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The underrepresentation of Black women in the senior executive service of the United States government

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The underrepresentation of Black women in the senior executive service of the United States government

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The Underrepresentation of Black Women in the Senior Executive Service of the United
States Government

Erica Wolf

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2023

© Copyright 2023 by Erica Wolf, 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Erica Wolf certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Jennifer Phillips
Esther Kim
Heather Davis, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

iv
Abstract
The United States government continues to face unique challenges in service to the American
people and global community at large. To address these challenges, a leadership reflecting the
best and the brightest is necessary. Unfortunately, racial and gender discrimination along with
the White-male dominance underlying the most senior and influential roles within the ranks of
the Senior Executive Service have led to the underrepresentation of Black women specifically in
these roles.
This study seeks to highlight the lived experiences of 14 Black women in their pursuit to the
Senior Executive Service. More specifically, this inquiry provides a research methodology of
reflection on their barriers to entry and strategies that led to the successful navigation of these
circumstances within the federal workplace. Crenshaw’s intersectionality (1989) acknowledges
the unique experience of Black women from a racial and gender perspective. This study draws
on Bronfenbrenner's system of ecological framework (1977) to better understand factors within
the immediate surroundings and society that influenced attainment of these influential positions,
while Bandura’s self-efficacy (1986) and Weiner’s attribution theory (1974) were used to dive
deeper into the individual factors from the experiences of Black women. The key findings led to
the following recommendations for increasing the representation of Black women in the Senior
Executive Service of the U.S. government: (a) support SES mentoring programs with diverse
mentor/mentee pairings; (b) support the appointment of Black women to acting SES roles and
executive coaching during leadership transitions; and (c) increase participation in SES pipeline,
leadership development programs to align with federal succession planning.

v
Acknowledgements
To my heavenly Father, thank you for the strength and peace that surpasses all
understanding. For with you, all things are truly possible.
To my husband, Caleb Wolf, thank you for your steadfast love and unwavering support, I
could not do this without you.
To my daughter, Zoë, and my son, Eli, I hope this inspires you to boldly pursue your
dreams. With support, hard work, and dedication, you can achieve anything.
To my mother, Evelyn, my grandmother Rosemarie (deceased), and my aunts, Deborah,
Vanessa, Joesetta (deceased), and Tera, you were my motivation to pursue a topic elevating the
extraordinary lives of Black women.
To my dissertation committee, Dr. Heather Davis (chair), Dr. Esther Kim, and Dr.
Jennifer Phillips, thank you for your validation and staunch support of this research topic and
guiding me through this rigorous process.
To Black women and all women around the world, like many of you and the women I
interviewed, I was born with a supernatural drive to aspire to greater heights whether in my
professional or academic career. It took some time to accept and understand the joy it brings me
to identify a goal and work towards the achievement of that goal. I hope this serves as a reminder
that the essence of joy is found in the journey of exploration. Achievement is the icing on the
cake! May this work inspire you to pursue your deepest desires, thrust you into an unwavering
ambition, promote sisterhood and support for purposeful living, and ultimately, create
environments for God’s love and acts of service to shine through. May this work give us the
unapologetic confidence to shine bright for the good of ourselves and humanity.

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Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iv
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. iv
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ iv
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study .......................................................................................... 1
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions .................................................................. 3
Significance of the Study .................................................................................................... 3
Overview of the Theoretical Frameworks and Methodology ............................................. 4
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................. 6
Organization of the Dissertation ......................................................................................... 6
Chapter Two: Literature Review .................................................................................................... 8
Is There Really a Problem? ................................................................................................. 8
Why Does the Problem Exist and Persist? ........................................................................ 10
How to Increase Representation in the SES ..................................................................... 12
A Gap in the Literature ..................................................................................................... 13
Black Women in the SES .................................................................................................. 15
Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 17
Self-Efficacy Theory and Black Women in the SES ........................................................ 21
Attribution Theory and Black Women in the SES............................................................ 23
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 24
Chapter Three: Methodology ........................................................................................................ 25
Research Setting................................................................................................................ 26
The Researcher.................................................................................................................. 26
Data Source ....................................................................................................................... 27

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Validity and Reliability ..................................................................................................... 30
Ethics................................................................................................................................. 31
Chapter Four: Findings ................................................................................................................. 32
Research Question 1: What Factors in the Microsystem (or Immediate
Surroundings) Influence Black Women Who Aspire to Attain a SES Position? ............. 33
Research Question 2: What Factors in the Macrosystem (Society-Level) Impact
Black Women in the SES Who Aspire to Attain a SES Position?.................................... 36
Research Question 3: How Does Self-Efficacy Contribute to SES Attainment for
Black Women? .................................................................................................................. 40
Research Question 4: How Does Attribution Contribute to SES Attainment for
Black Women? .................................................................................................................. 42
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 44
Chapter Five: Recommendations .................................................................................................. 46
Discussion of the Findings ................................................................................................ 46
Recommendations for Practice ......................................................................................... 47
Limitations and Delimitations........................................................................................... 50
Recommendations for Future Research ............................................................................ 51
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 52
References ..................................................................................................................................... 53
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ................................................................................................... 63
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 63
Introduction to the Interview ............................................................................................ 63
Conclusion of the Interview .............................................................................................. 69

viii
List of Tables
Table 1: Data Source 25
Table 2: Research Questions and Findings 33
Table A1: Interview Protocol 64

ix
List of Figures
Figure 1: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems of Human Development 18
Figure 2: Applying Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems of Human Development 19
Figure 3: Conceptual Framework Black Women in the Senior Executive Service 21

1
Chapter One: Introduction to the Study
On December 8, 2022, Trevor Noah, host of The Daily Show, bid farewell in front of a
live studio audience after 7 years. In a farewell monologue, the South African-born comedian
attributed his success to the Black women in his life stating,
I've often been credited with having these grand ideas. People say, ‘Oh Trevor, you're so
smart.’ I'm like, ‘Who do you think teaches me? Who do you think shaped me, nourished
me and formed me?’ From my mom, my grand[mom], my aunt, all these Black women in
my life, but in America as well. (Amira et al., 2022, in Trevor Noah’s Final Episode)
Later in his speech, he went on to further credit his revered, witty and relevant commentary on
American culture, society, and politics from the teachings, writings, and discussions with Black
women, and urged others to do the same stating, “if you want to learn about America, talk to
Black women” (Amira et al., 2022, in Trevor Noah’s Final Episode). This study examines the
extent to which those sentiments are limited in the context of leadership within the U.S.
government. This paper addresses the underrepresentation of Black women in the Senior
Executive Service (SES) of the U.S. government.
The SES was established in 1978 by the Civil Service Reform Act as an elite cadre of
career federal leaders who rotate and serve in various Executive Branch departments (Carey,
2012). Unlike political appointees, the individuals who hold these positions commit to federal
service regardless of the ruling political party. The commonality among these individuals is their
strong leadership capabilities and commitment to careers in public service that allow them to
translate their skills to achieve a wide range of missions and objectives within different federal
departments and agencies. The make-up of this group has significant implications for ensuring
accountability to the public (GAO, 2001).

2
A Washington Post article titled Diversity Makes Headway in Senior Executive Service
(Barr, 2001) following the release of a Government Accountability Office (GAO) report boasted
progress of representation in the SES in the 1990s where the number of women in the SES
doubled from 10% in 1990 to 22% by 1999 (GAO, 2001); however, this rate of increase slowed
down after the year 2000. From October 2006 to September 2007, the SES was composed of
only 29.1% of women, trailing behind the 43.2% of women in the federal government and 46.3%
of the labor demographic of the United States (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2008). According to
federal workforce data updated in March 2022, out of a total of 8,187 Senior Executive Service
(SES) members, 39% or 3,173 were females compared to 61% or 5,014 males (Fedscope, 2022).
However, as noted in an American Association of University Women (AAUW) report on
Barriers and Bias for Women in Leadership, “a discussion about gender without reference to race
and ethnicity is simplistic and misleading” (AAUW, 2016, p.ix). When narrowing the scope of
the makeup of the SES to Black women, they are one of the most underrepresented groups in the
SES making up 4% of the esteemed cadre (Jackson & Bouchard, 2019). Over the years, there
have been attempts to increase the representation of women in the SES through policy,
awareness, and professional development programs as data consistently suggests there is a
significant correlation between the presence of diverse leadership and better performance
outcomes (Hunt, 2015). The challenges for women on their journey to leadership are complex
and multi-layered from societal discrimination based on their gender in addition to race and age
that creep into organizations adding to the issues of the lack of mentors, hiring and recruitment,
professional development, and childcare benefits (AAUW, 2016). For Black women in
particular, intersectionality shapes their experience in confronting the challenges of unfair
treatment due to their gender and race (Crenshaw, 1989). Nevertheless, Black women continue to

3
face these obstacles head on and persevere with individual determination in moving the needle
one leadership position at a time. This study seeks to provide additional empirical analyses and
help fill the gap in the limited knowledge that exists in examining the underrepresentation of
women in the SES of the federal government.
Purpose of the Project and Research Questions
The purpose of this qualitative study is to explore the perceptions and experiences of
Black women in the SES including the barriers they faced professionally leading up to these
roles, the hiring process as well as strategies they believe helped them achieve entry into this
elite group of federal leaders. The analysis examines factors at the micro- and macro- ecological
system (Bronfenbrenner, 1977), and the ways in which their individual self-efficacy (Bandura,
1977) and attribution (Weiner, 1974) contributed to the achievement of this professional goal.
The stakeholders of focus for this study are Black women in the SES. The research questions that
guide this exploration are the following:
1. What factors in the microsystem (or immediate surroundings) influence Black women
who aspire to attain a SES position?
2. What factors in the macrosystem (or society) influence Black women who aspire to
attain a SES position?
3. How does self-efficacy contribute to SES attainment among Black women?
4. How does attribution contribute to SES attainment among Black women?
Significance of the Study
The problem of underrepresentation of Black women in the SES of the U.S. government
is important to address, because it examines the exclusion of qualified and capable women from
these prestigious and impactful federal roles. The factors that influence attainment of these roles

4
can be found in a Black woman’s immediate surroundings that are unique to the context of the
federal government and her experience as a result of being Black and a woman (Henne, 2018) or
steeped in stereotypes that have been a part of societal narrative perpetuating an angry Black
women, a workplace perspective that is viewed as a character flaw versus the result of an
external situation as believed of her White male counterpart (Brescoll & Uhlmann, 2008).
Overall, the picture of leadership in senior executive roles in the U.S. government does not
commonly reflect the image of a Black woman (Diggs, 2022; Nelson & Piatek, 2021; Richardson
& Loubier, 2008). Despite their underrepresentation, studies find that employees with racially
and ethnically diverse backgrounds and women score higher than their White and White male
colleagues on key leadership competencies (Kalnicky, 2022; Zenger & Folkman, 2019). This
ultimately impacts the American taxpayers who rely on efficient delivery of public services.
Studies across sectors have argued that when there is limited representation and homogeneity
among its leaders within organizations, they are not at their most optimal level of innovation or
performance (Hewlett et al., 2013). For the federal government, this is critical to delivering the
best service to the American people. In addition to the undercutting of efficient service delivery,
a lack of representation prohibits creative problem solving to challenges, rapidly changing
circumstances, and effective federal teams.
Overview of the Theoretical Frameworks and Methodology
This section provides an overview of the theoretical framework of this study, the
justification for its use, and a description of the methodological approach to address the research
questions. The theoretical framework that serves as this basis of this study is Bronfenbrenner’s
ecological systems of human development. At the center of the theory is the individual
surrounded by spheres of influence beginning with the immediate surroundings or the

5
“microsystem” to the outermost sphere of society referred to as the “macrosystem”
(Bronfenbrenner, 1977). The chronosystem examines the experience of the individual over time.
This research examines the problem of the underrepresentation of women in the SES at the
microsystem and macrosystem levels. The conceptual framework of the study further addresses
the individual level by focusing on how the target participants of the study, women in the SES,
consider their attainment of their positions through the lens of attribution and self-efficacy
theories. These theories are used to focus the attention of the study on the experiences of women
in the SES in understanding what experiences, people, or actions contributed to their success in
joining this elite cadre. In addition, Bandura’s self-efficacy theory takes an introspective view of
women’s beliefs about their own capabilities to achieve their goal of joining the SES (1977).
This study highlights the individual experiences of these women while acknowledging the
intentional or unintentional impact of their immediate surroundings and American society. The
research methodology to address the research questions is the qualitative method of one-on-one
interviews. This method allows for the ability to hear directly from 14 women in the SES and
how they interpret and perceive their journey to the upper echelon of the federal government.
Interviews are the chosen method for this study to allow for in-depth discussions using a
standard protocol with probes to encourage comprehensive explanations during each one-hour
interview. Following the interviews, the triangulation technique of member-checking will be
conducted to further validate the data.

6
Definition of Terms
The following are terms used in this study:
Executive core qualifications (ECQ): five categories of competencies required for an
executive to demonstrate for entry into the Senior Executive Service.
Qualification review board (QRB): an independent board administered by the Office of
Personnel Management made up of three Senior Executive Service members from three different
federal departments that assess the executive core qualifications of Senior Executive Service
candidates.
Senior Executive Service (SES): an elite cadre of civilian leaders selected to serve the
federal government of the United States in various departments and agencies (Carey, 2012).
Senior Executive Service Candidate Development Programs (SESCDP): leadership
development programs designated at various federal departments and agencies certified by the
U.S. Office of Personnel Management to include job rotations, leadership training and ECQ
development opportunities designed to prepare leaders for future SES positions.
U.S. Office of Personnel Management: an independent federal agency that manages the
human resource enterprise for the U.S. civilian workforce.
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation is divided into five main chapters. Chapter One is an overview of the
problem of practice regarding the underrepresentation of women in the SES, the purpose, and
research approach. Chapter Two focuses on literature that contributes to the inquiry of the
problem written by scholars in the past and highlights the theoretical and conceptual framework.
Chapter Three examines the methodology for conducting the research using a qualitative
approach of one-on-one interviews with the target participants being women in the SES. Chapter

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Four highlights key takeaways and findings of the research from one-on-one interviews. Chapter
Five is a conclusion of the study with recommendations, solutions, and the identification of
future areas for research related to this problem of practice.

8
Chapter Two: Literature Review
The Senior Executive Service (SES) is an elite cadre of career appointed, civilian leaders
in the federal government (Carey, 2012; OPM, 2022). The positions are among the senior most
ranked in a federal department or agency. They are managerial, supervisory, and policy in nature
(OPM, 2022). While they tend to report directly to temporary, politically appointed leaders who
enter the federal government following congressional confirmation as affiliated with a
presidential administration, members of the SES are distinguishable by their longstanding and
often extensive career in public service under several presidential administrations regardless of
the political party in power. The scholarly literature on the Senior Executive Service (SES) is
lacking to say the least. When focused on the underrepresentation of Black women in particular,
the numbers begin to dwindle even further. The information and findings vary on whether this
problem still exists; and if so, why the problem exists; as well as solutions for tackling the
problem. Finally, there is an acknowledgement that there is a gap in the literature, and it is
challenging to locate research on the topic that is current and comprehensive in the discussion of
women (especially Black women) versus the overall diversity of the SES.
Is There Really a Problem?
While some acknowledge the underrepresentation of women still exists within the federal
government (Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2008; Mani, 1997) others boldly conclude this as a
moot point arguing that representation has increased over the years (Dolan, 2008; Sabharwal,
2015). The data may reflect an increase in representation of women managers and leaders in
comparison to the labor workforce, but the data on women, women of color, and Black women,
in executive roles still paint quite a different picture (Jackson & Bouchard, 2019). A Committee
on Oversight and Government report released in 2007 predicted that at a 4% steady increase each

9
year, women would make up 50% of the SES in 17 years. According to OPM workforce data,
women reflected 33% of the SES in 2014 compared to the 43% of women in the federal
workforce and 46% in the civilian workforce (OPM, 2014). What this data does not reflect is the
breakdown of these percentages for Black women. Some researchers suggest the overall picture
presented in the aforementioned data points lack the analytical rigor of interpreting data at the
agency or department level as well as for protected classes and underrepresented groups.
Fedscope is the U.S. Office of Personnel Management’s (OPM) workforce data repository that
allows the public to search the demographic makeup of the federal works by various categories
such as employment grade/rank, sex, gender, agency, and departments (Fedscope, 2022). While
the capability exists to display separately the makeup of the federal workforce by race and sex,
based on the September 2020 version of the Fedscope data file user guide, the tool is limited in
the ability to download sex and race as variables in the downloadable public use data file.
Scholars have not addressed this in their research by categorizing disparities as one dimensional
(Breslin, 2017), often only examining the disparities of women as a gender group while few
focus on the disparity of Black women in the makeup of the federal workforce. Nelson (2016)
reflects on the marginalization of certain groups such as minorities, Hispanics, African
Americans, or African American women in the SES in specific departments.
Underrepresentation of Black women in senior leadership positions in the federal government
continues due to the lack of promotion and recruitment from the mid-level positions, the glass
cliff phenomenon, representative democracy, and discrimination in the broader society.

10
Why Does the Problem Exist and Persist?
The underrepresentation of women in senior positions occurs beyond the federal
government and across industries like higher education, technology, or business in both the
private and non-profit sectors (Emmerik et al., 2010). Among Fortune 500 companies alone, over
90% of chief executive officers are White men (Ely et al., 2011; Feagin, 2012). In higher
education, the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions is referred to as the ‘absent
women’ discourse (Aiston & Yang, 2017). For nonprofit organizations, men are overrepresented
in executive roles (Damman et al., 2014) and the trend further persists in large nonprofit
organizations (Lee, 2017). The fact that this problem exists in different industries and across
organizations suggests the prevalence of the problem in the broader society or macrosystem also
appears in the microsystem or immediate, organizational settings. Research highlights several
reasons for the lack of women in leadership roles. The ‘glass ceiling’, a term coined in the 1980s,
is used to explain how women reach a certain point in their career and can clearly see the
trajectory for ascending to leadership but face the inability to move forward due to significant
barriers associated with gender discrimination (Reinhold, 2005). In addition to the glass ceiling,
White male dominance reinforces the perpetuation of existing demographics within professional
settings (Gause, 2021; Muhr, 2011). When this happens, meeting rooms reflect little to no
diversity of color or thought required to develop creative solutions to challenges faced by
organizations. Further limitations are found in the recruitment and promotion of women from
mid-level positions to SES positions in the federal government. In 2013, a Partnership for Public
Service and McKinsey and Company report found that there is a preference for federal leaders to
fill SES roles from within their own department and agencies, because they are more familiar
with individuals and have an existing rapport (Partnership for Public Service & McKinsey &

11
Company, 2013). This places the idea of who you know at the pinnacle of the promotion process
and impacts the ability to secure a SES position. Without persons of color or women of color in
the mid-level positions in those departments, then it is not possible that a person or women of
color will be promoted to a senior position. In addition to the glass ceiling, White male
dominance, limited recruitment from mid-level positions in the federal government, the two-
party system of American politics also influences the make-up of the SES.
Research credits the theory of representative bureaucracy and political party affiliation as
a reason for high turnover and the lack of diversity in the SES (Clark & Frazier, 2013; Doherty et
al., 2019; Dolan, 2008). Representative bureaucracy refers to the idea that presidents appoint
political leaders in the federal government through appointments and nominations that reflect
their ideological views (Clark & Frazier, 2013). This leads to a ripple effect whereby senior
career positions like those in the SES may choose to align themselves or vacant positions based
on the political views of their superiors in politically appointed positions that ultimately create a
perpetuation of whiteness and masculinity at the senior ranks (Portillo et al., 2022). The
pendulum of demographics in these key federal roles either swings toward increased diversity or
perpetuates a lack of representation depending on the priorities and public policy of the political
party in power (Clark & Frazier, 2013). Not all scholars agree there is an issue and assert
progress has been made. Sabharwal (2015) determines that the number of women in the SES has
increased and views the issue from a social psychological lens. In this research, the focus shifts
from underrepresentation to an examination of the difficult experience once in the SES.
According to Sabharwal (2015), women who have arrived in these executive roles face several
obstacles that challenge their success, a concept referred to as the “glass cliff” (Sabharwal,
2015).

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How to Increase Representation in the SES
Researchers offer a wide range of solutions for increasing diverse representation in the
SES. Among the strategies for addressing underrepresentation of women in leadership positions,
mentoring (Crawford, 2009) and leadership training present opportunities for closing the gap and
addressing this problem (Gannon, 2009). According to Jackson and Bouchard (2019), mentoring
plays a critical role in increasing the representation of disproportionate groups such as Black
women in the SES. Within mentoring, there is a continuing debate about whether same-gender or
different genders among the mentor and mentee makes a difference in career development. Some
researchers have found no statistical significance between the gender make-up in mentoring
relationships and the outcome of their career trajectory (Hilmer, 2007) while others argue that
women mentoring women make a major difference in the career success of other women
particularly in male-dominated fields or where men occupy most leadership roles (Chang et. al,
2021).
In addition to mentoring, sponsorship and promotion are also impactful strategies used to
increase the number of women in leadership roles (Beckwith, 2016; Chang et. al, 2021). These
strategies differ from mentoring in that they specifically target career opportunities and job
promotions to place women in leadership positions. Researchers have analyzed whether
proposing new policy or enhancing existing policy targeting the selection practices (Sakinah,
2018) of personnel into SES positions will increase diversity and decrease the gender divide
(Crumpacker & Crumpacker, 2008). Nelson (2016) proposes transformational leadership and
social learning to increase underrepresented groups including African Americans. Additionally,
researchers have focused on public policy efforts to address discrimination and other bias that
may exist in the federal hiring and recruitment process by highlighting Government

13
Accountability Office (GAO) reports, proposed legislation, and laws (Crumpacker &
Crumpacker, 2008). These solutions vary greatly and there is not a single agreed upon or
comprehensive approach to this issue. There remains a gap in the literature on the more practical
ways for women to ascend to the SES by demonstrating the required Executive Core
Qualifications (ECQ) established by the U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM) and
participation in careers development training specifically designed to enhance women’s ability to
apply, qualify, and obtain SES positions.
A Gap in the Literature
A gap in scholarly literature exists when considering the more deliberate and practical
relevance of the ECQs in the hiring and recruitment process. When applying to SES positions,
applicants must demonstrate, in writing, their previous experience in five areas: leading change,
leading people, results driven, business acumen, and building coalitions (OPM, n.d.b).
The first ECQ, leading change, refers to the ability to execute strategic change, internal
and external, to the organization to achieve its goals through the development of an
organizational vision in a constantly changing environment. The subtopics within leading change
are creativity and innovation, external awareness, flexibility, resilience, strategic thinking, and
vision. The second ECQ, leading people, involves investing in the professional development of
people in a collaborative, inclusive, and conflict management environment all while collectively
working towards the organization’s vision, mission, and goals. The subtopics within this ECQ
are conflict management, leveraging diversity, developing others, and team building. The third
ECQ, results driven, focuses on a decision-making process that is well-informed, technically
sound, considers risks and problems to meet the targets and objectives of the organization and its
customers. Within this area, applicants are further examined on the topics of accountability,

14
customer service, decisiveness, entrepreneurship, problem solving, and technical credibility. The
fourth ECQ, business acumen, is defined as the ability to strategically manage human, financial,
and information resources. The subtopics in this ECQ are financial management, human capital
management, and technology management. The fifth and final ECQ, building coalitions,
measures the applicant’s capability to build and maintain meaningful relationships within the
interagency across the federal government and externally with other industries such as the
private sector, academia, and non-profit to achieve collective goals. Subtopics in building
coalitions are partnering, political savvy, influencing, and negotiating.
OPM encourages departments and agencies to develop and administer Senior Executive
Service Career Development Programs (SESCDP) as a medium to focus on strengthening
candidates’ competencies in the ECQs. In fact, a requirement of the program involves “at least
80 hours of formal training that addresses the ECQs,” Further requirements include the federal
mandated, Individual Development Plan, at least four months of a development assignment
outside of the candidates’ current positions, and the assignment of a SES mentor. Senior
Executive Service Career Development Programs (SESCDP) are a critical component of the
hiring process because graduates of these programs have the potential to be considered for non-
competitive SES appointments if deemed certified by OPM’s Qualification Review Board, a
voluntary review board made up of current SES members from different agencies. The SESCDP
appears to be an effective way to prepare aspiring SES leaders for the hiring process. However,
there are a few variables that may contribute to inconsistencies in their effectiveness. While they
are strongly encouraged by OPM, they are not required. Therefore, not all federal departments
and agencies have them. Furthermore, the interpretation of a “developmental assignment”, the
eligibility of participation in these programs (some agencies allow personnel at the GS-14 level

15
while others only allow GS-15 personnel) and a SES mentor are left to the discretion of the
implementing agency. These variables influence the make-up and underrepresentation of women
in the SES (Partnership for Public Service & McKinsey & Company, 2013). Apart from the role
of mentoring, scholarly research is limited in this area, while Government Accountability Office
(GAO) and congressional reports provide data and practical evidence for highlighting and
addressing this problem. In addition to understanding how knowledge and ability to demonstrate
the ECQs through career development programs impact SES hiring, there is also a gap in
scholarly dialogue and research on how professional networks increase the representation of
women in the SES.
Professional networks show promise to increase the representation of women in the SES,
but more research is needed. Networks play an important role in career development and
ascending to leadership positions (Ahmadiyah et al., 2010; Chang et al., 2021; Reinhold, 2005).
For the SES, professional networks like the Senior Executive Association (SEA), African
Americans Federal Executive Association (AAFEA), and departmental Employee Resource
Groups or Affinity Groups may directly and strategically address the underrepresentation of
women in the SES in the federal government. SEA and AAFEA are made up of SES or former
SES members, while Employee Resource and Affinity Groups are open to entry, mid-, and
senior level professionals. These member associations can offer an avenue for targeted
mentoring among ethnic, cultural, or shared identities.
Black Women in the SES
The scholarly literature on the Senior Executive Service (SES) is limited especially when
focused on the experiences of Black women. Black women are disproportionately represented in

16
the SES. Understanding the experience of this group, can enhance and increase the
representation for women overall.
Few, but recent studies have highlighted Black women and their experiences of facing
obstacles and hardships on their journey to leadership (Allen, 2020; Chance, 2022). These
studies shed light on the complex and layered discrimination faced by Black women in pursuit of
leadership roles which often appear differently than their White male counterparts. It is not
uncommon for a Black woman to find herself in a room where she faces “tokenism” and looks
around the table to find that she is the “only one” who resembles her own race and gender
(Chance, 2022; Cirincione-Ulezi, 2020; Johnson & Fournillier, 2021). The uniqueness of this
path can be drawn from a term coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw known as intersectionality.
Intersectionality speaks to the theoretical intersection that exists within the human
experience deriving from multiple identities (Crenshaw, 1989). These identities become more
apparent in an atmosphere where there is a dominant group. In the case of Black women in the
federal government, intersectionality is reflected through racism, sexism, and classism (Chance,
2022; Cirincione-Ulezi, 2020; Johnson & Fournillier, 2021). In the workplace, the discrimination
can be as subtle as a microaggression (Cirincione-Ulezi, 2020) in alluding to a Black woman’s
inferiority in speech by not being called upon to share an opinion, being selected to serve in an
“Acting” when an official supervisor of record is on a leave of absence or the position is in
transition; or the discrimination can be more blatant in not being considered for a leadership
development training or being privy to side conversations that lead to a new programmatic
venture, or being looked over for visible tasks versus more administrative, behind-the-scenes
roles.

17
A key finding in the literature across industries is that while Black women are viewed as
strong and resilient, these characteristics do not always translate into obtaining or being
considered for leadership roles (Chance, 2022). This may be linked to the lack of mentors and
sponsorship required to ascend to the next level of leadership in their careers (Allen, 2020).
Studies have shown that mentors for Black women are critical for obtaining a SES position in the
federal government (Jackson & Bouchard, 2019). However, White male dominance of leadership
roles in the federal government creates a limited or non-existent pool of relatable mentors for
Black women (Allen, 2020).
Conceptual Framework
Bronfenbrenner’s (1977) ecological systems theory offers a framework to examine the
human relationship with their immediate surroundings, community, and broader society. The
first and perhaps most immediate system is the microsystem. The microsystem includes the
family, peers, school, or neighborhood (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). The mesosystem is the space
where the lessons or teachings of each microsystem interact and influence one another. The
exosystem indirectly affects the individual through generational circumstances or government
policies and programs that target the general population within a society. The fourth system,
macrosystem, focuses more on the broader society and draws attention to culture through
attitudes and ideologies. This system deals with multi-faceted and intangible concepts. The final
sphere is the chronosystem. It acknowledges the changing environments of one’s lifetime and is
the system that highlights the significant role of time in an individual’s development. Figure 1
image shows the five systems and their relationship to a child’s development.

18
Figure 1
Bronfenbrenner Ecological Systems of Human Development

Note. From Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human
development. American Psychologist.32(7). 513–531. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-
066X.32.7.513

The ecological systems theory embodies the complexity of the human experience and the
layers of influences that impact an individual’s journey to leadership. Each ecological system
plays a role in the problem addressed in this study. Figure 2 considers factors within each system

19
that may contribute to the underrepresentation of Black women in the SES. Each of these factors
play a critical role for women in the SES and vary in their level of impact. Therefore, to some
degree the elements of these systems become interchangeable.

Figure 2
Applying Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory to Black Women in the SES

20
The conceptual framework used to address the problem in this study in Figure 3 considers
the self-efficacy and attributions of the individual, the microsystem, and the macrosystem. The
central individual in this research is a woman in the SES rather than a child as indicated in the
original rendition of the systems theory. Utilizing this theory provides an opportunity to consider
the various experiences, environments, family, and community that impact whether a woman
ascends to the executive service. For example, in the microsystem, we may discover that a
woman’s support system in the household may impact her decision to accept an SES position
when presented to her (Bhattacharya et al., 2018; O’Brien & Wegren 2015; Salas-Lopez et al.,
2011). Questions arise as to whether there is a support system in the home or within the
community of residence and whether there is additional support for dependent care (e.g., au pair,
nanny, babysitter). Further removed from the individual level is the examination of factors
within the macrosystem where one must consider the overall status of women leaders in other
industries and parts of society. The ecological system theory emphasizes the impact one system
has on another, which leads to the question of whether the perspectives of women in leadership
in the macrosystem of society as a whole influence the status and perspective of women in
leadership in the microsystem of the federal government or a specific department.

21
Figure 3
Conceptual Framework for Black Women in the SES of the U.S. Government

Self-Efficacy Theory and Black Women in the SES
Bandura’s self-efficacy theory (1977) refers to a person’s belief about their capabilities to
complete a task and/or achieve a specific outcome. Under the broader umbrella of motivation
and motivation theory, this theory is linked to Bandura’s social cognitive theory which
emphasizes the triadic reciprocity of the person, environment, and behavior (Bandura, 1986).
This refers to the interconnected way an individual’s environment regulates their behavior or
vice versa. Self-efficacy theory acknowledges a person’s agency. This term refers to an
individual’s personal belief and expectation of their ability to organize their thinking and
subsequently translate this thinking to behaviors toward an objective (Bandura, 1977). This is the

22
process that translates thought into action. Furthermore, a key understanding of self-efficacy is
the relation to self-regulation. Self-regulation demonstrates how behaviors and thinking are
employed to achieve goals (Schunk & Usher, 2019). While self-efficacy is not explicit in the
performance and self-reflection phases, the arrow from the self-reflection phase is directed
towards the forethought phase suggesting the critical influence of self-judgment and self-
reaction, one’s motivational beliefs and learning processes rounding out the cyclical nature of the
three areas (Zimmerman, 2000).
Self-efficacy theory is an important theory to consider when examining the beliefs an
individual has regarding their capabilities on the journey to leadership. Applying this theory to
address the problem of the underrepresentation of women in the SES in the federal government
acknowledges that the journey to leadership is more than external factors. Self-efficacy theory is
introspective in nature and focuses on the cognitive processes and the mental state it takes for an
individual to achieve desired results and goals. Misalignment between strategic, operational, and
individual goals are not uncommon in an organization, but in the case of pursuing senior
leadership in the federal government there ought to be a level of holistic awareness of key
motivational factors. Women, and more specifically Black women, face unique challenges on the
road to leadership. The lack of role models, shared values and characteristics among their male
counterparts, and the urge to work twice as hard to prove their positions can lead to self-doubt
and issues of belonging. In addition, studies have shown a connection between the perception of
fairness in an organization’s promotion system and their belief and interest in pursuing a
leadership role (Beehr et al., 2014). These barriers and several others may have a direct impact
on a woman's self-efficacy in the belief that she is able to successfully pursue and attain a SES
position within the federal government. To counter these barriers, self-efficacy is gained through

23
mastery experience which aligns with the ECQs, vicarious experience and social persuasion in
working with role models or SES mentors, and physiological states to increase confidence and
assurance of the one’s ability, and reducing imposter syndrome which refers to an internal
feeling of being a fraud that women leaders experience in comparing themselves to their male
counterparts (Parkman, 2016; Simmons, 2016; Vachon, 2014).
Attribution Theory and Black Women in the SES
Bernard Weiner’s attribution theory (1986) is the belief that there is a determinant
whether in action or psychological that leads to a particular outcome. Like self-efficacy, it
focuses the individual at the center of control within their environments and circumstances.
Attributions are created by the individual and determine what credit is given in response to a
triumph or defeat. They help to better understand the environment by analyzing how factors
become the determinants of behaviors. In addition, this theory is useful in examining how
different people respond under the same set of events or occurrences. Locus of control refers to
where the factor causing behavioral or psychological effects resides (Weiner, 1986). A locus can
reside internal to the individual where they perceive the outcome is because of their own
behavior or externally where the factor exists in the environment outside of the individual’s
control. Controllability and stability are additional dimensions of attribution theory in clarifying
one’s control over an outcome and the extent to which there is some predictability by virtue of a
stable, fixed, or varied component that may influence the outcome. For women in the SES,
attribution theory is useful in interpreting the factors in the federal workplace that contribute to
the success or failure of women reaching this career milestone. It allows the research to reveal to
what extent women view this success or failure as something within their span of control or

24
influence or characteristics within the specific department or workplace that impacted their
journey to and upon obtaining the senior positions.
Summary
The literature review provided insight into the barriers within the immediate surrounding
and American society that contribute to the underrepresentation of women in the SES. In
addition to the external factors, women face their own individual, internal challenges in the way
they see themselves and their capabilities to achieve a SES position. In the microsystem of the
federal government, institutional aspects of limited mid-level positions, SES mentors, White
male dominance, and preparation for these positions exist. In the macrosystem of society, factors
of gender discrimination and partisan affiliation are perpetuated across sectors including
government. As if these external factors were not enough, women leaders also combat individual
factors such as psychological states of mind that challenge their self-efficacy and influence their
confidence when amongst their male counterparts. This research contributes to the scholarly
narrative of the experiences of women in the SES, addresses the research questions, and provides
theoretical and pragmatic strategies on how to increase the representation of women in these
roles for a more efficient and productive federal government for the future.

25
Chapter Three: Methodology
The methodological design of this study to examine the underrepresentation of women in
the Senior Executive Service of the U.S. Government relies on the qualitative method of semi-
structured interviews. Qualitative methods focus on opportunities for detailed descriptions of
participant experiences and provide an emergent and dynamic conduit to emphasize key aspects
of the research topic. The inductive, subjective, and contextual characteristics (Morgan, 2014) of
these methods better lends itself to capture the complexities of the research setting for this topic.
The rationale for use of interviews specifically as a data collection method is to gain insight into
the participants’ perspective which cannot be captured through observation by the researcher
(Patton, 2002). Additionally, quantitative methods such as surveys, do not allow for the in-depth
account of the unique and complex experiences of women in the SES. The opportunity to engage
in a direct dialogue creates a more suitable environment for information exchange between
women in the SES and the researcher.

Table 1
Data Sources
Research questions Semi-structured interviews
RQ1: What factors in the microsystem
influence women who aspire to attain a SES
position?
X
RQ2: What factors in the macrosystem impact
women in the SES and women who aspire to
attain a SES position?
X
RQ3: How does self-efficacy contribute to SES
attainment?
X
RQ4: How does attribution contribute to SES
attainment?
X

26
Research Setting
The research setting in which this study occurred is the federal government of the U.S.
and relates directly to the participants of this study. Black women in the SES represent various
departments and agencies within the federal government as employees. The setting was selected
to conduct the necessary research to appropriately address the research questions related to
women in the SES, their perspective, and experiences within the confines of their careers in the
federal government. The research questions considered their journey to the SES through the
examination of the hiring procedures, self-guided action, influence, preparation, and
relationships which made attainment of these positions possible. As a current practitioner within
the federal government, I received support and permission from senior-level officials and
colleagues to share the results, findings, and recommendations of the study to inform
organizational efforts to increase diversity and representation among the ranks of the SES within
their own department and across the federal government during information sessions, panel
discussions, or educational brown bags.
The Researcher
My positionality as a woman on the leadership track in the federal government is an
important consideration for my study particularly as it relates to gaining limited access to the
knowledge of the SES hiring process and the individuals who occupy these senior positions.
Creswell and Creswell (2018) reminded how a researcher’s experiences and bias can affect how
a study is developed and conducted and how data is interpreted. Given the small network of
Black women in the SES, I initially relied on women I met in previous professional settings to
then recruit colleagues within their own networks to participate in the study, a recruitment
technique known as snowballing. To maintain the integrity of the study, the women requested to

27
participate in the study had limited professional interactions with me including no
supervisor/direct report relationship. In addition to stating this exemption and criteria for
participation in the initial participation request, the interview protocol explicitly and repeatedly
emphasized the role of the interviewer as a researcher and deemphasized my professional status
as a federal government practitioner. My interest in this topic and previous interactions with
members of the SES are sure to lead to assumptions and implicit bias throughout the study. To
mitigate these biases and influences, I relied on existing literature and research on this topic to
present major concepts and themes. During the qualitative method of one-on-one interviews, I
adhered to a semi-structured approach to establish a standard mode of questioning for each
interview participant.
Data Source
Semi-Structured Interviews
The qualitative method of one-to-one semi-structured interviews was the primary data
source for collection. Interviews are an active discussion whereby the interviewer or researcher is
the main instrument to collect information from the interviewee through a structured series of
questioning and follow up probes (Johnson & Christensen, 2015). As Patton (2002) implores, the
quality of information from interviews depends on the interviewer. In addition to a keen interest
in understanding the experiences of Black women in the SES, I sought guidance from other
experienced researchers, academic literature, and faculty to enhance skills and techniques for
interviewing. Therefore, the determination of how many interviews, their structure, and format
was considered as part of the methodological approach to this research.

28
Participants
The target population for my study were Black women in the Senior Executive Service
(SES) throughout the federal government. They were the most appropriate participants for my
interview study, because they are the target of my research topic in examining the
underrepresentation of Black women in the SES. The sampling of interview participants included
snowballing and purposeful sampling techniques beginning with notifying Black women within
my own professional network within the federal government about the study and asking each
interview participant to recommend additional participants to recruit for future interviews. My
target sample size is 14 Black women in the SES. The decision to focus on Black women who
are currently occupying these positions or recently retired from these positions was to gain an
understanding of recent and relevant experiences within the timeframe that the study was
conducted, approximately 16 weeks. Organizational changes occur regularly in the federal
government. This may be initiated by internal leadership in the microsystem or external, political
factors outside of the federal departments or the macrosystem. Conducting interviews within the
confines of a given timeframe and limiting participation to women occupying or recently retired
SES positions helped to identify recent themes, findings and better define potential solutions to
increase representation.
Instrumentation
The Interview Protocol reflected a standardized open-ended, semi-structured approach.
This approach was selected for two main reasons. The first reason was to have a standard set of
questions for all interview participants to provide a consistent set of boundaries for the
discussion and data (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In addition, I chose the semi-structured
approach for room to allow for the discussion to also evolve organically. Additionally, the use of

29
an interview protocol was to ensure the time allotted for each interview was distributed
appropriately across topics and questions (Patton, 2002). The interview protocol included 14
questions with one to two probes for each question. Each of the open-ended questions were
sequenced and worded to explore key concepts of the conceptual framework and the research
questions.
Data Collection Procedures
The interviews were conducted over a timeframe of 16 weeks to allow adequate time for
scheduling for 14 interviews with a designated time frame of 60 minutes each. For ease of travel
and location logistics, interviews were conducted virtually using the Zoom platform. The
platform provided recording and transcription capabilities to collect data in real-time. As
suggested by Bogdan Biklen (2007), reliable recording capabilities and organized transcript
development is crucial to qualitative data collection. Zoom allowed for quality recording and
sufficient data storage space. The recordings and transcripts for the interviews were saved and
organized on a password protected, personal computer. The data was formatted and filed using
an established naming convention with the use of pseudonyms to distinguish each interview. The
rationale for selecting interviews as a qualitative method was to best capture the perspective and
complexities of the human and social experience of the participants in the study (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). This was particularly essential to clarifying the way in which each participant
has been impacted at the individual, microsystem, and macrosystem levels.
Data Analysis
In analyzing the data collected from interviews, I referred to a few critical techniques to
preserve the integrity of the data. The use of pseudonyms were not only used to maintain a filing
system for the transcripts and recordings of the interview, but also to protect the privacy and

30
confidentiality of the participants (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This was consistent with the
confidentiality statement within the interview protocol in reiterating the confidential and
restrictive use of this data for research purposes only within this study and limited to future
research related to this topic. Additionally, a system of coding and thematic analysis was
implemented to delineate keywords and phrases of the responses to disaggregate the data that
will be further organized using the Dedoose software tool. Furthermore, direct quotes and
phrases are referenced when presenting findings and results to reduce bias in the interpretation of
the interview responses (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Validity and Reliability
To ensure credibility and trustworthiness of the findings for the semi-structured
interviews and data collection, I performed validation through triangulation by identifying
recurring themes and responses and secondary data sources produced by the U.S. government.
This included publicly available, workforce personnel data and open-source reports published by
the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) on the make-up of the SES corps. In addition
to triangulation, I relied on the use of member checking, a process of asking the participants to
validate what was stated following the interview and offering the opportunity to follow up with
any additional comments following the interview to reach saturation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
To ensure alignment to the research questions and conceptual framework throughout data
collection phase, within the interview protocol (see Appendix A), I linked each interview
question to the research questions, key concepts addressed, and identified the question type
whether background, knowledge, feelings/emotion, opinions/values (Patton, 2002).

31
Ethics
My role as researcher comes with significant responsibilities with regards to involving
human participants in your research. This means ensuring that no individual is harmed because
of or during their participation in this study. During any initial recruitment or outreach to the
women participating in the study, I emphasized the voluntary nature of their participation by
repeatedly stating their ability to decide not to participate in this study at any time (Patton, 2002).
Confidential nature of the data and a statement of the confidentiality of the participation and their
information will be repeated prior and following the completion of the interview. Prior to
conducting the interview, each of the participants verbally consented to being recorded (Patton,
2002). I also developed detailed protocols for storing the data by electronically securing the
information in password-protected folders on my personal computer.

32
Chapter Four: Findings
The interview data for the inquiry to explore the underrepresentation of Black women in
the SES revealed several findings through interviews with 14 Black women who are currently in
or recently retired from the SES. The duration of the virtual, one-on-one interviews ranged from
45 minutes to one hour and questions were asked in accordance with the interview protocol (see
Appendix A). The following findings provide insight into the most prevalent themes that
emerged from the perspectives of Black women in the SES. More directly, their experiences
during the hiring process, actions taken to develop a successful application and the barriers
encountered on the journey to the SES. The data from the semi-structured interviews were
uploaded in the Dedoose software to organize the data. The qualitative analysis involved three
levels of thematic coding and categorization beginning with a prior coding followed by axial and
comparative coding to generate themes and findings (Gibbs, 2007). As shown in Table 2, the
findings are presented in accordance with the associated research questions and conceptual
framework presented in the introduction (Chapter One) and literature review (Chapter Two). The
first two research questions and findings pertain to factors that influence SES attainment in the
immediate surroundings referred to as the microsystem and at the societal level or the
macrosystem. The third and fourth research questions focus on findings as they relate to the
contributions of self-efficacy and attribution at the individual level.

33
Table 2
Research Questions and Findings
Research questions Key findings
RQ1: What factors in the microsystem (or
immediate surroundings) influence Black
women who aspire to attain a SES position?
Mentoring as an essential factor in increasing
Black women in the SES
The role of the supervisor as a key champion
for diversity
The SES Candidate Development Program as
an effective tool to increase representation
RQ2: What factors in the macrosystem
(society-level) impact Black women in the
SES who aspire to attain a SES position?
Factors in this macrosystem were named less
than factors in the microsystem as influential
to their journey to the SES
The angry Black woman stereotype originated
in the macrosystem and appears as limited or
negative feedback in the microsystem
RQ3: How does self-efficacy contribute to
SES attainment for Black women?
Pursuit for achievement as an inherent
character trait
Support system outside of work (whether
familial, friends or community) as critical to
belief in their capability to attain a SES
position
RQ4: How does attribution contribute to SES
attainment for Black women?
Preparation in the face of adversity
Diverse professional experience
Continuous learning and leadership
development

Research Question 1: What Factors in the Microsystem (or Immediate Surroundings)
Influence Black Women Who Aspire to Attain a SES Position?
The findings for this initial research question highlight elements within the microsystem
that impact Black women's pursuit to the SES. They include topics such as mentoring, the role of
supervisors as key champions for diversity and inclusion and the senior executive development
programs that federal organizations may consider to increase representation among the
leadership ranks.
Mentoring as an Essential Factor in Increasing Black Women in the SES

34
The data on mentoring in this study is consistent with existing literature suggesting that
mentoring is a key factor in increasing the representation of Black women in the SES in the U.S.
government. One of the participants recalled “actually the woman who I selected to be my
mentor at that time, she was in the SES.” Another participant explained “my mentor [is how I
first learned about the SES], and he continues to be long after [he] left the agency ... he guided
me, helped me, and reviewed my [application] package.” The active mentoring displayed in this
account suggests that situational mentoring geared toward providing support during a limited
time or directed toward completion of a specific task. In the case of supporting Black women in
the SES hiring process, this was conveyed by mentors offering advice during the hiring process
in the form of reviewing and interpreting jargon in job announcements or providing feedback to
applicants on ways to demonstrate their qualifications and competencies. Some of the
participants discussed how they relied on the past experiences of a mentor who was also in the
SES to provide helpful advice and suggestions to them during the hiring process.
Aside from mentorship, a couple of the participants also stated the importance of
sponsorship. The distinction between mentoring and sponsorship is the act of a senior leader
using their reputation to advocate on behalf of their mentee. It also means speaking on behalf of
them when they are not present. The participants acknowledge the unique exchange of
knowledge in mentoring relationships as a mentee and a mentor to others. They all expressed an
intentional effort to designate time to mentor others as they, too, were being mentored.
The final question posed to the participants during the interview was to describe how they
were paying it forward after entering the SES. All the participants responded without hesitation
that they too served as coaches and mentors to those who expressed an interest in pursuing the
SES. It was repeatedly emphasized that this was not just for those of their own race and gender,

35
but anyone who reached out to them in pursuit of the SES, leadership opportunities and career
advice. Universally, the participants appeared joyful when answering the pay-it-forward question
and any discussion around helping others to achieve their professional goals. Much like the
unwavering commitment to public service embodied in their accounts of the professional
experience in federal service, they referred to mentorship as a deliberate, thoughtful, and dutiful
act as opposed to a cavalier or obligatory aspect that came with the responsibility of being a
leader.
Therefore, federal departments and agencies should consider formalizing mentoring as a
key component of their SES development programs. When Black women in the study were
promoted to SES positions, they also became champions of increasing representation. They are
committed to creating a SES of the future that is not only representative of the American people
but continues the leadership qualities embodied in the executive core qualifications.
The Role of the Supervisor as a Key Champion for Diversity
The supervisor plays a critical role in creating enabling and supportive environments for
Black women to pursue the SES. One participant stated, “through encouragement of my
supervisor, who wasn't in the SES, I decided to apply because I wasn't sure.” Another participant
offered a more reflective response in recounting that “I probably could have been an SES earlier
had [my supervisor] stayed. She likely would have pushed me to become a SES. I had other
people I had worked for. They supported me generally, but did not like her as a mentor.” In
addition to being a source of encouragement for the participants, the data also suggests that
supervisors served as a source of information in their knowledge of vacant or soon-to-be vacant
SES positions and their willingness to share this information with prospective applicants whether
they were current members of the SES or not.

36
The SES Candidate Development Program as an Effective Tool to Increase Representation
The Senior Executive Service Candidate Development Program (SESCDP) provides a
pipeline and pathway for Black women to attain SES positions. One participant explained,
It’s funny because I was exposed to the notion of an SES, and I knew I said to myself, oh
yeah, that's something I want to go for but didn't formally like start working towards it at
that point ... until the agency had a SES Candidate Development Pilot program.
She further states, “I was fortunate enough to get into the program and through that program I
learned about the SES.” Another participant expressed similar sentiments, saying that the
SESCDP “well prepared you to take on the role of a SES in terms of the administrative
responsibility, in terms of policy responsibilities that would be required, and the leadership
responsibility. … I felt really well prepared after that.” It is important to note that the SESCDP
were sponsored and held at their existing agencies or departments where they worked or if their
organization did not have an in-house program, they applied to programs at external agencies or
departments. Another distinction of the program worth noting is that some agencies or
departments linked these programs to their succession planning for soon-to-be vacant SES
positions while others admitted participants on a rolling basis. Most of the interview participants
had entered the SES following participation in a SESCDP. Those who did not were still familiar
with the program and categorize it as a useful tool in preparing aspiring SES candidates.
Additionally, the few participants who did not enter the SES following a SESCDP attributed
their successful application to already possessing diverse, professional experiences, a
comparative output of the SESCDP, which will be discussed in a later section.
Research Question 2: What Factors in the Macrosystem (Society-Level) Impact Black
Women in the SES Who Aspire to Attain a SES Position?

37
The overall finding for this research question regarding the factors in the macrosystem or
society-level is that factors in this system were less prevalent than factors in the microsystem that
influenced their journey to the SES. This is important, because it is contrary to the existing
literature centering representative bureaucracy whereby the makeup of federal government
leadership is influenced by the political party in power, as a key factor in determining the
demographics of the SES (Clark et al., 2013; Portillo et al., 2022). While questions in the
interview protocol attempted to address factors in the macrosystem, participants ultimately
referred to factors within their immediate surroundings as more frequently impacting their
journey to the SES. This finding suggests that while the participants acknowledge that obstacles
such as discrimination exist in society, they choose to focus on the factors that are within their
span of control and aspects that can be navigated in the immediate surroundings. An example of
an obstacle that is initiated at the macrosystem or society level and shows up in the microsystem
is the way the “angry Black woman” stereotype in society appears as limited or negative
feedback from peers and supervisors in the workplace when they are not rooted in reality or
previous interactions with Black women in these spaces.

38
The Angry Black Woman Stereotype and Limited or Negative Feedback
Feedback is embedded within the performance management system for senior executives
in the federal government. All members of the SES are required to participate and receive 360-
degree assessments from their superiors, peers, and direct reports annually through a
performance management process established by the Office of Personnel Management. All the
participants acknowledged the practice of regularly giving and receiving feedback as a best
practice in leadership. One participant encourages others to be proactive and seek out feedback
for leadership development stating, “if you’re a leader, get that 360 feedback.” The participants
regularly sought feedback throughout their leadership journey and during the SES hiring process
from trusted friends and at times, their supervisors to ensure their application materials were well
presented and addressed requirements. There were a few instances of participants recounting that
they did not share or tell anyone within their workplace they were pursuing the SES, because it
was not clear to them if others were trustworthy or supportive of their pursuit.
While many reported receiving constructive feedback from trusted colleagues and
supervisors during the hiring process, the data suggested less constructive or limited feedback
and stereotyping as influential factors in or originated from the macrosystem. This occurred most
when participants were asked what barriers they faced or believe Black women face when
pursuing leadership positions more broadly. Some reported receiving ambiguous feedback on
why they were not selected for a specific SES position that they had previously applied for from
the hiring panel such as “we decided to go in another direction” or when asking what they could
do better next time, a response of “nothing” or “your interview was great.” This reflects a
determination on the part of the participants to seek out feedback for improvement even if it
results in a lack of information or clarity. Other participants suggested that the feedback they had

39
received highlighted the angry Black woman stereotype. As an example, several of the
participants experience circumstances where their White male counterparts are celebrated in
high-level meetings for their critique of a given policy or challenging a specific process or
procedure. However, when they, as Black women, make similar comments or remarks, they are
perceived as being “too tough,” “overly critical,” or “mean.” More specifically, a participant
shared,
It’s just that perception of the angry Black woman, and it’s there, no matter what. A guy
can have the same passion and energy about a topic, and it [is] determination and focus.
Let an African American woman have that same fierceness and energy and passion, and
[it is received] as an angry Black woman. … I’m just being honest.
The evidence suggests even when it is not warranted, this stereotype is projected in the
workplace. The participants spoke of experiencing the angry Black woman stereotype
throughout their careers, but more specifically when they became decision makers and ascended
to more influential, senior roles within their organizations.
The following research questions related to self-efficacy and attribution at the individual
level experiences of Black women are more introspective in nature compared to the previous
research questions on how factors in the immediate surroundings and society influence their
journey to the SES. They emphasize the extent to which the participants interpret their own
abilities to achieve this leadership goal as well as what they might describe as contributions via
experiences, people, or interactions to the successful attainment of these roles.

40
Research Question 3: How Does Self-Efficacy Contribute to SES Attainment for Black
Women?
The first of two research questions at the individual level focuses on self-efficacy as their
belief in their own capabilities to achieve the desired result of obtaining an SES position. The
response to questions around self-efficacy were predominantly described in two major ways. The
first category of responses is the participants’ pursuit for achievement as an inherent character
trait. The second category at the individual level highlights the importance of a support system as
members of their personal communities.
The Pursuit for Achievement as an Inherent Character Trait
The participants perceived their ability to achieve greater in their careers and motivation
to pursue higher levels of federal leadership as a personality trait. Most of the participants
referred to themselves as a “natural born leader” and their drive to push for success as “just who
I am.” These descriptions align with what would be described as intrinsic motivation among the
Black women participants (Brown et al, 2019). The intrinsic motivation reflects a personal
commitment of perseverance and tenacity to reach their professional goals regardless of the
obstacles that are revealed along the journey. Like many of the participants, one of them recalled,
“there were over a thousand applicants and only one hundred slots.” Despite the odds for success
in a highly competitive hiring process, this did not deter the participants from pursuing one of
those slots in the possibility for achievement.
The Importance of a Support System to Self-Efficacy
Secondly, the data showed that their self-efficacy was linked to the support and
encouragement in the workplace, but also the support of family members and support within
their homes. The question as to whether they had conversations in their personal life when

41
considering pursuing the SES revealed that the support of family members and close friends was
often a defining aspect of their decision to move forward in the process. One participant recalled,
this was a difficult time for me so I really didn’t think it was the right time. My husband
was experiencing a major health crisis. We knew he wouldn’t have much time left, but he
said ‘you need to do this. I want you to do this.’ … He died before I joined [the SES].
What this evidence signifies is the permission the participants felt was necessary from their
families and support systems to pursue these rare opportunities. There was an acknowledgement
that while the experience of pursuing this position professionally was isolating, they sought
support from those closest to them to keep going. This was especially the case for those who
were mothers, caretakers, or had family responsibilities during the SES hiring process or
leadership development programs. Another participant shared “I couldn’t have done this without
my ex-husband believe it or not. He is my best friend today. He would take care of the kids when
I needed to travel and so on.” Furthermore, several of the participants mentioned that that
support was crucial when there are children in the home stating “at the time, my kids were young
so I had a nanny who would make dinner or pick them up from school.” For some of the
interview participants, the consideration of their children was also a deciding factor of their SES
pursuit, sharing “my kids were young at the time, so I didn’t think it was the right time” or “I
needed my husband’s blessing since we had small children.” The leadership qualities of Black
women transcend into their personal and home environments with an emphasis on nurturing or
creating stable environments of long-term success for their family units. In fact, the participants
expressed their roles in being the cornerstone or catalyst for “making things happen” amongst
their family and/or friends. When Black women are promoted to the SES, they bring an inherent
responsibility to succession planning and enabling environments for productivity in the

42
organizations they lead in addition to the development of other leaders who model that
commitment to legacy.
Research Question 4: How Does Attribution Contribute to SES Attainment for Black
Women?
Preparation in the Face of Adversity
The interview participants overwhelmingly attributed preparation to their ability to attain
positions in the SES. One of the participants urged “you have to be prepared. You have to be
ready. You have to demonstrate that you can do this” to get the desired results. A participant
explained that when she first applied for an SES position, she did not put a lot of effort into the
application process and was unsuccessful in securing an interview. She considered this a lesson
learned and did not make the same mistake again. The next time, she spent more time preparing
her response to the job application and developing her ECQs. As a result, she was invited to
interview for the position. Another participant remarked that she applied for a SES position and
was invited to interview. She was feeling confident, because she knew members of the interview
panel and did not spend too much time preparing for the interview. Afterwards, when she did not
secure the position, one of the interview panelists let her know that she was not thorough in her
answers and did not do well compared to others who had interviewed for the same position who
delivered more in depth, verbal responses to the interview questions. Applying lessons learned
from her previous interview experience, the participant explained that she did not make the same
mistake again. The second time she was invited to interview for a SES position, she took more
time to prepare for the interview. As a result, she was more successful and secured the position.
The time spent preparing for this hiring process varied among the participants. Some
participants recalled taking time away from work to prepare their ECQs, to booking a vacation to

43
focus on developing them, while others recalled spending upwards of five months to prepare
their ECQs. In speaking with the participants regarding the time spent and level of commitment
to prepare appeared to be a response of resilience in the face of adversity and obstacles to
pursuing federal leadership. This is consistent with the existing literature regarding the resilience
of Black women in leadership positions across industries (Allen, 2020; Gause, 2021). Therefore,
the interview participants stressed the importance of taking time to prepare the SES application,
developing the ECQs, and preparing for the interview as successful strategies for obtaining these
prestigious positions.
Diverse Professional Experience
The ability to demonstrate diverse professional experience was another common strategy
for the development of a successful SES application. While extensive professional experience
was also a common theme, the extent to which those experiences included leadership roles
within the federal government varied. Some of the participants worked in the private and non-
profit sectors before joining the federal government in a SES role. Others worked their way up
the career ladder from entry level, federal positions. Apart from participating in a SESCDP, it is
important to note that each of the applicants shared a distinct journey to the SES. Their pursuits
differed, but their ability to show how they had led teams, organizations, and personnel toward a
common goal and mission were evident if they could relay this experience in writing within their
ECQs and the job application, and verbally when invited to interview for a position.
Continuous Learning and Leadership Development
The final key attribution to SES attainment was the participants' commitment to
continuous learning and leadership development. The participants overwhelmingly participated
in several leadership training and programs. Several of the participants mentioned attending

44
interagency trainings at the Federal Executive Institute in Charlottesville, Virginia, academic-
based trainings at universities such as the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University,
Wharton School of Business, American University’s Key Executive Leadership Program, in
addition to their agency or department-led, professional development program. Another common
attribution was the dedication to continuous professional development through involvement in
executive coaching and serving on various boards of employee-led, affinity groups, service, and
professional organizations (e.g., Senior Executive Association and the African American Senior
Executive Association). The participants acknowledged the contributions of these activities in
developing a comprehensive SES application, but also stressed their continued commitment to
leadership development by encouraging their staff to pursue learning and growth opportunities
once they joined the SES.
Summary
The findings from the semi-structured interviews with 14 Black women in the SES or
recently retired from the SES revealed factors in the microsystem and the macrosystem that
influence Black women in their professional pursuit as well as how self-efficacy and attribution
contribute to SES attainment. The findings clarify the programmatic activities, relationships,
strategies, and recommendations for how the U.S. government can increase greater
representation of Black women and other underrepresented groups amongst its most senior
ranks. More specifically, this data highlights the ways in which federal organizations may
counter the underrepresentation of Black women in the SES. According to the findings,
increasing the number of Black women in these essential and influential roles can be achieved
through mentoring, empowering managers, supervisors, and executives to promote Black women
to decision-making roles, increasing the participation of Black women in pipeline leadership

45
development trainings that emphasize learning. Effective training also includes how to
demonstrate the executive core qualifications for positive hiring outcomes to change the existing
makeup of the senior executive service.

46
Chapter Five: Recommendations
The purpose of this qualitative study is to explore the perceptions and experiences of Black
women in the SES including the barriers they faced professionally leading up to these roles, the
hiring process as well as strategies they believe helped them achieve entry into this elite group of
federal leaders. A total of 14 semi-structured interviews with Black women in the SES were
conducted to address and explore the following research questions:
1. What factors in the microsystem (or immediate surroundings) influence Black women
who aspire to attain a SES position?
2. What factors in the macrosystem (or society) influence Black women who aspire to
attain a SES position?
3. How does self-efficacy contribute to SES attainment among Black women?
4. How does attribution contribute to SES attainment among Black women?
Discussion of the Findings
Using semi-structured interviews, this study demystifies a prevalent issue facing the lack
of diversity within senior ranks by highlighting the experiences of Black women that achieved
entry into this exclusive cadre of federal leaders. The findings directly address the problem of
practice by illuminating strategies or ways that counter barriers that persist in the federal
government linked to the underrepresentation of Black women in the senior executive service of
the U.S. government. The findings reflect elements of the conceptual framework by highlighting
the factors in the immediate surroundings, society, and the extent to which self-efficacy and
attribution impacts Black women’s ability to attain SES positions. The participants discussed
White male dominance as reflected when describing the makeup of the SES and the prominent
demographic of their colleagues. Some of the findings on strategies to increase representation of

47
Black women also align with those identified in the literature review such as mentoring and
leadership development programs.
Recommendations for Practice
The following recommendations are directed towards federal agencies and departments
seeking to increase diversity in the makeup of the senior executives. These recommendations
specifically target increasing the number of Black women among the senior ranks of the U.S.
government in response to the underrepresentation which currently exists due to barriers to entry,
organizational and societal factors that influence the SES hiring process. Studies suggest that
organizations that establish responsibility experience better outcomes of their diversity efforts
including an increase in representation (Kalev et al., 2006). The recommendations identify
practical areas of focus and programmatic activities that the U.S. Office of Personnel
Management, the federal entity that manages and has oversight of the federal executive program,
can be included in corporate standards and practices towards greater representation of Black
women among the leadership ranks of the U.S. government.
Recommendation 1: Support SES Mentoring Programs With Diverse Mentor/Mentee
Pairings
Mentoring is an effective component of leadership development programs (Change &
Franco, 2014). The data in this research supports existing literature on mentoring as an essential
factor in increasing Black women in the SES (Jackson & Bouchard, 2019). Therefore, federal
agencies and departments should develop sponsored, SES mentoring programs that target current
members of the SES and prospective SES members. Sponsored programs not only refer to the
organizational and leadership support for participation of these programs, but the time designated
for participation is during regular business hours and accounted for as part of the SES

48
performance management system. In addition to the development of formal mentoring, mentor
and mentee pairings should be more deliberate to reflect support of increasing diversity of senior
ranks. While Black women mentoring other Black women is an effective aspect of leadership
development (Green & King, 2001), mentoring also provides an avenue for dismantling White
male dominance of senior positions as discussed in the literature review.
White males currently occupying SES positions can also play an active role in increasing
representation of Black women and other underrepresented groups in the SES by expanding their
networks and positioning others for leadership roles (Scheepers & Mahlangu, 2022). Pairing
Black women who aspire to the SES with other Black women currently in the SES allows for a
greater sense of support and reflection in seeing others they may be able to better identify with in
these influential roles. Unfortunately, due to the limited number of Black women occupying
these roles, there may not be enough Black women in the SES to fulfill the need for mentors. To
address this gap and the evidence that describes the current SES as “very White and very male-
dominated,” federal sponsored programs should employ a comprehensive process for matching
White male SES members with prospective SES members that include Black women and women
from other underrepresented groups. Some of the participants reflected on how meaningful it was
when their White male supervisors or mentors advocated for them saying “I’ve had supervisors
who were White guys. They were supportive. They were helpful. They were not racist, and they
didn't look down on you … they were just colleagues.” Another participant shared in reference to
her White male supervisor,
The three of us Black females and [a] White female we were talking about 2 weeks ago.
Looking back, he was amazing! He promoted three Black women and a White woman.
… I mean the fact that he did this at a time when, clearly, he didn’t have to. He thought

49
we could do the work and we did. We really worked hard to make sure that we did not
disappoint, that we could show him and everyone else that we were capable of doing the
work that he entrusted us to do.
While the evidence in this study suggested that the mentoring was voluntary, a more direct
approach to mentorship demonstrates a tangible commitment to diversity in leadership.
Recommendation 2: Support the Appointment of Black Women to Acting SES Roles and
Provide Executive Coaching During Leadership Transitions
One of the most frequent ways Black women learned about vacant SES positions which
led to their leadership pursuit drew from their experiences temporarily “Acting” in SES roles.
Serving in these roles are developmental opportunities and directly contributed to Black women
self-efficacy in entering the SES, because they were essentially already doing the job (Seibert et
al, 2017) as several of the participants recalled in their experience in these roles. One participant
shared “I was acting in this position for so long…they finally made it permanent.” Another
participant remarked “I was already acting director for part of the office … so I knew the job.”
The evidence suggests that having previous exposure or experience in the role allows the SES
applicants to demonstrate their ability to do the job. In addition, for those entering these “Acting”
positions or considering these roles who are leaders at the GS-14 or 15 levels, executive
coaching during leadership transitions offer support for navigating individual and organizational
challenges within the microsystem in pursuit of SES positions (Bond & Naughton, 2011).
Therefore, federal executives should be proactive in selecting Black women for these temporary
leadership roles to increase the pathways to more permanent, SES positions. This addresses the
existing literature on the obstacles Black women face when attempting to transition from
managerial and senior roles to these more exclusive, executive roles.

50
Recommendation 3: Support Black Women’s Participation in Senior Executive Service
Candidate Development Programs (SESCDP) or SESCDP-like, Executive Leadership
Development Programs and Align These Programs With Succession Planning
When asked which leadership training, if any, prepared the participants for the SES, most
of the participants credited the Senior Executive Service Candidate Development Programs
(SESCDP). The SESCDP and similar programs provide a structured pipeline and pathway for
Black women to the SES. Leadership development programs are an effective way to create
avenues for more diversity in leadership (Sugiyama et al, 2016). Therefore, federal organizations
should continue to offer these training programs and promote the participation of Black women
and other underrepresented groups in these programs. Studies suggest organizations take a more
holistic and systematic approach to creating leadership pipelines by linking leadership
development programs to succession planning for deliberate and calculated investments (Griffith
& Buckley, 2019). For the U.S. government, what this looks like is the creation of a direct link
from Black women’s participation in leadership development programs to vacant or soon-to-be
vacant SES positions. Recognizing that each agency or department has a fixed number of limited
SES positions, this encourages federal organizations to be proactive and comprehensive in their
approach to developing the organization’s future leadership cadre that includes Black women.
Limitations and Delimitations
As this study examines the underrepresentation of women in the SES, the conceptual
framework and qualitative method were chosen to highlight the experiences of the targeted
participants, women in the SES, and the research setting, the U.S. government. Given the
specific concentration of the research topic, there were possible limitations and delimitations of
this study. The limitations were primarily associated with the participation in the semi-structured

51
interviews such as the truthfulness of the interview respondents, social desirability bias and the
desire for acceptance or other emotions associated with their responses to the questions, and
individual motivations for participating in the study. The delimitations which may have also
impacted the limitations are questions within the interview protocol, the number of interviews,
and the targeted participants (e.g., Black women in the SES) of the study.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study in examining Black women in their pursuit of federal leadership exposed two
areas that I recommend for exploration in future research to further address this problem of
practice. First, while this research focused on barriers to entry, many of the participants
mentioned the continued obstacles faced even after joining the Senior Executive Service.
Regarding this notion of a continued struggle, I believe it is important to continue to understand
what supportive mechanisms, tools, or networks can be developed to provide continuous
professional, social, and emotional support to Black women in federal leadership positions. The
absence of such tools furthers the notion that upon arrival to these prestigious positions, all the
obstacles simply melt away or dissipate. The glass cliff phenomenon of entering a leadership
position and then experiencing a lack of support to ensure success once in the position
(Sabharwal, 2015) is ever present and should be addressed if there is a desire for progress in
representation to continue and not remain stagnant.
The second recommendation for future research is examination of the ways in which
executive coaching during leadership transitions and authentic leadership benefit Black women
in executive leadership. At the heart of authentic leadership is the ability to empathize with
others from a place of vulnerability because of an experienced tragedy, trauma, or major life
event with the understanding that these are the moments that humanize leaders, no matter the

52
race or gender (Covelli and Mason, 2017). Studies suggest that authentic leadership is relevant
today because it draws from a keen awareness of oneself and relationships with others (Avolio &
Gardner, 2005). Authentic leadership suggests that Black women can show up as their authentic,
whole selves and their barriers or obstacles that may have been experienced in the past, is
recategorized as their superpower rather than a weakness or impediment to success.
Conclusion
This study examines the current underrepresentation of Black women in the Senior
Executive Service of the U.S. government. This study magnifies their experience leading to these
highly influential roles by addressing the successful strategies and the barriers they face within
their immediate surroundings, imposed by the American society in which they are a part of as
well their individual insight on their self-efficacy and the attributions of their success. The
scholarly literature and participants' interviews conducted in this study reveal that Black women
are true patriots in their deep-rooted sense of duty to service and country. But they do not simply
stop there. They strive for these influential and impactful roles positioned at the greatest heights
of government despite the obstacles they face to get there. Their call of duty is emblematic of the
devotion of their lives and careers in public service to their country—no matter the political party
or President in power to create a federal government that is productive and responsive to the
needs of the American people of today and well into the future. So, with this research study, I
will end where I began only now given the knowledge of experiences of how Black women
approach federal leadership with a ponderance of what creative and vital solutions to the most
complex problems are limited by the perpetuation of homogeneous leadership with the exclusion
of Black women.

53
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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
Research topic: The Underrepresentation of Black women in the Senior Executive
Service (SES) of the U.S. Government.
Research Questions
1. What factors in the microsystem (or immediate surroundings) influence Black women
who aspire to attain a SES position?
2. What factors in the macrosystem (or society) influence Black women who aspire to
attain a SES position?
3. How does self-efficacy contribute to SES attainment among Black women?
4. How does attribution contribute to SES attainment among Black women?
Introduction to the Interview
Hello and thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I appreciate your time in
answering my questions. This interview is expected to take about an hour, does that still work for
you? [Pause for response]. I want to assure you that I am strictly wearing the hat of researcher
today as a student at the University of Southern California. As a reminder of what I stated in my
request for this interview, this study examines the underrepresentation of Black women in the
Senior Executive Service (SES) of the U.S. Government. More specifically, I wish to gain
insight into your experience during the hiring process, the steps you took to develop a successful
application and the barriers Black women encounter when applying to SES positions. My goal is
to understand your perspective. For your awareness, I am speaking with a total of 12 Black
women in the SES to learn more about this topic. The nature of my questions are not evaluative
and without judgment. This interview is confidential. What that means is that your name will not
be shared with anyone outside of the research team. I will not share them with other SES

64
members or federal employees. The data for this study will be compiled and analyzed for my
dissertation and while I do plan on using some of what you say as direct quotes, none of this data
will be directly attributed to you. I will use a pseudonym to protect your confidentiality and will
try my best to de-identify any of the data I gather from you. I will maintain the data in a
password protected computer and all data will be destroyed after completion of my dissertation.
Do you have any questions before we get started? As a reminder, I would like to record this
session to accurately capture what you share with me. The recording is solely for my purposes to
best capture your perspectives and will not be shared with anyone outside the research team.
Following our discussion, upon your request, I am happy to provide you with a copy of the
recording transcript to correct anything you didn’t mean to say or mis-stated. Additionally, I am
also happy to provide you with a copy of my dissertation if you are interested. Will you verbally
consent to participating in this interview? [Pause for answer] May I have your permission to
record our conversation? [Pause for yes/no]

Table A1
Interview Questions
Interview
questions
Probes Research
question
addressed
Key concept
addressed
Patton’s q type
Can you describe
when you first
learned about
the Senior
Executive
Service (SES)?
Did you know
someone in the
SES at the
time?

What factors in
the
microsystem
influence
women who
aspire to attain
a SES
position?
Microsystem;
organizational
setting
Background;
knowledge

65
Interview
questions
Probes Research
question
addressed
Key concept
addressed
Patton’s q type
What inspired
you to pursue
the Senior
Executive
Service (SES)?
Did you have a
formal SES
mentor?

How does self-
efficacy and
attribution
contribute to
SES
attainment?
Attribution Feelings
/emotions;
opinions/values
What do you
believe are the
reasons you
were able to
attain a SES
position?
Did you receive
encouragement
from your
immediate
supervisor?
Co-worker?
Did you receive
family
support?
How does self-
efficacy and
attribution
contribute to
SES
attainment?
Microsystem;
attribution;
self-efficacy
Opinions/values;
behavior;
experience
Prior to your
current
position, to
what degree
did you feel
confident
about your
ability to join
the SES?

What reinforced
your
confidence?
Can you
describe a time
when were
confident in
SES
attainment?
Can you
describe a time
when you were
not confident,
if at all? What
about the
experience at
that time
undermined
your
confidence?
How does self-
efficacy and
attribution
contribute to
SES
attainment?
Attribution; self-
efficacy
Feelings/
emotions

66
Interview
questions
Probes Research
question
addressed
Key concept
addressed
Patton’s q type
Can you
describe if you
had a
professional
mentor/sponso
r that you
believe directly
contributed to
your journey to
the SES?
Were they
internal to your
department/age
ncy or federal
government?
Were they
helpful during
your SES
hiring process?
What factors in
the
microsystem
impact women
in the SES and
women who
aspire to attain
a SES
position?
Mentoring;
modeling;
microsystem
Opinion,
behaviors,
feelings
Tell me about
the process of
completing
your SES
application.
Were you
recruited for
the SES
position you
currently hold?
If so, by
whom?
What, if any,
assistance did
you receive in
completing
your SES
application?
Who if anyone
provided such
assistance?
How much
money did you
spend?
What factors in
the
microsystem
influence
women who
aspire to attain
a SES
position?
Microsystem;
knowledge,
organization
setting
Knowledge;
feelings/
emotion
When and how
did you first
become
familiar with
the Executive
Core
Qualifications
(ECQs)?

Can you
describe the
process for
writing them
and any
resources (such
as the OPM’s
guidebook, an
external
consultant etc.)
you referenced
while writing
them?
What factors in
the
microsystem
impact women
in the SES and
women who
aspire to attain
a SES
position?
Knowledge

67
Interview
questions
Probes Research
question
addressed
Key concept
addressed
Patton’s q type
What, if any,
leadership
training
prepared you
for your SES
position?
Who sponsored
it?
Can you
describe how
they prepared
you for
applying to a
SES position?
What factors in
the
microsystem
influence
women in the
SES and
women who
aspire to attain
a SES
position?
Organizational
setting;
training;
microsystem
Knowledge
What strategies
do you believe
helped you
secure a SES
position?
Can you provide
an example?
What factors in
the
macrosystem
impact women
in the SES and
women who
aspire to attain
a SES
position?
Attribution; self-
efficacy;
macrosystem
Behaviors/
experience
Did you
encounter any
obstacles or
barriers
pursuing this
leadership
position?
Please provide
an example of
a barrier and
describe how
you overcame
this barrier?
What factors in
the
macrosystem
impact women
in the SES and
women who
aspire to attain
a SES
position?
Discrimination;
cultural bias;
microsystem;
macrosystem;
organizational
setting

Feelings/
emotions
What are the
barriers that
stand in the
way of women
pursuing SES
positions?
What are the
solutions to the
barriers?
What would be
a successful
scenario in
which women
could attain
SES positions
What advice
would you give
to Black
women
pursuing SES
positions?
What factors in
the
microsystem/m
acrosystem
influence
women in the
SES and
women who
aspire to attain
a SES
position?
Discrimination;
cultural bias;
microsystem;
macrosystem;
organizational
setting
Opinion/values

68
Interview
questions
Probes Research
question
addressed
Key concept
addressed
Patton’s q type
in a more
equitable way?
Can you
describe any
professional
networks or
associations
(such as an
affinity group,
Senior
Executive
Association,
etc.) you are a
part of now or
on your
journey to the
SES?
How did this
contribute to
you securing
an SES
position?

What factors in
the
microsystem
influence
women in the
SES and
women who
aspire to attain
a SES
position?
Microsystem;
organizational
setting;
mentoring
Background/
experience
Is there
anything else
that you would
like for me to
know about
your SES
hiring or
attainment?
Is there a
question I
should have
asked?

How are you
paying it
forward?

69
Conclusion of the Interview
Thank you for your participation in this study today. Can you recommend and or put me
in contact with other women who would be appropriate for this study?

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Asset Metadata

Creator Wolf, Erica (author)

Core Title The underrepresentation of Black women in the senior executive service of the United States government

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 05/15/2023

Defense Date 05/24/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Black women,Federal,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,Senior Executive Service,US government

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Davis, Heather (committee chair), Kim, Esther (committee member), Phillips, Jennifer (committee member)

Creator Email ericamspell@gmail.com,espell@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113122880

Unique identifier UC113122880

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Legacy Identifier etd-WolfErica-11845

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Wolf, Erica

Internet Media Type application/pdf

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