamiliarity with their students’ lives outside of school frequently leads to a
stereotyping that impedes the development of a positive and meaningful teacher-
student relationship. The result is often higher levels of student alienation, rebellious
student attitudes, a loss of trust in adults, and severe episodes of student misconduct
which, in turn, lead to more punitive reactions from school-site officials such as
suspensions and expulsions (Casella, 2003; Katz, 1999; Skiba and Leone, 2002).
Clearly, a large majority of students attending schools in urban school districts are
utterly disconnected and disengaged from their education.

48
What Works in Schools and Student Engagement
In spite of the difficult circumstances with which schools in urban areas must
contend, engaging students to successfully complete their high school education is
possible. As the educational system as a whole develops meaningful, respectful, and
trusting relationships between students’ needs and school practices, student success
will surely flourish.
To preserve the integrity of a learning environment, address the causes of
student disengagement, and improve positive behavioral skills and long-term
outcomes for students, research indicates that out-performing high schools have
several characteristics in common. Educational analysts agree that effective
educational systems have: a clear and shared focus, high standards and expectations
for all students, effective school leadership, high levels of collaboration and
communication between school staff, students, parents and other school
stakeholders, a rigorous curriculum, instruction and assessment aligned with
standards, frequent monitoring of learning and teaching, meaningful professional
development, and integrated family and community involvement (Bergeson, 2003;
Blase and Blase, 2004; Marzano, 2003; Simmons, 2001). In the following sections,
four factors that contribute to “what works” in schools will be discussed.
Leadership: Building Successful Schools
In terms of what makes a school successful, the factor that appears most in
the literature is effective leadership. For some, leadership is a process by which
individuals, working together, create relationships to attempt to accomplish a shared

49
vision (Northouse, 2004). Oftentimes, leadership relies on a systematic and
methodical approach in dealing with many types of complex situations.
School leadership is about responsibility, accountability, and the desire and
intent to produce positive outcomes. Traditionally, the person who most often takes
on the role of leader in K-12 schools is the principal. Although a person’s position
as a manager or supervisor gives the authority to accomplish certain tasks, the
position does not in itself make a leader. Successful educational leaders are those
who are relentless in their effort to identify areas of needed improvement. Gergen
(2007) states, “the fundamental definition of a leader is a person who has the ability
to motivate people to work together to accomplish great things. A person who
beyond their credentials, has a commitment to public service, to nurturing new
leaders, and to making a lasting contribution to the public good. They are models for
anyone who hopes to motivate and inspire” (p. 42).
With qualities such as integrity, foresight, energy, human-relation skills,
dependability, and decisiveness, leaders push forward until their schools, students,
and teachers have the resources they need to accomplish the ultimate goal of
academic achievement. In schools that “work,” leaders pay very close attention to
the quality of the workplace environment and work tirelessly to communicate a clear
mission and vision; foster collaboration among teachers; encourage teachers’
involvement in decision making; set high expectations for teachers and students;
develop a sense of teamwork and trust; and stimulate thinking and reflection on
teaching (Gordon, 2006, p.219).

50
Whether dealing with great tragedy when people are immersed in confusion;
handling complicated policy or budgetary issues; or developing strategic plans to
improve educational environments, high standards, and expectations, a leader
displays great focus and determination and does not waver under pressure. Without
effective educational leadership, obtaining the characteristics that make schools
successful would be extremely difficult.
School Culture: A Landscape for Developing Greatness
Students succeed in a school climate that has high standards and
expectations, is small enough to create caring relationships between teachers and
students, that has authority and resources for teaching and learning, and that holds
itself accountable for positive student outcomes (Clinchy, 2000). More importantly,
highly effective school cultures prioritize the individual needs of each student.
The terms “climate” and “culture” are commonly used to describe the unique
attributes of a school. In particular, culture has come to refer to the quality of
relationships within the school and how those relationships affect the students, staff,
and the school’s community (Gordon, 2006). To maximize the potential of all
students, positive school cultures develop interpersonal relationships between the
adults and students who make up the school (Marzano, 2003). Consequently, these
adults show great interest in creating positive results for children and adapt their
teaching styles to do just that.
According to Stanton-Salazar (1997), children need to have a personal
attachment to the school and feel that they are accepted and cared for regardless of

51
their social or economic background. Successful schools develop a community of
teachers and staff that will encourage the development of relationships in which
genuine care is displayed, students and teachers feel safe, and rigorous meaningful
learning can occur.
Student achievement relies too heavily on the full deployment of teacher
talent. Therefore, outperforming schools employ adults who are emotionally
committed to their work and are intrinsically motivated to strive for excellence.
Teachers in these climates feel valued, appreciated, and respected as professionals;
they observe, help, and rely on one another to create a climate that is conducive for
learning.
Furthermore, schools that foster high-achieving and motivated students have
built into their school culture a philosophical model of educational success.
Educators in these settings believe and act as though all students have the ability to
learn, and they practice an ethic of caring for all students; develop a culture that is
child-centered, nurturing, and fair and holds students accountable for their
educational activities; encourage parents to participate in their children’s education;
and provide high quality instruction for all children (Blase and Blase, 2004;
Marzano, 2003). What usually occurs in these settings is the opportunity for both
students and adults to learn about their talents in proactive ways. In addition,
effective schools are flexible enough to engage students and parents who are vastly
different from each other in their orientations to learning (Simmons, 2001). Alas,

52
becoming outperforming takes years of sustained patience, focus, and strong
commitment from all stakeholders.
Rigorous Curriculum for All
It is no secret that a major factor in the success of the highest achieving
schools is the rigor of the curriculum. Research indicates that academic intensity and
quality of a student’s course of study is a far more powerful predictor of the
attainment of a college degree than class rank, grade point average, or test scores
(Adelman, 1999; Weiss, 2001). Several studies on the link between types of high
school curriculum and successful student outcomes found that the biggest factor in
determining whether students would earn a college degree and find a high-paying job
was the participation in a strong academic curriculum in high school (Weiss, 2001).
Moreover, these studies found that an intensive academic curriculum in high school
had the strongest positive effect for African American and Latino students (The
American Diploma Project, 2004).
Although opinions vary about what constitutes a strong academic high school
curriculum, the National Center for Education Statistics suggests that a rigorous
curriculum consists of four years of English, four years of mathematics, three years
of a foreign language, three years of social studies, three years of science, at least
one advanced placement course, and college-preparatory courses (Weiss, 2001).
Over 60 percent of new jobs in the market today require some postsecondary
education (Achieve, Inc., 2007). Therefore, educators in high-performing schools do
not simply hand out diplomas. Leaders in these schools make it a top-priority to

53
implement a curriculum that demands and expects more of their students. As a result
of the conditions of America’s fast paced society successful schools specifically
highlight the English and mathematical skills, among others, that high school
graduates must have mastered by the time they leave school to succeed in post
secondary education, or in high-performance high-growth jobs. A rigorous
curriculum, implemented effectively help equip students with the knowledge and
skills to communicate effectively, think critically, analyze and interpret data, and
evaluate a variety of materials that will be crucial to their success as adults.
Students Taking an Active Role in their Education
Educators must not overlook a young adult’s drive to establish an
independent identity in the community. Simmons (2001) states, “young adults are
driven to create and express a personal role in the adult world around them. Faced
by adult challenges in a highly complex society, high school students are more likely
to respond actively to learning opportunities when they can assume increasing
responsibility for plotting their own course” (p. 10). Motivation to be actively
engaged is essential to learning, whether students are attending schools that are
located in urban, suburban, or rural communities. While high school failure has been
an abysmal problem in urban school districts, research indicates that connecting
students to as many elements of the educational system as possible may help them
evolve into successful students.
Educational researchers have consistently found that student engagement, the
level of persistence and quality involvement in learning activities a student displays,

54
is a necessary condition for school achievement and has been linked to reduced
dropout rates and increased levels of school success (Brewster and Fager, 2000;
Cothran and Ennis, 2000; Johnson, Crosnoe, and Elder, 2001). Students who are
academically engaged feel like they are an integral part of the school, are more likely
to invest themselves in school and classroom activities, and are more likely to
develop and maintain positive feelings about their school and the people in it
(Johnson et. al, 2001). Furthermore, Hudley, Daoud, Polanco, Wright-Castro, and
Hershberg (2003) state, “engagement is a potentially useful construct for organizing
strategies to support adjustment, achievement, and retention in school, particularly
among our most vulnerable student populations” (p. 3). Students motivated to learn
can succeed even in less-than-optimal environments and seek meaningful
information that makes sense in their lives.
To determine how engaged students were in America’s schools, the Indiana
University at Bloomington developed the High School Survey of Student
Engagement. This innovative national study was piloted in 2003 and surveyed over
90,000 students from 103 high schools in 26 states; it provided the largest national
database on student engagement. The findings of the study showed that student
engagement measures are powerful predictors about student attitudes and perceptions
that can be used to improve school practices to obtain increased levels of positive
student outcomes (Center for Evaluation and Educational Policy, 2005). In addition,
the researchers found that high school student engagement promotes persistence,
fosters integration into school culture and participation in extracurricular activities,

55
nurtures school climate supportive of achieving educational goals, and serves as
process indicators of various student outcomes (McCarthy, unknown).
According to the Center for Evaluation and Educational Policy (2005), the
HSSSE data results have been found to be extremely beneficial as a basis to alter
school practices and enhance student learning. For example, some of the HSSSE
results from the 2005 study found that:
• Respondents spent relatively little time preparing for class. Half (50%)
devoted four hours or less per week to homework, reading, rehearsing, and
other school activities
• Over 50% of the Latino and African American students never or only
sometimes contributed to class discussions.
• Only one fifth (20%) of the respondents frequently (often or very often)
worked with other students on projects or assignments outside of class.
• A larger percentage of Latino (40%), African American (39%), and American
Indian (35%) students reported that they never worked on projects with other
students outside of class when compared to Asian (23%) and White (31%)
students.

These findings suggest that students have transcended, to some extent, the
attitudinal disconnect from serious schoolwork and separatism that often plagues
ethnic minority students. Nonetheless, student engagement data can be used by
educators as a complement to standardized test results as a way to identify what

56
changes are needed to enhance student learning and school effectiveness.
Consequently, because the majority of the student respondents of the HSSSE were
White (68%) non-urban students, it is not clear whether student engagement is a
factor that contributes to high performance in urban high schools where ethnic
minority students (African American and Latino) are a majority. Therefore, more
research is needed to determine what factors contribute to outperforming high
schools in urban school districts.
Summary of the Literature
The literature analyzed in Chapter II exemplifies several events and factors
that have led to the current state of the public educational system, particularly urban
high schools, in America. Generally, the research indicated the following:
• Despite several reform efforts, the basic nature of American public high
schools throughout the twentieth century has remained relatively
unchanged. Thousands of students are being pushed out, left out, or left
behind.
• Urban high schools face great economic and systemic challenges as they
work to deliver the best possible education for their students.
• Urban high schools present very little evidence that they are succeeding in
their responsibility to educate the students they serve.
Despite the presence of an ominous set of troubling conditions, the research
shows that children who attend inner city schools start school with a positive outlook
regarding their education and hope to find ways to rise above the aforementioned

57
adversities. This is often accomplished through support from positive adult
relationships, a nurturing school environment that is conducive to learning, high self-
efficacy, parental involvement, and positive peer relationships. In addition, studies
indicate that high performing schools share several characteristics that lead to
increased student motivation and higher levels of academic achievement. These
findings give reason to hope that outcomes can be improved in critically
underperforming urban high schools.
Although large-scale studies such as the High School Survey of Student
Engagement document the importance of student engagement in high performing
schools, current research literature is deficient in studying the influence of student
engagement in high performing urban high schools. It is the intent of this study to
add scholarship to this topic. This study will also address what other factors may
lead to high performance in urban high schools.
Finally, the research in Chapter II helped frame the research questions used in
this study and provided a collective guide for how to approach the study
methodologically. However, it is apparent that the research literature on this subject
is limited. The field-research reviewed for this literature review, reveal a lack of
studies that have an in-depth focus on high student achievement in urban high
schools. In many instances where ethnic minority students and urban schools are
coupled together in research, the concentration has been on the failures rather than
successes among and within these groups of students. Consequently, this study will
attempt to fill a void present in educational research by examining outperforming

58
urban high schools and the relational pattern of student engagement on academic
success.

59
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to provide “information rich” insight on the
factors, including student engagement, which impacted student achievement in an
outperforming urban magnet high school in Los Angeles. Specifically, the overall
study consisted of qualitative data collected by a thematic dissertation group of 10
doctoral students from the University of Southern California, Rossier School of
Education, each of who conducted individual case studies on one of 10 different
types of outperforming urban high schools.
The thematic dissertation group began work on the aforementioned study
during the Fall Semester of 2007. Under the guidance of Dr. Stuart Gothold,
Professor of Education, the thematic group (1) determined the ultimate goals of the
study, (2) created a research based contextual model that guided the study, (3)
formulated the research problem and research questions, (4) developed a criteria for
the case study, (5) decided which units of analysis to study, (6) selected instruments
for data collection, and (7) determined how to analyze the data to address the
research questions under study.
This study addressed the following questions:
1. What perceived factors contribute to academic achievement in an
outperforming urban high school?

60
2. Is there a link between student engagement and student achievement in an
outperforming urban high school?
Development Process: Determining the Goals of the Study
The dissertation group began intense discussions in January 2007 about the
state of public education in America; particularly of its urban high schools. The
group found that a significant number of research articles and media criticisms had
described the K-12 public education system as highly dysfunctional in that school
completion rates were appalling. The group was intrigued by the fact that even in
the face of adversity many high schools across the nation were producing successful
students who graduated from high school and who continued to higher levels of
learning.
The group also discussed and analyzed the findings of the High School
Survey of Student Engagement (HSSSE), an annual survey created and administered
by researchers at the University of Indiana at Bloomington (Appendix 1), which
assessed the perceptions that high school students held about their level of
engagement in school. In addition, the researchers who conducted the HSSSE
argued that high schools that have used their survey results to improve student
outcomes, were able to identify process indicators that lead to desired outcomes,
supplement high stakes test results, and add a new dimension to the school’s
assessment strategies.
As the USC thematic dissertation group members took a deeper look at the
HSSSE, we found that the survey had also been used to compile systematic national

61
data on educational practices that identify student behaviors and school
characteristics that can be changed or modified to enhance student learning.
Together, the group learned that the HSSSE “investigates the attitudes, perceptions,
and beliefs that students have about their work, the school learning environment, and
their interaction with the school community, providing a forum through which
schools can better understand the perspectives of their students and bringing these
critical voices of students into conversations about school reform and school
improvement” (Yazzie-Mintz, 2007, p. 1). However, because the HSSSE did not
extend to urban school districts, the group recognized the limitations of this study
and felt that more inquiry was needed to determine if there is a link between student
engagement and student achievement in outperforming urban high schools.
Development of a Conceptual Model
A conceptual model was developed to illustrate the factors that have been
found to contribute to student achievement and, ultimately, to outperforming high
schools. The conceptual model was constructed to represent how the 10 researchers
expected and believed the information found in the literature should fit together. It
also illustrated what is not yet known about the relationship between student
engagement and student achievement. Figure 1 illustrates the theoretical construct
that guided this study.

62

Research Design
Given that this study attempted to (a) provide “information rich” insight from
the perspective of various stakeholders in an outperforming urban high school and
(b) gain understanding of how student engagement related to academic achievement,
this case study used a research design consisting of a mixed-method qualitative
approach supported by the findings from a quantitative data collection method. This
design was used since the thematic group could modify or expand the evaluation
design and or the data collection methods to confirm findings from different data
sources (Creswell, 2003).

