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Impact of required parental involvement on African American male students and families: a qualitative study of the USC-NAI program

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Impact of required parental involvement on African American male students and families: a qualitative study of the USC-NAI program

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IMPACT OF REQUIRED PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT ON AFRICAN
AMERICAN MALE STUDENTS AND FAMILIES:
A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF THE USC-NAI PROGRAM

by

Ramina Wilson Benjamin

_____________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2009

Copyright 2009 Ramina Wilson Benjamin

ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The printed pages of this dissertation hold far more than the culmination of years
of study; these pages also reflect the support that I received from my family and
friends.
First and foremost, I am grateful for my father and my mother. I want to thank
you dad and mom for all your support and without the both of you, I would not be
where I am today. To my beautiful sister, Dr. Atorina, we went through this process
together and I will always remember the countless conversations we would have as
we vented about how much writing and work we had to do. I thank you for being a
true motivation! To my handsome brother, Ramin, you give me strength through the
joy that you bring to me. With your energy and humor, I am able to put everything
into perspective.
I am grateful for all my friends that helped me and kept me motivated. Tom and
Reta, the both of you mean so much to me and it was nights that I wanted to make
sure I got to spend with you that kept me focused and working. To Arif, thank you
for being the best boss ever and allowing me the opportunity to leave work early to
make it to my classes. For my male maid of honor, Jamy, you are always full of joy
and your positive energy always kept me going through thick and thin. To my angel,
Alia, thank you for being you and for your true love and care.
To the members of my dissertation group: Rebecca L., Rebecca H., Elizabeth,
Karen, John, and last but definitely not least, Jamel, thanks for your good natured
support. Dr. Baca and Dr. Hirabayashi, thanks for serving on my committee. I am

iii
very grateful to Dr. Jun, who as I have bragged before, is the best chair ever. Thank
you for your help and all the time and effort you put in. I appreciate you very much!
To the two people that spent every second of this process with me, my husband,
Tony, and my son, Dominic, I appreciate and love you very much. To my better
half, Tony, thanks for all your motivation throughout the process. I will never forget
the late nights when you would stay awake with me to make sure that I was doing
fine and reminding me that you were there if I needed anything. To my handsome
son, Dominic, you were so good to mommy when you were in my tummy. I was
pregnant with you through my first defense, data collection, and chapter 4, and
through it all, I was the happiest pregnant woman as I counted down the days until I
got to meet you. You are a true blessing and I love you very much!

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………….. ii
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………. v
Chapter 1. Introduction …………………………………………………………. 1
Chapter 2. Literature in Perspective …………………………………………... 15
Chapter 3. Methodology ……………………………………………………… 38
Table 1. Neighborhood Academic Initiative Graduates from 1997-2007 ……. 44
Chapter 4. Presentation of Data ………………………………………………. 55
Chapter 5. Discussion …………………………………………………………. 85
References …………………………………………………………………….. 107

v

ABSTRACT
This study is an investigation into African American male students in the USC-
NAI program and how required parental involvement impacts the lives of African
American male students and their families. Social capital theory provides the
backdrop for this study. This study is qualitative and takes an ethnographic approach
incorporating 28 interviews, 2 focus groups, 40 hours of observation, and document
analysis. Results show that through the required parental involvement in the NAI
program, specifically through the mandatory Family Development Meetings (FDI),
the African American male students and their families began to acquire the support,
develop a sense of community, and gain the empowerment necessary to pursue their
pathway to college.

1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
“Working-class and poor parents are no less eager than middle-class parents to see
their children succeed in school. They take a different approach to helping them
reach that goal, however” (Lareau, p. 198, 2003).

A college degree can no longer be viewed as a luxury, in fact it is now a
necessity. Unfortunately, access to college for minority students in both urban and
suburban areas remains as one of the most critical issues facing our nation today.
Most would concur that the delivery of quality elementary and secondary education,
combined with college access in ways that are unbiased to student ethnicity and
income status would not only benefit the individual, but our society as a whole.
Over the past few decades, it is evident that there is a problem with the higher
education pipeline that should be leading minority students to and through post-
secondary institutions (Gandara, 2005). Low-income, Hispanic, African American,
and Native American student populations continue to be underrepresented at higher
education institutions relative to their representation in the traditional college-age
population (Nettles, Perna, & Freeman, 1999). According to the National Center of
Education Statistics (2007), college enrollment rates have increased from 13.8
million in 1990, to 17.5 million in the fall of 2005. Specifically, the percentage of
minority students that are enrolling in post-secondary institutions has risen from 16%
in 1980 to 31% in 2005. Between 1980 and 2005, the percentage of African

2
American students rose from 9.2% in 1980, to 12.7% in 2005. College enrollment
rates of Hispanic students also increased from 1980 to 2005 from 3.9% to 10.8%.
Similarly, the percentage of Asian or Pacific Islander students rose from 2.4% to
6.5%. Surprisingly, 81% of White students had enrolled in college in 1980, and by
2005, the percentage had dropped to 65.7% (National Center for Education Statistics
[NCES], 2007).
Despite the increase of college enrollment rates amongst minority students,
underrepresentation still continues. One possible explanation for the persisting gap
may be due to the traditional approach to increasing college access (Swail & Perna,
2002). Historically, the traditional approach focused primarily on providing students
with the financial aid necessary to go to college (Swail & Perna, 2002). Such an
approach, however, failed to provide students with the academic, social, and
psychological developments necessary in order to become successful in their post-
secondary educational experiences (Swail & Perna, 2002).
According to the extant research, it stands to reason that information efforts
targeting lowest socioeconomic parents is a critical approach. Tierney and Auerbach
(2004) suggest that if parents who have no college experience could learn the
necessary steps to the college pathways, they could then be able to offer more useful
monitoring and guidance to their children. Studies show that 71% of students whose
parents are college graduates enroll in a four-year college or university, compared
with only 26% of students whose parents have no more than a high school diploma
(Perna & Swail, 1998). In addition, whereas 99.3% of upper-SES parents have some

3
formal college education, barely 23% of lowest-SES parents have been exposed to
higher education (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000).
This study examines the ways in which required parental involvement
impacts the African American male students and families who participate in the
University of Southern California’s (USC) Neighborhood Academic Initiative (NAI)
program. This chapter is structured into five segments and presents an overview of
this study. I first present the purpose of the study and the research question that will
guide the study. Next, I present background information including a review of
literature to garner an understanding of the challenges that African American
students face in higher education and the importance of parental involvement on
students’ academic achievement. The literature provides a background for the next
section where I present the research design of this study. Following the research
design, I present the findings that emerged from the interviews conducted with the
African American male students, their parents, and the NAI staff, along with
observations and document analysis will be juxtaposed with the literature that was
initially presented. Through the analysis of the data collected and findings that
emerged from research, policy recommendations will be presented for
administrators, educators, and researchers. Finally, I provide an overview of
outreach programs and an explanation of terms utilized in the study.
Purpose of Study
Involving parents of color in college preparation programs is a way of
transferring cultural capital from one generation to the next by parents who inform

4
their children about the value, importance, and process of earning a college
education (Jun & Colyar, 2002). Parent involvement is highly influenced by the
information that parents themselves have regarding college (Cabrera & La Nasa,
2000). Parental education allows the parents to gain the cultural capital necessary to
assist in their children’s success in college (Jun & Colyar, 2002). Therefore,
exposing parents to postsecondary education provides them access to information
and allows them to see the benefits associated with a college degree and the
curricular requirements and mechanisms to finance a college education (Cabrera &
La Nasa, 2000).
Parents convey standards that promote college enrollment through interacting
with the student, the school and other parents (Perna & Titus, 2005). In addition,
parent-student communication about education-related issues are directly associated
with a greater likelihood for their children to enroll in college or university (Perna &
Titus, 2005). Finally, parent-initiated contact with the schools about academic
matters and volunteering is also associated with a greater likelihood that the student
will enroll in a postsecondary institution (Perna & Titus, 2005).
The focus of this study is to examine the impact of required parental
involvement on the African American male students and families in the
Neighborhood Academic Initiative (NAI) program, an outreach program sponsored
by the University of Southern California (USC). Specifically, I capture the ways in
which the NAI program’s parent involvement strategies work to ensure the success
of their students by utilizing the following question that guides the research:

5
o How does required parental involvement through the NAI program
impact the African American males students and their families?
Literature in Perspective
In chapter two, I will present the specific struggles that African American
families face in the higher education system. Then, I will trace the history of the
relationship between the parents and the schools. I will also demonstrate how
research supports family involvement and the effects on the academic achievement
and college pursuit on students. I will also examine Susan Swap’s partnership model
and introduce social capital theory. I will present the body of literature that focuses
on parents in outreach programs.
Educators have argued that although a child’s first encounter with formal
education comes at around age five or six, and it is probably more important in
determining the social and economic outcomes of the children than the family is
(Massey, Charles, Lundy & Fischer, 2003). School is the place where children
receive their formal instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic; it is also the place
where young people interact, develop friendships, acquire values, and are socialized
into the society as a whole (Massey, Charles, Lundy & Fischer, 2003). Once
students are ready to attend college or university, even more drastic changes occur.
Students must be prepared academically, financially, socially, and psychologically.
Unfortunately, not all students are equally prepared for the challenges that higher
education may bring.

6
Research validates that there is a shortfall in the academic preparation of
African American students as a whole, particularly amongst the African American
male students, which is the reason why I chose to focus on the African American
male population. In the book, Sources of the River, the authors show that African
Americans are half as well prepared as Asians as they enter college; Asians’ high
school grade point averages was a 3.83, followed by whites at 3.77, Latinos at 3.70,
and African Americans at 3.53. The financial burden is yet another burden that the
African American students must face. White students are expected to pay
approximately 74% of their college costs through personal or familial resources, and
African American students are only expected to cover 42%. Socially, African
American students perceive the social distance between themselves and Whites the
highest. However, on a positive note, psychologically African American students
displayed the highest degree of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self-confidence
amongst Latinos, whites, and Asians (Massey, Charles, Lundy & Fischer, 2003).
It is evident that African Americans possess fewer types of capital and attend
schools with fewer resources that help promote college enrollment (Perna & Titus,
2005). Specifically, research shows that the likelihood of enrolling in a
postsecondary institution after graduating from high school appears to be related to
the amount of resources that may be accessed through social networks at the schools
which the students attended (Perna & Titus, 2005). In my literature review, I
introduce social capital and use Susan Swap’s (1993) theoretical framework. Swap’s
(1993) partnership model, which was built using Epstein’s (1987) typology,

7
describes an alliance between parents and educators, for the success of the students
and the school. Swap’s (1993) framework offers basic obligations for the families
and schools. In addition, Swap presents the types of parent involvement at school,
home, and in governance, decision-making, and advocacy.
Recent scholars have found that family involvement is a central role to the
academic achievement and college pursuit of the students (Tierney & Auerbach,
2004; Catsambis, 1998; Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000; Perna, 2000; Horn & Chen, 1998;
Jun & Colyar, 2002). In addition, studies have shown parents who frequently
discuss education with their children and have educational expectations, strongly
influence their children to enroll in college or university (Horn & Chen, 1998; Perna
& Titus, 2005).
Research Design and Analysis
In chapter three, a discussion of research methodology, research design,
subject selection, sampling procedures, data collection and data analysis will be
presented. In this study, I took a qualitative approach to explore the ways in which
the NAI program’s required parental involvement impacts the African American
male students and their families. The research findings were drawn from individual
in-depth interviews and focus group interviews with four African American male
students, four parents of African American male students who are enrolled at the
NAI program, and five NAI staff members. Observations of parent meetings and
Saturday classes took place to better understand the context in which the study
participants exist. Lastly, document analysis from literature pertaining to the NAI

8
program was employed as a means of collecting data for this study. Data collection
occurred between the months of July and October, 2008, and data analysis in the
month of November and December, 2008.
To conduct the analysis, I utilized Creswell’s (2003) Six-Step plan, which
includes: 1) organizing and preparing, 2) reading, 3) coding, 4) generating
descriptions, categories, or themes, 5) identifying representation, and 6) making
interpretations and meanings. In order to accurately assess my research results and
ensure that the data collected was trustworthy, I used multiple methods including
interviews, focus groups, observations, and document analysis. Further, I validated
my research findings and checked for reliability and credibility by crosschecking
through the interviews, focus groups, and observations. In addition, I employed
member checking by obtaining feedback from my participants to ensure that the data
reflects the individual’s voice and intentions. The participants had the opportunity to
review the data collected and provide feedback and clarifications of their responses.
Research Findings
The study confirmed the significance of parental involvement on the lives of
the African American male students and their families. The study found that through
the required parental involvement at the NAI program, the African American male
students and their families gained the social capital necessary to support them
through the college pathway. As first-generation college-goers, these families and
students have faced various challenges in their paths toward college. Through their
involvement with the NAI program, the families and the students were able to

9
transform from a non-college going culture to a college-going culture. Specifically,
the study found that the African American male students and their families received
support, developed a sense of community, and gained the empowerment necessary to
pursue their college dreams.
In analyzing the data collected, the findings revealed that through the
required parental involvement component of the NAI program, the African American
male students and their families gained direct access to information that was critical
to help in their college pursuits, as Bourdieu’s (1986) social capital theory asserts. In
addition, the sense of community that developed between the parents, students, and
the NAI staff aligned with Coleman’s (1988) study that social capital can be obtained
from the relationships between the student and his/her parents, and the relationships
between the students parents and other individuals, specifically adults with
connections to the school system. Further, the African American male students and
their families gained empowerment, as they worked together with the NAI staff to
achieve their common goal to see their children succeed in their college endeavors,
which supports Swap’s (1993) partnership model that describes the alliance between
educators and parents as a critical way to promote the academic success of all
children.
Based on the findings from the study, policy recommendations have been
devised for the NAI program and can be applied to other outreach programs that
strive to increase the representation of minority students in the higher education
system. The recommendations are geared towards increasing parent involvement in

10
precollege programs and increasing access for underrepresented student populations.
The recommendations are: 1) continue on-campus activities for parents and students;
2) develop additional parental involvement opportunities; 3) maintain quality
leadership skills in administration; 4) organize monthly workshops for parents and
students; and 5) maintain two-way communication with parents.
Overview of Outreach Programs
Due to the underrepresentation of minority students at postsecondary
institutions, policy makers have started to look at non-traditional approaches to
improving the education of students (Swail & Perna, 2002). Several examples of
such non-traditional approaches include the developments of charter schools, school
vouchers, and early intervention programs (Swail & Perna, 2002). Charter schools
and school vouchers share the premise that by providing the families with the choice
of where their children enroll in school, whether public or private, it will increase
competition between the schools and push for positive change. The last non-
traditional approach, which is the one that I will focus on in this dissertation, is the
development of early intervention programs that are designed to supplement and add
to school-based learning.
The primary incentive of early intervention programs, which are also referred
to as pre-collegiate outreach programs, is to increase the college enrollment rates of
African American, Hispanic, and other underrepresented students in higher education
(Perna & Titus, 2005). Early interventions programs, such as the Federal TRIO
program and GEAR UP (Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness through

11
Undergraduate Preparation), were designed to provide underrepresented groups with
the academic preparation and college readiness to succeed in their post-secondary
educational experiences. In addition, early intervention programs “promise to
increase the educational attainment levels of low-income and other disadvantaged
groups of students by cultivating the skills, knowledge, confidence, aspirations, and
overall preparedness that are required to enroll in and succeed in college” (Perna,
2005).
In 1999, the National Survey of Outreach Programs (NSOP) captured
information on 1110 outreach programs across the nation, 465 of which were federal
programs (Swail & Perna, 2002). Prior to this survey, not much information was
known about the number, types, and variety of outreach programs, although early
intervention programs have existed since the mid-1960’s (Swail & Perna, 2002).
The results of the survey suggested that outreach programs do not necessarily follow
a particular type of model; however, they do share common strategies, services, and
concepts. Approximately 90 % of the participating outreach programs indicated that
their primary goal was to increase college enrollment rates, college awareness, and
promote exposure. Other common goals included building self-esteem, providing
role models, and improving academic skills. Unfortunately, promoting rigorous
course taking was amongst the least common goal (Swail & Perna, 2002).
The common services amongst the participating programs included college
awareness through campus visits and meeting with college faculty and students
(Swail & Perna, 2002). Most of the programs’ services were tailored to develop the

