University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Perceived discrimination and Latino youth adjustment: examining the influence of relinquished control and immigration status

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Perceived discrimination and Latino youth adjustment: examining the influence of relinquished control and immigration status

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Content PERCEIVED DISCRIMINATION AND LATINO YOUTH ADJUSTMENT:
EXAMINING THE INFLUENCE OF RELINQUISHED CONTROL AND
IMMIGRATION STATUS

by

Taona Patricia Chithambo

________________________________________________________________________

A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirement for the Degree
MASTER OF ARTS
(PSYCHOLOGY)

December 2010

Copyright 2010 Taona Patricia Chithambo

ii
Table of Contents

List of Tables iii

List of Figures iv

Abstract v

Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Discrimination and Ethnicity 2
Discrimination and Depression 3
Discrimination and Latino Mental Health 4
Discrimination Outcomes for Latino Youth 5
Immigration Status and Latino Mental Health Outcomes 6
Control and Latino Culture 7

Chapter 2: Methods 12
Participants and Procedures 12
Measures 14
Analyses 20

Chapter 3: Results 27
Mediation Analyses 29
Moderated Moderation Analyses 37

Chapter 4: Discussion 43

Bibliography 50

iii
List of Tables

Table 1. Demographic Variables of Study Population 13

Table 2. Multivariate Effects for School Record Obtainment 26

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics and Study Variable Intercorrelations 28

Table 4. Tests of Relinquished Control as Mediator of the Relationship
Between Discrimination and CES-D Depression 30

Table 5. Tests of Relinquished Control as Mediator of the Relationship
Between Discrimination and RADS Depression 32

Table 6. Tests of Relinquished Control as Mediator of the Relationship
Between Discrimination and GPA 34

Table 7. Tests of Relinquished Control as Mediator of the Relationship
Between Discrimination and Self-reported Grades 36

Table 8. Test of Immigration status as Moderator of the Relationship
Between Relinquished Control and CES-D Depression 38

Table 9. Test of Immigration status as Moderator of the Relationship
Between Relinquished Control and RADS Depression 39

Table 10. Test of Immigration status as Moderator of the Relationship
Between Relinquished Control and Self-reported Grades 41

iv
List of Figures

Figure 1. The Secondary School Taxonomy 18

Figure 2. Standard Mediation model (adapted from Baron & Kenny, 21
1986, p.1176).

Figure 3. Moderated Mediation Model 24

Figure 4. Test of mediation model in which the relationship between
perceived discrimination and CES depressive symptoms is
mediated by relinquished control, controlling for gender and
parental education level. 31

Figure 5. Test of mediation model in which the relationship between
perceived discrimination and RADS depressive symptoms is
mediated by relinquished control, controlling for gender and
parental education level. 33

Figure 6. Test of mediation model in which the relationship between
perceived discrimination and GPA is mediated by relinquished
control, controlling for gender and parental education level. 35

Figure 7. Test of mediation model in which the relationship between
perceived discrimination and self-reported grades is mediated by
relinquished control, controlling for gender and parental
education level. 37

Figure 8. Test of moderation model in which relationship between
relinquished control and CES depressive symptoms is
moderated by immigration status, controlling for gender and
parental education level. No interaction effect was found,
indicating that the regression slopes for U.S born Latinos and
immigrants did not differ significantly. 39

Figure 9. Test of moderation model in which relationship between
relinquished control and self-reported grades is moderated by
immigration status, controlling for gender and parental
education level. 40

Figure 10. Test of moderation model in which relationship between
relinquished control and self-reported grades is moderated
by immigration status, controlling for gender and parental
education level. 42

v
Abstract

Perceived discrimination has been linked to negative mental health outcomes in
Latino populations. Most research on the effects of perceived discrimination, however,
focuses on outcomes for adults. Using a sample of Latino adolescents, the current study
aimed to examine the relationship between perceived discrimination and two indices of
youth adjustment: depressive symptomology and academic performance. Moreover, to
assess aspects of Ogbu’s cultural-ecological model, the mediating and moderating effects
of relinquished control and immigration status, as well as moderated mediation, were
tested. Results indicated that relinquished control mediates the relationship between
perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms. A negative association was found
between perceived discrimination and GPA, though relinquished control did not mediate
this relationship. Applying bootstrap mediation analyses, relinquished control mediated
the relationship between perceived discrimination and self-reported grades. The
moderated mediation hypotheses were not supported.

1
Chapter 1: Introduction
Numerous research studies have examined the effects of perceived discrimination
on psychosocial adjustment and health (e.g., Banks, Kohn-Wood, & Spencer, 2006; Gee,
Spencer, Chen, Yip, & Takeuchi, 2007; Klonoff, Landrine, & Ullman, 1999; Lewis et al.,
2006). Discrimination has been linked to a wide range of negative outcomes, including
breast cancer (Taylor et al., 2007), high blood pressure (Krieger, 1990; Ryan, Gee, &
Laflamme, 2006), psychosis (Janssen et al., 2003; Veling et al., 2007), substance use
(Martin, Tuch, & Roman, 2003; Whitbeck, Chen, Hoyt, & Adams, 2004; Yen, Ragland,
Greiner, & Fisher, 1999), and substandard work performance (Mays, Coleman, &
Jackson, 1996). Among the most commonly studied populations in the discrimination
literature are gays/lesbians (D'Augelli, Pilkington, & Hershberger, 2002; Klonoff,
Landrine, & Campbell, 2006; Mays & Cochran, 2001), women (Klonoff et al., 2006;
Krieger, 1990; Landrine, Klonoff, Gibbs, Manning, & Lund, 2006), and HIV-positive
individuals (Bird, Bogart, & Delahanty, 2004; Schuster et al., 2005; Yoshikawa, Alan-
David Wilson, Chae, & Cheng, 2004). However, experiences of discrimination extend to
the general population as well. Kessler, Mickelson, and Williams found that in a sample
of 3,032 individuals, 33.5% reported having experienced major lifetime discrimination,
such as loss of employment (Kessler, Mickelson, & Williams, 1999). Sixty-nine percent
reported exposure to day-to-day discrimination (e.g., being called names, character
insults). Though many members of the general population have experienced
discrimination of some sort, racial/ethnic discrimination remains the most frequently
studied phenomenon.

2
Discrimination and Ethnicity
Discrimination is generally defined as any adverse consequence or process
directed against an individual or individuals that can be attributed to membership in a
specific socially or biologically defined group (Krieger, 1999). Discrimination is often
described as a process by which dominant groups attempt to maintain their status within
the social hierarchy (Krieger, 1999); thus, socially disadvantaged groups are particularly
susceptible to the adverse effects of discrimination. Williams and Mohammed (2009)
argue that because the structure of modern society reinforces the notion that ethnic
minorities are inferior, ethnic minorities are more likely to encounter experiences of
discrimination than members of the privileged majority. This argument is supported by
research by Kessler et al. (1999). In a survey of 3,032 individuals, the authors found that
30.9% of non-Hispanic Whites reported having experienced a discriminatory event,
compared to 49% of non-Hispanic Blacks and 50.2% of other-race respondents. These
experiences of discrimination a) act as a deterrent that prevents minority members from
ascending the social hierarchy; and b) induce psychological stress, which is implicated as
the catalyst for a number of adverse mental and physiological consequences (Williams &
Mohammed, 2009).
The consequences of perceived discrimination for the mental health of ethnic
minorities are well documented. For example, Klonoff, Landrine, and Ullman (1999)
found that racial discrimination contributed significantly to Blacks’ psychiatric
symptoms, controlling for demographic characteristics (i.e., age, education, gender,
income) and everyday stressors. A study by Gee et al. (2007) indicated that experiencing