63
Qualitative research methods can be used to better understand any
phenomenon about which little is yet known. They can also be used to gain new
perspectives on things about which much is already known, or to gain more in-depth
information that may be difficult to convey quantitatively (Strauss and Corbin,
1990). Furthermore, “qualitative methods permit inquiry into selected issues in great
depth with careful attention to detail, context, and nuance; that data collection need
not be constrained by predetermined analytical categories contributes to the potential
breadth of qualitative inquiry” (Patton, 2002, p. 226).
One of the main characteristics of qualitative research is its focus on the
intensive study of specific instances, that is cases, of a phenomenon (Gall, Gall, and
Borg, 2003). A case study is an ideal methodology when a holistic, in-depth
investigation is needed. Case studies are designed to bring out the details from the
viewpoint of the participants by using multiple sources of data known as
triangulation as a means to overcome the weaknesses or intrinsic biases and the
problems that may come from single method, single-observer, single-theory studies
(Strauss and Corbin, 1990). According to Gall et. al (2003) “some case study
research aims to provide explanations for the phenomenon that were studied. We
refer to these explanations as patterns, meaning that one type of variation observed in
a case study is systematically related to another observed variation.” (p. 440).
Rather than using large samples and following a rigid protocol to examine a
limited number of variables, case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal
examination of a single instance or event. In qualitative research, the most

64
appropriate sampling strategy is non-probability (Merriam, 1998). Therefore, this
qualitative case study used a purposeful non-probability sampling method.
According to Trochim (2006), purposive sampling can be very useful for situations
where you need to reach a targeted sample quickly and where sampling for
proportionality is not the primary concern.
As part of this research design, the results of the schools High School Survey
of Student Engagement were used as secondary data to define the parameters of
student engagement.
Sample and Population
Although the HSSSE provided relevant information about students in several
areas of the United States, the thematic dissertation group felt that the study was
limited in that it did not extend to urban areas. The group felt that more inquiry was
necessary to determine if outperforming high schools, even in urban areas, perceived
student engagement as a factor that contributed to their high performance. As a
central action item, the dissertation group agreed that each of the ten would conduct
a case study of an outperforming urban high school based on agreed criteria. The
group determined that the high school(s) chosen for the study needed to be
outperforming as defined by the group, located in an urban school district, and
display urban characteristics. Moreover, the schools were required to meet the
following criteria:
1. Forty percent or more of the students are eligible for free and reduced lunch,
as defined by Title 1.

65
2. Academic Performance Index (API) scores were 2 deciles higher than those
schools with similar rankings as determined by the California Department of
Education.
Once I selected my school, I contacted the school principal, described the
purpose of my study, and requested approval to proceed. The principal granted me
access to the campus, allowed me to review school documents, interview various
stakeholders, and observe various aspects of the school. In addition, the principal
agreed to have the HSSSE administered to her students by the Indiana University
Center for Evaluation and Education Policy.
Description of the School Selected for the Study
The school selected for this case study is Win Medical Magnet High School,
located in the largest school district in Los Angeles and adjacent to a well-known
medical center in the Watts community. Although the Watts community has
historically been riddled with high levels of poverty, gangs, drugs, homicides, and
other detrimental factors that impede learning, since 1982 Win MMHS has
developed a reputation for outstanding student success.
A group of community activists, concerned parents, and physicians and
administrators of the medical center spearheaded the concept of the magnet high
school. Their goal was to address the under-representation of minorities in the health
care professions. The medical center (also affiliated with UCLA) and the largest
school district in Los Angeles collaborated to develop a plan to build a school that
would provide students in the Watts community with hands-on experience in health

66
care. The school sits on a 3.8-acre property located across the street from the
medical center for the express purpose of fulfilling the vision of the Watts
community.
The mission of the magnet is to promote scholarly habits of mind that lead
students to become life-long learners who communicate effectively, think critically,
and envision themselves as active participants in a humane society. Part of the
school’s philosophy is that every student can and will learn; therefore, it is required
that all students follow a college preparatory, honors, and advancement placement
path in the school’s four year program.
The Medicine and Science Careers Program has been the centerpiece of the
school’s curriculum since its establishment. The program provides a unique
opportunity for students to access experience-based learning in such specialty
environments as hospitals, clinics, research laboratories, and university facilities.
Furthermore, students actively develop social capital by having a consistent
interaction with experts and professionals throughout the community and local
agencies. As students pursue the Medicine and Science Careers Program the
emphasis is on the development of scientific inquiry and technological expertise.
Demographics of the School Selected
Data listed in Table 1 are from the 2006-07 California Department of
Education’s Accountability Progress Report (APR). As illustrated, Win Medical
Magnet High School was composed of approximately 1599 students. The ethnic
distribution of the students was approximately 65.5% African American, 32.2%

67
Latino, 1% Asian, and 1% Caucasian. Of the total school population, 4.5% were
classified as “English Learners (EL)”; their primary language was something other
than English or as reported on the California approved Home Language Survey. It
was determined that EL students lacked the clearly defined language skills of
listening, speaking, reading, and/or writing necessary to succeed in the school’s
regular instructional learning program. Nonetheless, out of the statewide
performance target of 800, Win’s 2006 API base report scores were 689 while
scoring a 5 in statewide rankings and a 9 in similar school rankings.

68
Table 1

Demographic Characteristics

Win Medical Magnet High School
Academic Performance Index 689
Statewide Rank 5
Similar Schools Rank 9
Graduation rate based on NCES definition 90.4
1 year dropout rate 0.4
Total Number of Students 1599
Ethnic/Racial Composition %
African American 65.5
Hispanic/Latino 32.2
Asian 1
White 1
Participants in Free or Reduced-Price Lunch 67
Participants in Gifted and Talented Education Program 13
English Language Learners 4.5
Students with Disabilities 2
Fully-Credentialed Teachers 86
Teachers with Emergency Credentials 8
Average Class Size
Core Academic courses in departmentalized programs
30
Average Parent Education Level 2.89*

*Parent educational level responses were based on the following scale: 1=Not high
school graduate, 2=High school graduate, 3=Some College, 4=College graduate,
5=Graduate school.

69
Data Collection and Instrumentation
By design, my role as the researcher put me directly into the daily
educational activities and operational functions of the school, and that allowed me to
interact closely with students, faculty and staff, and other members of the school
community for five full school days. I also attended social events and observed
different types of interactions between students and adults, among students and
students, and adult to adult. Knowing that I would be the primary “measuring
instrument,” accurate data collection was essential to maintaining the integrity of this
research study. The process of gathering and measuring the information was
established in a systematic fashion that enabled me to test hypotheses, evaluate the
outcomes, and answer the research questions.
The findings of this study grew out of four kinds of data collection
instruments. The instruments included: documents, interviews, surveys, and direct
observation that provided for an information-rich study that illuminated the questions
under study and obtained multiple perspectives from the participants. The
instrument for each data collection effort is located in the Appendix section of this
study.
The results of the data-collection instruments were used to triangulate the
findings and help answer the research questions. Triangulation is the act of bringing
one or more than one source of data to bear on a single point; using multiple methods
in which different types of data provide cross-data validity may decrease
vulnerabilities to error (Patton, 2002). By triangulating the data I was able to

70
corroborate, elaborate, and illuminate the research in question and provide the
teachers and administrators with actionable information on the school’s
characteristics that shape the student experience.
Documents
Documents constitute a particularly rich source of information about many
organizations and programs. Documents “provide the evaluator with information
about many things that cannot be observed. They may reveal things that have taken
place before the evaluation began” (Patton, 2002, p. 293). In the interest of
triangulation of evidence, documents serve to corroborate the evidence from other
sources (Yin, 2003).
To familiarize myself with the school’s culture and community, I initiated
this study by reviewing several of the school’s documents. I began with the school’s
history, mission statement, student demographics, and Academic Performance Index
(API) report, all available on the school’s website, and all of which gave me a strong
foundation for the rest of my data collection. I also accessed the district’s website
and examined attendance and discipline data. According to the 2006-07 “school
profile,” the school had an “actual attendance rate” of 94.73%, which is slightly
below the district’s expected attendance rate. In addition, I found that there were
174 suspensions (136 African American, 35 Latino, 1 Asian, and 2 Other White) and
zero referrals for expulsion.
I also reviewed the school’s California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE)
scores and found that 69% of the schools students passed the exam. The school rated

71
10% higher than the statewide percentage of passing scores, 11% higher than the
countywide percentage of passing scores, and 19% higher than the district-wide
percentage of passing scores.
The document review of this study also included, but was not limited to, the
following: graduation rates, course grades and student grade point averages, the
Western Association of Schools and Colleges Report (WASC Report), the school
calendar and its budget, an issue of the school newspaper, the student-and-parent
handbook, several staff meetings’ minutes, and the school’s accountability report
card.
Lastly, since the principal agreed to have the HSSSE administered at the
school, I waited approximately 6 weeks for the results to arrive from Indiana. Using
the results of the school’s HSSEE as secondary data, I reviewed the student’s self-
perceived ideas about student engagement, and identified several factors that the
student’s felt contributed to their success at school.
Collection of data through documents enabled me to adjust my focus about
what is reported to the district as well as the state about factors that I would have not
previously considered or observed. Included in those factors are events that occurred
at the school prior to the start of this study.
Surveys
I also used surveys as a method of data collection, to enhance the validity of
this case study’s findings. Several months prior to entering school sites, the thematic
dissertation group developed two surveys. Reviewing the survey questions used on

72
the HSSSE, the group modified many of those questions to capture appropriate
responses from adult participants. The team decided that one survey would be
specific for teachers (Appendix 2), and one for administrators (Appendix 3). Both
surveys asked questions about how the respondents perceived the high school
experience for the students at their respective schools. Furthermore, the survey
prompted responses about what factors they believed contributed to high
performance and student achievement.
Because the principal was very supportive of this study, she requested that
administrators and teachers complete the survey during one of their staff meetings.
Approximately 45 minutes were allocated during a staff meeting for me as the
researcher to describe the overview of the study, explain the purpose of the surveys,
distribute and collect the consent form, and distribute the surveys and collect the
completed forms.
Analysis of the completed surveys helped provide “information-rich” insight
about what the administrators and teachers believed to be relational factors that
contribute to student achievement. However, I could not draw defensible
conclusions that would be useful in answering the research questions based solely on
the responses and findings of the adult surveys. Therefore, I continued my inquiry by
analyzing the results of the school’s HSSSE as secondary data to determine whether
student responses on their student engagement survey were consistent with those of
the adults.

73
Observations
Organizational life is filled with complex, simultaneous, and interconnected
events that can be interpreted in a number of ways. Seeing and listening were crucial
components of the observation instrument of data collection. I used observations to
collect additional qualitative data as a way to capture meaningful interactions among
the school population and record behavioral patterns. This data collection instrument
allowed me to better understand and capture the context within which our subjects
would interact (Patton, 2002). According to Taylor-Powell and Steele (1996),
“observation provides the opportunity to document activities, behavior and physical
aspects without having to depend on peoples’ willingness and ability to respond to
questions” (p. 1). To clearly understand the day-to-day activities at the school site,
Bolman and Deal’s Four Frames, were incorporated into this data collection
instrument as a guiding template to help decode the organizational complexity of the
school as it naturally exists (Appendix 4).
The possibilities for observation are limitless and it would be impossible to
observe everything at the school site. Therefore, extremely helpful to this data
collection strategy was the observation template (Appendix 5). Developed by the
thematic dissertation group, the template helped this researcher stay focused on
gathering large amounts of observable data, capturing details, discerning among all
of the details from the observations and selecting that which is important to my
study, and providing space for recording observations. I found this template very
useful since I was attempting to obtain comparable information from several

74
observation points. However, the observation template did have limits in that it
decreased the opportunity to record variations or to witness unexpected occurrences.
For example, observing what does not happen in school settings may be as important
as observing as what does.
Nonetheless, armed with the observation template, Bolman and Deal’s Four
Frames, and a notebook, I walked the halls of the school jotting down observations
and comments; field notes that would be used as data. In addition to the items in the
observation template, with permission from the principal, I visited five classrooms
(varied in time of day and grade level); observed the management operations and
procedures; listened to staff interaction with parents and students when dealing with
interruptions to educational activities; watched the students and staff during
nutrition, recess, and lunch times; observed a staff meeting, and identified the times
the principal was visible on the campus.
Interviews
The fourth method of data collection for this study was interviews.
Interviews are a particular type of interaction that involves a negotiation of social
roles and frames of reference between strangers (Polkinghorn, 2007). As the
researcher, equipped with the interview questions developed by the dissertation
group (Appendix 6), I conducted ten interviews with various school stakeholders
who were either very knowledgeable of the school environment, were new arrivals to
the school setting, or were simply willing to talk.

75
The interviews offered each individual an opportunity to respond in a free-
flowing manner. I took several steps prior to the completion of each interview
conducted: I established rapport with the individuals who were selected to
participate in this study, explained the purpose of the study, asked each participant if
it would be acceptable to tape record the interview, obtained a written informed
consent, and then proceeded with the interview. Not passive, but as an active
listener, I maintained constant assessment on two levels:
1. How is what the informant is saying related to the research focus?
2. Are there any incomplete/nonspecific answers that need to be probed?
This format was valuable in that it allowed me the flexibility to have more
conversation with the participants, which permitted me to adjust questions according
to how the interviewee was responding.
The overall goal in using this data collection instrument was to integrate
citations and quotes from the interview response data with the other data collection
instruments to provide for a thick description of what individuals believe to be the
significant contributing factors to their outperforming urban high school.
Data Analysis
To bring order and meaning to the data collected, the information had to be
categorized, sorted, and chunked. Appropriate analysis was crucial to finding
patterns and/or relationships of the words, perspectives, and behaviors of the
research participants and to making sense of what appears to be emerging. I took the
following actions to analyze and interpret the data collected:

76
• Prepared and sorted the data for easy referencing
• Read the data holistically
• Categorical aggregation-code, label, categorize data
• Refined the coding
• Discussed and validated-Wrote rich descriptions of the findings
• Direct interpretation-found themes (Creswell, 2003).

Results from the four data collection instruments are presented in the
following chapter in a descriptive framework, and presented in a first person
narrative format (Yin, 2003). Additionally, in the final section of the study, I
developed congruent themes and patterns as they compare and/or contrast to those
found in the research.
Validity and Confidence of Findings
Attaining absolute validity and reliability is an impossible goal for any
research model (Patton, 2002). Nevertheless, this study used a variety of strategies
to reduce threats to validity and reliability and to increase the accuracy and
credibility of findings through rigorous fieldwork, impartial reporting of findings,
and triangulation of data. The ten members of the thematic dissertation group
thoroughly analyzed and interpreted the case study findings, which may be useful to
other educational settings, particularly in light of the fact that urban school leaders
will continue to be faced with monumental challenges analogous to those described
in this study.

77
Although this case study provided rich descriptions from data provided by the
students, administrators, teachers, and other stakeholders from one outperforming
urban high school on the relational patterns of student engagement and academic
achievement, it also captured several other important factors and reflected on some
larger issues associated with outperforming urban high schools.
As each researcher in the thematic group completed his or her own study, the
members were able to confidently discuss similar themes and consistent patterns
relating to outperforming urban high schools. Consequently, this case study
sharpened understanding of what factors stakeholders in one outperforming urban
high school find to be critical to academic achievement and what factors might be
important to look at more extensively in future research. In addition, this research
provided a clear understanding of the experiences of the participants while
simultaneously allowing the researcher to adequately address the research questions
that framed this specific study.