12
academic skills and help prepare students to enter and succeed in college (Swail &
Perna, 2002). Such skills included critical thinking skills, mathematics, and writing
instruction. Unfortunately, despite all the research that links high quality coursework
and college enrollment rates, Swail and Perna (2002) found that about one-fourth of
the programs offered accelerated courses or college level courses. Sixty-nine percent
of all programs offered a parental component, while 22% mandated parental
involvement (Swail & Perna, 2002).
The results of the NSOP revealed that outreach programs generally focus on
economically or educationally disadvantaged students (Swail & Perna, 2002).
Approximately 62% of all programs reported that they target students with certain
characteristics. About 80% indicated that their program specifically targets low-
income students, 36% reported targeting students at risk of dropping out of high
school or students of low academic ability or achievement, and 22% target gifted and
talented students (Swail & Perna, 2002).
Definition of Terms
Most of the literature on family engagement focuses on the parents, however,
in this paper, I will be using the terms “family engagement,” “parent involvement,”
and “parent engagement” interchangeably. There are additional terms that are used
throughout this dissertation, and below are their definitions:
1. Academic achievement- A process where the student is pursuing a
certificate, diploma, or a degree. The process involves the student

13
demonstrating the necessary knowledge required to meet admissions
standards. The end goal is most likely measurable.
2. Access- Students who get into college and who are eligible to fill high-
level jobs in a highly competitive job market that rewards the best
prepared individuals (Nora, 2002).
3. Culture- A set of characteristics that are neither fixed nor static. Culture
is dynamic, cumulative, and an influence of the continuous process of
identity formation; it is a process of behaviors and values that are learned,
shared, and exhibited by people (Villalpando & Solorzano, 2005).
4. Disadvantaged students- Students that are less privileged due to the
environment in which they grew up. These students come from families
whose income is below or slightly over the poverty rate.
5. Family engagement- A wide range of formal and informal activities at
home and at school that family members undertake over time as central
actors in the education of their children (Tierney & Auerbach, 2004)
6. Low-income- According to the US Department of Housing and Urban
Development, low-income is defined as: low-income 30 % of area
median income and below, very low-income 31 to 50% of area median
income; and extremely low-income 51-89% of area median income
(Fiscal Policy Institute, 2005).
7. Minority Students- Non-European students including African Americans,
Latinos, Pacific Islanders, Native Americans, and Asian Americans, e.g.,

14
original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian
subcontinent.
8. Outreach programs- Intervention programs that are supported by
postsecondary educational institutions, government, local schools, and
community members. These programs provide students with additional
tutoring that will assist the students in their schoolwork and essentially
prepare them for college.

15
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE IN PERSPECTIVE
“African Americans in a white world must consciously choose their speech, their
laughter, their walk, their mode of dress and car….they learn to wear a mask”
(Campbell, 1984)

A good education in a supportive setting is an essential part of human dignity
(Feagin, Veral, & Imani, 1996). The majority of African American families view
education as the pathway to liberation and success in the American society (Barnett,
2004). African Americans place a heavy emphasis on education due to its role on
the family and the community and are willing to sacrifice and seek out information
on colleges in order to help their children succeed (Feagin, Vera, & Imani, 1996). In
fact, the education of their children signifies the struggle against racism and other
aspects of their familial histories (Feagin, Vera, & Imani, 1996).
Although African American families value education, there are still a
significantly lower proportion of African American students, particularly African
American men on the four-year college and university campuses. Involvement is
central to the success of African American male students (Harper, 2006). According
to Auerbach (2007), the goal of parent involvement is not only centered on raising
student achievement, but to enrich and expand the educational opportunities and
equity for all students. If African American family members provide the academic,
emotional, social, and financial support and the students receive and maximize that

16
support from their family members, the students will persist in school (Herndon &
Moore, 2002). Barnett (2004) conducted a study that analyzed the interaction
between African American families and their children once the child had left home
to attend an Ivy League university. Barnett (2004) posits that the African American
family support was significantly important in decreasing the stress and helped
provide an emotional outlet for the participants.
Auerbach (2007) explored the ways in which African American and Latino
parents construct their role in promoting their children’s access to postsecondary
opportunities. All parents stressed their limited resources for college planning and
the struggles that resulted from those resources. Further, parents’ educational
backgrounds shaped their beliefs and their aspirations about their role. Parents
picked up on the cues from their children’s invitation for involvement via their
student’s academic performance, motivation, responsibility, and requests. Lastly, the
parents’ roles were co-constructed with the school (Auerbach, 2007).
The purpose of this literature review is to explore the effects of parent
involvement on the families and students of color and low socioeconomic status in
college preparation programs, particularly amongst those of African American male
students. Initially, I will describe the challenges that African Americans face in the
higher education system. Next I will examine the ways in which parent involvement
in general has been conceptualized by educators and researchers. In the third
section, I will discuss the effects of parent involvement, particularly within student
academic achievement, college preparation, and academic outreach programs. Next,

17
I will introduce the theoretical construct of social capital and Swap’s (1993)
partnership model. In the final section, I will highlight the major discrepancies
between what researchers say should be done and what is actually done, specifically
at the secondary level.
Challenges and Diverse Pathways for African Americans
There are measurable differences between the academic preparation among
whites, blacks, Asians, and Latinos by the time they graduate from high school
(Massy, Charles, Lundy, Fischer, 2003). One of the most popular indicators of
academic preparation is the Standard Achievement Test (SAT). Although the math
scores and the verbal scores rose by 34 and 24 points respectively, between 1976 and
1995, African Americans still fall behind their White and Asian counterparts (Massy,
Charles, Lundy, Fischer, 2003). Unfortunately, it is not a controversial claim to state
that African American students are less prepared academically upon completion of
their high school years. However, the reasons as to why African American students
are less prepared than their peers remains contentious. In this section, I will
introduce the struggles that African American families and students have to face in
college and the university.
According to Herndon and Hirt (2004), African American families share
some common characteristics amongst one another. For instance, African American
families tend to have strong religious orientation and typically embrace the value of
religion and its liberating power. Further, Herndon and Hirt (2004) found that
African American families are also characterized by honoring extended kin

18
relationships. Family kinship may include grandparents, aunts, uncles, nieces,
nephews and cousins. African Americans may also have fictive kinship networks,
which may include neighbors, church members, and friends. The parenting style of
African American families is another distinguishing characteristic (Herndon & Hirt,
2004). The parenting styles tend to be more authoritarian than the White parenting
styles, and are generally more involved in the lives of their children (Massy, Charles,
Lundy, Fischer, 2003). In fact, rather than encouraging independence, African
American parents are more likely to instill obedience (Massy, Charles, Lundy,
Fischer, 2003).
Based on focus groups that were conducted with parents and students
regarding their post-secondary college experiences with one major university,
Feagin, Vera, and Imani (1996) captured the struggles that African Americans face
in the higher education system. Specifically, the authors examined the culture and
character at predominantly white colleges and universities and how those campuses
continue to pose challenges for students who are contemplating to escape racially
oppressive environments (Feagin, Vera, Imani, 1996). According to the parents that
participated in the focus groups, college life meant an on-going struggle and their
educational choices for the children were often agonizing. The major barriers that
were discussed in the book were: 1) confronting white students, 2) contending with
white professors, 3) administrative barriers, and 4) issues of recruitment and
retention.

19
The first barrier discussed in the book was the difficulty for African
American students to confront white students. The African American students who
participated in the focus groups described the college campus to be a place where the
white students did not want them. As a result, campus life became a site of daily
struggle to survive rather than a supportive environment that the students could
thrive in. The second barrier that was highlighted in the book was the major struggle
for African American students to contend with white professors. On predominately
white campuses across the nation, African American students who feel that their
professors are discriminating or prejudiced are most likely not going to go to them
for advice. As a result, many African American students dissociate themselves from
the important reference group of white scholars. Thirdly, African American students
face administrative barriers during their college experiences. One of the major
challenges facing predominately white colleges and universities is the transmission
of academic and other college information to African American students and other
students of color. Good advisors can start students out in the right direction and help
them navigate through the complex college requirements. However, many students
of color miss out on such important information due to the fact that they are less
likely to participate in the dominant white cliques, fraternities, sororities, and other
similar student organizations. Lastly, recruitment and retention also affects African
American students to a considerably greater degree than they affect white students.
The students in the study cited no evidence of retention efforts conducted by the
university. Instead, it was the personal determination of the students to succeed that

20
enabled them to endure racial and other struggles in order to graduate with their
university degrees (Feagin, Vera, Imani, 1996).
In addition to the barriers that African American students and families face in
the higher education system, there are diverse pathways by which African Americans
enter. In the book, The Source of the River, Massey, Charles, Lundy, and Fischer
(2003) describe the differences in characteristics that students bring to campus and
the ways in which the influence of those differences affect academic performance.
The authors show that African American students come to college with
overconfidence and are least prone to self-doubt; however, African American
students are affected by racist stereotypes (Massey, Charles, Lundy & Fischer,
2003).
Massey, Charles, Lundy and Fischer (2003) highlight important factors in
their book about African American parents and their children. African Americans
are said to be far more likely to have an absent father. In addition, 76% of mothers
work full time, and are less likely to have siblings who attended college in order to
be a role model. As a contrast of the time that parents spend with their children,
white parents spend 370 hours with their children, and African Americans spend 237
hours. In addition, African American parents send mixed messages about the
importance of education. African American parents tell their children that school is
important, on the one hand, but simultaneously express their distrust of the
educational system. In addition, African American parents express their doubts
about the efficacy of education in shielding their children from racial discrimination.

21
Seventy-nine percent of white freshmen reported that their parents did in fact
read to them often as young children, and only sixty percent of African Americans
said that their parents read to them as youngsters (Massey, Charles, Lundy, &
Fischer, 2003). On a positive note, although African American children may have a
missing parent, or have less time with a parent or a role model that had gone to
college, African American families are reported to most likely help their children
with homework, have the greatest parental involvement, and most likely to reward
respondents for earning good grades. In addition, African Americans were most
certain of academic success and that they would finish college than their white,
Asian, and Latino counterparts. In fact, African American students were also quite
sure that they would attend graduate school and complete an advanced degree. Of all
the freshmen entering higher education institutions, African Americans have the
highest self-described levels of esteem, confidence in academic success, and
efficacy.
Understanding Parent Involvement
Since the beginning of public schooling, social and economical issues
affected the relationship between the school and the home (Cutler, 2000). Most
Americans today would agree that the association between parents and teachers is
critical (Cutler 2000).
The relationship between parents and schools has changed dramatically over
time (Cutler, 2000). During the nineteenth century, the balance of power transferred
from the home to the school (Cutler, 2000). Between 1800 and 1850, middle-class

22
women were able to focus on nurturing their children, while the urban mothers had
less time to do so due to work (Cutler, 2000). As a result, schools started to take on
more responsibility in providing students with both moral and cognitive instruction.
Educators held the status of professionals and were backed up by degrees, and the
parents’ views and opinions were not welcomed (Cutler, 2000). As a result, a major
disconnect formed between the parents and the schools. Fearing that middle-class
parents would be less involved in the schools as well, educators argued that getting
parents more involved would help improve education (Cutler, 2000).
As schooling started to expand in the nineteenth century, the relationship
between parents and schools began to take a political turn. Teachers were starting to
gain power and children were learning to cope with two sets of authority figures in
their lives (Cutler, 2000). Similarly, parents began to experience the hardships of
dealing with this balancing act. Cutler (2000) explains: “facing each other across an
increasingly clear-cut boundary, adults maneuvered for advantage, often casting the
relationship between the home and the school as a struggle for the hearts and the
minds of the next generation” (pg. 3).
During the second half of the nineteenth century, educators began to re-
evaluate the relationship between the home and the school. In addition, educators
started to reassess the ways in which parents’ involvement in schools could benefit
the education system, rather than disrupt it. Educators were starting to believe that
just as long as parental involvement was “properly sorted and arranged, mothers and

23
fathers could be an integral and valuable part of the American educational system”
(Cutler, p. 3, 2000).
By the end of the nineteenth century, educators began to re-evaluate the
school’s relationship with the home. Born in 1871, Margaretta Willis Baldwin
established the first parent-teacher association (PTA) in Moorestown, New Jersey at
the age of twenty-eight (Cutler, 2000). Eventually, organizations such as the
mother’s clubs or PTAs began to form in rural America and eventually spread out to
the cities and the suburbs. Although their presence in the schools was still limited,
the organizations empowered the parents and made them feel involved in the
education system of their children. Most importantly, this new sense of involvement
drew parents as allies of the teachers and supporters of the education system (Cutler,
2000).
As the twentieth century approached, teachers and parents were starting to
appreciate and enjoy the benefits in working closely together. Additionally,
secondary schooling was rapidly increasing in popularity; more Americans were
staying in school past the eighth grade. The new century, however, also brought new
sets of challenges to parents and educators. During and immediately following
World War I, educators were starting to face inflation and budgets were tight.
During this period, schools needed parental loyalty more than ever and working class
parents relied heavily on the education system to help their children’s psychological
and social development (Cutler, 2000).

24
In 1910, the schools took primary responsibility for preparing the youth to be
wage earners and citizens. As a result of the new, more effective, school and child
labor laws, schools were held accountable for providing youth the common learning,
basic skills, and values that they would need in order to be successful in the work
force. This marked the end of the power struggles between the home and school
(Cutler, 2000).
After the 1900’s, parent’s personal stake in their children’s development and
performance carried less weight with educators. Similarly, educators began to
welcome parental involvement in schools as they started to realize the advantages
that parental involvement would create in public education, especially during the
Great Depression. Educators started to realize that their knowledge of the home
informed and improved instruction. By 1925, most Americans accepted the schools
as partners (Cutler, 2000).
James L. Hymes Jr., an assistant director of the Kaiser Corporation’s Child
Service Centers during World War II and author of many pamphlets for parents,
believed that the home-school relationship was a two-way street (Cutler, 2000).
Hymes challenged teachers to take charge of improving the school’s standing with
the family. Similarly, Alice Sowers, professor of family life education at the
University of Oklahoma, blamed parental apathy on the school (Cutler, 2000).
Sowers believed that the more information that the schools shared with the parents,
the more parents would feel welcomed and at ease. As a result, the home and the
school could then begin to engage in two-way conversations.

