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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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The use of culturally relevant authentic materials and L1 in supporting second language literacy

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The use of culturally relevant authentic materials and L1 in supporting second language literacy

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Content THE USE OF CULTURALLY RELEVANT AUTHENTIC MATERIALS AND L1 IN SUPPORTING SECOND LANGUAGE LITERACY by Pik Kuan Angeline Chong A Thesis Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF SCIENCE (EDUCATION) May 2011 Copyright 2011 Pik Kuan Angeline Chong ii Acknowledgements I want to take this opportunity to thank my Chair, Dr Filback for pushing me to be a more eloquent writer and evolving learner. I want to thank Dr Carbone for your encouraging words, and engaging discussions, and Dr Mora‐Flores for presenting an excellent teacher’s perspective on this topic. I want to also thank all the participants of this study; Sí Se Puede! To my master teacher, Miss Hollingsworth, who taught me so many things in and outside of the classroom, I am so deeply grateful. I want to thank my family and friends for your prayers and patience. To my Savior Jesus, thank you for Your sustenance and strength. iii Table of Contents Acknowledgements ii List of Tables v Abstract vi Chapter 1 – Introduction 1 I. Statement of Problem 3 II. Purpose of Study 4 III. Study Design 5 IV. Assumptions and Limitations 6 IV. Research Question 6 V. Study’s Significance 7 Chapter 2‐ Review of Literature 9 I. Role of L1 in L2 Classroom 11 i. Views on Introducing L1 in the L2 Classroom 11 ii. Perception of L1 in the Classroom 14 iii. Benefits of L1 in the L2 Classroom 16 II. Reading Instruction 19 i. Reading Approaches: Top‐Down and Bottom‐Up 20 ii. Reading Approaches: Whole Language and Phonics 22 iii. Characteristics of Effective Readers and Texts 23 iv. Issues with Current Reading Programs 25 v. Reading within the ESL Context 26 III. Communicative Teaching Framework 32 IV. Instructional Materials 36 i. Authentic Materials 37 ii. Culturally Relevant Materials 43 V. Instructional Approach‐ Scaffolding 49 VI. Gap in Literature 55 VII. Conclusion 57 Chapter 3‐ Methods 59 I. Choosing a Design 59 II. Framework for Instruction: Formative Experiment 61 III. Setting and Participants 63 IV. Implementation 68 iv i. Materials 69 ii. Procedure 69 V. Data Collection and Analysis 74 VI. Limitation of Study 76 Chapter 4‐ Findings 78 I. Participation and Motivation 78 II. Student Achievement 83 III. Learner’s Perception of Effectiveness 91 IV. Student Performance by Reading Proficiency Level 96 Chapter 5‐ Discussion and Implications 98 I. Discussion of Findings 98 i. Student Participation 98 ii. Student Achievement 100 iii. Learner Perception of Effectiveness 101 II. Implications 103 III. Limitations and Challenges 108 IV. Conclusion 111 Bibliography 113 Appendices I. Appendix A‐ Negocios Part 1 124 II. Appendix B‐ Quiz 1 138 III. Appendix C‐ Negocios Part 2 140 IV. Appendix D‐ Quiz 2 153 V. Appendix E‐ Student Feedback Survey Form 155 VI. Appendix F‐ List of L1 words in Negocios 2 157 v List of Tables Table 1: Baseline and Intervention Schedule, per Period 73 Table 2: Comparison between grade received in the intervention (Quiz 2) And baseline (Quiz 1) 87 Table 3: Comparison between student score in the intervention (Q2) and baseline (Q1) 89 Table 4: Overall student achievement in intervention compared to baseline 90 Table 5: Comparison between student attempts of questions in Quiz 1(Q1) and Quiz 2 (Q2) 90 Table 6: Comparison of percentage of student attempts and success for extra credit in Q1 and Q2 91 vi Abstract Contrary to popular belief, most English Language Learners (ELLs) in the United States are native born, and this particular population is projected to make up 82% of the total American population in year 2050 (NCELA, 2006). A large achievement gap between ELLs and English speakers, however, has been identified, especially in urban districts, where reading and ELL student achievements tend to be low (Goldenberg, 2010). Presently, most ELLs are taught to decode the language by analyzing and identifying linguistic elements out of context. As a result, learners are less engaged and more detached about learning a language independent of meaning and relevant content (Goodlad, 1984). This study examined the use of reading materials that positively influence the achievement and classroom participation of native Spanish speaking English language learners (ELLs). A reading intervention was implemented in a sheltered ESL 3 (an equivalent to ninth grade English) classroom in a southwest urban school. This intervention addressed the extent to which culturally relevant authentic materials that incorporate learner’s native language (L1) increased student achievement and participation. The results and pedagogical implications are discussed in this paper. 1 Chapter 1 ‐ Introduction Mami shipped me and Rafa out to the camp every summer. She worked long hours at the chocolate factory and didn’t have the time or the energy to look after us during the months school was out. Rafa and I stayed with our tios, in a small wooden house just outside Ocoa; rosebushes blazed around the yard like compass points and the mango tree spread out deep blankets of shade where we could rest and play dominos, but the campo was nothing like our barrio in Santo Domingo. In the campo there was nothing to do, no one to see. (Diaz, 1996, p. 3‐ 4, italics mine) The paragraph above is taken from 2008 Pulitzer Prize winner Junot Diaz’ book, Drown. I was introduced to Diaz’s writings in 2009, having read The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao by chance. His writing caught my attention because I was having a difficult time learning Spanish as a foreign language‐‐ independent grammar lessons did not seem to support or advance my learning experience after a certain point. Having been a former English Language Learner (ELL) and a current Spanish‐as‐a‐foreign‐language student, I continually experience the difficulties of reading in another language. Yet through his book, I read and comprehended more Spanish words than regular grammar textbooks because they were interesting, relevant, and natural. The topic of incorporating a learner’s native or first language (L1) into second language (L2) reading materials is of particular interest to me as a teacher because I saw my foreign language learning experience reflected in other language learners, in a particular student population. I recently taught at an inner city high school in South Central Los Angeles as part of my M.S. TESOL practicum requirements, and I realized a 2 few critical but foundational aspects regarding reading instruction in secondary education. I was teaching a sheltered English as a Second Language (ESL) program for 9 th and 10 th grade Hispanic students who have been in the United States approximately one to two years, many of whom have never received formal English language instruction before. These 26 or so students were enrolled in an ESL class and mainstreamed simultaneously. The things I observed during my practicum experience were: • Recent immigrant ELL students are required to read the same types of English‐ written books as mainstreamed high school English Language Arts students. • Recent immigrant ELL students are required to process the text they are reading, and to demonstrate similar comprehension and analytical proficiency standards as students in English‐Language Arts. • They are required to fulfill certain number of Accelerated Reader (AR) points in order to pass the class. To do so, the general practice is that they would have to read a book of their choice, write a short summary about the book and take an AR‐related quiz. These observations are consistent with California Department of Education’s English‐ Language Development Standards for Public Schools (2009): All ELLs are expected to perform according to the English Language Arts standards, and beginner ELLs are equipped with skills to advance to higher level ESL classes that reflect exemplary 3 language proficiency. Learners are required to incorporate all four language skills in creating a distinct pathway to the introduction of reading in English. I also observed that a majority of students, regardless of their immigration status, struggle to read any type of text‐‐ academic or otherwise. However, I found that this occurrence is particularly evident in recent immigrant ELLs, who appear less motivated in their desire to read a book that is not written in their language and does not reflect their culture and background knowledge. Introducing a book that includes both their cultural identity and first language might appeal to a young learner’s intrinsic motivation to read, especially when the language is rich and plot used is natural, interesting and relevant (Maples, 1994). Statement of the Problem According to the National Research Council, mastery in reading skills is much more unlikely among three groups of learners: The poor, non‐Whites, and English Language Learners (ELLs) (Snow, Burns & Griffin, 1998). There exists a literacy gap because ELL students are required learn academic subjects and English simultaneously. Most of these ESL classes are operated exclusively in English; the learner’s L1 is placed on the backburner. This practice is driven by the pedagogical belief that an increase in language input will result in language acquisition (Harbord, 1992; Auerbach, 1993)). In addition, language is also taught through the phonics approach, where independent grammatical, punctuation and vocabulary skills (Richards &Rodgers, 2001), are emphasized. Thus, this 4 paper analyzed the complexities of teaching literacy to adolescents who, as recent immigrants, are still learning how to communicate in English, their second language (L2). This paper also explored the extent to which introducing culturally relevant authentic material that incorporates learner’s native language (L1), in occasional words and chunks will increase student motivation and achievement, supporting second language (L2) literacy. Purpose of this Study This study examined the effectiveness of a culturally relevant authentic material that incorporates L1, in increasing the level of student participation and student achievement. It also examined learner’s perception of the L1’s effectiveness in supporting reading comprehension. These beneficial outcomes were observed during class read‐aloud activities and quiz discussions, and in chapter‐specific quiz scores. Student perception was also examined through the use of a student‐feedback survey. Some key factors that were examined: Integration of L1 words and phrases into reading text, student motivation and participation, cultural identity, student interest and achievement, as well as reader‐text interaction and reading comprehension. The expected outcome of introducing culturally relevant authentic materials that incorporate learner’s L1 is increased student motivation in interacting with the particular reading text, because it acknowledged learner’s unique culture and affirmed the learner’s identity. Reader‐text interaction increases with the presence of L1 words 5 and phrases within the text, as this helps scaffold reading comprehension by providing contextual clues. The effect of increased student comprehension will be increased student participation and achievement. This result will have a cyclical effect, where each variable continually affects the level of the other. Study Design This study utilized the formative experiment design that focused on the qualitative measure in examining the effectiveness of this learning material to achieve our pedagogical goal: to support second language literacy through increased student participation and achievement. This study has allowed me to collaborate closely with the classroom teacher in implementing the intervention. I had also actively participated in the data collection, observations as well as modifications the intervention when deemed necessary. The intervention took place within a classroom setting, and data were collected through both the class teacher’s and researcher’s observations, test scores, group discussions, the quality of response and text analysis in the quiz, and student responses from the feedback survey. The study took place in a southwest urban high school, in a sheltered English as a Second Language (ESL) classroom. The participants are recent immigrants whose first language is Spanish. 6 Assumptions and Limitations This study operated under the assumption that the use of authentic materials is beneficial and uncontested by the majority of educators. Because of the unique nature of this intervention, the results garnered might not be applicable to other ESL school settings, as this intervention was implemented in a specific southwest urban high school. The limited sample size, student population and native language might restrict my ability to generalize the results and pedagogical material. The proposed effectiveness of this study’s learning materials might not transfer over to a different native language and culture. This study had also assumed that all ELL student participants possess at least elementary level L1 literacy knowledge, and have been exposed to a type of educational system prior to this intervention, when in reality, a small number of students had not received formal education in Spanish, thus were not able to participate completely during the intervention. Research Question The objective of this study is to address the following question and its sub‐parts: How does the introduction of culturally relevant authentic materials that incorporate occasional L1 words and chunk phrases result in a more effective L2 acquisition when used in place of comparable materials that do not incorporate L1? This main research question was further broken down into three parts: • How does this pedagogical practice increase student participation/motivation? 7 • How does this pedagogical practice increase student achievement? • What are the students’ perceptions on the use of L1 as being useful in helping reading comprehension? Study’s Significance The responses to the questions above will inform current and future language teachers in three specific areas: Materials selection and instruction, policy reform, and research on language teaching methodology. This study aims to assist educators in making informed decisions about choosing and using effective learning materials within a second language classroom. This information is pertinent to increase the motivation and achievement level of language learners. The results from this study can help practitioners make informed pedagogical decisions that will reflect in their literacy instruction because literacy success determines a learner’s academic success. However, this study acknowledged that there are other ways to increase student achievement, not merely through the use of authentic materials. This study seeks to encourage educators to conduct further research to develop new language materials for second/foreign language students and to improve current best teaching practices. This important topic of discussion is relevant to the English as a Foreign/Second Language (EFL/ESL) field because it aims to discuss the issue of incorporating L1 use in literacy and second language teaching. The benefits of teaching using culturally relevant 8 material is largely uncontested because, as is shown in the following literature review section, practitioners and theorists acknowledge the effectiveness of this specific learning material. However, even with the introduction of culturally relevant authentic material, students might not be able to sufficiently comprehend the reading content, especially when the materials are written completely in the target language. Thus, in addition to culturally relevant teaching materials, this paper examined the use of L1 in supporting L2 literacy, and its effectiveness in increasing student participation and learning achievement. 9 Chapter 2 ‐ Review of Literature In year 2008, there was a reported 1.5 million Limited English Proficiency (LEP) students within the state of California; one out of four students in the state do not speak English as their primary language (National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition, 2010). This number is rising as an increasing amount of native‐born English Language Learners (ELLs) in America are enrolled in both elementary and secondary education (Capps, Fix, Murray, et al., 2005). With the advent of educational bills such as Arizona’s HB 2281, increased research on the role of culture in instruction for ELLs is crucial. This bill prohibits the use of ethnically‐based programs that benefit or focus on one people group, or the support of ethnic solidarity rather than address students as individuals. Especially with the increase of immigrant minorities, which will account for 82% of the total Unites States population in the next 40 years (Pew Research Center, 2008), research highlighting the effectiveness of incorporating learner’s native language (L1) and cultural background to support second language (L2) acquisition is necessary. Language minority students have represented a significant underachieving population within the United States, which often results in an increased student dropout rate. In 2009, 43% of Latinos and 50% of Black students in the eighth grade tested below the basic math level, compared to the 17% of White students (National Center for Education Statistics, 2009). According to The National Center for Education Statistics (2008), the high school dropout rate for Latino/Hispanic students was 18.3% compared to a 4.8% for White students in 2008. 10 The purpose of this literature review is to examine the variables associated with introducing culturally relevant authentic materials that include occasional L1 words and phrases in an English as a Second Language (ESL) setting. The focus in this literature review is the use of L1 in an ESL or traditional classroom; issues in bilingual education will not be directly addressed. In order to further understand the effects of using the mother tongue to support second language literacy, current literature on the views of researchers, teachers and students concerning the role of L1 in L2 acquisition was reviewed. Literature addressing reading practices within the classroom was also reviewed, to examine the effectiveness of the top‐down and bottom‐up reading approaches, and to identify types of ESL reading models. The introduction of the role of L1 and reading instructions is essential, because the beliefs and benefits of the former, in addition to the shortcomings experienced in the latter helped create the foundation that informed a solution in which this study proposed. A review of both authentic and culturally relevant materials, as well as scaffolding and the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach conclude this literature review. The characteristics and benefits of both instructional approaches and materials were examined; the approaches are in line with the use of authentic materials. Unlike the use of L1 glosses that provide vocabulary definition or explanation alongside the text, the pedagogical material in this study incorporated L1 words and phrases within L2 reading text without the use of marginal or endnote translations. The topics reviewed in the following section support the practice of introducing culturally relevant authentic 11 materials that include L1 words as reading material for ELLs, as it has led to increased academic achievement among young urban immigrant language learners. The Role of L1 in the L2 Classroom The role of L1 in L2 acquisition has been a controversial subject in the area of language teaching. There exist proponents both for and against the use of L1 in an L2 classroom in the four skill areas: Reading, writing, listening and speaking. The views of both critics and advocates regarding L1 use in the classroom is reviewed, followed by the benefits of incorporating L1 in a second language classroom. Views on Introducing L1 in the L2 Classroom. Both teachers and students who are against using L1 in the L2 classroom believe that no trace of learner’s L1 should be found in the L2 environment for several reasons. Many teachers hold that the use of the learner’s native language will hinder L2 learning. This is evident with most linguists and language teachers, who believe that the use of L1 translation in reading comprehension exercises will result in L2 interference, and a failure to produce L2 accurately (Cook, 2001). This phenomenon is particularly evident when learners, whose native and target language share structural or lexical similarities (ie. Spanish and English), develop false cognates that critics believe foster and solidify language mistakes (Sánchez‐Casas & García‐Alba, 2005). Another area of concern for language teachers is that when the use of L1 is uncontrolled, it will decrease the maximization of L2 use in class (Nation, 1997; 12 Tang, 2002). Especially within the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), critics are concerned about the limited amount of target language input that learners are exposed to outside the classroom. Even within the context of ESL in the United States, most immigrant ESL learners leave the classroom and return to a largely monolingual setting that is dominated by the learner’s L1. Thus, critics argue the need for L2 to be spoken exclusively within the classroom without the hindrance of L1 (Harbord, 1992) to increase language input. In terms of the views of language learners, Baker (1996) states that some students who speak “lower status languages” tend to prefer reading the language of a higher status compared to that of a lower one. A study by Nazary (2008) explored 85 Iranian university student’s attitudes and perceptions toward incorporating L1 into the L2 classroom. Nazary (2008) utilizes Prodromou (2002)’s survey as the basis of this study. The results from Nazary’s survey were in contrast to that of Prodromou’s: Iranian university students were reluctant to use their L1 within the L2 classroom because they did not view it as important or effective. This perception of the L1’s inadequacy to support L2 acquisition is reflected in a learner’s perception of language status. According to Alexander (2001), many parents and teachers in post‐colonial Africa use their L1 to preserve their culture, but see no value in their native language for elevating the next generation’s status in society, or acquiring employment. Simply put, some students and their families may not support or value their L1 outside of social interactions. They associate their native language as worthy of maintaining in terms of 13 communication between family and community, but not developing for high‐status function use (Alexander, 2001). Those advocating for the use of L1 within the classroom, do so for a variety of reasons. They believe, for example, that learners will continue to utilize and transfer information from their target language into their native language while learning, because language is not an independent entity within the brain, but is related to other known language characteristics (Cook 2001). According to Auerbach (1993), beginner learners who are not able to express themselves fluently in their L2 will use their L1 inner speech to process ideas before speaking. They then transfer the cognitive content knowledge in their native language into the target language orally. A research by Butzcamm (2003) claimed that L1 has the potential to influence classroom and learning dynamics; learners are able to capitalize on the collection of L1 linguistic skills and word knowledge, thus allowing the learner’s native language to function as a support for defining vocabulary, instruction, and other language rules. MacKenzie (2003), in her study of rural Indian language learners, supports the view that children should learn to read in a language that they are familiar with, and classroom instructions should be in the mother tongue. According to her study, using the L1 has helped learners transition from their tribal language to India’s national and state languages. This supports Cummins (2000)’s claim that a learner’s heritage language helps develop conceptual knowledge in the target language. In an article by Goldenberg (2010), the National Literacy Panel (NLP) conducted five meta‐analyses that arrived at the same 14 conclusion: “learning to read in the home language promotes reading achievement in the second language” (p. 15). He goes on to mention that “no other area in educational research with which I am familiar with can claim five independent meta‐analysis based on experimental studies‐ much less five that converge on the same basic finding” (p. 15). This conclusion is worth noting, as it helps justify the importance of incorporating L1 into reading materials for language learners. Perception of L1 in the Classroom. In two studies involving English Language Learners, their perception towards the use of L1 in the classroom was explored. In a research done by Prodromou (2002), 300 Greek students were asked their perception on the use of L1 in a monolingual class. The three skill levels involved were: Beginner, intermediate and advanced. Almost all students in the beginner and intermediate level class affirmed their positive view towards using L1 in class, whereas only a handful of advanced students support this view. This conclusion supported the concept of using L1 in the beginner level L2 classroom, as it will be well received, and students who show favorable interest in the subject matter would be more inclined to participate in language learning. The same Greek students cited the following as instances when they found L1 useful: To explain difficult concepts, to avoid feeling lost, to feel more comfortable and confident, to check comprehension and to define new vocabulary items. Another similar study performed by Dujmovic (2007) examined the students’ perception on the use of L1 in L2 acquisition. His research concluded with positive 15 results from 100 EFL students as well. His study found that 100% of the students surveyed think that L1 should be used within the L2 classroom. Only 3% did not approve of their teacher using some L1 while teaching. More than 90% of students thought it were most necessary to use L1 in explaining complex grammatical usage and defining new vocabulary. However, the studies conducted above are merely subjective opinions from L2 learners. The teacher’s perception, which were not determined, are of paramount importance in addressing this issue because the teacher’s beliefs will guide the teaching techniques practiced in the L2 classroom. Studies by Burden (2001), Tang (2002) and Levine (2003) reveal that, like L2 learners, many educators do support the use of L1 in L2 classrooms as well. A study involving both EFL students and their 73 teachers from five different universities in Japan showed that both students and teachers acknowledged the importance of using L1 in explaining vocabulary, instruction, grammar instruction, comprehension check as well as to lower affective filter (Burden, 2001). Another research done within the Chinese context showed that appropriate yet judicious use of the L1 in an English classroom would support language teaching and learning (Tang, 2002). Within the context of an ESL setting, Levine (2003) concluded that the results were similar with that of the EFL setting: Teachers agree that both L1 and L2 help serve important learning functions within the classroom. 