78
CHAPTER IV
Findings, Analysis, and Discussion
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to provide “information rich” insight regarding
the factors, including student engagement, that were linked to student achievement in
an outperforming urban high school.
This chapter examines the findings of one outperforming magnet high school
in an urban neighborhood in Los Angeles. This case study addressed the following
questions:
1. What perceived factors contribute to academic achievement in an
outperforming urban high school?
2. Is there a link between student engagement and student achievement in an
outperforming urban high school?
The findings in this chapter are based on data gathered from document
analysis, observations, surveys, and interviews with the school’s stakeholders. The
qualitative data collected for this study included this researcher’s transcripts from
taped interviews and observation field notes that were utilized to identify and
analyze the common themes found as a result of responses from the participants.
Throughout this study, this researcher found overarching themes that were perceived
by the study participants to contribute to the success of the school under study. The
findings, analysis, and discussion of the data are presented in more detail in the
sections that follow.

79
Research Question One
Question one of this study asked, “What perceived factors contribute to
academic achievement in an outperforming urban high school?”
Leadership, school culture, and student resilience were examined in part
because there was, for each, a substantial amount of data that was collected by this
researcher that suggested that these factors had positive effects on student
engagement and academic performance at Win Medical Magnet High School.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that these findings are not evidence of causal
mechanisms but are simply the perceived factors that contribute to student
achievement at the school.
The framework used to collect data for this research question was based on
Bolman and Deal’s (2003) Four Interpretations of Organizational Processes
(Appendix 4), which allowed this researcher to examine the broad analytical
perspectives and tell a story about what occurs within the organization under study.
Finding #1 Leadership as the Driving Force
The subjects in this study reported that “leadership” at Win HS is a vital
factor that positively affects the successful student outcomes at this outperforming
high school.
According to the results of the “Survey of High School Teachers Regarding
Student Engagement,” and the “Survey of High School Administrators Regarding
Student Engagement,” 29 out of 35 teachers (83%) and 6 out of the 6 school site
administrators (100%), identified “leadership” as one factor that has driven the

80
school as an organization to accomplish their outperforming status. However, the
responses to the open-ended question included in both surveys, “What are the factors
that you feel contribute to student achievement” provided general responses that
would need further investigation. For example, it was unclear how the participants
defined leadership as their responses included:
Leadership guides curriculum
In large part, student achievement can be attributed to the school’s leadership
Leadership is a tremendous factor that helps staff stay focused, which in turn
helps our students have high levels of academic success.

As part of the methodology of this study, interviews allowed for a more
focused description of what was meant by “leadership.” During the interview
process, ten out of the ten interviewed stated that leadership is a critical component
that influences student outcomes. Four of the ten subjects viewed leadership as a
process where individuals are encouraged to provide input in decision-making, two
of the ten subjects gave examples of the work and outcomes of successful sports
coaches and civil rights leaders (Martin Luther King, Jr., Phil Jackson, Cesar
Chavez, Pat Summitt) to define the term, and yet the remaining four subjects defined
leadership as a person who creates relationships in attempts to accomplish a shared
vision.
Nevertheless, in eight out of the ten interviews, the subjects stated that they
perceived the principal as the leader of the school and described the specific
behaviors and activities of that person. In addition, those eight respondents greatly

81
attributed the successful student outcomes at Win to the leadership style of the
principal.
As a result of the large amount of descriptive information that was received
from the participants, this researcher decided to categorize the leadership
characteristics into subsets and found that the principal’s behavior could be described
as a problem-solver and decision maker, as an instructional leader, and as skilled in
interpersonal relations. Listed below are the subsets of the principal’s behaviors,
which account for the respondent perceptions of leadership:
Subset 1-Problem-solver and decision maker
1. Shows genuine compassion and is able to relate to the challenges faced
by the students, staff, and community.
2. Seeks to facilitate the creation of emotional bonds between the members
of the school community to improve student outcomes.
3. Empowers and motivates teachers, staff, parents, and other stakeholders
by including them in decision-making and problem solving
4. Encourages a climate where teachers are safe to share their ideas about
how to improve student achievement.
5. Holds staff and students accountable for their decisions and actions.
Subset 2-Instructional leader
6. Encourages staff to take advantage of professional development
opportunities that relate to best practices in teaching.

82
7. Facilitates a school culture that is centered on creative teaching that
address student’s academic and non-academic needs.
8. Supports a challenging but individualized curriculum that is focused on
conceptual understanding of subject content and student talents.
Subset 3-Interpersonal relations
9. Develops strong ties, which link the school to students, parents,
community agencies, and other stakeholders.
10. Finds and connects students with opportunities where they can generate
social capital.
11. Searches and finds staff that are committed to children and the academic
mission of the school.
Collectively, the data suggests that leadership is a factor that indirectly
impacts student outcomes by contributing to the environment in which teaching and
learning occurs.
Through further investigation, I learned that the rich tradition of excellence
that exists at Win H.S. did not come easily nor has it been easy to maintain and
leadership has played an important role in this process.
Review of the school’s historical data led this researcher to find that the
unforeseen death of the school’s first principal, Mr. Smith (fictitious name of former
school principal) as well as the controversial closing of the hospital, which the
school heavily relied on for student internships, caused the future of the school to
seem bleak. Through interviews with the school stakeholders, I was able to gather

83
very rich and detailed descriptions regarding the importance of leadership and how it
has been perceived to impact academic achievement at Win H.S. For example, the
main office secretary, a staff member who has been employed at Win H.S. since
1985, described her concern for the future of the school after the first principal
passed away, stating,
This is a great school. Both kids and adults love to be here. But not long
ago…well, we weren’t sure what was going to happen to the school after Mr.
Smith died. A lot of people were worried about who was going to fill the
former principal’s shoes. Even though Mr. Smith had mentored some pretty
talented people…people who worked with him from the beginning…we
weren’t sure if the person who would be picked for the job would come in
with a personal agenda or would stay focused on the kids.

Once Ms. Jones (fictitious name for current principal) was promoted to
become Win’s new principal, everything felt like it was going to be okay.
Ms. Jones is new the school because she worked with Mr. Smith as an
assistant principal. She came in very energetic, worked hard, and really
showed her love for the kids. The mission of the school would continue. She
treats everyone with respect, has very high standards for her staff, and has
definitely made things happen so the kids could have a safe place to learn and
be proud of.

A veteran math teacher elaborated on the “uncertainties” as well as the
school’s new leader, stating,
It was very difficult after Mr. Smith died. Having him lead this school
simply meant successful outcomes for children. He was a man of action who
went to great lengths to aid his students and staff in their endeavors. It felt
good to have someone take charge of what needed to get done so our kids
could have a chance to succeed in school and in life.

At first, teachers were somewhat skeptical of Ms. Jones. It’s natural I
guess…I mean we knew that she was a good leader and a good assistant
principal and that she was Mr. Jones’ protégé…but to lead our entire program
was a completely different ball game. Ms. Jones didn’t have the experience
of being a principal. So of course, teachers were nervous about the future of
the school.

84

There were some veteran teachers who were so used to coming to work and
doing things a certain way that change would be hard. It was a tough
assignment but Ms. Jones shined as a true professional. She embraced the
challenges of leading the school, gained our trust, and quickly made it an
‘engaged school’ in her own way. Her leadership is exactly what the school
needed. You simply can’t have successful students without having a strong
leader.

When Ms. Jones became principal of one of the most successful schools in
the District, she knew she was in for a difficult challenge because different
stakeholders, especially students, were relying on her to continue the tradition of
being an outperforming school. Her experience in the education field consisted of
being a teacher and an assistant principal in an urban school district before becoming
the principal at Win H.S. Her drive to be a highly effective educational leader, led
her to the University of Southern California, Rossier School of Education, to pursue
a Doctorate degree in Education. Ms. Jones stated, “I want to be superintendent of
schools someday and I believe that having a doctorate degree will allow me to fulfill
my personal goal but right now, I want to be equipped with the best tools to build a
capacity where teachers and students can achieve greatness.”
Ms. Jones’ philosophy about how to build a successful school was created by
her experiences as an urban educator as well as her deep understanding of the history
and the needs of the community she works for. As principal at Win H.S., she urges
her staff to focus on teaching that goes well beyond the confines of the classroom,
and to use more creative and less conventional methods of teaching. From her

85
interview, several key strategies were identified as essential for the successful
student outcomes at Win H.S.
1. Tap into the talents of every student and build on the strengths of the
adults.
2. Focus on the strengths of students rather than their shortcomings.
3. Discover and embrace the differences of the learning styles of children.
4. Promote a culture for life-long learning.
5. Identify and expand the positive aspects of the school’s culture.
6. Empower staff by supporting them and include them in the decision
making process.

In great detail, Ms. Jones passionately shared her philosophy of how she has
helped her staff and students “achieve greatness.” Ms. Jones stated,
Every adult on this campus…administrators, teachers, coaches, parent
volunteers, the plant manager, everyone…must work together to tap into the
talents of every student. That’s it. It’s not some magical formula but it
works. Mr. Smith had the same philosophy and he was able to get significant
results. I’ve adopted the same philosophy and have incorporated it with my
leadership style and have had great results. The challenge for me is to build
on the strengths of the adults and provide them with training opportunities
and guidance so they can creatively identify those student talents.

Our educational system often focuses too heavily on what kids aren’t doing
well, which often leads to long term labels such as those within special
education. Constant reminders of shortcomings will eventually lead students
to believe they are defined by those shortcomings. At Win H.S., we focus on
the strengths of our kids and what they enjoy doing and what they are good at
doing. Sure we have our share of problems, but for the most part, that’s what
I expect to happen.

86
Kids are different and they like to do different things. We engage students
into really participating in their education by allowing them to concentrate
more on the subjects they enjoy and are interested in. We also provide them
with adequate support and guidance in the subject areas where they are
having difficulties in so they can incrementally improve. Forcing kids to
concentrate on their weaknesses is simply wrong; it only leads to frustration
and disengagement from learning.

Clearly, students should work hard to get a good handle on all subject areas
and acquire the skills to be well-rounded learners and thinkers. However,
once they demonstrate a fundamental grasp of the curriculum requirements,
students at Win are encouraged to excel in those topics for which they have
demonstrated the most talent. It’s not effective to pressure students to master
every single subject area for the purpose of passing a standardized test. One
of the goals here is to help children become life-long learners. Tapping into
their talents is working. Every year, the results at Win are the same; high-
achieving students.

Am I responsible for the successful student outcomes at Win? Not directly,
no. But I do have a major role in setting the stage so positive things can
happen for our kids.

Ms. Jones recognizes that a large majority of the students who attend Win
contend with the “serious challenges” found within the inner-city. At the same time,
she knows that Win H.S. is a place where children are succeeding academically in
spite of those barriers. She strongly affirmed,
We’ve implemented school-wide attention to the social and emotional needs
of our students so they are free to learn. We’ve put some pretty powerful
programs into place that inspire hope and we’ve gotten very good results.
However, we are only one school and we’re not equipped to resolve every
social and economic problem of this community. As a leader, I am very
fortunate to be able to hire social workers and other mental health
professionals so teachers can stay focused on teaching and children can stay
focused on learning.

87
Thus, Ms. Jones’ highest priority has been to continue to find the “right staff”
that would allow her to genuinely care for the students at Win H.S., as well as those
who have the ability and teaching skills to help students learn.
Even so, she finds that being the leader of a successful urban high school has
been a bigger task than she anticipated. When she was a new principal, Ms. Jones
found that the majority of the teachers who were employed at Win H.S. supported
her philosophy and ideas of how best to fulfill the school’s mission. On the other
hand, she also encountered teachers who strongly opposed her ideas and who were
creating a disruptive working and learning environment. During those times, her
assistant principal described her as patient, did everything in her power to get buy-in,
provided support and constructive feedback, and gave ample opportunity for those
professionals to “grow into the system” before she recommended transfers for those
individuals. Others, who were clearly not invested in the best interest of the
children, who were “damaging” kids, had long entries in their personnel files as Ms.
Jones persisted in documenting poor levels of performance; she often sought after
and obtained the support from central district administration regarding the
performance of those staff members. It was not long before those teachers decided
to leave on their own or retire.
Ms. Jones stated, “This school is not for everyone.” She believes that
teachers or staff who refuse or fail to embrace the vision put forth by the school
community, particularly those who do not raise their “A-game” for children, will not

88
have a successful experience since everyone else will be working toward the same
vision.
Ms. Jones motivates her staff to see what the school can become rather than
what it has been. Those who support the communally developed vision agree that
higher expectations for students, means higher expectations for adults. An assistant
principal in his fifth year at Win attests to what it means to be a part of the “right
staff” who works at Win H.S., stating,
There were several teachers who were exposed in doing the bare minimum
for the kids. We had to encourage them to improve or to go elsewhere…and
that’s exactly what we did.

Ms. Jones expects her staff to come to work everyday with their “A-game.”
That means we (staff) have to come in sharp, with a team-oriented mentality,
and really push ourselves to make sure that our kids have a good chance at
making the finish line. You know… graduating from high school and
making it to college. She’s all about preparing our kids for the future. But
you know, the way she has gotten adults and kids to do what she asks is by
treating them with respect.

This definitely impacts the success of the kids. Kids see a strong and
respectful leader in Ms. Jones. I don’t know…call it intuition, street smarts,
whatever…they (students) see who’s real and who’s not and they now that
Ms. Jones really believes in them. They love her for that and they do
whatever it takes to be successful in school. They see how much of herself
she invests in making sure they have a good shot at making it to college; they
don’t want to let her or themselves down. Her love for the kids is genuine.
Seeing the way she cares for kids motivates the adults to work hard.

A parent of a third year Win student described her perception of how
leadership has led to Win having the “right staff” to work with the students, stating,
Ms. Jones is a principal who comes correct. She is serious about our kids and
she knows how to bring in top-notch teachers. You know, teachers who
really know how to teach to our kids…the kind that inspire and can relate to
our young people…the kind that love what they do...and the kind that bring

89
the best out of our kids. That’s the type of people Ms. Jones picks for our
babies.

Boy, I remember a time when we had some phonies around here. She got rid
of them all real quick. Them folks were just coming to work to collect a
check. Nothing more. They didn’t care about these kids cause they didn’t
take the time to understand and figure them out. But like I said, Ms. Jones,
she fixed all that.

In addition to finding the “right staff,” the “shared-vision” includes a strong
commitment from all stakeholders to create an educational system that deals
effectively with the challenges that come with operating a school in an urban area
without negatively impacting the learning process. A second year academic
counselor shared his belief about strong commitment, stating,
Her leadership style has allowed us to share our ideas about how to make
students successful and that gives staff a sense of power. She doesn’t dictate
how best to do things, but offers a lot of support when things aren’t clear, and
is someone who is not afraid to make an executive decision when necessary.
Working under in a positive environment allows us (staff) to become aware
of our surroundings and commit to the ultimate goal of preparing kids for the
future. I would say that our morale is high…and because it is, we look to get
more involved in making things better for each other and in activities that
will help our kids. We take great pride in knowing what’s up in our
school…yep, a lot of it (positive school outcomes) has to do with leadership.

Ms. Jones works relentlessly with her staff and the community to expand the
capacity of the school to ensure that students feel safe and learn the skills to become
responsible and well-educated adults. Working collaboratively with stakeholders,
she has been able to develop a school climate and culture where students have an
optimal opportunity to be educated. The common set of goals adapt to the needs of
the children and Ms. Jones engages staff to be a part of the decision making process,
stating,

90
I regularly sit down with every single staff member of this school and ask
them, ‘What are we doing well that needs to continue?’ and ‘What are we not
doing well that needs to stop?’ I take their input seriously, prioritize what
needs to get done, and people see the positive outcomes of their suggestions,
which in my perspective, heightens their morale.