25
In the 1950s, parent involvement became evident. Mothers and fathers began
to help by providing volunteer services and organizing after-school hobby programs.
In Wilmington, Delaware, parents began to share their knowledge of the real world
with the high school faculty as the business education curriculum was being revised
(Cutler, 2000). In Exeter, Alabama, parents helped conduct the needs of the
community and helped establish a recreation center. According to the director of the
Campus Laboratory School at Wisconsin State College, parent advisory councils
began to attract positive attention because they made it possible for the faculty to
obtain a broader perspective and to reflect the parents’ objectives more distinctly in
school planning (Cutler, 2000).
Family Involvement: A Central Role to Student Achievement
Adolescence is filled with many social, physical, cognitive, and emotional
changes. As we saw in the previous section, family members can be opponents or
supporters for every step in their children’s educational experiences. According to
Jun and Colyar (2002), the fundamental key to academic success of children is to
have a clear understanding of family involvement. In addition, research shows that
parental support and encouragement is the most critical predictor of postsecondary
educational plans (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000; Perna, 2005; Catsambis, 1998).
In this section, I will introduce the various terminology related to family
involvement. Next, I will demonstrate why family involvement, particularly
amongst low socioeconomic students, plays a central role in the academic

26
achievement and college preparation of their children. Lastly, I will discuss the
various types of family involvement.
Most of the literature on family involvement focuses on the parents, however,
in this section and throughout this chapter, I will be using the terms family
involvement, family engagement, parent involvement, and parent engagement
interchangeably. During the twentieth century, researchers based their definition of
family as consisting of a mother, father and two to three children (Tierney &
Auerbach, 2004). William Julius Wilson (1996) shed a different light on the
definition of families, particularly within the urban settings, by noting the dramatic
changes in family structure over the last several decades. Due to the increasing
amount of single-parent families and “intact” families where both the mother and the
father must work, the definition of family must encompass the variety of individuals
that may play the role of a mother or a father (Wilson, 1996).
Catsambis (1998) analyzed data from the parent and student components of
the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988, in order to examine the effects
of parent’s educational involvement in secondary education. Results indicated
positive effects of parental involvement. Overall, the critical ways in which family
involvement positively influenced the academic achievement of their children was
due to the high levels of educational expectations, consistent encouragement, and
actions that enhanced the learning opportunities of their children (Catsambis, 1998).
Family involvement is also associated with a greater likelihood of aspiring
and encouraging children to enroll and go to college (Perna & Titus, 2005; Cabrera

27
& La Nasa, 2000). Cabrera and La Nasa (2000) introduce the two dimensions of
encouragement through family involvement. The first dimension is motivational.
Parents have high educational expectations for their children and in return, motivate
their children’s pursuit to college. In the second dimension, parents become
proactive and become highly involved in matters concerning school. As a result,
parents begin to discuss college plans with their children (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000).
In addition, Perna (2000) has shown that parent involvement in school activities as
early as junior high, predicts whether the student would enroll in a postsecondary
institution.
According to Cabrera and La Nasa (2000), in order to enroll at a college or
university, students are required to endure at least three critical tasks: 1) meet the
minimal college qualifications, 2) graduate from high school, and 3) apply to college
or university. In their study, Cabrera and La Nasa (2000) signified the importance of
family involvement on students, particularly those with low socioeconomic status
and described the path to college among socioeconomically disadvantaged 8
th

graders as “hazardous” (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000, p. 50). The results of the study
revealed that by their senior year, out of 1,000 students, only 285 8
th
graders from
lowest-socioeconomic status backgrounds secured the minimal college
qualifications. Once the students reached their senior year, only 215 actually applied
to a four-year college or university and two years after their high school graduation,
144 of those students enrolled at a four-year institution (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000).
The study also revealed that in comparison to an equally qualified high school

28
graduate from an upper-SES background, the high school graduate from the lowest-
SES was 22% less likely to apply to college (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000).
In order to fulfill the three critical tasks mentioned above, parental
involvement in school activities played a pivotal role (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000).
For instance, every increase in the level of parental involvement (measured in units)
accounted for an 18% increase in a high school students’ likelihood of securing
minimal college qualifications (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000).
In another study conducted by Horn and Chen (1998), student, parent, and
peer engagement were examined in order to determine whether their contribution to
at-risk students’ transition from high school to postsecondary education was as
successful as their initial effects on high school graduation. Results indicated that
parent engagement, along with peer engagement, were especially strong indicators of
postsecondary enrollments. Parents who frequently discussed school-related matters
with their children, along with parents’ educational expectations, also strongly
influenced their children’s enrollment in postsecondary education.
Similar to Horn and Chen’s (1998) study, Perna and Titus (2005) found that
parents convey standards that promote college enrollment through interacting with
the student, the school and other parents. In addition, parent-student communication
about education-related issues were directly associated with a greater likelihood for
their children to enroll in a college or university. Finally, parent-initiated contact
with the schools about academic matters and volunteering was also associated with a

29
greater likelihood that the student would enroll in a postsecondary institution (Perna
& Titus, 2005).
Although the extant research supports the positive affects of parent
involvement and college enrollment, there are inconsistencies on the types of
involvement that are critical. Epstein (2001) describes six types of involvement that
include: 1) parenting, 2) communicating, 3) volunteering, 4) learning at home, 5)
decision making, and 6) collaborating with the community. The purpose and the
goals of parenting are to help families establish a home environment that will support
children. Effective forms of school-to-home and home-to-school communication
must be established in order to capture information about school programs and the
children’s progress. Schools must also promote and organize volunteerism for
parents’ help and support, as well as providing information to families about how
students could be helped with homework and other curriculum-related activities at
the home. Additionally, schools need to include parents in school decisions; this
may foster parent leaders and representatives. Finally, resources and services from
the community need to be identified and integrated in order to strengthen school
programs, family practices, and student learning and development (Epstein, 2001).
Parents in Outreach Programs
The literature on parent involvement in outreach programs is very scarce.
One source of information on parents in outreach programs is the National Survey of
Outreach Programs (Swail & Perna, 2002). The survey revealed that 69% of all
programs offered a parental component, while 22% mandated parental involvement.

30
Forty-six percent of all programs require parents to sign a contract in order for
children to begin participation. The primary function of 58% of parental programs is
to provide opportunities for parents to learn about college, since many of the students
participating in the programs have parents with no post-secondary experience. A
primary function of about one-half (58 %) of the parental programs is to provide
opportunities for parents to learn about college and realize that college is possible for
their child. Fifty-one percent of the programs request parents to participate in
activities with the student. Financial aid guidance, campus visitations, and meeting
with college staff and students were other services that were designed to offer
parents more knowledge and information about college. Approximately 16% of
parental programs are instructional programs that give parents the chance to develop
their own personal academic skills. According to Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler
(1997), by improving the parents’ sense of efficacy, they are able to help in their
children’s success in school and may even increase their level of involvement in their
children’s education.
Learning ways to effectively coordinate with parents appears to be a
challenge many programs are facing. About one-fourth (27 %) of all programs and
40 % of all GEAR UP programs, reported that coordination with parents was at least
somewhat of a problem or an area requiring additional resources (Swail & Perna,
2002).
Parent involvement is highly influenced by the information that parents
themselves have regarding college (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000). According to Jun &

31
Colyar (2002), parental education allows the parents to gain the cultural capital
necessary to assist in their children’s success in college. Therefore, exposing parents
to postsecondary education provides them access to information and allows them to
see the benefits associated with a college degree and the curricular requirements and
mechanisms to finance a college education (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000). Cabrera and
La Nasa (2002) conclude that the lowest-SES students are the most disadvantaged.
Approximately 99.3% of upper-SES parents have some formal college education, in
comparison to only 23% of lowest-SES parents. Thus, informational efforts that
target lowest-SES parents would result in the highest pay-off (Cabrera & La Nasa,
2002).
College preparation programs must deliver academic preparation activities by
affirming the student’s cultural integrity and recognizing the families and
neighborhood’s perspectives (Tierney & Jun, 2001). Jun and Colyar (2002) address
the importance of parental involvement, particularly for parents of color, in outreach
programs as a way of conveying cultural capital “from one generation to the next by
parents who inform their children about the value, importance, and process of
securing a college education” (pp. 203-204).
In a study conducted by Patrikakou & Weissberg (2000), the associations
between parents’ perceptions of teacher outreach practices and parent involvement in
children’s education were explored. One of the primary results from the study
indicated that the strongest predictor of parent involvement was the parents’
perceptions of teacher outreach. In particular, the more parents perceived the teacher

32
as valuing the child’s education, informing them about their child’s strengths and
weaknesses, and providing them with helpful ways to help their child, the higher the
parents’ involvement was both at home and at school.
Conceptual Framework: Parent Involvement as a Form of Social Capital
Social capital focuses on the ways in which social networks and connections
are created and maintained (Morrow, 1999). The primary function of social capital
is to enable an individual to gain access to different forms of capital, including
human and cultural, as well as institutional support and resources. According to a
study conducted by Perna and Titus (2005), the likelihood of students enrolling in a
postsecondary institution is related to the volume of resources that they may access
through social networks at the school.
Coleman (1988) and Bourdieu (1986) offer two varied conceptualizations of
social capital. Coleman (1998) defines social capital as the role in communicating
the trust, authority, norms, and social controls that an individual must possess in
order to be successful. In addition, Coleman (1988) defines the ways in which
parental involvement can create and build social capital. According to Coleman
(1988), social capital can be obtained by two different types of relationships: the
relationship between the student and his/her parents; and relationships between the
student’s parents and other individuals, specifically adults who have connections to
the school and the student personnel.
While Coleman’s (1988) perspective suggests that parents play a crucial role
in promoting the status attainment of their children, Bourdieu (1986) focuses on how

33
being a member of a particular group can be a major advantage to some individuals.
According to Bourdieu (1986), an individual may access a great deal of social capital
through social networks and relationships depending on the size of the networks and
the social, economic, and cultural capital that individuals in particular networks
possess.
The Partnership Model
Susan Swap (1993) presents four models that describe the relationships
between educators and parents. The four models include: 1) the protective model, 2)
the school-to-home transmission model, 3) the curriculum enrichment model, and 4)
the partnership model. Swap (1993) emphasizes that each of the models have their
own advantages and disadvantages and the model of choice highly depends on the
values of the family and educators, and the specific needs of the children.
In this section, I will focus on Swap’s partnership model, which describes “an
alliance between parents and educators to encourage better schools and the success
of all children in school” (Swap, 1993, p. 47). The primary goal of the model is for
educators and parents to work together in order for all students to achieve success.
Swap suggests using this model when the following conditions apply: a) most of the
students are not doing well in school, b) the population of the families and the
students is heterogeneous, and c) there is a disagreement on the definition of success
between educators and families. Swap admits that incorporating this model is
difficult and that it involves investing a great deal of time and a shift from the
traditional isolation of the educator’s role, to a collaborative role. However, Swap

34
(1993) is confident that the collaborative and inquiry-based techniques will offer the
field of education a great deal of advantages.
Swap (1993) defines the term ‘partnership’ as the “long-term commitments,
mutual respect, widespread involvement of families and educators in many levels of
activities, and sharing of planning and decision-making responsibilities” (Swap,
1993, p. 47). In order to achieve this level of partnership, Swap assumes:
1. Accomplishing the joint mission requires a re-visioning of school
environment and a need to discover new policies and practices, structures,
roles, relationships, and attitudes in order to realize the vision (Swap,
1993, p. 49).
2. Accomplishing the joint mission demands collaboration among parents,
community representatives, and educators. Because the task is very
challenging and requires many resources, none of these groups acting
alone can accomplish it (Swap, 1993, p. 49).
Swap developed a framework, which was built using Epstein’s (1987)
typology. In her typology, Epstein (1987) described the basic obligations of families
and schools. In addition, Epstein describes parent involvement at schools, in
learning activities at home, and in governance, decision-making, and advocacy.
Below is Epstein’s (1987) typology in more detail:
1. Basic obligations of schools, including conferences with parents
regarding their child’s programs and progress

35
2. Parent involvement at school, including volunteer activities and support
for sports and student performances
3. Parent involvement in learning activities at home, including supervising
homework and helping children work on skills that will help them learn
in the classroom
4. Parent involvement in governance, decision making, and advocacy,
including participation in parent-teacher organizations and in various
decision-making and advisory roles
Swap’s framework outlines the most important elements of a partnership
between the school and the home. The main difference between Swap’s (1993)
model and Epstein’s (1987) typology is that Swap’s framework stresses the joint
efforts of interaction between the home and the school. Besides the one main
distinction, Swap’s (1993) four elements are very similar to Epstein’s (1987)
typology. Swap (1993) stresses: a) the importance of creating two-way
communication between parents and educators; b) enhancing learning at home and
school; c) parents and educators providing mutual support for each other; and d)
parents and educators making joint decisions. Below are Swap’s (1993) four
elements in more detail:
1. Creating two-way communication. Parents and educators both have
important information to share regarding the student. Parents share
information about their child’s strengths, background, needs, and their
expectations for the school and their child. Educators, on the other hand,

36
share information with the parents about the student’s progress in school,
curriculum, policies, programs, and their expectations for the school and
the student. Idealistically, as a result of the two-way communication,
parents and educators are well informed and negotiate a set of joint
expectations for the child and the school, and to work together to create
an environment where everyone can learn and feel successful (Swap,
1993).
2. Enhancing learning at home and at school. Parents contribute to the
child’s learning by setting high expectations, providing an environmental
setting that allows for concentrated work, and offering love, support and
encouragement. Educators, on the other hand, develop curriculum and
instructional practices and strong relationships with children that create
an environment for optimal learning (Swap, 1993).
3. Providing mutual support. Parents offer support to educators in many
ways, such as volunteering. Educators support parents by offering
educational programs that are responsive to their interests and needs.
Parents and educators build trusting relationships and the school becomes
a place that provides parents with useful health, education, and social
services (Swap, 1993).
4. Making joint decisions. Parents and educators jointly work together to
improve the school by participation on committees, councils, and
planning and management teams. Parents and educators are involved in

37
problem solving at every level: individual child, classroom, school, and
district (Swap, 1993).
Limitations
Although there is significant amount of research that explores family
involvement and its effects on student achievement, there still remains
inconsistencies between what researchers say should be done and what is actually
done, especially in secondary education (Tierney & Auerbach, 2004). In addition,
educators are still unclear about what types of activities and the degree of family
involvement that is most effective for students (Catsambis, 1998; Jordan, Orozco, &
Avarett, 2002). Different opinions exist on the exact ways of how family
involvement affects children (Jun & Colyar, 2002). Current research shows many
different types of activities that families can become involved in, and despite their
differences, they are all categorized together as “parent involvement” (Jordan,
Orozco, & Avarett, 2002). Such activities can vary from help with homework at
home to parent-teacher organizations (PTO) at schools.
One of the major gaps in the literature, which will be the main focus of this
study is that although Susan Swap’s partnership model explains the idealistic ways in
which parents and schools can work together for the betterment of their children, the
model was not built specifically for low income, minority families and students. The
model assumes that the families and the students possess prior social capital, which
may or may not be the case. Social capital theory will provide me with the lens that I
will need in order to examine and understand the low income, minority population.

38
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
“Social group membership structures life opportunities” (Lareau, p. 256, 2003)

In the previous chapter, I demonstrated the importance of parent involvement
on the success of their children. According to the extant research, parent
involvement has a positive effect on the children’s academic achievement and
pursuit of college. Although there is no question on the advantages of parental
involvement, what is actually done is still inconsistent with what research proves
should be done (Tierney & Auerbach, 2004). Educators are still uncertain about the
types and degrees of family involvement that is most effective for children
(Catsambis, 1998; Jordan, Orozco, & Avarett, 2002). In addition, different opinions
exist on how family involvement affects children (Jun & Colyar, 2002). As the
percentage of African American students’ enrollment rates has risen from 9.2% in
1980, to 12.7% in 2005, underrepresentation still occurs (NCES, 2007). Therefore,
given the lack of representation, I have selected to focus my research primarily on
the families of African American males that are currently enrolled in the
Neighborhood Academic Initiative (NAI), a program I will explain in greater detail
later in this chapter.
My research examines the impact of required family involvement on the
African American male students and families in the Neighborhood Academic
Initiative (NAI) program at the University of Southern California (USC). This is a

39
qualitative study and my research question is designed to capture the ways in which
the NAI program’s parent involvement strategies work to ensure the success of their
children. Specifically, my research question is as follows:
o How does required parental involvement through the NAI program
impact the African American male students and their families?
Program Description
Site Selection
The Neighborhood Academic Initiative (NAI) is a pre-collegiate academic
enrichment program that is sponsored by the University of Southern California
(USC). NAI was established in 1989 and had the first scholars enter the program in
the 1991-1992 academic year. The mission of NAI is to reach out and serve the
students and the families in the nearby public schools, and prepare them for a tuition-
free scholarship to USC. In return, the students must meet the following conditions:
a) actively participate in the program for at least four years; b) have a competitive
cumulative grade point average; and c) score competitively on the SAT 1.
The NAI program has a set of outreach strategies that seek to prepare the
students they serve for college or university. These strategies include:
1. Creating a college-bound culture. Parents and students are able to
perceive college as attainable and expected;
2. Implementing rigorous academic curriculum. Honors and advanced
placement (AP) courses, intercessions, and access to cultural learning is

40
offered to participants to meet and exceed the California State Standards
and A-G requirements;
3. Cultivating a high-quality teaching staff. Teachers are dedicated and
capable of engaging students at high levels of learning;
4. Provide intensive academic support. Beyond just the classroom
mentoring, students and parents engage in various activities such as after-
school tutoring, SAT preparation, the NAI Saturday Academy, college
admissions and financial aid coaching; and
5. Generate parent/community involvement. Seminars are offered to prepare
parents on various aspects of college preparedness, healthy living, and
academic networking.
The vision of NAI is to increase the enrollment and graduation rates of lower
socioeconomic and underrepresented students. To accomplish its vision, NAI has
five purposes:
1. To increase enrollment of under-represented students to enter and
successfully complete a bachelor’s degree at the USC with special
scholarship support;
2. To provide for the empowerment of parents as mentors and guides for
increased student achievement through the provision of multiple parent
educational opportunities;

41
3. To positively affect neighborhood public secondary schools in their
efforts to raise college awareness and college-going rates as well as to
improve students’ overall achievement;
4. To increase collaboration (thereby generating low-cost resources and
enhancing college experiences for all students) between and within
University divisions and departments to guide these local, diverse
students into success as USC students; and
5. To support and guide NAI graduates to be aware of alternative
educational opportunities that will lead back to the USC scholarship (The
Neighborhood Academic Initiative, n.d.).
The NAI uses a six-year pre-college enrichment program as a model to assist
lower socioeconomic students and their parents. This model includes three
independent programs:
1. The USC Pre-College Enrichment Academy. The Pre-College
Enrichment Academy (PCEA) is the “flagship” program of NAI. The
Academy provides middle and high school students (grades 7-12) with
educational services that will help them at a college or a university level.
The Academy works in partnership with LAUSD, specifically with
Foshay Learning Center (K-12), Muir Middle School, and Manual Arts
High School. The PCEA consists of mornings and after school tutoring.
Starting from the seventh grade, students begin taking specially designed
math and English classes at NAI. In these enhanced classes, each student,

42
according to their grade level, is placed in the following classes: 9
th
grade
students enroll in honors English 9 and geometry; 10
th
grade students
enroll in honors English 10 and Algebra II; 11
th
grade students enroll in
honors American literature, expository composition, and math analysis
and trigonometry; and 12
th
grade students enroll in advanced placement
(AP) English literature, and either AP statistics or AP calculus. In
addition, students start to attend the NAI Saturday Academy, which meets
weekly for four hours and focuses strictly on an accelerated curriculum in
math and Language arts.
2. The Family Development Institute. Parents and/or guardians of NAI
students are required to participate in the Family Development Institute
(FDI). The FDI offers a variety of workshops designed to foster
educational success, creating a positive learning environment at home,
gaining an understanding of the college application process, financial aid,
and any other topics that will prepare students to smoothly transition to
college or university. Additional topics that are offered include
communication skills, child and adolescent development, and conflict
resolution. Parents must commit to attending a minimum of 80% of all
the FDI seminars during the school year. The FDI seminars are held on
the USC campus for 12 Saturdays from 8am to 12pm. If a family
member is not able to attend a meeting due to work hours or other
obligations, they are allowed to send an advocate that represents the

43
student, such as an aunt or uncle, grandparent, adult sibling, or a
neighbor. Parents who participate in the FDI elect a leadership
governance board, referred to as the Parent Advisory Council (PAC), as a
representative body to foster communication. PAC members serve in the
following positions: President, Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer,
Obudsmen/women, parent alumni representatives, and grade level
representatives. Other parent activities include field trips, fundraising
activities, annual picnic, trips to the Hollywood Bowl and some theatrical
plays.
3. Retention Program. Also known as the Undergraduate Success Program,
the Retention Program is designed to ensure NAI students a smooth
transition from high school to USC. The NAI staff partner with the USC
Office of Academic Support. The staff members divide up the NAI
students who have graduated and enrolled at USC in a caseload approach.
Based on the students’ mid-term grades and/or any reported problems or
issues, the staff will make any necessary interventions to help the
students. The staff is also available to assist in the transfer process of
students who enroll in other secondary institutions.
NAI places a high emphasis on family involvement and is commonly known
for its collaborative efforts with the families of the students. Further, NAI has been
dedicated to providing multiple educational opportunities for the students and the
parents, in order for them to gain an understanding of themselves and obtain the

44
skills necessary to assume a measure of control over the direction and quality of their
life.
From 1997 and 2007, the NAI has graduated 361 students from South Los
Angeles high schools into four-year institutions as freshmen. Out of the 448 total
students who have been served since 1997, 97% have attended an institution of
higher learning. To date, USC has made over $5 million available to NAI scholars in
scholarships and grants. Table 1 below illustrates the total number of graduates and
the institutions that they attended after graduating from high school and the NAI.

Table 1
Neighborhood Academic Initiative Graduates from 1997-2007
Total Graduates 448
USC 143
Other private 4-year college 56
UC system 85
Cal State System 70
Other State Systems 8
Total Enrollment in 4-year colleges 361
Community College 68
Vocational College 4
Total Enrollment in Post-Secondary
Institution
434
Unknown/Working/Military 14

45
Participant Selection
I worked with four of the ten African American male students who are
enrolled in the NAI program. I focused on one freshman, one sophomore, one
junior, and one senior. I also worked with four parents of African American male
students. Three of the parents had a child who was currently enrolled in the NAI
program, and one was a parent of a NAI alumni. In addition, I interviewed five
members of the NAI staff, which included a program director, program manager,
project specialist, and two administrative assistants.
Parents
The parents of the students that participate in NAI have very limited
information about college; their highest educational attainment is a high school
diploma. As active participants in the program, parents begin to gain a better
understanding of the higher education system. Most parents who attend NAI are
Latinos or African Americans.
Since the families are expected to be involved in various seminars and events,
I had easier access to conducting interviews, observations, and focus groups. I
focused primarily on four of the ten African American male parents. The program
director gave me permission to excuse the parents from the Family Development
Institute (FDI) meetings to interview them. As I attended the different activities that
the families participated in, I encountered other families and that helped me further
understand the effects of their involvement on their children.

46
Students
The NAI students are all between the ages of 14 and 17. The students attend
one of the public schools in the Los Angeles Unified School District. The majority
of the students in the NAI are first-generation college attendees. The students attend
NAI mostly because they need the additional academic assistance to do well in their
high school classes. Most of the students are Latinos or African American and come
from a low-income family. Since NAI is primarily sponsored by federal and state
funds, students who attend must be U.S. citizens or have an established legal
residence.
Again, there are ten African American males that are enrolled in the program,
four of whom I focused on. The program director had given me permission to
interview the students during their Saturday Academy classes. I interviewed one
freshman, one sophomore, one junior, and one senior. I focused on this particular
population because African American males score lower on their standardized tests
and the dropout rates of African American males is disproportionally higher than any
other ethnic group.
Program Staff
NAI has five full-time staff members that include a program director, project
manager, project specialist, and two administrative assistants. Each staff member
ensures that students are enrolled in the appropriate classes, safely arrive to their
home schools after their morning classes that are held at USC, and transition
smoothly to the college of their choice.

47
Since the staff at NAI has regular interactions with the students and the
parents, they are familiar with the behaviors that can influence the academic success
of the students. In addition, I established a good relationship with the director of the
program, who helped me obtain information on the program and assisted in setting
up interviews and focus groups with the families and the students.
Qualitative Research
To conduct this research, I selected a qualitative approach of inquiry because
I was not looking to generalize my research findings to a population. According to
Patton (2002), a qualitative methodology consists of “ways of finding out what
people do, know, think, and feel by observing, interviewing, and analyzing
documents” (p. 145). Moreover, Patton (2002) notes that “understanding what
people value and the meanings they attach to experiences from their own personal
and cultural perspectives are major inquiry arenas for qualitative inquiry” (p. 147).
The qualitative line of inquiry has been the most effective ways to answer the
“what” and the “how” questions in education (Patton, 2002). Lareau (1987)
conducted a study using ethnographic data to examine the relationships between
families and schools and how that involvement effected academic achievement of
lower socioeconomic minority students. Lareau (1987) conducted participant
observations and in-depth interviews with parents, teachers, and principals. In her
book, Unequal Childhoods, Lareau (2003) used a qualitative approach to understand
the ways in which parents’ social class impacts children’s life experiences. Lareau
(2003) conducted her research using naturalistic observations and in-depth

48
interviews. Lareau (2003) visited each family about twenty times and followed
children and parents as they took part in school activities, church activities, and other
events. In addition, Lareau (2003) interviewed the children’s classroom teachers and
other school personnel. Through her qualitative approach, Lareau (2003) was able to
gain a better perspective of the parents and students’ lives, and understand the
expectations that professionals, such as teachers and school personnel, had of
parents.
Data Collection
I applied an ethnographic approach to understanding the effects of the NAI
African American males’ family involvement on students’ academic achievement
and pursuit to college. Derived from an anthropological perspective, Wolcott (1975)
clarifies the distinction by noting that “ethnography is, literally, an anthropologist’s
‘picture’ of the way of life of some interacting human group: or, viewed as process,
ethnography is the science of cultural description” (p. 112). Wolcott (1975) argues
that one can take an ethnographic approach and apply it to studying any aspect of
human social life. The unique contribution of an ethnographer is “his [her]
commitment to understand and convey how it is to ‘walk in someone else’s shoes’
and to ‘tell it like it is’” (Wolcott, 1975).
According to Patton (2002), ethnographic inquiry is based on the assumption
that any group of individuals who interact with one another for a period of time will
evolve a culture. Therefore, conducting an ethnographic inquiry of the African
American males and their families in the NAI program helped me understand the

49
organization of daily life, language use, and interactions between families and
institutions (Lareau, 2003).
I used an ethnographic approach to understand the relationship between
families, students, and the norm of the NAI. I adopted four methods from
ethnography, which included: 1) in-depth interviews, 2) focus groups, 3) participant
observations, and 4) document analysis. The study was conducted from August
through November of 2008.
In-depth Interviews
I conducted three in-depth interviews with four of the ten African American
male students, four parents of African American male students, and five NAI staff
members. Each student and parent was interviewed every two weeks, for a total of
three times each. I also interviewed each staff member once. I conducted a total of
28 in-depth interviews lasting approximately 60 to 90 minutes. I utilized an open-
ended interview approach and each interview was conducted, audio-taped, and
transcribed.
Patton (2002) notes that “what people actually say and descriptions of events
observed remain the essence of qualitative inquiry” (p. 457). Thus, the importance
of in-depth interviews and participant observations are fundamental. According to
Patton (2002), open-ended interview questions must remain similar so that
respondents are answering the same questions. This technique helped me better
compare responses.

50
Focus Groups
I conducted a total of two focus groups, which were formal and audio taped.
The first focus group consisted of four African American male students. Two of the
students were freshmen, one was a junior, and the fourth subject was a senior. The
student focus group lasted approximately 35 minutes. The second focus group
included six NAI parents of African American male students enrolled in the
program. The parent focus group lasted approximately 40 minutes. I conducted
focus groups, as an addition to the interviews, to strengthen my study. Patton (2002)
explains that, “triangulation strengthens a study by combining methods” (p. 247).
At the beginning of each focus group, I provided a general explanation of the
study to the participants. During each focus group, I had a list of questions that I
asked each participant. I encouraged each participant to individually answer each
question. For ethical purposes, I explained that the information that would be
discussed would remain confidential. I informed the subjects that they would not be
emotionally or physically hurt due to their agreement to participate in the study.
I played the role of a moderator in each of my focus groups. I observed and
collected data on the interactions of the participants. In addition, I paid close
attention to the similarities and the differences of my subjects’ opinions.
Participant Observations
I also conducted systematic observations of the activities held by the NAI. I
was a participant observer of eight Family Development Institute (FDI) parent
meetings that were held on Saturdays. During these bi-weekly meetings, I would

51
observe how the parents interacted with each other, how the staff members interacted
with each other, and what the topics of each meeting consisted of. During the week
between the bi-weekly meetings, I was also able to spend time with the staff and the
students during five Saturday Academy classes. While the students were each in
their respective classes, I was also able to interact with the staff members and the
students who happened to be out in the hallways. I considered this time of informal
observation as an opportunity to build rapport with the staff members and the
students. In total, I spent approximately 40 informal and formal hours of
observation.
The observations helped me gain a better perspective on how the program
works and how the families and students’ interact. According to Patton (2002),
observations help the researcher better understand the context and the environment
within which the participants interact. Patton (2002) also notes that there are
disadvantages and limitations to observations. Since the observer is paying close
attention to external behaviors, interpretations may be distorted. In addition, data
that is collected from direct observations are limited to the particular activity or event
(Patton, 2002). Patton (2002) stresses the use of multiple data sources in order to
gain a broader understanding of the participants.
Document Analysis
Patton (2002) notes the importance of reviewing documents, artifacts, and
archives of an organization for rich information. I collected materials about NAI and
its activities from the program director and staff. With the permission of the director

52
and the staff, I reviewed such documents as the parent and student contracts.
Document analysis helped me understand the history, rules, and regulations of the
NAI program that I would have not been able to observe or ask questions about.
Through the documents, valuable information about the program’s mission and goals
was revealed.
Data Analysis
Although I used an ethnographic research design, qualitative inquirers
commonly convey a generic method of data analysis (Creswell, 2003). To conduct
the analysis, I used Creswell’s (2003) six-step plan. The steps included:
Step 1. Organize and Prepare. I transcribed all the interviews and focus
groups that I conducted, scanned the material, typed field notes, and
organized the data according to the source of information.
Step 2. Read. I read all the data to obtain a perspective of the overall
meaning of the information.
Step 3. Coding. I organized the data that I collected into “chunks,” by sorting
text data, pictures, paragraphs or images into categories, and then labeled
the categories with terms that were based on the actual language of my
participants.
Step 4. Generate description, categories, and themes. Next, I used the
coding process that helped me generate a description of the people,
setting, categories, or themes. Once I had generated the descriptions, I
used the coding to generate a small number of themes or categories.

53
Step 5. Identify representation. I used narrative passages to represent the
findings of the analysis. I analyzed these discussions with
interconnecting themes. I used tables and charts to help me in this
process.
Step 6. Make interpretation and meanings. Lastly, made meanings of the
data representation. This interpretation entailed my personal
interpretation, combined with the individual understanding. These
meanings also were derived from comparing the findings to theory and
literature.
Access to Site
The NAI director visited my dissertation group and introduced the NAI
program to us in January, 2008. After her initial visit, I met with the director and
expressed my interest in studying the effects of family involvement on the students
in NAI, particularly amongst the African American males and she shared the same
interest level. I remained in regular contact with the director by email and phone and
she was very helpful in sharing information with me.
Multiple Methods
Creswell (2003) emphasizes the use of triangulation in order for the
researcher to assess the accuracy of the research results. Patton (2002) also explains
that the use of multiple sources and resources allows the investigator to build the
strengths of each research method. In order to accurately assess my research results
and ensure consistency in the findings, I used multiple data and information

54
resources, which included in-depth interviews, participant observations, focus groups
and document analysis. In addition, I employed member checking by gathering
feedback from all the participants in the study to ensure that the report accurately
reflected their voices and intentions. The interviewees also had the opportunity to
review the data collected from their individual interviews and provide any
clarifications necessary in their responses. A more detailed description of the
findings is presented in chapter four and chapter five.

55
CHAPTER 4
PRESENTATION OF DATA
“A group within which there is extensive trustworthiness and extensive trust is able
to accomplish much more than a comparable group without the trustworthiness and
trust” (Coleman, p. 111, 1988)

On a Saturday, in the summer of 2008, the Neighborhood Academic Initiative
(NAI) program held their first of eight mandatory Family Development Institute
(FDI) meetings at the Seeley G. Mudd (SGM) building at the University of Southern
California (USC). The NAI families arrived at approximately 7:30 am and upon
their arrival, a few of the NAI staff, which mainly consisted of NAI alumni, greeted
the families and asked them to sign their names on the attendance sheets. Although
the students were not required to attend, some accompanied their families as well.
After signing their names at the door, the families began making their way into the
large auditorium, where the meeting was scheduled to begin at 8:00 am.
In the front of the auditorium, there were a few additional NAI staff members
that greeted the families in both English and Spanish as they entered. Although they
were encouraged by the staff members to sit in the front of the room, most of the
families chose to sit in the back of the room. On a large screen in the front of the
room, the NAI program’s Pledge of Allegiance was projected. By 8:00 am, the
auditorium was filled with approximately 200 family members and students and the

56
meeting began. The families were asked to stand up and in unison, read the
following Pledge of Allegiance of the NAI program:
As a Family, we pledge our allegiance and support to the USC Neighborhood
Academic Initiative program and Family Development Institute. We fully
commit our energies and our time to make these programs a total success for
our scholars, our families and our communities. As part of this commitment,
we consistently encourage our children to be the most well behaved and
productive scholars they can be at school, at home, and in the community.
Likewise, we take advantage of every opportunity offered by the Family
Development Institute to enhance our abilities to attain and enjoy a better life
for our scholars and our families. We affectionately embrace and celebrate
the colors, histories, and cultures of all our family members
(http://www.usc.edu/ext-relations/nai/).

After reciting the NAI program’s Pledge of Allegiance, the parents sat down
and the NAI staff was ready to begin. One of the bilingual NAI alumni accompanied
each presenter and translated everything that was presented to the parents in Spanish.
The director of the program began the meeting by encouraging the parents to visit
the following website, www.knowhow2goCalifornia.org. On the website, which the
NAI director had projected on the screen, the financial aid opportunities that are
available to students in California who are seeking to enroll in a higher education
institution were highlighted. On that particular webpage, there were a couple of
video commercials that the NAI director played for the families to see. The
commercials encouraged families and students to actively pursue their college
dreams by taking the right classes in high school, which would best prepare them for
college. The director reiterated and stressed to the parents that by taking the right
classes, students were able to get the financial aid that they needed to go to college.

57
After playing the video commercials, the NAI director introduced a handful
of NAI alumni that had recently graduated from high school and were accepted to
USC. Each student that was introduced stood by the NAI director and gave a speech
to the audience and thanked the NAI program for all the opportunities that were
presented to them. As I sat and listened to the students and the director’s speeches, I
overheard a parent saying that she could not wait until her child was up there as well.
Throughout the three hours of the meeting, the families remained attentive, asked
questions and jotted down notes along the way. Right before the parents were
dismissed, one NAI staff member handed out the meeting times and dates of the
seven remaining FDI meetings and reminded the parents that each date was
mandatory to attend.
As discussed in chapter one, the purpose of this study is to examine the ways
the NAI program’s required parental involvement impacts the African American
male students and their families. The theoretical lens that I will use to evaluate the
data presented is social capital theory. In an effort to capture credible, meaningful
and empirically supported findings that recreate and accurately represent the
participants, I will present data utilizing the individual words of the subjects and the
observations of the author. Specifically, this chapter has been divided into three
sections representing the major themes that emerged throughout the data collection.
The three major themes include: 1) support, 2) community, and 3) empowerment. It
is important to note that as a result of the required parental involvement in the NAI
program, specifically through the FDI meetings, the parents and students began to

58
acquire the support, develop a sense of community, and gain the empowerment
necessary to support their children in their college endeavors.
Support
The mandatory family participation component, according to the NAI staff, is
critical to the NAI program. During an interview, one staff member explained the
reasoning behind the required parental involvement by giving an example of one
particular mother who, due to illness, could not be an integral part of the program.
The mother of one of the African American male students was the sole breadwinner
of the family and was debilitated by a knee surgery. Due to the surgery, the mother
was bed-ridden. Although she tried to attend the meetings, the NAI staff members
did not persist or encourage the mother to attend the meetings and made an exception
for her son to remain in the program. Once the mother stopped attending the
meetings, the NAI staff members immediately saw a drastic change in her son’s
academic performance. The staff member recalls:
I noticed that as soon as she wasn’t able to be as a critical person in his life as
she was before, a critical adult in his life, his grades started falling, and he
was our most, our top students. So 9
th
and 10
th
grade he did really well; 11
th

and 12
th
grade was a huge struggle. He didn’t want to work. Because, you
know, he started doing things like not doing his homework, not showing up
for mandatory class meetings, not coming to tutoring. So I see what happens
when, I mean it was very evident that the less parents are participating, for
whatever reason, the less the child feels compelled to take part in all the
pieces of this program, even though they’re well capable of it.

In the interviews that were conducted with the staff members, it was evident
that not only was it important that the parents provided general support to their

59
children, but they provided them specifically with the informed support. One staff
member explained:
The support needs to be there. I mean the informed support needs to be there.
If they don’t know how to support their child, because the vast majority of
these parents haven’t gone to college. So if they know every Tuesday and
Thursday their child’s going to come home with geometry homework
because they don’t have class on Wednesday and Friday, then it’s not-you
know, if you don’t see homework on Tuesday and Thursday, then you figure,
well I guess they just didn’t have homework. So it has to be informed
support, and that’s what they get through the FDI meetings.

Through the observations, interviews and focus groups that were conducted, I
began to witness the process of transformation in the families and the students
through the parents’ involvement in the NAI program. Coming from a background
where attending college was far from reality, the parents and the students began to
transform into a college-going culture.
As a result of the required parental involvement at the NAI program, the data
revealed that African American male families and the students receive a tremendous
amount of support that varied from: 1) informational support for the parents; 2)
academic support for the students; 3) financial support for the parents and the
students; and 4) emotional support for the parents and the students.
Informational Support
The mandatory Family Development Institute (FDI) meetings provide the
families of the African American male students with a variety of information.
Although the meetings are very early on Saturday mornings, the families appreciate
the wealth of information and opportunities that are presented to them. One of the

60
most important types of information presented to the families at the FDI meetings is
information on how to fill out college applications, scholarship opportunities and
financial aid. One mother expressed her appreciation and stated, “you got all the
resources and how to apply for the programs, and how to get scholarships, and how
to fill out the forms, and how to talk to counselors, and how to be better prepared.”
Many parents complained about the challenges that their families faced in
order to obtain college information prior to their involvement with the NAI program.
Most parents and students felt that the pathway to college was overwhelming and
impossible. One parent stated that the “FDI meetings not only going to show you
how to get in college, but its going to show you the steps to take to get there.”
The NAI program simplified the college process to the parents and the
students. Information about the types of classes that the students should take prior to
their enrollment in a postsecondary institution was given to both the parents and the
students. This type of valuable information helped the parents and the students
acquire the knowledge necessary to fulfill their college-going aspirations. In one of
the parent interviews, the mom confessed and said, “a lot of these kids that’s in NAI
never thought they could come to USC, and lot of parents didn’t know what to
expect on college, and most of these kids coming to college now, is the first child to
go to college.” This type of informational support provided the parents with
resources that they did not have access to prior to their involvement with the
program.

61
In addition to the college information that the families receive as a result of
attending the required FDI meetings, the NAI staff invites speakers that present a
variety of different topics. According to the NAI staff, the variation of topics
presented, helped and catered to the parents since the parents come from a low
economic, underrepresented, and first-generation college bound backgrounds. The
variety of topics that were discussed at the FDI seminars ranged from presenters
from the cancer society to presenters talking about domestic abuse. One of the
parents I interviewed expressed her gratitude and stated:
With FDI you get so much information on other things. You become a
wealth of information. We get information on disaster in home. We get
information on how to prepare for school. We get information on cancer.
We get information on domestic violence. We get information on assistance,
on victims of crime. We get assistance on so much information that you will
never ever get unless you come to them meetings, because a lot of people
don’t go to the internet. Well we know it’s all there on the internet, but when
you’ve got it on PowerPoint presentation, you’ve got individual speakers
coming out to speak to you and you can ask them questions. That makes the
difference.

One of the parents that I interviewed was attending college herself and
through the FDI mandatory parent meetings, she was able to use the informational
support that she received as an advantage to her own schooling experience. She
explained her experiences and stated, “none of these NAI tutors are never denied
tutoring you whether you an adult or whether you a child. Just being affiliated with
the NAI program, you can get assistance.”
Another informational support service that the NAI program offers to parents
is through the Community Computing Center (CCC). The CCC is a program that

62
offers parents the opportunity to take computer classes so that they can build on their
knowledge and their skills. One parent further explained:
They have a program for the parents at the CCC building where you come
and you go to computer classes. When you complete that computer class you
get to keep the computers. You get the certificate when you complete the
class, and you get to keep the computer.

The informational support that the required FDI meetings provided the
parents was definitely recognized and appreciated by the students. One student that I
interviewed recognized the difference that the FDI had on his mom and stated, “she
gets more information and it increases my knowledge as well as my mom’s.”
Another student added, “Through NAI my family now has the knowledge to know
how to get to college and also help me on my road to getting to college.”
Academic Support
As a result of the required parental involvement in the NAI program, the
students are provided the opportunity to be a part of the NAI program and gain
tremendous amount of academic advantages. The students receive additional
English and math courses at the NAI during their zero periods during the week, in
addition to the regular courses they take at their home schools. The students also
attend Saturday Academy, which are additional English and math courses offered on
Saturdays. Through the interviews and the focus groups, the students expressed their
appreciation of these Saturday classes. In the student focus group, one student
explained:

63
The classroom size is way smaller than in our high schools. Like in high
school we’re probably like thirty kids, but in Saturday academy we’re like
fifteen or twelve or something like that. So it’s easy for you to get that one-
on-one attention that you need.

Through these small classes that the students attend during the week on their
zero period and on Saturdays, the students also learn better study habits, discipline,
and that helps them to remain focused. One parent explained her appreciation of the
academic support that her child receives from the NAI program and said, “I love
NAI. NAI is the best program. It teaches these kids how to have good study habits.
It teaches them how to have discipline, and they can reach out and touch to some of
the most rewarding tutors and teachers.” Another parent shared her observation of
her son’s academic growth:
Oh, it’s made a large difference since he started in the NAI, and like I said,
prior to the Saturday classes, SAT preps, my son already loved to read before
he started but his vocabulary has been awesome since he started the program.
And that’s really, I mean the Saturday classes of all things, I think is the most
valuable.

The students enjoyed the academic support that they received from the NAI
program, especially since it was an addition to the regular classes that they attended
at their high schools. The parents and the students bragged about the opportunities
that the additional classes would present to them as they began to apply to college.
During the student interviews, they bragged about how as they begin to apply to
college, they would be able to indicate on their college applications that they had
taken additional classes through the NAI program. Besides setting them apart in
their college applications, the students also felt more prepared for college. The

64
students expressed how much “harder” and “stricter” the NAI classes were as
compared to their regular high school classes. One student explained, “ these classes
are way harder and stricter but I know that they are preparing me for what I will face
when I go to college, that is why I enjoy the extra academic support.”
Financial Support
One of the biggest advantages for the families and the students of the NAI
program is the scholarship that the student receives after their four-year enrollment.
The primary focus of the NAI is to prepare their students in their entrance to USC.
Students are eligible for a scholarship to the university when they meet a competitive
GPA and reach a competitive SAT score. Coming from low-income households, the
families and the students definitely need the scholarship to help make the dream of
attending a higher education institute possible. One student in particular explained
that obtaining the scholarship, “is a way for me to accomplish my dream of attending
college and it releases a lot of pressure off my family since I’m not going to be a
burden on them.”
In addition to the financial support that the NAI program offers to the
families and the students through the scholarship, the families and the students have
received financial support in times of need. There have been some instances when
the families and the students have faced critical financial troubles that may have
prevented them from remaining in the program. However, through the parent
involvement, the families and students were able to benefit from the financial
support that the NAI program manages to provide. During an interview, one of the

65
NAI staff members explains the distance that they went in order to support a family
in need:
We get money from near and far to keep these families afloat. We paid for
one of our families- two children, one who graduated from our program, one
who went through the program in middle school and part of high school, both
of whom were in college were shot to death at a family party from gangsters
from outside decided to shoot up the home, for whatever reason, family party.
So they were totally devastated, depressed. We gathered enough money to at
least keep them afloat for three months to pay their rent and everything. We
paid for the funerals, got them counseling, and it was just very hard. Had
they not had that, the child would not have remained in high school even.

During another interview that I had with a NAI staff member, I learned about
the story of an African American male student in the program. The student was one
of ten siblings in his family. The father had left the family and the mother was
working three jobs just to provide her ten children the bare minimum. Sine he was
one of the oldest child, the NAI student began working and was unable to meet the
expectations of the NAI program. The mother began to miss too many FDI meetings
and as a result, the student was put on probation with the NAI program and faced
expulsion. After speaking with the mother and the son, the staff managed to gather
enough money to provide the family with a laptop so that the child was able to
receive his homework at home and submit his work electronically.
All the families and the students have shared their appreciation of the
financial support that the NAI has provided to them. One parent, who is a member
of the Parent Leadership Board and works part-time at the NAI expressed her
appreciation of the financial support:

66
All the resources, the books, if you don’t have pencil and paper, ink pen or
notebook NAI has provided to us. If you don’t have a t-shirt, NAI gonna
give it to you. If you can’t afford snacks, NAI going to feed you. But if you
ain’t got no money and you walk up to me and you say we don’t have no
money, we’re going to feed you. They get everything here free.

This type of financial support helped the families and the students realize that
although they faced financial challenges, their still was hope for them. The focus
then reverted back to the opportunities that education would and could provide them.
One of the NAI staff members shared with me the challenges that they faced as some
students threatened to drop out of school and the NAI program because they were
thinking of working full-time instead. When faced with those types of issues, the
NAI staff members and teachers worked together to provide the students with free
books and school materials so that the student would not drop out of school. A staff
member shared with me that although a free book may not completely solve the
student’s financial troubles, but the collaborative efforts from the NAI program have
convinced some students to stay in school and realize that with a college degree, they
would be able to obtain better jobs in the future.
Emotional Support
Another type of support that the data revealed from the interviews, focus
groups, and observations was the emotional support that the parents and the students
received as a result of the parent involvement at the NAI program. At times, it was
very difficult for the students to manage their classes at the NAI program and at their
home schools. The families also face many conflicts due to their own personal jobs
and the requirements that the NAI expected from them. Through the staff

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interviews, it was evident that the staff emphasized and understood the struggles that
the parents and the students have to deal with on a day-to-day basis. One staff
member explained that the reason why the NAI staff push the students is so that they
can have a better future and their parents could see that they are doing better than
they are. The staff member explained:
I tell them to understand just how strong they are. I believe struggle is good.
Everybody struggles somewhere. Just because you’re struggling, I tell the
kids this every single time, just because you’re struggling academically, and
you don’t see other kids struggling academically, they could be struggling in
another area that you don’t struggle in. And so I don’t mind seeing the
struggle. I don’t mind pulling them through the struggle, or pushing them
through the struggle, or helping them through the struggle because I want
them to be able to get through it. So I’m here to really support them and say
yes, you’re doing the right thing, just wait, until you graduate, and you’ll see
what that really means. So a constant support to get to graduation.

Through this emotional support, the students felt that they mattered and they
are given importance. In addition, the students realize that the struggles and
challenges that they are experiencing are normal. The students shared their
appreciation of the NAI staff members’ emotional support because they felt like the
program wanted to see them succeed.
The emotional support was not only provided to the NAI students, but to the
parents. Through the interviews that I conducted with the staff members, it was
evident that the NAI staff felt a great sense of responsibility when it came to the
students, parents and their lives at home. One staff member explained:
We have a really high incidence of high blood pressure, diabetes, cancers, all
of that hypertension-related illnesses in our community. We had a parent,
we’ve had parents who’ve passed in our program, either suddenly through
heart attacks or long illness due to cancers. We’ve gone through it with them

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as a group-the FDI parents themselves are there for emotional support. And
so providing this emotional support system here at NAI is critical to keeping
the kid in the college pathway.

This type of emotional support that the parents and students received from
the NAI program was highly appreciated. The students felt like the NAI program
was “like a shoulder to lean on” and that made them feel very secure. In addition,
the parents expressed that by receiving the emotional support from the NAI program,
they were able to build their trust in the staff members, teachers, and the program as
a whole. Due to the trust that was developed, the parents believed that their children
were in good hands and they began to feel optimistic about their futures.
Community
Through the parental involvement in the NAI program, the families and the
students became a part of a community. The NAI program became a network in
which the parents and the students thrived. Parents had the opportunity to develop
partnerships with the NAI staff, teachers, and counselors; and the students benefitted
from the cohort group environment that the NAI program offered.
Parent Community
As a result of their involvement with the NAI program, the parents benefit
from sense of community, specifically through the partnerships that they develop
with the staff, counselors, and the teachers. The majority of the parents that I spoke
with compared their sense of community with the NAI as being “like a family.” The
parents enjoyed the opportunity of being able to talk to the NAI staff members or

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teachers whenever they had a question about their son’s schoolwork, college
application, or even their social life. One mother explained:
You know, whenever I’ve got a problem, I talk to the staff. No matter what I
go to them about, they going to solve every problem that you have, and make
you feel comfortable. But they wonderful, they always there for you. And
no matter what, when you go to them, you don’t get negative. You don’t
have to holler, you don’t have to scream, you don’t have to argue.

Parents also enjoy the partnerships that they develop with the parents in the
program. A major benefit of being a part of the NAI community is the relationships
that the parents form amongst themselves as well. The parents feel like they are “on
the same boat” with other parents that come from the same struggles and are working
towards the betterment of their children. One mother stated that by developing the
relationships that she has with the parents, she has “a lot of parents that feel the same
way that I do and we have a lot of students that’s on the same level and it makes it
much easier for the children to be in that type of environment.”
The students expressed their appreciation of their parent’s partnerships with
the staff, because according to them, they are able to obtain information that they
would not necessarily have otherwise. One student stated, “ my mom gets to know
the staff better and she gets more information and that helps both me and my mom.”
During a student focus group, one student shared his thoughts and claimed that by
knowing that his mother has established these partnerships with the NAI staff,
teachers and counselors, it puts less stress on him and it’s “one less thing to worry
about. So they’re already updated and then you don’t have to tell them everything.”

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The parents expressed their appreciation of the sense of community that they
developed from the NAI program as they compared their experiences with their
children’s teachers and counselors at their high schools. One parent expressed her
frustration and stated:
The schools are, like the other day when I went up there to take him his
backpack, the kids all in the hallway, playing, acting a fool and class is
supposed to be going on. Teachers sitting there in a chair, refusing to teach
the kids. I don’t know what happened, but they were like out of control and I
go and ask the principal, tell the principal what’s going on and the principal
he acted like he didn’t even really care. I had to almost, I had to really like
get on his case for him to even get up and go check and find out what’s going
on. Teachers act like they don’t really care. Me, I’m thankful the NAI
program’s here and that somebody actually cares enough to want to help.

During a parent focus group, one mother stated, “like for me, I love it ‘cause
you become like a family, you know, you get to know people, you get to understand
people’s minds, the way they think, you know, and for me, you become a part of me,
because, you know, you learn everyday, coming you learn something different.” One
staff member shared her experiences with the parents of the African American male
students and explained that she felt that these parents feel so comfortable with us that
“it’s made her feel like we’re a family here, because I feel like she definitely feels
comfortable coming here at any time, and you know asking if we need any help with
anything.”
During an interview that I had with an African American staff member, she
explained the sense of community and the partnerships that have been established
with the families has been one of the greatest successes of the program. She further
stated:

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What the families have in common is their desire, the families’ desire for
their children to go to college, and that’s huge. That’s what they all have in
common. That what they’re all talking about. You know, any questions that
we have deal with that overarching goal. As an African American myself, I
would see it in my family, you know, you don’t trust my older- them
members of my family, great grandmothers, grandmothers, grandfathers,
didn’t trust doctors, it a lot of that, and so you know, it tends to lessen the
more exposure they have to our staff and the program.

As a result of the parent involvement, the parents were able to form
partnerships with people that they trusted. Parents shared their appreciation of being
able to trust an authority figure and also stressed how hard it was for them to be able
to trust authority figures apart from the NAI program. Parents felt that they do not
know whom they can trust and whether there are any counselors or teachers that
have the time to talk to their child. One mother expressed her frustration and stated,
“my son got questions in school and feels there ain’t no one he can speak to.” Many
parents shared similar feelings and expressed the loneliness they felt prior to their
involvement with the NAI program. Through the partnerships that the parents
developed and the sense of community that they enjoyed with the program, the
parents felt that they had direct access to the people that can make a difference. One
mother shared, “Here at the NAI I know I can call the right people and get the
information that I need and that is a good feeling to have.”
Student Community
Throughout the observations, interviews, and focus groups that I conducted
with the students, the bond that the NAI students shared amongst themselves was
evident. The NAI students spent six days of the week together. During the school

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week, they all attended classes at USC for their zero period, and as a group returned
to their high schools on the buses to continue their day. Students also meet each
other on Saturdays during their Saturday Academy classes. The cohort group
environment for students really drew them very close to each other and they
benefited from the NAI community. One student during an interview described his
NAI friendships:
Another thing that I thank NAI for that was really helpful to me was, you
know, like meeting like all these new kids ‘cause I live all the way in
Glendale. So like I grew up here for like a good majority of my life and so
now that I’m back like at an inner city school, it’s cool. I met a lot, like I
have a lot of friends down here now and so like if I have to switch high
schools, I wouldn’t because you know the NAI, I’m going to miss all my
NAI friends. And I mean friends like, besides family, like to me all my
friends always are like there to support me as well and stuff. Like we hang
out like constantly on a regular basis. We go out to parties and stuff like that.
So that’s one of the best things NAI has given me is friendship.

One of the main advantages of being a part of this cohort group environment
within the NAI program helps keep the students more focused and determined. One
mother shared her appreciation of the cohort group environment and stated:
It helped my son because it made me get more familiar with children of like
kind. When he was like just at a high school it seemed like he was just an
individual and now it seems like he has a group and I think a group
environment for him is marvelous and that’s what NAI has provided, the
group environment of like kind. By having many students that can relate to
him and understand where he’s coming from.

One of the major events that the NAI students looked forward to each year is
a walkathon that the NAI organizes. The event is an opportunity for the families,
students and staff to get together. The parents and the students shared their
appreciation of such events as the walkathon. One student explained his enthusiasm

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of the event and the ways in which he felt the activities has helped him socially and
academically:
Every year we have the walkathon and, like, we meet on a track and then we
walk and then we play football and we play all kinda sports. And they’ve
also taken us to a lot of events, like, they’ve taken us to the Hollywood Bowl,
so, yeah, it’s, it’s, not only is it educational, it’s like, fun as well. It’s like the
stepping stone to success, if you will. I think I’ve gotten way better study
habits. But being in NAI my social life has gotten, like has increased, you
know.

The cohort group environment not only is evident while the students are at
USC, either attending classes or events, but also when they are at their high schools.
The NAI students tend to be in their own “clicks” and are known by other students
and teachers as the “NAI students.” During a focus group, the students began to
discuss how the NAI group not only hangs out during NAI, but also when they head
back to their high schools. Their home schoolteachers and friends point them out to
being the “NAI students.” One student expressed how he liked being a part of the
NAI click and states, “it’s cool like we are like our own gang but a positive one and
not trouble makers. It’s cool for me like, cause, I know I am a part of something
good.”
Empowerment
As discussed above in the previous two themes, the parents and students
enjoyed the support that they received from the NAI program and the sense of
community that they developed through their involvement in the program. The
following theme, empowerment, emerged from the interviews and focus groups that
were conducted with the parents, students, and NAI staff members.

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During the interviews and focus groups, the parents, students and NAI staff
members also shared that they gained a sense of empowerment through spending a
lot of quality time together. During this quality time, parents, students, and staff are
able to pursue the pathway to college through their shared goals and experiences. In
addition, as the parents and the students became involved in the NAI program, their
self-awareness progressed as they discussed their perspectives prior to their
involvement with the NAI and how they have transformed during the NAI. As a
result of the parents, students, and staff’s shared goals and experiences and their
increased self-awareness, the parents and the students felt empowered to pursue their
higher education dreams.
Shared Goals and Experiences
Another major advantage that the parents and the students benefited from the
required parent involvement component of the NAI program was the parents and the
students shared similar experiences and shared similar goals. Bright and early on
Saturday mornings, the parents and the students arrived at the USC campus. The
parents were there to attend the mandatory FDI meetings, and the students were there
to attend their Saturday Academy classes. One of the parents that I interviewed, who
was a part of the parent leadership board passionately explained:
To see how the parents come together and support these kids and so forth and
that is why these kids do so well, because its very few parents that can get up
in the morning, drop their kids off at USC, come to the parent meeting, get
involved and cater to their kids education like we do, and know that you’re
not alone in doing it. Oh, it’s rewarding!

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The parents shared that the most helpful thing about the required parental
involvement component of the NAI program was the ability to share the experience
of sending their child off to college together. The parents and their child, together,
commit their Saturday mornings to come to USC in a common effort to accomplish
the dream of attending college. One parent shared:
To see a parent get up and walk with their child to these parent meetings to
come and get educated on how to make your child successful at something,
that’s the purpose of the FDI meeting. And to see not only one or ten
parents, but 200 people, you don’t believe it, but it’s the truth. We’re not just
coming for FDI, we’re coming for our children, because we know that’s the
requirements, and that’s what it takes to make your child be successful.
That’s a bridge to college, but it’s the parent’s bridge to college, and you get
so much.

In addition to attending the required parental meetings and Saturday
Academy, the parents and the students are dressed in the same NAI shirts. The
parents shared that wearing the same shirts with their children was a bonding
experience. Together, the parents and their child were pursuing a common dream,
which they believed would lead their families to success. One of the parents who
volunteers at the program explained how proud she was of the matching parent and
student t-shirts:
When you see the parent and the kid walking on Saturday with the same t-
shirts as the kids, we’re amazed. When we see 200 people in there and they
got on their t-shirts and everybody getting up and participating, it motivates
you and the kids. We never thought it could be a program put together like
this, and that continues and continues. When we come on Saturdays and I get
here early, and you drive around this campus, you gonna see parent and child,
parent and child, parent and child in the same shirts.

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The shared experiences that the parents and students faced together have a
major impact on the students as well. The students expressed their excitement of
seeing the efforts that their families invested in them for the success of their futures.
Sharing the experience of working towards the pathway to college with their parents
was very motivating for them. The excitement can be best captured through an
interview with one mother, who is a volunteer at the NAI program, as she shared her
thoughts on how her involvement in her son’s education motivated him:
Yesterday was my first day back at NAI so I went over to the buses because I
load up the buses for the students. I never seen him coming to the buses, but
he knew I was going to be there. He ran and hid behind me, so this other girl
who works there said, “look how excited your son is to see you.” So when I
got home he said, “mama, when I knew I even thought that you was going to
be there, I just ran because you brighten up my day.” And that’s the way we
both feel. I’m an inspiration to my child and he’s an inspiration to me.

During a student focus group, I asked the students how they felt about their
experiences with their parents through the required parental involvement. Each
student expressed that as a result of doing this with their parents, it proved to them
that their parents really cared about what they were trying to accomplish. One of the
students said that “it shows me that she really cares, and it makes me happy because
like when I’m on campus and I see her I feel as if like, you know, I have moral
support like wherever I go.” The students also stated that it made them feel good
that they were on the same track as their parents and that they were accomplishing a
goal together. During an interview, one student shared, “by seeing my family on
campus with me, it makes me know that they’re trying to commit to what I’m doing
also.” The involvement of his mother in his academic life was a confirmation to him

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that she cared. When asked how he felt about his mother’s involvement he stated,
“so now it’s like, what I go through, she goes through.”
Through the interviews I conducted with the staff members, they all agreed
that the Saturday classes for the students and the Saturday FDI classes for the parents
was an opportunity for the parents and the students to share common experiences and
work together towards a common goal. The interaction between parent and student
made it possible for them to be constantly on the same page when it came to the
students’ college goals and dreams. One staff member stated, “it becomes a shared
dream, shared goal, shared work towards meeting it. And if nothing else, it should
bring them closer together through this shared experience, because they’ll both be
able to own it.”
Not only did the parents and students enjoy their shared experiences, but also
the parents and staff shared the same goals for the students’ educational futures.
Through the increased interaction of the parents and the staff, the staff is able to
communicate with the parents on a regular basis and that constant and consistent
communication allows the parents and the staff to be on the same page with the
educational outcomes of the students.
During one of my interviews with the father of a NAI alumnus, he expressed
his appreciation of the NAI staff. After his son graduated from the NAI program, he
enrolled in a two-year community college. The father was anxious for his son to
transfer into USC, and according to him, his son was “blowing it off.” One of the
NAI staff members had the opportunity to get a hold of the son and counsel him into

78
getting back on track and pursuing the transfer into USC. The father expressed his
appreciation and stated:
I really appreciated what NAI did, because the staff member just gave him
another piece of our minds in a different format, you know, because of course
I was like, what are doing? And she was like, yeah, what are you doing?

The shared goal that the staff members have with the parents for the future of
the children becomes evident when the parents and the staff team up in an effort to
help the students reach their goals. Another parent that I interviewed shared her
thoughts about the staff members and said:
I know that the NAI staff and me have the same goal for my son and so I trust
them and I don’t feel like I’m alone in this process. I feel like when I talk to
them that they feel the same way.

Each of the parents that I interviewed had a great desire to see their children
do well academically and go to college. By knowing that the NAI staff had the same
goals as they did for their children, it made them feel supported. One parent stated
that all she wanted was to see her son succeed and go to college and she knew that
that is what the NAI program expected of her son as well. Being on the same page
with the NAI program comforted her as she stated, “my goal and their goal is for my
son to go to college and succeed and that shows from all the interactions that I have
had with them.”
Self-Awareness
The parents and the students all shared an eagerness to succeed. Parents
wanted to see their children go to college and the students wanted to go to college.
Prior to their involvement with the NAI program, however, the students and the

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families were not aware of whether or not they would ever be able to accomplish that
dream. One student expressed it best by stating, “like before NAI we just knew that
there was a college and a university, that you were able to get there, but we didn’t
like know, we knew about the scholarships but we never knew about financial aid
and stuff like that.” Another student shared similar sentiments, saying, “before I got
introduced to NAI, me and my family, we thought of, well, I thought that college
was going to be kind of hard to get in, because like, it takes a lot of money and you
know, we didn’t have any connections. But then, like, when I found out about NAI,
like, I put myself in it so that, what you call it, I could have a better chance to get in,
in college.”
The parents and the students’ outlook on attending higher education were not
too optimistic. During the interviews and the focus groups, the students shared that
they did not think that they would ever be able to succeed within the higher
education system. During a student focus group, one particular student humbly
shared his thoughts about why he thought it was impossible to go to college prior to
his involvement with the NAI program:
It’s the stereotype. See, when you grow up it’s like Blacks are this, and
Black people can’t do that. And then, so, when you grow up and you keep
hearing that, you fall into the category. That’s what I would be. Black
people are gangsters. Black people have to do this and that. They’re not
responsible. They have kids and they run out on their kids. Like, stuff like
that. Like, that’s everyday stuff.

As a result of the stereotypes, most of the students and the parents had a great
deal of uncertainty and were unsure that college was ever an option to them. Further,

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the parents and the students were unaware of the opportunities that they could take
advantage of. The parents and the students expressed that the crucial information
that was needed in order to successfully pursue the pathway to college was either not
available to them, or they were not sure of who would be able to help them with
acquiring that information. One of the staff members shared her feelings of what her
goals are for the NAI parents and students, and said:
I would really want them to see themselves as capable of getting an education
and also feeling like they deserve it, and I would like for them to also set
goals in their life, you know. And say if they want to be a doctor they can do
it. If they want to be a lawyer, they can do it. And even, and make them,
yeah make them more confident about their abilities, and make them see that
it’s possible, and make them want to do it for their families and themselves,
and for you know, and for everyone else so that little by little they can change
that image that others have of them.

Many parents also shared their views on whether or not college was in their
children’s futures. In addition, they explained how the environment influenced that
uncertainty prior to their involvement with the NAI program. One parent explained
how she felt like there was a “stigma” that these students face just because they live
in the South Central area. Instead of setting high expectations for the students, they
are expected to drop out of school. In an interview with the mother, she sadly
explained how she felt like it was almost a self-fulfilling prophecy and states, “to me,
you know, if they tell you you’re dumb, then later on you’re going to really believe
that you are dumb, and you might be a genius, you know?”
Prior to their involvement with the NAI program, the parents and the students
had very poor self-awareness. However, as the parents and the students became

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involved in the program, the parents and the students expressed their increased sense
of self-awareness. During an interview, one student shared:
By seeing my family involved in my schoolwork, it helps me stay motivated.
It keeps me positively minded. It encouraged me to further myself in life,
and further my ideas in like contributing to the betterment of society.

The parents and the students expressed how much they loved coming to the
USC campus to attend classes and meetings and how that affected their heightened
sense of self-awareness. During an interview, a parent sadly expressed his feelings
on how he felt that his sons and his sons’ friends would not even dare walk on a
college campus, specifically the USC campus, prior to NAI. He humbly admits:
They would never come on this campus. For whatever reason, it’s
intimidating. They wouldn’t even walk through here. And so, once again, by
coming on the campus, and being in these classrooms and being around here,
even on Saturday, uh, takes that whole ‘fear factor’ kind of all away.

Many students shared the same sentiments and agreed that physically
attending classes on Saturday at USC made them feel like they were already
attending the university. In addition, coming to USC made them acclimated to the
college environment and that made them feel very proud. One student expressed his
excitement and stated:
Coming here in the morning is awesome. I like it because you know, you get
that college feel and you know you’re studying in a college classroom and
when you go to sit down you’re like, wow, like in like one more year this is
where I’m going to be at. And so it’s a good experience and it gives you like
even more encouragement because you’re like wow, I just sat in a college
class. If I treat all my other classes like this, then in no time I’ll be heading
off to college. I just feel like I won’t have to be afraid of going to college
when I get older.

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The students also explained that through the NAI program, they have become
an all-around better person. One of the students stated: “NAI has just, like, made me
an over-all better person. Like, I can honestly look back and say, like, not only was
it my family, but NAI also pushed me to where I am today.”
The increased sense of self-awareness was remarkable in the students and it
definitely did not go unnoticed by the parents. In a parent focus group, the parents
shared their perspectives on how their son’s sense of self-awareness has changed.
One parent claims that she sees a change in the way her son dresses and carries him-
self. Further, she enjoys the ways in which her son feels included. At his high
school, the mother claims that her son brags about attending classes at USC. She
adds:
Well it makes you feel a lot more included as opposed to excluded when you
can do that…they also recognize I think the prestige aspect of the University
being here in the community, yet and still like I said they are not intimidated
because they feel very much a part of the University and they are made to
feel so. So it’s like just kind of like being in the college community and
they’re getting indoctrination early on, even though their not “officially
enrolled” here.

Another parent shared the same pride and excitement in the change of her
son’s behavior, and shares:
This hype motivates them and you know, some kids never get to see a college
campus, till they’re trying to go to college. To our kids, it’s not a big deal
now. They’re like, “oh yeah, I know where this is.” Having them have
classes here on the campus really motivates them.

As parents began to see the change in their children, the students also began
to see a change in themselves. Many students admitted that by being a part of the

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NAI program, they feel more confident in themselves and take pride in their new
perception of their futures. During the focus group, students expressed that they are
more “intellectual” and “eloquent” in their speech. This new confidence that the
students portrayed helped them interact with people on a different level. One student
shared, “The NAI gives you the confidence to, like, just go in there and do your
thing, and then like talk to your teachers and not be shy or scared, you know?” Most
importantly, the students all agreed that they felt like they were more “disciplined”
and more “respectful.” During the focus group, a student proudly stated, “ I know
that I can be somebody now.”
Summary
The majority of the student population that the NAI program serves comes
from a low economic, underrepresented, first-generation family background. Prior to
their involvement in the NAI program, the possibility of attending a post-secondary
institution was a far-fetched dream. The families and their children lacked the
crucial information necessary to achieve the dream of going to college. Many of the
parents and students shared that attending a university was something that they felt
they could never accomplish. During the data collection, I was able to witness the
process of transformation that the families and the students encountered through the
parents’ involvement in the NAI program. The families and the students transformed
from a culture where attending college was nothing but a dream, to one that was in
the process of becoming a reality.

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Through their involvement in the NAI program, specifically the FDI
meetings, the parents and the student began to acquire the support, develop a sense
of community, and gain the empowerment necessary to pursue their pathway to
college. Ultimately, the data that was collected revealed the following three major
themes: 1) support, 2) community, and 3) empowerment.
In the first theme, the data presented described the four distinct categories of
support that the families and the students received as a direct result of parent
involvement. These types of support included: 1) informational support, 2) academic
support, 3) financial support, and 4) emotional support. The second theme
demonstrated the sense of community that the parents and the students developed
through the involvement of the parents. The data revealed two distinct categories
that I describe as, 1) parent community, and 2) student community. The third theme
describes the empowerment that the parents and students gained due to the shared
goals and experiences of the parents, students, and staff members and the increased
self-awareness of the families and the students through their involvement with the
NAI program.

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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
“The better educators understand how families support education, the better schools
can promote partnerships with informed parent participation and respectful,
culturally sensitive, home-school relations” (Auerbach, 2007)

Overview
Through my research, I examined a challenge that postsecondary educational
institutions in the United States have been facing: the underrepresentation of
minority students in higher education. Although college enrollment rates have
increased from 13.8 million in 1990, to 17.5 million in the fall of 2005, low-income,
Hispanic, African American, and Native American student populations continue to
be underrepresented (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2004). The
traditional approach to helping increase college enrollment rates was primarily
focused on financially helping minority students. However, such an approach fails
to provide minority students with the academic, social, and psychological
developments necessary to successfully lead to and through college (Swail & Perna,
2002). Research indicates that one of the most critical approachs is to increase
information efforts targeting the lowest socioeconomic parents. According to
Tierney & Auerbach (2004), parents who have no college experiences will be able to
provide their children with the necessary monitoring and guidance necessary if they
themselves learn the steps to the college pathway.

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I studied the ways in which parental involvement impacts the African
American male students and their families. Specifically, I examined the African
American male students and families who were participants in the USC-NAI pre-
college program. My intention in the study was to investigate and understand the
ways in which the NAI program’s required parental involvement work to ensure the
success of the African American students and their families. I approached this study
from an ethnographical perspective to observe and understand the relationship
between families, students, and the norm of the NAI.
In this chapter, I will provide a brief overview of the past scholarly studies
pertaining to this area of research, a review of the study’s methodology, and an
analysis of the data collected. Further, I will suggest recommendations obtained
from the data collected in the study for practitioners including limitations and future
research.
Theoretical Foundation
In chapter two, I presented an array of literature focusing on the effects of
parent involvement on low socioeconomic and underrepresented students’ academic
achievement, college preparation, and academic outreach programs. Specifically, I
focused on the challenges that African American male students face in the United
State’s higher education system. Exploring the effects of parent involvement on
minority students, the outreach programs that focus on increasing the pipeline
between K-12 and post-secondary institutions, and the barriers that African

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American males face in higher education, provided a fundamental understanding by
which to examine research theories that attempt to explain and bridge the gap.
I chose to use social capital theory as the theoretical construct in this study.
According to this theory, the primary function of social capital is to enable a person
to gain access to various forms of capital, including institutional support and
resources. Social capital focuses on the ways social networks and connections are
developed and preserved. Thus, the higher the volume of resources that may be
accessed through social networks within post-secondary institutions, the greater the
likelihood of students enrolling in higher education institutions.
To further examine the impact of parental involvement, Swap (1993)
provides the partnership model. The primary goal of the model is for educators and
parents to join an alliance and work together in order for all students to achieve
success. By incorporating Epstein’s (1987) typology, Swap (1993) suggests four
elements: 1) the importance of creating two-way communication between parents
and educators; b) enhancing learning at home and school; c) parents and educators
providing mutual support for each other; and d) parents and educators making joint
decisions.
Swap’s (1993) partnership model is a great model to follow in order to ensure
that educators and parents work together in unity. However, Swap’s (1993) model
assumes that low socioeconomic parents have the social capital. In a perfect world,
the model may work, but there is a gap between what Swap’s (1993) model says will
work and the challenges that low socioeconomic parents and students face.

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Therefore, by adopting social capital theory as a framework and a lens, an
examination of the parental involvement component at the NAI outreach program,
whose sole focus is to prepare disadvantaged students for success in high school and
college, was examined. Research shows the value of social capital on the likelihood
of students attending college. Further, the literature explains the impact of parental
involvement on the students. Is the NAI program providing their students with the
social capital necessary to succeed? Was the parental involvement component of the
NAI program positively impacting the students and their families?
The goal of my study was to develop a deeper understanding of how the NAI
program’s required parental involvement component provided the parents and the
students with a form of social capital. Specifically, the research question that guided
my study, and outlined in the first chapter was as follows:
o In what ways does required parental involvement through the
Neighborhood Academic Initiative (NAI) program impact the African
American male students and their families?
Review of Methodology
In order to address the above research questions, I chose a qualitative
approach rather than a quantitative approach. By adopting a qualitative approach, I
was able to ask the “what” and the “how” questions from my participants. In
addition, choosing a qualitative approach gave me the ability to gather rich and thick
descriptions from my participants. This ethnographic approach enabled me to
capture a holistic perspective of the realities of the students. To give voice to the

89
research participants, I utilized four methods from ethnography, which included: 1)
in-depth interviews, 2) focus groups, 3) observations, and 4) document analysis.
According to Wolcott (1975), examining cultural behaviors through the four various
methods help improve the credibility of the research results. Through the use of
these four methods, I was also able to use multiple methods and crosscheck my data.
In addition, I used two forms of member checking in order to ensure unbiased data
collection. First, during each interview, I would reiterate what I had just heard to the
participant and make certain that what I understood is what they said and meant.
Second, I submitted transcripts to each of my participants after the interview so that
they were able to review and ensure accuracy.
The first method used was in-depth interviews. The in-depth interviews gave
me the opportunity to hear and understand the perceptions of the participants. The
second method used was focus groups. The focus groups provided the participants
the opportunity to share their views in a social context. The third method utilized
was participant observations. By conducting systematic observations, I was able to
listen and take note of the interactions between individuals. The final method was
document analysis. Document analysis provided me with a rich source of
information about the NAI program. At the very beginning of my data collection, I
was given access to documents, including the parent and student contracts with the
NAI program, and through those documents, I was able to grasp the sentiments of
the program and the program staff that I would not have known through observations
or interviews.

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I interviewed four African American male students who are enrolled in the
NAI program, four parents of African American male students who are enrolled in
the NAI program, and five NAI staff members. Students were interviewed every two
weeks, for a total of three times, during their Saturday Academy summer classes,
which they attended at USC. Parents were interviewed every two weeks, for a total
of three times, during their mandatory Family Development Institute (FDI) meetings.
I also conducted one in-depth interview with each of the five full-time staff
members, which included a program director, program manager, project specialist,
and two administrative assistants. In total, 28 in-depth interviews were conducted
and audio taped with each interview lasting approximately 60-90 minutes.
I also conducted two focus groups, which were formal and audio taped. The
first focus group included four African American male students who were enrolled in
the NAI program. Two of the students were freshmen, one was a junior, and the
fourth subject was a senior. During the focus group, I had a list of questions that I
asked each participant to answer individually. The student focus group lasted
approximately 35 minutes. The second focus group included six NAI parents of
African American male students enrolled in the program. I had a list of questions
that I asked the group and each participant took turns to respond. The parent focus
group lasted approximately 40 minutes.
As planned, I was a participant observer at the Family Development
Institute’s parent meetings that were held on Saturdays. During the bi-weekly
meetings, I would observe how the parents interacted with each other, how the staff

91
members and the parents interacted with each other, and what was discussed at each
meeting. During the week between the bi-weekly meetings, I was also able to spend
time with the staff and the students during the Saturday Academy classes. While the
students were each in their respective classes during this time, I was able to interact
with the staff members and students who were out in the hallways. I considered this
time of informal observation as an opportunity to build rapport with the staff
members and the students. In total, I spent approximately 40 formal and informal
hours of observation.
The last method I used during my data collection was document analysis.
Document analysis helped me understand the history, rules, and regulations of the
NAI program that I would have not been able to through interviews and observations
alone. Through the documents, valuable information about the program’s mission
and goals was revealed.
Once the data collection was finalized, I used Creswell’s (2003) six-step plan
for data analysis. All of the transcriptions were organized and read thoroughly.
Each interview was then carefully coded and sorted into categories. Through the
coding process, themes and categories were generated and supported by narrative
passages. The themes that emerged from the data were established as a framework
that was presented to guide the voices of the participants narrated in chapter four.
Theoretical Implications
In Chapter Four, I presented the data that was gathered from the interviews,
focus groups, observations and documents. Once I organized and coded the data by

92
categories, three distinctive themes emerged from the findings. The three conceptual
categories that surfaced were: (1) support, (2) community, and 3) empowerment.
The subjects shared their personal stories of how they became involved with the NAI
program, reflected on their experiences with the program, and explained the ways in
which the required parental involvement program has impacted their lives.
This presentation of the data analysis utilizes multiple methods and is
supported by the individual interviews, focus groups, extensive observations, and
documents. The outcomes will serve as a guide for program improvement and
policy recommendations. My intention is to provide the outcomes of this study to
help administrators, educators, and researchers in becoming more aware of the
impact of parental involvement on African American male students and their
families.
Support
One of the biggest challenges facing predominately white postsecondary
institutions is the transmission of academic and college information to African
American male students and other students of color (Feagin, Vera, Imani, 1996).
Chapter four revealed stories of how the African American male students and their
families were able to receive a tremendous amount of support that varied from
informational, academic, financial and emotional support, through their involvement
in the NAI program. Prior to their involvement in the program, the parents
complained about the lack of support that they received from their children’s
respective high schools. The primary function of social capital is to enable a person

93
to gain access to various forms of capital, including institutional support and
resources. Bourdieu (1986) states that by becoming a member of a particular group
or social network, an individual may access a great deal of social capital, depending
on the size of the networks and the social, economic, and cultural capital that the
individuals possess. Through their membership in the NAI outreach program, the
parents and the students had direct access to information that was necessary in their
college pursuit. For example, as parents attended the mandatory FDI meetings, they
would receive important literature that contained information on financial aid,
scholarships, and grants. Further, as students attended their Saturday Academy
classes, they received the additional academic preparation for their college futures.
In addition, through their involvement in the program, the students could potentially
receive a 4 four-year scholarship to USC, which was a huge form of financial
support from the institution. Another advantage that the parents and the students
faced through their involvement in the program was the emotional support from the
faculty and staff of the NAI program. Chapter 4 revealed stories of the NAI staff
members and the ways that they provided the emotional support to the families and
the students of the NAI program. In addition, parents and students shared how they
felt that the NAI program was like an extended family to them.
Auerbach (2007) studied the ways in which African American and Latino
parents promote their children’s access to postsecondary institutions and found that
all parents stressed their limited resources for college planning and the challenges
they faced as a result. Parents should be exposed to postsecondary education