16 Overall, current literature on the role of L1 in L2 acquisition supported the use of learner’s native language in language teaching (Larsen‐Freeman, 2000; Nation, 2003). L1 can be extremely helpful to learners when used appropriately. Some benefits of using learner’s L1 are highlighted in the following section. Benefits of L1 in the L2 Classroom. As mentioned below, a learner’s native language plays an important role in a second language classroom. A learner’s L1 facilitates learning a second language, lowers learner anxiousness through familiarity, supports Negotiation of Meaning to aid target language comprehension and acknowledges the importance of learner’s cultural identity. L1 as a facilitator. According to Brown (2000), L1 is viewed as a facilitator and not an interferer in language teaching. According to Calderado (1998), the use of L1, especially translation skills, enables L2 learners to acquire a larger number of expressions, to identify style markers and to learn more about the L2 language structure to improve student achievement. The use of L1 should not be the main focus of the classroom, but used as a support tool to improve and promote successful L2 acquisition, through vocabulary and text comprehension, interpretation, and clarification (Cook 1991). In terms of the positive effects of L1 on L2 writing, Hamin and Majid (2006) have found that the writing performance of language learners improve when the use of L1 is allowed for generating ideas as it triggers background knowledge. L2 writers have been observed to possess a stronger affirmation toward writing in their target language, 17 producing better results in terms of organizations, and developing ideas and supporting details. Thus, it should be viewed as a guide and support for successful L2 writing (Kobayashi & Rinnert, 1992). These benefits may transfer over to the use of L1 in reading L2 materials. L1 lowers learner anxiousness. The use of L1 words helps lower the affective filter of L2 learners, because they are exposed to words that are familiar, and can use these words to increase comprehension of learning or reading materials through negotiation of meaning and text analysis. As Schweers (1999) suggests, the use of L1 in learning a second language validates learner life experience, culture and identity, which builds a sense of security, allowing them to express themselves with relative ease. L1 supports Negotiation of Meaning. L1 is used to help increase L2 comprehension by allowing text or language prediction through negotiation of meaning. According to Pica (1994), Negotiation of Meaning (NoM) consists of a joint effort that discourse participants make in terms of restructuring or modifying oral or written interaction to aid in difficult message comprehension. This is usually done through negotiation against the syntax, semantics, form modification or other features of the original message (Pica, 1994). In most cases, learners face problems with message comprehension when their level of language proficiency differs from that of the input (Van den Branden, 2000). According to Baker (2000), Cummins (2000) and Thomas and Collier (2002), when schools support the use of L1 within the L2 classroom, a learner’s ability to be bi or multilingual increases. Bilingual students possess a deeper 18 understanding of general language structures than monolingual learners. Intellectual development is not compromised by the use of L1; instead, the opposite has been shown. By incorporating both languages within the classroom, students learn to express rich thoughts and analysis, without the hindrance of language. Cummins (2000) argues that bilingual programs serve to promote literacy and academic knowledge through well‐implemented programs and do not negatively effect learner’s L2 development. L1 acknowledges the importance of learner’s cultural identity. In an educational program piloted by MacKenzie (2003) since the early 2000’s, the researcher found that the use of L1 is beneficial when learning English. This program introduced the implementation of Multilingual Education (MLE) among minority language communities in rural Indian communities, The study found that the use of L1 in the L2 classroom encourages learners to maintain their home language and culture, thereby allowing the local language and culture to be preserved. The study also found that when L1 is incorporated into the L2 classroom, parents of learners are more like to participate in their children’s education. The results from the study show that incorporating learners’ L1 presents a more effective education for minority language students, as this has decreased the rate of school dropouts. Accordingly, MacKenzie observed that tribal students, whose use of L1 is disallowed within the classroom, would more likely experience an identity crisis and an increased dropout rate. When students feel that their heritage language and culture are ignored within current education reforms, this might lead to complex issues like demoralization, alcohol abuse, and an increase in 19 crime and suicide rates (Malone, 2003). This perception of learner heritage language is correlated to the favorable view learners possess of their native language. The role of L1 in the L2 classroom has consistently been supported by advocates who point to the research outlined above. Results like increased language facilitation, negotiation of meaning, and decreased learner anxiousness have produced strong advocates. However, critics have also raised their concerns regarding the potential detriments that learners’ L1 can cause in L2 acquisition. Regardless, this subject continues to be a dividing factor among language instructors today. The role of L1 within the classroom is frequently discussed within the context of listening and speaking skills. This literature review examined reading instructions in both the mainstream and ESL classroom in the section below. Reading Instruction An abundance of literature reviews and meta‐analyses have been carried out to examine which reading strategies contribute to the greatest increase in reading ability and comprehension (Block & Duffy, 2008; Duke & Pearson, 2002; Graesser, 2007; NICHD, 2000). Current reading methods practiced in schools across the nation have experienced its fair share of change, according to the preference of the zeitgeist of the time. These basal reading programs and materials, reflecting that of the dominant education trends, have served a prominent role in deciding and providing reading instruction and content in the United States (Smith, 1986). For example, during the 20 1970s, skills instruction, the use of worksheets and criterion‐referenced tests were the programs in extensive use, being influenced by the then popular skills‐management system. Following that, authentic materials became the driving force in the 1990s and core reading programs adopted reading content and instruction based off children’s literature (Dewitz, Jones, & Leahy, 2009). The most recent core reading programs being practiced are influenced strongly by the passing of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act as well as the Reading First mandate, which stress phonemic awareness and phonics that include comprehension strategies like prediction, summarizing, evaluating, narrating, monitoring and self‐questioning (Dewitz, Jones & Leahy, 2009). These strategies have been validated by a number of research studies on reading comprehension instruction in the 1980s to the 1990s (Duke & Pearson, 2002), panel reports like National Institute of Child Health and Human Development [NICHD] and the RAND study group. According to a survey done by Education Market Research (2007), 73.2% of schools state that they do use a basal reading program, either closely or selectively. Twenty five percent of schools reported a diversion/divergence from this program. Basal reading programs determine the literacy instruction practiced in schools; thus, a closer look at the two primary approaches that have influenced reading instruction nationwide will help inform practitioners of the field’s best practices. Reading Approaches: Top‐Down and Bottom‐Up Approaches. Sanabria et al. (2009) identified two cognitive skills required for effective reading: Sub‐lexical skills and 21 lexical skills. Both these skills are viewed upon as opposites of one another. Sub‐lexical reading, known as the bottom‐up approach, associates individual or groups of characters with sounds, is data driven, text bound, and relies heavily on linguistic information (Celce‐Murcia & Olshtain 2000). It sees the progression from a sensory input stage to comprehension (p 119). This skill requires knowledge of reading skills and strategies, as well as skill sets like punctuation, grammar, and vocabulary. The bottom‐ up approach focuses on highly sequential, organized, direct and predictable reading skills—conditions that appeal to analytical learners (Carbo, 1995). However, it can be unsuitable for students who are not meticulous learners, who would not benefit much from this approach (Carbo, 1995). Lexical reading, on the other hand, supports the acquisition of words and phrases without focusing on individual or groups of characters. Instead, it uses the top‐ down approach. This approach requires incoming information to be interpreted continuously as hypotheses change, and focuses on the reader’s knowledge of text interpretation. It is concept driven, thus encourages learners to look at the big picture. This skill requires that learners utilize both content (prior knowledge) and function (knowledge of conventions) schemata and the awareness of the reading purpose. The top‐down approach takes a holistic look at teaching reading. Teachers use literature and high‐interest stories to attract the learner’s attention. However, because the top‐down approach is facilitated more organically compared to it’s opponent, students who are used to a systematic teaching style will feel this approach to be ineffective (Carbo, 22 1995). These approaches have been used extensively to inform two prevalent reading instruction currently in use: whole language and phonics. These strategies mirror that of the top‐down and bottom‐up approach respectively, and are reviewed below. Reading Approaches: Whole language and Phonics. The two dominant strategies that shape reading instruction are whole language and phonics (Brooks & Brooks, 2005). Whole language instruction is defined as a language acquisition approach that is learner centered, where students learn actively through integrative language (Heald‐Taylor, 1989). Learning activities require that students interact with learning materials through reading, oral responses, questioning, problem solving, and other skill‐ building activities (Church, 1996). Instructors utilizing the whole language approach plan lessons accordingly to allow learners independent and collective engagement with the text (Church, 1996). Critics of this approach question its effectiveness to address more technical aspects of language like vocabulary and grammar. These functions are not ignored, but are taught within context. In contrast to what is previously understood, whole language values phonemics, grammar and vocabulary, and encourages learners to engage texts through reading and writing rather than isolated exercises (Heald‐ Taylor, 1989), facilitating the reading growth in learners. However, the use of this approach has declined in recent years (Brooks, & Brooks, 2005). Phonics instruction, which is gaining popularity within the field of reading instruction, provides learners with the understanding that phonemes and graphemes— 23 pronunciation of letters in the written language—have a predictable relationship. Because of this, phonics asserts that language should be learned in a sequential and organized manner (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001). Learners show their ability to recognize phonemes by identifying letters and their corresponding sounds, through which they identify rhyme, onset sounds and syllables (Armbruster, 2001). Phonics instructors planned lessons that include sets of letter‐sound relationships organized in a logical sequence (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001). The degree in which instructors employ this approach to teaching reading varies; some use it as a systematic and comprehensive approach for reading itself, whereas some see it as an integral part of a larger reading program. Critics insist that phonics is not a method, but rather, an essential part of reading instruction (Heilman, 1985). Supporters of this approach claimed that research showed an increase in achievement for learners who receive phonics and decoding reading instruction, compared to meaning‐based instruction (Eldredge, 2004). Teachers have remained divided regarding teaching instructions for reading comprehension; neither the whole language or phonics instruction alone has proven to be truly effective or fail‐safe (Brooks & Brooks, 2005). Characteristics of Effective Readers and Texts. According to Celce‐ Murcia and Olshtain (2000), an effective reader is guided by metacognition—they are explicitly aware of the genre, the purpose and the specific skills required to effectively understand and analyze the text. Metacognition has subset skills: the ability to set goals, 24 and to monitor and regulate learner behavior to either proceed with the current strategy or make necessary adjustments to achieve these goals. Apart from metacognition, effective readers will also activate prior knowledge, and use surrounding sentences (co‐text) to interpret the text. They can decode rapidly through the use of the bottom‐up approach. Accordingly, in order to create effective readers, appropriate reading programs must be practiced in school. Teachers should encourage independent reading opportunities within a variety of content areas, and model negotiated interaction with the text (Celce‐Murcia & Olshtain, 2000). To do so, reading activities have to target linguistic knowledge so students recognize vocabulary, syntax and graphic representation, along with discourse and sociocultural knowledge, which include cohesion and features of writing conventions (Celce‐Murcia & Olshtain, 2000). These language elements, along with prior knowledge, should be the primary pillars of reading content. An effective text, on the other hand, has to contain two characteristics: Coherence and cohesion (Celce‐Murcia & Olshtain, 2000). To formulate a coherent text, the author’s claim should follow a logical format that is culturally acceptable (p.125). Cohesion relates to linguistic competence, and consists of transitions, topic sentences and thesis statements that help connect the author’s ideas together in an organized and structured manner. The review of these skills and elements in mainstream language learning can help inform practitioners of effective ESL reading instruction. 25 Issues with Current Reading Programs. A study by Dewitz, Jones and Leahy (2009) aimed to compare the amount of reading instruction in primary comprehension research studies, to the amount and duration of instruction provided within the five core reading programs currently practiced in the United States, as identified by the Educational Market Research Group (www.ed‐market research.com). These five reading programs are: Scott Foresman Reading, McGraw Hill Reading, Harcourt Trophies, SRA Open Court, and Houghton Mifflin Reading. The skills and strategies implemented in these programs were informed by Durkin (1981), who conducted one of the earliest and most influential core reading program studies in the early 1980s. In her study, Durkin (1981) determined skills and strategies that helped produce effective readers in children, and concluded that teachers should emphasize on direct explanation, modeling, guided practice with further modeling, and finally questioning and independent practice. The study by Dewitz, Jones, & Leahy (2009) observed that the current, top five basal reading programs practiced in middle schools across the nation (grades 3‐5) either do not build upon the skills Durkin had identified, or that they superficially address these skills. This was because attempts to cover a variety of skills and strategies within a limited one‐year timeframe make it difficult for teachers to focus on any one learning skill. Curricula in the current basal reading programs also introduce more skills and strategies than what research has recommended. The National Reading Panel has endorsed seven strategies and multiple strategy instructions yet these core programs attempt to introduce 18‐29 skills and strategies 26 annually. Although almost all foundational skills like phonics and decoding are taught, these skills are often divided into smaller units and skill sets, leaving language teachers and learners to reconstruct these smaller components into a coherent whole. With this in mind, educators might question the effectiveness of using the phonics method in teaching language, as it not only focuses on teaching smaller skill sets independently, but requires a longer amount of instruction time. The whole language method might be more beneficial, as authentic materials provide both content and linguistic knowledge simultaneously. Because these current reading programs may carry significant impact on student achievement, the results from Dewitz, Jones, & Leahy (2009) lead researchers to question if national literacy programs are indeed addressing and fulfilling the need of creating a fully literate society that includes both Native and Non‐Native English speakers. The following section examined current ESL reading models practiced nationwide. Reading within the ESL context. According to California’s Board of Education (1999), monolingual English speaking students would have mastered the basic English language syntax and possessed a 2000 to 8000 word vocabulary by the time they enter first grade. In contrast, most ELLs entering California public schools have limited or no knowledge of English syntax, phonemes or vocabulary. Reviewing research on L1 literacy methods and approaches will help inform the ESL field regarding L2 reading theory and instruction. The understanding of what fluent L1 readers do will guide ESL 27 instructors on deciding appropriate techniques to steer ELLs to developing a natural, fluent reading process (Grabe, 1991). The choice of literacy instruction will depend on the ELL’s native and target language. Learners who are literate in their L1 will experience a smoother transition when introduced to higher level reading skills in the target language. But for learners who have not had the opportunity to receive rich input from an English environment, or especially for younger immigrants who are not L1‐literate, these learners need to be taught a lower grade level English Language Development (ELD) literacy. The ELD standards were created to determine the skills that English learners must meet in order to advance as proficient English Language Arts students (Pang & Kamil, 2004). The question of whether young immigrant ELLs should be educated to read and write in both their native and target languages is beyond the scope of this study. This section of the literature review examined the four primary reading models currently practiced in the second language classroom. It then introduces reading instruction in the context of the Communicative Language Teaching approach that informed the reading instruction of this study. ESL Reading Models. According to Pang and Kamil (2004), there are four prevailing reading models within the L2 classroom: The L2 threshold model, knowledge transfer model, interdependency model, and a modified interdependency model. The first and most common reading instruction emphasizes on developing L2 oral proficiency and listening skills before introducing L2 learners to literacy (Pang & Kamil, 2004). This approach is based on the same method for teaching reading in the 28 learner’s L1‐‐ oral reading is first emphasized, decoded, and mapped on to the young learner’s oral language before literacy is taught. In essence, this approach assumes that learners need the support of their L2 oral proficiency before acquiring L2 literacy. This method is seen mostly within L2 elementary classrooms, where emphasis is placed on oral and listening skills, with the absence of L2 literacy (Durgonoglu, 1998). In the State of California’s English Language Development Curriculum Framework (2002, reposted June 2009), rather than delay the introduction to L2 literacy, ELD standards integrate all four language skills that lead to reading instruction in English. However, because of the different ability levels of ELLs, ELD standards also address the issue of learners whom, upon entering California schools, are not literate in their L1. Within the context of L2 learners who are L1 illiterate, basic L2 language literacy, which include phonemic awareness, print and decoding skills, will be taught prior to the standard ELD method (p. 12). The knowledge transfer model supports simultaneous L1 and L2 language teaching. This model believes that teaching learners L1 literacy and content as they acquire second language skills will help them develop cognitively. Learners are exposed to conceptual and content knowledge in their L1 as they acquire the target language. Once L2 proficiency is developed, concepts in L1 are transferred through language instruction (Chamot & O’Malley, 1996). This approach is usually used in late exit bilingual education programs, and mirrors the previous model, because L2 oral 29 proficiency is used as the main condition for excusing a student from receiving mandatory ESL support. The third reading model operates under the assumption that a learner’s L1 and L2 are interdependent; literacy instruction includes both L1 and L2 with bilingualism as the language goal (Bernhardt & Kamil, 1995). The Interdependency Model allows both languages to be used within the classroom because they lead to increased academic achievement for ELLs. The model recognizes the importance of the learner’s L1 and culture, which strengthens learner’s self‐concept and achievement (Lambert, 1974). In their analysis of learners from both middle and low‐income homes, Thomas and Collier (1997) concluded that two‐way bilingual programs are more likely to result in long‐term academic success. The fourth approach is a modified version of the interdependency model, which allows teachers to develop L2 literacy through explicit and systematic instruction in reading skills based on learner’s knowledge, bilingual ability and L1 literacy skill. Bilingual readers use cross‐linguistic strategies like cognate recognition, translation and code‐switching to decode text (Jimenez, Garcia, et at., 1996). These skills, along with focused and contextualized instruction, need to be explicitly taught to ELLs. In sum, learner’s L1 literacy knowledge is utilized as a resource to support L2 acquisition (Jimenez, Garcia, & Pearson, 1996). The implementation of these reading practices vary from state to state, according to the teacher’s instructional and material preference, and a learner’s 30 language proficiency in both L1 and L2. Three out of the four reading models acknowledge the importance of using learner’s L1 to complement L2 acquisition through providing explicit or implicit support in reading comprehension. However, the most widely used reading model does not incorporate literacy in early L2 acquisition. Instead, it suggests that acquiring oral proficiency is necessary before introducing language literacy. A number of research studies performed in the last 30 years have also suggested that the use of phonics is more relevant and effective as a reading instruction tool compared to the whole language approach. Nevertheless, the section below has highlighted studies that support the use of the whole language approach to increase student achievement and participation through incorporating culturally relevant authentic materials and a mixture of current ESL reading models. Reading practices in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). Canale and Swain’s (1980) model of communicative competence views grammar as a component of communicative efficiency (Celce‐Murcia, 1991). Reading practices that mirror the Communicative Language Teaching method strive to teach language within the context of increasing communicative competency in an L2 learner. According to Savignon (2000), the principles of CLT are not exclusively for oral communication, and can be applied to reading and writing; the approach focuses on learners’ communicative needs and learner autonomy. It also supports Negotiation of Meaning. The CLT method focuses on both form and meaning (Savignon, 2000). Reading texts used in CLT are valuable as learning 31 material and as natural discourse for high school L2 learners because they model natural communicative syntax. Pedagogically, the needs and desires of learners should be considered as they pertain to reading instruction, because the fulfillment of learner’s preference will not only lead to improved reading competency, but will promote the desire to read (Bruton & Marks, 2004). In a research conducted by Bruton and Marks (2004), student perception on the wants and needs of reading were studied within two different foreign language contexts (language and location). The researchers explored the connection between a perceived language learner’s reading wants and needs across two languages and learning contexts, as opposed to the conventional focus on learner perception on reading materials. Learners were recruited from both American (where Spanish is the foreign language) and Spanish (where English is the foreign language) high schools. Each group was given two questionnaires in their native language, to assess a learner’s time spent in obligatory foreign language reading and their perceived wants and needs. Learners were then asked to list different types of reading materials in order of those frequently read. Teachers were also interviewed to establish their overall perception of learner’s reading. The results found that an overall perceived wants outweighed perceived needs in reading for both English and Spanish foreign language learner groups. The research found that the most accessible reading for both groups were in their L1. An interesting fact observed from the data collected is that when asked to list materials that learners frequently read, 90% of EFL learners chose “songs,” because it 32 was useful as a topic of discussion with other classmates. Of the same group of students, 50% listed popular magazines and advertisements as other desirable reading materials. Similarly, Spanish foreign language learners shared the same priorities in terms of highest‐ranking “wants.” Although the intention of this study was to examine the perceived wants and needs of foreign language learners, data on frequently read materials revealed what students deemed was the purpose of learning a foreign language: Students desire reading materials that will help them communicate and connect with other speakers. The knowledge that educators have about appropriate materials and teaching instruction will help determine the success of language learners. Approaches to language instruction vary from one teacher to the next. The instruction of choice is mainly driven by a teacher’s belief regarding the most effective method of language teaching and their awareness of the best practices in the field of second language teaching. Communicative Language Teaching Framework Current second language teaching has evolved from a methods‐governed era to a post‐ methods era. Increasingly, rather than one specific method of language teaching method dominating the field, teachers use a combination of methods and approaches that are tailored to specific learner needs and are flexible enough to undergo necessary adaptation (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). The use of culturally relevant authentic materials, however, primarily reflects the principles of the Communicative Language 33 Teaching (CLT) approach. The definition of this approach is one that “pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language” (Littlewood, 1981: 1, referenced in Richards & Rodgers, 2001). The characteristics of this approach helped guide the choice of learning material used in this study. Hymes’ (1972) view of communicative competency is when a learner acquires the knowledge and ability to communicate effectively in a community, through the use of all four aspects of language skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking. His view supports the use of culturally authentic materials within the classroom, and fulfills what Richards and Rodgers (2001) deem are characteristics of CLT instruction: 1. Language is a tool used to express meaning. 2. Language functions as a medium through which interaction and communication is expressed 3. Language is made up of functional and communicative uses. 4. Authentic discourse exemplifies the true meaning of functional and communicative features of language. According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), CLT encourages the production of language that is meaningful, which supports the learner’s ability to learn effectively. Language is acquired through natural communication, not rote memorization or isolated language skill practice. Language is acquired when the target language is used in real 34 communication; the learned system of grammatical knowledge serves as additional support to monitor the acquired language. Language teachers should focus on developing two main aspects within language learners: Cognitive and behavioral. According to Littlewood (1984), the cognitive aspect allows learners to internalize grammatical rules, vocabulary selection and social conventions that direct speech. The behavioral aspect is the manifestation of what is learned: The transference of language knowledge into practice (Littlewood, 1984). In other words, language learners need to see that the aspects of language they learn in the classroom are being used in everyday life. A more comprehensive set of foundational characteristics of the CLT approach by Johnson and Johnson (1981) support the use of authentic materials within the classroom: 1. Appropriateness: Language should reflect the context in which it is used, and must be appropriate to its setting, purpose, and speaker roles. Authentic materials reflect the appropriate use of language because they contain natural discourse that provide real language use. 2. Message focus: Learners need to be equipped to create and comprehend learning content, which is taught around a lesson theme. Discrete elements of language within the authentic material will not be the focus of the lesson, but it’s supplement. The theme is then transferred to activities that follow learning instructions through information sharing. 35 3. Psycholinguistic processing: In addition to content comprehension, L2 learners need to engage in cognitive processing as well. 4. Risk Taking: Learners are encouraged to make guesses and predictions about the material’s content, and learn from their errors through group interaction and the teacher’s guidance. 