In addition, Ms. Jones focuses a great amount of attention on the resources
she has to be able to lead an “engaged school” and works through the limitations that
prevent her from creating positive student outcomes. She has developed strong
partnerships with several members of the community as well as local universities as
a way to bring in valuable resources to the school. Furthermore, she has collaborated
with several community clinics, which has resulted in the implementation of several
programs that support student growth through internships and hands-on medical
training.
Finally, Ms. Jones has collaboratively developed a capacity within the school
where all members of the school’s community feel confident in taking responsibility
to influence those around them to constantly strive to improve student outcomes.
She establishes personal, professional, and supportive relationships with the entire
school community, specifically with her teachers and students, to the point where
they feel as if the school belongs to them. Lastly, she empowers staff by engaging
them in the decision making process and the ongoing development of the school.
Finding #2 School Culture: The Visible and Invisible Essential
Analysis of the data also indicates that the school’s culture is a perceived
factor that contributes to academic achievement in this outperforming high school.
According to the findings, school stakeholders at Win describe “their school” as

91
communally organized with a unique culture that supports and recognizes the
importance of the rigorous learning goals for its students. The school’s mission
statement corroborates this perspective as it states,
Win High School college preparatory program emphasizes scientific inquiry,
critical thinking, and effective communication. We extend our classrooms
into a larger world by offering experience-based learning in hospital, research
laboratories, and community clinic settings, while at the same time
introducing our students to the rigors of math, social studies, and science
project competitions. These experiences nurture our students to become life-
long learners and responsible citizens.

There were several indicators of an identifiable school culture throughout the
school, that has a shared sense of purpose and values that were consistent and shared
across staff members; group norms for continuous learning involving coursework,
activities, rituals, and traditions that function as a unifying factor; an ethic of caring
that permeates relationships among and between staff, students, and parents; a sense
of responsibility for student’s learning; and a real focus on professional
development, staff reflection, and sharing of professional practice. Prime examples
of these indicators will be presented below. In addition, the following elements were
also found to be core to the school’s cultural values, which were perceived to
positively affect student outcomes:
1. Great pride in the overall structure and organization of the school.
2. An organization that communicates high expectations.
3. Unconventional and hands-on learning opportunities for students.
4. Collegiality and tangible support.
5. Parent engagement.

92
6. High expectations.
7. Trust and confidence.
8. Honest, open communication.
9. Involvement in decision-making.

A beautiful high school is rare enough but Win Medical Magnet is also
functional. Designed as a mix of contemporary art and collegiate architecture, the
school evokes images of higher seats of learning in the United States, resembling
many of the buildings found on the campus of prestigious universities across the
nation. The three-story complex was designed to inspire respect for learning and to
support key program elements such as: team teaching, project-based learning,
community-based internships, and frequent student presentations and exhibitions.
The school features spacious classrooms filled with the latest technology,
including wireless Internet access. Sound-systems deployed in several classrooms
throughout the school make student presentations come alive with first-rate surround
sound. The fully stocked library is ready to serve the needs of every student having a
wide variety of textbooks, study aids, and a quiet and comfortable place to study for
exams. The facility communicates a high level of trust and respect for the work of
teachers and students and many projects are posted throughout.
Even before walking into the school for the first time, the outside of the awe-
inspiring facility gave me a sense that Win HS would be an extraordinary
educational institution. When I arrived for my first day of my data collection, Ms.

93
Jones, the school’s principal, was leaving her office and on her way to supervise a
passing period. She pleasantly greeted me and said, “I’m on my way to my
supervision duty. Please join me. This will be a great way to start your observations
of how our school operates.” Observing the interactions during the passing period as
well as many other facets of the school, confirmed my initial impression.
As Ms. Jones and I walked the halls, hundreds of African American and
Latino students dressed in gold and black (the school colors) were making their way
towards their next class. It was quite evident that Ms. Jones commanded the respect
of the students and staff.
Quite impressive was that she greeted many students by name and asked
them how their morning was going. She then proceeded to ask three students about
the status of specific projects they had been assigned the week prior. The students
respectfully laughed and one of the three said, “oh man Ms. Jones, you really got us
in check…you know we’re handling our business.” Ms. Jones, in a joking manner
replied, “you guys better be hard at work, or else (giggle).” She then asked those
students to introduce themselves and say where they would be attending college after
graduation. The first student, an African American female, stated, “I’m the first of
my family to make to college and I am off to Duke next year. Go Blue Devils!” The
second student, a Latino male stated, “I got accepted to U.C.L.A and I’m going to
major in Immunology and Molecular Genetics.” The third student, an African
American male stated, “I got accepted to Princeton on a full scholarship and I’d like
to study something in the cognitive sciences.”

94
Worthy of note are some examples of the cultural norms at Win. Positive
interactions between the adults and students during periods of non-instruction can be
seen throughout the day at Win. For example, at the end of all class periods, every
teacher stands by their classroom door and makes efforts to engage students in
respectful conversations about school as well non-school issues; others are heard
giving praise to students for outstanding work on projects; and yet others graciously
greet students by name and ask them how their day is going. It is also easy to
identify students who were pursuing a career in the medical field because those
students wear white lab coats to school on internship days. As teachers,
administrators, security personnel, parents, and others walk past those students, the
ritual is to greet them by saying, “Good morning [afternoon] doctor. Have a good
day in the field.”
The majority of students at Win carried themselves in manner described by
the school administration as “professionals in the making.” Students were lively but
not overly boisterous. They were respectful to one another as well as to the adults.
This behavior is carried into classrooms in that several teachers reported that student
discipline is something that they do not have to frequently deal with. Apparently,
punitively dealing with student misconduct is not the norm at Win. Rather, they
focus on being explicit about behavioral and academic expectations, directly teach
appropriate behavior, monitor individual and schoolwide behavior, and provide
frequent positive reinforcement for students. The assistant principal who oversees
attendance and discipline stated:

95
We’ve been able to get our kids to get involved into so many activities that
they don’t have time to misbehave. Nothing is perfect and we do have some
challenges, but we try to take care of everything in-house. We do everything
possible to not suspend students and believe in giving them lot’s of positive
support so they can learn from their mistakes.

All the administrators here agree that giving a student an off-site suspension
is like giving them a vacation; they play video games or watch the tube all
day. Unless we absolutely have to suspend a kid, we do every thing we can
to give that kid an in-house suspension where he or she could continue to
work on school stuff. They are counseled about how to make better choices
and they really are given the opportunity to stay on-track with their
schoolwork; it makes a world of difference when it’s test time.

Otherwise, teachers have had extensive training on the District’s Discipline
Foundation Policy, which uses a lot of positive behavior support and
alternative to suspension strategies. They (teachers) really do their best to
manage their classrooms. When it gets to be too disruptive they know we
(administrators) got their backs.

Analysis of the demographic school data, confirmed that student discipline is
not an element of the school’s culture that habitually interrupts the teaching process
or impedes the learning opportunities for students. According to the 2006-2007
student adjustment data for Win HS, there were no recommendations for expulsion
and 174 issued suspensions with a 1.8 average number of days that students had been
removed from school. When compared to other high schools of similar size and
scope, these rates are considerably lower.
As I continued to observe the campus, Ms. Jones enthusiastically guided me
through the college center, the parent center, the auditorium, the library, the multi-
purpose room and the gymnasium; each had a welcoming feel and students were
engaged in interactive activities with other students or adults. During the tour, she
suddenly stopped on the stairwell and proudly pointed to the gleaming white walls

96
and stated, “When was the last time you saw a high school in this district that had
walls that were free from graffiti?” Symbolically, she explained that this meant that
student’s had a high level of respect for the school. Ms. Jones further explained,
You may not know this, but there are 36 different gangs represented on this
campus. However, because of the culture we’ve established, we haven’t had
any gang problems on campus.

When I came on board as principal, I called a meeting with all of the heads
the gangs and told them that I would need their support in keeping the school
safe from any of their activities. I told them that they needed to consider the
school neutral territory and respect the fact that the entire staff at Win was
trying to help the community’s kids to have a better future. Mind you, all of
those men are quite intimidating. They must of thought that I was fearless or
crazy. I guess they respected that about me. Since then, all the gang stuff
that goes on in the community doesn’t spill into the school.

I’m not going to say that we don’t have our share of problems, we do; graffiti
is not one of them. It’s interesting, there are one or two times during the year
that we find some moniker tagged up in the bathroom or in the hall, usually
it’s the ninth graders, but the seniors are just as feisty as I am when it comes
to keeping the school free from that stuff.

When something like that goes up on our walls, student body leaders
immediately ask to call meetings with the younger students. I’m usually not
at those meetings because I trust that the seniors will take care of things.
However, I hear that our seniors are very adamant in relaying the message
that that type of behavior is not and will not tolerated. I hear they’re pretty
good at it too.

Visibly posted in every classroom is the “Expected Schoolwide Learning
Results” illustrated in Table 2 below. Commenting on student expectations, one
teacher stated,
Our kids deserve to have the best in life. That said, as part of the team of
adults who are responsible for preparing kids to be able to get the ‘best in
life,’ we (teachers) really work hard to let our kids know what we expect of
them and communicate to all of them that we really care about their future.

97
According to the principal, posting expectations and learning objectives is a
method she has used for many years as a way to increase student achievement and
motivation. The principal stated,
While it may be clear to the teachers what the desired outcome should be, it
may not be as clear to students or parents. The idea of posting the ‘Expected
Schoolwide Learning Results’ throughout the school is to get students to see
the importance and relevance of education in their lives.

This strategy encourages open communication with students, parents and
anyone else who comes onto the school campus. From day one at this
school, the children will know what’s expected of them. They’ll be expected
to be active participants in their education as well as for taking responsibility
for learning.

Table 2

Expected Schoolwide Learning Results

Win Students Are:
Effective Communicators

• Listen, read, and observe to find
our information.
• Write, speak, and use non-verbal
communication to express ideas.
• Use technology advantageously.

Critical Thinkers

• Use the scientific inquiry
method.
• Reason analytically to solve
problems.
Goal Setters

• Design a personal academic plan
to reach their goals.
• Use school and community
resources to support learning.

Conscientious leaders/responsible
citizens

• Develop leadership styles.
• Act as role models.
• Work to benefit family, school,
and community.

Note. The actual size of this table fits the full space of a 36” x 24” wall poster.

98
Also distinctive to the school’s culture is the Medicine and Careers Program.
The Careers program has two course offerings, Hospital Occupation for first year
students and Health Careers/Hospital/CM for second year students. The program
provides an opportunity for students to access experience based learning in
environments including hospitals, clinics, research laboratories, and university
facilities. In addition, students actively build social capital as they develop
connections with medical experts and technicians throughout Los Angeles as well as
other parts of the nation.
The curriculum and training of the program is designed to expose eleventh
and twelfth grade students to careers in the fields of Medicine and Science. Every
student who completes the program leaves with the academic foundation to qualify
and compete in post secondary institutions.
To become eligible for the program, students must have a 2.5 grade point
average or higher, grades of “C” or better in Math and Science courses, excellent
marks in Cooperation and Work habits with no previous record of misconduct, and a
letter of recommendation from the students science teacher. Students accepted to the
program spend one half-day a week for seven to nine weeks at a site approved by the
school to gain more experience in their selected field. The students who select
research sites, may remain for an entire school year, or may rotate to as many as
three sites per year. In an interview with the assistant principal, this researcher asked
for elaboration on the program and curriculum. The assistant principal stated,

99
It’s a pretty powerful program; it’s also very intense. The curriculum…it’s
quite rigorous. It’s what draws the community to this school. But to be
honest, the success at this school has not been because of math and science or
the curriculum. Don’t get me wrong, they are very important to our success
but there’s more to it.

If our focus was different and we were called Win H.S. of Culinary Arts, we
would still have great student outcomes because of the people who work
together to give our teachers a clear path to teach. It’s the principal, it’s the
teachers, it’s the parents, it’s the community and most importantly it’s the
students working together and believing in one another that makes success
happen around here.

In addition to a unique academic program, the school offers a wide array of
clubs and activities that cater to different student interests. The clubs include, but are
not limited to, Robotics Club, Made A Difference in the Environment (M.A.D.E.),
Hermanas Unidas (Sisters United), Film Club, Poetry Club, Junior Statesman of
America, Sister-to-sister, Martial Arts Club, Academic Decathlon, Renaissance Art,
and Journalism.
On the face of it, school culture seemed to be a dominant element that
contributes to student success at Win. Careful examination of teacher responses to
questions 12 through 22 on the “Survey of High School Teachers Regarding Student
Engagement” (Table 3), and administrator responses to questions 11 through 21 on
the “Survey of High School Administrators Regarding Student Engagement” (Table
4), confirmed that a considerable number of the staff perceived school culture as a
contributing factor for the attachment and engagement the students feel with the
school, and the sense of achievement they experience there.

100
Table 3
Results of Teacher Survey: Survey of High School Teachers Regarding Student
Engagement (Extent to which school culture effects student activities and learning)
Question n VM QB S VL
12. Students must spend a lot of time studying and on
schoolwork
35 24 11
13. Students are provided the support needed to
succeed in school
35 29 5 1
14. Students are encouraged to participate in school
events and activities (athletics, music, etc.).
35 6 22 7
15. Students are encouraged to get involved in school
leadership and governance.
35 10 19 6
16. All adults on campus treat students fairly 35 29 6
17. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful
opportunities to learn work-related skills
35 24 10 1
18. Students are encouraged to write effectively 35 19 14 2
19. Students are encouraged and provided the support
to use information technology
35 28 5 2
20. Students are encouraged to solve real-world
problems.
35 6 19 10
21. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful
opportunities to develop clear, sequential career goals
and prepare for appropriate post-secondary education or
training
35 9 20 6
22. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful
opportunities to make their community a better place
35 2 28 5

Note. VL=Very little, S= Some, QB =Quite a bit, and VM=Very much.

101
The data show that 70% or more of teachers who participated in the survey agreed
that school culture is either “Quite a bit” or “Very much” a factor that contributes to
academic achievement at Win HS. Furthermore, close to 83% of teachers agreed
“Very much” that students are provided the support to succeed in school and that all
adults at school treat students fairly.
The data regarding the administrator responses show that 50% or more
believed that school culture is either “Quite a bit” or “Very much” a factor that
contributes to academic achievement at Win HS. Close to 67% agreed “Very much”
that students must spend a lot of time studying and on schoolwork; students are
encouraged and provided with the support to use information technology; and
students are encouraged to solve real-world problems.
In addition, when this researcher asked the interview subject the questions,
“What do you feel are the strengths of the school?” the most common response was a
culture of collaboration and support.
Finally, built into this school culture is the continual use of data to
strategically and systematically improve student outcomes. One counselor stated,
We are devoted in using data to improve what we do. It’s a great way to
truly impact the learning environment for kids and helps in keeping us
accountable for what we do. Unfortunately, I’ve been in schools were data is
considered to be the worst of all evils. In those schools, people were afraid to
see their numbers because they believed that negative results were a
reflection of their performance.

102
Table 4
Results of Administrator Survey: Survey of High School Administrators Regarding
Student Engagement (Extent to which school culture effects student activities and
learning)
Question n VM QB S VL
11. Students must spend a lot of time studying and on
schoolwork
6 4 2
12. Students are provided the support needed to succeed
in school.
6 2 4
13. Students are encouraged to participate in school
events and activities (athletics, music, etc.).
6 2 3 1
14. Students are encouraged to get involved in school
leadership and governance.
6 1 3 2
15. All adults on campus treat students fairly 6 1 5
16. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful
opportunities to learn work-related skills
6 3 3
17. Students are encouraged to write effectively 6 3 3
18. Students are encouraged and provided the support to
use information technology
6 4 2
19. Students are encouraged to solve real-world problems 6 4 2
20. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful
opportunities to develop clear, sequential career goals and
prepare for appropriate post-secondary education or
training
6 2 4
21. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful
opportunities to make their community a better place
6 1 4 1

Note. VL=Very little, S= Some, QB =Quite a bit, and VM=Very Much.