3
discrimination is associated with increased odds of experiencing any DSM-IV disorder,
depressive disorder, or anxiety disorder within the past 12 months. A review paper on
the effects of discrimination found that 43 of 47 empirical studies reported a negative
association between discrimination and mental health, with three more reporting a
conditional association, and only one reporting no association (Williams and Mohammed,
2009).
The negative influence of discrimination on ethnic minority populations has also
been found to persist with time. Brown et al. (2000) conducted longitudinal research on
the consequences of racial discrimination for Black Americans over thirteen years.
Analyses revealed that previous experiences of racial discrimination were associated with
current levels of psychological distress. The results of these and numerous other
research studies support the argument that racial discrimination is detrimental to
psychological well-being (e.g., Karlsen & Nazroo, 2002; Sanders Thompson, 1996;
Williams, Neighbors, & Jackson, 2008).
Discrimination and Depression
Depressive symptoms are among the most validated outcomes of perceived
discrimination. The link between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms has
been examined in a variety of ethnic minority populations. Noh et al. (Noh, Beiser,
Kaspar, Hou, & Rummens, 1999) conducted interviews with 647 Southeast Asian
refugees living in Canada. Compared to refugees reporting no experiences with racial
discrimination, refugees who reported discriminatory experiences had higher levels of
depression. Research by Banks, Kohn-Wood, and Spencer (2006) with a sample of 570

4
African Americans found that perceived discrimination is significantly associated with
depressive symptoms. Perceived discrimination has been implicated as a predictor of
depressive symptoms for Native American populations as well (Whitbeck, McMorris,
Hoyt, Stubben, & LaFromboise, 2002). Furthermore, there is evidence that changes in
levels of discrimination over time correspond with changes in levels of depression
(Schulz et al., 2006). Thus, it can be argued that perceived discrimination is a salient
predictor of depressive symptoms for ethnic minorities.
Discrimination and Latino Mental Health
Though there is much interest in the effects of discrimination on various ethnic
groups, much of the literature is focused on outcomes for African Americans (e.g., Banks
et al., 2006; Borrell, Kiefe, Williams, Diez-Roux, & Gordon-Larsen, 2006; Brody et al.,
2006; Broman, Mavaddat, & Hsu, 2000; T. N. Brown et al., 2000; Clark, Anderson,
Clark, & Williams, 1999; Klonoff et al., 1999; Mays, Cochran, & Barnes, 2006; Schulz et
al., 2006; Sellers, Caldwell, Schmeelk-Cone, & Zimmerman, 2003; Utsey, Ponterotto,
Reynolds, & Cancelli, 2000), with a sizeable portion of the research centered on Asians
as well (Barry & Grilo, 2003; Dion, Dion, & Pak, 1992; Gee et al., 2007; Noh et al.,
1999). Trends toward increasing interest in Latino mental health have emerged during
the past decade.
The extant literature suggests that, as is the case with other ethnic minority
groups, discrimination is associated with negative mental health outcomes for Latinos
(Diaz, Ayala, Bein, Henne, & Marin, 2001; Finch, Hummer, Kol, & Vega, 2001; Gee,

5
Ryan, Laflamme, & Holt, 2006; Salgado de Snyder, 2006; Szalacha et al., 2003; Umaña-
Taylor & Updegraff, 2007).
For example, research by Moradi and Risco (2006) indicates that a significantly positive
relationship exists between perceived discrimination and psychological distress. Another
trend in the Latino literature, characteristic of research with a variety of ethnic minority
populations, is an emphasis on depressive symptoms. Research suggests that Latinos
who report experiences of discrimination experience higher levels of depression than
those who do not (Salgado de Snyder, 2006). Furthermore, a review study of empirical
literature with Latino populations found that perceived discrimination is consistently
linked with stress and depressive symptoms (Araújo & Borrell, 2006).
Discrimination Outcomes for Latino Youth
At least two studies examine depression as an outcome of discrimination for
Latino youth. In a study featuring Puerto Rican children and adolescents, Szalacha et al.
(2003) found that the perception of discrimination and worrying about discrimination is
positively associated with stress and depression. Umaña-Taylor and Updegraff (2007)
obtained similar results with a sample of Latino high school students. Thus, the
consequences of discrimination are relevant to the Latino youth population.
Perceived discrimination may have an impact on other measures of psychosocial
adjustment for Latino youth as well, including one study focused on school performance.
In a population of Mexican immigrant high school students living in the United States,
youth perceptions of teacher discrimination were significantly associated with grade
attainment and being categorized as “off-track” (i.e., withdrawn from school or enrolled

6
in an alternative remedial program) (Stone & Han, 2005). Furthermore, given that
discrimination has been linked to school performance in other ethnic minority
populations (Wong, Eccles, & Sameroff, 2003), it stands to reason that Latino youth are
susceptible to the same trends.
Immigration status and Latino Mental Health Outcomes
Research suggests that Latino immigrants are less vulnerable to mental health
problems than Latinos born in the United States. Though Mexican Americans exhibit a
lower lifetime prevalence of DSM-III-R disorders than the general population, the
prevalence of DSM-III-R disorders among U.S-born Mexicans is twice that of Mexican
immigrants (Vega et al., 1998). In addition, as length of residence in the U.S increases,
the risk of experiencing lifetime DSM-III disorders increases correspondingly (Vega et
al., 1998). Similarly, Golding and Burnam (1990) found higher rates of depression
among U.S-born Mexicans than Mexican immigrants, a result that persisted after
controlling for a number of cultural and psychological variables. In a study conducted
with Hispanic youth residing in cities on the border of Texas and Mexico, Mexican youth
residing in Mexico had lower rates of depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation, and
substance abuse than Mexican youth residing in Texas (Swanson, Linskey, Quintero-
Salinas, Pumariega, & Holzer, 1992). Moreover, immigration status may be a
moderating factor in the relationship between discrimination and depressive symptoms.
Finch et al. (Finch, Kolody, & Vega, 2000) found that the association between perceived
discrimination and depressive symptoms was stronger for Mexicans who were U.S
natives than Mexican immigrants.

7
Various theoretical models have attempted to explain why members of immigrant
populations show superior psychological adjustment to their native-born counterparts.
Viruell-Fuentes (2007) argues that Latino immigrants fare better than their second-
generation counterparts because U.S-born Latinos are more aware of their disadvantaged
social status. The author posits that non-immigrants have had more time to accumulate
“othering” experiences, which are described as discriminatory experiences that reinforce
notions of separateness from the general society.
Ogbu and Simons (1998) argue that voluntary immigrant populations assess their
circumstances in comparison to their homeland and conclude that they are better off in
the new country, resulting in a positive dual frame of reference. The authors argue that
voluntary immigrant populations view societal barriers as temporary and malleable. U.S
minority populations, on the other hand, compare their circumstances to those of the
dominant group, resulting in a negative dual frame of reference. These assertions fall in
line with empirical research on the matter; Mexican immigrants have been found to
perceive discrimination less often than U.S-born Mexicans (Pérez, Fortuna, & AlegrÌa,
2008). While voluntary immigrant populations view hard work and perseverance as a
means of overcoming the challenges of U.S society, members of involuntary, U.S
minority groups view their place in society as a permanent and static circumstance,
resulting in reduced efforts to overcome the social hierarchy (Ogbu & Simmons, 1998).
Control and Latino Culture
The differential strategies of involuntary and voluntary minorities may be
explained by disparities in the endorsement of perceived control. Learned helplessness

8
theory posits that exposure to adverse circumstances fosters hopelessness and the
abandonment of control, resulting in negative mental health outcomes. Traditionally,
holding an internal locus of control is viewed as more adaptive than endorsing an external
locus of control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995), predicting positive outcomes such as
reduced symptoms of depression (Thompson, Sobolew-Shubin, Galbraith,
Schwankovsky, & Cruzen, 1993), as well as high academic motivation and better
academic performance (Hall, Chipperfield, Perry, Ruthig, & Goetz, 2006; Perry, Hladkyj,
Pekrun, & Pelletier, 2001).
Research has increasingly called for sensitivity to the role of context in
determining the efficacy of chosen control strategies (Azuma, 1984; Morling & Evered,
2006). Brown and Siegel (1988) found that internal attributions for uncontrollable events
are positively associated with depression, but internal attributions for controllable causes
are negatively linked with depression. Shapiro, Schwartz, and Astin (1996) also
emphasize the interaction of personal and environmental variables in determining the
adaptiveness of a given control strategy. The authors assert that negative outcomes
occur when one’s selected control strategy is a mismatch with the relevant environmental
circumstances. For example, research has found that primary control strategies, which
are characterized by attempts to change undesirable aspects of one’s circumstances
(Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder, 1982), may results in more positive outcomes when these
circumstances are actually amenable to change (Hall et al., 2006; Heckhausen, 1997).
Secondary control strategies, which emphasize changing one’s own perspective as a
means of coping with adversity (Rothbaum et al., 1982), may result in better outcomes

9
than primary control when it is difficult or impossible to alter external circumstances
(Hall et al., 2006; Heckhausen, 1997). Relinquished control is unique in that it involves
making no attempt to change the world or internal cognitive structures; rather, events are
experienced passively and no coping strategies are applied (Maier & Seligman, 1976;
Rothbaum et al., 1982). Relinquished control is often conceptualized as a precursor to
learned helplessness (Brown & Siegel, 1988; Dweck, 1975; Maier & Seligman, 1976;
Rothbaum et al., 1982).
Following Ogbu’s model, it is possible Latinos raised in the U.S are more likely
to exhibit relinquished control than immigrant Latinos. Because they hold a positive dual
frame of reference, Latino immigrants may be more willing than U.S-born Latinos to act
on their environment in order to foster changes conducive to overcoming their position in
the societal hierarchy. On the other hand, the negative dual frame of reference held by
U.S born Latinos renders them more likely than immigrant Latinos to perceive their
circumstances as immutable. As U.S born Latinos tend to view their societal position as a
permanent state, they may be less likely than recent immigrants to endorse the utility of
activities designed to change their circumstances. Consequently, they endorse
relinquished control as the result of perceived low social status.
Learned helplessness theory posits that negative life circumstances induce
relinquished control, which in turn leads to depressive symptomology (Maier &
Seligman, 1976). As such, I argue that the relationship between perceived discrimination
and depressive symptoms will be mediated by relinquished control. I also argue that the
relationship between perceived discrimination and academic performance will be

10
mediated by relinquished control. These relationships may vary between immigrants and
non-immigrants. Ogbu and Simons (1998) argue that voluntary minorities (e.g., Latino
immigrants) consider societal barriers such as racism to be temporary. As such, few
attempts are made to change the existing social system; rather, voluntary minorities
attempt to assimilate and work within the system. In contrast, involuntary minorities
believe that the consequences of discrimination are a formidable barrier. For involuntary
minorities, it is theorized that the cessation of attempts to change one’s standing in
society is often the result of protracted struggle toward advancement that ends in failure
(Ogbu & Simons, 1998). Therefore, I expect that the mediating effect of relinquished
control on depressive symptoms and academic achievement will be stronger for non-
immigrants than immigrants.
Current Study
The present study sought to 1) assess the relationship between perceived
discrimination and both depressive symptoms and academic achievement for Latino
adolescents, and 2) examine the influence of immigration status and control strategies on
the relationship between youth outcomes and depression. It was hypothesized that
perceived discrimination would be positively associated with depressive symptoms and
negatively associated with academic performance. I also hypothesized that relinquished
control would mediate the relationship between perceived discrimination and study
outcomes. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that the mediating the effects of
relinquished on the association between perceived discrimination and youth outcomes

11
would be moderated by participants’ immigration status; the mediating effect of
relinquished control was theorized to be stronger for non-immigrants than immigrants.
This study adds to the existing literature in several important ways. First, it is the
first study to examine relinquished control as a mediator of the relationship between
discrimination and depressive symptoms. Also, only one other known study utilizes
grade achievement as an outcome of discrimination in a primarily Latino adolescent
sample. In addition, no known research examines immigration status as a moderating
influence on mediation pathways associated with perceived discrimination. Thus, the
current study emphasizes the role of both cultural context and cognitive processes in
contributing to the effects of perceived discrimination.

12
Chapter 2: Methods
Participants and Procedures
Data were collected from 457 students enrolled in a Los Angeles high school.
The current study consists of data from the 395 students who self-identified as Latino.
Forty-eight percent were Mexican, 31% Salvadoran, 11% Guatemalan, 2% Honduran,
5% another ethnicity, and 3% multi-ethnic. Participants ranged in age from 13-18 years
old (M= 15.25, SD = 1.21). The sample was 51% female and 49% male. Fifty-eight
percent of participants were in ninth grade at the time of data collection, 8% in tenth
grade, 26% in eleventh grade, and 8% in 12
th
grade. Seventy-eight percent of the sample
was born in the U.S, and 22% was born outside of the U.S. Of those born outside of the
U.S (n = 94), 38% were born in Mexico, 30% in El Salvador, 17% in Guatemala, 5%
Honduras, and 3% another country. Ninety-six percent of participants reported that both
parents were immigrants to the United States. 47% reported having experienced
discrimination on the basis of race/ethnicity, 16% due to height or weight, 11% due to
age, 9% for another reason, 6% due to some aspect of their appearance besides height or
weight, 4% due to income level/social class, 4% due to religion, 3% due to age, and 1%
due to sexual orientation. Table 1 provides a summary of demographic characteristics.

13
TABLE 1. Demographic Variables of Study Population
% Mean (SD)
Age 15.25 (1.1)

Gender
Female 51
Male 49
Grade in High School
Ninth 58.0
Tenth 7.9
Eleventh 26.4
Twelfth 7.7

Born in the United States
Yes 77.4
No 22.6

Country of Origin for those not born in the USA:
Mexico 38.3
El Salvador 29.8
Guatemala 17
Honduras 5.3
Other 3.2
Parents’ Immigration Status
Both parents born outside of USA 95.6
One parent born outside of USA 2.1
Both parents born in USA 2.3
As most of the study population was under 18 at the time of data collection,
consent was obtained from participants’ parents. During elective class periods (e.g.,
physical education), study administrators provided students with consent forms to give to
their parents. Consent forms were provided in English and Spanish. Accompanying the
consent form was a letter that gave a basic explanation of the study and outlined
reimbursement procedures. The letter also provided study administrator contact

14
information and offered the parent the option of communicating with study personnel in
English or Spanish. A separate release of information form was used to obtain
permission for the acquisition of school records.
The youths completed assent forms that summarized the information provided in
the consent forms. Participants were informed that they had the option of declining to
participate, whether or not their parents had given consent. Participants completed 15
questionnaires assessing psychological adjustment, cultural background, and
demographic information. These questionnaires were collected as part of a larger study
on the effects of parent/youth cultural discrepancy on Latino depression and suicidality.
Of these questionnaires, a subset assessing demographics, perceived discrimination,
relinquished control, depressive symptoms, academic performance, and cultural factors
were used for the purposes of the current study.
Participants completed questionnaires during their homeroom class periods.
Undergraduate research assistants oversaw questionnaire administrations, and
participants were given 90 minutes to complete questionnaire packets. After they handed
in the packets, research assistants and the graduate student administrator reviewed them
to ensure completion and assess critical questions (from the depression and suicidality
measures) indicating participants’ intent to hurt themselves or others. Students who were
deemed to be at high risk for suicidal behavior were referred to the school’s Psychiatric
Social Worker, who had agreed to meet with referred students within 24 hours. Once
packets were handed in and checked for completion, participants were paid ten dollars.
Measures

15
Demographics. A demographics questionnaire was developed for the study to
obtain information regarding participant age, self-identified racial/ethnic background,
place of birth, and parental place of birth.
Depressive Symptoms. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale
(CES-D; Radloff, 1977) was used as a measure of depressive symptoms. The scale
consists of 20 items that assess symptoms of depression experienced during the past
week. The items are ordered on a four-point scale, with the lowest point indicating
“rarely or none of the time (less than one day)”, and the highest point indicating “most or
all of the time (5-7 days)”. Examples of scale items include “I felt that I could not shake
off the blues even with help from my family and friends”, “I had trouble keeping my
mind on what I was doing”, and “I felt lonely”. The reliability coefficient was .79.
In order to include a depression outcome measure that is tailored to adolescent
populations, The Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (RADS-2; Reynolds, 2002) was
also used to assess depressive symptoms. The sale is a 30-item measure that assesses the
frequency of various symptoms associated with depression, including hopelessness,
mood disturbances, and somatic discomfort. The questions are designed to identify
adolescents with significant depressive symptoms, and utilize a Likert scale format
whereby 1 = “rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day)” and 4 = “most of the time or all
of the time (5-7 days)”. Thus, higher scores are associated with higher levels of distress.
Sample items include “I feel lonely”, “ I get stomachaches”, and “I feel I am no good”.
Scores were averaged to yield a mean value. Coefficient alpha was .79.

16
Relinquished Control. Relinquished control was assessed using the Relinquished
Control subscale of the Primary-Secondary Control Questionnaire (PSQ). Developed by
Weisz (1992), sample items include “If I don’t like the way things are, I just have to live
with them” and “[w]hen things don’t go my way, I give up”. The ten-item scale utilizes a
four-point response scheme, with 1 indicating “very false” and 4 indicating “very true”.
Responses were averaged to yield a mean score. The internal reliability of the scale was
.82.
Academic Performance. Student academic performance was derived from
semester grades collected from transcripts provided by the high school. Each student
took between five and eight classes per term, and was assigned an A, B, C, D, or F grade
for each class. Only core academic classes (i.e., English, Science, Math, Social Science)
were included in study analyses. A’s were assigned a score of 4, B’s a score of 3, C’s a
score of 2, D’s a score of 1, and F’s a score of 0. Students’ scores were averaged together
to yield a grade point average ranging (GPA) from 0 to 4. The four-point GPA scale is a
standard measure of academic success, used both in educational settings and for research
purposes (Greene & Forster, 2003). GPA is correlated with indicators of future
educational achievement, including academic performance in college (Cohn et al., 2004;
McKenzie and Schweitzer, 2001), and is frequently utilized as one of many factors
determining entrance into post-secondary educational and vocational programs (Noble &
Sawyer, 2004; Camara & Echternacht, 2000).
Classes were designated as core courses using the Secondary School Taxonomy
(SST), the protocol utilized by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) for

17
the analysis of transcript data (Bradby & Hoachlander, 1998). The taxonomy organizes
high school courses into four overarching areas: academic, vocational, enrichment/other,
and special education. The academic, vocational, and enrichment areas are further
broken down into six, three, and four categories, respectively (Figure 1). The Specific
Labor Market Preparation subcategory of the Vocational area is further classified into 11
specific areas of study. For the present study, only classes included in the mathematics,
science, English, and social sciences categories of the academic area were analyzed. This
was done to increase the generalizability of study findings, as all students were required
to complete core academic courses in order to graduate. Furthermore, core academic
courses are often subject to more rigorous evaluation than elective coursework,
increasing the salience of the GPA as an indicator of academic performance.

FIGURE 1. The Secondary School Taxonomy
18

Participants also responded to the survey question, “[w]hat grades do you
typically get in school?”. Answers were provided using a five-point Likert scale,
whereby 1 = “mostly As” and 5 = “mostly Fs”. All responses were then reverse-coded,
so that a higher score reflects better academic performance.
Experiences of Discrimination. The Everyday Discrimination Scale (EDS;
Essed, 1991) tallies the frequency of participants’ encounters with negative
discriminatory experiences. Nine items are scored using a six-point Likert-type scale
(1=never, 6= almost every day), with an additional item allowing participants to specify
the reason for discrimination (available choices were ethnicity, gender, race, age,
religion, personal appearance, income level/social class, skin color, education level, hair
style, accent, or other). The nine scaled items were used for analyses in this paper. For
example, participants were asked to indicate how often “[y]ou are treated with less
respect than other people” and how often “[y]ou are threatened are harassed”. The
internal reliability coefficient for the scaled items was .89
Control variables. Because research on the effects of discrimination often
examines the contribution of cultural assimilation (e.g., Noh & Kaspar, 2003; Umaña-
Taylor & Updegraff, 2007), the Acculturation, Habits, and Interests Multicultural Scale
(AHIMSA; Unger et al., 2002) was used to determine whether acculturation warranted
inclusion as a control variable in regression analyses. The scale contains a total of eight
items assessing cultural preferences, for which four responses are possible: a) U.S; b)
country my family is from; c) both; or d) neither. A sample item is “the holidays I
celebrate are from. . .”. Response choices are tallied to yield four scale totals: 1)
19

20
Assimilation (number of “a” responses); 2) Separation (number of “b” responses); 3)
Integration (number of “c” responses); 4) Marginalization (number of “d” responses).
Thus, scores from each scale can range from 0 to 8. The assimilation scale was used for
this study as an index of acculturation to U.S society.
Parental education level was examined as an index of socio-economic status
(SES). Participants were asked to indicate the education level of their mother and their
father on a scale from 1 to 5, with 1 indicating “elementary to sixth grade” and 5 denoting
“college graduate or higher.” The two parents’ scores were then averaged to yield a mean
education score (Hollingshead, 1975). For students who only had education information
for one parent, the available parent’s score was weighted twice (Hollingshead, 1975).
Analyses
For each outcome variable, data analyses were performed in three steps. First, to
address hypotheses 1 and 2, a simple mediation model was tested. Next, immigration
status was tested as a moderator of the relationship between relinquished control and the
outcome variable. If a significant moderation effect was obtained, moderated mediation
analyses were performed to determine whether the mediation effect was conditional on
immigration status.
According to Baron and Kenny’s model, four criteria must be met in order to
establish that mediation has occurred. First, there must be a significant relationship
between the predictor variable (perceived discrimination) and the outcome variable
(depressive symptoms/ academic achievement). Second, there must be a relationship
between perceived discrimination and the mediator variable (relinquished control). Third,

21
a significant relationship must exist between relinquished control and youth outcomes.
Lastly, the relationship between discrimination and youth outcomes must weaken
significantly when relinquished control is included in a regression model (Baron &
Kenny, 1986). However, more recent literature has disputed the necessity of condition 1.
This is particularly relevant when the effect of the predictor on the mediator is temporally
distal. This may apply to discrimination outcomes, as experiences of discrimination are
assumed to have a cumulative effect on functioning. In addition, it is argued that the X
Y relationship may be subject to occlusion by unknown suppressors and undetected
random effects (Collins, Graham, & Flaherty, 1998; MacKinnon, Krull, & Lockwood,
2000; Shrout & Bolger, 2000). Kenny, Kashy, and Bolger (1998) updated Baron and
Kenny’s original framework, arguing that step 1 is no longer necessary to establishing
mediation.