5. Free Practice: Learners are encouraged to practice holistic learning, whereby a variety of sub‐skills are used simultaneously, rather than individually, during L2 acquisition. L2 learners are encouraged to process all stages of linguistic input from authentic texts congruently. This language processing complexity mirrors the true expectation of natural discourse and reflects the learner’s current and potential language learning level. Critics have raised the idea that implementing all skills simultaneously may hinder the progress of learners because of unreasonable expectations; however, students have been shown to benefit from more exposure to high‐level academic content than what their language abilities predict (Callahan, 2005). Teachers who set high expectations for their recent immigrant ESL students will introduce “cognitively challenging content that is relevant and potentially useful for (their) students… which is aimed at developing the students’ mind, and not merely their language (ability or) knowledge” (Barrera, as quoted by Jimenez et al., 1999, p. 225). The combination of both complex language processing and a challenging content serves as an authentic representation of the real function of language, and learners are to benefit from this challenging curriculum. The 36 characteristics and benefits of using authentic materials in the classroom are examined in the following section. Instructional Materials In current ESL classrooms within the United States, public high school students are mainly taught the language ‘decoding’ approach because, as previously mentioned, the phonics approach has been shown to increase student achievement. This approach focuses on independent and separate grammatical, punctuation and vocabulary skills (Richards &Rodgers, 2001), leaving out more important factors like the purpose and relevance of learning. There have been occasional references to authentic material within this practice; however, the phonics method practiced within reading instruction rarely includes the use of whole language and authentic materials (Carbo, 1995). There has been great debate between supporters and critics from both sides, yet presently, educators have settled on teaching language as a science, using formulas and rules, introducing texts whose main focus is on discrete language skills, that do not incorporate authentic experience or cultural recognition (Li & Zhang, 2004). This practice of teaching phonics to beginner readers has especially prevalent throughout the beginning of the early 1990s until today, as results from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2000) assessments of effective reading instruction points to the use of phonics as one of the most effective practices within the United Sates. However, advocates maintain their belief of the effectiveness of the whole language approach by 37 aligning it to meaningful learning, emphasizing students’ interpretations to fulfill the language’s purpose, through the use of authentic materials (Dewits, Jones, & Leahly, 2009; Goodman, 1993). Authentic Materials. Authentic literature‐based instruction strives to use authentic materials to introduce language elements or form in the classroom. An authentic material is defined as any text that was created to fulfill social purpose within a community (Lee, 1995; Little, Devitt & Singleton, 1989). Based on this definition, materials like novels, newspaper, magazines, recipe books and shopping advertisements intended for the target audience will be considered authentic materials. Literature‐based instruction strives to use what Long and Ross (1993) have defined as the function of authentic materials: To help bridge the gap between learning language form and functions through the use of authentic discourse. There are two main points that challenge the general consensus of using authentic materials within the language classroom. One of the disadvantages of using this material is identifying the appropriate language level that is beneficial for all learners (Richards, 2001). Thus, teachers need to spend a considerable amount of time searching for appropriate authentic texts that are both suitable for and interesting to learners. This adds to the increasing responsibilities that teachers face daily. Another disadvantage is that authentic materials are often biased because they are written based on the hegemonic culture (Martines, 2002). Because most language learners are unable to 38 connect to the target culture presented in books, authentic materials might increase a learner’s affective filter‐‐ the learner now has to process both a foreign language and culture. Without possessing shared knowledge or cultural relevancy, authentic materials might not increase student motivation as they does not fulfill student’s needs to see themselves reflected in the learning materials. Benefits of Authentic Materials. As reviewed below, some of the benefits of using authentic materials are: increases learner comprehension, provides natural language and increases student motivation. Increases Comprehension. Authentic materials increase comprehension of learning materials. Krashen (2004)’s Comprehension Hypothesis claims that language is acquired when the content is understood; in other words, when the content is relevant and the reading purpose is made known, language acquisition will naturally occur. The English‐Language Development Standards for California Public Schools acknowledges the importance of literature‐based instruction when it states that, “reading comprehension and literary response and analysis are the two pathways of the English Language Development standards that will lead to mastery of the academic content… (p. 52).” Accordingly, Rosenblatt (2004)’s reader response theory explains that text comprehension is not found “ready‐made ‘in’ the text, but happens or comes into being during the transaction between reader and text” (p. 1369). Literature‐based instruction utilizes Rosenblatt’s theory by allowing learners to talk, ask questions and make personal 39 connections through their interaction with the texts (Rosenblatt, 1978). In return, learners grow as strong readers (Elsea, 2001), are able to provide stronger text recalls (Morrow, 1992), predictions, literature evaluations and connections to the world (Eeds & Wells, 1989). Authentic materials support literary comprehension and analysis because it fulfills its natural function as a language, instead of introducing language as artificial and discrete elements. The Input Hypothesis Theory states that authentic materials are more comprehensible, and therefore have a greater communicative value compared to simplified or independent texts (Krashen, 1981 & 1985). Within the realm of academic language use, Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) suggests that teachers should introduce language that is context‐related through authentic materials, and not simplified language (Cummins, 1981). Through authentic materials, learners are also able to demonstrate the ability to use the knowledge of phonics cues and reading strategies (Dahl & Freppon, 1995). In a research done by Arya et al. (2005), 100 second‐grade learners’ were divided into a literature‐based group, and commercial phonics‐based group. The learners’ comprehension of reading materials and strategies were examined using miscue analysis procedures by Goodman, Watson, and Burke (1987). Learners were audiotaped reading aloud, and data were derived from these read‐aloud sessions to determine the miscue percentages and retelling ability of learners. Before the study was conducted, learners were told to read in a manner that was consistent to when they were reading alone. 40 Recalling materials were two‐part: learners were first asked to recall without interruption, and then according to questions provided by the teacher. The aim of the study was to examine learner’s proficiency regarding the integration of language cues (syntactic, semantic, phonics, etc), reading strategies (prediction, self‐correction) and comprehension (analysis of cohesion and logical sequencing). The results indicated that learners in the literature‐based classroom used multiple cues to comprehend the texts, learned phonics within a meaningful context and focused on constructing meaning through reading strategies, corrections and recalls when immersed in a literacy‐rich environment. In contrast, the study found that learners in the commercial‐based program, which emphasized systematic and explicit phonic instruction, did not show significantly better performance compared to the literature‐ based group; in fact, these learners were statistically less willing to take risks, accepting instead to read meaningless texts. These learners also read controlled texts and relied on graphophonics, answered questions with a single correct answer instead of multiple divergent answers. In comparison, learners in the literature‐based program were interacting with the text, immersed in rich discussion and attempted to make sense of the text, occasionally focusing on graphophonic cues but not relying solely on this reading component. These learners were able to process both the surface and deeper aspects of language, and were thus able to grasp text and word level meaning, allowing them to develop into independent readers. 41 Provides Natural Language. Through literature‐based instruction, students are exposed to a broader range of grammatical constructs that are generally used in natural discourse and provide real examples (Larsen‐Freeman, 2002), including normal redundancy that present learners with familiar language chunks used (Crandall, 1995). Because of the authentic nature of these learning materials, students are exposed to a vocabulary that is both rich and natural. In a study by Ivey and Broaddus, the researchers noted in a research log (dated April 26, 2004) the progress of one student which, in his participation with this study, not only read fluently, but comprehend the material well. Each sentence he read was concluded with the meaning of the last word. The study found how important repeated exposure is toward building learner fluency and vocabulary, using words in multiple contexts, but without the monotony of drills (p 530). When producing their own independent writing, learners can reflect the variety of literary features acquired through authentic materials (Long, 1987). Authentic materials also contain a large number of cohesive devices that increase the cogency of these texts, making them easier to decode and comprehend compared to simplified or stand‐alone texts (Phillips & Shettlesworth, 1988). A cohesive‐tie, which is a natural part of authentic discourse, is a vital tool used in processing information and building reading comprehension skills in L2 learners (Cowan, 1976). In a study by Oller (2005), the researcher advocates the use of “pi” bootstrapping‐‐ a hypothesis which suggest that comprehension and acquisition of the ability to refer to content material and construct highly complex target form are essential in learning a new language. This 42 theory proves the validity of authentic materials used in L2 acquisition, through providing different sentence structures to subjects, who identified certain sentences through logical sequencing, thus increasing comprehensibility. “…Measures of priming effects, reading times, coherent rating and retention all confirm the prediction of the pi – bootstrapping hypothesis: The more coherent the storyline, (language) is processed more fluently and remembered better than less well‐connected sequence” (p 105). Increases Student Motivation to Learn. Learners are more motivated to read and learn when language is used in an authentic setting, because they see the importance of learning the language that helps meet their social needs, and to succeed academically (Snow, Met and Genesee, 1989). Especially for English Language Learners (ELLs), language skills need to be introduced alongside academic content, in order to ensure the achievement of fluency before learners lose interest or slip into resignation. Literature‐ based instruction not only helps familiarize learners with the subject matter, but more importantly, allows them to use English to communicate the content matter (Mohan, 1986). Students’ motivation level increases when they see the language in which they are learning reflected in daily conversation between family, friends and in school. The practice of using literature‐based instruction in the classroom has received favorable response: Educators agree that teaching a language using authentic materials is academically sound (Baumann, Hoffman, Duffy‐Hester, &Ro, 2000). Authentic material supports increased comprehension of texts through the use of authentic language input, 43 and fulfills social and academic purpose. However, the authenticity of the materials might not serve the needs of students if the materials, which represent realistic communication, ignore or do not reflect the issues of the learners’ culture (Jiminez et al., 1999). Teaching a second language might require more than just authentic materials in addressing the educational needs of immigrant language learners; incorporating culturally relevant materials will be an additional aspect within authentic materials that might be necessary to increase student achievement and participation. Culturally Relevant Materials. Culturally relevant texts contain the aspect of cultural diversity and shared experiences set by its characters that reflect the lives and identities of its readers (Feger, 2006). Because language and cultural identity are inseparable (De Leon, 2002), opportunities for learners to explore bilingual and bicultural identities in reading materials are crucial for literary success. In the book Teaching through Culture, the author, Webster defines culturally relevant literature as text that reflects an accurate and respectful representation of the learners themselves (2002). This reflection encourages and fosters reading engagement (Ada, 2003). It highlights important cultural, historical and political contexts for reading comprehension, and draws on learner’s funds of knowledge (Moll, Gonzales, & Amanti, 2005) based on prior knowledge, life experience and linguistic practices of learners and their communities. Benefits of Culturally Relevant Materials. There are many benefits to using culturally relevant materials in the classroom, and these benefits are discussed below. 44 Culturally relevant materials promote learning relevancy, learning enjoyment and help learners activate prior knowledge when interacting with reading materials. Promote Learning Relevancy. Culturally relevant authentic materials address the issue of learning relevancy. As opposed to the conventional method of learning English, where students memorize grammatical structures and vocabulary definitions, readers who find their own life experience reflected in authentic, learning materials receive affirmation of themselves and their culture. They develop a sense of self‐worth, which in turn establishes their desire to learn the language in which the text was written (Bieger, 1995). Young learners whose culture and beliefs are excluded from books and literature learn that they have no part as valued members of a society (Bishop, 1987). The National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning (Tharp & Yamauchi, 1994) released a study entitled the Pacific Northwest Indian Reading and Language Development Program. It was create to develop a culturally relevant reading curriculum for first through third grade learners. The teachers had transcribed oral stories told by Native American students and used these stories as reading texts. Researchers observed that there was an increase in students’ oral language production and language complexity when compared to the study’s baseline. Data and observations collected throughout the academic year revealed that gains were most noticeable within the group of learners who, through pre‐test scores, were identified as “non‐verbals.” The benefits of using culturally relevant materials also extend into the home environment of the learners, where parents viewed the materials 45 as useful and relevant, thus increasing language‐related activities in the home. This supports Butterfield (1983)’s claim that culturally appropriate curriculum for American Indian students does affect students’ language learning, as learners receive support both in school and at home. In another formative experiment investigating literacy engagement among Latino youth by Ivey and Broaddus (2007), the researchers used the Language Experience Approach (LEA) to study seventh and eighth grade immigrant students in a diverse urban school setting, who are classified as Level I emergent readers and writers. Students in Level I cannot read or comprehend first‐grade level English comfortably. The students were exposed to both self‐selected and teacher‐directed reading. The researchers observed the range and diverse texts that students selected, many of which reflected the students’ home cultures. There were also some bilingual picture books and some simple, basic English‐only books. The students’ self‐selected choices support the claim that when left on their own, children generally choose literature that is familiar and reflects their own home culture (Rudman, 1984). Over time, the researchers and teacher modified the reading lesson’s text by creating different categories of text materials based on the students’ preference. The researchers then assessed student comprehension, language development and engagement through classroom observations, student interviews, teacher‐researcher debriefing sessions, students’ reading and writing products, reading logs and researchers’ notes, and reflections on time spent in reading activities with individual students. The study concluded that 46 selecting appropriate reading materials is important to increase reading engagement. The types of engaging materials varied according to each student’s motivation to learn and their life experience. However, one aspect remains the same: L2 learners “need to be exposed to a wider range of culturally relevant materials that both resonate with their own experience and are comprehensible to them as they develop their knowledge of a new language” (p 530). This conclusion mirrors that of Freeman’s (2000) research results. The researcher compared a group of ESL students’ ability to recall both native and target culture‐based books that were read during the study. She found that students were able to produce better information recall with culturally relevant material compared to that of the target culture’s story. This finding suggests that there is a strong correlation between the introduction of culturally relevant materials from a learner’s home country and higher learning outcomes, compared to introducing learning materials from a foreign culture. Promotes Learning Enjoyment. Culturally relevant educational materials also focus on the issue of learning enjoyment, which is connected to the issue of student motivation and persistency in language acquisition. Lightbrown and Spada (1994) conducted a study on elementary ESL students in Quebec, and found that students rated stimulating and entertaining materials as higher in enjoyment value (as cited by Weary 1987). The long‐term effect, as noted by Lightbrown and Spada (1994) was that this favorable disposition resulted in a significant increase in the probability of the English language being used after class and outside the academic sphere (p. 569). Similarly, 47 students who enjoy the process of learning will be less likely to suffer mental exhaustion and more inclined to embrace learning a second language if they are being taught with materials that they can enjoy, which is authentic and culturally relevant. In another study done by Green (1993), 263 Puerto Rican students in their final semester of an intermediate English as a Second Language (ESL) course were given a course‐related questionnaire that described 17 probable activities in an ESL classroom. They were asked to rate these questions on a five‐point scale, denoting the students’ perception of an activity’s effectiveness and enjoyment. The results revealed that, with only one exception, communicative activities were rated as more enjoyable and pleasant compared to non‐communicative ones like grammar rules and language forms. Data from the questionnaire showed that there is a moderate to high positive correlation between enjoyment and effectiveness in all cases; however, learners also acknowledged the effectiveness of some less enjoyable, non‐communicative activities. Nonetheless, enjoyment will ensure a continual effort and commitment to learning, regardless of the success or struggle in which learners face, because achievement is not the motivational drive in conditioning this behavior, but enjoyment is. Activates Prior Knowledge. Culturally relevant books have the potential to engage and to activate students’ prior knowledge about familiar experiences (Jimenez, 1999). As they tap into the learners’ funds of knowledge, their affective filter is lowered (Moll & Gonzales, 1994). This is because beginner language learners do not have to be concerned about establishing background knowledge in the subject matter. This 48 decreases a learner’s level of anxiousness, and also allows learners more freedom to focus on language forms (Krashen, 1982). In addition to culturally relevant book, students might be introduced to books that depict their home and family life. This practice of introducing culturally relevant books can be seen in African American literature, whereby books that tell of the African American history and culture, written by its own people, have been incorporated as a part of the curriculum to enhance not only the students’ learning experience, but also to cater to the learner’s need and desire of being culturally relevant and historically sound (Griffin, 2004). In knowing that their cultural history is not overlooked or forgotten, African Americans are able to reflect and reconnect to their past, but more importantly, they are able to highlight their progression to the current post‐Civil Rights generation, who thirst for a reflection of themselves in literature (Griffin, 2004). By extending the same practice to other cultural groups, language learners can continue expanding their expertise in their native language while developing reading and writing skills in their second language. Current literature and research regarding the use of authentic and culturally relevant materials predict better learning outcomes in language learners. This is because these materials promote learning relevancy and enjoyment through activating learner’s prior knowledge and acknowledging the importance of a learner’s cultural identity, while simultaneously increasing learner’s comprehension through natural language usage. An 49 appropriate approach in teaching reading to language learners is through the use of scaffolding. This instructional method is reviewed below. Instructional Approach ‐ Scaffolding Practitioners acknowledge that the use of materials alone is not an effective way of teaching, but the combination of both appropriate materials and instructional approaches might be able to positively affect students’ learning behavior. This combination should address the current and future needs of language learners. The concept of scaffolding as an important instructional approach, followed by its effectiveness, is discussed in the succeeding section. Scaffolding is a part of Vygotsky’s (1978) Social Cultural Theory that emphasizes active learning and collaboration. Language instructors offer learning support by providing a temporary structure to facilitate the process of knowledge construction (Chi et al, 2001). Students actively engage in their own learning process, and participate in collaborative learning. This idea is explained further by the theory of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). A learner’s ZPD is the gap between which a learner maintains their current, actual developmental level as opposed to their potential developmental level. This theory attempts to explain the role of a more knowledgeable other (MKO) assisting the learner in achieving a higher level of knowledge that they would otherwise be unsuccessful at independently. The MKO can take the form of a peer or a teacher. A common form of textual scaffolding support can range from the use of multimedia read‐ 50 aloud programs, to simply using the dictionary for additional information to support text comprehension (Strangman & Dalton, 2005). Scaffolding takes on many forms, be it through the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO), recommended readings, phrases, questions or even the dictionary (Jiminez, Garcia, & Pearson, 1996). However, according to Proctor, Dalton and Grisham (2007), ELLs also draw on bilingual‐specific strategies like translation and cognate awareness, suggesting that these learners deal with a larger array of scaffolding strategies when faced with difficult reading materials, as compared to their monolingual counterparts. ELLs should also use their native language (L1) in order to further vocabulary development. New vocabulary needs to be introduced within context and when connected to natural discourse, so that language is taught within a meaningful context (Texas Dept. of Education). Accordingly, reading should taught in a manner that enhances the language learner’s ability to decode unfamiliar words through the use of co‐text, also known as scaffolding, as this will expedite a learner’s ability to comprehend the subject matter (Texas Dept. of Education). Scaffolding is extremely useful in learning and its benefits are reviewed in the following section. Benefits of Scaffolding. The technique of scaffolding is used by teachers to help students develop learning autonomy through active and collaborative learning. Learner autonomy will eventually lead to an increase in student motivation. Encourages learner autonomy. The main aim of scaffolding is that students learn how to regulate and control their own learning and performance, referred to as “self‐ regulated learning” (Zimmerman, 2001). Self‐ regulation is developed through 51 metacognition, or conscious learning (Holton & Clark, 2006). The ultimate goal of learning is to produce learners who are capable of self‐scaffolding. The ability to translate the process of assisted learning and performance into independent learning is difficult but necessary, because this reflects a learner’s internalized motivation and leads to a proactive attitude, one that is free from external influence. To assist students in developing this skill, teachers should strive to use non‐directive instruction and scaffolding techniques frequently. Scaffolding instruction goes beyond merely providing opportunities for critical thinking but requires learners to be actively engaged, motivated and mentally ready to learn (McCaslin & Hickey 2001). A study by Cotterall (1990) found four aspects of scaffolding that assisted beginner level readers in comprehending academic texts within their ZPD. They are: Questioning, summarizing, clarifying and predicting. Learners were given reading comprehension strategies that modeled extensive, authentically contextualized texts. They were also given cues on adopting these strategies into independent learning, followed by opportunities to practice and to receive immediate feedback from the teacher. The findings of this study indicated that learners, when guided by the teacher, had a higher text comprehension and were able to benefit from this activity because they developed self‐monitoring skills that transferred over to other areas of learning. Scaffolding, according to Benson (2001), approaches the issue of student autonomy not simply with a ‘sink or swim’ mentality, but demonstrates its effectiveness through implicit and explicit scaffolding techniques that help learners develop decision‐ 52 making skills. Scaffolding aims to instill a sense of responsibility and ownership within its learner by allowing them to make independent learning choices. To better foster learner autonomy, students are exposed to discourse tools within scaffolding that assists learners in transferring formal learning techniques to shape their independent learning. These discourse tools would focus on task purpose and objectives, problems faced and possible solutions (Crabbe, 1993). The main feature of learner autonomy, in which scaffolding plays a pivotal role, is the extent to which learning materials and tasks can mirror independent learning strategies. Leads to Increased Student Empowerment. Scaffolding is associated with active and collaborative learning, as well as student motivation (Chi et al, 2001). One feature of scaffolding, as described by Puntambeker & Hubscher (2005) is that it is always “dialogic and interactive” (p.3). Learners participate actively throughout the learning task, allowing the teacher (or MKO) to monitor the learner’s progress and provide support and feedback (Puntambeker & Hubscher, 2005). Cognitive scaffolding provides learners with structural support in generating ideas and making revisions, allowing learners to actively participate in their own learning environment through pair or group collaborations. According to Cromley and Azevedo (2005), cognitive scaffolding supports learning through the use of open‐ended questions, hints or fill‐in‐the blank prompts, examples and even a task breakdown. In the same way, motivational scaffolding supports the increase of student engagement and learner self‐confidence (Thompson, 2009) by providing specific and timely feedback (Cromley & Azevedo, 2005). Through 53 increased task participation, learners are able to practice specific skills, which help increase student self‐esteem, especially when they reflect positively in learner achievement. Scaffolding also suggests active engagement in a learner’s self‐reflection and goal‐setting. It is a powerful way to enhance reading comprehension and writing through providing sufficient learning support (Englert, Raphael, Anderson & Stevens, 1991) such as modeling, question‐dialogue, and reading strategies. With such support, learners eventually develop the ability to self‐assess and to set appropriate goals independently (Lipson & Wixson, 1997). This leads learners to feel empowered within their own learning process. Leads to Increased Learner Motivation. Thompson (2009) conducted a microanalysis study concerning the technique of scaffolding at Auburn University’s writing center, by observing and recording a pair of students (tutor and tutee) within a writing center conference. The learner (tutee) discussed a writing assignment draft with the tutor in a session that lasted 28 minutes. Through observations, tutor feedback and a critical analysis of the video recordings, the researcher concluded that learner participation and discussion increased as the tutor began using cognitive and motivational scaffolding strategies to assist the learner in developing and editing her draft. The tutor began by allowing the learner to set an agenda as the first step of encouraging the learner’s active participation. The tutor then limited the possibility of errors committed by narrowing the student’s choices, thereby promoting the successful completion of the task. Throughout the session, the tutor used directive, non‐directive 54 and instructional scaffolding. Directive scaffolding includes providing alternatives or hints to assist the tutee; non‐directive scaffolding would include pumping for elaboration or further explanation, whereas instructional scaffolding includes explicitly informing the tutee of different ways to improve. The initial sense of accomplishment that the learner experienced increased her active participation and discussion as the conference progressed. This occurrence is supported by Hynd, Holschuh and Nist (2000), who claim that small steps of success will increase a learner’s motivation to further develop their performance. A study by Rodriguez‐Valls (2007) introduced the term “Zone of Cultural Comfort,” a variation of Vygotky (1930)’s Zone of Proximal Development, whereby all participants (students, teachers, parents) can help one another reach a higher level of cultural and linguistic understanding through the use of culturally relevant authentic materials. All participants assume the role of the More Knowledgeable Other and enrich others through sharing personal experiences. In order to solidify this ZCC, Rodriguez‐Valls conducted a study where Hispanic immigrant students, their families and the class teacher engaged in analyzing culturally relevant poetry by Mexican‐American authors such as Sandra Cisneros and Juan Felipe Herrera. Their poems highlight themes such as immigration and issues faced while growing up bicultural. Students were then asked to compose their own poems that reflect the themes of those they have read. From the results, students were observed to be more forceful and empowered when reciting personally crafted poems. They were also observed using a richer and more critical 55 vocabulary and word choice compared to previous written assignments. Rodriguez‐Valls concluded that teachers can empower their learners when critical literacy (Freire, 1970) is introduced, where the main characters in the learning texts reflect the struggles that the learners had to suffer, in order for them to find classroom dialogue relevant. Lessons and activities like these are successful, especially within a second language classroom, because they emphasize language acquisition through communication, thus establishing the true purpose of language learning. Gap in Literature After reviewing the current perception of L1 within L2 acquisition, past and current reading methods as well as materials and methods that can best address the needs of the growing ESL population in the United States, a gap within the literature has been identified. Available literature has insufficiently addressed the effects of culturally relevant authentic materials that incorporate L1 words and phrases to support L2 literacy. Addressing this gap might assist language instructors to prepare purposeful and relevant English language instruction. Current reading programs practiced in mainstream classrooms have shaped research performed on reading programs in the field of second language acquisition. The L1 reading process has undergone extensive research and progress due to the stability of its subject population, and the advancement of the field of cognitive psychology (Grabe, 1991). In comparison, L2 reading instruction seems to lack research, because of the fluid nature of participations 56 and circumstantial variables that add to the convergence of the results (Grabe, 1991). However, because research on L1 reading programs informs the views of L2 reading, current reading instructions practiced in ESL classrooms might not address the specific cultural and motivational needs of language learners, nor the use of L1 within the classroom. A vast amount of literature supports the role of L1 within the L2 classroom when compared to that of the opposing view. The use of L1 in L2 classrooms usually focuses on speaking and listening skills. Little has been written about the role of L1 in L2 literacy acquisition, particularly the idea of incorporating L1 words within reading texts. There has also been little discussion on the appropriate amount of L1 used to support optimum L2 acquisition, or the suitable language level for the implementation of specific L1‐inclusion programs. Within the literature on scaffolding, the most common emphasis is on two interlocutors, one being the MKO (the teacher, a more knowledgeable peer, etc) and the other, the learner. Available literature focus largely on bilingual teachers, dictionaries and the use of technology to provide L1 support in the L2 classroom; literature on other existing mediums that might be as or more effective was lacking. Current studies have also not attempted to measure the level of student‐ text interaction using learner’s L1 as a form of scaffolding to increase learning comprehension. With that in mind, there has been limited exploration in literature based on the different ways scaffolding can occur outside this form—in specific, the use of L1 chunks 57 and phrases to help facilitate language acquisition, reading comprehension and increased motivation. The purpose of this research was to study the effects of introducing culturally relevant authentic texts that incorporate L1 chunks and phrases to support second language acquisition. Conclusion Teaching a second language is as complicated as learning one. Especially with the myriad methods and materials to choose from, informed decisions based on research are crucial to determine the most effective way of teaching a second or foreign language. The literature reviewed has examined the current role of L1, current reading practices in schools, and instructional approaches and materials within the field of second language literacy. Within the last 20 years, learning materials, reading texts in specific, have gone through prominent change; a majority of American schools emphasize high frequency words, which changed into literary texts, throughout the 1990s (Anderson, Hiebert, Scott & Wilkinson, 1985; Hoffman et al., 1994). By the early 2000s, yet another change to the content of beginner reading textbooks took place, in accordance to the nation’s two most immigrant‐populated states‐‐ Texas and California. Currently, national mainstream programs use decodable texts as instruction for beginner‐level readers (Hoffman, Sailors, & Patterson, 2002). Education policymakers are the prime movers for the change in reading programs. In the process of reflecting these decisions, textbook publishers are forced to make changes in learning materials 58 that are not necessarily research‐based (Juel, Griffith, & Gough, 1986). This study aimed to explore whether the presence of L1 words and phrases within L2 texts, in culturally relevant literature, acts as a scaffold to support L2 acquisition and increases learner engagement and learning. 59 Chapter 3 ‐ Methods Choosing a Design According to Brown (1992), educationists have identified two major concerns regarding lasting learning: Inert knowledge and passive learning. The former addresses the deficiency of facts that students acquire that cannot be accessed or used appropriately, whereas the latter addresses the inability of students to engage in intentional and self‐directed learning. These concerns have led to a change of focus on theory development that focuses on the purpose and meaning of active strategies that promote learning. This purports a change in both materials and methods of teaching. Contrary to the practice of a traditional classroom where students act as passive receivers of knowledge, the goal of this research was to introduce reading materials that support intentional learning as students engaged in a form of self‐reflective learning that includes critical analysis of the content material (Brown & Campione, 1990). The pedagogical goal of the intervention was to examine the extent to which culturally relevant authentic materials that incorporate the use of L1 words and phrases support second language acquisition through increased student achievement and participation. The chosen design for this research reflects the beliefs of Brown (1992), whose goal is one that moves past a classroom where students merely follow learning instructions and complete assigned tasks, to one that promotes opportunities for learner autonomy. The latter is believed to be an effective learning condition because it creates a conducive enclave for learning. The ability to translate the process of assisted 60 learning and performance into independent learning is difficult but necessary, because this reflects a learner’s internalized motivation and leads to a proactive attitude towards learning, one that is free from external influence. A learner who practices self‐directed learning will continue to actively acquire knowledge even after leaving the classroom. A study based in the classroom is instrumental for practitioners as it provides practical and relevant information about instruction. Traditional research designs that study student‐learning behavior within the laboratory have yielded results; however, much of its results often view learning variables independently. Traditional research increases experimental control, yet is void of the richness and reality of the student’s surroundings. In this case, because of the fluid nature of studying literacy practices within a classroom, one should consider a research design that is based within the natural setting of a learner: the classroom. This allows a researcher to observe students’ natural response during the intervention, and would limit an artificial response. These observations will provide a qualitative analysis of learners’ perception and attitude towards the intervention‐‐ information on aspects of the students not accessible through quantitative data regarding L2 reading comprehension. Flexibility was yet another element that influenced the appropriate design choice for this study. The design has to allow for constant modifications and adaptations so that the final intervention will be tailored to meet the needs of learners. This is by far the most important element in choosing a design, because the goal of a teacher is to fulfill the needs of learners by providing the best possible support in terms of instruction 61 and materials. The chosen design would also have to be grounded in a language acquisition theory, which would help practitioners build the foundation of an effective teaching instruction and inform its feasibility. A generalizable outcome is also a factor in deciding a research design, as results collected from this research should be valid and functional for both practitioners of the field as well as policymakers in informing the implementation of literacy programs nationwide. Framework for Instruction: Formative Experiment Because of the reasons given above, I have chosen to use a formative experiment design. A formative experiment is concerned with how research can be used to inform classroom instruction. This design identified variations that exist within this classroom’s context and proceeded to fulfill the need by adapting an intervention in response to the variation (Reinking & Watson, 2000). One characteristic of the formative design is collaboration between both the researcher and the teacher in implementing the intervention (Reinking & Watson, 2000). I wanted to choose a design that is relevant and pragmatic for practitioners, thus this partnership allowed the class teacher and I to modify the intervention when necessary to meet the needs of learners. The close collaboration also helped inform the class teacher of best instructional practices that are theory‐based. 62 The formative design builds upon current pedagogical theory to make significant change in student achievement and the learning experience. I chose the Socio‐Cultural Theory using the Communicative Language Teaching approach because it supported the use of authentic materials and relevant methods to instruct language learning. This theory emphasized language instruction for the purpose of communication. It also allowed for intervention modifications to better serve the needs of participants (Sandoval, 2004). This was because it viewed research variables as interconnected and results as holistic, allowing room for flexibility in adapting the intervention to meet the needs of learners. According to Reinking and Bradley (2004), this design, “unlike experimental or naturalistic studies of instructional interventions, accommodates both the variation inherent in classrooms and the need to adapt interventions in response to relevant variation” (p. 153). This design allowed for the possibility of creating an intervention that is responsive to a particular student population in a specific context. The outcome of this intervention was generalizable toward a similar student population and context. Formative experiments function to inform teachers the reasons for implementing interventions, as well as justifying potential modifications (Reinking & Watson, 2000). Because the goal of this research was to study how culturally relevant reading material and instructional strategies affect ELLs, the use of the formative design helped improve students’ learning experience by meeting their needs for culturally relevance, while simultaneously teaching linguistic knowledge. When a learner’s cultural identity is 63 affirmed, this affirmation will carry a positive effect on learner behavior, which translates into active learning and increased student achievement (MacKenzie, 2003). The focus of the Formative Design is to improve research methodology by combining qualitative methods of investigation and interventions in learning situations (Jacob, 1992). The foundational belief associated with formative experiments is pragmatism (Reinking & Watkins, 2000), which means that data, analyses and interpretations collected during the intervention focused on set pedagogical goals. The purpose of this intervention was to examine the role of learner’s first language within culturally relevant authentic materials in supporting second language acquisition. The results from this intervention discussed the level of student achievement and participation in the classroom, and the perception of language learners on the effectiveness of L1 in supporting text comprehension. Setting and Participants This study took place in a high school located in a large city in an urban area in the southwestern part of the United States. The school is located in a neighborhood that is experiencing a rapid increase of immigrants. The population surrounding the school is predominantly Hispanic and African American, primarily from a lower to middle class status. There is a community park walking distance from the school, where homeless people can be seen sleeping on benches, and roaming the streets in the early mornings. The school is fenced‐in, and all entrances are locked when school is in session. The main 64 entrance is guarded by a school employee and visitors are logged in. There is also a police car parked at the front of the main entrance. According to the school district’s website, the following demographic information about the school was found: In year 2008‐2009, there were 0.1% Caucasian, 81.6% Hispanic, 18.2% African American, and 0.1% Asian American. More than 75% of the student population qualifies for free or reduced‐cost lunch. More than 35% of student population is classified as English Language Learners, with 99% of those speaking Spanish as their first language. There has been a slight decrease in the school’s ESL population compared to that of four years ago. In the 2004‐2005 academic year, approximately 1516 students were ELLs. Four years later, the number decreased to 1270. The participants of this study were ninth and tenth grade English as a Second Language (ESL) students. They are not assigned to an ESL class according to grade level, but according to their English language proficiency. Therefore, the classroom contained both ninth and tenth graders. There were approximately 26 students in class‐‐ 12 boys and 14 girls. However, only 23 students participated in the intervention, as some students were absent from class on the days the baseline and intervention were implemented. All but four students in class are native Spanish speakers. These four were born in the United States, the rest of the class are recent immigrants from Mexico and Central America (Honduras, Guatamala, El Salvador) who have been in this country for approximately one to two years prior to the implementation of this study. In addition to attending mainstream classes where instruction is in the target language (English), these 65 students also attended an ESL class for three hours each day of the week. This ESL class is a sheltered program where target language support is offered to non‐native speakers. The ESL class focuses on helping these students acquire English language and literacy. There are four levels of ESL classes: ESL 1, ESL 2, ESL 3 and ESL 4. Students are tested and enrolled in the appropriate ESL level according to their level of proficiency. This study was conducted in the ESL 3 classroom, which is two classes before students leave an ESL supported environment and enter 10 th grade English Language Arts class. Students enrolled in this class have either started receiving ESL support in the first and second level, or had tested directly into ESL 3. They possessed a substantial amount of fluency in terms of speaking, listening, reading and writing in English. ESL 3 and 4 are equivalent to a ninth grade English Language Arts class. Although this is an upper level ESL classroom, students still spoke Spanish with their peers despite the teacher’s insistence that they speak only English. The classroom teacher was aided by a tutor‐ assistant (TA), who is a bilingual Spanish‐English speaker. He immigrated to the United States as a child, and had gone through the education system in California. He is an alumni of the school, and worked at the school’s Title 1 office. In addition to helping the students in class, he also helped the teacher run classroom errands. In the classroom, he actively engaged with students in small groups as well as individually, and served as the occasional translator when necessary. Because of that, both the teacher and the teaching assistant were participants of the intervention in terms of implementation. However, I had implemented most of the intervention. The roles of the teacher and TA 66 were as classroom support—they helped facilitate discussion groups, offered further explanation and resolved minor classroom management issues. The teacher, Ms. H, spoke Spanish, and has studied abroad in Mexico during her senior year in college. She is a Caucasian female and has a master’s degree in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL). She is an experienced ESL teacher and has been teaching ESL for the past eight years. She is also the advisor for AVID, an after‐ school program that helps improve student performance and achievement through tutoring. Miss H is a strong advocate for reading. She starts her first period lesson with 40 minutes of Sustained Silent Reading (SSR). All students were required to accumulate a total of 25 Accelerated Reader (AR) points, which Ms. H has integrated as part of her grading scale. Students also used that time to take an AR quiz that pertains to their reading material, assessing their reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition. They then entered the score and percentage into a binder that Ms. H kept in her cabinet. She then taught specific language elements, and covered key vocabulary before she introduced a theme for subsequent lessons she would cover during the week. She conducted her lessons in English, and used Spanish occasionally to help students understand certain vocabulary. She also used Spanish to teach them about false cognates. Ms H included individual, small group and large group activities within her lesson plans. She is also an advocate for writing, and included story composition in every class. 67 The instructional roles of the teacher, researcher, and aide varied during the research according to modifications made during the intervention. These modifications are discussed in the Findings and Discussion chapter. Although all the students are from Latin America, they did not share the same cultural experience due to their different countries of origin. However, there were many similarities in which the students are able to identify with. Because of uncertainties facing some immigrant families, there were some students who attended class at the beginning of the semester who left in the midst of the school year. There were also new students who transferred from other schools. All but four students attended school in their home country and are literate in Spanish. These four students were born here, and had received formal English language instruction since pre‐school. Their enrolment in the ESL class is due to their lack of English language proficiency. The rest had limited to no exposure to the target language. Eight students were well read in their native language. At home, they continued to communicate in their native language with family and friends. Although the participants of this intervention received their education in an inner city high school, a majority of these students, unlike the general perception of their mainstreamed counterparts, are highly motivated to succeed in their academics. As immigrants, most aspired to continue their education at a university. 68 Implementation The classroom intervention was implemented the second week of February, even though the new semester officially started at the beginning of January. Some students had retaken the class from the previous semester because they did not receive a passing grade, some were newly tested into the class, and others had advanced from a lower proficiency level. Prior to the intervention, I had spent five weeks (four days a week, two periods each day) in the class, as a teacher’s assistant. The purpose of this was to establish familiarity with the students so that during the baseline and intervention, the students will respond naturally in her presence. She also wanted to observe the student’s behavior in a normal, pre‐intervention setting. I collected data of student participation and classroom interaction during the baseline intervention and continued with data collection throughout the actual intervention. During the four‐day study, participants spent one period reading each text section (Neg 1 and Neg 2), one period taking each quiz (Q1 and Q2), and one period discussing each quiz. A total of six periods (93 minutes per period) were used to complete this intervention. Of the 26 students in class, 23 had participated in the intervention. During the baseline intervention, the same activities were used as the actual intervention; however, a culturally relevant, non‐L1 text was provided as the reading text. Students read the text aloud as a class, took a quiz based on the reading, and discussed their quiz responses as how they would in a normal classroom setting. These activities were done as a means of comparing student participation and achievement with that of the actual 69 intervention. Before the baseline intervention, I calculated the percentage of L1 used in comparison to the target language within the reading text. Then, I classified the L1 words and phrases according to their function and parts of speech. Examples of speech functions are: Food names, swear words, language and culture‐bound words, and translatable words. This classification was to determine if and when the L1 words are necessary and effective in supporting student‐text comprehension, either linguistically or merely to connect with the text culturally. Both reading texts used were from the same chapter, Negocios, in the book Drown by Junot Diaz. With the advice and help from the classroom teacher, I had divided the chapter into two sections, according to the development of the storyline. I had also translated all Spanish words in the first section into English, so that the text was culturally relevant, but did not contain any L1. In the second reading text, I had left the text as is, to provide a culturally relevant reading text that incorporated learners’ L1 within the L2 text. Material. The chapter “Negocios” in the book “Drown” by Junot Diaz, Quiz 1 and Quiz 2, Student Feedback Survey. Procedure. 1. Students were divided into three groups according to their language proficiency and STAR score: High Proficiency, Intermediate Proficiency and Low Proficiency. Because 70 this intervention was informed by the Communicative Language Teaching approach, I wanted to gauge if a particular language proficiency level was more perceptive to the material, and benefitted more from learning language as a communicative tool. Prior to this intervention, students had experience writing a short summary and taking the AR quiz related to books that they had previously read. The AR quiz is designed to test vocabulary and reading comprehension related to the content of particular books students had read. 2. Each student was given the first section of the chapter Negocios (Neg 1) to read overnight. They were also asked to write a prediction as homework. I then used one class period as a read‐aloud activity, which I facilitated. Each student read a paragraph or more from the text, and after each major development in the storyline, I had asked reading comprehension questions. Both the teacher and I observed and noted overall and individual student participation. 3. Students were then required to write a short summary and completed an AR‐ equivalent quiz related to the text they were given. With the help of the class teacher, I had designed a specific quiz for both sections of the chapter. A copy of both quizzes used is found in the appendix section. 71 4. Each student’s first quiz was collected and graded. Out of thirteen questions, students were given the choice to respond to any chosen ten. Each question was worth one point; students who responded to more than ten were given extra credit. Each question asked for a direct answer, followed by supporting details either in the form of a direct quote or paraphrased analysis from the reading text. This established the baseline to which students’ scores (achievement) were compared to that of the actual intervention. 5. Following the completion of the quiz, the teacher and I decided to discuss the quiz questions as a classroom activity to measure student participation. This activity allowed students to share their verbal response to the quiz within a large classroom setting. I facilitated this discussion, which lasted one class period. Students’ participation were observed and noted by both researcher and the teacher. 6. Students were then given the second section of the chapter Negocios (Neg 2) to read overnight. This section was both culturally relevant and contained words and phrases in the learner’s L1. 7. Students then repeated steps 2, 3, 4, and 5 using the second section of the chapter. 8. After the intervention, I verbally asked the students about their feelings toward the reading texts as a class. For qualitative analysis, students were asked how, if any, did 72 these L1 words help them comprehend the text better. This helped establish a deeper analysis on learner perception regarding the role of L1 in supporting reading comprehension. 9. These students were then separated into smaller focus groups, and asked their perception on the reading texts, and the use of L1 within the second reading text (List of questions provided in appendix) 73 Table 1 Baseline and Intervention Schedule, per Period Date Period # of Ss Activity Description Measuring 2/7/11 2 nd 26 1. Baseline Reading 2. Write Prediction At home: 1. Students read Neg 1 2. Students wrote a prediction of Neg 1 Reading comprehension 2/8/11 1 st 25 Collect Prediction In class: Student predictions were collected Reading comprehension 2/8/11 2 nd 25 Class Read‐Aloud Activity for Baseline In class: 1. Students took turn reading one or more paragraphs of Neg 1. 2. Students were asked reading comprehension questions. Participation and motivation 2/9/11 2 nd 26 1. Baseline Quiz 2. Intervention Reading 3. Write Prediction In class: Students were given Quiz 1 (Q1) to complete At home: 1. Students read Neg 2 2. Students wrote a prediction of Neg 2 Reading comprehension 2/10/11 1 st 22 Baseline Quiz Discussion Activity In class: Students participate in a classroom discussion regarding Q1 Participation and motivation 2/10/11 2 nd 22 Class Read‐Aloud Activity for Intervention In class: 1. Students took turn reading one or more paragraphs of Neg 2. 2. Students were asked reading comprehension questions. Participation and motivation 2/11/11 1 st 24 Intervention Quiz In class: Students were given Quiz 2 (Q2) to complete Reading comprehension 2/11/11 2 nd 24 Intervention Quiz Discussion Activity In class: Students participate in a classroom discussion regarding Q2 Participation and motivation 74 Data Collection and Analysis The study focused on collecting qualitative data from the research. While quantitative data may provide precise measurements and statistical numbers to support the pedagogical goal, qualitative data analysis served to provide practitioners with a richer explanation of the instructional practice by allowing learner’s to voice their perception regarding the intervention choice. It strived to include a holistic perspective of the issue that quantitative analysis alone cannot. Qualitative data were collected from classroom observations, classroom participation responses, student feedback surveys, as well as informal classroom discussions. During the implementation, data were reviewed and logged daily to identify variables that improved or impeded the current intervention. Data were collected and analyzed in three primary forms: (1) during debriefing sessions among the teacher, researcher and tutor‐assistants, (2) frequency counts of instances of student participation during classroom discussions regarding reading material and (3) quality in which students tailor their response to classroom discussions that reflect deeper cognitive analysis. Data collected included my personal notes of student participation during the reading and discussion activities, observations on the informal classroom discussions, teacher‐researcher debriefings, students’ previous reading and writing level, quiz scores from both the baseline and intervention, and student feedback surveys. Before the intervention, a baseline was established through the use of the first 75 section of the chapter Negocios, and activities similar to that of the intervention was used. Throughout the intervention, I employed a constant‐comparative analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), to identify emerging variables that either supported or inhibited the progress towards answering the research question. The analysis helped determine which aspect of the reading practice needed to be modified, halted or continued, to achieve the pedagogical goal and to best meet the needs of the students. Although this intervention was aimed to examine the role of L1 in increasing student achievement and participation, I believed that this intervention should also support the learning potential of students by maximizing the use of the learning materials. A list of guiding questions helped direct the debriefing sessions between the teacher, teaching assistant, and myself; my personal reflections were recorded in analytical memos. Some example questions are: Was there a pattern of similar questions asked or mistakes made by students, did the quieter students seem more motivated to participate in classroom discussions, and was the analytical level of students’ answers and responses on par with mainstream English Language Arts students. Researcher observations were compared with student work produced during classroom activities, during both the baseline and intervention. This was done to determine a change in engagement level. Participation was measured in terms of classroom and group participation, help seeking and affective engagement (ie. raising of hand, facial expression, body gestures). Student achievement levels were gauged by comparing quiz scores across sections and 76 groups of readers. Daily debriefings between the teacher and myself were extremely helpful because they informed me on different aspects of the current intervention instructions that need to be modified or discontinued to better meet the needs of learners. I then documented changes from these intervention modifications, and compares them with observation logs and student work. A formative experiment requires that the intervention be monitored constantly and for necessary changes to be implemented immediately, to ensure a steady progression toward achieving the projected pedagogical goal. It also required that I analyze my own reflective writing, which was viewed as an important data source. Before the intervention was implemented, I asked students about their perception of individual literacy strengths, and areas that they desire to develop. These data were collected to consider and determine the appropriate focus areas during the intervention. Limitation of the Study There were also certain limitations that this study encountered. One outstanding limitation was the Experimental Group Mortality or Attrition threat. When one group of participants within the intervention experienced more attrition, this study experienced a selection problem. Especially with the nature of this student population, there were a number of students who dropped out of the study and of school, due to personal family circumstances. There were also students who joined the class during the implementation of the study. Another limitation that might have affected the result of 77 this study is the Diffusion Effect. Because this intervention was being implemented within a classroom, participants are students who are friends with other participants, and shared classes outside of this setting. As friends, I had expected them to discuss the text with other friends, thus affecting and potentially modifying the results of the intervention. The third limitation was the Hawthorne Effect. Even though this intervention took place in a natural environment, participants who know that they were being observed will be on their best behavior and attempt to be as cooperative as possible. 78 Chapter 4 ‐ Findings The findings from the study’s baseline and intervention activities are discussed below. The purpose of the Read‐Aloud and the Quiz Discussion Activities was to measure student participation, and both Quiz 1 and 2 were used to measure student achievement. This section begins with a discussion of the overall student participation and motivation in both Read‐Aloud activities, followed by a detailed comparison of student achievement in Quiz 1 and 2. All names used in the present and subsequent chapters are pseudonyms, and student responses are reported verbatim. The findings from the quiz discussion will not be discussed as its observations mirror those of the read‐aloud activities and will not be necessary for further examination. The level of student participation during the discussion of Q1 was high; students were observed to be eager to share their responses, much like their participation during the reading activity. The participation level of Q2’s discussion faltered a little; one of the only times when students had actively participated was when the teacher (who sat at the back of the class) asked students to predict the protagonist’s future. Students used their prior knowledge of the immigrant journey, and the storyline to analyze the character. Participation and Motivation. I had categorized participation and motivation into three themes: overall quantity of participation within the classroom, a comparison of individual students’ quantity of participation, and level of interest shown through 79 non‐verbal cues. Participation, in this particular study, is defined as the act of help‐ seeking (or clarifying questions), hand‐raising, and interrupting or jumping in. I observed and noted the frequency of overall classroom participation and individual student’s participation, in both the baseline and the intervention. Levels of student participation and motivation were expected and predicted to increase with the introduction of the reading text that incorporated L1. The overall participation of the classroom during the baseline saw 13 students actively participating in the baseline reading activity. Six students raised their hands at least three times during discussions, and provided analytical answers. There were seven students who participated actively by commenting during discussion, or helping other students comprehend the text through paraphrasing or providing additional explanation. Four students had limited participation‐‐ two female students, Esther and Cassie, asked repeatedly to read the paragraphs aloud and another two students participated by calling out short, one‐phrase answers at least once. There were six people, one of which was Garcia, who read, but were not vocal during the discussions— they did not attempt to answer any questions or participate in the discussion. The anticipation of students were seen when, after the completion of Quiz 1, five students (two of which did not contribute their thoughts during the reading activity) asked me repeatedly when the class was scheduled to read the second text. During the intervention, five students participated actively. Of the five, only Calvin and Nelly participated actively during both the baseline and the intervention, and 80 took turns answering comprehension questions. Another two students, who did not volunteer to answer during the baseline, raised their hands at least three times during the intervention: Garcia was observed to be more willing to speak up in class. He caught my eye at least twice, and when called upon, responded without hesitation. Six students had limited participation‐‐Russell, who participated but responded inaccurately during the baseline, answered a question and used a Spanish phrase within the paragraph to support his answer. Three students helped explain some Spanish terms within the text to me, upon which I then built my comprehension questions. These students had also used Spanish phrases to analyze the characters in the story. Two female students, Grace and Marie, were seen helping their neighbors by periodically explaining the storyline and plot. When compared to the baseline, the overall quantity and level of class participation during the intervention’s reading activity had decreased; one of the only moments when the level of activity increased was when Spanish words and phrases were read. Although participation had decreased, the students who participated in the intervention were observed to be more forceful and confident in their response. Their use of a matter‐of‐fact tone is exemplified through Michael’s response to a classmate’s incorrect answer: “Ramon trabajo para el gringos, pendejo” (Ramon worked for the Americans, stupid). Other instances that showed an increase in student confidence and forcefulness were when Nelly, Frank, and a few other students interjected other classmates who took a longer time responding or responded incorrectly to 81 comprehension questions. Student response to help‐seeking also increased. Students like Grace and Felicity chattered excitedly in their L1, and offered to explain the storyline to classmates who had trouble following the storyline’s development. A higher number of lower‐grade readers participated in the intervention when compared to the baseline. One notable observation was of Louie, who sat at the back of the classroom and appeared disinterested in class lessons. He participated during the intervention’s Read‐Aloud activity. However, two students, Esther and Cassie, did not participate. During the baseline, they volunteered to read aloud at least twice. During one particular question asked, Esther had yelled out an answer. In the intervention, although both volunteered to read aloud more than once, they did not show much interest in the reading content—Cassie read through the Spanish words as though they were English, and neither one volunteered to answer any comprehension questions. This lack of participation in both students is assumed to be a result of being Spanish illiterate (there were four students who spoke but did not read or write in Spanish—only two of these four participated in the study). The level of interest, in this particular study, was measured through non‐verbal cues like body postures, gestures, tone of voice, eye contact, and facial expressions. Both the teacher and I had observed and noted students’ non‐verbal cues during the baseline and intervention. Positive non‐verbal cues included smiling, forward‐leaning, positive eye 82 contact, and nodding. Negative non‐verbal cues included a slouching body, staring into space, and monotonous reading tone. At the beginning of the baseline reading activity, students were restless; however, five minutes into the activity, most students were observed to be paying attention, their body postures were erect. Five students, like Violet and Grace, were seen making notes in the margin of their readings, and almost half the class was observed nodding their heads during at least one part of the reading. During numerous, specific instances in the activity, most of the class, except for four students, would assume a facial expression that expressed an emotion in response to the character’s dialogues. Nelly laid his head on the desk the entire time, except when he was reading. Michael and Jeff were being disruptive but after the class teacher switched their seats, Michael was observed to be paying attention. The other, who was moved to the corner of the room, did not show much interest in the reading materials until it was his turn to read aloud. During the intervention, the number of students who paid attention decreased by six, or 20%; the majority of the class was restless until around the 10 th minute of reading. Ginny, who was the first to read, did so using an excited tone; she was smiling and leaning forward as she read. At the end of the story, Nelly, who had his head on his desk during the baseline became teary eyed, and said this was one of the better stories he has read. Esther and Cassie looked uninterested during the reading, and were seen staring into space. However, when Spanish words and phrases were read, half of the 83 class, like Michael and Jeff, was excited—they were seen nudging their friends, grinning and exchanging “disbelieving” glances with classmates. They also shifted in their seats, and sat with their bodies leaned forward. Approximately 70% of the class giggled and smiled when a Spanish swear word or Spanish dialogue was read. When students like Nelly and Louie read the Spanish portions of the text, their reading tone sounded more emphatic, and students were observed to enjoy reading the text. When comparing the baseline to the intervention, the overall level of interest and participation decreased slightly. However, when Spanish was read, the students showed an increase in interest‐‐ their bodies leaned forward, and most students were giggling or shifting excitedly in their seats. Their anticipation toward the storyline could be seen when a few students like Don and Jeff interrupted or jumped in to help their classmates who took a longer time to pronounce English words. These students did not offer the same type of assistance during the baseline reading. Student Achievement. This section begins by examining student grades, followed by student scores in each quiz. The change in the level of student achievement was measured through a score and grade comparison between the baseline and intervention quiz. The classroom teacher and I had decided to award six Accelerated Reader (AR) points to students who successfully achieve a total of 20 possible points on both quizzes. In order to examine the level of student achievement, I had created quiz questions that test student’s reading comprehension. There were 13 questions in each 84 quiz, but students were only required to answer 10. Students were allowed to choose which 10 questions they wanted to answer as I wanted to provide the students with a sense of learner autonomy within the learning process. The freedom to make individual choices lowers student anxiousness and creates a positive environment, which in turn lowers student affective filter. Grade Comparison. In order to show complete comprehension of the readings, students were required to answer each quiz question and its subparts, give supporting details in the form of direct quotes or paraphrases, and analysis from the readings. In addition to receiving a score (10 possible points per quiz), each student paper received a grade indicating the level of analysis present within the answer. An “E” was given for expert analysis to students who answered the main question and its subparts, showed a deeper and rich analysis of storyline and characters, and included a quote from the text as supporting detail. An “I” was given for intermediate analysis of questions that answered at least 70% of the main question and its subparts, some analysis of storyline and character and that might or might not include a quote from the text as supporting detail. A “B” was given for beginner analysis of questions that answered at least 50% of the main question and its subparts, and might contain either limited analysis of the storyline and character or quote from the text as supporting detail. Examples for each level of analysis are provided below: In Quiz 1, Question 3 asked, “Does Virta really care if Ramon leaves her and their children, for the United States? How do you know?” 85 An example of an “E” grade response: After Virta noticed that Ramon had a lover, she got really mad and upset. As the story shows it she did not talk to Ramon when he went back hom. She did not really want anything with him anymore. However, it shows that she wanted him to go because the day he was leaving, she packed his cloths before he could do it. It shows that she really wanted him to go. This response received an “E” grade because it answered both questions, and showed a deeper level of character analysis. An example of an “I” grade response: Virta did not care if Ramon leave her and their children, for the United States because Ramon was a mean man who did not care about his children. Also Virta did not care because Ramon had another woman and that was a motive to did not care about him. This is shown when “Virta did not kiss him when he left.” Another fact to show this is when “Virta grabbed his upper arms, and her fingers like pincers.” Virta’s attitude demonstrated that she did not care about Ramon’s life. This showed that the student answered all parts of the questions, and provided analysis to their response. However, the explanations provided for the two chosen quote did not directly support the answer. An example of a “B” grade response: Virta didn’t care if her husband leave to United States and leave her with her children. “ “Then go,” she said. 86 This student answered the first part of the questions but provided a quote that does not analyze their response. In another example, Question 5 asked, “ “Father met Eulalio last and liked him least.” Why would Ramon join Eulalio every night at the bars when he disliked Eulalio? Please support your answer with a text from the chapter.” The responses below are from the same three students as the above: Grade “E” student’s response: Ramon joined Eulalio because he had no friends and Eulalio was the only one who talked to him. However, he did not really likes Eulalio but as the story shows it, “Father would have gladly shared a drink with the devil rather than go out alone.” Grade “I” student’s response: Ramon met Eulalio last and liked him least; however Ramon joins Eulalio every night because Eulalio already knew a lot of places and he knew a lot of people. Even knowing that Eulalio was mean with him, he liked to go out with him because they drank and talked about their lives. This is demonstrated when “Eulalio and Father went out two, three night a week, drinking rum and talking.” 87 Grade “B” student’s response: Father joined Eulalio every night at the bars because he want to see like an American. “He began joining Eulalio on his nightly jaunts to the bars.” Table 2 Comparison between grade received in the intervention (Quiz 2) and baseline (Quiz 1) Grade Received Quiz 1 Quiz 2 # of students # of students’ grade increase # of students’ grade decrease Same “B”‐ Basic 5 3 ‐ 2 “I”‐ Intermediate 10 4 2 4 “E”‐ Expert 8 ‐ 2 6 Total 23 (100%) 7 (30.4%) 4 (17.4%) 12 (52.2%) The table above compared student intervention grades with that of the baseline. When compared to the baseline, 30.4% saw a grade increase in their intervention. 52% of students received the same grade for both quizzes, and 17.5% of students received a lower grade in the intervention. Before both quizzes, I had explained to the students that they would be tested on reading comprehension, not grammatical accuracy. The purpose of this leniency is to lower the level of anxiousness that students might face while spending additional time pondering on an accurate sentence structure. One rule that governed this decision is that their grammatical inaccuracy should not impair the my ability to understand and grade the written response. However, the nature of Formative Design allows researchers flexibility to modify an element of the research when deemed necessary. In one specific incident, a student had responded inaccurately to a question in the baseline quiz. During the class discussion, this student attempted to answer the same question in 88 which he had incorrectly responded to. After much scaffolding between the classroom teacher and the student, it became apparent that he had used the wrong preposition in his written answer. His intended response, which he had meant to express in writing, was the right answer that he was able to verbally articulate during the discussion. Even though his written response contained inaccurate grammar use, which led me to grade his response as incorrect, after much deliberation from the class discussion, I awarded him the point, because he proved his comprehension of the text. This is not an isolated incident; many ELLs who do comprehend their reading texts are unable to show or prove their comprehension because of the lack of syntax or semantic abilities. Another example is a female student who started the semester as an uncooperative student. She was observed to be disinterested in lessons taught in class, and would usually chat with classmates around her or text on her phone. But when she started reading both the baseline and intervention texts with the help of a student‐tutor (whose role I had limited to translating‐‐ scaffolding of comprehension was not allowed) she exceeded both the teacher and researcher’s expectations in terms of her performance on both quizzes. She comprehends the text, but has a problem expressing herself in written English. Thus, with the student‐tutor’s support in interpreting the quiz questions, she successfully showed her reading comprehension. Score Comparison. Students were required to answer 10 questions in each quiz; the maximum score for each quiz was 10 points. 89 Table 3 Comparison between student score in the intervention (Q2) and baseline (Q1) Q1 Score > Q2 Score Q1 Score < Q2 Score Q1 Score = Q2 Score Number of Students 8 13 2 Percentage (out of 23 students) 34.8% 56.5% 8.7% Of the 23 students who took both quizzes, 13 (or 56.5% of the total students) performed better in the actual intervention’s quiz. Eight students (34.8%) received a lower score in the intervention quiz, whereas two students (8.7%) achieved the same score for both the basal and intervention quizzes. In the baseline quiz, there was only one student who did not answer the required 10 questions. She answered three. In the intervention’s quiz, the same student had attempted to answer four questions. According to the teacher, Q2 contained more complex word choice compared to Q1, yet the study saw a 56% increase in student achievement. Out of 13 questions in Q2, five directly examined the roles of Spanish phrases and words within the text in helping support reader comprehension, character analysis and storyline prediction. For example, Question 2 asked: “ Ramon had many excuses for not sponsoring his Santo Domingo family to the United States. “Right now is just not a good time to send for them. You should see my bills.” How did his friends respond?” 90 An example response was: His friends were skeptical‐‐ “Come mierda, nobody has that many light bulbs in their house.” That sentence conveys disbelief; his friends know that he’s just making excuses for not bringing his family over. Table 4 Overall student achievement in intervention compared to baseline Score Grade Increased Decreased Same Increased 5 2 7 Decreased 2 2 4 Same ‐ ‐ 1 When comparing the overall student achievement between the baseline and the intervention, five students experienced a grade and score increase in the intervention quiz. Two students received a lower grade and score in Q2, whereas the highest number of students (seven, or 30.4%) saw an increase in their scores but received the same grade for their Quiz 2. Table 5 Comparison between student attempts of questions in Quiz 1 (Q1) and Quiz 2 (Q2) Attempts in Q1 > Q2 Attempts in Q1 < Q2 Attempts in Q1 = Q2 Number of Students 3 7 13 Percentage (out of 23 students) 13% 30.4% 56.5% There was a 30.4% increase in the number of students who attempted to answer more questions in Quiz 2 compared to Quiz 1; however, most of the students attempted the same number of questions in both quizzes. The increase in the number of attempted questions in the intervention is a possible indication of the increase in student 91 confidence and self‐efficacy, which can be attributed to the presence of L1 within the text. Table 6 Comparison of percentage of student attempts and success for extra credit in Q1 and Q2 Extra Credit Q1 Extra Credit Q2 Attempted Succeeded Attempted Succeeded 8 out of 23 3 out of 8 11 out of 23 6 out of 11 34.8% 37.5% 47.8% 54.5% During the baseline quiz, the teacher and researcher had decided that students who succeeded in accurately answering more than the required 10 questions would receive extra credit on the quiz. In the baseline, eight students attempted to answer more than the required 10 questions, three of which received extra credit. In the intervention, eleven students attempted to score for extra credit, six of which succeeded. Of the eleven, three students attempted extra credit for the first time. Seven others had attempted in both quizzes. Learner’s Perception of Effectiveness. Through a survey and class discussion, I examined students’ perceived effectiveness of the role of L1 within culturally relevant authentic materials. A learner’s perceived effectiveness reflects the intuitive judgment of a learner that is based on the individual’s personal interaction with the learning material (Pronin, 2008). This perception is one of the more important indicators in determining the effectiveness of the learning material because the perception of a learner will guide their attitude throughout the learning process, and can determine the success or failure of a learning experience (Prodromou, 2002). This intervention 92 examined the relationship between the learner’s perception of the material’s effectiveness, and their actual comprehension of text and motivation (self‐efficacy), which is reflected in student achievement and classroom participation level. The survey contained 10 questions that sought to examine the student’s overall experience during the intervention. A copy of the survey’s questions can be found in the appendix section. Three questions focused on examining students’ perception on the effectiveness of reading materials that contained Spanish words and phrases. These questions specifically examined: 1. Students’ perception when encountering Spanish in text, 2. The perceived effectiveness of Spanish in supporting reading comprehension, and 3. Student’s learning preference for materials that include L1 within the L2 text, compared to a fully L2 text. Out of 23 students who participated in the study, 19 students responded in the survey and discussion regarding the reading materials. From the 19, one student expressed his perceived ineffectiveness of the reading materials: “Spanish has not helped me because in English and Spanish are almost the same when you understand both.” This student further explained that he “feel normal but at the same time weird because I know both languages and sometimes it makes me confuse.” Four students (21%) indicated that they liked having L1 in the text, because even though Spanish did not help, “it was cool to see some words in Spanish… I felt nice,” and 93 “It makes me feel happy because it’s funny and comfortable, (although) the words doesn’t help because there are few of them and those are bad words and sweet words.” The same student noted that he “feel(s) like I want to read this book more because a book fully written in English is bored and when there are some Spanish words it make you smile.” A third student expresses his affinity towards the text: “These Spanish words reminds me a lot to Mexico, my family and good times… I really would like to read this book more, just to know more about what happened and still reminding about Mexico.” He continued, “The Spanish words made me understand a little bit more, but they didn’t help me predict the meaning.” Twelve students (63%) found the L1 to be helpful in aiding comprehension and had a positive experience with both reading texts. One student noted that these stories “were difficult for me to understand because it stories have difficult vocabulary… (but) Spanish helped me a lot to understand the story better because is more fun when stories are mixed with Spanish and English.” One student said that reading Neg 2 “made feel like I’m reading a Spanish book. I like to read a lot of Spanish books. Spanish help me to understand the story and to predict the meaning of the story. An example is when Ramon talk to JoJo because they speak Spanish.” A student gives a direct example from the text, “Spanish help predict the meaning for example “come meirda” that word I don’t (know) in English.” His older brother, who is held back in the same ESL class, stated that “when it say something in Spanish, I learn how the story is more about… help me predict what is going to be about and makes me feel really good to read more 94 about it.” An interesting fact is that only two students had noted that they noticed the inclusion of L1 within the second text. One of the two students said, “… first story was all in English but the second section was with Spanish words… I feel more comfortable reading with Spanish words because I don’t many words in English.” In the same tone, some students expressed their affinity toward the reading text because, in addition to supporting comprehension, it affirmed the importance of their home culture and language. One student noted especially that he “want(s) to learn from this book. It’s better read a book that would have our first language.” Another student stated that it “made me feel glad because the writer is using Spanish and that is my first language… Spanish help me understand the second story (Neg 2) better because I couldn’t predict the story… Spanish words that help me to understand more the attitude of the character.” Another student viewed the inclusion of Spanish as positive because she “knows that some people don’t care of they speak Spanish… (and ) I understand better the story with some words in Spanish.” One student explained that he “feel(s) more comfortable of having some Spanish because it helps you understand better the story and … helps you use your bilingual skills. It made me more interesting to read it, and I learned even more because they expressed the feelings in Spanish… helped to understand better the situations.” One student noted simply that the Spanish words “make me feel happy, excited.” One student found L1 useful in this context, but noted that the absence of the L1 would not have impacted her reading process or comprehension. She explained that 95 Spanish “made me feel very excited because I can have fun reading Spanish words while I am reading English… and it (L1) help me a little bit, it help me predict that Virta was very angry at Ramon because he did not take care of his family when Virta called Ramon desgraciado and puto.” However, this same student also noted that she “would like to read another book about the life of Hispanic immigrants and I don’t care if it has Spanish words.” One other student also noted that he “would like to read about experiences immigrants,” yet stated that it “did not matter if the story are whole English or mix with Spanish word.” A majority of the students in class (90%) who took the survey expressed a positive experience with the text; the class discussion yielded similar results. However, only 10 of the 23 students mentioned (43%) that L1 directly helped their comprehension by providing some level of scaffolding that helped them predict the context of the story. Three students noted that the L1 helped “a little.” Some students found it ineffective in supporting comprehension, yet felt positive about encountering Spanish within an English text, because “it was cool to see Spanish,” or “they remember where we came from.” When calculated, the amount of L1 words and phrases present in the L2 text was only four percent; translatable words made up 56% of the L1 present, whereas 33% were culturally bounded, including food and Spanish‐only words, and 10% were swear words. While one student had commented that although he appreciated that L1 existed 96 within the reading text, most of the words used were swear words, and did not help him comprehend the text. An element worth noting was that these same swear words that were ineffective for one student helped a few others, who felt that these specific words helped them predict the situation and the character’s feelings. Student Performance by Reading Proficiency Level As a final observation, I had compared student achievement to student reading level. This intervention proposes to examine the effectiveness of learner’s L1 within reading materials in increasing student achievement and participation. I was also interested in examining if the use of L1 within culturally relevant authentic materials will be more beneficial for students of a certain reading and language proficiency level. Thus, before the baseline or intervention, I tested and collected the students’ STAR report scores. According to the Accelerated Reader program, the book Drown by Junot Diaz, in which the story Negocios is found, has been assigned an ATOS (or grade) level of 5.1, and a 5.7 grade level by Scholastic. Both programs rated the book at a ninth to twelve grade interest level. According to the students’ STAR report, only one student in the class read at an eighth grade level. The second most advance tier of students read at the fifth to sixth grade level. Twelve of the twenty students tested at the beginning of the semester read either at a first or second grade level. I then compared the level of reading comprehension shown from both the basal and intervention’s quizzes to that of their 97 individual STARS report scores. Most students who tested above the fifth grade reading level should find the reading comprehensible, albeit interesting. The noteworthy observation would be towards students whose reading level falls below that of the fifth grade. As reflected in students’ verbal and written responses, these students’ (who make up 85% of the class) level of achievement and reading comprehension are as superior as their classmates who read above the book’s grade level. For example, Ginny, whose reading skills are comparable to the average second grader, responded with insightful analyses in both quizzes; her responses were almost equivalent to Don’s, whose reading skills mirror that of an average eight grader. In the first quiz, both students had opted to answer question four. The higher level reader’s answer was typical to that of his classmates—the quote he used showed a superficial analysis of the story’s characters and intentions. However, Ginny used a supporting quote that proved she had indeed comprehended the true intention of the protagonist, when she likened his ambition in accumulating wealth to that of his dream of gold coins stacked as high as sugarcanes. This reading material allowed lower‐level readers to comprehend higher level reading content and language use. The data presented in this chapter form the basis that guide the discussion of the subsequent chapter. Analysis, interpretation, and evaluations of the data set will address this study’s research question and determine the effectiveness of L1 in supporting second language literacy. 98 Chapter 5 ‐ Discussion and Implications The results of this formative study provide several insights and implications regarding pedagogical interventions that emphasize the role of a learner’s first language within culturally relevant texts in supporting second language literacy. In this chapter I analyze the findings, discuss their implications, note possible limitations of the study, and conclude with a brief summary of the intervention. Discussion of Findings This section will further analyze the findings from the intervention, starting with student participation, followed by student achievement, and finally, the learner’s perception of the effectiveness of the reading material. Student participation From the qualitative observations of student participation and motivation in class Read‐Alouds, to the quantitative analysis of student achievement in the quiz, the results of this study suggest that the use of L1 in a culturally relevant authentic material increases student participation during moments when it is introduced. This suggests that students were using the available L1 words and phrases to predict and scaffold for L2 reading comprehension. This ties in with the observations of Moll, Gonzales and Amanti (2005)—learners draw from their L1 funds of knowledge based on prior language instruction, which encourages reading engagement. Most students, like 99 Ginny, were observed to be excited and interested in the first story. After the baseline reading and quiz, students would approach me, requesting that “we read the story two today?” Their anticipation further suggests that learners desired reading materials that they found interesting because it fed their social and emotional needs, while also meeting their academic needs. This response is similar to those of the Latino youth in the study by Ivey and Broaddus (2007). The youth expressed a preference toward reading texts that reflected their home culture during independent, self‐selected reading. This suggests that culturally relevant texts, as opposed to materials based on the hegemonic culture (Martinez, 2002), have the ability to increase reading engagement among non‐native speaking students. Although overall class participation decreased slightly, students who did participate during the paragraph discussions were more forceful and confident in their responses. This suggests that, with the use a matter‐of‐fact tone, students’ level of confidence had increased; they are able to connect to the story because the familiar themes and language present activate prior knowledge (Jimenez, 1999), which directly influenced their level of confidence. This observation is supported by Rodriguez‐Valls (2007)’s study on the “Zone of Cultural Comfort,” where Hispanic immigrant students were observed to be more forceful and empowered in activities that were influenced by writings of Hispanic American authors. Their proactive approach to helping classmates, and self‐motivated learning is a result of increased confidence. The presence of L1 100 helped establish background knowledge for the content, thus lowering the learner’s affective filter (Moll & Gonzales, 1994). Student Achievement Student achievement also increased in the intervention, although not substantially. Students’ increased level of achievement was not only seen through their scores and analysis, but also in the number of attempted questions answered in the intervention. This alludes to the increase in student confidence, as they perceived themselves to be more capable of answering more questions than in the last quiz. It also suggests an increase in student self‐efficacy‐‐ their belief in their own abilities to succeed. A number of students used the available Spanish phrases and words within the reading to support their analysis of the text. In an example seen below, Bobby used the Spanish words in the text to help support his analysis of the question. Half the class used the L1 available to support their comprehension of the text. Once again, this suggests that the presence and use of L1 not only supports the increase in student participation and engagement, but increases student achievement, as noted by McKenzie (2003). The ability to understand the reading text and to connect the content to current issues in society is a sophisticated and difficult one; the responses from many students suggest that by connecting the reading to personal experience, they are able to succeed in analyzing higher order comprehension questions. The quality of analysis of most students stayed constant; only one third of the class (seven students) received a higher 101 grade in their intervention quiz. However, a little more than half of the class received a higher score for their second quiz. The teacher had also commented that she thought the second quiz was harder for two reasons: its word choice, and questions that require the analysis of universal themes. For example, students were asked, “In the news and media, illegal immigrants are generally viewed negatively: they are lazy and a menace to our society. How is Diaz’s portrayal of immigrants? Please support your answer.” In order to provide an accurate response to this question, the students need to possess prior or personal knowledge regarding this matter. The ability to comprehend not only the text but connecting it to issues facing our society shows a sophisticated level of analysis in which these students possess. One such student, Bobby, responded: In the story, Diaz suggested that immigrants are hard workers and they want to improve their life and generous. Immigrants like Nilda are hard workers, she work in the restaurant and sastreria too. Same as Jo‐Jo wanted to improve his life and he was also generous. He said “I’ll sell you one of my hotdogs carts cheap if you want. You can see they’re making steady plata.” Bobby H.’s response suggest that he disagreed with the media’s image of immigrants—he chose specific examples from Diaz’s writing to highlight positive attributes of immigrants in supporting his analysis. Learner Perception of Effectiveness Learner’s perceived effectiveness of the text indicates that the L1 helped create a positive learning experience for the students, even though some students found the 102 amount of L1 insufficient in scaffolding for reading comprehension. Students expressed their preference in encountering their L1 within the L2 text because, according to student feedback, it reminds them of home and “makes me comfortable.” This positive attitude towards the text is brought forth by the presence of learner’s L1, which supports McKenzie (2003)’s observation that incorporating L1 into learning demonstrates that practitioners acknowledge the importance of the learner’s cultural identity. From student feedback forms, it is evident that learners desire for their cultural identity to be acknowledged. These learners are proud of their first language, and many would like to see it used in reading texts, as it “makes me feel happy.” Learning enjoyment will ensure that the use of L2 continues even outside of classroom (Lightbrown & Spada, 1994). All survey participations noted that they would like to read about the life of immigrants because it is interesting. Students want to read stories that mirror their personal experience: the immigrant journey, which reflects their same goal of seeking a better life. The pattern of response from the feedback forms showed that these students want to read about “true life” and “true experiences.” This further solidifies the claim that culturally relevant authentic materials and the presence of L1 within the text are effective in catching and maintaining the learner’s interest (Lightbrown & Spada, 1994), and increasing a student’s motivation to read. However, some student feedback forms also highlighted learner’s perceived ineffectiveness of L1. A handful of students, like Michael, found the L1 not useful in helping their reading comprehension. This perception might be due to the minute five 103 percent of L1 present in the L2 text, many of which were of food names, and Spanish‐ bound or swear words. Because many of these L1 words are not translatable into English, they did little in helping students like Michael predict meaning, or comprehend the text. Their perception of the L1’s ineffectiveness might change with an increase in Spanish nouns and verbs that can serve as context clues, to help reflect more meaning within the L2 text. At the same time, many students found that the L1 was effective in contributing to reading comprehension. Some students gave specific examples of swear words that helped them understand the text. These were “mood” words, suggesting that L1 was used to set up the context of the story and highlight the feelings of the characters. This helped students with character analysis. Some L1 words within the text also represented the attitude of the writer, and sets the tone of the story. Students also mentioned examples of specific tonal words that helped reading comprehension, which further suggests that L1 was used to guide their understanding of the story’s development, through prediction, helping them grasp a deeper understanding of the text. Implications One major implication from this intervention is that practitioners should select appropriate materials in order for learners to feel empowered (Lipson & Wixson, 1997), interested, and engaged (Ada, 2003). Throughout the intervention, I had observed that some ELLs need no motivation to learn—these students have an intrinsic drive that 104 enables them to continue reading The Odyssey by Homer, and to understand its contents, even though it does not pertain to their home culture or language. However, there also exist students who need motivation in order to learn. From the student survey and feedback, both groups of students found culturally relevant texts interesting and engaging, especially when L1 is introduced and used, albeit sparingly, within the text. Both elements resulted in an increase in student engagement because they are able make text‐to‐self connections. Students desire to read stories that not only meet their academic needs, but their emotional and social ones as well. Reading a text that reflects their home culture and immigrant journey is empowering because students see a reflection of themselves in academically sound texts, which acknowledges and validates the value of the immigrant identity (Bieger, 1995). Gutíerrez and Rogoff (2003) warn against practitioners generalizing cultural characteristics to blanket all students who share an L1. Students come from different backgrounds and face different circumstances, and thus relate to different themes in a story. Although it would be imprudent to assume all ELLs would benefit from culturally relevant authentic texts, especially one that describes or focuses on a specific culture group, student feedback from the intervention strongly supported the idea of learning through stories (as opposed to grammar workbooks), and all but a handful of students enjoyed reading their L1 within an English text. The teacher had commented, after the completion of both the baseline and intervention Read‐Alouds, that she had previously introduced reading activities to the class using authentic materials that were not 105 culturally relevant, yet the students have never sat through an entire period (90+ minutes) of unadulterated reading without losing focus or being restless and impatient. The teacher had observed that in both reading activities, most students were focused on and engaged in the text. They were interested not only in completing the first session of the reading, but were anticipating the second text by frequently asking if the next section could be read during the following period. Her observation was additional support to the available data that infer to the effectiveness of a culturally relevant material in catching and maintaining the interest of learners. Another implication to have surfaced from this intervention is the perceived effectiveness of culturally relevant authentic text in helping lower level readers. A crisis facing this nation, not only the ELL population, is the lack of emphasis placed on literacy education in schools. According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2009), in the year 2009, less than one third of eight graders were at or above grade level in terms of reading proficiency; for low income and colored students, the numbers were staggeringly low: 15% of students from low income families, 15% of African Americans and 20% of Hispanics could read at grade level. Students are exposed to verbal English when they speak to classmates and teachers, but most Native and Non‐Native speaking students do not allocate much time to reading and writing. The intervention showed the ability of the culturally relevant material to entice lower level readers to read 106 independently, and for L1 within the text to support reading comprehension through scaffolding for context meaning and prediction. Lower level readers who participated in the intervention were observed to struggle with reading advanced texts, as their L2 vocabulary was often basic and limited. For adolescent learners, whose reading level do not correspond with their language abilities, having to read a lower level book can be uninteresting and, at times, demeaning. Yet, reading an upper level book proves to be a difficult task because of the complex language structure and varying vocabulary. In addition, as is common practice, lower level students are inclined to highlight every incomprehensible English word that they will look up in the dictionary, which constantly interrupts the reading process. The ability to read uninterrupted, and to comprehend most of the content, either through the use of prior knowledge or prediction skills can be highly motivating and satisfying to a learner. According to Garcia (1991), bilingual students have been observed to need additional processing time to digest information regarding unfamiliar vocabulary or unknown terms; the possession of prior knowledge can influence a student’s performance and achievement. This is especially true for learners whose reading levels do not match their grade level. Learning through grammar workbooks is common, but less than ideal. As some students indicated, learning language through stories was “fun.” Having a culturally relevant authentic material allows a learner utilize prior knowledge, whereas the presence of L1 helps scaffold for comprehension. 107 By incorporating L1 within the text, it allowed lower level readers to use their L1 knowledge to scaffold for comprehension and predict the meaning of events and characters, encouraging continuous and actual enjoyment of reading. Once lower level readers realize that, through the use of prior knowledge and L1 scaffolding, reading higher level books is not an impossible feat, reading will stop being merely another task to complete. The chapter Negocios, as a culturally relevant reading text, has been a home‐run chapter‐turn‐book for at least half of the class. Students opted to continue reading the book “Drown” in which Negocios was a chapter. However, further research needs to be conducted to access the appropriate percentage of L1 to be included into an L2 text to optimize learning. An implication from the intervention’s methodology is the need for teachers and researchers to be flexible in their teaching practices in order to foster a conducive learning environment. The flexibility in meeting the needs of a diverse group of students will maximize the students’ learning potential. As was previously stated, this methodology allowed both the class teacher and I to work closely to ensure the best possible learning experience for the students. I had originally planned on an independent reading activity, but at the suggestion of the teacher, I modified the activity to include a large class read‐aloud activity. This was because the teacher understood the apprehension of a number of lower level readers’ in reading this text independently. These lower level students would have felt intimidated trying to read the 108 text by themselves. She also knew that some students had to work after school, and would not have the chance to read the text as homework. The Read‐Alouds allowed students to practice reading out loud, and to assist one another during the reading process. I had also originally planned lessons around the readings, but these were changed in favor of a quiz discussion activity. The teacher had commented that a quiz discussion would be more beneficial for the students; they were exposed to the content and themes of the readings repeatedly. During the quiz discussion, I could also answer any pending questions or clarifications that students had. The class teacher had a positive experience with this intervention as well; she was able to contribute her teaching insights and experience, and to learn from this study. Her suggestions helped create a more effective learning environment for the participants. Flexibility is one of the major attractions of the Formative Experiment Design. This model of intervention allows for researchers to modify the learning procedures to fit the needs of individual students. Through individual assessments of students’ literacy needs, teachers can adapt instructional methods and materials to focus on the strength of the students. This leads to a positive learning experience, which extend to other areas of student learning. Limitations and Challenges The intervention was conducted in a urban high school ESL classroom, which is advantageous because the participants were observed in their natural setting, and 109 where I was able to observe normal challenges and unforeseen incidents that an average teacher would face. However, the usual teaching practices of this classroom are not the norm; not all ESL classrooms function in a similar manner. For example, the teacher had allocated a block of time at the beginning of the first period dedicated to sustained silent reading that all students had to participate in. There is a limited amount of teachers who emphasize any form of reading within the language classroom, especially within ESL. The classroom was filled with books that the teacher had provided herself. Therefore, unlike other urban schools, this ESL classroom does not face limited resources. Other urban high schools might not be as fortunate; a more typical classroom that an ELL might face, especially in an urban high school, would have limited resources, and interesting materials that are grade appropriate are most likely unavailable. There was also an average of two student‐tutors who assisted the students during class lessons. Three days a week, I would participate and facilitate small and large group discussions. Once a week, I would teach for one period. This is not a typical occurrence in an urban school across the nation; many schools lack administrative and faculty members to support the smooth operation of the school. At the discretion of the teacher, these ESL students are able to receive additional help during lessons; however, there are similar ESL classes even within the same school where ELLs would be required to retake the class each semester because the same amount of support is not made available to them. These students are left with little opportunity to participate in reading and writing activities that meet their academic and social needs. 110 Most of the student participants in this intervention are highly motivated to graduate high school; however, their unique background is yet another element of challenge to their learning process. Most high school ELLs are immigrants, whose parents are immigrants themselves, or are still in their home country, so ELLs either live with a grandparent or extended family members. Many of my students work after school, some during. Therefore, the dropout rate is especially high for this student population, not because of truancy, but because students fail to meet the requirements to graduate on time, and would thus quit school. Other students have to relocate according to job opportunities available for their parents or family members. Still others face family issues like unemployment, and so the responsibility is laid upon the shoulders of these students to look for a job. One particular student, who was one of the first to complete both quizzes, had handed in poorly analyzed responses. Both the teacher and I knew the reading comprehension level of this student, and at the suggestion of the teacher, I spoke privately to the student regarding retaking the quiz to increase his scores. During our discussion, I conveyed my concerns and expectations, in which the student then explained that he was experiencing trouble at home (which he did not disclose). When offered another chance at taking the quiz, he declined. After the discussion, I concluded that there are so many facets that influence or affect learning and its manifestations. A student’s home life, emotional stability, the appropriateness of teaching materials, teaching methods and teacher rapport can all contribute to the effectiveness of learning and comprehension. The performance and achievements of many students, like the one 111 mentioned, are deeply influenced by external factors and researchers should be informed and prepared to meet such challenges. This is the valuable aspect of the formative experiment, which allows practitioners to modify the lesson and elements of the study when deemed necessary in order to ensure the best possible learning experience for the students and the most informative results for researchers. Although this intervention did result in increased student participation and achievement, the study’s design might not be generalizable to other learning contexts, because it relied on a by‐the‐moment, intuitive decision of the teacher and researcher. An advantage of having this type of design is that it meets the needs of real students in real time. According to McGill‐Franzen (2005), formative experiments have the potential to disambiguate instructional context in favor of student learning. The Formative experiment method is generalizable; however, this study’s intervention might not be. Therefore, one challenge is that although this intervention provided valuable information to researchers and practitioners, it is difficult to generalize to a larger student population, thus will likely seem less valuable to the developers of educational and curriculum policies. Conclusion This intervention effectively engaged students in speaking, reading and writing in their L2 using a higher level reading material that is culturally relevant, authentic and 112 incorporates L1 words and phrases. Students were more eager to engage in discussion, and exuded more self‐confidence in attempting the written response when L1 was present, as compared to a culturally relevant text without L1. It also provided opportunities for students to learn their L2 in reading and writing, while thinking critically about the reading content. In order for students to succeed in secondary and tertiary education, their ability to critically analyze sophisticated concepts, in addition to the four language skills, should be at or above the proficient level. This intervention succeeded in identifying an instructional material that resulted in increased student participation and achievement for English Language Learners. In such a small‐scale intervention, participant responses might be positive, but in order to further examine the suggested pedagogical modification, this intervention should and can be applied to a variety of ESL classrooms where students will be given texts that contain varying percentages of L1 in order to examine the percentage that fosters the most effective second language acquisition. What is undisputable is the power of culturally relevant texts that incorporate the use of L1 in sparking a reading interest in high school immigrants. 113 Bibliography Ada, A. F. (2003). A magical encounter: Latino children's literature in the classroom (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Alexander, N. (2001). Language, education and race relations. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development Conference. Durban, South Africa: UNRISD. Anderson, R., Hiebert, E., Scott, J., & Wilkinson, L. (1985). Becoming a nation of readers: The report of the Commision on Reading. 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Language Learning, 44(2), 189‐219. 124 Appendix A‐ Negocios Part 1 My father, Ramon de las Casas, left Santo Domingo just before my fourth birthday. Father had been planning to leave for months, hustling and borrowing from his friends, from anyone he could put the bite on. In the end it was just plain luck that got his visa processed when it did. The last of his luck on the Island, considering that Mother had recently discovered he was keeping with an overweight lover he had met while breaking up a fight on her street in Los Millonitos. Mother learned this from a friend of hers, a nurse and a neighbor of the lover. The nurse couldn’t understand what Father was doing loafing around her street when he was supposed to be on patrol. The initial fights, with Mother throwing our silverware into wild orbits, lasted a week. After a fork pierced him in the cheek, Father decided to move out, just until things cooled down. He took a small bag of clothes and broke out early in the morning. On his second night away from the house, with the lover asleep at his side, Father had a dream that the money Mother’s father had promised him was spiraling away in the wind like bright bright birds. That dream blew him out of bed like a gunshot. Are you OK? The lover asked and he shook his head. I think I have to go somewhere, he said. He borrowed a clean mustard‐colored shirt from a friend, put himself in a taxi and paid our Grandfather a visit Grandfather had his rocking chair in his usual place, out on the sidewalk where he could see everyone and everything. He had fashioned that chair as a thirtieth‐ birthday present to himself and twice had to replace the wicker screens that his ass and shoulders had worn out. If you were to walk down to the Duarte, you would see that type of chair for sale everywhere. It was November, the mangoes were thudding from the trees. Despite his dim eyesight, Grandfather saw Father coming the moment he stepped onto Sumner Welles. Grandfather sighed, he’d had it with this spat. Father hiked up his pants and squatted down next to the rocking chair. I am here to talk to you about my life with your daughter, he said, removing his hat. I don’t know what you’ve heard but I swear on my heart that none of it is true. All I want for your daughter and our children is to take them to the United States. I want a good life for them. Grandfather searched his pockets for the cigarette he had just put away. The neighbors were gravitating towards the front of their houses to listen to the exchange. What about this other woman? Grandfather said finally, unable to find the cigarette tucked behind his ear. 125 It’s true I went to her house, but that was a mistake. I did nothing to shame you, Old Man. I know it wasn’t a smart thing to do, but I didn’t know the woman would lie like she did Is that what you said to Virta? Yes, but she won’t listen. She cares too much about what she hears from her friends. If you don’t think I can do anything for your daughter then I won’t ask to borrow that money. Grandfather spit the taste of car exhaust and street dust from his mouth. He might have spit four or five time. The sun could have set twice on his deliberations but with his eyes quitting, his farm in Azua now dust and his family in need, what could he really do? Listen, Ramon, he said, scratching his arm hairs. I believe you. But Virta, she hears the word on the street and you know how that is. Come home and be good to her. Don’t yell. Don’t hit the children. I’ll tell her that you are leaving soon. That will help smooth things between the two of you. Father fetched his things from the lover’s house and moved back in that night. Mother acted as if he were a troublesome visitor who had to be endured. She slept with the children and stayed out of the house as often as she could, visiting her relatives in other parts of the Capital. Many times Father took hold of her arms and pushed her against the slumping walls of the house, thinking his touch would snap her from her brooding silence, but instead she slapped or kicked him. Why the hell do you do that? He demanded. Don’t you know how soon I’m leaving? Then go, she said. You’ll regret that. She shrugged and said nothing else. In a house as loud as ours, one woman’s silence was a serious thing. Father slouched about for a month, taking us to kung fu movies we couldn’t understand and drilling into us how much we’d miss him. He’d hover around Mother while she checked our hair for lice, wanting to be nearby the instant she cracked and begged him to stay. One night Grandfather handed Father a cigar box stuffed with cash. The bills were new and smelled of ginger. Here it is. Make your children proud. 126 You’ll see. He kissed his Old Man’s cheek and the next day had himself a ticket for a flight leaving in three days. He held the ticket in front of Mother’s eyes. Do you see this? She nodded tiredly and took up his hands. In their room, she already had his clothes packed and mended. She didn’t kiss him when he left. Instead she sent each of the children over to him. Say good‐bye to your father. Tell him that you want him back soon. When he tried to embrace her she grabbed his upper arms, her fingers like pincers. You had best remember where this money came from, she said, the last words they exchanged face‐to‐face for five years. He arrived in Miami at four in the morning in a roaring poorly booked plane. He passed easily through customs, having brought nothing but some clothes, a towel, a bar of soap, a razor, his money and a box of gum in his pocket. The ticket to Miami had saved him money but he intended to continue on to New York as soon as he could. New York was the city of jobs, the city that had first called the Cubans and their cigar industry, then the Bootstrap Puerto Ricans and now him. He had trouble finding his way out of the terminal. Everyone was speaking English and the signs were no help. He smoked half a pack of cigarettes while wandering around. When he finally exited the terminal he rested his bag on the sidewalk and threw away the rest of the cigarettes. In the darkness he could see little of Northamerica. A cast stretch of cars, distant palms and a highway that reminded him of the Maximo Gomez. The air was not as hot as home and the city was well lit but he didn’t feel as if he had crossed an ocean and a world. A cabdriver in front of the terminal called to him in Spanish and threw his bag easily in the back seat of the cab. A new one, he said. The man was black, stooped and strong. You got family here? Not really. How about an address? Nope, Father said. I’m here on my own. I got two hands and a heart as strong as a rock. Right, the taxi driver said. He toured Father through the city, around Eight Street. Although the streets were empty and accordion gates stretched in front of store‐fronts 127 Father recognized the prosperity in the buildings and in the tall operative lampposts. He indulged himself in the feeling that he was being shown his new digs to ensure that they met with his approval. Find a place to sleep here, the driver advised. And first thing tomorrow get yourself a job. Anything you can find. I’m here to work Sure, said the driver. He dropped Father off at a hotel and charged him five dollars for half an hour of service. Whatever you save on me will help you later. I hope you do well. Father offered the driver a tip but the driver was already pulling away, the dome atop his cab glowing, calling another fare. Shouldering his bag, Father began to stroll, smelling the dust and the heat filtering up from the pressed rock of the streets. At first he considered saving money by sleeping outside on a bench but he was without guides and the inscrutability of the nearby signs unnerved him. What if there was a curfew? He knew that the slightest turn of fortune could dash him. How many before him had gotten this far only to get sent back for some stupid infraction? The sky was suddenly too high. He walked back the way he had come and went into the hotel, its spastic neon sign obtrusively jutting into the street. He had difficulty understanding the man at the desk, but finally the man wrote down the amount for a night’s stay in block numbers. Room four‐four, the man said. Father had as much difficulty working the shower but finally was able to take a bath. It was the first bathroom he’d been in that hadn’t curled the hair on his body. With the radio tuned in and incoherent, he trimmed his mustache. No photos exist of his mustache days but it is easily imagined. Within an hour he was asleep. He was twenty‐four. He didn’t dream about his family and wouldn’t for many years. He dreamed instead of gold coins, like the ones that had been salvaged from the many wrecks about our island, stacked high as sugar cane. Even on his first disorienting morning, as an aged Latina snapped the sheets from the bed and emptied the one piece of scrap paper he’d thrown in the trash can, Father pushed himself through the sit‐ups and push‐ups that kept him kicking ass until his forties. You should try these, he told the Latina. They make work a lot easier. If you had a job, she said, you wouldn’t need exercise. He stored the clothes he had worn the day before in his canvas shoulder bag and assembled a new outfit. He used his fingers and water to flatten out the worst of the wrinkles. During the years he’d lived with Mother, he’d washed and ironed his own clothes. These things were a man’s job, he liked to say, proud of his own upkeep. Razor 128 creases on his pants and resplendent white shirts were his trademarks. His generation had, after all, been weaned on the sartorial lunacy of the The Chief, who had owned just under ten thousand ties on the eve of his assassination. Dressed as he was, trim and serious, Father looked foreign but not illegal. The first day he chanced on a share in an apartment with three Guatemalans and his first job washing dishes at a Cuban sandwich shop. Once an old American diner of the hamburger‐and‐soda variety, the shop now filled with Oyeme’s and the aroma of roast pork. Sandwich pressers clamped down methodically behind the front counter. The man reading the newspaper in the back told Father he could start right away and gave him two white ankle‐length aprons. Wash these every day, he said. We stay clean around here. Two of Father’s flatmates were brothers, Steven and Thomas Hernandez. Steven was older than Thomas by twenty years. Both had families back home. Cataracts were slowly obscuring Steven’s eyes; the disease had cost him half a finger and his last job. He now swept floors and cleaned up vomit at the train station. This is a lot safer, he told my father. Working at a factory will kill you long before any gangster will. Steven had a passion for the track and would read the forms, despite his brother’s warnings that he was ruining what was left of his eyes, by bringing his face down to the type. The tip of his nose was often capped in ink. Eulalio was the third apartment‐mate. He had the largest room to himself and owned the rusted‐out Duster that brought them to work every morning. He’d been in the States close to two years and when he met Father he spoke to him in English. When Father didn’t answer, Eulalio switched to Spanish. You’re going to have to practice if you expect to get anywhere. How much English do you know? None, Father said after a moment. Eulalo shook his head. Father met Eulalio last and liked him least. Father slept in the living room, first on a carpet whose fraying threads kept sticking to his shaved head, and then on a mattress he salvaged from a neighbor. He worked two long shifts a day at the shop and had two four‐hour breaks in between. On one of the breaks he slept at home and on the other he would handwash his aprons in the shop’s sink and then nap in the storage room while the aprons dried, amidst the towers of El Pico coffee cans and sacks of bread. Sometimes he read the Western dreadfuls he was fond of‐ he could read one in about an hour. If it was too hot or he was bored by his book, he walked the neighborhoods amazed at streets unblocked by sewage and the orderliness of the cars and houses. He was impressed with the transplanted Latin women, who had been transformed by good diets and beauty 129 products unimagined back home. They were beautiful but unfriendly women. He would touch a finger to his beret and stop, hoping to slip in a comment or two, but these women would walk right on by, grimacing. He wasn’t discouraged. He began joining Eulalio on his nightly jaunts to the bars. Father would have gladly shared a drink with the Devil rather than go out alone. The Hernandez brothers weren’t much for the outings; they were hoarders, though occasionally they cut loose, blinding themselves on tequila and beers. The brothers would stumble home late, stepping on Father, howling about some brunette who had spurned them to their faces. Eulalio and Father went out two, three nights a week, drinking rum and stalking. Whenever he could, Father let Eulalio do the buying. Eulalio liked to talk about the farm he had come from, a large plantation near the center of his country. I fell in love with the daughter of the owner and she fell in love with me. Me, a worker. Can you believe that? She was the one who lent me the money to come here. Can you believe that? One of these days, when I got a little money on the side I’m going to send for her. It was the same story, seasoned differently, every night. Father said little, believed less. He watched the women who were always with other men. After an hour or two, Father would pay his bill and leave. Even though the weather was cool, he didn’t need a jacket and liked to push through the breeze in short sleeved shirts. He’d walk the mile home, talking to anyone who would let him. Occasionally drunkards would stop at his Spanish and invite him to a house where men and women were drinking and dancing. He liked those parties far better than the face‐offs at the bars. It was with these strangers that he practiced his fledgling English away from Eulalio’s gleeful criticisms. At the apartment, he’d lie down on his mattress stretching out his limbs to fill it as much as he could. He abstained from thoughts of home, from thoughts of his two bellicose sons and the wife he had nicknamed Melao. He told himself, Think only of today and tomorrow. Whenever he felt weak, he’d take from under the couch the road map he bought at a gas station and trace his fingers up the coast, enunciating the city name slowly, trying to copy the awful crunch of sounds that was English. The northern coast of our island was visible on the bottom right‐hand corner of the map. He left Miami in the winter. He’d lost his job and gained a new one but neither paid enough and the cost of the living room floor was too great. Besides, Father had figured out from a few calculations and from talking to the American woman downstairs (who now understood him) that Eulalio wasn’t paying anything for rent. Which explained why he had so many fine clothes and didn’t work nearly as much as the rest. When Father showed the figures to the Hernandez brothers, written on the border of a 130 newspaper, they were indifferent. He’s the one with the car, they said, Steven blinking at the numbers. Besides, who wants to start trouble here? We’ll all be moving on anyway But this isn’t right, Father said. I’m living like a dog for this shit. What can you do? Thomas said. Life smacks everybody around. We’ll see about that. There are two stories about what happened next, one from Father, one from Mother: either Father left peacefully with a suitcase filled with Eulalio’s best clothes or he beat the man first, and then took a bus and the suitcase to Virginia. Father logged most of the miles after Virginia on foot. He could have afforded another bus ticket but that would have bitten into the rent money he had so diligently saved on the advice of many a veteran immigrant. To be homeless in New York was to court the worst sort of disaster. Better to walk 380 miles than to arrive completely broke. He stored his savings in a fake alligator change purse sewn into the seam of his boxer shorts. Though the purse blistered his thigh, it was in a place no thief would search. He walked in his bad shoes, froze and learned to distinguish different cars by the sounds of their motors. The cold wasn’t as much as bother as his bags were. His arms ached from carrying them, especially the meat of his biceps, twice he hitched rides from truckers who took pity on the shivering man and just outside of Delaware a K‐car stopped him on the side of I‐95. These men were federal marshals. Father recognized them immediately as police; he knew the type. He studied their car and considered running into the woods behind him. His visa had expired five weeks earlier and if caught, he’d go home in chains. He’d heard plenty of tales about the Northamerican police from other illegals, how they liked to beat you before they turned you over to the immigration and how sometimes they just took your money and tossed you out toothless on an abandoned road. For some reason, perhaps the whipping cold, perhaps stupidity, Father stayed where he was, shuffling and sniffing. A window rolled down on the car. Father went over and looked in on two sleepy white officers. You need a ride? Yes, Father said. 131 The men squeezed together and Father slipped into the front seat. Ten miles passed before he could feel his ass again. When the chill and the roar of passing cars finally left him, he realized that a fragile‐looking man, handcuffed and shackled, sat in the back seat. The small man wept quietly. How far you going? The driver asked New York, he said, carefully omitting the Nueva and the Yol. We ain’t going that far but you can ride with us to Trenton if you like. Where the hell you from pal? Miami. Miami. Miami’s kind of far from here. The other man looked at the driver. Are you a musician of something? Yes, Father said. I play the accordion. That excited the man in the middle. Shit, my old man played the accordion but he was Polack like me. I didn’t know you spiks played it too. What kind of polkas do you like? Polkas? Jesus Will, the driver said. They don’t play polkas in Cuba. They drove on, slowing only to unfold their badges at the tolls. Father sat still and listened to the man crying in the back. What is wrong? Father asked. Maybe sick? The driver snorted. Him sick? We’re the ones who are about to puke. What’s your name? the Polack asked Ramon. Ramon, meet Scott Carlson Porter, murderer. Murderer? Many, many murders. 132 He’s been crying since we left Georgia, the driver explained. He hasn’t stopped. Not once. The little pussy cries even when we’re eating. He’s driving us nuts. We thought maybe having another person inside with us would shut him up‐ the man next to Father shook his head‐ but I guess not. The marshals dropped Father off in Trenton. He was so relieved not to be in jail that he didn’t mind walking the four hours it took to summon the nerve to put his thumb out again. His first year in New York he lived in Washington Heights, in a roachy flat above what’s now the Three Maria’s restaurant. As soon as he secured his apartment and two jobs, one cleaning offices and the other washing dishes, he started writing home. In the first letter he folded four twenty‐dollar bills. The trickles of money he sent back were not premeditated like those sent by his other friends, calculated from what he needed to survive; these were arbitrary sums that often left him broke and borrowing until the next payday. The first year he worked nineteen‐, twenty‐ hour days, seven days a week. Out in the cold he cough explosively, feeling as if his lungs were tearing open from the force of his exhales and in the kitchens the heat from the ovens sent pain corkscrewing into his head. He wrote home sporadically. Mother forgave him for what he had done and told him who else had left the neighborhood, via coffin or plane ticket. Father’s replies were scribbled on whatever he would find, usually the thin cardboard of tissue boxes or pages from the bill books at work. He was so tired from working that he misspelled almost everything and had to bite his lip to stay awake. He promised her and the children tickets soon. The pictures he received from Mother were shared with his friends at work and then forgotten in his wallet, lost between old lottery slips. The weather was no good. He was sick often but was able to wok through it and succeeded in saving up enough money to start looking for a wife to marry. It was the old routine, the oldest of the postwar tricks. Find a citizen, get married, wait and then divorce her. The routine was well practiced and expensive and riddled with swindlers. A friend of his at work put him in touch with a portly balding white guy named The General. They met at a bar. The General had to eat two plates of greasy onion rings before he talked business. Look here friend, The General said. You pay me fifty bills and I bring you a woman that’s interested. Whatever the two of you decide is up to you. All I care is that I get paid and that the women I bring are for real. You get no refunds if you can’t work something out with her. Why the hell don’t I just go out looking for myself? 133 Sure, you can do that. He patted vegetable oil on Father’s hand. But I’m the one who takes the risk of running into Immigration. If you don’t mind that then you can go out looking anywhere you what. Even to Father fifty bucks wasn’t exorbitant but he was reluctant to part with it. He had no problem buying rounds at the bar or picking up a new belt when the colors and moment suited him but this was different. He didn’t want to deal with any more change. Don’t get me wrong: it wasn’t that he was having fun. No, he’d been robbed twice already, his ribs beaten until they were bruised. He often drank too much and went home to his room, and there he’d fume, spinning angry at the stupidity that had brought him to this freezing hell of a country. He never had time to sleep, let alone to go to a concert or the museums that filled entire sections of the newspapers. And the roaches. The roaches were so bold in his flat that turning on the lights did not startle them. They waved their three‐inch antennas as if to say, Hey idiot, turn that shit off. He spent five minutes stepping on their carapaced bodies and shaking them from his mattress before dropping into his cot and still the roaches crawled on him at night. No, he wasn’t having fun but he also wasn’t ready to start bringing his family over. Getting legal would place his hand firmly on that first rung. He wasn’t so sure he could face us so soon. He asked his friends, most of whom were in worse financial shape than he was, for advice. They assumed he was reluctant because of the money. Don’t be a jerk, man. Give Mr So‐and‐So his money and that’s it. Maybe you make good, maybe you don’t. That’s the way it is. They built these neighborhoods out of bad luck and you got to get used to that. He met The General across from the Boricua Cafeteria and handed him the money. A day later the man gave him a name: Flor de Oro. That isn’t her real name of course, The General assured Father. I like to keep things historical. They met at a café. Each of them had a pastry and a glass of soda. Flor was businesslike, about fifty. Her gray hair coiled in a bun on top of her head. She smoked while Father talked, her hands speckled like the shell of an egg. Are you Dominican? Father asked No You must be Cuban then. 134 One thousand dollars and you’ll be too busy being an American to care where I’m from. That seems like a lot of money. Do you think once I become a citizen I could make money marrying people? I don’t know. Father threw two dollars down on the counter and stood. How much then? How much do you have? I work so much that sitting here is like having a week’s vacation. Still, I only have six hundred dollars. Find two hundred more and we got a deal. Father brought her the money the next day, stuffed in a wrinkled paper bag and in return, was given a pink receipt. When do we get started? He asked Next week. I have to start on the paperwork right away He pinned the receipt over his bed and before he went to sleep, he checked behind it to be sure no roaches lurked. His friends were excited and the boss at the cleaning job took them out for drinks and appetizers in Harlem, where their Spanish drew more looks than their frumpy clothes. Their excitement was not his; his felt as if he’d moved too precipitously. A week later, Father went to see the friend who had recommended The General. I still haven’t gotten a call, he explained. The friend was scrubbing down a counter. You will. The friend didn’t look up. A week later Father laid in bed, drunk, alone, knowing full well that he’d been robbed. He’d lost the cleaning job shortly thereafter for punching the friend off a ladder. He lost his apartment and had to move in with a family and found another job frying wings and rice at a Chinese take‐out joint. Before he left his flat, he wrote an account of what had happened to him on the pink receipt and left it on the wall as a warning to whatever fool came next to take his place. Be careful, he wrote. These people are worse than sharks. 135 He sent no money home for close to six months. Mother’s letters would be read and folded and tucked into his well‐use bags. Father met her on the morning before Christmas, in a laundry, while folding his pants and knotting his damp socks. She was short, had daggers of black hair pointing down in front of her ears and left him her iron. She was originally from La Romana, but like so many Dominicans had eventually moved to the Capital. I go back there about once a year, she told Father. Usually around Easter to see my parents and my sister. I haven’t bee home in a long long time. I’m still trying to get the money together. It will happen, believe me. It took me years before I could go back my first time. Father found out she’d been in the States for six years, a citizen. Her English was excellent. While he packed his things in his nylon bag, he considered asking her to the party. A friend had invited him to a house in Corona, Queens where fellow Dominicans were celebrating Christmas Eve together. He knew from a past party that up in Queens the food, dancing and single women came in heaps. Four children were trying to pry open the plate at the top of a dryer to reach the coin mechanism underneath. My fucking quarter is stuck, a kid was shouting. In the corner, a student, still in medical greens, was trying to read a magazine and not be noticed but as soon as the kids were tired of the machine, they descended on him, pulling at his magazine and pushing their hands into his pockets. He began to shove back Hey, Father said. The kids threw him the finger and ran outside. Fuck all spiks! They shrieked. Niggers, the medical student muttered. Father pulled the drawstrings shut on his bag and decided against asking her. He knew the rules: strange is the woman who goes strange places with a complete stranger. Instead Father asked her if he could practice his English on her one day. I really need to practice, he said. And I’d be willing to pay you for your time She laughed. Don’t be ridiculous. Stop by when you can. She wrote her number and address in crooked letters. Father squinted at the paper. You don’t live around here? No but my cousin does. I can give you her number if you want. 136 No this will be fine. He had a grand time at the party and actually avoided the rum and the six‐packs he liked to down. He sat with two older women and their husbands, a plate of food on his lap (potato salad, pieces of roast chicken, a stack of tostones, half an avocado and a tiny splatter of Mondongo out of politeness to the woman who brought it) and talked about his days in Santo Domingo. It was a lucid enjoyable night that would stick out in his memory like a spike. He swaggered home around one o’clock, bearing a plastic bag loaded with food and a loaf of bread under his arm. He gave the bread to the shivering man sleeping in the hallway of his building When he called Nilda a few days later he found out from a young girl who spoke in politely spaced words that she was at work. Father left his name and called back that night. Nilda answered. Ramon, you should have called me yesterday. It was a good day to start since neither of us had worked. I wanted to let you celebrate the holiday with your family. Family? She clucked. I only have a daughter here. What are you doing now? Maybe you want to come over. I wouldn’t want to intrude, he said because he was a sly one, you had to admit that. She owned the top floor of a house on a bleak quiet street in Brooklyn. The house was clean with cheap bubbled linoleum covering the floors. Nilda’s taste struck Ramon as low‐class. She threw together styles and colors the way a child might throw together paint or clay. A bright orange plaster elephant reared up from the center of a low glass table. A tapestry of a herd of mustangs hung opposite vinyl cutouts of African singers. Fake plants relaxed in each room. Her daughter Milagros was excruciatingly polite and seemed to have an endless supply of dresses more fit for birthday party than everyday life. She wore thick plastic glasses and sat in front of the television when Father visited, one skinny leg crossed over the other. Nilda had a well‐stocked kitchen and Father cooked for her, his stockpile of Cantonese and Cuban recipes inexhaustible. Steak and tomatoes was his best dish and he was glad to see he surprised her. I should have you in my kitchen, she said. She liked to talk about the restaurant she owned and her last husband, who had a habit of hitting her and expecting that all his friends be fed for free. Nilda wasted hours of their study time caught between the leaves of Milagros’s development as if the 137 girl were an exotic bug. He did not mention his own family. Two weeks into his English lesson, Father kissed Nilda. They were sitting on the plastic –covered sofa, in the next room a game show was on TV, and his lips were greasy from Nilda’s greasy chicken. I think you better leave, she said. You mean now? Yes, now. He drew on his windbreaker as slowly as he could, expecting her to recant. She held open the door and shut it quickly after him. He cursed her the entire train ride back to Manhattan. The next day at work, he told his co‐workers that she was insane and had a snake coiled up in her heart. I should’ve known, he said bitterly. A week later he was back at her house, grating coconuts and talking in English. He tried again and again she had him leave. Each time he kissed her she threw him out. It was a cold winter and he didn’t have much of a coat. Nobody bought coats then, Father told me, because nobody was expecting to stay that long. So I kept going back and any chance I got I kissed her. She would tense up and tell me to leave, like I’d hit her. So I would kiss her again and she’d say, Oh, I really think you better leave now. She was a crazy lady. I kept it up and one day she kissed me back. Finally. By then I knew every damn train in the city and I had this big wool coat and two pairs of gloves. I looked like an Eskimo. Like an American. Within a month, Father moved out of his apartment into her house in Brooklyn. They were married in March. 138 Appendix B‐ Quiz 1 Name:_____________________________________ Quiz 1— Please choose the best 10 questions and answer them in full sentences. Use a different piece of paper to write your answer. You may refer to the story. 1. “ On his second night away from the house, with the lover asleep at his side, Father had a dream that the money Mother’s father had promised him was spiraling away in the wind like bright bright birds. That dream blew him out of bed like a gunshot.” What does the underlined sentence mean? (your answer can describe Father’s physical actions or emotional feelings) (p.1) 2. Even though they were poor, Ramon’s father‐in‐law still loaned money to Ramon. Why do you think he did that? 3. Does Virta really care if Ramon leaves her and their children, for the United States? How do you know? 4. What was Ramon’s main aim/ambition in getting to the United States? Please support your answer with a quote from the chapter. 5. “Father met Eulalio last and liked him least.” Why would Ramon join Eulalio every night at the bars when he disliked Eulalio? Please support your answer with a text from the chapter. (p.5) 6. Ramon had dreamed of living in New York, but ended up staying in Miami for a long time. When he finally left, he took the bus to Virginia. Then, “Father logged most of the miles after Virginia on foot.” What does that phrase mean? (p.6) 7. During his first year in New York, Ramon worked 19 to 20 hours a day, seven days a week. Have you, or know someone who has experienced this? 8. At what point did Ramon and Virta’s relationship improve? Why do you think it improved? When did it start getting bad again? Why? (p. 8‐9) 9. Who is “The General” and why did Ramon go to meet him? (p. 9) 10. Name any two themes related to this story, and explain your answer from the text. 139 11. When Ramon first met Nilda, what excuse did he use to get to know her better? What, if any, were his true intention towards Nilda? 12. What do you think Ramon was like as a young man, before his journey to the United States? 13. Please pick any section of the story that you can relate to. Make a text‐to‐self, or text‐to‐text, or text‐to world comparison. (Pick only one) 140 Appendix C‐ Negocios Part 2 Although he wore a ring, Papi didn’t act the part of the esposo. He lived in Nilda’s house, shared her bed, paid no rent, ate her food, talked to Milagros when the TV was broken and set up his weight bench in the cellar. He regained his health and liked to show Nilda how his triceps and biceps could gather in prominent knots with a twist of his arm. He bought his shirts in size medium so he could fill them out. He worked two jobs close to her house. The first soldering at a radiator shop, plugging holes mostly, the other as a cook at a Chinese restaurant. The owner of the restaurant were Chinese‐Cubans; they cooked a better arroz negro than pork fried rice and loved to spend the quiet hours between lunch and dinner slapping dominos with Papi and the other help on top of huge drums of shortening. One day, while adding up his totals, Papi told these men about his familia in Santo Domingo. The chief cook, a man so skinny they called him Needle, soured. You can’t forget your familia like that. Didn’t they support you to send you here? I’m not forgetting them, Papi said defensively. Right now is just not a good time for me to send for them. You should see my bills. What bills? Papi thought for a moment. Electricity. That’s very expensive. My house has eighty‐eight light bulbs. What kind of house are you living in? Very big. An antique house needs a lot of bulbs, you know Come mierda. Nobody has that many light bulbs in their house You better do more playing and less talking or I’m going to have to take all your money. These harangues must not have bothered his conscience much because that year he sent no money. Nilda learned about Papi’s other familia from a chain of friends that reached back across the Caribe. It was inevitable. She was upset and Papi had to deliver some of his most polished performance to convince her that he no longer cared about us. He’d been fortunate in that when Mami reached back across a similar chain of migrants to 141 locate Papi in the north, he’d told her to direct her letters to the restaurant he was working at and not to Nilda’s house. As with most immigrants around them, Nilda was usually at work. The couple saw each other mostly in the evenings. Nilda not only had her restaurant, where she served a spectacular and popular sancocho with wedges of cold avocado, but she also pushed her sastrería on the customers. If a man had a torn work shirt or a pant cuff soiled in machine oil, she’d tell him to bring it by, that she’d take care of it, cheap. She had a loud voice and could draw the attention of the entire eatery to a despeinada article of clothing and few, under the combined gaze of their peers, could resist her. She brought the clothes home in a garbage bag and spent her time off sewing and listening to the radio, getting up only to bring Ramon a beer or to change the channel for him. When she had to bring money home from the register, her skills at hiding it were uncanny. She kept nothing but coins in her purse and switched her hiding place each trip. Papi se asombró at her other ploys. After a crazy day of mashing plátanos and serving the workers, she sealed nearly nine hundred dollars in twenties and fifties in a sandwich bag then forced the bag into the mouth of a Malta bottle. She put a straw in there and sipped on it on her way home. She never lost a brown penny in the time she and Papi were together. Papi’s best friend at that this time, and Nilda’s neighbor, was Jorge Carretas Lugones, or Jo‐Jo as he was commonly known in the barrio. Jo‐Jo was a five‐foot‐tall Puerto Rican whose light skin was stippled with moles and whose blues eyes were the color of larimar. In the street, he wore a pava, angled in the style of the past, carried a pen and all the local lotteries in his shirt pockets, and would have struck anyone as a hustler. Jo‐Jo owned two hot dog carts and co‐owned a grocery store that was very prosperous. It had once been a tired place with rotting wood and cracked tiles but with his two brothers he’d pulled the porqueria out and rebuilt it over the four months of one winter, while driving a taxi and working as a translator and letter‐writer for a local patrón. The years of doubling the price on toilet paper, soap and diapers to pay the loan sharks were over. The coffin refrigerators lining one wall were new, as were the bright green lottery machine and the revolving racks of junk food at the end of each short shelf. He was disdainful of anyone who had a regular crowd of parasites loafing about their stores, discussing the taste of yucca and their last lays. And though this neighborhood was rough (not as bad as his old barrio in San Juan where he had seen all his best friends lose fingers in machete fights), Jo‐Jo didn’t need to put rejas over his store. The local kids left him alone and instead terrorized a Pakistani family down the street. The family owned an Asian grocery store that looked like a holding cell, windows behind steel mesh, door enforced with steel plates. Jo‐Jo and Papi met at the local bar regularly. Papi was the man who knew the right times to laugh and when he did, everyone around him joined in. He was always 142 reading newspapers and sometimes books and seemed to know many things. Jo‐Jo saw in Papi another brother, a man from a luckless past needing a little direction. Jo‐Jo had already rehabilitated two of his siblings who were on their way to owning their own stores. Now that you have a place and papers, Jo‐Jo told Papi, you need to use these things to your advantage. You have some time, you don’t have to break your ass paying the rent, so use it. Save some money and buy yourself a little business. I’ll sell you one of my hotdog carts cheap if you want. You can see they’re making steady plata. Then you get your familia over here and buy yourself a nice house and start branching out. That’s the American way. Papi wanted a negocio of his own, that was his dream, but he balked at starting at the bottom, selling hot dogs. While most of the men around him were two times broke, he had seen a few, fresh off the boat, shake the water from their backs and jump right into the lowest branches of the American establishment. That leap was what he envisioned for himself, not some slow upward crawl through the mud. What it would be and when it would come, he did not know. I’m looking for the right investment, he told Jo‐Jo. I’m not a food man. What sort of man are you then? Jo‐Jo demanded. You Dominicans got restaurants in your sangre. I know, Papi said. But I am not a food man. Worse, Jo‐Jo spouted a hard line on loyalty to familia, which troubled Papi. Each scenario his friend proposed ended with Papi’s familia safely within his sight, showering him with love. Papi had difficulty separating the two threads of his friend’s beliefs, that of negocios and that of familia, and in the end the two became impossibly intertwined. With the hum of his new life Papi should have found it easy to bury the memory of us but neither his conscience, not the letters from home that found him wherever he went, would allow it. Mami’s letters, as regular as the months themselves, were corrosive slaps in the face. It was now a one‐sided correspondence, with Papi reading and not mailing anything back. He opened the letters, wincing in anticipation. Mami detailed how his children were suffering, how his littlest boy was so anemic people thought he was a corpse coming back to life; she told him about his oldest son playing in the barrio, tearing open his feet and exchanging blows with his so‐called friends. Mami refused to talk about her condition. She called Papi a desgraciado and a puto of the highest order for abandoning them, a traitor cabrón. He showed Jo‐Jo the letters, often at drunken bitter moments, and Jo‐Jo would shake his head, waving for two more beers. 143 You, my compadré, have done too many things wrong. If you keep this up, your life will spring apart. What in the world can I do? What does this woman want from me? I’ve been sending her money. Does she want me to starve up here? You and I know what you have to do. That’s all I can say, otherwise I’d be wasting my breath. Papi was lost. He would take long perilous night walks home from his jobs, sometimes arriving with his knuckles scuffed and his clothes disheveled. His and Nilda’s child was born in the spring, a son, also named Ramon, cause for fiesta but there was no celebration among his friends. Too many of them knew. Nilda could sense that something was wrong, that a part of him was detained elsewhere but each time she brought it up Papi told her it was nothing, always nothing. With a regularity that proved didáctico, Jo‐Jo had Papi drive him to Kennedy Airport to meet one or the other of the relatives Jo‐Jo had sponsored to come to the States to make it big. Despite his prosperity, Jo‐Jo could not drive and did not own a car. Papi would borrow Nilda’s Chevy wagon and would fight the traffic for an hour to reach the airport. Depending on the season, Jo‐Jo would bring either a number of coats or a cooler of beverages taken from his shelves‐ a rare treat since Jo‐Jo’s cardinal rule was that one should never prey on one’s own stock. At the terminal, Papi would stand back, his hands pressed in his pockets, his beret plugged on tight, while Jo‐Jo surged forward to greet his familia. Papi’s English was good now, his clothes better. Jo‐Jo would enter a berserk frenzy when his relatives stumbled through the arrival gate, dazed and grinning, bearing cardboard boxes and canvas bags. There would be crying and abrazos. Jo‐Jo would introduce Ramon as a brother and Ramon would be dragged into the circle of crying people. It was a simple matter for Ramon to rearrange the faces of the new arrivals and see his wife and his children there. He began again to send money to his familia on the Island. Nilda noticed that he began to borrow from her for his tobacco and to play the lotteries. Why do you need my money? She complained. Isn’t that the reason you’re working? We have a baby to look after. There are bills to pay. One of my children died, he said. I have to pay for the wake and the funeral. So leave me alone. Why didn’t you tell me? 144 He put his hands over his face but when he removed them she was still staring con incredulidad. Which one? she asked. His hand swung clumsily. She looked at him and neither of them said a word. Papi landed a union job with Reynolds Aluminum in West New York that paid triple what he was making at the radiator shop. It was nearly a two‐hour commute, followed by a day of tendon‐ripping labor, but he was willing‐ the money and the benefits were exceptional. It was the first time he had moved outside the umbra of his fellow immigrants. The racism was pronounced. The two fights he had were reported to the bosses and they put him on probation. He worked through that period, got a raise and the highest performance rating in his department and the shittiest schedule in the entire fábrica. The whites were always dumping their bad shifts on him and on his friend Chuito. Guess what, they’d say, clapping them on the back. I need a little time with my kids this week. I know you wouldn’t mind taking this or that day for me. No, my friend, Papi would say. I wouldn’t mind. Once Chuito complained to the bosses and was written up for detracting from the familial spirit of the department. Both men knew better than to speak up again. On a normal day, Papi was too exhausted to visit with Jo‐Jo. He’d enjoy his dinner and then settle down to watch Tom and Jerry, who delighted him with their violence. Nilda, watch this, he’d scream and she’d dutifully appear, needles in mouth, baby in her arms. Papi would laugh so loud that Milagros upstairs would join in without even seeing what had occurred. Oh, that’s wonderful, he’d say. Would you look at that! They’re killing each other. One day, he skipped his dinner and a night in front of the TV to drive south with Chuito into New Jersey to a small town outside of Perth Amboy. Chuito’s Gremlin pulled into a neighborhood under construction. Huge craters had been gouged in the earth and towering ziggurats of tan bricks stood ready to be organized into buildings. New pipes were being laid by the mile and the air was tart with the smell of chemicals. It was a cool night. The men wandered around the pits and the sleeping trucks. Mi amigo is doing the hiring for this place, Chuito said. Construction? No, when this neighborhood goes up they’ll need superintendents to watch over things. Keep the hot water running, stop a leaking faucet, put new tiles in the bathroom. For that you get sueldo y alquiler gratis. That’s the kind of job worth having. The towns 145 nearby are quiet, lots of good gringos. Listen, Ramon, I can get you a job here if you like. It would be a good place to move. Out of the city, safety. I’ll put your name at the top of the list and when this place is done you’ll have a nice easy job. This sounds better than a dream. Forget dreams. This is real, compadré. The two men inspected the site for about an hour and then headed back toward Brooklyn. Papi was silent. A plan was forming. Here was a place to move his familia if it came from the Island. Quiet and close to his job. Most important, the neighborhood would not know him or the wife he had in the States. When he reached home that night he said nothing to Nilda about where he had been. He didn’t care that she was suspicious and that she yelled at him about his muddy shoes. Papi continued to send money home and in Jo‐Jo’s lockbox he was saving a tidy sum for plane tickets. And the one morning when the sun had taken hold of the entire house and the sky seemed too thin and blue to hold a cloud, Nilda said, I want to go to the Island this year. Are you serious? I want to see my viejos. What about the baby? He’s never gone, has he? No. Then he should see his patria. I think it’s important. I agree, he said. He tapped a pen on the wrinkled place mat. This sounds like you’re serious. I think I am. Maybe I’ll go with you. If you say so. She had reason to doubt him; he was real good at planning but real bad at doing. And she didn’t stop doubting him either, until he was on the place next to her, rifling anxiously through the catalogs, the vomit bag and the safety instructions. 146 He was in Santo Domingo for five days. He stayed at Nilda’s familia’s house on the western edge of the city. It was painted bright orange with an outhouse slumped nearby and a pig pushing around in a pen. Homero and Josefa, tios of Nilda, drove home with them from the airport in a cab and gave them the “bedroom.” The couple slept in the other room, the “living room.” Are you going to see them? Nilda asked that first night. They were both listening to their stomachs struggling to digest the heaping meal of yucca and higado they had eaten. Outside, the roosters were pestering each other. Maybe, he said. If I get the time. I know that’s the only reason you’re here. What’s wrong with a man seeing his familia? If you had to see your first husband for some reason, I’d let you, wouldn’t I? Does she know about me? Of course she knows about you. Not like it matters now. She’s out of the picture completely. She didn’t answer him. He listened to his heart beating, and began to sense its movimientos furtivos. On the plane, he’d been confident. He’d talked to the vieja near the aisle, telling her how excited he was. It is always good to return home, she said tremulously. I come back anytime I can, which isn’t so much anymore. Things aren’t good. Seeing the country he’d been born in, seeing his people in charge of everything, he was unprepared for it. The air whooshed out of his lungs. For nearly four years he’d not spoken his Spanish loudly in front of the Northamericans and now he was hearing it bellowed and flung from every mouth. His pores opened, dousing him as he hadn’t been doused in years. An awful heat was on the city and the red dust dried out his throat and clogged his nose. The poverty‐ the unwashed children pointing sullenly at his new shoes, the familias slouching in hovels‐ was familiar and sofocanté. He felt like a tourist, riding a guagua to Boca Chica and having his and Nilda’s photograph taken in front of the Alcazar de Colon. He was obliged to eat two or three times a day at various friend’s of Nilda’s familia; he was, after all, the new successful 147 husband from the North. He watched Josefa pluck a chicken, the wet plumage caking her hands and plastering the floor, and remembered the many times he’d done the same, up in Santiago, his first home, where he no longer belonged. He tried to see his familia but each time he set his mind to it, his resolve scattered like leaves before a hurricane wind. Instead he saw his old friends on the force and drank six bottles of Brugal in three days. Finally, on the forth day of his visit, he borrowed the nicest clothes he could find and folded two hundred dollars into his pocket. He took a guagua down Sumner Welles, as Calle XXI had been renamed, and cruised into the heart of his old barrio. Colmados on every block and billboards plastering every exposed wall or board. The children chased each other with hunks of cinder block from nearby buildings‐ a few threw rocks at the guagua, the loud pings jerking the passengers upright. The progress of the guagua was frustratingly slow, each stop seemed spaced four feet from the last. Finally he disembarked, walking two blocks to the corner of XXI and Tunti. The air must have seemed thin then, and the sun like a fire in his hair, sending trickles of sweat down his face. He must have seen people he knew. Jayson sitting glumly at his colmado, a soldier turned grocer. Chicho, gnawing at a chicken bone, at his feet a row of newly shined shoes. Maybe Papi stopped there and couldn’t go on, maybe he went as far as the house, which hadn’t been painted since his departure. Maybe he even stopped at our house and stood there, waiting for his children out front to recognize him. In the end, he never visited us. If Mami heard from her friends that he was in the city, with his other wife, she never told us about it. His ausencia seemed nothing to me. And if a strange man approached me during my play and stared down at me and my brother, perhaps asking our names, I don’t remember it now. Papi returned home and had trouble resuming his rutina. He took a couple of sick days, the first three ever, and spent the time in front of the television and at the bar. Twice he turned down negocios from Jo‐Jo “the gold in his teeth,” but the other, the clothing store on Smith Street, with the bargain basement buys, the enormous bins of factory seconds and a huge layaway shelf, pulled in the money in bags. Papi had recommended the location to Jo‐Jo, having heard about the vacancy from Chuito, who was still living in Pearth Amboy. London Terrace Apartments had not yet opened. After work Papi and Chuito caroused in the bars on Smith and Elm Streets and every few nights Papi stayed over in Perth Amboy. Nilda had continued to put on weight after the birth of the third Ramon and while Papi favored heavy women, he didn’t favor obesity and wasn’t inclined to go home. Who needs a woman like you? He told her. The couple began to fight on a regular schedule. Locks were changed, doors were broken, slaps were exchanged but weekends and an occasional weekday night were still spent together. 148 In the dead of summer, when the potato‐scented fumes from the diesel forklifts were choking the warehouses, Papi was helping another man shove a crate into position when he felt a punzada about midway up his spine. Hey puta, keep pushing, the other man said. Pulling his work shirt out of his Dickies, Papi twisted to the right, then to the left and that was it, something snapped. He fell to his knees. The pain was so intense, shooting through him like fireballs from Roman candles, that he vomited on the concrete floor of the warehouse. His co‐workers moved him to the lunchroom. For two hours he tried repeatedly to walk and failed. Chuito came down from his division, concerned for his friend but also worried that this unscheduled break would piss off his boss. How are you? He asked. Not so good. You have to get me out of here You know I can’t leave. Then call me a cab. Just get me home. Like anyone wounded, he thought home could save him. Chuito called him a taxi; none of the other employees took time to help him walk out. Nilda put him in bed and had a cousin manage the restaurant. Jesu, he moaned to her. I should’ve slowed down a little. Just a little bit longer and I would’ve been home with you. Do you know that? A couple of hours more. She went down to the botánica for a poultice and then down to the bodega for aspirin. Let’s see how well the old magic works, she said, smearing the poultice onto his back. For two days he couldn’t move, not even his head. He ate very little, strictly soups she concocted. More than once he fell asleep and woke up to find Nilda out, shopping for medicinal teas, and Milagros over him, a grave owl in her large glasses. Mi hija, he said. I feel like I’m dying. You won’t die, she said. And what if I do? Then Mama will be alone. 149 He closed his eyes and prayed that she would be gone and when he opened them, she was and Nilda was coming in through the door with another remedy, steaming on a battered tray. He was able to sit up and call in sick by himself on the fourth day. He told the morning‐shift manager that he couldn’t move too well. I think I’ll stay in bed, he said. The manager told him to come in so he could receive a medical furlough. Papi had Milagros find the name of a lawyer in the phone book. He was thinking lawsuit. He had dreams, fantastic dreams of gold rings and a spacious house with caged tropical birds in its rooms, a house awash with sea winds. The woman lawyer he contacted only worked divorces but she gave him the name of her brother. Nilda wasn’t optimistic about his plan. Do you think the gringo will part with his money like that? The reason they’re so pale is because they’re terrified of not having any plata. Have you even spoken to the man you were helping? He’s probably going to be a witness for the company so that he won’t lose his job the same way you’re going to lose yours. The maricos will probably get a raise for it, too. I’m not an illegal, he said. I’m protected. I think it’s better if you let it drop. He called Chuito to sound him out. Chuito wasn’t optimistic either. The boss knows what you’re trying to yank. He no like it, compadré. He say you better get back to work or you’re quitted. His courage failing, Papi started pricing a consultation with an independent doctor. Very likely, his father’s foot was hopping in his mind. His father, Jose Edilio, the loudmouthed ball‐breaking vagrant who had never married Papi’s mother but nevertheless had given her nine children, had attempted a similar stunt when he worked in a hotel kitchen in Rio Piedras. Jose had accidentally dropped a tin of stewed tomatoes on his foot. Two small bones broke but instead of seeing a doctor, Jose kept working, limping around the kitchen. Every day at work, he’d smile at his fellow workers and say, I guess it’s time to take care of that foot. Then he smash another can on it, figuring the worse it was, the more money he’d get when he finally showed the bosses. It saddened and shamed Papi to hear of this while he was growing up. The old man was rumored to have wandered the barrio he lived in, trying to find someone who would take a bat to the foot. For the old man that foot was an investment, an heirloom he cherished and burnished, until half of it had to be amputated because the infection was so bad. 150 After another week and with no calls from the lawyers, Papi saw the company doctor. His spine felt as if there were broken glass inside of it but he was given only three weeks of medical leave. Ignoring the instructions on the medication, he swallowed ten pills a day for the pain. He got better. When he returned to the job he would work and that was enough. The bosses were unanimous, however, in voting down Papi’s next raise. They degradaron him to the rotating shift he’d been on during the first days of the job. Instead of taking his licks, he blamed it on Nilda. Puta, was what he took to calling her. They fought with renewed vigor; the orange elephant was knocked over and lost a tusk. She kicked him out twice but after probationary weeks at Jo‐Jo’s allowed him to return. He saw less of his son, avoiding all of the daily routines that fed and maintained the infant. The third Ramon was a handsome child who roamed the house restlessly, tilted forward and at full speed, as if he were a top that had been sent spinning. Papi was good at playing with the baby, pulling him by his foot across the floor and tickling his sides, but as soon as the third Ramon started to fuss, playtime was over. Nilda, come and tend to this, he’d say. The third Ramon resembled Papi’s other sons and on occasion he’d say, Yunior, don’t do that. If Nilda heard these slips she would explode. Maldito, she’d cry, picking up the child and retreating with Milagros into the bedroom. Papi didn’t screw up too often but he was never certain how many times he’d called the third with the second son Ramon in mind. With his back killing him and his life with Nilda headed down the toilet, Papi began more and more to regard his departure as inevitable. His first familia was the logical destination. He began to see them as his saviors, as a regenerative force that could redeem his fortunes. He said as much to Jo‐Jo. Now you’re finally talking sense, panín, Jo‐Jo said. Chuito’s imminent departure from the warehouse also emboldened Ramon to act. London Terrace Apartment, delayed because of a rumor that it had been built on a chemical dumpsite, had finally opened. Jo‐Jo was only able to promise Papi half the money he needed. Jo‐Jo was still throwing away money on his failed negocio and needed a little time to recover. Papi took this as a betrayal and said so to their friends. He talks a big game but when you’re at the final inning, you get nada. Although these accusations filtered back to Jo‐Jo and wounded him, he still loaned Papi the money without comment. That’s how Jo‐Jo was. Papi worked for the rest of it, more months than he expected. Chuito reserved him an apartment and together they began filling the place with furniture. He started taking a shirt or two with him to work, which he then sent to the apartment. Sometimes he’d cram socks in his pockets or put on two pairs of underwear. He was smuggling himself out of Nilda’s life. 151 What’s happening to your clothes? She asked one night. It’s that damn cleaners, he said. That bobo keeps losing my things. I’m going to have to have a word with him as soon as I get a day off. Do you want me to go? I can handle this. He’s a very nasty guy. The next morning she caught him cramming two guayaberas in his lunch pail. I’m sending these to be cleaned, he explained. Let me do them You’re too busy, it’s easier this way. He wasn’t very smooth about it. They spoke only when necessary. Years later Nilda and I would speak, after he had left us for good, after her children had moved out of the house. Milagros had children of her own and their pictures crowded on tables and walls. Nilda’s son loaded baggage at JFK. I picked up the picture of him with his girlfriend. We were brothers all right, though his face respected symmetry. We sat in the kitchen, in that same house, and listened to the occasional put of a rubber ball being batted down the wide channel between the building fronts. My mother had given me her address (Give my regards to the puta, she’d said) and I’d taken three trains to reach her, walked blocks with her address written on my palm. I’m Ramon’s son, I’d say. Hijo, I know who you are. She fixed café con leche and offered me a Goya cracker. No thanks, I said, no longer as willing to ask her questions or even to be sitting there. Anger had a way of returning. I looked down at my feet and saw that the linoleum was worn and filthy. Her hair was white and cut close to her small head. We sat and drank and finally talked, two strangers reliving an event‐ a whirlwind, a comet, a war‐ we’d both seen but from different faraway angles. 152 He left in the morning, she explained quietly. I knew something was wrong because he was lying in bed, not doing anything but stroking my hair, which was very long back then. I was a Pentecostal. Usually he didn’t lay around in bed. As soon as he was awake he was showered and dressed and gone. He had that sort of energy. But when he got up he just stood over little Ramon. Are you OK? I asked him and he said he was just fine. I wasn’t going to fight with him about it so I went right back to sleep. The dream I had is one I still think about. I was young, and it was my birthday and I was eating a plate of quail’s eggs and all of them were for me. A silly dream really. When I woke up I saw that the rest of his things were gone. She cracked her knuckles slowly. I thought that I would never stop hurting. I knew then what it must have been like for your mother. You should tell her that. We talked until it got dark and then I got up. Outside the local kids were gathering in squads, stalking in and out of the lucid clouds produced by the street lamps. She suggested I go to her restaurant but when I got there and stared through my reflection in the glass at the people inside, all of them versions of people I already knew, I decided to go home. December. He had left in December. The company had given him a two‐week vacation, which Nilda knew nothing about. He drank a cup of black café in the kitchen and left it washed and drying in the caddy. I doubt if he was crying or even anxious. He lit a cigarette, tossed the match on the kitchen table and headed out into the angular winds that were blowing long and cold from the south. He ignored the convoys of empty cabs that prowled the streets and walked down Atlantic. There were less furniture and antique shops then. He smoked cigarette after cigarette and killed his pack within the hour. He bought a carton at a stand, knowing how expensive they would be abroad. The first subway station on Bond would have taken him to the airport and I like to think that he grabbed that first train, instead of what was more likely true, that he had gone out to Chuito’s first, before flying south to get us. 153 Appendix D‐ Quiz 2 Name:_____________________________________________ Quiz 2— Please choose the best 10 questions and answer them in full sentences. Use a different piece of paper to write your answer. You may refer to the story. 1. All of Ramon’s friends and co‐workers had encouraged and suggested that he brought his family from Santo Domingo to the United States. Why are they so persistent? (page 1) 2. Ramon had many excuses for not sponsoring his Santo Domingo family to the United States. “Right now is just not a good time to send for them. You should see my bills.” How did his friends respond? (Page 1) 3. Although the public portrayal of immigrants are as troublemakers, illegal and lazy people, Diaz’s story suggests otherwise. What is his view on the typical life of an immigrant? (page 1 and 2). Give examples from the text to support your answer. 4. The American Dream/Way is defined as one where an American experiences the freedom to choose, to work hard, to own a home and to retire young. From the story, do recent immigrants share the same definition of the American Dream/Way? What is the sequence of events of a “typical” immigrant who wants to pursue the American Dream? (hint: citizenship, work…) (Page 2‐3) 5. “With the hum of his new life, Papi should have found it easy to bury the memory of us.” How does Virta feel about Ramon’s lack of responsibility toward her and their children? Give examples from the text that support your answer. (page 3) 6. When Ramon and Nilda’s first son was born, it was “cause for a fiesta, but there was no celebration.” Why didn’t Ramon’s friends celebrate with him? (page 3) 7. Ramon helped Jo‐Jo pick up his relatives from the airport. Why did this incident cause Ramon to start sending money to his Santo Domingo family again? (Page 4) 8. When Ramon started sending money to his family in Santo Domingo, he also started borrowing money from Nilda. When she asked him why, he replied, “one of my children died. I have to pay for the wake and the funeral.” Did he tell the truth? Support your answer with the text. (page 3) 154 9. Ramon was born and grew up in Santo Domingo. He spoke their language and practiced their culture. Yet how was the trip/ how did Ramon feel when he went home for a visit with Nilda? 10. After his trip to Santo Domingo, Ramon came home to the United States as a different person. Did Nilda still love him? Use the text or a specific incident/story to support your answer. (pg. 8‐9) 11. Even though Ramon’s friends urged him to sponsor his Santo Domingo family after he received his papers, yet he never did until much later. When Chuito promised to get him a job as a caretaker of an apartment in the new part of town, “a plan started forming. Here was a place to move his familia if it came from the Island.” But when did Ramon decide to leave Nilda and to bring his Santo Domingo family to the United States? (Pg. 8). Show support from the text. 13. Choose any part of the story that you can relate to. Please make a text‐to‐self, or text‐to‐text, or text‐to‐world comparison. (Pick only one). 155 Appendix E‐ Student Feedback Survey Form Name: __________________________________________________________ 1. Did you like reading both the Negocios stories? Why? 2. What was your favorite part about Negocios 1? What did you not like about Negocios 1? What was your favorite part about Negocios 2? What did you not like about Negocios 2? 3. Would you rather learn English through reading stories like Negocios, and Francisco Jimenez’s The Circuit, or through grammar practice books? 4. Did you notice anything different between the first section and second section of the story? What was it/ were they? 5. Were the stories easy or difficult to understand? Why? 6. How does it make you feel, having some Spanish words written while reading an English story? 156 7. Did Spanish help you understand the second story better? Did Spanish help you predict the meaning of the story? Give me one or two examples. 8. Do you feel like you would want to read this book more/ look forward to reading this book more than compared to a book fully written in English? 9. What did you learn from the book? Did you learn more from this book because there were Spanish words written in it? Give me an example. 10. Would you like to read another book about the life of Hispanic immigrants that also has Spanish words? 157 Appendix F‐ List of L1 words in Negocios 2 1. Esposo 2. Arroz Negros 3. Familia 4. Come Meirda 5. Sastrería 6. Sancocho 7. Rejas 8. Despeinada 9. Papi se asombró 10. Platanos 11. Barrio 12. Pava 13. Porqueria 14. Patrón 15.Yucca 16. Plata 17. Negocio 18. Sangre 19. Disgraciado 20. Puto 21. Cabron 22. Compadré 23. Fiesta 24. Didáctico 25. Abrazos 26. Con incredulidad 27. Fábrica 28. Gringos 29. Mi Amigo 30. Viejos 31. Patria 32. Tios 33. Hidago 34. Motimientos 35.Furtivos 36. Vieja 37. Sofocanté 38. Guagua 39. Colmados 40. Ausencia 158 41. Rutina 42. Punzada 43. Puta 44. Botánica 45. Bodega 46. Mi Hija 47. Maricos 48. Degradaron 49. Maldito 50. Panin 51. Nada 52. Bobo 53. Guayaberas 54. Hijo 55. Cáfe con leche 56. Papi 57. Mami 58. Sueldo y alquiler gratis

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Contrary to popular belief, most English Language Learners (ELLs) in the United States are native born, and this particular population is projected to make up 82% of the total American population in year 2050 (NCELA, 2006). A large achievement gap between ELLs and English speakers, however, has been identified, especially in urban districts, where reading and ELL student achievements tend to be low (Goldenberg, 2010). Presently, most ELLs are taught to decode the language by analyzing and identifying linguistic elements out of context. As a result, learners are less engaged and more detached about learning a language independent of meaning and relevant content (Goodlad, 1984). This study examined the use of reading materials that positively influence the achievement and classroom participation of native Spanish speaking English language learners (ELLs). A reading intervention was implemented in a sheltered ESL 3 (an equivalent to ninth grade English) classroom in a southwest urban school. This intervention addressed the extent to which culturally relevant authentic materials that incorporate learner’s native language (L1) increased student achievement and participation. The results and pedagogical implications are discussed in this paper.

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