103
As an example of the school’s data-based decision making process, this
researcher reviewed the schools WASC Action Plan and identified four goals that
had been collaboratively designed with input from students, parents, and staff
members to improve specific target areas. The four goals included:
1. Improve curriculum and instructional delivery.
2. Student literacy will improve in all content areas resulting in greater
achievement of the expected schoolwide learning results and improved
test scores.
3. To expand communication with students, faculty members, feeder
schools, medical center administrators, site supervisors and community
members to continue the commitment, participation, collaboration, and
shared responsibility of all.
4. To develop consistent and precise systems of communication among the
counselors, students, parents and teachers to ensure programming needs
of each student.

Each of these goals had a written rationale, a growth target, strategies on how
to meet the goal, identified person(s) responsible for working on the goal, the
resources available, the assessment of progress, a timeline, a report of progress, and a
current status regarding what has been done to achieve the goal. One parent who
worked with the school to develop these goals stated, “it’s important that we improve
things in a system that’s open to new ideas. We’re a community that isn’t afraid to

104
talk about what needs to be improved to help our kids. Having assignments and
timelines keeps us accountable to get things done right.”
Finding #3 Student Resilience: Overcoming Urban Challenges to be Successful in
School
Student resilience, the ability a student has to withstand or recover from
difficult conditions, was found to be a perceived factor that contributes to academic
achievement. The study participants described a wide range of “resiliency skills”
that are often displayed by a large majority of the students at Win when dealing with
adversity. These skills were viewed as protective mechanisms that allow students to
steer clear from being drawn into the “negative aspects” of living in an urban
environment and stay focused on their educational opportunities.
In spite of the fact that this researcher had a general sense of what the
“negative aspects” of living in an urban environment meant, the respondents
assumed that the researcher knew what those “negative aspects” were for that
community. Thus, the greatest potential for understanding the meaning of “negative
aspects” as it relates to the people involved in this study was to simply ask them to
be more specific in their descriptions. This researcher learned that the “negative
aspects” of living in Win’s urban environment was described as, an
overrepresentation of gangs, drugs and alcoholism, violence, poverty, single-family
homes as it relates to poverty, lack of parental involvement, and lack of police
involvement in keeping the streets safe.

105
Even though it was not a part of the original methodology for this study, this
researcher gathered a substantial amount of the city’s data to get a better sense of
how prevalent the “negative aspects” were in the community. This researcher found
that as is the case with a large number of students attending schools in the inner-city,
Win students attend school in a neighborhood riddled with poverty, street crime,
poor healthcare, and high unemployment rates.
In addition, data show that residents living within the boundaries of Win are
182 points above the national average in terms of murder risk; 221 points above the
national average in terms of automotive theft risk; 281 points above the national
average in terms of robbery risk; and 307 points above the national average in terms
of assault risk. Furthermore, between 1989 and 2005, local police reported that over
500 homicides (most of them gang-related) happened within the city of Watts. The
city’s data was significant to this finding as it provided the researcher, who did not
have first hand knowledge of the “negative aspects” of the community, with a level
of understanding for the types of challenges Win students may encounter before
tapping into their resiliency skills.
According to the data, respondents declared that Win students develop
protective factors from a combination of specific personal experiences with stress
and adversity that comes from living in their urban environment. Win students were
described as having the ability to recognize stressors that pose serious threats to their
academic and personal life, while simultaneously building protective factors that

106
help them develop positive personal characteristics that are necessary for high
achievement in school.
The self-protective factors that the students use, as described by the adults in
this study, included personal characteristics such as high self-efficacy, ability to form
good relationships, a capacity to problem solve, aptitude for planning for the future,
ability to focus, desire to succeed, great determination, strong attitude, tough minded,
self-motivated, self-regulating, and the desire to be involved in positive activities.
Protective factors also included support networks that existed within the high school
including other students who wanted to succeed academically, supportive and caring
adults, and access to positive activities within the school such as sports and clubs.
Furthermore, several statements from the interview responses led this
researcher to believe that there was a connection between student resiliency and
positive student outcome:
A lot of our kids don’t have much support outside of school but they show a
lot of toughness in handling their school business because they have people
who care about them here.

Mentally, the kids who enroll at Win have developed a good sense of who
they are and what they want to become in the future. They’re pretty much
prepared for anything.
A good number of our students come from very poor and broken homes but
they’ve developed the skills and have gotten support to make it through this
challenging program.

Win students live in places where most people, including police wouldn’t
dare to enter after it gets dark. No matter what they go through, these will
kids will always find a way to make it. They’re survivors. Take a look at our
graduation rate...you’ll see what I’m talking about.

107
From having almost nothing at all, most of our kids have great attitudes and
are enthusiastic about what their future holds.

The students know right from wrong and they generally tend to gravitate
towards the right when they are in school.

If you look the background of many of the students here, you’ll find that
throughout their schooling, they were taught things that aren’t taught in most
places. They were taught explicit lessons about how to avoid getting killed in
their neighborhood. Although they may not the best problem solvers, they’ve
been taught to take responsibility for their own actions.

A parent of two students currently attending Win H.S. stated:
We’ve got to keep it real. These kids aren’t all angels. But the kids who
come here already have a good foundation and are usually up to speed with
their education. They got family or people who keep them in check and care
about them. They also know God. They’re strong and know how to dodge
all the garbage that happens in our community.

See, they are succeeding at this school because they come in having done
well in elementary and middle school…the teachers at Win just build on what
they’ve already learned. But a lot of these kids have been through so much
and seen so much…I’m sure a lot of them, they’ve seen or heard of family or
friends getting killed. They’ve seen first hand what crack does. They know
which alleys to avoid and who to take up as friends if they want to do well in
school.

It’s good for them to experience ‘the neighborhood’ cause they could see
what happens when you don’t do the right things in life. For all of them,
school is their ticket to a good life. They all know they were given a chance
to show what they could do and I can assure you, they don’t want to mess it
up.

Although this researcher was limited to adult responses on the perceived
factors that contribute to student achievement, I was able to see and hear students in
their natural school environment. This allowed me to collect detailed field notes that
added value to this finding.

108
For example, while sitting and observing lunchtime interactions this
researcher overheard two students who were engaged in a conversation that gave this
researcher a direct example of student resilience. Both students carried on about
how they were both proud of themselves, as they were able to succeed in spite of the
challenges they had experienced. The following is the conversation the researcher
captured through field note documentation:
S1: Man, can you believe we’re finally seniors. After all we’ve been
through, we’re gonna actually make it across that stage. I only wish my
brother could see me make it. I’m sure he’s watching from above talkin bout
how only the strong survive. He was pretty strong but them drugs eventually
caught up with him.

S2: I’m sorry about your bro, may he R.I.P. Don’t trip, we’ve both been
through some heavy shit. I’m just happy that we’re both getting a chance to
be out the hood...it’s gotten too crazy out here. We’ve been lucky. Cause
man, I’ve seen some harsh stuff happen...and to good people too.

S1: Nah man, luck ain’t got nothin on all the hard work we put in. Think
about it, we’ve been in school for twelve years and through all the rough
times we’ve been able to keep our head up and handle our biz. It’s sad
though, so many of our peeps have gotten caught up. I mean we could of
easily gotten caught up…but we didn’t cause we knew how to keep cool.
Remember Oscar? That fool’s in jail for a dime (ten years). Even our boy
Red, he slipped into it too. I haven’t seen him for a minute. I don’t think
he’s in school anymore. Someone told me he got shot last year. I sure hope
that dude isn’t dead.

S2: I think you’re right. But like your bro said, ‘only the strong survive.’ We
better not mess it up cause the way I see it, we only got one shot at this.
Opportunities don’t come around too often. Seven more months, that’s right
around the corner. We better get ready to go to class cause here comes Ms.
Jones.

This researcher also reviewed 33 applications of Win seniors who wanted to
be part of the school’s peer mentoring program and found statements that

109
corroborated the adult responses. As part of the application process, students are
asked to submit a written statement explaining why they would make good mentors.
Written student responses included:
Black and Brown people are always looked at as criminals or violent. We’re
not all like that. A lot of us work hard no matter what. I want to be a peer
mentor because I know more of the Black and Brown people can succeed in
school and life if they support each other and work together in positive ways.

I had the opportunity to have a good mentor in my father and I want to give
someone who doesn’t have a father a person who could give them quality
guidance.

Everyone is the architect of their future and everyone has a chance to succeed
if they prepare themselves correctly.

I’ve made some mistakes in my life but I’ve had people who were there to
support me. I want to share what I have learned and my tools for success
with my fellow Golden Eagles.

This school has given me a family to rely on and I want to make sure others
feel the same.

Every teenager is born with the potential to lead a full, successful,
meaningful life, and to make significant contributions to the world around
them. It’s unfortunate that not all teenagers have a positive role model in
their lives. If I am selected at least they will have one to count on.

When ninth graders come in, they are not conscious of the control they could
have over their education because it’s usually not emphasized in other
schools. I want to be a mentor because I want to help the young kids know
that Win is different and they do hold their own future in their hands.

I want to be a senior mentor because I know I can contribute to the decisions
made about students.

Overall, the participants suggested that Win students had academic success
despite their environmental challenges because they had the support of caring adults
and were strong enough to consciously and actively make choices that lead to high

110
achievement. Students were seen as having an internal locus of control, a positive
sense of self, and feelings of empowerment as displayed through their resiliency in
developing protective factors to succeed in school. Positive attitudes among students
appeared to be complimentary to school success.
Research Question Two
Question two of this study asked, “Is there a link between student
engagement and student achievement in an outperforming urban high school?”
The data suggests that student engagement is an important factor as it relates
to students being actively involved in the positive educational and extra-curricular
activities that Win High School offers. Although the adults clearly believe that
students with strong levels of engagement will tend to perform at high levels, the
data shows that the main benefit of engaging students was unlikely to be a dramatic
improvement in their performance. Nevertheless, school stakeholders perceive
student engagement as necessary to students’ success in school.
The administrators and teachers interviewed were asked: “What role do you
feel student engagement contributes to student achievement at your school?”
Nearly all of the interview respondents referred to student engagement as the
extent of students’ sense of belonging at school, which motivates them to participate
within the classroom environment as well in extra-curricular activities. Others
believed that students who “actively show” interest in the classroom were more
likely to master the content material and less likely to be involved in “non-
productive” activities. Three themes emerged from participant responses regarding

111
the link between student engagement and student achievement. The themes included
(a) engaged students were actively and willingly involved in learning; (b) engaged
students were learning at higher levels that non-engaged students; (c) and engaged
students showed interest in their education and enjoyed learning.
When asked how student engagement related to successful student outcomes,
the responses of the teachers and the administrators also evolved into three
categories: (a) engaged students devote considerable amounts of time and effort on
school assignments and projects; (b) engaged students are committed to their
academic program which leads to higher levels of mastery; (c) and engaged students
complete their assignments on time and with good quality.
One teacher described the relationship between student engagement and
academic achievement by stating,
It is clear that students at Win are engaged. First of all, each and every one of
these kids apply to our program because they know that they’ll be exposed to
different types of activities where they can find their talents. They want to be
here because they are fully aware of what this school is all about; excellence.
They are told up front that the work will be challenging and that there is no
time to be fooling around.

Once students find their niche, they’ll continue to work hard to build on what
they know they’re good at. Worrying about having kids work hard across the
board and having them put maximum effort in the areas they’re not good in
only limits their opportunities to cultivate their talents. Once our kids know
they have the ability to do well in one area, they’ll start trying to do well in
other areas. Next thing you know, they’ll find that they have lots of talents in
different areas. That’s how student engagement works to build strong student
outcomes.

Teachers and administrators were consistent in their belief about the affects
that student engagement had on academic achievement. For the most part, those

112
interviewed reported that student engagement can take many forms in school, such as
high graduation rates, high rates of average daily attendance, low dropout rates, and
low rates of student misconduct. They were also able to give examples of how
student engagement positively affects learning in their classroom and throughout
their school. An assistant principal stated,
The design of our program places students in the company of professionals
who work in the medical field. Students essentially work on real-life
situations and have discussions about substantive matters, typically over long
periods of time. You know kids are highly engaged when it’s time to go
home and they are still hard at work and there is no way to pull them away
from what they are working on. The children work so hard that in the end,
they want something to show for what they’ve accomplished. They usually
look for positive feedback and are ecstatic about getting good grades.

In addition, teachers and administrators reported on the importance of student
engagement as it relates to positive student outcomes:
The curriculum was intentionally designed to engage students by placing
them with successful adults who could teach students in many different ways.
The adults teach students the characteristics of being a professionals and the
habits of successful individuals.

Teachers can immediately identify when student engagement levels decline
in students. They (students) lose that energy, that drive to stay focused; they
lose interest and it shows in their performance and grades. When this
happens, we (teachers) identify what’s behind the student behavior and take
corrective action. Students that aren’t motivated will not learn.

The majority of our classrooms are characterized as highly engaged
classrooms since kids are learning something new everyday. Students don’t
just sit in class twiddling their thumbs. They are constantly on the move
working in groups, working on projects, using the internet for
research…classrooms are filled with engaged students that are challenged to
do their best work.

113
During classroom observations, this researcher noted that teachers used
several strategies to increase student engagement in the classroom, which included:
1. Helping students feel that schoolwork is meaningful, worthy of their
efforts, and applicable to student life outside of campus.
2. Assigning challenging but achievable tasks.
3. Encouraging students to have a certain degree of control over
learning.
4. Designing projects that allow students to share their new gained
knowledge.

As a limitation of this study, this researcher could not observe the short-term
nor the long-term impact these strategies had on the students. However, this
researcher determined that within many of the classrooms there were striking
discrepancies between students who displayed different levels of engagement and
levels of performance. For example, I found that each classroom had a combination
of students who were identified by teachers as being: highly engaged and high
achievers; highly engaged and average to low achievers; not engaged and high
achievers; or not engaged and average to low achievers. One teacher described a
student, who was highly engaged and was a high achiever:
Mike is just a sharp kid. He could probably teach this class. He’s always
here on time and hasn’t missed a day of school since we started. He interacts
in class, asks lots of questions, has an amazing vocabulary, and is willing to
go above and beyond what is asked of him. His hard work has truly paid off.
He’s earned a 4.0 since elementary school and will be attending U.C.L.A.
next year.

114
A science teacher described a student who was highly engaged and was an
average to low achiever:
Jeffery is a great kid to have in class. He’s very energetic and is into
everything that goes on in this class. He’s the type that stays after class for
additional help in something that he didn’t understand and the projects he
turns in are among the best of the class. But science may not be his forte. He
really shows a lot of effort but he can’t get past a ‘C’ in this subject area.

An English teacher described a student who was “not engaged” and was a
high achieving:
Lashontae is one of the quietest students in the class. She rarely asks
questions and likes to sit in the back. I’ve tried to have her interact with
others on projects but she likes to be by herself and I’ve respected her
boundaries. She doesn’t seem to be engaged but she’s by far my best student.
She ‘aces’ just about every project and has been selected to participate in a
nation wide poetry-writing contest, which I believe she will win. She’s that
talented.

Finally, one teacher described a student who was “not engaged” and was
performing at a very low level. However, this student was able to maintain a “D” in
the class, which was enough to keep a passing grade:
Marco has the potential to be a fantastic engineer. I remember him as a
freshman. All he would talk about is how he wanted to be a mechanical
engineer. He started off this year with very positive energy and a good
attitude. We noticed a major shift in his behavior as soon as he started
hanging out with the kids from the neighborhood who aren’t in school. It’s
been tough for him since his father is in jail for murder and his mother just
recently fell back into her drug habit. We’ve surrounded him with a lot of
positive activities and good mentors and we’re beginning to see a slight shift
in his behavior. Right now, his focus is not in school and it shows because he
is barely making it. The positive thing is that he is at least coming to school
everyday and we are able to support him even when he’s down.

This data suggests that the adults perceived student engagement as inter-
related dimensions of student behavior that leads to positive student outcomes. For

115
example, the teachers described engaged students as socially compliant in that they
showed good daily school attendance and adhered to the school’s dress code and
discipline policy. These students inevitably become academically compliant in that
they behave according to classroom norms and appropriately participate in classroom
activities. As a result these students behave in ways where teachers could observe
them working on assignments, working in groups with peers, and turning in
assignments. Finally, as a result of completing classroom tasks, engaged students
were able to show a deep understanding of the material they had learned by sharing
their knowledge with others and applying it to new tasks.
Although the respondents sometimes used student engagement and
motivation interchangeably, it should be noted that there is a strong distinction
between the two. For example, students who displayed the characteristics of being
engaged, and thus seemed to be highly motivated in their schoolwork may not have
been engaged in the educational activities for the purpose of content mastery. For
instance, this researcher overheard different students make the following comments:
All I need is a “B” on the next test to keep my average up.
I’m turning in my work completed but I really didn’t get what I was doing.
Oh well, I got the assignment done.

I’m going to act like I know what’s going on in class so I won’t get called on.

This was a dumb assignment. Our group put so much work into it and it
didn’t have anything to do with what we are supposed to be learning in this
class. What a waste of time.

I’m trying to hurry up and finish so I can go play some B-Ball.

116
Nevertheless, the findings from the school’s High School Survey of Student
Engagement indicated that a large majority of Win H.S. students were in fact
engaged with their education. Although the school’s HSSSE results did not show
much difference from the national data, the findings were an excellent resource for
identifying different dimensions of student engagement at Win H.S., which could be
attributed, in part, to the school’s out-performing status. The Indiana researchers
separately grouped the dimensions of engagement and described them as: (1)
cognitive/intellectual/academic engagement (engagement of the mind); (2)
social/behavior/participatory engagement (engagement in the life of the school); and
(3) emotional engagement (engagement of the heart). The Win H.S. HSSSE findings
show that:
• 76% of the respondents stated that they agreed or strongly agreed to being
engaged in school, which is 3% higher than the responses on HSSSE’s
national data.
• 84% of the respondents stated that they agreed or strongly agreed that they
were motivated to work by a desire to learn, which is 17% higher than the
responses on HSSSE’s national data.
• 80% of the respondents stated that they agreed or strongly agreed that they
were motivated to work by teachers who encouraged them, which is 16%
higher than the responses on HSSSE’s national data.

117
• 91% of the respondents stated that agreed or strongly agreed that they were
motivated to work by a desire to get good grades, which is 8% higher than
the responses on HSSSE’s national data.
• 85% of the respondents stated that they agreed or strongly agreed to take
pride in the quality of their schoolwork, which is 9% higher than the
responses on HSSSE’s national data.
• 84% of the respondents stated that they agreed or strongly agreed that overall,
they felt good about being in the school, which is 5% higher than the
responses on HSSSE’s national data.
• 78% of the respondents stated that they never considered dropping out of
high school, which 1% lower than the responses on HSSSE’s national data.
• 70%-80% of the respondents stated that they agreed or strongly agreed
feeling supported by teachers, counselors, or administrators at the school,
which is 10% higher than the responses on HSSSE’s national data.
• 80% of the respondents stated that agreed or strongly agreed feeling safe at
the school, which is 3% higher than the responses on HSSSE’s national data.
• 75% of the respondents stated that they agreed or strongly agreed to being
treated fairly at the school, which is 3% higher than the responses on
HSSSE’s national data.
• 90% of the respondents stated that they agreed or strongly agreed about being
motivated to work by a desire to succeed in the world outside of school,
which is 4% higher than the responses on HSSSE’s national data.

118
These responses indicate that the majority of students at Win H.S., who
participated in the HSSSE study, are engaged in school, care about their high school,
feel valued as a member of the school, and are receptive to learning for mastery and
future endeavors.
These data corroborate the responses of the adults in that student engagement is
necessary for student success in school.
Discussion
There have been many attempts to discover the variables that seem to
underpin the academic achievement of students. However, improving student
outcomes in any part of the nation is unlikely to be accomplished by simple policy
prescriptions, such as raising standards, promoting accountability, or increasing
school funding.
It seems that many of the reform efforts that have attempted to improve
education have bypassed the reality that education is a living human enterprise. Our
educational system is made up of diverse people who can think, feel, and contribute
to developing a caring educational environment where children can take pleasure in
learning and come to believe that education is beneficial and applicable to their
immediate life circumstances and beyond.
This study did not find any extraordinary formulas that would immediately
improve academic achievement for students attending schools in urban areas. What
this researcher found was that effective leadership, a caring environment to learn in,
and a students’ ability to overcome difficult life circumstances seemed to be

119
important factors that were linked to the high achievement of students in one
outperforming high school. Therefore, more intensive research is needed in each
area to determine the transferability to other schools that are similar in size and
scope.
Win High School, from its inception, focused on providing the community’s
children with a top quality education that would prepare them to be successful
beyond their high school years. The framers, in developing this program, created a
long-term plan that included selecting a strong leader and quality staff that was
willing to work above and beyond the call of duty and would ensure that the vision
and the mission were implemented as it was designed. The development of Win
H.S. was a complex process that involved a collaborative effort of individuals who
created a theme (medicine and science) that would attract a diverse student
population. These individuals designed the school to assist African American and
Latino children, specifically those living within the neighborhood, to obtain an
education in a caring school environment that would prepare them for college and
beyond. Subsequently, those who were hired to take on this responsibility made sure
that they selected successors who showed a genuine care for the children of the
community and who would continue to fulfill the goals of the original mission
statement.
The stakeholders who participated in this study characterized Win’s
principal, the leader of the school, as being in direct command of all processes
associated with positive student outcomes. It was discovered that it takes a very

120
effective leader to deliver the highest quality education in spite of the urban
challenges this community faced. The principal had a vision and a strategy to make
teaching and learning a top priority. This may seem simple on the face of it, but it
took hard work, dedication and commitment from the team that made up the school
community, to make the school one of the best in the city. Although stakeholders
greatly relied on one person, the principal argued that the successful outcomes of the
school required a shift away from the “control” strategies of the past, to a style of
leadership that encourages the commitment of all stakeholders, specifically its
students.
It was clear to this researcher that the principal had a philosophy of shared
leadership. The principal usually relied on the teachers, administrators, parents, and
students as partners in the development of a high school that produced outstanding
student outcomes. Because of the complex and ever changing needs of the children,
Ms. Jones often sought broad input from her staff and members of the community to
determine what type of school would best serve the children. Gathering information
from various stakeholders, including students, she continually updates school
practices and the curriculum to stay current with the needs of the children.
This researcher also found that leadership had different meanings for
different people in this study. However, these ideas primarily capture a focus on
accomplishing two goals: (1) setting direction for the school; and (2) developing and
motivating individuals to move in that direction. Ms. Jones was quick to credit her
teachers for the success of the program, which in turn elevated staff morale. Clearly,

121
the staff greatly benefited from the principal’s support in that the staff felt valued and
trusted to do the job they were hired to do. The staff at Win displayed high levels of
integration, was committed to the mission, and was willing to spend quality time
with students.
Next, this researcher found that Win’s healthy school culture provided a clear
direction for the school and cultivated a strong bond between the school stakeholders
to fulfill the school’s mission. The school’s culture was positive, openly celebrated
student success, recognized teachers who worked hard, encouraged parent
participation, and as a whole, strongly encouraged students to achieve both in social
and academic goals. Through communication, the school staff and the community
cultivated a strong partnership and agreed to treat one another with respect and care
to ensure that the community’s children receive the education they deserve. Parents,
teachers, students, and other stakeholders have been included in the decision making
process to “build” a school that breeds success. Contrary to the dilapidated school
buildings found in many urban school districts, the school was situated in a state-of-
the-art complex that had all the amenities that encouraged children to feel proud to
be a student.
Moreover, Win’s culture fostered motivation and confidence, which in turn
seemed to positively affect the productivity of staff and students. Simply put, Win
High School collaboratively focused on building a capacity where teachers could
concentrate fully on teaching and students could aim their attention and energy to
learning. As an academically effective school, Win H.S. had high expectations for

122
students and a structure to maximize opportunities for students to learn. The culture
promoted school success for all children by developing, supporting, and maintaining
a safe, caring, and challenging environment in which students could participate fully
and gain a sense of belonging and acceptance as they prepared for future endeavors.
Despite the harsh realities of living in an environment surrounded by poverty,
crime, and drugs, the data suggests that a large majority of the students at Win have
been able to persevere and succeed in school by developing protective factors, which
include teachers and other adults who invest their time and effort in helping students
learn. These factors have allowed students to transform risk and adversity into
healthy development and school and life success. Their ability to develop a
protective shield from the “negative aspects” of living in the inner city have
seemingly allowed them to increase personal strengths and build a positive landscape
for living and learning.
Once these students recognized that they had the ability to beat the odds, they
became receptive learners and were enthusiastic about the chances of being
successful in one of the most out-performing schools in the district. Thus, Win H.S.
engaged its youth with the learning environment through meaningful and engaging
pedagogy, a curriculum that was designed to enrich the level of caring relationships,
and a safe place where students had the opportunities to participate and contribute to
being successful learners. Overall, engagement combined with students’ positive
feelings about their abilities to be successful academically, accounted for the high
levels of student achievement at Win.

123
CHAPTER V
Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Introduction
The public education system across the United States has been the center of
great debate for the past several decades. From the early era of Horace Mann to the
present mandates of No Child Left Behind, Americans have struggled to identify
solutions to the dilemmas public schools have faced; especially for those challenges
found in urban areas. It appears that throughout America’s history, policy makers
and educators have focused on creating change within the educational environment
by reacting to problems that arise rather than anticipating and preventing them.
However, when the focus is on the needs of children, there is evidence that suggests
that innovative instructional strategies and curriculum have been designed and
implemented to create positive student outcomes. Nevertheless, research suggests
that these tactics have either been implemented in isolation or have been restricted in
terms of time to have any “real” impact on improving student achievement
(McCarthy and Kuh, 2006).
In spite of the federal government’s reform efforts, which have attempted to
give all students an equal opportunity to have a high quality education, the
achievement gap remains consistent throughout America. For example, African
American and Latino students who attend school in urban areas are receiving a lower
quality education and fare much worse academically when compared to their White
suburban counterparts (Verdugo, 2002). Research indicates that most urban city

124
schools are not providing rigorous and effective instruction that prepares students to
positively contribute to an ever-changing global economy (Karoly and Panis, 2004).
In addition, racial segregation and gender discrimination are alive and well in many
schools across the nation, specifically within urban neighborhoods. Furthermore,
thousands of disabled students and English language learners attending public
schools have their rights violated everyday without resolve. These factors have
certainly contributed to the expansion of the achievement gap (Bennett, 2001;
Bracey, 2004; Hood, 2003; Iceland, 2003; Noguera and Wing, 2006).
What’s more, America’s antiquated structure of public school teaching often
leads to students who are bored in school, are unmotivated, are deeply alienated form
the learning process, and are so disengaged with school that they chose to dropout
altogether. According to Noguera and Wing (2006), “our national dropout rate
reflects that large numbers of students do not hold much faith in what our schools
have to offer (p. x). This form of disengagement is a very serious problem in
America since there is a strong link between dropping out of school and poverty.
Nevertheless, most Americans continue to have faith in the public education
system and recognize its power for expanding social and economic opportunities for
the disenfranchised. Although most schools in urban areas are ill-equipped to
provide an adequate education for the children they serve, many have had
phenomenal results in producing high achieving students. These schools have been
identified as “outperforming” in that they are able to prepare students for college and

125
beyond in spite of the bureaucracy found within the educational system and the
urban factors that impede learning.
Whereas every urban school district in the nation has at least a few
outperforming high schools that serve economically disadvantaged students, more
research is needed to determine what factors contribute to the academic achievement
of those schools. Although the High School Survey of Student Engagement is a
strong tool in the assessment arena and can complement performance tests, there has
been very little study on the influence of student engagement as it relates to
academic achievement in outperforming urban high schools.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine what factors, including student
engagement, were linked to student achievement in an outperforming urban high
school in Los Angeles. This study examined the areas of leadership, school culture,
student resilience, and student engagement and the role each played in shaping,
directing, and impacting the school’s high achieving status.
The research questions that guided this study were:
1. What perceived factors contribute to academic achievement in an
outperforming urban high school?
2. Is there a link between student engagement and student achievement
in an outperforming urban high school?

126
Methodology
This was a case study that utilized a mixed methods approach: both
qualitative and quantitative that included document analysis, surveys, observations,
and interviews to find answers to the aforementioned questions.
Prior to the start of the data collection process, a conceptual model was
developed by a ten member cohort at the Rossier School of Education, at the
University of Southern California, in order to illustrate the factors that have been
found to contribute to student achievement and, ultimately, to outperforming high
schools. The factors included leadership, school culture, curriculum and instruction,
globalization, accountability, urban-like risk factors, and national/state/district
influences. As part of this research design, the results of the school’s High School
Survey of Student Engagement were examined and used as secondary data to define
the parameters of student engagement.
As a central action item for this study, the group agreed that each of the ten
would conduct a case study of an outperforming urban high school based on the
following criteria:
1. Forty percent or more of the students were eligible for free and
reduced lunch, as defined by Title I.
2. Academic Performance Index (API) scores were 2 deciles higher than
those schools with similar schools rankings as determined by the
California Department of Education.

127
Once all the data was collected at Win Medical Magnet High School, this
researcher categorized, sorted, and chunked the information in order to bring
meaning to it. Subsequently, this researcher found themes and patterns that allowed
this researcher to have a clear understanding of the experiences of the participants
while simultaneously addressing the research questions that guided this study.
Finally, the results of the data collection instruments were used to triangulate
the findings. By triangulating the data, this researcher was able to corroborate,
elaborate, and illuminate the research in question and provide the teachers and
administrators of the school with actionable information on the school’s
characteristics that shape the student experience.
Summary of Findings and Implications
The findings and the conclusions for each research question was answered
through an analysis of the data retrieved from source documents, surveys, interviews,
and observations collected in the process of the study. Subsequently, this researcher
found the emergent themes and was able to draw conclusions based on the
similarities and differences of the responses.
Research Question One
The first research question asked, “What perceived factors contribute to
academic achievement in a outperforming urban high school?” To answer this
research question data collection and analysis was done utilizing all four instruments
that the dissertation cohort developed. This researcher found three overarching

128
themes that included leadership, school culture, and student resilience in the face of
adversity as contributing factors to academic achievement at the school under study.
Theme One: Leadership
The role of leadership at Win Medical Magnet High School has been the
impetus for many structures and practices that have been implemented to support
student learning. Leadership, characterized as specific behaviors the school’s
principal displayed (problem solver and decision maker, instructional leader, and
good with interpersonal relations) led this researcher to believe that “leadership”
indirectly impacted student outcomes by contributing to the environment in which
teaching and learning occurred at the school under study. This researcher found
several key leadership strategies that were perceived to be essential for the successful
student outcomes at Win High School. The strategies included:
1. Tap into the talents of every student and build on the strengths of the
adults.
2. Focus on the strengths of students rather than their shortcomings.
3. Discover and embrace the differences of the learning styles of children.
4. Promote a culture for life-long learning.
5. Identify and expand the positive aspects of the school’s culture.
6. Empower staff by supporting them and include them in the decision
making process.

129
The common belief about the role of principal as leader included (1) the
principal keeps the mission of the school in focus when making decisions; (2) the
principal continually supports the growth of students and staff; (3) the principal is
supportive of new ideas and innovation; and (4) the principal is a caring and
supportive role model.
While the principal clearly is in charge over the operations of the school, this
researcher found leadership to be a shared responsibility and the responsibility for
accountability was also shared by all stakeholders. Teachers, staff, parents, and
student leaders trusted each other to make sound decisions about the education of the
students at Win H.S. and were involved in campus planning, professional
development, and school improvement.
This finding suggests that students at Win Medical Magnet High School have
benefited from having a principal who worked in the capacity of facilitator and
created a landscape that utilized the talents of all staff to lead the organization to its
outperforming status. The principal acted as a catalyst in the development of a clear
purpose that is grounded in a shared set of core values and beliefs that stem from the
various dimensions of leadership that were found within the organization.
Theme Two: School Culture
This researcher found that the school’s culture, the sense of purpose and
vision that gave this school its identity, shaped how people within the school
interacted with one another, and determined how the school solved the problems and
celebrated success. The learning community showed evidence of being student

130
centered and supportive of creating opportunities for teachers to develop as
professionals. In addition, the presence of the career path in medicine and science
created a setting where students could confidently build a career identity which in
turn strengthened the student’s self identity.
Win H.S. promotes positive behaviors by creating a school culture that
supports hard work, dedication, and a continuity of purpose. Interestingly, the
school had a loud pulse and a vibrant soul where it appeared that the adults were
motivated and excited to be a part of the teaching process and students were
enthusiastic about coming to school to learn. Respect, hard work, integrity, and
community were all parts of what the school believed in. The culture communicated
high expectations for students and staff; promoted positive outcomes for students
through the rigors of the curriculum; and established a climate of trust and caring
relationships among teachers, administrators, students, and parents. This school
culture supported sustained relationships and offered complex challenges that
engaged students academically. Clearly, the daily experience of the student was as
important as the instruction they were receiving in the classroom.
The members of the school’s community who participated in this study
showed consensus regarding the mission of their school which was to do whatever
was necessary to meet the needs of each student in order to prepare them for a
successful future. The school’s stakeholders believed in the school’s mission and
worked relentlessly toward the ultimate goal of student achievement. Perhaps this
indicates that sustained success takes patience, realistic and attainable goals,

131
commitment from all stakeholders, clearly assigned roles, ongoing review of
practices and data, and time to identify the teaching strategies that positively impact
the academic growth of children. This finding led this researcher to believe that the
elements of a positive school culture contributed to high levels of academic
achievement.
Theme Three: Student Resilience
Win High School is located in an area of the city where poverty, gangs, drug
abuse, homelessness, and crime have devastated the community for many years
without resolve. These factors are known to drastically impede learning and place
students at a higher risk for dropping out of school. In spite of these challenges, a
large majority of students at Win have been able to develop protective factors that
increase their ability to achieve academically. These protective factors included
strong social skills, intelligence, an internal locus of control, and critical problem-
solving skills, among others.
Based on the findings of this study, many students at Win H.S. are able to
demonstrate resilience when faced with the challenges of living in an urban
environment. These challenges included the death of a close friend or family
member, the incarceration of one or both parents, homelessness, prevalent drug
abuse in the community, or gang related homicides. Win H.S. students were able to
activate a wide array of protective factors (e.g. strong belief in self, problem-solving
abilities, caring and supportive adults, extracurricular activities, positive peers, etc.)
that served to deflect the harmful effects of adversity and helped keep them engaged

132
and focused on their educational goals. The implications of this finding is that high
achieving students in this study take responsibility for their actions, make positive
decisions, and assume greater autonomy and control of their lives.
Research Question Two
The second research question asked, “Is there a link between student
engagement and student achievement in an outperforming urban high school?” To
answer this research question data collection and analysis was done utilizing all four
instruments that the dissertation cohort developed, which included the review of the
results of the school’s High School Survey of Student Engagement.
Teachers and administrators who participated in this study were consistent in
their belief about the effects that student engagement had on academic achievement.
For the most part, those interviewed reported that student engagement can take many
forms in school, such as high graduation rates, high rates of average daily
attendance, low dropout rates, and low rates of student misconduct. For example, the
teachers described engaged students as socially compliant in that they showed good
daily school attendance and adhered to the school’s dress code and discipline policy.
This study found that student engagement was a contributing factor to student
achievement at Win High School. This finding implicates that a student, who
“actively shows” interest in the classroom is more likely to master the content
material and less likely to be involved in “non-productive” activities. Furthermore,
this finding suggests that engaged students are active and willing learners; learn at
higher levels that non-engaged students; and show interest in their education and

133
enjoy learning. Finally, engaged students were able to show a deep understanding of
the material they had learned by sharing their knowledge with others and applying it
to new tasks.
Conclusions
From the outset, this researcher understood that this inquiry and the
presentations of findings would not be enough to create change for the deep rooted
issues that impede learning in America’s urban schools. While this researcher
succeeded in identifying the factors that contributed to successful student outcomes
in one outperforming urban high school, the basic patterns and issues I identified
were neither new nor groundbreaking. This study basically illuminated how
leadership, school culture, student resilience, and student engagement at one school
worked in concert to build on the talents of its young adults to prepare them for the
challenges of adulthood and beyond. Perhaps most important, this study focused on
the power of positive human relations and its potency in helping students realize
their full potential.
This study found a principal whose leadership set a vision and a mission that
was student centered and focused on inspiring students and adults to achieve
greatness. This researcher observed the school’s principal do whatever was
necessary to keep the school moving forward and interacting with her staff and
community to anticipate for the ever-changing needs of children.
This study found teachers who displayed patience, interminable commitment
to teaching, encouragement, and respect for students and the educational profession.

134
Teachers were genuine about wanting to work hard to help their children improve
their life circumstances rather than working to improve standardized test scores.
This study found a community that was focused on building students up
rather than breaking them down. Children at Win H.S. attended a school that was
safe and orderly, where they felt confident that their investment of time and hard
work would pay-off for their future, and a place that fostered supportive interactions
with adults.
This study found children who created a protective shield from the risk
factors that exist in their community. This seemed to allow them to increase their
chances of attaining high levels of academic success, as they are able to remove
some of the stressors and barriers that would otherwise interfere with their learning.
Finally, this study found that student engagement levels were crucial in the
school because it was closely linked to student productivity and the schools
outperforming status. Engaged students were perceived to contribute most to the
schools outperforming status since they were enmeshed in activities that encouraged
them to produce stellar results within their educational environment.
Recommendations
To the extent that these findings are transferable, the results of this study can
provide urban school districts, superintendents, and other practitioners with
alternative ways of thinking about identifying, selecting, and developing strategies
that will support the academic achievement of children, especially those attending

135
schools in urban areas. The following recommendations should be considered for
future research and practice:
• Investigate the effect that leadership has in urban schools to determine the
behaviors of urban principals that successfully influence positive academic
outcomes.
• Examine the effect that school culture in urban schools has on the
achievement levels of students.
• Engage in studies to further expand the understanding of the influence of
resilience on both student and teacher outcomes.
• Explore what enables some students to excel in spite of adversity.
• Revisit the original purpose for the development of magnet schools;
desegregation.
• Employ highly qualified teachers and assign them to teach students who are
most in need of their expertise.
• Align high school graduation requirements with university admissions
requirements, so that graduates can be prepared to succeed in college and
obtain well-paid jobs.
• Encourage and create opportunities for collaboration and sharing of best
teaching practices through intensive workshops and peer observations.
• Facilitate methods of engaging parents to actively participate in the education
of their children.
• Include students in school-reform efforts and decision-making.

136
• Obtain resources to update antiquated and dilapidated facilities.
• Provide more opportunities for students to interact and learn from established
professionals.
• Conduct ongoing professional development for all staff in the area of
culturally relevant pedagogy.
• Provide teachers with instructional support and constructive feedback to
improve their teaching skills.
• Develop a system for gathering and interpreting school data to make
informed decisions that support student achievement.
As the needs of society and children become more complex, more research
should be conducted to determine best practices for improving student outcomes in
all sectors of America.
The many voices of the participants of this study reveal that many inequities
remain in the public education system. It should be of concern to the policymakers
and practitioners of Los Angeles that one of their finest schools still remains
segregated; a condition that is prevalent in urban schools and districts across the
nation. It should go without saying that more work is needed to close the
achievement gap. However, this work cannot and should not be done in isolation.
This study represented a combination of ideas intended to improve the lives of
children regardless of socioeconomic background, religion, gender, or ethnicity. In
addition, this study represents the idea that positive change within the public
education system is possible.

137
REFERENCES
Achieve, Inc. (2007). Closing the expectations gap: An annual 50-state progress
report on the alignment of high school policies with the demands of college
and work. Retrieved 10/19/2007 from Achieve, Inc. Website Site:
http://www.achieve.org/files/50-state-07-Final.pdf

Adelman, C. (1999). Answers in the tool box: Academic intensity, attendance
patterns, and bachelor’s degree attainment. Retrieved 11/28/07 from U.S.
Department of Education Web Site:
http://www.ed.gov/pubs/Toolbox/index.html

Allen-Mears, P., Washington, R. O., & Welsh, B. L. (2000). Social work services in
schools (3
rd
ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Anderson-Moore, K., & Redd, Z. (2002). Children in poverty: Trends,
consequences, and policy options. Retrieved 2/16/07 from Child Trends
Research Brief Web Site: http://www.childtrends.org/Files/PovertyRB.pdf

Archbald, D. (1991). Magnet schools and issues of public school desegregation,
quality, and choice. Literature review. Palo Alto, CA: American Institute for
Research.

Barrett, C. (2005). Sputnik, races, and the state of US education. Retrieved February
20, 2007 from EDN Web Site:
http://www.edn.com/article/CA6280033.html?spacedesc+opinions

Bennett, C. (2001). Genres of research in multicultural education. Review of
Educational Research, 71(2), 171-217.

Bergeson, T. (2003). Nine characteristics of high performing schools. A research
based resource for school leadership teams to assist with the school
improvement process. Olympia, WA: Office of Superintendent of Public
Instruction.

Blank, R.K. (1989). Educational effects of magnet high schools. Paper presented to
the Conference on Choice and Control in American Education. Madison, WI.

Blase, J. & Blase J. (2004). Handbook of instructional leadership: How successful
principals promote teaching and learning. 2
nd
ed. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Corwin Press.

138
Bolman, G. L. & Deal, T. E. (2003). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice, and
leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Bracey, G. W. (2004). Rags to rags? Riches to riches? Phi Delta Kappan, 85(10),
798-799.

Brewster, C. & Fager, J. (2000). Increasing student engagement and motivation:
From the time-on-task to homework. Northwest Educational Regional
Laboratory.

Brooks-Gunn, J., & Duncan, G. J. (1997). The effects of poverty in children.
Children and Poverty, 7(2), 55-71.

Buckley, J., Schneider, M., & Shang, Y. (2005). Fix it and they might stay: School
facility quality and teacher retention in Washington, D.C. Teacher College
Record, 107(5), 1107-1123.

Bunting, C. (1999). School reform: Does it really matter? The Clearing House, 72(4)
213-216.

California Department of Education (2006). The 2006 results of the California High
School Exit Exam. Retrieved February 19, 2007 from the California
Department of Education Website: http://cahsee.cde.ca.gov

Casella, R. (2003). Zero tolerance policy in schools: Rationale, consequences and
alternatives. Teachers College Record, 105(5), 872-892.

Center for Evaluation & Education Policy (2005). High school survey of student
engagement 2005: What we can learn from high school students. Retrieved
on February 7, 2007 from the CEEP Indiana University Web Site:
http://ceep.indiana.edu/hssse/

Clark, R. E., & Estes, F. (2002). Turning Research into Results: A guide to selecting
the right performance solutions. Atlanta, GA: CEP Press.

Codding, J.B., Rothman, R. & Tucker M.S. (1999). The new American high school:
Educating for the 21
st
century. Newberry Park, CA: Corwin. Chapters 1 -2.

Collins, G. (2003). America’s women. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publishers,
Inc.

139
Cothran, D.J. & Ennis, C.D. (2000). Building bridges to student engagement:
Communicating respect and care for students in urban high schools. Journal
of Research and Development in Education, 33(2), 106-117.

Creswell, J.W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches (2
nd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Donlevy, J. (2004). Teachers, technology, and training: Four new year's resolutions
for education in 2004. International Journal of Instructional Media, 31(1), 1-
40.

Duvall, H. (2006). Trends in math and reading on state and federal assessments
examined. Washington, DC: Council of the Great City Schools.

Education Commission of the States (2007). Helping state leaders shape education
policy. Retrieved May 29, 2007, from Education Commission of the States:
Web Site:
http://www..ecs.org/html/issue.asp?print=true&issueID=80&subIssueID=0

Farrell, J. (1996). The great depression. San Diego, CA: Lucent Books.

Futernick, K. (2007). A possible dream: Retaining California’s teachers so all
students learn. Sacramento: California State University.

Gall, M.P., Gall, J.P. & Borg, W.R. (2003). Educational research. An introduction
(7
th
ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Gergen, D. (2007, November). The spirit of teamwork. U.S. News and World Report,
42-43.

Goldin, C. (1998). America's graduation from high school: The evolution and spread
of secondary schooling in the twentieth century. The Journal of Economic
History, 58(2), 345-374.

Good. T.L. (1999). The purpose of schooling in America. The Elementary School
Journal, 99(5), 383-389.

Gordon, G. (2006). Building engaged schools: Getting the most out of America’s
classrooms New York, NY: Gallop Press.

Greene, J. P. & Winters, M. A. (2002). Public school graduation rates in the United
States. Civic report. New York, NY: Manhattan Institute: Center for Civic
Innovation.

140
Guthrie, J.W. & Springer, M.G. (2004). A nation at risk revisited: Did “wrong”
reasoning result in “right” results? At what cost? Peabody Journal of
Education, 79(1), 7-35.

Hodgkinson, H. (1995) Reform versus reality. In A.C. Ornstein & L.S. Behar (Eds.),
Contemporary issues in curriculum (p. 379-389). Boston, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.

Holme, J. J. (2002). Buying homes, buying schools: School choice and the social
construction of quality. Harvard Educational Review, 72(2), 177-205.

Hood, L. (2003). Immigrant students, urban high schools: The challenge continues.
New York, NY: Carnegie Corporation of New York.

Hudley, C., Daoud, A., Polanco, T., Wright-Castro, R., & Hershberg, R. (2003).
Student engagement, school climate, and future expectations in high school.
Paper presented at the 2003 Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in
Child Development, 1-27.

Iceland, J. (2003) Poverty in America. Los Angeles, CA: University of California
Press, 70-97.

Ingersoll, R.M. (2001). Teacher turnover and teacher shortages: An organizational
analysis. American Educational Research Journal, 38 (3), 499-534.

Jackson, J. (2005). Leadership for urban public schools. The Educational Forum, 69,
192-202.

Joftus, S. & Maddox-Dolan, B. (2003). Left out and left behind: NCLB and the
American high school. Alliance for Excellent Education. Washington, DC:
Alliance for Excellent Education.

Johnson, M.K., Crosnoe, R., & Elder, Jr., G.H. (2001). Students’ attachment and
academic engagement: The role of race and ethnicity. Sociology of
Education, 74(10), 318-340.

Katz, S.R. (1999). Teaching in tensions: Latino immigrant youth, their teachers, and
the structures of schooling. Teacher Records College, 100(4), 809-840.

Karoly, L.A. (2001). Investing in the future: Reducing poverty through human
capital investments. In S.H. Danziger and R.H. Haveman (eds.),
Understanding Poverty. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 314-356.

141
Karoly, L.A. and Panis, C.W.A. (2004). The 21
st
century at work: Forces shaping
the future workforce and workplace in the United States. Santa Monica, CA:
RAND Corporation. Summary, pp. xiii-xxxiv.

Knudsen, L.R. and Morrissette, P.J. (1998). Goals 2000: An analysis and critique.
International Electronic Journal for Leadership in Learning, 2 (4).

Kowalski, J.T. (2005). The school superintendent: Theory, practice, and cases (2
nd

ed.). Thousand Oak, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Krashen, S. (2005). The hard work hypothesis: Is doing your homework enough to
overcome the effects of poverty? Multicultural Education, 12(4), 16-19.

Lara, J., & Pande, G. (2001). Latino students and secondary school education.
Gaining Ground: Achieving Excellence in High Poverty Schools. Retrieved
February 2, 2007 from http://www.ccsso.org/pdfs/ggjun01.pdf

Llagas, C. (2003). Status and trends in the education of Hispanics. Washington, DC:
National Center for Education Statistics.

Manno, B.V. (1995). In the image of the Great Society: Reinventing K-12 education
in the Clinton administration. Indianapolis, IN: Hudson Institute.

Marzano, R.J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

McCarthy, M., & Kuh, G. D. (2006). Are students really ready for college? What
student engagement data say. Phi Delta Kappan, 664-669.

Mondale, S., & Patton, S. B. (2001). School: The story of American public
education. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.

National Center for Education Statistics (unknown). Urban Schools: the Challenge
of Location and Poverty. Retrieved February 5, 2007, from Institute of
Educational Sciences: United States Department of Education Web Site:
http://nces.ed.gov/pubs/web/96184ex.asp

National Research Council (2003). Engaging schools: Fostering high school
students’ motivation to learn. National Academies of Science Press.

Noguera, P. A. (2004). Racial isolation, poverty, and the limits of local control in
Oakland. Teachers College Record, 106, 2146-2170.

142
Noguera, P. A. (2003). Trouble with black boys: the role and influence of
environmental and cultural factors on the academic performance of African
American males. Urban Education, 38(4), 431-459.

Noguera, P.A. & Wing, J.Y. (2006). Unfinished business: Closing the racial
achievement gap in our schools. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Northouse, P.G. (2004). Leadership: Theory and practice, 3
rd
ed. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods, 3
rd
ed. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Predmore, S. R. (2004). Meeting the challenges of urban education. Techniques,
79(8), 18-23.

Puma, M.E., Raphael, J., Olson, K., Hannaway, J. (2000). Putting standards to the
test: A design for evaluating the systemic reform of education. Retrieved
November 11, 2007, from the Urban Institute Web Site:
http://www.urban.org/publications/410385.html

Ravitch, D. (1998). A new era in public education? Retrieved January 28, 2007,
from The Brookings Institute Web Site:
http://www.brookings.edu/comm/policybriefs/pb25.htm

Reschovsky, A., & Imazeki, J. (2003). Let no child left behind: Determining the cost
of improving student performance. Public Finance Review, 31(3), 263-290.

Richman , J. M., & Bowen, G. L. (1997). School failure: An ecological-interactional-
developmental perspective. In M. Fraser, Risk and resilience in childhood
(pp. 95-117). Washington, DC: NASW Press.

Roscigno, V. J., Tomaskovic-Devey, D., & Crowley, M. (2006). Education and
inequalities of place. Social Forces, 84(4), 2120-2145.

Rothstein, R. (2004). Class and schools. Washington, DC: Economic Policy
Institute, 1-59.

Salamon, L.M. (1991). Overview: Why human capital? Why now? In D.W.
Hornbeck and L.M. Salamon (eds.), Human capital and America’s future.
Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1-28.

143
Simmons, R. (2001). Student-centered high schools: Helping schools adapt to the
learning needs of adolescents. Northeast and Islands Regional Educational
Laboratory at Brown University, 1-12.

Skiba, R. J., & Leone, P. E. (2002). Profiled and punished: How San Diego schools
undermine Latino & African American student achievement. Oakland, CA:
Applied Research Center.

Skiba, R.J. (2007). Discipline foundation policy. [Letter to the Los Angeles Unified
School District]. Indiana University: Center for Evaluation & Education
Policy.

Smith, M. (1998). Goals 2000, health care, and family planning. Retrieved
November 16, 2007, from Education Reporter: Web Site:
http://www.eagleforum.org/educate/1998/july98/focus.html

Stanton-Salazar, R. D. (1997). A social capital framework for understanding the
socialization of racial minority children and youths. Harvard Educational
Review, 67(1), 1-40.

Steel, L. & Levine, R. (1994). Educational innovations in multiracial contexts: The
growth of magnet schools n American education. American Institute for
Research in the Behavioral Sciences. Palo Alto, CA

Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory
procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Sunderman, G. L. & Kim, J. (2004). Inspiring vision, disappointing results: Four
studies on implementing the No Child Left Behind Act. The Civil Rights
Project. Cambridge, MA

Taylor-Powell, E. & Steele, S. (1996). Collecting evaluation data: Direct
observation. Program Development and Evaluation. University of
Wisconsin, 1-8.

The American Diploma Project (2004). Ready or not: Creating a high school
diploma that counts. Retrieved November 28, 2007, from Achieve Inc.
Website: http://www.achieve.org/files/ADPreport.pdf

The Civil Rights Project (2005). Confronting the graduation rate crisis in California.
Harvard University.

144
Trochim, W.M.K. (2006). Research methods knowledge base. Retrieved May 26,
2007, from Web Center for Social Research Methods: Web Site:
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/citing.php

U.S. States Census Bureau. (2006). Geographic Mobility 2004-2005. Journey-to-
Work and Migration Statistics Branch: Population Division. Retrieved
February 16, 2007, from U.S. Census Bureau: Web Site:
http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo//migrate/cps2005.html

Vail, K. (2003). Grasping what kids need to raise performance. American School
Board Journal, 69(6), 12-18.

Verdugo, R. R. (2002). Race-ethnicity, social class, and zero tolerance policies: The
cultural and structural wars. Education and urban society, 35(1), 50-75.

Weiss, S. (2001). High school curriculum. Progress of Education Reform 1999-2001,
3(1), 1-5.

Wikipedia (2007). Case study. Retrieved March 15, 2007 from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study

Wikipedia (2007). Magnet Schools. Retrieved June 4, 2007 from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet_school

Yazzie-Mintz, E. (2007). Voices of student engagement. A report on the 2006 high
school survey of student engagement. Center for Evaluation and Education
Policy, 1-12

Yin, R. (2003). Case study research design and methods. 3
rd
ed. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publications.

145
APPENDIX 1

HSSSE Survey Sample

146

147

148

149
APPENDIX 2

Survey of High School Teachers Regarding Student Engagement

This survey asks questions about how you perceive the high school experience for
the students at your high school. The information provided by these surveys will be
compiled and shared with site and district stakeholders. Thank you for your
thoughtful responses.

1. What subject area do you teach?
____________________________________________
2. Which category represents most of the classes you teach?
_____ General/Regular _____ Special Education
_____ Remedial _____ Honors/College Prep
_____ Career/Career Technical Education

3. Are you _____ Female ______ Male
4. What is your racial or ethnic identification?
(Mark all that apply.)
______American Indian/other Native American ______Asian American or
Pacific Islander
______Black/African American ______White
______Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin ______Other, please specify:
___________
______Prefer not to respond
5. Is English the main language used in the majority of your students’ homes?
_____ Yes _____ No _____ I do not know

6. Do the majority of your students have a computer with Internet access at
home?
____ Yes ____ No ____ I do not know
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Focus: Factors Impacting Student Achievement at Urban
High Schools

150
7. During this school year, about how many writing assignments have you
given?
0-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11+

a. Written papers/reports of
more than 5 pages
b. Written papers/reports of 3 to
5 pages
c. Written papers/reports of fewer than 3 pages

8. How much reading do you assign in a typical school week?
# of hours of assigned reading

____0 ____1 ____2-3 ____4-5 ____6-7 ____8-10 ____11+
9. During this school year, how often have you utilized strategies to encourage
all students to participate in class?

____Very often ____Frequently ____Sometimes ____Never
10. During this school year, how often have you given prompt, personal feedback
to students on assignments?

____Very often ____Frequently ____Sometimes ____Never
11. School safety is clearly a priority on this campus?

____ I agree ____ I disagree
For numbers 12-22, fill in the response that best identifies the extent to which
this high school emphasizes the skill or learning activity mentioned.

12. Students must spend a lot of time studying and on school work.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

13. Students are provided the support needed to succeed in school.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

14. Students are encouraged to participate in school events and activities
(athletics, music, etc.).
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

151
15. Students are encouraged to get involved in school leadership and governance.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

16. All adults on campus treat students fairly.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

17. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful opportunities to learn
work-related skills.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

18. Students are encouraged to write effectively.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

19. Students are encouraged and provided the support to use information
technology.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

20. Students are encouraged and provided opportunities to solve real-world
problems.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

21. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful opportunities to develop
clear, sequential career goals and prepare for appropriate post-secondary
education or training.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

22. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful opportunities to make their
community a better place.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

23. What are the factors that you feel contribute to student achievement?
_____________________________________________________________

152
APPENDIX 3

Survey of High School Administrators Regarding Student Engagement

This survey asks questions about how you perceive the high school experience for
the students at your high school. The information provided by these surveys will be
compiled and shared with site and district stakeholders. Thank you for your
thoughtful responses.

1. What areas do you supervise?
2. Are you _____ Female ______ Male
3. What is your racial or ethnic identification?
(Mark all that apply.)
______American Indian/other Native American ______Asian American or
Pacific Islander
______Black/African American ______White
______Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin ______Other, specify:
___________
______Prefer not to respond
4. Is English the main language used in the majority of your students’ homes?
_____ Yes _____ No _____ I do not know

5. Do the majority of your students have a computer with Internet access at
home?
____ Yes ____ No ____ I do not know
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Focus: Factors Impacting Student Achievement at Urban
High Schools

153
6. During this school year, about how many writing assignments are students
given?
0-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11+

a. Written papers/reports of
more than 5 pages
b. Written papers/reports of 3 to
5 pages
c. Written papers/reports of fewer than 3 pages

7. How much reading are students assigned in a typical school week?
# of hours of assigned reading

____0 ____1 ____2-3 ____4-5 ____6-7 ____8-10 ____11+
8. During this school year, how often do teachers utilized strategies to
encourage all students to participate in class?

____Very often ____Frequently ____Sometimes ____Never
9. During this school year, how often are students given prompt, personal
feedback on assignments?

____Very often ____Frequently ____Sometimes ____Never
10. School safety is clearly a priority on this campus?

____I agree ____I disagree
For numbers 11- 21, check the response that best identifies the extent to which
this high school emphasizes the skill or learning activity mentioned.

11. Students must spend a lot of time studying and on school work.

____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

12. Students are provided the support needed to succeed in school.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

13. Students are encouraged to participate in school events and activities
(athletics, music, etc.).
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

154
14. Students are encouraged to get involved in school leadership and governance.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

15. All adults on campus treat students fairly.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

16. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful opportunities to learn
work-related skills.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

17. Students are encouraged to write effectively.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

18. Students are encouraged and provided the support to use information
technology.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

19. Students are encouraged and provided opportunities to solve real-world
problems.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

20. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful opportunities to develop
clear, sequential career goals and prepare for appropriate post-secondary
education or training.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

21. Students are encouraged and provided meaningful opportunities to make their
community a better place.
____Very much ____ Quite a bit ____Some ____Very little

22. What are the factors that you feel contribute to student achievement?
_____________________________________________________________

155
APPENDIX 4

Four Interpretations of Organizational Processes

156
APPENDIX 5

Observation Log

Date: _________________________________ Page ________ of ________

School Class Leadership Meetings

School
Culture
Curriculum &
Instruction
Leadership Student
Engagement
Additional
Observations

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Focus: Factors Impacting Student Achievement at Urban
High Schools

157
APPENDIX 6

Interview Questions

Suggested personnel to interview: Superintendent, Assistant Superintendent of
Educational Services, Principals, Assistant Principals of Instruction, School Board
Members, Counselors, Teachers, Support staff, Parent groups and community
groups, Extra-curricular Activities Leaders (minimum of 5 interviews)—maybe
focus group or department chairpersons or during a designated prep period.

Questions:

Tell me about this school/school district

What are you most proud of at this school/school district? What areas would you
like to improve within the school/school district?

What is the vision or mission of the school? Are there common goals in which all
stakeholders are focusing upon? If so, please tell me about them.

What are the factors that you feel contribute to student achievement at your
school/school district?

What role do you feel student engagement (defined by cohort group) contributes to
student achievement at your school/school district?

What do you feel are the strengths of the school/school district?

Would you consider your school/school district high performing? Why or why not?
If so, how?

Is your school/school district unique? If so, how?

How does the school/school district prepare students beyond high school?
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Focus: Factors Impacting Student Achievement at
Urban High Schools

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Each year in America, thousands of students who attend school in urban school districts are dropping out of school at alarming rates. Therefore, improving the quality of America s urban schools is critically important if children living in these areas are to have an equal opportunity to achieve academically and beyond. However, increasing student achievement is unlikely to be accomplished by solely raising standards, increasing state-designated school funding, requiring accountability, or without students being engaged in their education.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Outperforming expectations: a case study of an urban high school

PDF

A case study to determine what perceived factors, including student engagement, contribute to academic achievement in a high performing urban high school

PDF

Effective factors of high performing urban high schools: a case study

PDF

Factors that may lead to an urban high school‘s outperforming status: a case study of an institution‘s achievement in the age of accountability

PDF

Student engagement in a high-performing urban high school: a case study

PDF

Student engagement in high performing urban high schools: a case study

PDF

A case study of factors related to a high performing urban charter high school: investigating student engagement and its impact on student achievement

PDF

Student engagement in high-performing urban high schools: a case study

PDF

Factors including student engagement impacting student achievement in a high performing urban high school district: a case study

PDF

A study of an outperforming urban high school and the factors which contribute to its increased academic achievement with attention to the contribution of student achievement

PDF

A case study of student engagement in a high performing urban continuation high school

PDF

Achievement gap and sustainability: a case study of an elementary school bridging the achievement gap

PDF

Student engagement in a high performing urban high school: a case study

PDF

Closing the achievement gap: breakthrough in the urban high school

PDF

Outperforming nontraditional urban school: a high school case study

PDF

Factors which may contribute to academic achievement in an outperforming urban high school with a career technical education curriculum

PDF

Against all odds: a case study of an outperforming nontraditional urban charter school

PDF

A case study of an outperforming urban magnet high school

PDF

A case study of an outperforming elementary school closing the achievement gap

PDF

Narrowing the achievement gap: Factors that support English learner and Hispanic student academic achievement in an urban intermediate school

Asset Metadata

Creator Fonseca, Julio Cesar (author)

Core Title A case study of an outperforming urban high school: the relational pattern between student engagement and student achievement in a magnet high school in Los Angeles

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/01/2008

Defense Date 03/17/2008

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,outperforming,student achievement,student engagement,urban high school

Place Name California (states), educational facilities: Win Medical Magnet High School (geographic subject), Los Angeles (city or populated place), USA (countries)

Language English

Advisor Gothold, Stuart E. (committee chair), Hocevar, Dennis J. (committee member), Stowe, Kathy Huisong (committee member)

Creator Email julio.fonseca@lausd.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m1072

Unique identifier UC162072

Identifier etd-Fonseca-20080401 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-50451 (legacy record id),usctheses-m1072 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Fonseca-20080401.pdf

Dmrecord 50451

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Fonseca, Julio Cesar

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu