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Imparting social capital to educationally disadvantaged students: A study of the early academic outreach program
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Imparting social capital to educationally disadvantaged students: A study of the early academic outreach program
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Content
IMPARTING SOCIAL CAPITAL TO EDUCATIONALLY DISADVANTAGED
STUDENTS: A STUDY OF THE EARLY ACADEMIC OUTREACH PROGRAM
by
Nicole Korgie Jackson
_______________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2010
Copyright 2010 Nicole Korgie Jackson
ii
DEDICATION
To Victoria Ashley Jackson
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii
List of Tables v
List of Figures vi
Abstract vii
Chapter One: Introduction 1
Problem Statement 2
Definition of Terms 4
Purpose Statement 5
Context Setting 15
Study Significance 17
Theoretical Framework 17
Methodological Approach 18
Study Organization Summary 18
Chapter Two: Literature Review 20
Introduction 20
Theoretical Framework 20
Origins of Social Capital 20
Definition of Social Capital 23
Historical Definition 22
Definition in Context for This Study 22
How is Social Capital Measured and Used? 25
Precollege Academic Preparation Programs 26
Educationally Disadvantaged Student Populations 34
Rural Students 38
Chapter Three: Research Methods 43
Introduction 43
Site Selection 44
Subject Selection 54
Data Collection 59
Research Question 59
Data Collection Timeline 59
Instrumentation and Procedures 59
Data Analysis 62
Study Limitations 63
Background of Researcher 64
iv
Chapter Four: Presentation of Data 66
Introduction 66
Forms 67
Rural Life in Imperial Valley 67
Unmet Needs of Rural Students 70
Student Awareness of College Admission 71
Requirements
Norms 72
Motivation to Attend College 73
College Choice Awareness 75
College Campus Visits 76
Resources 78
Aware of Need for College Knowledge Social Capital 78
EAOP Partnerships 79
Future EAOP Services 82
Summary 84
Chapter Five: Analysis 86
Purpose of Study 86
Review of Theoretical Framework 87
Data Analysis 89
Policy Recommendations 92
Recommendations For Future Research 96
Conclusion 97
References 99
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Examples of Precollege Outreach Programs 11
Table 2a: Socioeconomic Information of UCSD EAOP Schools, 47
2006-2007 School Year
Table 2b: Ethnic Breakdown of UCSD EAOP Schools 49
2006-2007 School Year
Table 2c: Academic Performance of UCSD EAOP Schools 50
2006-2007 School Year
Table 3: Number of EAOP Imperial Valley Student Participants in 54
Online Summer Courses
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Map of Study Location 55
Figure 2: Study Participant Grade Level 56
Figure 3: Study Participant Gender 57
Figure 4: Study Participant Ethnicity 57
Figure 5: Study Participant Parent Education Level 58
Figure 6: Study Participant Free/Reduced Lunch Program 58
Participation
vii
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the process of an academic preparation
program, also known as an outreach program, imparting social capital to educationally
disadvantaged students. The particular form of social capital to be examined will be the
college knowledge needed to successfully prepare for college admission. The theoretical
framework used is Colemans theory of social capital defined in terms of forms, norms,
and resources. Study participants were high school students living in a rural California
community who participate in the Early Academic Outreach Program.
Findings suggest that collaborations and partnerships amongst educational entities
best serve the needs of the students in the community. College Knowledge forms, norms,
and resources manifest themselves most effectively when students are offered the
opportunity to participate in multiple outreach program efforts. The Early Academic
Outreach Program has proven itself to be a vital partner in offering such opportunities.
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
There are 4,314 colleges in the United States of America, with a total student
enrollment of 17,758,870 students. Though these raw numbers may look impressive,
only a small percentage of the United States population is taking advantage of earning a
college degree. Less than 18% of the U.S. population holds a Bachelors Degree. Less
than 7% of the U.S. population holds a Masters Degree. A mere 1.1% of the U.S.
population holds a Doctoral Degree (Chronicle of Higher Education, 2008).
A common perception is that students will receive college counseling and
guidance at their high schools (McDonough, 1997). Whereas precollege advising does
take place, both quality and quantity suffers due to high caseload numbers. The American
School Counselor Association (ASCA) recommends a 250 to 1 ratio of students to
counselors, but the average caseload is closer to 480 students per counselor, with some
states, such as California, as high as 900 (National Center for Educational Statistics,
2008). It is nearly impossible for one counselor to provide all of the academic counseling
services needed for that many students. In order to augment the precollege counseling in
high schools, along with aiding in developing a college-going culture, a variety of
precollege academic preparation programs are in place throughout the country. These
programs deliver a variety of services to motivate, prepare, and inform students of their
college choices. This study will evaluate the process of how one such program, the
University of Californias Early Academic Outreach Program (EAOP), is imparting
social capital, or college knowledge, to educationally disadvantaged students.
2
Problem Statement
The system of higher education in the United States allows access to higher
education for all those who seek it. The problem lies in student perception and
preparation to take advantage of this opportunity. Due to a variety of personal, cultural,
and social factors, students and their parents often believe that college is not an option.
The following is a list of obstacles students may encounter when trying to access higher
education (Gullatt 2003; Perna 2000; Tierney 2005):
• Access to appropriate preparation courses
• Multiple and confusing college entrance exams
• Multiple and confusing college admissions applications
• Inadequate (or no) advising
• Circulated myths about college eligibility requirements
• Not being aware of timelines and deadlines
• Financing
• Understanding the personal and economic benefits of a college degree
• Low expectations of students by parents and school staff
The ability to successfully overcome these obstacles can be termed the college
knowledge or social capital needed to successfully navigate the U.S. system of higher
education. As this study will demonstrate, the opportunity to achieve this social capital
can at times be elusive.
3
Though going to college and completing a degree program is admirable in and of
itself, it is also economically necessary for the function of society. Using the state of
California as an example, the lack of an educationally and vocationally trained
citizenship can lead to economic downfall. It is estimated that by the year 2025, 41% of
jobs in California will require a college degree (Johnson, 2008). At current academic
achievement levels, which will be discussed later in this paper, researchers speculate that
only 35% of adults in California will become college graduates, which would leave the
state approximately one million graduates short of meeting workforce demands.
The state has already come to rely on college graduate migration patterns into
California from other states to fill vocational needs. Between 1995 and 2005 over
800,000 college graduates (500,000 Bachelors Degree holders and 300,000 graduate or
professional degree holders) emigrated into the state (CPEC 2007). In 1960, California
ranked eighth in the nation in population of college graduates between the ages of 25 to
34. By 2006, Californias ranking fell to 23
rd
. California must work on educating and
retaining its own college-educated workforce.
In response to this downward trend of an undereducated population, a variety of
precollege outreach programs has been implemented in California to provide students
with direct assistance in attaining their academic goal of going to college. Though all
young students must be supported, additional efforts need to be made to reach
educationally disadvantaged students. Educationally disadvantaged students come from
low-income backgrounds, are generally the first in their family to attend college, and/or
attend low-performing schools. Research has shown that educationally disadvantaged
4
students are less likely to enroll in college, let alone complete a degree program (Choy
2001; The College Board 2001; Gandara & Bial, 2001; Gullatt & Jan, 2003).
Definition of Terms
The terms below are defined to be used within the context of this study.
Social Capital - relationships with institutional agents that can be converted into socially
valued resources and opportunities.
Educationally Disadvantaged individuals who, because of their home, community, and
educational environment are subject to language, cultural, economic, and other
disadvantages are unlikely to graduate from high school and go to college unless special
educational programs and services supplementing the regular school program are made
available to them.
Parent - one who nurtures and raises a child, providing the primary responsibility for the
childs development and education (a students parent may be a: guardian, mother, father,
grandmother, grandfather, sibling, aunt, uncle, or any member of an extended family)
Underrepresented Student racial groups of students who are lowest in percentage in
college enrollment and completion (African American, Latino, Native American)
Low-Income Student eligible for, but not necessarily participating in, a schools
free/reduced price lunch program
First Generation Student - first in ones immediate family to attend college and/or one or
both parents do not have a baccalaureate degree
5
College Knowledge knowing and understanding the expectations, facts, and processes
necessary to successfully apply to and be admitted to college
Academic Preparation Programs (Outreach Programs) - offer services to strengthen
academic skills, test preparation, guide high school course selection, and explain the
admissions and financial aid application process
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the process of an academic preparation
program, also known as an outreach program, imparting social capital to educationally
disadvantaged students. The particular form of social capital to be examined will be the
college knowledge needed to successfully prepare for college admission.
Berkner and Chavez (1997) examined the postsecondary enrollment patterns of
low-income and underrepresented high school graduates, two years after they graduated
from high school and were enrolled in a four-year institution. Through the findings of this
study, Berkner and Chavez have defined the five essential steps to earning a college
degree. Students must: (a)decide that they want to go to college, (b) prepare academically
for college-level work, (c) take college entrance examinations such as the SAT, (d) select
colleges and apply (d) be accepted, make financial and other arrangements necessary to
enroll.
These five steps are mirrored by Tierney, Corwin, and Coylars (2005) five
competencies of college readiness: (a) academic preparation, (b) access to college
planning information and navigational strategies, (c) development of self-efficacy and
6
college-going aspirations, (d) strategies of socialization and acculturation, (e) financial
aid and financial planning skills.
These steps were again reflected by Oakes, Rogers, Lipton, and Morrell (2002) in
their study of admission to and success at the University of California Los Angeles. In a
study of the literature combined with years of implementation experience, the UCLA
Outreach Departments identified six conditions needed for admission to and success at
UCLA: (a) college-going culture (b) rigorous academic curriculum, (c) high quality
teaching, (d) intensive academic and college-going support, (e) a multicultural, college-
going identity, (f) parent/community connections regarding college-going and academics.
There are several programs and policies in place to help ensure that students
receive guidance in completing all necessary steps to college. The primary resource for
students is the high school counselor. Some high schools have designated college
counselors who are experts in the college counseling process. Some high schools include
college counseling as one aspect of many in the role of the general high school counselor
whose other duties include scheduling, discipline, and general counseling. The latter
scenario is most prevalent in public high schools where funding is limited and job duties
must be consolidated. These schools in particular attract the services of precollege
outreach programs.
Precollege outreach programs are implemented on national, state, and local levels
and come in a variety of formats and funding amounts. Nationwide, approximately 50%
of programs is federally funded, 25% is state-funded, and 25% is privately funded (Swail
2004). Table 1, below, lists examples of programs that represent these various governing
7
formats and funding sources. All of the programs in Table 1 are college preparation
programs designed to assist economically disadvantaged, first-generation students.
8
Table 1
Examples of Precollege Outreach Programs (The College Board, 2001)
Program Name Brief Description Level
Funding
Source
AVID
(Advancement
Via Individual
Determination
AVID is offered as an elective course that meets during the
regular school day. Each week, students receive hours of
instruction, hours in tutor led study groups, and participates in
motivational activities and academic survival skills, including
critical reading and writing skills. AVID is designed to students
in the middle academic range who are capable of completing a
college prep path and succeed in rigorous courses.
National Public -
Federal
Cal SOAP
(California
Student
Opportunity and
Access
Program)
Cal SOAP projects share the common goal of improving the flow
of information about postsecondary education and financial aid
while raising achievement levels of targeted students. Some
common services provided includes advising, tutoring, parent
outreach, and college awareness workshops
State Public -
State
Compact for
Success
Compact for Success is collaboration between the Sweetwater
Union High School District and San Diego State University.
When students meet established benchmarks they are
automatically guaranteed admission to San Diego State
University.
Local Public -
State
EAOP (Early
Academic
Outreach
Program)
The cornerstone of EAOPs program is individual academic
planning, which puts students on track to complete the A-G
courses unique to each high school. Through academic
enrichment programs such as summer intensives and pre-college
academies, students improve basic skills and master advanced
curriculum, enabling them to succeed in courses that make them
college-bound
State Public -
State
9
Table 1, Continued
GEAR UP GEAR UP is designed to increase the number of low-income
students at high-poverty middle and high schools by creating a
college going culture to motivate and prepare students to succeed
in postsecondary education. GEAR UP programs serve an entire
cohort of students beginning no later than the seventh grade and
follow the cohort through high school. GEAR UP funds are also
used to provide college scholarships to low-income students.
National Public -
Federal
I Have A Dream The "I Have A Dream" Foundation empowers children in low-
income communities to achieve higher education and fulfill their
leadership potential by providing them with guaranteed tuition
support and equipping them with the skills, knowledge, and
habits they need to gain entry to higher education and succeed in
college and beyond.
National Mixed
Kids 2 College Kids 2 College partners 6th grade students with colleges to teach
them about careers, college life, and curriculum choices. Students
participate in hands on activities, meet college students, and visit
a college campus.
Local Private
MESA
(Mathematics,
Engineering,
Science
Achievement)
MESA enables educationally disadvantaged students to prepare
for and graduate from a four-year college or university with a
math-based degree in areas such as engineering, the sciences,
computer science, and mathematics. Through MESA, students
develop academic and leadership skills, increase educational
performance, and gain confidence in their ability to compete
professionally. MESA has particular interest and focus on
students from those groups who historically have had the lowest
levels of attainment to four-year and graduate level programs.
National Public -
Federal
10
Table 1, Continued
Neighborhood
Academic
Initiative
The primary focus of the NAI program is to prepare students for
entrance to USC. Students are eligible for a 4.5 year scholarship
to the university when they meet a competitive GPA and reach a
competitive score on the SAT
Local Mixed
Puente Puente's mission is to increase the number of educationally
disadvantaged students who enroll in four-year colleges and
universities, earn college degrees and return to the community as
mentors and leaders to future generations. The program is
interdisciplinary in approach, with writing, counseling and
mentoring components.
State Public -
State
Summerbridge
San Diego
Summerbridge San Diego provides academic opportunities
which challenge and support motivated rising fifth and sixth
grade students to prepare for success in college preparatory
programs in high school.
Local Private
Talent Search Talent Search identifies and assists individuals from
disadvantaged backgrounds who have the potential to succeed in
higher education. The program provides academic, career, and
financial counseling to its participants and encourages them to
graduate from high school and continue on to the postsecondary
institution of their choice. Talent Search also serves high school
dropouts by encouraging them to reenter the education system
and complete their education. The goal of Talent Search is to
increase the number of youths from disadvantaged backgrounds
who complete high school and enroll in postsecondary education
institutions of their choice.
National Public -
Federal
11
Table 1, Continued
Upward Bound Upward Bound provides fundamental support to participants in
their preparation for college entrance. The program provides
opportunities for participants to succeed in their precollege
performance and ultimately in their higher education pursuits.
Upward Bound serves: high school students from low-income
families; and high school students from families in which neither
parent holds a bachelor's degree. The goal of Upward Bound is to
increase the rate at which participants complete secondary
education and enroll in and graduate from institutions of
postsecondary education.
National Public -
Federal
The federally funded TRIO programs (Upward Bound and Talent Search) were
established in the 1960s as part of a federal government effort to assist in providing
access to college to help relieve the nations issue of poverty. State-funded programs,
including those implemented by the University of California system (Early Academic
Outreach Program, PUENTE, and MESA), may aim to increase college attendance at
targeted universities. Locally funded programs, such as Summerbridge San Diego,
usually have the most flexibility in how funds are used and which students are provided
program services. Programs may also be implemented within or outside of the school
structure. All of the programs previously listed are examples of programs that provide
services outside of the school day setting (i.e., after-school tutoring, test preparation
courses, college field trips). An example of a program that has had great success in
becoming institutionalized within the school structure is AVID (Advancement Via
Individual Determination). This program is actually implemented as a junior high and
12
high school course in which students learn college-going skills while receiving grades
and course credits.
Though a variety of programs exist across the country, for this study the
researcher has specifically chosen to focus on a program that serves educationally
disadvantaged students in the state of California. The state of California spends millions
of dollars annually to administer academic preparation programs to assist in funneling
educationally disadvantaged students into its public institutions of higher education. In
1960 California made a commitment to offering options for a college education to all of
its residents by crafting a Master Plan for Higher Education in California (1960). This
Master Plan contained an outline for the creation of three levels of public higher
education for the state: the University of California (UC), the California State University
(CSU), and the Community College. Over the years, this plan has remained intact, but
has recently been threatened due to large state budget concerns. Currently, the UC system
accepts applicants from the top 12.5% of high school graduates in the state. The CSU
accepts applicants from the top 33.3% of high school graduates. The Community College
system is an open-enrollment system that accepts any applicant over 18 years old. This
system is designed to allow every California resident a chance to earn a college degree,
despite his/her academic performance in high school.
In 2007 the state of California graduated 356,641 students from high school. Of
these students, only 35.5% had completed college preparation courses known as the A-G
Course Pattern (California Department of Education, 2009). Girls outperformed boys at
rates of 39.3% to 31.4%, respectively. When compared by race, White and Asian students
13
significantly outperformed underrepresented minority students. Though White students
completed the A-G course pattern close to the state average at 39.5%, Asian students
completed at a rate of 59.8%. Latino and African American students completed the A-G
course pattern at less than half the rate of Asian students, at 25.2% and 26.5%
respectively.
The performance discrepancy widens further when students are grouped
regionally by income. A common measure of income status for a school is the percentage
of students that qualifies for the states Free/Reduced Price Lunch Program. The state
county average of students on this program is 49.7%. One of Californias wealthiest
countys, Marin County, has a Free/Reduced Price Lunch Program participation of only
21.3%. This same county graduates students with A-G course completion significantly
higher than the state average at a rate of 51%. One of Californias low-income
communities, Imperial County, has a Free/Reduced Price Lunch Program participation of
69.4%. Imperial County graduates college ready students at less than half the state
average at a rate of 16.2% (CDE, 2009).
Of these college-ready public high school graduates, 48% in each state county
continues its education at Californias publicly funded state institutions of higher
education (CPEC, 2009). These students are widespread as there are 110 California
Community Colleges, 23 California State Universities, and 10 University of California
campuses. These public institutions comprise 54% of the states 264 total colleges. In
2007 these three systems enrolled almost 230,000 new freshmen, with over 90% of these
14
students designated as California residents. The breakdown of these enrollments is as
follows:
University of California 35,251
California State University 53, 744
California Community College 140,313
Total 229,308
As indicated above, the vast majority of high school graduates that goes directly
to college enroll at the community college level. Though these students are going to
college, whether these students are enrolling in the most appropriate college choice for
their circumstances remains unclear. Also, though a significant number of students
enrolled in college in 2007, over 127,000 high school graduates did not. Precollege
academic preparation programs attempt to work directly with all students to ensure that
they make the best college match possible.
The specific academic preparation program to be considered in this study is the
Early Academic Outreach Program (EAOP) at the University of California San Diego.
Research in this study will be conducted to determine the student perspective on the
effectiveness of the variety of assistance and programming available through EAOP
regarding preparing for and applying to college. The data collected in this study will
attempt to answer the following research question:
• How does the Early Academic Outreach Program assist educationally
disadvantaged students acquire the social capital of forms, norms, and resources
to prepare for the college admissions process?
15
Context Setting
As the University of Californias largest academic preparation program, EAOP
serves over 39,000 students at over 300 secondary public secondary school sites around
the state. The aim of EAOP is to contribute to the mission of the University of
Californias Student Academic Preparation and Educational Partnerships (SAPEP) to
raise student achievement and close student achievement gaps. EAOP undertakes this
effort by providing direct student services such as academic enrichment opportunities,
mentoring, tutoring, academic advising, college entrance exam preparation, and other
academic motivational activities. Though EAOP promotes college going at any two or
four-year college or university, most of the programs students are looking to and eligible
to attend California colleges. One of the goals of EAOP is to increase the number of
students eligible to apply to the University of California campuses. By becoming UC
eligible, students are also then eligible to apply to the California State University system.
EAOP students who are not UC or CSU eligible have the option of attending a California
Community College and then transferring to a four-year university. Students are also
encouraged to apply to private colleges. The top 10 colleges attended by EAOP program
graduates are California public institutions (EAOP Fact Sheet, 2007):
1. University of California Los Angeles
2. University of California Berkeley
3. Cal State Long Beach
4. University of California San Diego
5. Cal State Northridge
16
6. San Diego State University
7. University of California Davis
8. University of California Santa Barbara
9. Bakersfield College
10. University of California Riverside
Each University of California campus operates an EAOP program to service
students in school districts in their immediate areas. This study will center on an
academic preparation program known as the Early Academic Outreach Program (EAOP)
at the University of California San Diego (UCSD). The UCSD EAOP staff works with 16
schools in two counties, San Diego and Imperial. In order to participate in EAOP
activities, students must attend an EAOP service school and be educationally
disadvantaged by meeting one of three classifications:
• Low-income (eligible or participating in school free/reduced price lunch
program)
• First generation (neither parent graduated from a four-year university)
• Underrepresented ethnicity at the University of California
(AfricanAmerican, Latino, Native American)
This study will concentrate on the EAOP students attending schools in Imperial
County. Imperial County is a rural agricultural community on the US/Mexico border,
about 120 miles east of San Diego. The majority of students is low-income, first
generation college students. Being close to the border contributes to a high population of
immigrant and undocumented students. The students to be interviewed for this study are
17
voluntarily taking a summer school course through EAOP. These students will be gearing
up to participating in their final years of the program and will have past, current, and
future experiences with EAOP.
Study Significance
All residents of California are entitled to the opportunity to earn a college degree,
regardless of gender, age, ethnicity, or income. This study will look at how the Early
Academic Outreach Program works with students in a low-income part of the state to
assist students in going on to public colleges in California. Essentially, this study looks at
a state-funded program working with educationally disadvantaged students attending
state-funded secondary schools and looking at attending state-funded universities.
This research is timely in that the state of California is experiencing significant
budget concerns and has endured large reductions in funding to education in general.
Research that documents the influence of academic preparation programs like EAOP will
have a significant impact on future funding for college advising and preparation, in turn
directly affecting the likelihood of California youth attaining its educational goals.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for this study will be that of the attainment and use of
social capital by students in preparing for college. A review of the literature will describe
progress made in the use of theory of social capital in the study of academic preparation
programs. First, there will be an examination of the origins of the theoretical framework
18
of social capital established by Bourdieu (1973) and Coleman (1988). Second, a review
of social capital as conveyed by academic preparation programs will be presented. Third,
there will be a review of research on college access for educationally disadvantaged
students.
Methodological Approach
Ethnographic methods will be used in this study to determine the usefulness of
college preparation programming from the perspective of the student participant.
Instrumentation and procedures will include qualitative data collection methods of
semistructured interviews, focus groups, qualitative fieldwork/observations, and
document analysis.
For the summer of 2009, approximately 125 students enrolled in online Advanced
Placement courses through EAOP at school sites located in Imperial Valley, California.
In order to participate in the online summer course, students are required to attend a
computer lab session every day for three hours. Students will be interviewed individually
and in focus groups at their school site computer lab sessions. Observations of students
participating in the online class sessions will also be conducted along with an analysis of
the materials used in the course.
Study Organization Summary
This study is presented in five sections: a) introduction, b) literature review, c)
methods, d) results, and e) discussion. The purpose of the introduction is to present the
19
need for additional qualitative research on college opportunity and access, particularly in
the chosen area for this study: student participation in academic preparation programs.
The literature review will provide a theoretical framework in which the study can be
analyzed and applied to practice. The chapter on methods will explain the strategies used
for collecting and analyzing data. The results chapter will present the final analysis of
data into demonstrated themes and/or trends. Finally, the discussion chapter will put the
study into context within the broader literature on college opportunity and access.
20
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter presents a review of literature on the theories of social capital as
transmitted by academic preparation programs. The first half of the literature review
explores the origins of the theoretical framework of social capital as conceptualized by
Bourdieu, and Coleman. The second half of the literature review consists of the
theoretical framework in relation to the three areas of concern for this study: (a) academic
preparation programs (b) educationally disadvantaged students, and (c) rural students.
Theoretical Framework
Origins of Social Capital
The term social capital was first used in relation to the creation of human and
individual achievement by Bourdieu in 1973. Bourdieu (1973) wrote that three types of
capitaleconomic, cultural, and socialworked together to influence an individuals
disposition, which he termed habitus. Bourdieus concept of social capital is intended to
explain the persistence of social groups access to resources. Bourdieus concepts of
social capital have been used extensively in educational research to explain differences in
schools based on class, gender, and ethnicity (Dika 2002; Stanton-Salazar 1997).
The concept of social capital was mainstreamed by Coleman in 1990; his
concepts and theories are most relevant to this study. In Foundations of Social Theory,
21
Coleman (1994) explained that social capital is defined by its function, meaning it is
inherently social and, by necessity, structural. This quality involves a sense of trust
between the imparting and receiving agents that mutual obligations will be upheld. A
combination of trust and mutual goals creates a greater power and possibility of
accomplishment that may be larger than an individual acting alone. These social acts of
trust and reciprocity, along with the defined norms and networks of a society, facilitate
the coordinated effort to achieve desired goals. Coleman (1988) specifies the three
elements of social capital to include forms, norms, and resources. Forms refer to the
nature of and structural aspects of social ties and relations. Norms refers to the shared
feelings of trust, obligation, and expectations of reciprocity. Resources refer to access to
social networks and relationships.
Social capital allows events to happen that would otherwise not likely occur
without intervention. Social capital provides the opportunity to employ other forms of
capital through relationships. Coleman (1988) has stated that social capital is created
when the relationships between people change in ways that facilitate them to take action.
This action can be intentional or unintentional; for example, one member of a group may
randomly acquire a skill or knowledge that is passed on to other members of the group
and a social benefit is noticed. In some instances one member of a group may
intentionally seek out skills and/or knowledge with the intention of passing it on to the
rest of the group. This person is deliberately trying to create social capital within the
structure. This effort must occur within a structured social situation. Social capital is not
possible within a disorganized or dysfunctional social group.
22
Definition of Social Capital
Historical Definition
Social capital has been primarily defined in two manners. Some, such as
Bourdieu (1986), define social capital as a means of reproduction for the dominant
culture. Advantages accumulated by groups are often based on class, gender, or race.
Characteristics and behaviors of the dominant group are passed on to ensure long-term
success and power. An alternative view stems from Coleman (1988), who has defined
social capital in a more positive manner, describing social networks as systems of trust
that lead to advantageous behaviors or outcomes within the network. Though advantages
accumulated in groups are often based on similar classifications (class, gender, race), the
accumulation of social capital is viewed as needed or necessary for the group to advance
in a positive manner. Social capital explains the relative success of some (and not others)
in the attainment of a common goal. Individuals who successfully acquire and use social
capital are able to develop and sustain social relationships that generate beneficial
outcomes through norms and trust.
A variety of examples of social groups that impart social capital exist in
American society. Groups such as clubs, sports teams, and fraternities actively recruit
attractive members into their systems in an attempt to strengthen and maintain common
goals. The success of disseminating social capital hinges on the groups having existing
members capable of transmitting the desired skills and information (Coleman 1994;
Gonzalez, Stone, & Jovel, 2003; Stanton-Salazar, 1997).
The idea of social capital was transferred into the mainstream lexicon by Robert
Putnam (2000) in his book Bowling Alone. By observing the disappearing American
23
social culture, Putnam examined the general benefits of implementing social capital.
Putnam asserted five primary advantages of social capital: (a) allows citizens to resolve
collective problems more easily, (b) reduces transaction costs, (c) socializes people to
develop benevolence towards others due to an environment of mutual confidence, (d)
networks can channel helpful information, and (e) improves peoples psychological and
physical well being.
Though the above definitions assume positive consequences to social capital, such
is not always the case. Social groups such as gangs and drug cartels are also attempting to
to promote their cause and values. By definition, any social capital derived from these
groups is considered to be beneficial to its members.
Definition in Context for This Study
Though no universally accepted definition of social capital exists, Stanton-Salazar
(1997) has captured the essence of the concept for this studys purposes by defining
social capital as relationships with institutional agents that can be converted into socially
valued resources, opportunities, and emotional support. Stanton-Salazar has reinforced
the idea that possessing social capital does not imply its utilization. In Manufacturing
Hope and Despair (2001), Stanton-Salazar highlighted the social strategies both (Latino)
parents and children utilize to access higher education. In his study, Stanton-Salazar
outlined the strategies parents use to convey to their children the importance of education.
He goes on to describe the social networks children create within the social environment
of schools that help to promote their success. These supportive relationships are vital to
securing the educational success of these students.
24
For students and their families preparing for college, the preexisting cultural value
of a college education exists. These students and families need to acquire social capital in
the form of social networks that will provide the tools and guidance necessary to earning
a college degree. Specifically, social capital needs to be established to enhance a
students ability to prepare for, apply, and be admitted to a college of their choice. This
need for educational social capital has been determined by a study by Berkner and
Chavez (1997).
Berkner and Chavez (1997) examined the postsecondary enrollment patterns of
1992 high school graduates, two years after they had graduated from high school. They
focused on the access of low-income and underrepresented students to postsecondary
education and the degree to which financial constraints limited the access of students
with the academic qualifications to attend a four-year institution. Based upon the findings
of this study, Berkner and Chavez defined the five essential steps to earning a college
degree as follows; students must (a) decide that they want to go to college, (b) prepare
academically for college-level work, (c) take college entrance examinations such as the
SAT, (d) select colleges and apply, (e) be accepted, make financial and other
arrangements necessary to enroll.
These five steps are mirrored by Tierneys (2005) five competencies of college
readiness, which are (a) academic preparation, (b) access to college planning information
and navigational strategies, (c) development of self-efficacy and college-going
aspirations, (d) strategies of socialization and acculturation, (5) financial aid and financial
planning skills.
25
These steps were again mirrored by Jeannie Oakes (2002) in a study of admission
to and success at the University of California Los Angeles. In a study of the literature,
combined with years of implementation experience, the UCLA Outreach Departments
identified six conditions needed for admission to and success at UCLA: (a) college-going
culture, (b) rigorous academic curriculum, (c) high-quality teaching, (d) intensive
academic and college-going support, (e) a multicultural, college-going identity, (f)
parent/community connections regarding college-going and academics.
Students use social capital in order to navigate the road of college access, being
supported by peers, teachers, counselors, and, most importantly, parents (Coleman 1988;
Dika 2002; McDonough 1997,). This study will address several of the steps deemed
essential above.
How is Social Capital Measured and Used?
As there is no standard definition of the term social capital, there is also no
widely held consensus on how to measure its use. It exists in our thoughts, language, and
behavior (Coleman, 1988). It is behavior that is significant and must be institutionalized
(embodied) to be designated as social capital (Bourdieu, 1997). In the context of this
study, the institutionalized behavior used as social capital is college knowledge.
Researchers predominately review and measure social capital in three categories:
individuals, groups, and society at large. These three areas of research are based on the
initial findings of Coleman, Bourdieu, Ostrom, and Putnam, respectively. In addition to
the three categories for social capital, Portes (1998) has described three distinct uses for
26
social capital: (a) source of social control, (b) source of family support, (c) source of
benefits through extrafamilial networks. Social control is used as a means of rule
enforcement or discipline. This usage is commonly implemented by people in positions
of authority, such as parents or teachers. Family support is used as a means of contained
or limited social capital within a very limited framework, specifically related to
individuals. Extrafamilial networks include all social networks outside of the immediate
family.
This study, driven by the theory of social capital, will examine how precollege
academic preparation programs affect the process of college preparation of educationally
disadvantaged students.
Precollege Academic Preparation Programs
The developers and practitioners of academic preparation programs will agree that
these programs exist to supplement and enhance a K-12 schools existing efforts to
prepare and guide students toward college (Gandara, 2001; Gullatt, 2003; Hagedorn,
2002; Tierney, 2004,). Public and private schools across the country lack the resources to
provide detailed, accurate guidance to all students regarding the academic choices
available to them after high school. In an attempt to fill this lack of guidance, state,
federal, and privately funded academic preparation programs have been established to
assist students in navigating the complex process of college admissions. These programs
help students (and their parents) develop the values, aspirations, skills, knowledge,
confidence, and expected behaviors needed to go to college (College Board, 2001;
Gandara, 2001; Oesterreich, 2000; Perna, 2000,).
27
Programs have been implemented on national, state, and local levels. The
federally funded TRIO programs (Upward Bound, Talent Search, and Student Support
Services) were established in the 1960s as an effort of the federal government to assist in
providing access to college to help relieve the nations issue of poverty. State-funded
programs, including those implemented by the University of California system (Early
Academic Outreach Program, PUENTE, and MESA) may aim to increase college
attendance at targeted universities. Locally funded programs, such as Summerbridge San
Diego, usually have the most flexibility in how funds are used and which students are
provided program services. Programs may also be implemented within or outside of the
school structure. All of the programs previously listed are examples of programs that
provide services outside of the school day setting (i.e., afterschool tutoring, test
preparation courses, college field trips). One program that has had great success at
becoming institutionalized within the school structure is AVID (Advancement Via
Individual Determination). This program is actually implemented as a junior high and
high school course, where students learn college-going skills while receiving grades and
course credits.
There is a significant lack of research and evidence supporting the success of
academic preparation programs. One key reason is that there is not a common definition
of what a successful academic preparation program is. Some define success as the
completion of the academic requirements needed to attend a four-year university
(Quigley 2002). Some define success as the number of students in the program that go to
college and/or graduate from college (Swail 2001). Others define success as the ability to
28
impart the social capital needed for students to have the academic preparation and social
navigational skills to have the choice to go to college (Bookman, 2005). Because we are
unable to state convincingly that academic preparation programs are successful, few have
become models for best practice or integrated into the existing structure of a school
(Hagedorn, 2002; Gullatt, 2003).
Another reason for the lack of documented success of academic preparation
programs is the difficulty in collecting and analyzing the data, both on a quantitative and
qualitative level. Though the funding for academic preparation programs is plentiful,
50% of all programs receive federal funding, 25% receive state funding, and 25% receive
private funding (Swail, 2004), funding itself is not contingent on any evaluation or
control measures. Cost benefit and cost effectiveness analyses are rarely performed on
educational programs (Swail, 2004). The main reason for this lack of evaluation is the
difficulty of assigning monetary (or any other tangible) values to qualitative (or
intangible) goals, specifically providing social capital or college knowledge. With
changing budget climates throughout the country, accountability is becoming
increasingly significant and academic preparation program administrators are being asked
for more quantitative and qualitative data to document the effectiveness of services that
they are providing to students and parents.
Of the limited research and academic literature available, most studies have
focused on the federally supported TRIO programs. One of the most significant studies
was that conducted on the Upward Bound program by Mathematica Policy Research for
the U.S. Department of Education in 1999. The study reported four major conclusions.
29
First, many students remain in Upward Bound for only a short time, with an average time
of 19 months. Second, Upward Bound has limited impacts on students during high
school. Little difference was found in high school performance and graduation rates
between Upward Bound and non-Upward Bound students. Third, Upward Bound may
have some impact on participants postsecondary education. Upward Bound students who
attended college were more likely to receive financial aid. Fourth, Upward Bound has
substantial impacts on some groups of students and not others. Five groups of students
were found to benefit more from the Upward Bound program: (a) students will lower
initial educational expectations, (b) males, (c) Hispanic and White students, (d) low
income, and (e) poorer performing students.
Though the findings of the report were not definitive, they begin to show the
impact of academic preparation programs. The conclusion statement of the report read as
follows:
Although Upward Bound generally has few and small impacts on students during
their high school years, it is too soon to tell for certain how the program affects
students in terms of college attendance and completion. Our findings demonstrate
the Upward Bound can have large impacts for some groups of students. Most
notably, the program appears more helpful to students with lower initial
educational expectations, students with poorer academic performance as high
school freshmen, and those who remain in the program for at least two years.
Very few studies on the Early Academic Outreach Program, the focus of this
study, exist in the literature. Most of the research and data collection on EAOP has been
conducted by resources within the University of California. One such research center, the
All Campus Consortium On Research for Diversity (ACCORD), involves several UC
campuses and conducts research of the equitable distribution of educational resources in
30
California public schools and universities. An ACCORD study by Wang (2005), looked
at Los Angeles area EAOP high schools and found that the fidelity or strength of
implementation of an outreach program is a more crucial factor affecting student
achievement than the programs particular content. The study defined fidelity of
program implementation as the ability of program staff to implement program services at
the school site. If a site is more open to accepting program services, program staff will
have an easier time implementing services. The study showed that the fidelity of program
implementation significantly affected the number of Advanced Placement (AP) courses
taken, the rate of AP courses passed, and the percentage of students taking the SAT.
Perhaps the most significant study of the Early Academic Outreach program is the
Report to the Governor and Legislature on Student Academic Preparation and
Educational Partnerships by Quigley in 2002. Quigleys study of EAOP found that
students in EAOP are twice as likely to complete A-G courses by the end of 12
th
grade
than students who do not participate in EAOP. Successful A-G course completion in
high school results in larger numbers of EAOP students applying and being accepted to
four-year universities.
Though the success of academic preparation programs is debatable, a consensus is
growing about the desirable qualities for programs to have, the most basic of which is for
students to understand that academic success is not accomplished alone, but through
networks of support. Academic preparation programs attempt to combat the barriers
students face on a daily basis that contribute to the lack of academic progress and
31
aspirations. The support of an academic preparation program may be the only consistent
message students receive in daily life that affirms their pursuit of academic goals.
A long-term investment in students is preferred as it tends to have stronger impact
(Oesterreich, 2000). Whereas the timeline of services vary by program, most federal and
state programs require services to begin no later than 7
th
grade and continue through 12
th
grade (Oesterreich, 2000; Perna, 2000). Academic success in 7
th
grade has been
determined as key to predicting the likelihood of college enrollment. Research has shown
that fewer than two in 10 8
th
-grade students are on target for college-level work by the
time they graduate from high school (ACT, 2008).
Some privately funded academic preparation programs begin as early as the 3
rd
grade. This earlier start time is based on the research showing that inequitable academic
preparation exists as early as the elementary school primary years (Nettles, 1997). An
effort is needed to catch students early so that programs can focus on readiness rather
than remediation in preparation for college (Oesterreich, 2000). Another desirable
feature is a strong parent component, with up to one fourth of programs requiring parent
participation in order for the student to participate and receive program services (,
College Board, 2001; Oesterreich, 2000; Perna 2000).
The most condensed list of desirable attributes for education preparation programs
has been complied by Tierney, Corwin, and Colyar (2005) in Preparing for College:
Nine Elements of Effective Outreach. The nine elements are as follows:
1. It is helpful, but not critical, to emphasize the culture of the student.
2. Family engagement is critical.
32
3. Peer groups are helpful, but not critical.
4. Programs need to begin no later than the ninth grade and have structured activities
throughout the year.
5. Having knowledgeable, available counselors at the core of the program is critical.
6. Access to a college preparation curriculum is the most critical variable.
7. Cocurricular activities are irrelevant.
8. Mentoring is helpful, but not critical.
9. There is a positive relationship between the cost of program delivery and
achieving college readiness.
In his study, much of Tierneys (2005) discussion relates to the importance of the
parent involvement component of outreach programs (item #2 above) and an early start
of program implementation (item #4 above). Tierney (2005) stated that outreach
programming should progress beyond the basics of information dissemination and assist
parents in direct methods they may employ to act as advocates and improve their childs
educational experience. Specifically, Tierney lists four family education and support
areas: (a) personalized information focusing on steps in the pathway to college and how
parents can help beginning in elementary school, (b) expansion of family social networks
related to college options to include more educators, college, students/alumni, and
families like themselves, (c) reinforcement of parents sense of self-efficacy perhaps
through workshops on adolescent development or advocacy training by community
organizers, (d) gathering with other families for support and fellowship in instrumental
steps on the pathway to college, such as helping students choose classes, meeting with
33
college counselors and representatives, visiting colleges, and filling out financial aid
applications.
In addition to parent/family involvement, an early start in outreach program
participation translates into better and longer benefits for students. Tierney stated that
students need to enter high school with college knowledge and foundational academic
preparation. In a study of Latino students, Gonzalez et al. (2003) found similar results.
Latino college students attending elite universities gained high levels of social capital by
participating in outreach programs beginning in elementary school and continuing
through high school. Likewise, Perna (2005) promoted that program services (a) begin
early in the educational pipeline, (b) include a comprehensive set of services that vary
based on a students position in the pipeline, (c) adapt services to recognize participants
cultural strengths, (d) target populations that most need the services, (e) involve
partnerships and/or collaborations among various government, educational, and private
entities.
The importance of a parent involvement component of outreach programs is
reinforced by the data showing that students rely on parents as their primary influence
and source of information about college. In a 1993 study by the U.S. Department of
Education, 77% of students reported being advised about college from their father and
83% from their mother. Though students do get advising from school counselors and
teachers, it is at a lower percentage, 65% and 66% respectively. A study by ACT
(Wimberly & Noeth, 2004) found similar percentages regarding those who students rely
on for advice about college. This study also determined that the majority of parents often
34
lacks the tools and resources necessary to help their students. It is vital that parents have
experience and/or knowledge to support their children in planning for college. Academic
outreach program parent training can help better prepare parents to serve this student
need. As previously stated, college preparation outreach programs exist to supplement the
guidance efforts made by parents and school counselors.
In relation to social capital, a growing body of literature has documented that
academic preparation programs are becoming an exceedingly necessary factor in the
college admissions and completion processes (Gandara, 2001; Hagedorn, 2002). A large
number of academic preparation programs is aimed at serving educationally
disadvantaged youth who otherwise might not be able to attend college (Hagedorn, 2002;
Tierney, 2002). In addition to taking advantage of the tangible services these programs
provide (such as tutoring, academic enrichment classes, academic advising, and test
preparation), this population of students is the most likely to benefit from the lessons of
social capital.
Educationally Disadvantaged Student Populations
The literature on the topic of educationally disadvantaged student populations
overwhelmingly comes to the same conclusion: these students are unprepared and
unlikely to go to college (Choy, 2001; Gandara, 2001; Gonzalez, 2003; Horn & Chen,
1998; McDonough, 1997; Oakes et al., 2002; Perna, 2000; Tierney & Hagedorn, 2002).
Various factors contribute to the self-perpetuating nature of low achievement for
educationally disadvantaged students including language barriers, low expectations, and
lack of financial resources.
35
Students who live in low-income neighborhoods and attend low-performing
schools in urban communities tend to lack access to resources in home, community, and
school settings (Gandara & Bial, 2001; Tierney et al., 2005,). Parents are often unaware
of this lack of resources. As previously mentioned, parents have high expectations for
their children, yet educationally disadvantaged parents lack the skills, knowledge, and
training to help their children achieve their academic goals. As a result, these students are
less prepared for college (Berkner & Chavez, 1997) and attend college much lower rates
than the average population (Horn & Chen, 1998; Perna 2000).
Along with their students, educationally disadvantaged parents often feel
uncomfortable at school sites and about asking school staff for help. These uncomfortable
feelings may come from a language barrier, cultural differences, or simply a feeling of
intimidation of an authoritarian system. For parents who do not speak English, the burden
goes to the children to inform them about what is happening in school, including
information that pertains to preparing for college (Zarate, 2007). Cultural barriers often
exist in situations where parents feel that the school is in charge of the childs education
and that they should not interfere. Cultural barriers may also come into play when the
parent simply does not understand the system of education and does not know how to
help or what questions to ask. These unfortunate barriers lead to lower levels of parental
involvement at the schools (Auerbach, 2002; Perna, 2000).
Despite these barriers, over 90% of low-income students wants to attend college
and complete a degree (Ad Council, 2006). Whereas the larger population of students
looks to its parents for guidance toward this goal, most low-income students may rely
36
more on a school counselor or other staff member rather than a parent (Cabrera, 2001;
Choy, 2001). Still, less than 50% of low-income students reports receiving help in
preparing for college (Ad Council, 2006).
A significant contributor to low-income students not receiving guidance about
college is that their own parents did not likely attend college themselves. Not having
parents with college experience significantly decreases a students aspirations towards
higher education. Even with other factors being equal (such as academic performance or
income-based resources), the likelihood of enrolling in postsecondary education strongly
relates to parents education (A Shared Agenda, 2004; Choy, 2001,). Those first
generation students who do choose to attend college are likely to enter with less academic
preparation and to have limited access to information about the college experience, either
first-hand or from relatives (Thayer, 2000).
Left to their own devices, low-income and first generation students are less likely
to take college preparation courses in high school (Choy 2001; Gandara & Bial, 2001;
Oakes et al., 2002; Stanton-Salazar, 1997), which has in part led to the current
achievement gap in K-12 education. A look at educational outcomes throughout the
country consistently shows that racial subgroups score lower on standardized tests and
other educational measures. These disparities lead directly to the lower college
attendance rates of these subgroups (NCES, 2008). Along with racial differences, reports
from the College Board (2008) have shown that high school GPAs and SAT scores are
highly correlated with family income levels: Higher incomes have higher GPAs and
SAT scores, whereas lower incomes have lower GPAs and SAT scores. Even for those
37
who are academically successful in high school and eligible to attend a four-year
university, many are still more likely to begin college at a two-year institution (Choy,
2001; Gandara & Bial, 2001; McDonough, 1997; Rendon & Hope, 1996).
Below is Gandara and Bials (2001) summary of the barriers to high educational
achievement and reasons for low college-going rates for educationally disadvantaged
students. Gandara and Bial have suggested that these barriers be addressed early and
comprehensively in the life of the student.
1. Inequalities of familial cultural and social capital
2. Inequality of resources in neighborhoods and communities
3. Lack of peer support for academic achievement
4. Racism
5. Inequalities in K-12 schools, including unequal distribution of well-qualified
teachers
6. Segregation of Black and Hispanic students
7. Poor high school counseling
8. Low expectations and aspirations
9. High dropout rates
10. Limited financial resources
Several of these barriers are discussed in the next section, which reviews research and
literature on students living in a rural community.
38
Rural Students
The United States Census Bureau defines rural according to land use and
population. In order to define rural it first defines urban. Urban area classifications are
divided into the two categories of Urbanized Area and Urban Cluster. In order to fall into
one of these categories, the census block must have a population density of at least 1,000
people per square mile and surrounding census blocks must have an overall density of at
least 500 people per square mile. Rural areas are defined as all territories, populations,
and housing units located outside of all Urbanized Areas and Urban Clusters. The area of
focus for this study, Imperial County, California, is classified by the US Census Bureau
as a rural territory.
Though educationally disadvantaged students may be found in all socioeconomic
areas of the country, students from rural areas are less likely to go to college than
students from urban areas (Kiesa & Marcello, 2009). Many of these students are denied
college access due to poor preparation services, but even more are simply not interested
in attending. Cobb, Mcintire, and Pratt (1989) conducted a national study to compare the
educational aspirations of rural and urban high school seniors. Cobb found that almost
40% of rural students would be satisfied with a high school diploma or less. Only 25% of
urban students answered similarly. Additionally, DeYoung (1994) found that high school
dropouts in rural areas were less likely than their urban peers to return to school and
complete a high school diploma.
Despite societal and personal barriers, a percentage of rural students do choose to
go to college. The motivation to do so overwhelmingly comes from a supportive home
39
and peer environment (Yan, 2002). Close, supportive relationships tend to thrive in rural
environments (Herzon & Pittman, 1995). Rural culture by definition is socially isolated,
causing community members to become reliant on immediate family members and peers
for support. Once support is established individuals are more likely to attain their goals,
educational or otherwise.
Of those students who do pursuit postsecondary education, rural students are more
likely to choose vocational training instead of a liberal arts university education (Hu,
2003). Rural students are concerned with real world applications of life after high
school (Burnell, 2003). When available, students may choose local vocational training in
order to acquire the skills needed to work in the immediate community. Choosing to go to
college often means choosing to leave ones home and family. This choice contradicts the
feelings many students have regarding commitments to family members and peers.
Rural students who do leave their communities to pursue high education seldom
return to the rural environment (McGranahan & Beale, 2002; DeYoung, 1994; Hobbs
1998). This pattern may be due to a preference for staying in a nonrural environment, but
often these students find that the careers they have prepared for in college have limited
job opportunities in rural communities (Howley, 2008). By not returning to their home
environment, the rural area demographic continues to have a low college-going
population and a perpetuation of low-skill, low wages job opportunities (McGranahan &
Beale, 2002). United States census data from 2000 reported the distribution of bachelor
degrees in less in rural versus urban areas across the country: adults age 25 and over
reported earning bachelor degrees at 33% in urban metropolitan areas, compared to only
40
20% in rural areas. For Imperial County, the focus of this study, bachelor degree
attainment is a mere 10%. Considering that school teachers, principals, and counselors
are required to have college degrees, one can assume that a significant portion of this
10% population must work in an educational setting (in addition to professional
occupations such as doctors or lawyers), leaving an even smaller number of college
educated workers to fill high-skilled job opportunities. This lack of a highly educated
workforce in turn generates a low-income environment for students.
Low-income, rural environments lead to less opportunity for students. Students
who reside in rural areas may experience less constructive circumstances than students in
urban areas. Though more likely to encounter violence and income inequalities, urban
students often have access to support programs to help them cope with their
environmental circumstances. The logistics of bringing resources to urban students from
outside providers is often something that cannot be accomplished without great
complications. Lack of outside services providers contributes to the fact that rural
students have less exposure career options than urban students. Urban students may have
more opportunity to meet and interact with college graduates in a variety of career fields,
who may in turn serve as role models.
As previously state, rural students are isolated. They are less likely to experience
firsthand economic or cultural diversity. They are less likely to have access to medical
and technological advancements. Resources of all kinds are limited. The nearest four-
year college may be hundreds of miles away. Outside service providers (such as
41
academic preparation programs) may not have the resources to service students in rural
areas because they literally cannot travel to the remote school sites.
Along the southern border of the country, particularly in California and Texas,
rural communities often are composed of immigrant populations. The center of focus for
this study, Imperial County, has a Hispanic population of over 76%, according the most
recent United States census. Many rural communities are vocationally centered around
agriculture or manufacturing. Imperial County is an agricultural community, with almost
50% of its population working in farming jobs.
Pertinent to this study is the fact that rural schools are often less able to attract
enough qualified teachers to offer a challenging college prep curriculum. This issue may
be the most difficult obstacle rural students must overcome. Adelman (1999) found that a
challenging high school curriculum directly impacts college completion, explaining:
A high school curriculum of high academic intensity (as measured by the number
of non-remedial courses taken in the core subjects of English, math, science, and
social studies) and high quality (as measured by the number of Advanced
Placement courses completed and the highest level of math achieved) has greater
impact on bachelors degree completion than any other pre-college indicator of
academic preparation, including students high school test scores or grade point
average. This finding holds true regardless of socioeconomic status or race.
This study will look at an attempt to combat this exact issue by examining an outside
educational agency offering online advanced courses to students in rural areas who lack
access otherwise.
The previous two chapters have provided an introduction to the problem of access
to higher education in the state of California. A review of the literature has been
presented regarding the use of social capital for educational advancement. The following
42
chapter will specifically discuss the methods to be used in this study including site
selection, subject selection, data collection, data analysis, study limitations, and the
background of the researcher.
43
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODS
Introduction
The purpose of this dissertation is to research the process of a precollege academic
preparation program imparting social capital to educationally disadvantaged students.
The outcomes of this study provide new knowledge in the documented effectiveness of
academic preparation programs. The future funding and existence of these programs is
currently in great jeopardy, due largely to the lack of data supporting their success. Much
of the success of these programs comes in the form of social capital, which is hard to
quantify and document. More qualitative studies are needed to support the value of the
social capital that these programs impart to the community and to describe how the
community in turn uses this social capital for the benefit of the larger population.
James Coleman (1988) has described social capital as productive, making
possible the achievement of certain ends that in its absence would not be possible. The
notion of social capital for this studys purposes concerns the desire to attend college,
along with early college preparation knowledge students receive through the University
of Californias Early Academic Outreach Program (EAOP). This chapter is divided into
five sections and will describe the methods of conducting this qualitative study: (a) site
selection, (b) subject selection, (c) data collection, (d) data analysis, and (e) the
background of the researcher.
44
Site Selection
The Early Academic Outreach program is operated through the University of
California system. As the UCs largest academic preparation program, EAOP works with
K-12 students in public schools to prepare for college. Though the overarching goal is to
assist as many students as possible in becoming UC eligible, EAOP works to prepare
students for all postsecondary options.
As a California state-funded program, EAOP, along with other UC academic
preparation programs, has experienced budget extremes for the past 10 years. In 1995, the
University of California Board of Regents (the UC governing body) voted to pass Special
Policy 1 (SP1),which banned the use of race, ethnicity, and gender in admissions
decisions. Adding to the tone of SP1, in 1996 California voters passed Proposition 209,
which banned the use of affirmative action in all public college admissions policies.
Shortly thereafter, the University of California decided to pour additional money into its
outreach efforts in an attempt to recoup the ethnic diversity of applicants that was lost to
the passing of these two regulations. In 1998 the budget of EAOP was doubled to
increase the college preparation outreach efforts being made to low-income, first
generation college students. Almost immediately after these new funds were
implemented, California faced extreme budget shortfalls statewide. By 2002, EAOP not
only had its additional monies revoked, but also was facing complete program budget
elimination. By the end of the 2003-2004 academic year, EAOP remained operational,
but at a fraction of its regular operating budget.
45
At a high of $85 million in the 2000-2001 school year to a low of $29 million in
the 2004-2005 school year, the statewide budget for EAOP has shifted downward by over
$55 million. During this time of budget reductions, approximately 50,000 EAOP eligible
students did not receive program services (SAPEP, 2004). While the state of California
has continued to suffer economically, EAOP has received annual funding to maintain
minimal operations. To counteract budget shortfalls, each UC campus has attempted to
find additional funding for EAOP operations.
Each UC campus operates an EAOP program to serve students in its local region.
Established in 1976, EAOP seeks to serve educationally disadvantaged students who are
low-income, the first in their family to attend college, and/or attend low-performing
schools. Across the state, currently nine EAOP offices serve over 39,000 students at 43
middle schools and 266 high schools. With the motto education meets opportunity,
EAOP offers year-round academic preparation activities for educationally disadvantaged
K-12 students. Academic activities are designed to enhance the student perception that
college is in their future. EAOPs four core service areas are (a) Academic Advising, (b)
Academic Enrichment, (c) Entrance Exams, and (d) College Knowledge. Academic
Advising consists of reviewing class schedules with students to ensure that they are
taking the correct college preparation courses in high school. Academic Enrichment
primarily consists of academic tutoring, but can also mean providing students with high
school or college courses for academic credit. Entrance Exam services include SAT and
ACT exam preparation. College Knowledge includes working with students on the
college search, application, and admission process.
46
To be eligible to participate in EAOP programming students must meet one or
more of the following criteria:
• Low-income family (eligible for or participating in school free/reduced price
lunch program)
• Parent(s) have little or no college experience (community college or less)
• Underrepresented ethnicity (African American, Hispanic, Native American)
Though these students may start with severe disadvantages, data shows that
EAOP participants have greater success at preparing for college than their non-EAOP
classmates. Over 72% of EAOP students attend college their first year out of high school.
EAOP students have a 72% A-G completion rate, compared to a 34% completion rate for
non-EAOP students in the state. In addition, 61% of EAOP students attending low-
performing schools takes SAT and/or ACT exams, compared to 29% of non-EAOP
participants in these same schools. (EAOP Fact Sheet, 2008)
At the University of California San Diego, EAOP works with 16 schools in two
counties (San Diego and Imperial), servicing approximately 2,500 students. Almost all
of these 2,500 are low-income and/or first generation college students. Primarily, due to
the geographic location of EAOP service schools at or near the U.S.-Mexico International
border, the majority of students is Latino. Though the schools UCSD EAOP students
attend are considered low-performing, most UCSD EAOP students graduate high school
eligible to attend a California public four-year college. Tables 2a, 2b, and 2c, below,
detail a full demographic and academic picture of the schools that UCSD EAOP students
attend.
47
Table 2a
Socioeconomic Information of UCSD EAOP Schools, 2006-2007 School Year
(Dataquest, California Department of Education)
School Name
District
%
Free/Reduced
Price Lunch
% English
Language
Learners
% First
Generation
Students*
Castle Park High
Sweetwater Union
High School District 66 34 82
Castle Park Middle
Sweetwater Union
High School District 41 41 79
San Ysidro High
Sweetwater Union
High School District 65 49 85
Memorial Jr. High
San Diego Unified
School District 100 60 89
Morse High
San Diego Unified
School District 53 18 48
Bell Middle
San Diego Unified
School District 57 17 59
Gompers Charter Middle
School
San Diego Unified
School District 100 46 87
San Diego School of
Performing Arts
San Diego Unified
School District 43 7 49
Central Union High
Central Union High
School District 57 33 74
Wilson Jr. High
Central Union High
School District 59 26 80
48
Table 2a, Continued
Southwest High
Central Union High
School District 56 30 69
Kennedy Middle
Central Union High
School District 99 49 94
Calexico High
Calexico Unified
School District 99 55 80
De Anza Middle
Calexico Unified
School District 100 62 80
W. Moreno Jr. High
Calexico Unified
School District 100 54 81
*First Generation Students = parents did not graduate from a four-year university
49
Table 2b
Ethnic Breakdown of UCSD EAOP Schools, 2006-2007 School Year (Dataquest,
California Department of Education)
School
Name
%
White
%
Hispanic
%
African
American
%
Other
Castle Park High 5 87 3 5
Castle Park Middle 6 86 4 4
San Ysidro High 2 91 2 5
Memorial Jr. High 1 94 4 1
Morse High 3 36 19 42
Bell Middle 6 35 21 38
Gompers Charter Middle
School 2 70 21 7
San Diego School of
Performing Arts 27 30 25 18
Central Union High 7 89 2 2
Wilson Jr. High 8 86 3 3
Southwest High 9 87 1 3
Kennedy Middle 1 95 2 2
Calexico High 1 98 0 1
De Anza Middle 0 98 0 2
W. Moreno Jr. High 0 99 0 1
50
Table 2c
Academic Performance Information of EAOP High Schools, 2006-2007 School Year
(Dataquest, California Department of Education, CPEC)
School Name
API
State Rank*
% of High
School
Graduates to
UC
% of High
School
Graduates to
CSU
% of High
School
Graduates to
California
Community
Colleges
Castle Park High 4 6 14 64
San Ysidro High 3 4 14 33
Morse High 3 7 19 55
San Diego School of
Performing Arts 6 9 20 32
Central Union High 5 4 7 69
Southwest High 5 6 11
Not
Available
Calexico High 2 8 6 90
*2007 Statewide Rank. On the API Base reports, schools are ranked in ten categories of equal size, called deciles,
from one (lowest) to ten (highest). A school's statewide rank compares that school to other schools of the same type
in the entire state. A school's statewide rank is the decile where that school's API Base falls compared with the Base
APIs of the other schools statewide of the same school type.
Over its history, UCSD EAOP has provided a variety of informational,
motivational, and academic preparation activities. EAOP operates as a student-centered
pull out program. Student participants are pulled out of classes during the day to
receive individual and small group advising. Students (and parents) are also invited to
attend after-school, evening, and weekend activities. UCSD EAOP currently staffs one
51
Director, two Assistant Directors (one in San Diego and one in Imperial Valley), one
Senior Learning Skills Counselor, one Administrative Manager and approximately 20
college student workers. The full-time professional staff organizes and prepares
programming, while much of the on-the-ground advising is facilitated by college student
advisors and/or tutors. Current and past EAOP programming has included:
• A-G course advising ensuring that all students are aware of and enroll in
college preparation courses in high school;
• University of California admission application assistance one-on-one
assistance in completing the online application and editing written
personal statements;
• Financial aid advising guiding students to scholarship search resources
and referrals to assistance in completing the Free Application for Federal
Student Aid (FAFSA);
• Tutoring (in classroom and online) providing direct academic support to
ensure that students pass all college prep classes with a grade of C or
better;
• SAT/ACT exam preparation courses additional support in academic
content preparation (math and writing) and test-taking strategies;
• PSAT exams opportunities to take practice SAT exams under simulated
testing conditions;
• Academic Mentoring college student mentors to serve as motivators and
examples for younger students;
52
• Parent Conferences education for parents or guardians to learn about the
college preparation, search, and application processes;
• Summer residential programs summer school academic enrichment
courses held on a college campus;
• Algebra Academies additional after school hours classroom instruction
in algebra;
• Online courses for high school credit sponsor and enroll students in
online courses provided by outside providers.
Though all of the above-listed programming is helpful for students, one program
component stands out as particularly successful in the Imperial ValleysUCSD EAOP.
Though both San Diego and Imperial County schools have attempted summer online
academic courses over the years, Imperial County has had the most consistent success
implementing and growing the program each summer.
EAOP offers online courses in the summer to serve two purposes: one is to allow
students to take more A-G college prep classes during the regular school year by
providing a noncollege prep but required high school graduation course. That course
option is an Introduction to Health class offered to 9
th
and 10
th
-grade students. The
reasoning is that students can more easily process and succeed in a less demanding class
within an accelerated summer schedule. By taking a required course over the summer, the
student is able to take more advanced courses during the full school year. The second
purpose of offering online courses is that many schools in Imperial County do not offer
many honors or AP courses. Due to a lack of course offerings at their school sites, many
53
Imperial Valley students are not able to complete additional A-G courses and/or earn
GPAs high enough to be considered competitive for admission into selective four-year
universities. The two A-G courses offered online are Honors Sociology and AP
Environmental Science.
Table 3, below, shows the number of student participants by school in online
course from 2004 to 2008. Over the past five years Imperial County EAOP has supported
412 students, at three school sites through online summer courses. To date, 80 students
have taken the Honors Sociology course, 135 students have taken the Introduction to
Health course, and 197 students have taken the AP Environmental Science course.
Imperial County EAOP has projected up to 125 additional students to participate in
online courses for the summer of 2009.
54
Table 3
Number of EAOP Imperial Valley Student Participants in Online Summer
Courses (University of California San Diego, Early Academic Outreach Program)
Subject Selection
The subjects for this study represented a sample of the larger demographic that
EAOP is trying to serve. Students for the program are recruited from low-performing
schools in low-income areas across San Diego and Imperial Counties. Targeted students
for this study came from Imperial County only. Targeted students attended high schools
in the El Centro and Calexico School Districts. Within these districts, the targeted schools
were Central High School, Southwest High School, and Calexico High School (see
Figure 1, below). These schools shared similar levels of academic performance and
student demographics (see Tables 2a, 2b, and 2c, above).
55
Figure 1
Map of Study Location (http://www.countyfairgrounds.net/california/ca_county_map.jpg)
Specifically, the subjects of this study were EAOP students who enrolled in an
online summer school course administered by EAOP. In the summer of 2009, 125 10
th
-
12
th
-grade students were enrolled in one of three courses: AP Environmental Science,
Honors Sociology, or Introduction to Health. All students enrolled in the courses were
asked to participate in the study on a volunteer basis. Students and their parents were
informed of the purpose of the study and its potential impact on the future of academic
preparation programs. Students and parents had the opportunity to ask questions of the
researcher prior to agreeing to participate in the study. Students were given written
56
materials about the study, including a student and parent consent and confidentially
agreements. Contact information for the researcher was provided. All written materials
were provided in both English and Spanish. Students who agreed to participate in the
study returned the consent and confidentiality forms prior to being interviewed.
A total of 26 students participated in the study. Figures 2 through 6, below,
illustrate the demographic profile of the study participants. The grade-level breakdown
was relatively even with 10 12
th
-grade students, seven 11
th
-grade students, and nine 10
th
-
grade students participating. The gender breakdown was 62% female and 38% male. The
study participants were overwhelmingly Latino at 85%, along with 11% Asian, and 4%
White. Additionally, over half of the participants was first generation and/or low-income
students.
Figure 2
Study Participant Grade Level
57
Figure 3
Study Participant Gender
Figure 3
Study Participant Ethnicity
58
Figure 5
Study Participant Parent Education Level
Figure 6
Study Participant Free/Reduced Lunch Program Participation
59
Data Collection
Research Question
The data collected in this study attempts to answer the following research
question: How does the Early Academic Outreach Program assist educationally
disadvantaged students acquire the social capital of forms, norms, and resources to
prepare for the college admissions process?
Data Collection Timeline
The data for this study was collected over the summer of 2009. Student
participants were enrolled in the online summer school courses from June 23, 2009 to
July 23, 2009. Initial contact with the students was made on July 6, 2009. Participant
interviews for Calexico, Central, and Southwest High Schools took place on July 13-15,
2009. All data collection was completed by July 23, 2009.
Instrumentation and Procedures
Ethnographic methods were used in this study to determine the usefulness of
programming from the perspective of the student. Instrumentation and procedures
included qualitative data collection methods of semistructured interviews, focus groups,
qualitative fieldwork /observations, and document analysis.
Semistructured interviews and focus groups were held and tape-recorded at the
EAOP summer program locations. These interviews and focus groups asked questions
about current and past experience with EAOP programming. The semistructured
interviews were 30 minutes in length and were conducted with individual 12
th
-grade
students at each location. Additionally, 60-minute focus groups were conducted at each
60
site with 10
th
and 11
th
-grade students. All interviews took place at the school sites where
the students were taking the computer lab portion of their online class.
Questions put to the study participants were asked in attempt to answer to
Colemans (1988) three elements of social capital: forms, norms, and resources
(previously discussed in the literature review). In the context of this study, forms refer to
the circumstances of living in a rural environment and the academic structure of
secondary schools within that environment; norms refer to the shared feelings and
expectations of being part of a college going culture; resources refer to the access to
college preparation advisors and outreach program services.
Below are the lists of questions used for the interviews and focus groups:
Individual Interview Questions: (12
th
grade Students at all three site locations):
Forms:
• What is like being a high school student in Imperial Valley?
• Describe the college preparation resources you have available at your school site.
• Which college preparation courses have you completed and which ones do you
plan to take next year?
• Why did you enroll in this summer online course?
Norms:
• When and how did you first decide you wanted to go to college?
• How have your friends and family influenced your decision whether or not to
attend college?
61
• Which colleges are you thinking about applying to? Why?
• Which, if any, college campuses have you visited?
Resources:
• How did you find out about EAOP?
• How did you come to be an EAOP student?
• Tell me about your participation in EAOP.
o Which EAOP activities have you participated in?
o What was your most favorite activity through EAOP?
o What was your least favorite?
• Do you believe EAOP has helped prepare you for college? Please explain.
• What have you learned about preparing for college through EAOP?
• In what ways has EAOP changed your views about college?
• What would you say to other students who are thinking about joining EAOP?
Focus Group Questions: (one focus group 10
th
grade, one focus group 11
th
grade at each
site location):
Forms:
• What is it like being a high school student in Imperial Valley?
• Why did you enroll in this summer online course?
62
Norms:
• Who has had the most influence on your decision whether or not to attend
college?
• Which colleges are you thinking about applying to? Why?
Resources:
• Why did you join EAOP?
• What have you learned about preparing for college through EAOP?
• Tell me about your participation in EAOP.
o Which EAOP activities have you participated in?
o What was your most favorite activity through EAOP?
o What was your least favorite?
• What would you say to other students who are thinking about joining EAOP?
In addition to interviews and focus groups, qualitative fieldwork consisted of
attending and observing EAOP online course computer lab sessions. Observations
consisted of looking for patterns of behavior and interaction among students and program
staff. There was also document analysis, which consisted of a review of handouts
provided to students during the course. A determination was made if these handouts are
simply summative or are an enhancement to the programming. Additionally course
experience evaluations were reviewed to examine the immediate reaction of student
participation.
63
Data Analysis
Validity tests were used to determine whether the findings of this study are
accurate from the standpoint of the researcher, the participants, and future researchers
(Creswell, 2003). Specifically, validity tests measure the degree to which a study
accurately reflects the specific concept that the researcher is attempting to measure.
Validity checks ensured the triangulation of this study. The researcher used methods
recommended by Creswell, including member checking and peer debriefing to determine
the accuracy of findings of the study. Member checking consisted of sharing data
collection with study participants to provide an opportunity for each person to edit
responses for accuracy. Peer debriefing consisted of sharing drafts of findings with
EAOP program administrators in order to further validate my findings and extend my
review.
Study Limitations
This study is limited in three general areas: first is setting and time. The students
interviewed for this study have felt the effects of limited program offerings due to the
current economic crisis in the state of California. If conducted seven or eight years ago,
this study may have found different results as the student programming experience may
have been different. The second limitation is the context of a rural setting. Students living
in remote areas have less access to resources than students in large urban areas. If
conducted in a larger populated area, this study may have found that students had more
options to find needed academic and social support systems. Finally, this study is limited
64
in that the study participants are self-selected. Each student interviewed voluntarily
enrolled in an online summer course through EAOP. By doing so, each student already
demonstrated motivation to take extra efforts to attain their academic goal of going to
college.
Background of Researcher
As a first generation college student, I understand the need for assistance in the
area of college preparation. I received little formal guidance regarding college
preparation, but was surrounded by unknown social capital. Growing up, I attended
schools where teachers and counselors tracked me into the college-bound classes and
activities. I went to college after high school because that was what I was supposed to do.
My parents gave me little help in choosing a college but they were very supportive of my
going. During my time as a college undergraduate, I realized that this experience was not
what happens to all children growing up. I have since spent the rest of my adult life
assisting others in pursuing their academic goals. I have worked as a college counselor in
one form or another for the past 17 years. I have worked with all types of students from
kindergarteners to adult learners returning to college after a long absence. I believe all
students have the right to an education.
I have many years of work experience with academic preparation programs. I
have experienced times of high economic support and times of no economic support to
the extent of program elimination threat. I know the feeling of the success that
academic preparation programs can achieve with their student and parent participants. I
65
also know the frustration of not being able to document that success in a numeric way
that is understandable to noneducators.
Additionally, I have had personal experience with the subject program of my
study. I was employed with the UCSD EAOP program from Fall, 1998 to Spring, 2004. I
served as an assistant director for the program and worked with students and schools in
both Imperial and San Diego Counties. I have seen the program expand and flourish in
good economic times, and face potential downfall with the threat of program budget
elimination.
66
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION OF DATA
Introduction
The purpose of this dissertation is to research the process of a precollege
academic preparation program imparting social capital to educationally disadvantaged
students. Much of the success of such programs comes in the form of social capital,
which is hard to quantify and document. The presentation of data for this study will
provide new knowledge in the area of documented effectiveness of academic preparation
programs. This chapter includes quotes from individual student participants, expressing
in their own words their experiences of preparing for college in the Imperial Valley, and
more specifically their involvement with the Early Academic Outreach Program. This
chapter also includes observations of the researcher on program organization and student
program participation.
Questions asked of study participants were an attempt to address Colemans
(1988) three elements of social capital: forms, norms, and resources (previously
discussed in the literature review). In the context of this study, forms refer to the
circumstances of living in a rural environment and the academic structure of secondary
schools within that environment; norms refer to the shared feelings and expectations of
being part of a college going culture; resources refer to the access to college preparation
advisors and outreach program services.
67
The data collected in this study addressed the following research question: How
does the Early Academic Outreach Program assist educationally disadvantaged students
acquire the social capital of forms, norms, and resources to prepare for the college
admissions process?
Forms
In the context of this study, social capital Forms refer to the circumstances of
living in a rural environment and the academic structure of secondary schools within that
environment. Study participants were asked questions about the college-going resources
of their community and school environments. Findings from these questions can be
summarized as follows:
• Students are aware of the lack of resources they have access to living in rural area
• Students are not able to articulate exactly what additional resources they need
• Students are aware of college admissions requirement
Rural Life in Imperial Valley
When asked what it was like being a high school student in Imperial Valley
student responses ranged from its awesome! to its freaky scary! All students
agreed that the weather made life in Imperial Valley unique. Imperial Valley is a desert
community with summer temperatures reaching 100+ degrees on a daily basis. Interviews
for this study were conducted during the month of July. Students spend the entire class
time indoors, including breaks and lunch, as it is too uncomfortable to spend long periods
of time outdoors. On the second day of the interview process there was a fire drill in the
68
middle of one of the class periods. The 15 minutes we spent outside on a July morning
was more than enough time to remind everyone why they prefer the indoors.
In addition to dealing with the heat, students are challenged to find activities to do
outside of school sports and clubs. Students are limited in their options; typical teen
activities including socializing at the mall. One (air-conditioned) commercial shopping
mall is in Imperial Valley and is really only easily accessible to the students who live in
town in the city of El Centro. Students living in more remote parts of the county may not
have transportation to visit the mall regularly for social purposes. Remote parts of the
county do not offer environments conducive to teen socialization outside of the school
setting. When school breaks for the summer, socializing options cease to exist. One
student commented that she enrolled in the summer online course because she had
nothing else to do.
Living in a small, rural environment does have some advantages, however, like
developing close friendships. Students commented that they get really close with friends
because theres nothing else to do and its really small, you get to know each other like
family. The majority of students in this study has known each other for many years and
has taken several courses together in school.
There was a sense of comfort and familiarity amongst the students as they know
they share the common goal of wanting to go to college. They also know, however, that
they are faced with challenges in reaching this goal. The students were aware of how
others (both local and nonlocal) viewed them and their potential. When asked if most of
69
the students at their school are going to college a common reply was it depends on who
you talk to. One student commented that
its hard on your heart because people are saying bad things about your school.
Its just been built up after like so many years, we just have a bad reputation, I
dont know, something bad must have where now we all like look bad, but now
some people do have a lot of pride from our school.
Comments like these may very well have produced generations of young people with
little self-confidence and ambition. These students, however, displayed an eagerness to
overcome their bad reputation. In many ways, these students took on the attitude of if
someone tells me I cant do something it just makes me want to do it more and prove
them wrong.
Though students evidenced an environment of social support towards their
academic goals, the geographic isolation of the Imperial Valley limits the exposure of
students to additional opportunities to develop social capital. Both cultural and
educational opportunities are limited and exposure to additional opportunities requires
extensive travel. Additionally, the dominating rural agricultural society does not call for a
population containing a highly educated workforce. Regardless, many students are
motivated to pursue a college degree. Again, due to the rural nature of the community,
qualified teachers and counselors available to help these students are limited.
One additional interesting comment arose regarding the demographic makeup of
the region. Imperial Valley lies on the United States-Mexico border, just two hours east
of San Diego. As mentioned previously, 85% of the study participants was Latino, which
is very representative of the region as a whole. A non-Latino participant commented that
70
the fact that were so close to the border and so a very Spanish culture is in
depth and its been really engrained into the school system. For me its a very
learning opportunity for me because Im 100% Asian so its kinda like I
experience a different culture for once.
This indicated an awareness of the ethnic make up of the community and that it does
affect the educational system in which they participate.
Unmet Needs in Rural Schools
Though students were able to describe college preparation resources at their
school of attendance, most felt that they still needed more. When asked about what
college preparation they received in school the most common answer was Advanced
Placement (AP) courses. Students commented that not many AP courses are available at
their schools and they try to take as many as they can. One student commented that, of
all things I think AP classes help me the most. Even with the lack of a high number of
AP courses, several students concurred that you will learn if you want to at any school.
Opinions about the effectiveness of school counselors varied among the study
participants. One student commented that counselors come to classrooms once a year to
share college and financial aid information, yet another student commented that
counselors call out students once a month to check in. As with any educational
community, some teachers and counselors are more effective than others. Twenty of the
26 study participants were able to identify at least one teacher or counselor who was
helpful in providing support for them to go to college. Having found that support,
students wanted more.
When asked about what additional college preparation could be provided at the
schools, students were unable to articulate anything specific. There was agreement
71
among the 10
th
-grade focus group participants that applying to college was a complicated
process and that they were going to need help. Many students simply felt frustrated that
they wanted more but did not know what that more was. The frustration came through
with one 11
th
-grade student in particular, who commented the following
I think that a lot of the options we have are very limited here. Its not exactly a
bad thing but, in a way its not a good thing, but for me like, how do I say this, I
kinda wish there were some more options available. Like here they focus a lot on
ELD programs, English Language Development because theres a lot of people
here that just moved from Mexico. In my situation I dont really need the ELD
programs and I wish there was more advanced courses available. The only ones
available are AP classes. I find it helpful but at the same time I wish there was
other advanced courses or activities. I find it very limited.
The social capital evidenced here is that students know they need more support.
While on track to attend college, students are aware that they may not be as competitive
as applicants from larger communities and/or more sophisticated high schools with more
resources. Students, however, do have a solid understanding of the basics of college
admission requirements and are taking advantage of the college preparation opportunities
available.
Student Awareness of College Admissions Requirement
Participating in the EAOP online summer course is a direct reflection that
students were aware of the college preparation courses needed in high school in order to
be accepted to college. Most were very aware of courses they still needed to take in their
remaining years of high school. Enrolling in the EAOP online summer courses was a
deliberate action to complete and/or add to their A-G courses listed on their transcript.
When asked why they enrolled in a summer course, student replies included:
72
• add to A-G courses taken
• increase GPA
• take less classes senior year
• help to get into Top 20 (more discussion on this topic in the next section)
• want transcript to look good
• to be more advanced in everything else
• nothing else to do this summer
Only one student expressed wanting to increase academic rigor to be prepared for
college-level work. The student commented, I took this class because I need a challenge.
This class is so intense and I feel like I can do it. Ive always had a 4.0.
Each of the 26 students in the study made a conscious decision to enroll in a
summer school course. At some point prior, each student had reviewed college
admissions requirements such as A-G course completion, required GPA, and the
competitive nature of applicants. This social capital accumulation has bonded these
students into the college-going culture of the community. The next section about social
capital Norms will review the student attitude within this college going culture.
Norms
Social capital Norms refer to the shared feelings and expectations of being part of
a college-going culture. Study participants were asked questions about their motivation
for wanting to go to college and the steps they had taken to prepare. Findings from these
questions can be summarized as follows:
73
• Student motivation to attend college stems from friend and family influences
• Students are aware of a variety of college options
• Students have taken advantage of college campus field trips
Motivation to Attend College
When asked about the motivation behind wanting to go to college, study
participants were very willing and somewhat eager to share their thoughts. Students were
very comfortable talking about personal experiences. Some students seemed pleased and
excited that somebody wanted to know about their plans for college. Each of the 11
th
and
12
th
-grade students interviewed answered questions easily and offered detailed
information without much prompting by the researcher. Students in the 10
th
-grade focus
groups needed slightly more prodding to get talking but, as a group, offered the
impression that they were all on the same path toward college. All of the study
participants were very confident that they would meet their goal of attending college.
The idea of going to college has been with these students since an early age.
Many students commented on having a very supportive family and parents that want me
to go to a good college. Though some parents were hesitant about their child leaving
home, most had communicated to their child that they wanted what was best for their
education. One student described her mothers support throughout her life as
the way she was brought up she was given the right tools and she provided me
and my brother the right tools, the right values, the right principles. Theres not a
right or wrong. The way she showed me is you go,go,go. Ive tried everything. As
long as my moms willing to help me I know I can do whatever I want. And shes
given me the right tools and the freedom so that I can expand myself to do
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whatever I want, so with that if a child has that kind of upbringing they can reach
for whatever they want. I mean everythings possible. I know not a lot of kids
have that.
Another student commented that, I wouldnt expect anything else. You go to high
school and you go to college. Ive just been raised to do.
Support at home transferred into students being supportive of educational goals
with their peers at school. Each of the 10 12
th
-grade students commented on the
competitive academic spirit at their schools. This competitive spirit is seen as helpful, not
harmful. Each of the 10 12
th
-grade students and almost all of the 11
th
-grade students
brought up the high school Top 10 and Top 20. The Top 10 and Top 20 is a class ranking
system at each school in the district. Being in the Top 10 or Top 20 is a very
distinguished honor among students, especially those who are college-bound. A few
students stated specifically that they enrolled in the EAOP summer class to stay in the
Top 10. One student described being in the Top 10 as a good investment.
Commenting on the motivation of the striving for the Top 10 or Top 20 one student
commented that, all my friends, best friends, are all in Top 10 Top 20. I think like
theyre the reason that I work harder because I want to stay at the same level with them
and like dont fall behind.
Though not all students are able to make the Top 10 or Top 20, the potential for
this recognition is a huge motivator. The impression was that this honor was respected
amongst students and they were very supportive of each other to try to reach this goal.
This peer motivation went beyond the student own peer group by grade level.
Students were eager to offer advice to younger kids entering high school, including:
75
• dont be lazy
• stay focused
• choose your friends wisely
• life is toughdont quit
• live life and dont have regret
• be more psychologically prepared
These comments evidence the desire to provide an encouraging environment for
students to continue their education beyond high school. Having supportive parents and a
supportive home environment allowed the students in this study to extend their social
capital to their younger peers. The motivation to attend college was evident. Realistic
college choices for these students are discussed in the next section.
College Choice Awareness
When asked which colleges they were planning on applying to, students cited
mainly colleges in California. Nine of the 10 12
th
-grade students immediately responded
with all UC schools, or UC schools for sure, or named a specific UC campus. Only
one student stated that he/she was planning on attending the local Imperial Valley
Community College and then transfering to a four-year university. Both 11
th
and 12
th
-
grade students stated that they wanted to attend college in California so that they would
be close to home; specifically mentioned California colleges included: UC San Diego,
UC Berkeley, UC Santa Barbara, UC Irvine, UC Davis, San Diego State University, Cal
State Northridge, Cal State East Bay, and Stanford. Tenth-grade focus group participants
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were not as precise in naming specific colleges they wanted to apply to. These 10
th
-grade
students are still in the process of learning about the colleges available and their
locations. Tenth-grade students were also not a quick to limit their options to California
schools. One 10
th
-grade student commented that he would go to college whereever I get
in.
The cited list of California colleges reflects a wide range of college attendance
goals. This list includes everything from colleges that accept minimally eligible students
to colleges that are highly selective and accept only the strongest applicants. By reaching
for admission at such competitive colleges, students are demonstrating confidence in their
ability to succeed academically. This self-confidence continues to be nurtured in the
college-going culture of their schools. School-based staff and programs continue to
develop the students social capital by providing opportunities for students to visit some
of the college campuses they hope to attend.
College Campus Visits
A few students did express an interest in attending colleges out of state, such as
New York University and the University of Texas. The two students who specifically
mentioned schools outside of California had visited those campuses while visiting family
out of state during school vacations. Had these vacations not occurred, these two colleges
may not have been of interest to the students.
Many of the students had access to college field trips to a variety of colleges,
including UC San Diego, UC Los Angeles, UC Riverside, and San Diego State
University. All of the mentioned college visits were school-sponsored field trips or with
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school groups like TRIO/Upward Bound, AVID, and EAOP. One 11
th
-grade student also
had the opportunity to travel with the school orchestra group to a competition at a college
campus.
A common topic of discussion was that due to geographic location, if an Imperial
Valley student wanted to attend a four-year university he/she must leave the area. No
public or private four-year universities exist in Imperial County. San Diego State
University does have a satellite campus in Calexico, but it does not offer the full range of
courses or majors that the main campus in San Diego offers. Students were not at all
deterred by the need to leave home to attend college. In fact, most welcomed it. There
was a common desire to get out of the Valley. One 12
th
-grade student was able to
connect the challenge of taking advanced courses to the challenge of leaving home by
stating
like with AP classes, like dont be scared. Its about challenging yourself.
Because if youre too comfortable and you want to leave you need to get out of
your comfort zone to leave so you might as well start right now, getting used to it,
not be scared.
Students were also aware that after graduating from college, they may not be returning to
Imperial Valley. This awarness was reflected in such comments as, [for] what I want to
to study, they dont have the job here.
Though students are geographically isolated in Imperial Valley, they do not feel
confined. Participating in college campus field trips outside of the region demonstrates
that the students were curious about the opportunities available outside of their immediate
area. Similarly, students looked beyond their direct school-based resources (teachers and
counselors) to find opportunities to develop additional college-going social capital.
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Resources
Social capital Resources refer to the access to college preparation advisors and
outreach program services. Study participants were asked questions about their
participation in the Early Academic Outreach Program. Findings from these questions
can be summarized as follows:
• Students were aware of the need for college knowledge social capital before they
enrolled in the EAOP online summer course;
• EAOP serves students in a partnership fashion;
• Twelfth-grade student were more able to specify upcoming EAOP services.
Aware of Need for College Knowledge Social Capital
As discussed above in the Forms and Norms sections, all of the students
interviewed for this study have the goal to go to college. This goal was in place before
high school and, for most, before introduction to EAOP. Students did not join EAOP for
something to do, as was a common reason for participating in sports or getting a job.
Students sought out EAOP and its services to help them attain their academic goals.
Eight of the nine 10
th
-grade study participants had been part of their schools
AVID program since 8
th
grade. The AVID program requires that students enroll in the
AVID class for one class period during the regular school year. Students are aware that
the choice to be in the AVID class cuts into their choice of other elective and required
courses that they are able to take each year. Students are willing to work around this
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obstacle by taking summer classes. As one student commented: I had to take Health this
summer because I couldnt take it last year because of AVID. Next summer I will
probably take AP Environmental Science because I cant take a science in school
because of AVID and sports.
When recruiting for the online summer courses, the AVID classes were a good
place to go because most of the students are part of both AVID and EAOP. One student
recalled, a counselor came to our class and said we should sign up for this class. I had to
because I need another science for my A-G. Many of the students commented that,
almost all of the kids in the summer class are in AVID. Having taken classes together
in earlier grades made taking a summer class easier for the students, who commented,
we always take our classes together. We can study and do labs together. Then next year
we can be lab partners again because we know we do good together to get a good grade.
Participation in programs such as AVID and EAOP have instilled in students the
ability to recognize social capital building opportunities. Having an early start in an
outreach program in middle school had allowed students to form peer groups with similar
academic goals. By remaining with these peer groups, students provide each other
support to work together on attaining these goals. Though students may not be readily
aware of it, the outreach programs that support these peer groups also work in partnership
to deliver social capital building opportunities.
EAOP Partnerships
As mentioned in the previous section, many of the study participants were
members of both EAOP and AVID. Students were aware that there were many outreach
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programs available to them and that they could participate in several. When asked what
outreach programs were available at their school, students responded:
• Migrant Education
• MESA
• AVID
• Talent Search
• Cal SOAP
• GEAR UP
• EAOP
The students were aware that many of the college preparation events they
attended included students from all of the programs. Though many K-16 partnerships are
in place in Imperial Valley, the students commented mainly on three items that stood out
in their memory: College Making It Happen, Higher Ed Week, and SAT Preparation
Classes.
College Making It Happen is an event usually held once a year at all of the middle
schools in each district. The event is usually held in the evening and parents are
encouraged to attend with their student. The focus of the event is financial aid
information, but also includes information on what classes to take in high school and
college admissions requirements. Many of the study participants remembered attending a
College Making It Happen event, as one put it: or something like it. I remember that
from middle school. It was really big in the gym. Then we went to classrooms for
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workshops on financial aid. One 11
th
-grade student stated that that event was how he
found out about the AVID program, commenting,
my mom went to workshop and the lady told her about AVID. My mom filled out
the form and I didnt know what it was but she said I had to take the class, but
now I really like it. They tell me all about college.
Higher Ed Week, an annual event in the fall semester, promotes college
awareness in all the schools, but mainly the high schools. Most of the activities are
targeted towards seniors. Events vary from school to school but most schools have large
college fairs and classroom presentations. Several 11
th
and 12
th
-grade students recalled
Higher Ed Week, but did not know that was the event title. Students remembered that all
of the colleges are there like UCSD, UCLA, San Diego State. There are a lot of
presentations in our classrooms from Talent Search and EAOP. They tell us about college
and applying for scholarships.
A couple of students recalled the workshops, commenting that: I heard the same
workshop twice in my English and history class. It was the same speaker and he told the
same jokes. When asked about their favorite part of Higher Ed Week responses included
free pizza, the college fair and music at lunch time.
Test Preparation workshops and classes are offered usually in the fall for seniors
and in the spring for juniors. Usually, only outreach program participants are invited to
participate. One student commented that
they said it was only for people in MESA and EAOP and Talent Search. There
were a lot of people. We went to IVC [Imperial Valley College]. They told us
about the test and we did practice questions. It was hard. But we had pizza.
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A few students had gone as 11
th
-graders in the spring and planned to go again in the fall
for the senior workshops. SAT scores are big concern for students. One student
commented that,
my grades are not good so I need a really good test score. Before I didnt know
anything about the SAT except that it was hard. Now I know more about the test
but its still hard. I need to study.
The partnership activities discussed above are only three examples of the strong
partnership culture that exists within Imperial Valley outreach programs. Though each
program has its own service agenda, all are united in the effort to support students going
to college. Having multiple outreach program options allows for the reinforcement of
basic services, such as financial aid advising. Combining resources allows for the
inclusion of services, such as SAT test preparation, that one individual program would
not be able to implement on its own.
Future EAOP Services
All students who participated in this study are now part of the EAOP caseload for
the upcoming 2009-2010 academic year. For some student participants, this online class
was their first introduction to EAOP services. When asked what to expect next year the
answers varied by participant grade level, as would be expected. Responses from 10
th
-
grade students were vague, ranging from I dont know to maybe a college field trip.
Responses from 12
th
-grade students were more specific and centered on college
application assistance. When asked to cite a specific reason they may go to EAOP for
help, students offered responses centered on completing the University of California
application for admission. Several students knew from older sibling experiences with
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EAOP that UC application assistance was available, making comments such as, I know
like my brother, he had help with UC applications so that for sure and my brother said
the UC application is really long, but the EAOP counselors help you fill out the whole
thing.
A few seniors were already planning on seeing their EAOP advisors early in the
year to get a head start on applying to college in the fall. Wanting to attend one of the
most competitive UC campuses, one student commented,
I really want to go to Berkeley so I will need a lot of help with my essay. I think
EAOP can really help me with that. Thats hard. Ive heard that they really put a
lot on the essay. I really need to write a good essay to get in.
Another student also commented on the college application essay, stating,
When my cousin was a senior their first assignment was to write their college
essay. I want to do that too to get it done early then I can go to my EAOP
counselor and put it with my application for UC schools.
EAOP counselors were definitely not the only people these students turned to.
When asked who their go to person was for college help, students offered the
overwhelming answer of, my AP [Subject] Teacher. Being with students in a college
preparation environment made an impact on many of these students so that when
questions about college arose, many felt comfortable asking a teacher who had been part
of their daily college prep lives. Student comments about AP Teachers were very
supportive. Students felt that their AP Teachers really care and want me to go to a
good college. Additional responses regarding the go to person for college help
included Counselor, AVID Teacher, and the Internet.
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Summary
Questions were asked of study participants in an attempt to address Colemans
(1988) three elements of social capital (forms, norms, and resources) in the form of the
following research question: How does the Early Academic Outreach Program assist
educationally disadvantaged students acquire the social capital of forms, norms, and
resources to prepare for the college admissions process?
Responses to questions about forms, or the circumstances of living in a rural
environment and the academic structure of secondary schools within that environment,
resulted in the following conclusions: (a) Students were aware of the lack of resources
they had access to living in rural area, (b) Students were not able to articulate exactly
what additional resources they need, and (c) Students were aware of college admissions
requirements. These conclusions about forms indicate that students understood the
academic consequences of living in a rural community. The following responses
regarding norms demonstrate how these consequences can be overcome.
Responses to questions about norms, or the shared feelings and expectations of
being part of a college-going culture, resulted in the following conclusions: (a) Student
motivation to attend college stemmed from friend and family influences, (b) Students
were aware of a variety of college options, and (c) Students had taken advantage of
college campus field trips. These conclusions about norms indicate that the students had
risen above the barriers they faced and set high academic goals for themselves. Craving
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the social capital to achieve these goals prompted them to take advantage of available
resources.
Responses to questions about resources, or the access to college preparation
advisors and outreach program services, resulted in the following conclusions: (a)
Students were aware of the need for college knowledge social capital before they enrolled
in the EAOP online summer course, (b) EAOP served students in a partnership fashion,
and (c) Twelfth-grade students were more able to specify upcoming EAOP services.
These conclusions about resources indicated that students were actively utilizing services
provided by EAOP as well as other academic preparation programs. Combining resources
from various programs seemed to best meet the academic needs of students.
This chapter presented study data and summarized how the Early Academic
Outreach Program assisted students in Imperial Valley to receive and use social capital to
get to college. Study participants have demonstrated that they use social capital forms,
norms, and resources to build and share college knowledge. The final chapter of this
paper will review and further analyze college knowledge social capital.
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CHAPTER FIVE
ANALYSIS
Purpose of Study
The common perception is that all students will receive college counseling and
guidance at their high school. While precollege advising does take place, both quality and
quantity suffers due to high caseload numbers. In order to augment precollege counseling
in high schools, and to aid in developing a college going culture, a variety of precollege
academic preparation programs is in place throughout the country. This study has
documented the experiences of students from one such program, EAOP. The Early
Academic Outreach Program delivers a variety of services to motivate, prepare, and
inform students of their college choices. EAOP proved to be a significant resource in
serving students to successfully overcome many of the educational barriers they faced
living in a rural community. This ability to overcome educational barriers can be termed
the college knowledge or social capital needed to successfully navigate the U.S. system
of higher education.
The purpose of this study has been to evaluate the process of an academic
preparation program imparting social capital to educationally disadvantaged students.
The particular form of social capital examined was the college knowledge needed to
successfully prepare for college admission. The significance of this research is timely in
that the state of California is experiencing significant budget concerns and has endured
large reductions in funding to education in general. Research that documents the impact
87
of academic preparation programs will have a significant impact on the future funding for
college advising and preparation, directly affecting the likelihood of the attainment of
educational goals of California youth. The data collected in this study answers the
following research question: How does the Early Academic Outreach Program assist
educationally disadvantaged students acquire the social capital of forms, norms, and
resources to prepare for the college admissions process?
The following sections of this chapter reflect on the answer to this research
question by analyzing the data collected using the theoretical framework of social capital.
Review of Theoretical Framework
The research question was addressed using Colemans approach of defining social
capital into forms, norms, and resources. For this study, the researcher supplemented
Coleman's approach with the work of Stanton-Salazar (1997), which defines social
capital as relationships with institutional agents that can be converted into socially valued
resources, opportunities, and emotional support. The institutional agent in this study is
the Early Academic Outreach Program.
Though academic preparation programs have been implemented on national,
state, and local levels, a significant lack of research and evidence supporting the
success of academic preparation programs still exists. This dearth of research is partly
due to the lack of a common definition for what constitutes a successful academic
preparation program. Some define success as the completion of the academic
requirements needed to attend a four-year university (Quigley, 2002). Others define
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success as the number of students in the program that go to college and/or graduate from
college (Swail, 2001). Still others define success as the ability to impart the social capital
needed for students to have the academic preparation and social navigational skills to
have the choice to go to college (Bookman, 2005). For Imperial Valley students, EAOP
has proven itself successful by providing elements of multiple definitions of success. In
response to Quigley, EAOP provides opportunities for students to complete college
admission requirements by offering college prep courses during summer school. In
response to Swail, EAOP provides opportunities for students to receive counseling and
assistance in completing college applications. In response to Bookman, EAOP provides
opportunities for students to be part of a college-going environment in their school sites,
thereby establishing college-bound peer groups.
A college-going environment, along with college-bound peer groups, provide the
social capital necessary for educationally disadvantaged students, particularly rural
students, to attain their academic goal of attending college. Educationally disadvantaged
students may be found in all socioeconomic areas of the country. Those who reside in
rural areas may face different challenging circumstances from their peers in urban areas.
Though more likely to encounter violence and income inequalities, urban students often
have access to support programs that help them cope with their environmental challenges.
The logistics of bringing resources to rural students from outside providers often cannot
be accomplished without great complications. EAOP has maintained its dedication to
serving rural students by maintaining an Imperial Valley presence for over 20 years.
Though economic circumstances have affected the financial and human resources over
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the years, EAOP has never ceased its operations of providing college preparation services
for Imperial Valley students. In order to maximize these services, EAOP has served as a
leader in the community in establishing educational partnerships.
One such partnership presented in this study was an online summer school course.
This offering was a direct result of rural schools common struggle to attract enough
qualified teachers to offer a challenging college prep curriculum. The students who
enrolled in the summer school course were the student participants for this study.
Data Analysis
Imperial Valley region, as a rural community, has the spirit of collaboration
engrained in its culture. In order to survive geographic isolation, rural community
members must support each other in all facets, including education. College Knowledge
forms, norms, and resources manifest themselves in a cooperative format for students
living in the Imperial Valley. Examples of such collaboration are evidenced in the data.
College preparation collaboration on forms, or the circumstances of living in a
rural environment and the academic structure of secondary schools within that
environment, is addressed by school districts and outreach programs addressing the lack
of academic resources in the rural community. School administrators, teachers, and even
students are aware of the lack of an advanced college preparation academic curriculum
that would allow rural students to be academically competitive in selective college
admissions. Teachers, counselors, and outreach program staff collaborate to refer
students to additional academic opportunities, such as the online summer school program
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referenced in this study. Additionally, these student advocates encourage students to
challenge themselves academically by taking honors and advanced placement courses if
they feel the student is academically ready for these challenges.
College preparation collaboration on norms, or the shared feelings and
expectations of being part of a college going culture, include the partnerships of school
districts and outreach programs providing environments such as Higher Education Week.
That college representatives and relevant guest speakers appear on each high school
campus in a consolidated time frame reinforces the notion of a college-going culture to
each student. Every student on campus in grades 9 through 12 are exposed to college
options and information and encouraged to consider college after high school.
College preparation collaboration on resources, or access to college preparation
advisors and outreach program services, include a variety of programming initiated by
the outreach programs themselves. Collaborative efforts include events such as College
Making it Happen and SAT preparation seminars. Though these events involve school
staff, planning and implementation of such events are taken on by an outreach program
staff. Each program recruits its own program students to participate but then collaborate
on event details such as location, materials, and transportation.
As evidenced by study participant interviews, multiple influences and agendas
affect student motivation and the ability to attain educational goals. It is difficult to trace
direct cause and effect as the students take it upon themselves to access a variety of
resources. Students are exposed to college preparation information and resources often
and in a variety of formats. It is nearly impossible to state concisely how, when, or where
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a student begins to understand concepts like the required A-G curriculum or the
importance of college entrance exam results.
For college-bound students in Imperial Valley, family and peer support appears
crucial to beginning the process of attaining the social necessary to achieve their goals.
By having a supportive home and peer environment, college-bound students are confident
to seek out and utilize the academic preparation resources available to them both in and
out of the school environment.
Further, students recognize and take advantage of advanced academic curriculum
that, though limited, comes in the form of Advanced Placement courses and college
preparation courses such as AVID. When schedule conflicts arise, students seek out
options to accommodate schedule needs by, for example, attending summer school.
Beyond taking school district summer school options, participants of academic
preparation programs seek out credit bearing class opportunities offered by the Early
Academic Outreach Program. Offering online summer school courses is only one
resource that EAOP offers to students.
Unfortunately for EAOP, not all students recognized the instrumental role EAOP
provided in the form of leadership and partnership efforts to offer this summer school
opportunity. As stated by study participants, all academic outreach programs appear to
offer a variety of college preparation programming services. Students are not able to
differentiate or identify specific program services as only coming from one source.
Students take advantage of package deals and combinations of opportunities to put
together the college knowledge they need to meet their college-related goals.
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Almost all EAOP programming services come in the form of collaborations and
partnerships. In this study, significant collaboration was illustrated among school
districts, AVID, and EAOP. In order for the online summer course to occur, school
districts provided the classroom space and credentialed teachers; AVID assisted in
recruiting students to enroll in the class; and EAOP initiated the project, provided the
funding to implement the course, purchased course materials, provided academic support
(tutoring) and compiled and analyzed all data related to course completion. Being the
lead in this project and others is typical of EAOP, as the program has over a 20-year
history of existence in the community. By withstanding various economic and political
changes, EAOP has established itself as a leader and an excellent collaborative partner.
The partnership illustrated in this study is a typical approach to college
preparation efforts in the Imperial Valley. This community has succeeded in continually
offering students opportunities to succeed academically. The community has learned that
if critical educational entities work closer together, a greater impact will be borne on its
students. Coordinated efforts have resulted in the effective utilization of fiscal and human
resources, drawing on the strengths and capabilities of academic partners to fill the gaps
of the K-12 educational system.
Policy Recommendations
Policy recommendations directed by this study stem from its major conclusions in
relation to college preparation resources. These conclusions relate to academic
preparation program funding, location, and training. First, it is recommended that funding
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resources for partnership development be designated to a lead educational agency.
Having already developed a spirit of partnership, Imperial Valley should designate a lead
organization to funnel resources into the pipeline for future partnership opportunities.
Though individual school, district, and program funding opportunities would be
continued, a lead partnership agency would enhance the coordination of efforts to provide
college preparation services to students. A lead agency could track funding and evaluate
services on a consistent basis. In addition to taking on logistical duties, the designated
agency could also serve as the leadership entity in organizing partnership activities. This
leadership role has been unofficially been delegated to EAOP when it comes to college
preparation services outside of the formal school environment. EAOP staff has initiated
collaborations such as SAT preparation programs and has taken on key leadership roles
in organizing other events such as College Making It Happen. By designating a lead, all
interested parties could communicate service needs and wants to one place and look to
that agency for leadership in organization and facilitation.
An example of a successful partnership involving a lead educational agency is the
creation of the Educational Partnership Centers at several University of California
campuses. The EPC at each campus varies in structure, but they all share the common
goal of coordinating efforts to provide students college preparation services. Perhaps the
most comprehensive example of an EPC is at the University of California Santa Cruz. All
outreach program efforts are housed under one department, which allows for the
monitoring and distribution of incoming state funds and federal and private grants; it also
provides an environment and support structure for program collaboration to work in ways
94
that best support all areas of the educational community. The UC Santa Cruz Center for
Educational Partnerships oversees the Summer Advancement Academy, California
Reading and Literature Project, California State Summer School for Mathematics and
Science (COSMOS), California Student Opportunity and Access Program (Cal SOAP),
Early Academic Outreach Program (EAOP), Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for
Undergraduate Programs (GEAR UP), Girls in Engineering, Kids Around the University,
Mathematics, Engineering, Science Achievement Schools Program (MESA), and the
Transfer Partnerships Program. With such a strong team of programs, the UC Santa Cruz
Center for Educational Partnerships has demonstrated the capacity to serve the
community as a leader in the area of college preparation resources.
The second policy recommendation is that rural communities be prioritized to
receive pilot programming for new college preparation services. As indicated in this
study, more college preparation services are desired but specific services cannot be
articulated by students. When an outreach program would like to try a new program or
service, rural communities like Imperial Valley should be considered to serve as a pilot
program location. Rural students have very limited resources and additional opportunities
would be welcomed. Though there are no expectations that many new opportunities will
be available in the near future due to state and federal budget deficitsprogram
growth will occur. Grant and program funds will eventually become available to reinstate
services that have been reduced in recent years. When these funding sources return, rural
communities should be considered for investment.
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An example of rural communities being prioritized to receive pilot programming
for new college preparation services is the University of Californias Rural Initiative.
Covering two major rural California counties, Shasta and Imperial, the UCRI brought
extensive academic support to middle school students in the form of a summer algebra
academy. By choosing to invest funds in the academic development of rural students, the
University of California was able to develop a program that supported both counties goal
of ensuring that students complete algebra at the middle school level. Though funding for
the UCRI has significantly decreased, many individual school sites have now
institutionalized the summer algebra academy as part of its regular summer school
program offerings.
The third and final policy recommendation is that outreach program staff provides
training directly to school staff in the area of college preparation counseling. As indicated
in this study, outreach program staff is not usually the go to entity for students with
questions about college. In order to best serve the needs of students, outreach program
administrators and school district leaders should consider collaborating to provide in-
service training to credentialed counselors and teachers at individual school sites. School
counselors and teachers interact with students on a daily basis. It is vital that these
individuals provide the correct guidance, advice, and information to students. Outreach
program staff is trained to be experts in areas of college search, admission, and financial
aid. This expertise can easily be shared with their educational colleagues.
An example of outreach program staff providing training directly to school staff
in college preparation counseling can be seen with material such as the University of
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Southern Californias CHEPA CHEC-List For Counselors. The Center for Higher
Education Policy Analysis (CHEPA) is involved in a variety of higher education policy
research projects, which has resulted in a variety of publications. The CHEC-List for
Counselors (Creating Helping Environments for College Going) was designed to help
school counselors learn more about how to advise students about preparing for college.
The publication includes sections on working with families, a glossary of terms, and
where to find additional resources.
Recommendations for Future Research
As stated in Chapter Three, this study is limited in the general areas of setting and
time, the context of a rural setting, and use of self-selected participants in a summer
school course. The students interviewed for this study felt the effects of limited program
offerings due to the current economic crisis in the state of California. If conducted seven
or eight years ago, this study may have found different results as the student
programming experience may itself have been quite different. It is recommended that
follow-up studies be conducted on the Early Academic Outreach Program (and other
programs as well) during times of economic strength. Additional resources would allow
programs to begin with students in earlier grades and to offer more in-depth
programming.
The second limitation is the context of a rural setting. Students living in remote
areas have less access to resources than students in large urban areas. If conducted in a
larger populated area, this study may have found that students had more options to find
97
needed academic and social support systems. It is recommended that further studies be
conducted to compare students participating in similar programs in an urban setting.
Specifically, a study should be conducted to compare the experiences between UCSD
EAOP students in both inner San Diego County and rural Imperial County.
Finally, this study is limited by the fact that the study participants were self-
selected. Each student interviewed voluntarily enrolled in an online summer course
through EAOP. By doing so, each student had already demonstrated the motivation to
make extra efforts to attain the academic goal of going to college. It is recommended that
further studies be conducted to compare students who were not enrolled in a volunteer
summer school course and/or are not involved in any academic preparation program.
Conclusion
The system of higher education in the United States affords access to higher
education for all those who seek it. The problem lies in student perception and
preparation to take advantage of this opportunity. Academic preparation programs exist
to help students change these perceptions and provide the social capital necessary to take
advantage of the educational opportunities offered to them in this country. This study
asked how academic preparation programs impart this needed social capital.
The answer to the research question for this study can be summed up in one word:
partnership. College knowledge forms, norms, and resources manifest themselves in a
cooperative format for rural students living in the Imperial Valley. Outreach programs
collaborate to offer college preparation services and students mirror this process by
98
participating in supportive peer groups. Both the offering and utilizing of partnership
activities are currently heavily influenced by the economic environment. Out of necessity
like forces band together for support to achieve a common goal. For outreach programs,
the goal is to provide services. For students, the goal is to gain the social capital
necessary to go to college.
Without partnership, programs would not be able to achieve what is, according to
Tierney et al. (2005), the most critical variable to college preparation program success:
access to a college preparation program curriculum. Programs on their own are able to
offer pieces of the curriculum, but few if any are able to offer all pieces at a high-quality
level. By combing resources, programs enhance the quality of services, thereby providing
a better experience for students.
This study has presented how one academic preparation program has addressed
the needs of college-bound students living in a rural community in the state of California.
Essentially, this study has researched a state-funded program working with educationally
disadvantaged students attending state funded secondary schools, who are looking at
attending a state-funded university. The significance of this research is timely in that the
state of California is experiencing significant budget concerns and has endured large
reductions in funding to education in general. Research that documents the impact of
academic preparation programs like EAOP will have a significant impact on the future
funding for college advising and preparation, in turn directly affecting the likelihood of
California youth attaining its educational goals.
99
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Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the process of an academic preparation program, also known as an outreach program, imparting social capital to educationally disadvantaged students. The particular form of social capital to be examined will be the college knowledge needed to successfully prepare for college admission. The theoretical framework used is Coleman's theory of social capital defined in terms of forms, norms, and resources. Study participants were high school students living in a rural California community who participate in the Early Academic Outreach Program.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Jackson, Nicole Korgie
(author)
Core Title
Imparting social capital to educationally disadvantaged students: A study of the early academic outreach program
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education
Publication Date
04/14/2010
Defense Date
02/22/2010
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
college access,college preparation,OAI-PMH Harvest,rural students,social capital
Place Name
California
(states),
USA
(countries)
Language
English
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Electronically uploaded by the author
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Advisor
Venegas, Kristan M. (
committee chair
), Tambascia, Tracy Poon (
committee member
), Yonezawa, Susan (
committee member
)
Creator Email
korgiejackson@yahoo.com,njackson@usc.edu
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https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2916
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Jackson, Nicole Korgie
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Tags
college access
college preparation
rural students
social capital