FIGURE 2. Standard Mediation model (adapted from Baron & Kenny, 1986, p.1176).
The Sobel test of mediated effects tests the significance of the indirect effect ab
(Baron & Kenny, 1986). However, the Sobel test adopts an assumption that ab is
normally distributed. Preacher, Rucker, & Hayes (2007) have recommended

22
bootstrapping for testing mediation hypotheses, as the procedure adopts no assumptions
regarding the shape of the sampling distribution.
In bootstrapping mediation analyses, a sampling distribution of the indirect effect
is estimated by calculating the indirect effect ab in randomly generated subsamples of the
original dataset (Preacher et al., 2007). For each resample an indirect effect a
+
b
+
is
computed, a quantity derived from the resampled dataset rather than the original sample
(Preacher et al., 2007). This process is repeated K times, with K conventionally ranging
between 1000 and 5000 (Preacher et al., 2007). To test for the significance of the
mediation effect, the a
+
b
+
s are sorted from lowest to highest, and upper and lower bounds
of a 100(1-α)% confidence interval are established using the (α/2)kth and (1+(1-α/2))kth
values in the sorted distribution (Preacher et al., 2007). Because no symmetry assumption
is made when using bootstrapping analyses, these confidence intervals can be
asymmetric. The null hypothesis of no indirect effect is rejected if 0 lies outside of the
confidence interval (Preacher et al., 2007). To test the mediation hypotheses I used an
SPSS macro developed by Preacher et al. (2007) that estimates the indirect effect ab
using both the Sobel test and bootstrapping method.
Additional analyses were performed to examine whether the strength of the
mediating effect of fatalistic attitudes is moderated by participant immigration status. In
order to assess the moderated mediation hypotheses, it is first necessary to ascertain that
the relationship between relinquished control and youth outcomes is moderated by
immigration status. Moderation hypotheses were tested by regressing the outcome
variables on discrimination, immigration status, and a discrimination X immigration

23
status product term (Baron & Kenny, 1986). Dummy coding was used to assign the
value 1 to immigrants and 0 to non-immigrants. If the product term is significant, the
null hypothesis of no moderation effect is rejected, and moderated mediation analyses are
performed.
For the moderated mediation hypotheses, the conditional indirect effect is
quantified as a
1
(b
1
+ b
3
W) where W is the moderator variable quantity (0 or 1) and b
3
is
the coefficient for a moderator X mediator interaction term (Figure 3) (Preacher et al.,
2007). Thus, the indirect effect is hypothesized to vary as a function of the moderator
value. If the interaction term is significant, the null hypothesis of no moderated
mediation is rejected. Bootstrapping analyses may be applied to the conditional indirect
effect a
1
(b
1
+ b
3
W) using a procedure analogous to those described for the mediation
analyses. An SPSS macro that estimated moderated mediation effects using both
regression and bootstrapping procedures was utilized for moderated mediation analyses
(Preacher et al., 2007).

24

FIGURE 3. Moderated Mediation Model
Before statistical analyses were performed, the data were examined to identify
missing values and outliers. Excluding school transcripts, at least 90% of sample data
were available for all survey measures, and no systematic patterns of missingness were
detected. Therefore, listwise deletion procedures were used to address missing data,
whereby cases missing any of the variables included in the regression models were
deleted. Listwise deletion is the most widely utilized method for addressing missing
data in regression analyses.
Compared to the other study outcomes, a large segment of GPA data extracted
from school transcripts were missing (49%). This problem arose as a result of

25
administrative barriers to collecting records from the participating high school for the
entire sample. Multivariate analyses of variance tests for age, gender, parents’ mean
education level, and place of birth (U.S vs. outside of the U.S) were run to test for
differences between participants with grade data and participants without grade data.
Differences between groups were found in participant age (those for whom grades were
obtained were older) and immigration status (immigrants were overrepresented among
participants for whom school records were obtained). Therefore, a regression imputation
procedure was applied to generate the missing GPAs. Values for the missing data were
predicted by means of fitting a regression equation to the existing data. An error term is
added to the solution to account for assumed variance in the distribution. This error term
is randomly drawn from the distribution of residuals. The parameters from the imputed
dataset were used to yield a final estimate of the model parameters (Greenland & Finkle,
1995).

26
TABLE 2. Multivariate Effects for School Record Obtainment
Dependent Variable df df
error
F School Records Obtained M 95% CI
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Age 1 294 13.63* Yes 15 14.81 15.18
No 15.52 15.32 15.72
Gender 1 294 .39 Yes .50 -.43 .58

No .47 .38 .55
Parental Education Level 1 294 .002 Yes 2.35 2.20 2.51
No 2.35 2.18 2.52
Immigration Status 1 294 6.898* Yes .27 .21 .33
No .15 .08 .21

Note. Immigration status was dummy coded with U.S birth = 0 and birth outside of the U.S = 1. Gender
was dummy coded with female = 0 and male = 1.

* p < .05

27
Chapter 3: Results
Table 3 provides means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations for the study
variables. A significant correlation was found between perceived discrimination and
RADS depression, as well as between perceived discrimination and CES-D depression.
Perceived discrimination was also associated with GPA. Relinquished control was
positively associated with perceived discrimination, RADS depression, and CES-D
depression. Self-reported grades were significantly correlated with relinquished control,
both depression measures, and GPA. Immigration status was significantly correlated
with CES-D depression; immigrants had higher depression scores than non-immigrants.

TABLE 3. Descriptive Statistics and Study Variable Intercorrelations
Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. Perceived
Discrimination
19.48 9.29 -
2. Relinquished Control 2.06 .55 .14* -
3. Depressive Symptoms
(RADS-2)
1.94 .46 .42* .30* -
4. Depressive Symptoms
(CES-D)
.95 .52 .40* .28* .80* -
5. GPA 1.9 1.19 .12* -.01 -.01 -.01 -
6. Self-reported Typical
Grades
3.5 .94 -.02 -.18* -.18* -.15* .32* -
7. Immigration Status .22 .41 .04 .03 .05 .13* -.03 .07 -
8. Gender .49 .5 .08 -.07 -.20* -.18* -.07 -.08 -.08 -
9. Mean Parental Level 2.35 1.03 .02 -.08 -.14* -.12* -.01 -.06 -.03 .08 -
10. Assimilation 2.17 1.92 -.01 -.00 -.07 .05 -.00 -.07 -.21* .13* .20* -
Note. Immigration status was dummy coded with U.S birth = 0 and birth outside of the U.S = 1. Gender was dummy
coded with female = 0 and male = 1.

* p < .05
28
Assimilation scores, parental education level, and gender were included to
determine whether the variables should be included as covariates in subsequent
regression models. Assimilation was not significantly correlated with RADS depression,
CES-D depression, or discrimination, though assimilation was significantly correlated
with immigration status. Consequently, assimilation was not included in subsequent
analyses. Gender was associated with depressive symptoms and GPA; females were
more depressed, and males earned higher grades. Self-reported grades were not correlated
with assimilation scores, parental, education level, or gender. Parental education level
was positively correlated with RADS and CES-D depression. Based on these analyses,
parental education level and gender were included as covariates in all subsequent
regression analyses.
Mediation Analyses
Depressive Symptomology. Regression analyses found that perceived
discrimination predicted higher CES-D depression (Table 4). Perceived discrimination
also predicted relinquished control. Relinquished control was a significant predictor of
CES-D depression, and the relationship between perceived discrimination and CES-D
depression diminished when relinquished control was included in the model. A Sobel
test supported these results, as the indirect effect was found to differ significantly from 0.
In addition, 0 did not fall within the generated bootstrap confidence intervals. These
results indicate that relinquished control mediates the relationship between perceived
discrimination and CES-D depression (Figure 4).

29

30
TABLE 4. Tests of Relinquished Control as Mediator of the Relationship Between Discrimination and
CES-D Depression
Variable
β
SE t
Direct and total effects
Depression regressed on perceived discrimination .02 .003 8.19*
Relinquished control regressed on perceived discrimination .01 .003 2.62*
Depression regressed on relinquished control .16 .05 3.57*
Depression regressed on perceived discrimination,
controlling for relinquished control
.019 .002 7.75*
Partial effects of control variables on DV

β
SE t
Gender -.19 .05 -3.90
Parental education level .04 .02 -1.64
Indirect effect and significance using normal distribution
Value SE z p
Sobel .0014 .0007 2.12 .034
Bootstrap results for indirect effect (# of bootstrap resamples: 5000)
Value SE LL 95% CI UL 95% CI
.0014 .0007 .0003 .0029
Note. Immigration status was dummy coded with U.S birth = 0 and birth outside of the U.S = 1. Gender
was dummy coded with female = 0 and male = 1.

31

FIGURE 4. Test of mediation model in which the relationship between perceived discrimination and CES
depressive symptoms is mediated by relinquished control, controlling for gender and parental education
level. All relationships in the mediation model are significant. Sobel’s test and bootstrap methods yielded
a significant mediation effect.
Note. β for association between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms controlling for
relinquished control is in parentheses. Gender and parental education level are included as covariates in all
regression analyses. Immigration status was dummy coded with U.S birth = 0 and birth outside of the U.S
= 1. Gender was dummy coded with female = 0 and male = 1.

*β is significant at the <. 05 level.

The mediation model was also tested on RADS depression (Table 5). Perceived
discrimination was a significant predictor of RADS depression. Per the conditions of
mediation, relinquished control predicted RADS depression, and the relationship between
perceived discrimination and RADS depression attenuated when relinquished control was
added to the model (Figure 5). The Sobel mediation test yielded a significant indirect
effect. Bootstrap results confirmed the results of the Sobel test, as 0 did not fall within
with the 95% confidence interval around the indirect effect.

32
TABLE 5. Tests of Relinquished Control as Mediator of the Relationship Between Discrimination and
RADS Depression
Variable
β
SE t
Direct and total effects
Depression regressed on perceived discrimination .02 .002 8.33*
Relinquished control regressed on perceived discrimination .01 .003 2.62*
Depression regressed on relinquished control .16 .002 3.87*
Depression regressed on perceived discrimination, controlling
for relinquished control
.019 .002 8.33*
Partial effects of control variables on DV

β
SE t
Gender -.20 .04 -4.67*
Parental education level .04 .02 -1.94
Indirect effect and significance using normal distribution
Value SE z p
Sobel .0013 .0007 2.17 .029
Bootstrap results for indirect effect (# of bootstrap resamples: 5000)
Value SE LL 95% CI UL 95% CI
.0013 .0007 .002 .0028
Note. Immigration status was dummy coded with U.S birth = 0 and birth outside of the U.S = 1. Gender
was dummy coded with female = 0 and male = 1.

*p < .05

33

Figure 5. Test of mediation model in which the relationship between perceived discrimination and RADS
depressive symptoms is mediated by relinquished control, controlling for gender and parental education
level. All relationships in the mediation model are significant. Sobel’s test and bootstrap methods yielded
a significant mediation effect.

Note. β for association between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms controlling for
relinquished control is in parentheses. Gender and parental education level are included as covariates in all
regression analyses. Immigration status was dummy coded with U.S birth = 0 and birth outside of the U.S
= 1. Gender was dummy coded with female = 0 and male = 1.

*β is significant at the <. 05 level.

Academic Performance. Perceived discrimination significantly predicted GPA; a
positive relationship existed between the two variables. As reported earlier,
discrimination was also significantly associated with relinquished control. All four
regression models outlined by Baron and Kenny were significant (1986), but the
relationship between perceived discrimination and GPA increased when relinquished
control was controlled for in the ac pathway (Figure 7). Furthermore, a Sobel test failed
to reject the null hypothesis that ab = 0. Also, 0 fell within the bootstrap confidence
intervals. Thus, analyses performed on the GPA data did not yield significant mediation
results (Table 6).

34
TABLE 6. Tests of Relinquished Control as Mediator of the Relationship Between Discrimination and
GPA
Variable
β
SE t
Direct and total effects
GPA regressed on perceived discrimination .01 .007 2.78*
Relinquished control regressed on perceived discrimination .01 .003 3.43*
GPA regressed on relinquished control -.25 .11 -2.25*
GPA regressed on perceived discrimination, controlling for
relinquished control
.01 .01 .2.64*
Partial effects of control variables on DV

β
SE t
Gender -.21 .12 -1.78
Parental education level -.02 .06 -.32
Indirect effect and significance using normal distribution
Value SE z p
Sobel -.0025 .001 -1.88 .06
Bootstrap results for indirect effect (# of bootstrap resamples: 5000)
Value SE LL 95% CI UL 95% CI
-.0025 .002 -.006 -.0002
Note. Immigration status was dummy coded with U.S birth = 0 and birth outside of the U.S = 1. Gender
was dummy coded with female = 0 and male = 1.

*p < .05

35

Figure 6. Test of mediation model in which the relationship between perceived discrimination and GPA is
mediated by relinquished control, controlling for gender and parental education level. Regression analyses
failed to reject the null hypothesis of no indirect effect. Both the Sobel test and bootstrapping procedures
failed to detect a significant mediation effect.

Note. β for association between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms controlling for
relinquished control is in parentheses. Gender and parental education level includes as covariates in all
regression analyses. Immigration status was dummy coded with U.S birth = 0 and birth outside of the U.S
= 1. Gender was dummy coded with female = 0 and male = 1.

*β is significant at the <. 05 level.

These procedures were repeated with the self-report outcome measure (Table 7;
Figure 7). Perceived discrimination did not predict self-reported grades. However,
perceived discrimination was a significant predictor of relinquished control, and
relinquished predicted self-reported grades. The results of the Sobel test (z=-.33, p = .37)
did not indicate a significant indirect effect. However, bootstrap analyses found a
significant mediation effect; 0 was not within the 95% confidence interval for the indirect

36
TABLE 7. Tests of Relinquished Control as Mediator of the Relationship Between Discrimination and
Self-reported Grades
Variable
β
SE t
Direct and total effects
Grades regressed on perceived discrimination -.002 .01 -.47
Relinquished control regressed on perceived discrimination .01 .003 2.49*
Grades regressed on relinquished control -.27 .09 -2.73*
Grades regressed on perceived discrimination, controlling for
relinquished control
-.0006 .01 -.09
Partial effects of control variables on DV

β
SE t
Gender -.14 .11 -1.28
Parental education level -.08 .05 -1.70
Indirect effect and significance using normal distribution
Value SE z p
Sobel -.002 .001 -1.85 .06
Bootstrap results for indirect effect (# of bootstrap resamples: 5000)
Value SE LL 95% CI UL 95% CI
-.002 .0013 -.005 -.0002
Note. Immigration status was dummy coded with U.S birth = 0 and birth outside of the U.S = 1. Gender
was dummy coded with female = 0 and male = 1.

*p < .05

37

Figure 7. Test of mediation model in which the relationship between perceived discrimination and self-
reported grades is mediated by relinquished control, controlling for gender and parental education level.
Significant associations were obtained for the ab and bc mediation pathways. The Sobel test yielded a
marginally significant indirect effect. A significant mediation effect was found with bootstrapping
procedures.

Note. β for association between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms controlling for
relinquished control is in parentheses. Gender and parental education level are included as covariates in all
regression analyses. Immigration status was dummy coded with U.S birth = 0 and birth outside of the U.S
= 1. Gender was dummy coded with female = 0 and male = 1.

*β is significant at the <. 05 level.

Moderated Mediation Analyses
Depressive symptomology. Though moderation of the relationship between the IV
and DV moderation is not necessary for a moderated mediation hypothesis to be
interpretable, for the current study’s hypotheses it is necessary to ascertain that the
mediator outcome pathway is moderated in order to test for significance (Preacher,
Rucker, & Hayes, 2007). A regression model containing relinquished control,
immigration status, and the cross product of the two variables was performed to
determine whether the relationship between relinquished control and CES-D depression
differed by immigration status (Table 8). The immigration status X relinquished control

38
interaction term was not significant, indicating that immigration status does not moderate
the relationship between relinquished control and CES-D depression.
TABLE 8. Test of Immigration status as Moderator of the Relationship between Relinquished Control and
CES-D Depression
Variable
β
SE t
Constant 1.01 .04 25.34*
Relinquished control .13 .06 1.99*
Immigration Status .22 .06 3.89
Relinquished control x Immigration Status -.04 .10 -.34
Control Variables
Gender -.16 .05 -3.05*
Parental Education Level -.04 .03 -1.51
Note. Immigration status was dummy coded with U.S birth = 0 and birth outside of the U.S = 1. Gender
was dummy coded with female = 0 and male = 1.

*p < .05

In addition, a significant interaction was not detected for RADS depression (Table
9). Therefore, moderated mediation results for the depression outcomes are not reported,
as the conditional indirect effect is not interpretable without significant moderation of the
bc pathway.

39

TABLE 9. Test of Immigration status as Moderator of the Relationship between Relinquished Control and
RADS Depression
Variable
β
SE t
Constant 2.045 .03 57.70*
Relinquished control .005 .06 .09
Immigration Status .214 .05 4.14*
Relinquished control x Immigration Status -.016 .09 -.17
Control Variables
Gender -.18 .05 -3.80*
Parental Education Level -.042 .02 -1.79
Note. Immigration status was dummy coded with U.S birth = 0 and birth outside of the U.S = 1. Gender
was dummy coded with female = 0 and male = 1.

*p < .05

Results for the depression outcomes are graphically depicted in Figures 8 and 9.

FIGURE 8. Test of moderation model in which relationship between relinquished control and CES
depressive symptoms is moderated by immigration status, controlling for gender and parental education
level. No interaction effect was found, indicating that the regression slopes for U.S born Latinos and
immigrants did not differ significantly.

40

FIGURE 9. Test of moderation model in which relationship between relinquished control and RADS
depressive symptoms is moderated by immigration status, controlling for gender and parental education
level. No interaction effect was found, indicating that the regression slopes for U.S born Latinos and
immigrants did not differ significantly. Immigration status was dummy coded with U.S birth = 0 and birth
outside of the U.S = 1. Gender was dummy coded with female = 0 and male = 1.

Academic achievement. Because relinquished control did not mediate the
relationship between perceived discrimination and GPA, tests of the moderation pathway
required to confirm the study’s moderated moderation hypothesis for GPA were not
warranted. As robust analyses found a significant mediation effect for self-reported
grades, the relinquished control outcome pathway was tested for moderation by
immigration status (Table 10).

41
TABLE 10. Test of Immigration status as Moderator of the Relationship between Relinquished Control
and Self-reported Grades
Variable
β
SE t
Constant 3.554 .08 45.43*
Relinquished control -.299 .11 -2.61*
Immigration Status .142 .12 1.14
Relinquished control x Immigration Status .045 .20 .22
Control Variables
Gender -.08 .05 -1.61
Parental Education Level -.15 .10 -1.43
Note. Immigration status was dummy coded with U.S birth = 0 and birth outside of the U.S = 1. Gender
was dummy coded with female = 0 and male = 1.

*p < .05

The immigration status X control interaction term was not significant, and so the
null hypothesis was not rejected (Figure 10). Therefore, corresponding moderated
mediation analyses are not conducive to interpretation and so not reported.

42

FIGURE 10. Test of moderation model in which relationship between relinquished
control and self-reported grades is moderated by immigration status, controlling for
gender and parental education level. No interaction effect was found, indicating that the
regression slopes for U.S born Latinos and immigrants did not differ significantly.
Immigration status was dummy coded with U.S birth = 0 and birth outside of the U.S = 1.
Gender was dummy coded with female = 0 and male = 1.

43
Chapter 4: Discussion
This study examined the relationship between perceived discrimination and youth
outcomes for a sample of Latino adolescents. The study also examined relinquished
control as a mediator of these relationships. Learned helplessness theory posits that
repeated exposure to negative experiences results in the abandonment of control, which
in turn leads to symptoms of depression (Maier & Seligman, 1976). In addition to the
theoretical literature, depression has been empirically linked to both discrimination (e.g.,
Banks et al., 1997; Noh et al., 1999; Whitbeck et al., 2002) and perceived lack of control
(Ross & Mirowsky, 1989). Though few studies directly test the effect of perceived
discrimination on academic outcomes, there is limited evidence that perceived
discrimination is linked with poor academic performance (Stone & Han, 2005), and that
low perceived control results is associated with negative academic outcomes (Perry,
Hladkyj, Pekrun, & Pelletier, 2001). Therefore, it was hypothesized that perceived
discrimination would be positively linked with depressive symptoms and negatively
linked with academic achievement. I also hypothesized that relinquished control would
mediate these relationships.
Additional analyses were performed to explore whether the hypothesized
mediating effect varied as a function of immigration status. Both non-immigrant Latinos
and immigrant Latinos are theorized to exhibit relinquished control in response to
negative experiences with discrimination. Based on principles derived of Ogbu’s
cultural-ecological model, I also theorized that immigrants relinquish control in response
to societal barriers that are presumed temporary, while non-immigrants relinquish control

44
in response to failed attempts to overcome societal barriers (Ogbu, 1988). Therefore, the
mediating effects of relinquished control on the relationship between perceived
discrimination and youth outcomes were hypothesized to be stronger for non-immigrant
Latinos than for immigrant Latinos.
Several findings of interest were obtained from the current study. First, using two
distinct measures of depression, results showed that a positive relationship exists between
perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms. These findings echo those of
previous literature, which finds that discrimination yields negative outcomes for
measures of psychological distress in Latino populations (Araújo & Borrell, 2006;
Salgado de Snyder, 1987; Stuber, Galea, Ahern, Blaney, & Fuller, 2003). Moreover, the
present results showed that relinquished control mediated the relationship between
perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms.
Though a significant relationship was not found between perceived discrimination
and self-reported grades, a significant negative association was found between
discrimination and GPA. The methods by which these outcomes were derived may
explain this discrepancy. The self-report data required that participants indicate their
“typical” grades, while GPA is a precise measure calculated from objective data.
Consequently, GPA may be more representative of the participants’ true academic
performance. Furthermore, although mediation effects were not detected for GPA,
relinquished control mediated the relationship between perceived discrimination and self-
reported grades when bootstrap methods were applied. Though a significant relationship
was not found between perceived discrimination and self-reported grades, it is also

45
possible that the true relationship was occluded by undetected intervening pathways.
Current literature holds that mediation can occur without a significant predictor
outcome relationship (Kenny et al., 1998).
Moderated mediation analyses were proposed to determine whether the mediating
effects of relinquished control vary as a function of immigration status. However,
moderation of the relinquished control outcome pathway was not found for any of the
outcome variables, precluding interpretation of moderated mediation results (Preacher et
al., 2007; Muller, Judd, & Yzerbyt, 2005). It can tentatively be concluded that
immigration status does not moderate the mediating effects of relinquished control.
However, these results must be interpreted with caution, as immigrants and non-
immigrants were not equally represented in the sample, reducing power to detect
moderation effects (Pedhazur, 1997). In addition, as immigrant youths averaged 8.9
years time of residence in the U.S (SD = 5.41), it is possible that their cultural
experiences were not disparate enough from non-immigrant Latinos to yield significant
results for any of the studied outcomes.
These results support the argument that perceived discrimination has a negative
effect on Latino youth outcomes. Research indicates that perceived discrimination
creates feelings of hopelessness and disillusionment, resulting in negative mental health
outcomes for minorities (Williams & Mohammed, 2009). In addition, it has been
proposed that discrimination reinforces minorities’ relatively low status in the social
hierarchy, inducing notions of inferiority (Williams & Mohammed, 2009).
Discrimination experiences are also theorized to foster feelings of separation from the

46
larger society (Viruell-Fuentes, 2007). The current study found that the relationship
between discrimination and depression symptoms, as well as self-reported grades, was
partially explained by relinquished control. As such, it can be inferred that perceived
discrimination initiates a process of giving up on the prospect of changing adverse life
circumstances, which in turn results in compromised psychological functioning. While a
considerable theoretical knowledge base on the detrimental effects of discrimination has
existed for decades, the current study contributes to a growing body of empirical research
that demonstrates these effects.
Though various other studies have examined the effects of discrimination on
mental health and psychosocial adjustment, adult samples are studied in most research on
the effects of discrimination. However, given the salience of generational differences
regarding the mental health of Latinos (Finch, Kolody, & Vega, 2000), it is important to
examine the adjustment of Latino youth in the context of discriminatory experiences.
Also, though many studies examine the effects of discrimination on psychological
outcomes, research on the influence of discrimination on academic performance is rare.
The only known study to examine academic outcomes for adolescent Latinos focuses on
discrimination experienced in school settings specifically, rather than everyday
discrimination experiences (Stone & Hall, 2005). The present study provides novel
evidence of the potential influence of everyday discrimination experiences on the
academic performance of Latino youth. The implications of this research may extend to
efforts to enhance the academic performance and psychological adjustment of Latinos in
school settings. For example, though parents, school administrators, and students

47
traditionally are instructed to be aware of more commonly studied signs of psychosocial
stress (e.g., bullying, relational aggression) (Baldry & Farrington, 2007; Hunt 2007;
Pepler, Criag, Ziegler, & Charach, 1993), further intervention may be required to
encourage the detection and reporting of discrimination experiences.
Several limitations were encountered in the current research. First, it is important
to note that, though significant, most of the regression coefficients for the study outcomes
on discrimination in the study were small, as were the indirect effect sizes. Also,
because the study was conducted at a predominantly Latino high school, experiences of
racial/ethnic discrimination may not have been as salient for participants as might have
been the case were they part of a numerical minority.
This study opens various avenues for future inquiry. To begin with, the
discrimination measure assessed several different types of discrimination. Though
racial/ethnic discrimination was most frequently experienced, other cited sources of
discrimination included age, body type, and discrimination on the basis of one’s accent.
Source of discrimination should be examined as a moderator of the relationship between
perceived discrimination and Latino youth outcomes in future research. Also, few studies
on the effects of discrimination adopt a longitudinal focus (Brody et al., 2006; Brown et
al., 2000; Schulz et al., 2006). Such research lends support to the argument that
perceived discrimination is a predictor of poor mental health, rather than the perspective
that poor mental health acting is a trait factor that increases one’s propensity to perceive
discrimination. Thus, more studies should incorporate various assessment points to
examine how the effects of discrimination change over time. Because the Latino ethnic

48
group is diverse, research should examine whether the effects of discrimination on Latino
adjustment vary on the basis of cultural subgroup (e.g., Central vs. Southern American).
This study is the first to examine relinquished control as a mediator of the
relationship between discrimination and Latino youth outcomes. The construct of
relinquished control relates to the broader construct of fatalism, which implicates external
forces as the primary agent of change in one’s life and reflects a deterministic worldview.
Research has shown that Mexican Americans are more fatalistic than Whites, and
suggests that fatalism is associated with negative mental health outcomes among Latinos
(Ross, Mirowsky, & Cockerham, 1983). Future research should examine fatalism as a
mediator of the relationship between perceived discrimination and youth adjustment in
greater depth, as preliminary support for the influence of factors related to fatalism is
provided by the results of the current study. Also, there are outcomes particularly
relevant to Latino populations that were not examined in the current study, such as
suicidality. Latina women are more prone to suicidal behavior than women other ethnic
groups (Lester & Anderson, 1992; Roberts & Chen, 1995). Therefore, it is important to
assess the effects of discrimination on suicidality for Latina adolescents.
Conclusions
The results of this study support the hypothesis that discrimination has a negative
impact on Latino mental health. Though many areas of inquiry regarding the effects of
discrimination have yet to be explored, existing research provides mental health
providers, policymakers, and educators with knowledge that sheds light on a salient
stressor for Latino populations. Because little is understood of the mechanisms that link

49
discrimination to psychological distress, future research should continue to explore
psychological and cultural factors that influence these relationships. Only when the
detrimental effects of discrimination are acknowledged and understood can meaningful
work towards reducing its influence be accomplished.

50
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Abstract (if available)

Abstract Perceived discrimination has been linked to negative mental health outcomes in Latino populations. Most research on the effects of perceived discrimination, however, focuses on outcomes for adults. Using a sample of Latino adolescents, the current study aimed to examine the relationship between perceived discrimination and two indices of youth adjustment: depressive symptomology and academic performance. Moreover, to assess aspects of Ogbu’s cultural-ecological model, the mediating and moderating effects of relinquished control and immigration status, as well as moderated mediation, were tested. Results indicated that relinquished control mediates the relationship between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms. A negative association was found between perceived discrimination and GPA, though relinquished control did not mediate this relationship. Applying bootstrap mediation analyses, relinquished control mediated the relationship between perceived discrimination and self-reported grades. The moderated mediation hypotheses were not supported.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Chithambo, Taona Patricia (author)

Core Title Perceived discrimination and Latino youth adjustment: examining the influence of relinquished control and immigration status

School College of Letters, Arts and Sciences

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Psychology

Publication Date 12/11/2010

Defense Date 10/26/2010

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Adolescents,Discrimination,immigration,Latinos,OAI-PMH Harvest,perceived discrimination,relinquished control

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Huey, Stanley J., Jr. (committee chair), Farver, Jo Ann M. (committee member), Lopez, Steven (committee member)

Creator Email chithamb@usc.edu,tchithambo@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m3597

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