94
because by providing them with the access to the information will allow them to see
the benefits associated with earning a college degree and the requirements to finance
a college education (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2000). As discussed in Chapter 4, the NAI
parents benefited from the support that they received from the program as they began
to assist their child in their pathway to college. Parents explained that by having the
resources that are available to them through the program, they were able to assist
their children better in their college pursuit and understand the benefits of a college
degree.
Community
Through their involvement with the NAI program, the parents and the
students developed a sense of community through the crucial partnerships that they
developed. The parents felt a sense of community within the NAI program’s staff
members, counselors, faculty, and other parents involved in the program. In addition,
the students were a part of a cohort system that enabled them to work together with
other students in the program, along with the NAI faculty and staff. Coleman (1998)
presents two distinctive ways that social capital can be obtained from various types
of relationships: 1) the relationships between the student and his/her parents; and 2)
the relationships between students’ parents and other individuals, particularly adults
with connections to the school and the school personnel. In this study, the parents
and the students enjoyed the benefits that they received as a direct result of their
involvement in the NAI program. The parents had the advantage of obtaining vital
information on their son’s academic and other college endeavors through the

95
partnerships that they created with the NAI staff members. The parents felt that,
through their involvement in the NAI community, they were able to receive
information about college that they would not have access to if they were not a part
of the program. In addition, parents enjoyed the partnerships that they created with
other parents. One particular parent said that it was great to be “in the same boat”
with other parents and “have people to go to” if they had any questions.
Feagin, Vera, and Imani (1996) captured the struggles that African
Americans face in the higher education system. One of the barriers that was
discussed was the hardship that African American male students faced as they
confronted white students. As a result, college campus life became a daily struggle
for the students, rather than a supportive environment. In Chapter Four, the students
shared the unique bond that they had with the other NAI students and the ways in
which that partnership with the other students helped them to stay focused on their
academics. The cohort group environment for the students proved to be helpful to
them. Many explained how the NAI students grew very close to each other and
“worked as a team” to accomplish their goals of attending college. Some said that
the NAI students had their own “click” in their home schools and they hung around
each other all the time.
As discussed above, Feagin, Vera, and Imani’s (1996) study explains the
challenges that the African American students face, specifically the challenge of not
receiving the necessary academic and college information from predominately white
colleges. Since many students of color are less likely to participate in the dominant

96
white cliques, fraternities, and sororities, they miss out on such important
information. In this study, the sense of community that the students and the parents
developed through their involvement with the program, allowed them to access that
vital information. The participants in this study expressed their appreciation of
gaining the knowledge and social capital as a result of their involvement with the
NAI program.
By building the partnerships with the parents and the students, the African
American male students and their families began to develop a sense of trust.
Coleman (1998) defined social capital as the role in communicating trust in order to
be successful. Massey, Charles, Lundy and Fischer (2003) found that African
American parents simultaneously expressed their distrust of the educational system
and often send mixed messages about the importance of education. Chapter 4
revealed the ways in which the African American parents trusted the NAI staff
members and through their partnerships with the staff, were able to be a positive
impact on their children’s academic and social lives. All parents explained that
through their involvement within the NAI community, they were able to see college
as a reality for the futures of their children versus just a dream.
Empowerment
Swap’s (1993) partnership model describes the alliance between educators
and parents as a way to promote the success of all children in school. Through the
required parental involvement in the NAI program, the African American male
students, parents, and staff spend a lot of valuable time together. The African

97
American male students and their families are able to share the experiences of
pursuing their college dreams together. Further, the parents and the staff had the
opportunity to work together towards a common goal of guiding their children to
college. In addition, the parents and the students were able to access the resources
through the NAI program to make their dreams come true and as a result, gained a
heightened sense of self-awareness. As a result of the shared goals and experiences
and the increased sense of self-awareness, the parents and the students gained the
empowerment necessary to pursue their college dreams.
Cabrera and La Nasa (2000) presented two dimensions of encouragement
through parental involvement. First, parents have high expectations for their
children, and because of that, motivate their children in their pursuit to college.
Second, parents become proactive and highly involved in their children’s schoolwork
and begin to discuss college plans with them. Through the stories in Chapter 4, the
parents and the students reveal that through their shared experiences, they were able
to both understand the steps that they needed to take as a team in order to pursue the
college pathway. The students shared that by seeing their parents proactive and
involved in the NAI program, it gave them the motivation to not give up and keep
working hard in school. The parents and the students attended mandatory Saturday
events hosted by the NAI program. Through their involvement, the parents were
able to show their children that they were invested in their lives. In return, the
students felt more motivated and supported. Together, parents and students worked
hard towards achieving the success that they defined as obtaining a college degree.

98
Horn and Chen (1998) examined the ways in which student, parent, and peer
engagement contributed to postsecondary enrollments. The authors found that
parents who frequently discussed school-related topics with their children strongly
influence their children’s enrollment in postsecondary education. In this study, the
parents and the students shared experiences, along with the common goals shared
between parents and NAI staff members, forced the parties’ visions to all remain
connected. As a result of the parents’ consistent involvement in the program, they
were aware of their children’s academic status and encouraged them to stay focused
in order to achieve success.
Patrikakou & Weissberg (2000) studied the associations between parents’
perceptions of teacher outreach practices and parent involvement in children’s
education. One of the primary findings from the study was that the strongest
predictor of parent involvement was the parent’s perceptions of teacher outreach.
The more parents perceived that the teacher valued their child’s education, kept them
informed about their child’s status, and provided them with helpful ways to help
their child, the higher the level of parent involvement at the home and school. In this
study, the parents shared their appreciation of the NAI staff members and had set
common goals with them for the betterment of their child. The parents perceived the
NAI staff members as helpful and understanding and as a result, were proud to be a
part of the program.
Chapter four revealed stories of parents who mentioned that, prior to their
involvement with the NAI program, they were not really sure how they were going

99
to fulfill their dreams of sending their children to college. Students shared that they
thought that college would be “too hard to get into” and that it took a lot of “money”
and “connections.” In the student focus group, students explained the stereotypes
that they encountered and said that as they grew up they heard that due to their
“color,” they were immediately not able to do certain things, such as attend college
or university. Instead, they would be called “gangsters” and considered not
responsible.
Massey, Charles, Lundy, & Fischer’s (2003) study shows that African
American families are most likely to help their children with their schoolwork and
have a high degree of parental involvement. In comparison to their white, Asian, and
Latino counterparts, the African American students were most certain that they were
going to finish college, attend graduate school, and complete an advanced degree
(Massey, Charles, Lundy, & Fischer, 2003). In this study, the students had the
passion and the desire to go to college, however they did not know that it would ever
be a reality prior to their involvement in the NAI program. Similarly, the parents
often dreamt of sending their children to college, however did not have the means to
accomplish that goal. Some students had given up on their dreams as early as their
elementary years because they saw how their brothers, sisters, or cousins did not
attend college or university. Thus, although the parents and the students had the
passion and the desire, they did not know the ways in which the dream of attending a
postsecondary institution would ever come true. Through the NAI program, the

100
parents and the students were able to access the resources to make their dreams come
true and as a result, gained a heightened sense of self-awareness.
Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1997) purport that by improving the parents’
sense of efficacy, they may increase their level of involvement in their children’s
education, and better assist their children in succeeding at school. In this study,
parents shared that they had an increased sense of confidence and efficacy knowing
that they had “such a great program behind them as a support.” Many parents
claimed that they felt like they were “equipped with the necessary tools” that they
needed through the NAI program.
Recommendations
Based on my research findings, I have formulated the following
recommendations to educators, administrators, and policymakers. The five
recommendations include: 1) continue on-campus activities for parents and students;
2) develop additional parental involvement opportunities; 3) maintain quality
leadership skills in administration; 4) organize monthly workshops for parents and
students; and 5) maintain two-way communication with parents.
Continue On-Campus Activities
The students and the parents shared their enthusiasm about being able to
attend activities held on the USC campus. The parents and the students shared a
sense of pride in being associated with the university. Specifically, the students felt
like it gave them an earlier introduction to college life and many bragged that once

101
they were to attend USC, they would know their way around the campus and be able
to show their friends around as well.
Students enjoyed attending their Saturday Academy classes on the USC
campus because it made them feel like they were in college already. Having the
ability for students as young as freshmen to come to USC for their additional
Saturday classes enabled them to be a part of the USC culture. The students enjoyed
coming to their Saturday classes on campus, as they wore their NAI t-shirts and held
their NAI badges. This gave them a great sense of pride and that should not be taken
away from them.
In addition, the parents enjoyed attending the Family Development Institute
(FDI) meetings on the USC campus as well. Together, parents and students shared
their enthusiasm in attending their Saturday meetings together. As parents were on
campus to attend the FDI meetings, the students were there to attend their Saturday
Academy classes.
Develop Additional Parental Involvement Opportunities
The primary parental involvement component of the NAI program consists of
eight mandatory Family Development Institute (FDI) meetings that are held between
the months of July and October. Through the interviews and focus groups, the
African American male students and their families expressed how helpful and
beneficial those meetings were. The participants shared that they received so much
information from the meetings and that they were able to build partnerships with the
NAI staff, the NAI parents, and spend more time with their children.

102
The NAI program needs to develop additional opportunities for the NAI
parents to be involved in. Further, the additional parental involvement opportunities
need to be spread throughout the year. Currently, the mandatory parental meetings
are held through the summer and early fall. Although the parents in this study
appreciated the wealth of knowledge that they gained from those meetings, they also
complained that the meeting times were inconvenient. Many shared that they
preferred the meetings to be held during the school year, versus the summer time. In
addition, parents complained that the three-hour FDI meetings, which are held on
Saturdays, were too long. The NAI program needs to consider shortening each
meeting time, and gain those additional hours by holding these meetings throughout
the school year.
Besides tailoring the FDI meeting times and days, the NAI program can
provide the parents with additional opportunities to be involved with the program.
Parents may be interested in helping the NAI program organize events for the
students, or help tutor students in the NAI office. By providing these additional
opportunities, the parents and students will be able to further enjoy the benefits that
they receive from parent involvement. Although most parents work full-time, the
parents that I interviewed for this study expressed their interest to further their
involvement with the program. The parents shared that by spending more time with
the NAI program, they would be able to spend more time with their children and
help the program succeed.

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Maintain Quality Leadership
The parents spoke very highly of the NAI staff. All of the staff members
were truly committed in helping their students succeed. The parents shared that they
felt very comfortable to call the NAI program and speak to any of the staff members
if they had any problems or issues that needed to be resolved. Many of the parents
that participated in the study admitted that they would prefer to call and speak to the
staff members at the NAI program, rather than their children’s teachers or
administrators at their respective high schools. In addition, the students also shared
their appreciation of the NAI staff members. Many of them felt like the NAI staff
members were like family. As I interviewed the NAI staff, I quickly realized how
much the staff cared and thrived to see their children succeed. Due to this type of
quality leadership in the program, the parents and the students built valuable
partnerships and trust.
Organize Monthly Workshops
The parents receive varied information during the Family Development
Institute meetings, including information on college applications, scholarships, and
grants. In addition, students gain the academic knowledge during their zero period
English and math classes and Saturday Academy classes that is necessary for them to
be successful in a postsecondary institution. The NAI program needs to consider
organizing monthly workshops for both the students and the parents to attend
together. Each workshop can be organized around a specific topic and will have the
appropriate personnel who can provide information about the particular topic, answer

104
any questions that the parents and the students might have, and be able to provide the
face-to-face help that the parents and students may need. For example, one
workshop can focus on the college application process and college admission
personnel can be present to provide information on how to fill out a college
application. The workshops will provide the parents and the students the opportunity
to work together and receive the face-to-face help they would need.
Maintain Two-Way Communication
Other field studies presented in this study show the importance of a two-way
communication between the school and the parents. The NAI program does a
remarkable job at maintaining a continuous two-way communication between the
parents and the program via telephone calls, letters in the mail, and email. The
parents who participated in this study appreciated the constant communication
between the program personnel and themselves. The NAI program needs to
maintain the two-way communication so that the parents know how their child is
doing in the program, and the staff knows how the student is doing at home.
Limitations
In this study, I examined the ways in which the required parental involvement
component of the NAI program impacted the African American males and their
families. The recommendations that I offered within this chapter are not extensive
due to the constraints of space and time. Thus, this research study has several
limitations. First, the majority of the interviews that I conducted were between the
months of August and November. Though it was valuable to interact with these

105
parents and students during the FDI and Saturday Academy summer events, I
recognize that the remaining months of the school year also involve main activities
and events that one could observe. Second, I conducted all my focus groups,
interviews, and observations on the USC campus, which gave me a limited insight of
the lives of the parents and students outside the school setting. I also realized that
there were many different influences in the parents and the student’s lives, besides
the NAI staff members. The teachers, friends and siblings of the African American
male students could have given a more detailed insight into their academic, social
and family life.
Future Research
While it was beyond the scope of this study, future research should be
conducted on how the NAI program’s required parental involvement impacts other
student populations. Since the majority of the student population in the NAI
program is Hispanic, it would be interesting to examine whether the ways that
required parental involvement impacted African American male students and their
families is similar or different than the ways it impacts the Hispanic population. In
addition, future studies would benefit from observing and interviewing the parents
and the students throughout a longer period of time and in various settings away
from the USC campus, such as at their homes and/or family outings.
Although it was not the intention of my research study, the data revealed
some significance of external influences, such as siblings and peers, in the lives of
the African American male students and the parents. Future research could benefit

106
from interviewing the peers, teachers, siblings, and counselors to get a more holistic
view of the participants.
Conclusion
In closing, this study confirms the importance of parental involvement on the
lives of the African American male students and their families. Through the required
parental involvement in the NAI program, the African American male students and
their families gained the social capital necessary to pursue their college dreams. The
research participants from this study shared that they felt that the NAI program’s
required parental involvement provided them with the resources and partnerships
necessary to help in their children’s academic success.
Pre-college programs such as the NAI program must continue to examine and
promote parental involvement in order to ensure the academic success of the
students. Through the interactions that I had with the African American male
students and their families, I heard about the challenges and barriers that they face on
a daily basis. Although the parents wanted to see their children succeed and the
children wanted nothing else but to go to college, they simply did not know where to
begin to fulfill those dreams. Obtaining a college degree should never be a far-to-
reach goal. All students should be given the opportunity to further themselves by
earning a degree and it is our responsibility as educators to make sure that those
goals are met.

107
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Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study is an investigation into African American male students in the USC-NAI program and how required parental involvement impacts the lives of African American male students and their families. Social capital theory provides the backdrop for this study. This study is qualitative and takes an ethnographic approach incorporating 28 interviews, 2 focus groups, 40 hours of observation, and document analysis. Results show that through the required parental involvement in the NAI program, specifically through the mandatory Family Development Meetings (FDI), the African American male students and their families began to acquire the support, develop a sense of community, and gain the empowerment necessary to pursue their pathway to college.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Benjamin, Ramina Wilson (author)

Core Title Impact of required parental involvement on African American male students and families: a qualitative study of the USC-NAI program

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 07/07/2009

Defense Date 04/24/2009

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag access,African American male students,ethnographic approach,family involvement,minority students,OAI-PMH Harvest,outreach programs,parental involvement,precollege programs,qualitative study,social capital theory,USC-NAI program

Place Name University of Southern California (geographic subject)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Jun, Alexander (committee chair), Baca, Reynaldo R. (committee member), Hirabayashi, Kimberly (committee member)

Creator Email raminabenjamin@yahoo.com,rwbenjam@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m2331

Unique identifier UC151463

Identifier etd-Benjamin-2923 (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c127-406991 (legacy record id),usctheses-m2331 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-Benjamin-2923.pdf

Dmrecord 406991

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Benjamin, Ramina Wilson

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Repository Name Libraries, University of Southern California

Repository Location Los Angeles, California

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu