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Using cultural capital skills as a woman of color in student affairs: what does it take to get ahead?

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Using Cultural Capital Skills as a Woman of Color in Student Affairs: What Does It Take
to Get Ahead?

Pamela K. Paspa

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
A dissertation submitted to the faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2023

© Copyright by Pamela K. Paspa 2023
All Rights Reserved

The Committee for Pamela K. Paspa certifies the approval of this Dissertation

Briana Hinga

Joslyn Johnson

Patricia Elaine Tobey, Committee Chair

Rossier School of Education
University of Southern California
2023

iv
Abstract
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological research was to center the voices and
experiences of women of color working in student affairs at a private university to understand
their experiences and perspectives as they drew on cultural capital wealth, knowledge, and skills,
built relationships, gained access to resources, and maintained their aspirations to advance their
careers and/or leadership opportunities. Additionally, the research addressed how the division of
student affairs and the university supported or hindered women of color and their career
advancement or leadership opportunities. This research used three of the six tenets of community
cultural wealth framework: social capital, navigational capital, and aspirational capital. Eleven
participants who self-identified as women of color and who had worked for a minimum of 1 year
in student affairs were interviewed regarding their personal experiences and perspectives for
career advancement and leadership opportunities. The data sources were interview transcripts,
field notes, and memos. A short online survey was used to gather participants’ demographic data.
Research findings were used to make recommendations to the division of student affairs to create
lasting change in addressing the career advancement and leadership opportunities for women of
color.
Keywords: community cultural wealth, career advancement, student affairs, women of
color

v
Dedication
To my husband, Paul, who stood by me every step of the way. Thank you for always believing in
me. Thank you for walking beside me during this time and giving me the encouragement and
space to undertake this lifelong goal. I love you.

To my sons, Michael, and Bryan and to my daughter, Amy, I have grown into the woman I am
today because of each of you. You are each my hero and I love you to the moon and back,
always.

To my two grandsons, Ben and Theo who are examples of culturally sensitive and kind souls,
and to my three granddaughters Josephine, Hayley, and Claire who were born during my
dissertation writing and a time of civil unrest and where the rights of women have been taken
away.

To all five of my grandchildren, you are our future! Never doubt yourselves or your positive
impact on others and the change you can make one step at a time. Love always wins.

To the brilliant women, most importantly, who shared their heart and soul with me. Thank you
for trusting me. I hear you! I see you! I believe you! Your voice and your experience matter. You
matter. My sincerest hope is that I have captured your narrative in a way that honors your voices
and your experiences.

vi
Acknowledgements
This endeavor would not have been possible without the guidance of my dissertation
committee, Dr. Patricia Tobey, Dr. Joslyn Johnson, and Dr. Briana Hinga. I learned more than I
could have imagined from each of these women. From idea generation to data analysis, I was
encouraged to write with a conscious awareness of my own privilege and positionality. I feel
seen and supported. I am forever indebted to Dr. Tobey as my dissertation chair. Our spirited
conversations about my dissertation topic always left me open to consider more. Thank you!
Thank you to my graduate school letter writers. Katherine Nobles and Dr. Farouk Dey. I
appreciate you seeing me and believing in my ability to accomplish a doctorate.
Dr. Senzaki and Dr. Jimenez you are by far the biggest champions of first-generation
doctoral student writers I have ever met. I cannot begin to thank you enough for supporting and
normalizing the ups and downs inherent in the process of writing a dissertation. Dr. Ilda
Jimenez’s words of wisdom to “take on the doctoral student writing persona and make space for
the work through that lens” was vital for my completion. Dr. Sierra Senzaki you are magical.
Your calmness, feedback, and reframes brought me back to focus.
Thank you to my Organizational Change and Leadership Cohort 13. Laughing and
learning with you was the best. And a special acknowledgement for Dr. Catherine Rice, my
reading, writing, and study partner for the last 3 years; your heart is as big as the universe. It is a
privilege to call you friend.

vii
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................v
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................x
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi
Chapter One: Introduction ...............................................................................................................1
Background of the Problem .................................................................................................1
Historical and Structural Workplace Policies ......................................................................3
Stereotypes and Self-Efficacy ..............................................................................................4
Pay Disparity ........................................................................................................................5
Microaggressions .................................................................................................................6
Racial Disparities .................................................................................................................6
Significance of the Research ................................................................................................7
Stakeholder Group of Focus for the Research .....................................................................8
Field Context and Mission ...................................................................................................8
PHEU Student Affairs..........................................................................................................8
Purpose of this Qualitative Research and Questions ...........................................................9
Overview of the Conceptual and Methodological Framework ............................................9
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................10
Organization of the Research .............................................................................................11
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature .........................................................................................12
Higher Education ...............................................................................................................12
Student Affairs ...................................................................................................................13
Women in Student Affairs .................................................................................................14

viii
Career Development and Career Advancement .................................................................16
Critical Race Theory in Education .....................................................................................18
Role Models, Mentorship, and Sponsorship ......................................................................21
Career and Professional Development ...............................................................................24
Retaining Women in the Workplace ..................................................................................27
Flexibility in the Workplace ..............................................................................................30
Well-Being in the Workplace ............................................................................................31
Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion ........................................................................................32
Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................................33
Modified Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................35
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................38
Chapter Three: Methodology .........................................................................................................39
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions ...................................................................39
Overview of Methodology .................................................................................................40
Data Collection, Instrumentation, and Analysis ................................................................41
Instrumentation ..................................................................................................................42
Participant Stakeholders.....................................................................................................42
Data Collection Procedures................................................................................................43
Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................43
Credibility and Trustworthiness .........................................................................................44
Ethics and Researcher Positionality ...................................................................................45
Limitations .........................................................................................................................48
Delimitations ......................................................................................................................48
Chapter Four: Findings ..................................................................................................................50
Cultural Capital Wealth .....................................................................................................50

ix
Description of the Participants ...........................................................................................50
Findings of Research Question 1 .......................................................................................58
Findings for Research Question 2 ......................................................................................73
Additional Findings ...........................................................................................................77
Summary of Findings .........................................................................................................81
Chapter Five: Recommendations ...................................................................................................82
Recommendations for Future Research .............................................................................95
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................96
References ......................................................................................................................................98
Appendix A: Interview Protocol ..................................................................................................122
Hello and Introduction to Interview .................................................................................122
Confidentiality .................................................................................................................123
Introduction to the Interview ...........................................................................................123
Additional Probes.............................................................................................................127
Appendix B: Information Sheet for Exempt Research ................................................................128
Appendix C: Crosswalk ...............................................................................................................131
Appendix D: Study Participation Survey .....................................................................................132
Survey for Interview Participants ....................................................................................132
Survey Questions .............................................................................................................133
Appendix E: Qualitative Coding Sheet ........................................................................................136

x
List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of Participants’ Demographics (n = 11) 51
Table 2: Barriers to Career Advancement and Leadership Opportunities 75
Table 3: Supports for Advancing Career and Leadership Opportunities 76
Table A1: Interview Questions 124
Table C1: Crosswalk 131
Appendix E: Qualitative Coding Sheet 136

xi
List of Figures
Figure 1: The Factors Driving Women Leaders to Switch Jobs Are More Important to Young
Women 28
Figure 2: Model of Community Cultural Wealth 34
Figure 3: Conceptual Framework: Career Advancement and Leadership Opportunities for
Women of Color: Social, Navigational and Aspirational 37
Figure 4: Participant Voices: What We Need 78
Figure 5: Cultural Capital Wealth: Barriers and Supports for Career Advancement for
Women of Color in Student Affairs 83
Figure 6: Design for Equity in Higher Education Model 91

1

Chapter One: Introduction
Women continue to face barriers and obstacles to career advancement and leadership
opportunities, especially women of color. Barriers to career advancement and leadership
opportunities for women are due to historical and structural gender biases and racism (Sanchez-
Hucles & Davis, 2010), where access to essential “goods, services, and opportunities” is limited
(Jones, 2000, p. 1212). Access to opportunities for women to pursue career advancement and
leadership roles enables them to learn, apply practical knowledge, and receive positive feedback
from mentors to increase their self-efficacy and motivation (Cziraki et al., 2018). Also,
motivation and self-efficacy increase when observers see others like themselves completing tasks
(Elliot et al., 2017). Women of color, however, are often denied access to making connections to
roles in leadership (Dillard, 2018) despite the varied cultural capital skills women of color bring
to an organization (Yosso, 2005). Additionally, conflating race and gender in women’s work
experiences eliminates the critical considerations of the value of intersectionality women bring to
the workplace (Crenshaw, 1989). The problem of practice this research sought to evaluate is how
women of color who work within the division of student affairs at Private Higher Education
University (PHEU) experience career advancement and/or leadership opportunities.
Background of the Problem
Numerous studies have found women and women of color face multiple barriers in their
quest for career advancement and leadership opportunities (Crenshaw, 1989; Debebe, 2017;
Dillard, 2018; DiTomaso, 2013; Jones, 2000; Robertson, 2017; Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010
Seibert et al., 2001). Mentorship and social connections within the workplace play an important
role in preventing or helping a woman succeed (Seibert et al., 2001). Access to career
advancement and leadership roles is blocked not only through racism but also favoritism.
2

Historically, people in powerful positions are often White and male, and so are more apt to help
others who look like themselves (DiTomaso, 2013). Social networks that are predominantly
White have been shown to hold bias and leave out people of color in terms of career
advancement (DiTomaso, 2013). This bias has an even greater effect on women as they progress
in their careers.
Leadership expectations are situated in masculine social constructs (Debebe, 2017).
When women obtain management or leadership roles, they face a phenomenon known as the
double bind (Jamieson, 1995; Robertson, 2017) that acts as a paradox creating stress and
uncertainty in how one is expected to react or perform (Laybourne, 1982). The double bind acts
as a structure for questioning women’s effectiveness in leadership roles. The double bind
phenomenon creates existential issues for women in management and leadership roles. To be
accepted, women feel they need to adapt their character to be seen as neither too strong nor too
kind, and they feel compelled to remove emotions from decision-making or points of view
(Robertson, 2017) lest they be seen as too weak or too aggressive. Depending on the context in
which they work, they learn to adjust their leadership to conform to organizational expectations,
deliberately resist expectations, or learn how to navigate role and gendered expectations
(Debebe, 2017).
Women have shown the essential traits that make effective leaders (Chamorro-Premuzic,
2021). Women leaders are particularly effective in creating team cohesiveness (Rovira-Asenjo,
2017), enhancing collaboration (Appelbaum et al., 2003), moral sensitivity (You et al., 2011),
and emotional intelligence (Oosthuizen, et al, 2017). However, women maintain lower
management positions and even fewer held seats on boards and a small percentage of CEO roles
3

(Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010) at 25% of the largest 3,000 publicly owned companies (Gender
Diversity Index, 2021).
Historical and Structural Workplace Policies
Dillard (2018) explained workplace policies and structures do not consider women’s need
for work-life integration. These policies and structures keep women out of management and
leadership opportunities, especially limiting non-White women (Dillard, 2018). When workplace
policies surrounding women and mothering (time off, flexible work schedules, and working from
home) are adapted, individuals and organizations are more productive (Dillard, 2018). Dillard
(2018) stated, “Women are expected to be mothers, but they are also expected to be workers. The
organizational protocols were framed with limited consideration of the needs and experiences of
women of color” (p. 50). Being mothers and workers causes women to ultimately make a choice
between being one or the other (Dillard, 2018).
Dillard (2018) makes the distinction between White women and non-White women by
showing cultural narratives are largely ignored in the literature and instead focused on work-life
integration as a singular and similar experience by all women. This puts non-White women who
“prioritize family over career advancement” (p. 51) under the microscope and portrays them as
less competent and less committed, therefore limiting the possibilities for career advancement
(Dillard, 2018, p. 51). Likewise, work-life integration for African American women involves
strong ties and commitment to their community showing women of color may need to choose
between work, raising children, or their level of community involvement (Dillard, 2018).
Additionally, work-life balance can include caretaking of multiple generations and is common
among Asian American families (Dillard, 2018). Current work structures and policies limit
4

access to management and leadership roles for women of color by focusing only on a monolithic
narrative of work-life balance and exclude cultural considerations (Dillard, 2018).
Stereotypes and Self-Efficacy
Gendered factors can leave women feeling less efficacious in their roles (Dickerson &
Taylor, 2000; Huszczo & Endres, 2017). There are many considerations women of color face
when seeking career advancement and leadership opportunities. Women must contend with
stereotyped expectations, largely ignored considerations of intersectionality (Crenshaw, 1989)
and the complexities of identity connected to leadership (Robertson, 2017). Women of color can
become invisible (Crenshaw, 1989; LeanIn, 2021) and have less access to resources to advance
them in their careers. Women of color face slower career advancement due to negative
stereotypes and a lack of applied learning opportunities (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010).
Furthermore, women of color can feel as though they need to shift who they are to fit into the
workplace (Dickens & Chavez, 2018).
When women obtain management or leadership roles, women face a phenomenon called
the double bind. The double bind acts as a structure for questioning women’s effectiveness in
leadership roles. Women can neither be too strong nor too kind and must be careful to remove
emotions from decision making or points of view lest they be seen as too weak or aggressive for
leadership (Robertson, 2017). The double bind phenomenon creates contingencies for females in
leadership roles. Depending on the context in which women are working, women need to
conform to organizational expectations, resist expectations, or learn how to navigate role and
gendered expectations (Debebe, 2017).
5

Pay Disparity
Women’s participation in the labor force has experienced increases and declines
depending on the economy (Goldin, 1994) and steadily increased since the 1960s; in 2021,
nearly half of all women eligible to work contributed to the workforce (U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2021b). Women continue to show lower earning rates than men (Nadler et al, 2016)
despite the passing of the Equal Pay Act in 1963 and, later, the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act in
2009 (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, n.d.). Women earned, on average, 82%
of what men earned in 2019 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021a), with a slight increase to
83.1% in 2021 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022). This is up from 62 cents for every dollar
a man earned in 1979. It has taken over 40 years for a woman to increase her earnings by 20
cents more per dollar despite women having outpaced men in obtaining higher education degrees
(Mulhere, 2018; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021a). To elucidate this point, the National
Women’s Law Center (2022) stated that, with the current wage gap,
a woman starting her career today with full-time, year-round work stands to lose
$417,400 over the course of a 40-year career. Assuming a woman and her male
counterpart begin working full time, year-round at age 20, the wage gap means a woman
would have to work until she is 72 to be paid what a man has been paid by age 60. But
Latina women working full-time, year-round face typical lifetime losses that total over
$1.1 million, for Native American women working full time, year-round it is nearly $1.1
million, and for Black women working full time, year-round, it is nearly $1 million. This
makes it impossible for Latina, Native American, and Black women to ever catch up. (pp.
2–3)
6

This problem is important to address because women bring strong leadership and
diversity of thought as well as necessary combinations of leadership types that strengthen
organizations’ overall growth (Baker, 2014; Kerby & Burns, 2012). And yet they are not well
represented or well paid in organizations.
Microaggressions
“Microaggressions” is a term that originated with Pierce (1970) describing factors that
limited the success of African Americans. Microaggressions contain indirect actions and
language aimed at people from marginalized communities (Smith & Griffiths, 2022). Persistent
in today’s workplace, microaggressions create barriers to diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts
and cause harmful outcomes for people of color (Parikh & Leschied, 2022). Women of color
experience microaggressions at a higher rate than White women negatively impacting their well-
being (Nadal et al., 2014).
Racial microaggressions “are brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, or
environmental indignities, intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or
negative racial slights and insults toward people of color” (Sue et al., 2007, p. 271). There are
four subtypes of microaggressions described by Sue et al. (2007). These subtypes include micro
assaults, where a person’s race or sex is attacked; microinsults, or unintended yet demeaning
behaviors toward minority groups; microinvalidations, which purposefully downplay the way a
person thinks and feels; and environmental microaggressions, meaning the environment is
harmful by allowing othering and exclusionary practices (Sue et al., 2007, p. 271).
Racial Disparities
Racial disparities occur through favoritism within social networks that benefit whites
leaving out African Americans (DiTomaso, 2013). DiTomaso offers that inequality is fueled by
7

discrimination. People of color are less likely to be employed than whites; therefore, people of
color do not have the same access to social networks to help them network and succeed in the
workplace (DiTomaso, 2013). In 2016, the unemployment rate for White women was “lower
(4.2%) than for Hispanic women (6.3%) and for Black or African American women (7.8 %)”
(U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017, para. 5). In 2020 women of color were more vulnerable
to economic insecurity due to the COVID-19 pandemic and lost jobs at a higher rate than White
women and White men (National Women’s Law Center, 2022). About women’s professional
opportunities, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2017) found
Asian and White women were more likely to work in higher-paying management,
professional, and related occupations (51 percent and 44 percent, respectively) in 2016
than were Black (35 percent) and Hispanic (27 percent) women. Meanwhile, Hispanic
(32 percent) and Black (29 percent) women were more likely than Asian and White
women (both 20 percent) to work in lower-paying service occupations. (para. 11)
Women of color are less likely to be employed, and, except for Asian women (U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021b), are less likely to occupy positions that provide access to
management and leadership opportunities. Mentorship and access to other women leaders are
important aspects of career advancement for women of color and act as a form of social capital
(Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010). Social capital is vital to supporting career growth and
connecting women of color to career opportunities they may not have outside of the workplace.
Significance of the Research
The lack of career advancement and leadership opportunities for women of color is
critical to address because women of color are large contributors to the economy and add
significant value to an organization’s success (Kerby & Burns, 2012).
8

Stakeholder Group of Focus for the Research
The stakeholder group of focus for this study is women of color working in higher
education at PHEU in the division of student affairs (SA) for more than 1 year. Women working
in SA provide academic, mental, emotional, and financial support for 15,000+ students each year
who obtain varying degrees (undergraduate, master’s, PhD, and postdoc) across multiple schools
and disciplines.
Field Context and Mission
Private Higher Education University’s (PHEU, pseudonym) mission is to develop
thought leaders, promote excellence, and contribute to society’s overall knowledge. PHEU is
situated in the western part of the United States and houses more than five schools across its
campus. PHEU is known for leading innovation in medicine and technology through research
and teaching. PHEU has, on average, more than 15,000 students enrolled and attending classes
each year, with 2,000 plus faculty teaching across its multiple schools within the university.
PHEU Student Affairs
Student affairs (SA) at PHEU is a decentralized division with multiple offices. To receive
services, students must access assistance from separate departments housed within the division;
academic, health, education, career, student leadership and involvement (Greek life), and
residential life by obtaining information and support from over 15 distinct offices.
At PHEU, SA staff report to an associate vice provost who oversees multiple departments
focused on students’ learning outcomes as well as supporting students as they navigate campus
policies and structures, build community, form identity, integrate learning, and apply those
learnings to their future post-graduation. The division employs approximately 300 professional
staff with a variety of cultural and racial backgrounds. Women of color at PHEU/SA play an
9

integral role by providing the necessary support for students throughout students’ tenure. The
purpose of this study was to explore how women of color working in PHEU’s SA division
experience career advancement and/or leadership opportunities.
Purpose of this Qualitative Research and Questions
The purpose of this research was to explore the navigational, social, and aspirational
capital of women of color as they experience career advancement and/or leadership opportunities
in SA at PHEU. This research sought to center the voice of women of color to understand the
lived experiences of navigating workplace structures and policies, building connections to people
and resources, and maintaining aspirational goals using an intersectional qualitative lens to
understand how participants’ experiences are “shaped by their race and gender and other
overlapping social identities” (Esposito & Evans-Winters, 2021, p. 97).
Findings from this research were used to generate recommendations for career
advancement and leadership opportunities for women of color at PHEU in SA. This qualitative
research addressed two research questions:
1. How do women of color draw on their cultural wealth, knowledge, and skills to
advance their careers and or leadership opportunities?
2. How does the organization support or hinder career advancement and or leadership
opportunities for women of color?
Overview of the Conceptual and Methodological Framework
The theoretical framework used to examine the lived experiences of women of color in
seeking career advancement and/or leadership opportunities is Yosso’s (2005) framework of
community cultural wealth. The difficulty for women of color, as Yosso pointed out, is that
racism shapes U.S. social problems and thus impacts U.S. organizations.
10

Yosso (2005) presented the counternarrative of the traditional descriptions of cultural
capital, which centers middle-class White American communities as holding the normative
measure of cultural wealth and that marginalized communities come from a deficit model as
measured against White culture. This immediately puts people of color in jeopardy for career
advancement and denies access to leadership opportunities. Yosso offered a counter-narrative
that people from marginalized communities offer skills developed through six forms of cultural
capital that make up community cultural wealth (familial, linguistic, resistant, social,
navigational, and aspirational), and counternarratives center each by highlighting the experiences
of people of color.
Within organizations, the success, or lack thereof, depends on each of these forms of
capital. And women of color, who do not fit the normative measure of being White and middle
class, must navigate barriers to succeed within the organizational structure (Dillard, 2018;
DiTomaso, 2013; Seibert et al., 2001). While each holds challenges, this research focused on
cultural capital, specifically social, navigational, and aspirational capital.
Definition of Terms
Aspirational capital: “The ability to maintain hopes and dreams for the future, even in the
face of real and perceived barriers” (Yosso, 2005, pp. 77–78).
Career advancement: Career advancement is the process by which professionals across
industries use their skill sets and determination to achieve new career goals and more challenging
job opportunities. Indeed.com
Intersectionality: Intersectionality is defined as “the network of connections between
social categories such as race, class, and gender, especially when this may result in additional
11

disadvantage or discrimination” (Oxford Learner Dictionaries, n.d.) and created as a critical race
theory framework by Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989.
Navigational capital: “Refers to skills of maneuvering through social institutions …
infers the ability to maneuver through institutions not created with communities of color in
mind.” (Yosso, 2005, p. 80).
Social capital: “Can be understood as networks of people and community resources”
(Yosso, 2005, pp. 79–80).
Organization of the Research
Five chapters were used to organize the research. Chapter One provides the reader with
the key concepts and terminology commonly found in discussions about career advancement and
leadership opportunities for women of color. The study’s theoretical framework and research
questions were introduced. Chapter Two provided a review of the literature surrounding the
scope of the study. The literature review included the concepts of navigational, social, and
aspirational capital. Chapter Two presents the conceptual framework underpinning this study.
Chapter Three details the assumed influences as well as methodology and data collection.
Chapter Four presents findings from research conducted through interviews with 11 participants
involved in the research. Chapter Five provides recommendations for change and connects
concepts to the literature review in Chapter Two.
12

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Chapter Two aims to contextualize the topics surrounding the complexity of the
experiences of women of color seeking career advancement and/or leadership opportunities. The
chapter begins by describing historical and structural policies that have systemically kept women
of color from experiencing the same levels of career advancement and leadership opportunities
as their female counterparts. Also, this research seeks to better understand inherent gender and
racial biases in the labor workforce, the intersectionality of women, and particularly those
barriers that prevent women of color from advancing their careers and experiencing leadership
opportunities. The chapter then explains Yosso’s (2005) cultural capital wealth framework with
an emphasis on social capital, navigational capital, and aspirational capital, as well as the
impacts of these influences on women of color within organizations. What is highlighted
included how these factors affected the participants' ability to navigate workplace policies and
structures, gain access to social capital and resources for career advancement and/or leadership
opportunities and maintain aspirations toward career advancement and/or leadership
opportunities. Although the literature presented here applies to a variety of problems, this review
focuses primarily on the multiple barriers women of color experience when seeking career
advancement.
Higher Education
Higher Education was originally developed in the United States to educate young White
Christian missionary men so they could then educate poor children (boys) and make education
accessible (McGuinness, 2019). Education also prepared lower-class students for low-wage work
and middle- to upper-class students for more notable roles (Nash, 2017). The education system
13

largely ignored women until the end of the revolutionary war, when a small number of colleges
and seminaries were made available for women’s enrollment (Nash, 2017).
Education for minorities and marginalized people remained segregated until Brown v.
Board of Education in 1954, when segregation was deemed unconstitutional (Heller, 2016;
IHEP, 2010). Nearly 100 years prior to desegregation, students of color, primarily Black
students, attended what are now known as historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs).
The HBCUs are 4-year universities and 2-year community colleges created to meet the
educational needs of Black students and other people of color (IHEP, 2010). Today, HBCUs play
a significant role in advancing students’ social and economic advancement (Hammond et al.,
2021) as well as their educational success and advancement (African Americans in Higher
Education, 2010).
Contemporary studies explain higher education’s purpose to expand human
understanding (Swain, 2011), promote learning how to learn, teach how to locate information,
and “how to work collaboratively across disciplines and cultures” (Wise, 2013, para. 3).
Furthermore, higher education provides the foundation for students to explore careers and future
pathways (Wise, 2013) and the ability to “gain the training and the experience we need for our
chosen profession” (Smith, 2016, p. 1).
Student Affairs
Student affairs (SA) plays an important role in assisting students learning and
development and requires a level of excellence guided and developed by professional core
competencies (Munsch & Cortez, 2014). In 1997 the American College Personnel Association
(ACPA) and the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA) partnered
to develop the principles of good practice for SA (Doyle, 2004). Through interactions with
14

professional staff, these principles focus on creating inclusive, supportive communities helping
students establish ethical behavior, meaningful values, and engage in active learning (Doyle,
2004, p. 385). Luedke (2017) stated, “Treating students as persons first, and students second,
acknowledges their rich cultural backgrounds and creates an environment where students can
share their capital as well as acquire additional forms of capital” (p. 50). Furthermore, when staff
of color in SA interact with students of color, commonalities between staff of color and students
of color provide opportunities for students to feel seen and heard, which lead to shared trust and
increased social and cultural capital (Luedke, 2017).
The SA division also provides an opportunity for students to exit the university more
fully developed and equipped than when they entered (Herrmann, 2018). Through holistic
approaches to students’ care and nurturing, student affairs professionals provide a space for
students to explore who they are and what they want to do with their life (Herrmann, 2018) and
their careers (Smith, 2016). To perform duties required of SA, staff have a set of required
competencies to learn to succeed as professionals (ACPA & NASPA, 2015). These competencies
assist staff in building a skillset to work with students and colleagues, support staff development
and set performance standards (Munch & Cortez, 2014). “The full range of these competencies is
especially important as SA educators cannot afford to engage in advocacy efforts without an
understanding of how students learn and develop” (ACPA & NASPA, 2015, p. 7).
Women in Student Affairs
Women occupy a significant portion of roles in education, holding 68.1% of education
and childcare administrator roles and 75.3% of educational, guidance, and career counselor and
advisor roles (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021b). These occupations require a high degree
of education and skills (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020) and wisdom derived from a
15

combination of educational attainment, professional experience and collaboration with
colleagues working in complex situations (Dalton, 2002).
Women working in SA, regardless of their career stage, face many considerations
concerning work-life balance, setting boundaries for their time and attention, having, and caring
for children, and the need for both mentor relationships and time to engage with professional
development associations (McNair et al., 2013). A recent article written in The Chronicle of
Higher Education by McClure (2023) stated higher education is particularly poor at skilling and
promoting SA professionals. Even when promoted, SA professionals often advance without
additional pay (McClure, 2023). And when women advance, their leadership is challenged,
especially if they are women of color (McNair et al., 2013).
Student affairs professionals (SAPs) often complete a variety of tasks outside of their
work-related roles and outside of regular working hours. This work requires student service
professionals, a large portion of whom are women, to be prepared to assist students at all hours
in a multitude of situations and crises, including academic, financial, housing, career, emotional
and social needs. Caring for students leads to burnout which leads to lower job satisfaction and
attrition in the student affairs profession (Brewer & Clippard, 2002; Mullen et al., 2018). For
SAPs who are also mothers, the inflexibility of working conditions like non-telecommuting
policies and feeling overworked, tired, and burned out can force them to choose between
working or leaving the profession altogether (McKinnon-Crowley et al., 2021). These findings
are important because women occupy over half of the employee workforce in higher education
(U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021b) and were found to be one of the more impacted sectors
of employment during the Great Resignation (McKinsey & Company, 2022).
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Women seek to advance their careers at the same rate as men (McKinsey& Company,
2022); however, women face multiple barriers on their way to higher-level roles and leadership,
creating challenges for women to achieve their aspirations (Nadal et al., 2014; Ranganathan,
2018; Yelen, 2020).
Barriers include underrepresentation in the workforce (Cech & Blair-Loy, 2019; Van
Oosten et al., 2017) and employment inequities (Coogan & Chen, 2007) and pay disparities
(Bichsel & McChesney, 2017; Nadler et al, 2016). Pay disparities can begin at the outset of a
woman’s career and cause salary lag for the rest of her career (Sterling & Fernandez, 2018).
Additionally, women face microaggressions (Nadal et al., 2014) and a lack of allies, sponsorship,
and managers who advocate for their career development (McKinsey & Company, 2022).
Furthermore, a lack of training and formal career paths to improve the “work-readiness” skills
needed to advance and retain women from underrepresented groups hamper their retention
(Ranganathan, 2018).
Career Development and Career Advancement
The meaning of career has evolved over time (Herr & Shahnasarian, 2001). The changes
in work and the way people thought about their work were shaped by social, political, and
economic changes (Herr & Shahnasarian, 2001). Immigrants sought better economic
opportunities and entered the U.S. labor market. Women had early participation in the labor
market, particularly when men went to war, and women replaced men in factory work. Workers
began to need vocational guidance (Herr & Shahnasarian, 2001).
Vocational Guidance
The initial primary aim of vocational guidance was to match a person to a role and shape
the person to fit the role (Super, 1954, Thenmozhi, 2018). That aim and definition changed over
17

time. Vocational development began to include career assessments, personality assessments,
developmental theories, learning theories, the work of career counselors, etc. and led to the
eventual term “career development” coined by Frank Parsons (Herr & Shahnasarian, 2001).
Career Development
Career development is defined as “a person’s progress or general course of action
through life or through a phase of life, as in some profession or undertaking” (dictionary.com).
As a whole, career development theories consider the person’s lifespan, personality, knowledge,
strengths, abilities, aspirations, and self-reflection for what the person enjoys doing (Herr &
Shahnasarian, 2001; Thenmozhi, 2018). Well-known career development theories include
Parsons’s (1909) trait and factor theory focused on personal traits, such as skills and values, and
employment factors, like work environment and pay. Bandura’s (2001) social learning theory
(SLT) focused on the individual (human agency), first developed in 1960 and transformed in
1986 to include social cognitive theory, which focused on the individual in relation to collective
agency. Bandura’s social cognitive theory (SCT) connected behavioral, environmental, and
personal factors to learning through observation, application, motivation, and feedback
(Horsburgh & Ippolito, 2018). Super’s (1954) life-span theory of career development emerged in
the 1950s and urged vocational development theorists to account for factors that impact changes
over a person’s lifespan (Super, 1954).
Krumboltz, in 1979, added to the career development field with a social learning theory
(SLT) of career decision making and explained that earlier career theories related to development
(trait and factor theory) leave out the complexities (intersectionality) of career decision making
by ignoring factors like emotional components, familial pressure, personal aspiration, religious
beliefs, and gender and racial stereotyping (Krumboltz, 1993, p. 4).
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Critical Race Theory in Education
Critical race theory (CRT) utilizes five tenets to explain the racism and biases used to
suppress and marginalize people and emerged during the civil rights movement in the 1970s
(Delgado & Stefancic, 2017). CRT began in the field of legal studies and expanded to include
ethnic studies and education (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017). The five tenets of CRT include the
ordinariness of racism. That, one, racism is a permanent and two, racism is an embedded part of
American society (Bell, 1980) and because racism is so embedded it is difficult to see and
address (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017). Thirdly, interest-convergence where the interest of Black
people advances only when their interest converges with White people and continues to benefit
the White population (Bell, 1980). Fourthly, racism is not biological, but instead is socially
constructed and mailable benefiting Whites upholding power and racist ideologies, and lastly the
tenet of counter storytelling allows for challenging and deconstructing narratives and myths held
by the majority and centers the voice of underrepresented and marginalized people (Delgado &
Stephancic, 2017).
CRT in education centers storytelling and lifting voices of people of color and challenges
the dominant White narrative as measures of success (Ladson-Billings & Tate 2017, Yosso,
2005). Ladson-Billings & Tate were at the forefront to utilize CRT tenets to understand how
systemic racism impacts educational spaces,
We are not suggesting that other scholars have not looked carefully at race as a powerful
tool for explaining social inequity, but that the intellectual salience of this theorizing has
not been systematically employed in the analysis of educational inequality. (Ladson-
Billing & Tate, 2017, pp. 13–14)
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Ladson-Billings and Tate (2017) apply CRT to educational spaces to, “uncover or
decipher the social-structural and cultural significance of race in education” (p. 14) where
“institutional and structural racism exist (p. 18). Uplifting and centering the voice of those who
have been oppressed is central to CRT in educational spaces, “As we attempt to make linkages
between critical race theory and education, we contend that the voice of people of color is
required for a complete analysis of the educational system” (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 2017, p.
21). Central to this study is the voice of women of color working in higher education’s student
affairs division and the systemic biases and racism that challenges their career advancement.
Intersectionality and Women of Color
Intersectionality is a (CRT) framework situated in Black feminist thought and developed
by Kimberlé Crenshaw (1989) and grew out of challenging the normalization of systemic racism
(Delgado & Stefancic, 2017) and its prevalence experienced in the everyday lives of people of
color (Bell, 1980; Delgado & Stephancic, 2017).
Crenshaw challenged the systemic gender and racism power structures in the court
systems meant to oppress Black women and their work experiences through singular
categorizations, that is, she is Black or woman, but not both (1989) and explains,
In mapping the intersections of race and gender, the concept does engage dominant
assumptions that race, and gender are essentially separate categories. By tracing the
categories to their intersections, I hope to suggest a methodology that will ultimately
disrupt the tendencies to see race and gender as exclusive or separate. (Crenshaw, 1991,
p. 1244)
The intersectional experiences of women are not a monolith in the workplace (LeanIn,
2021). Community cultural wealth influences (Yosso, 2005) elucidate the richness of the
20

intersectional aspects women of color bring to organizations by understanding the skills women
of color have developed to be successful (Yosso, 2005). Community cultural wealth flips the
narrative of marginalized communities as coming from a deficit and instead focuses on the vast
richness of community cultural wealth marginalized communities bring into educational spaces
(Yosso, 2005). McKinsey and Company’s (2021) research included women of color, women
with varying disabilities, and women with varying sexual orientations and preferences.
McKinsey found women with disabilities were more likely to have fewer opportunities, feel
devalued, have concerns about asking for workplace accommodations, be interrupted, miss out
on career advancement opportunities, and experience a lack of support from managers (LeanIn &
McKinsey & Company, 2021).
Similarly, despite their recognized high performance in their organizations, Asian women
report feeling undervalued and invisible, are less likely to receive positive feedback, less likely to
be promoted, and less likely to have access to and interact with senior leaders (LeanIn.org &
McKinsey & Company, 2021). Black women, facing much higher barriers to advancement, are
blocked by biases at the start (LeanIn & McKinsey & Company, 2021). Black women are passed
over during the hiring process, lack promotion opportunities, and are refused career advancement
at a much higher rate than other women of color (LeanIn & McKinsey & Company, 2021).
Additionally, Black women are doing much more of the diversity, equity, and inclusion
(DEI) work, speaking up, mentoring, and representing DEI initiatives in the workplace (LeanIn
& McKinsey & Company, 2021). Latina women are more likely to experience inflexible
workplace policies compared to other women of color, have more responsibility at home caring
for their children and an adult, unable to care for their own well-being and have higher burnout
rates lessening their chance for career advancement (LeanIn & McKinsey & Company, 2021).
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Social Capital
Reaching equity in career aspirations and advancement requires an examination of social
capital and access to opportunities within organizations. Social capital theory as Seibert et al.
(2001) explained, is “the key explanatory variables for the effect of social capital on career
mobility are greater access to information, resources, and sponsorship.” (p. 219). When one is
situated in an organization without a mentor, without the knowledge or resources needed to be
more effective in one’s job, advancement will be limited, and career aspirations will be slowed
or denied altogether (Seibert et al., 2001).
Women gain access to career advancement and leadership roles through social capital
(Seibert et al., 2001) and role modeling (Burke, 2006) to advance their careers. Social capital, in
the form of professional networks is vital to supporting one’s career growth. As the saying goes,
if you can’t see it, you can’t be it. Access to social and professional ties outside of one’s circle of
friends and colleagues is essential to offering new connections to those you may not already
know (Sterling, 2018), therefore widening your social circle and improving your chance of
learning about new roles and opportunities (Seibert et al., 2001).
Women are much less likely to have access to mentorship and the experiences they need
to be ready for leadership opportunities. Social capital provides access to mentorship and
visibility of working women (Seibert et al., 2001). In addition, more extensive networks offer
stronger ties to information, power, visibility, and resources. Resources obtained through social
capital provide access to those in upper-level positions where “higher-level individuals have
greater formal power, influence, and control over resources” (Seibert et al., 2001, p. 224).
Role Models, Mentorship, and Sponsorship
Essential resources for a women’s career are mentorship, role models, and sponsorship.
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Mentorship
The Cambridge dictionary defines a mentor as “someone who gives a younger or less
experienced person help and advice over a period, especially at work or school.” Mentorship is a
voluntary, active engagement built on trust and mutual respect, leading to a person’s personal
and professional growth and development (Laverick, 2016; Rohrich & Durand, 2020). In the
workplace, mentorship provides broad opportunities for a variety of work assignments and
introductions to people who can vouch for your work credibility, in turn building connections to
new opportunities, which is key to women’s social capital and career (Gold, 2008). Mentorship
and social connections within the workplace play an important role in preventing or helping a
woman’s inroads to career success (Gold, 2008; Seibert et al., 2001; Sterling, 2018), attracting
and retaining women (Steele & Fisman, 2014) and empowering women in important decision
areas of their lives in and outside of the workplace (Bergfield & Drake, 2015).
While social networks play a large part in a woman’s success, access to social networks
contains elements of inequality and racial disparities (DiTomaso, 2013; Gold, 2008). Role
models and mentors can help mitigate the negative stereotyping effects on underrepresented
minorities and women in leadership positions (Elliot et al., 2017; Hoyt, 2013). Peer mentorship is
often reciprocal and benefits both the mentor and the mentee with feelings of helpfulness,
opportunities to reflect on one’s work, and sharing of knowledge between colleagues to “offer
insight and support reflection” (Hopkins-Thompson, 2000, p. 34). While there are some
similarities, mentorship differs from role models by emulating a person (Rohrich & Durand,
2020).
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Role Models
Women must see their capacity as future leaders as attainable through comparison with
their role models (Burke, 2006). Role models, opportunities to practice skills, and receive
feedback are important factors for women to feel efficacious (Cziraki et al., 2018; Hoyt, 2013).
Role models function as behavioral role models, represent what is possible, and act as an
inspiration (Morgenroth et al., 2015, p. 477) and expand the formation of professional identities
for those from underrepresented minority groups (Stephenson-Hunter et al, 2021). Gonzales
(2021), who identifies as Hispanic and is a medical doctor, stated the impact of role modeling for
minority groups is visual as well, “by just showing up with my white coat [at a local middle
school], I had expanded his [young boy] consciousness to new possibilities” (p. 567e). Role
models can play an important part in a person’s self-concept in the early stages of their career
while trying out, adopting, and emulating behaviors of those in roles they aspire to work
(Gibson, 2003; Ibarra, 1999).
Beyond early career development, role models provide a measure of alignment of
positive (admirable) or negative (disreputable) attributes as one professionally matures over time
(Gibson, 2003). As a person grows professionally, they can decide to emulate, learn from, and
apply what they see as positive attributes of a role model and move away from negative
behaviors and attributes they disagree with (Gibson, 2003). Role models play an important role
across the career lifespan (Gibson, 2003); however, for women trying to advance their careers,
there are fewer women in senior leadership roles to signal the possibility of promotions and
assist women’s self-concept and identity construction (Sealy & Singh, 2009). For women of
color, whose representation can be lower in many organizational contexts, role models act as a
source for building networks and gaining access to visible projects (Gold, 2008) as well as build
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self-confidence, visually impact the negative stereotypes of women of color, and cultivate new
mentors and role models for more emerging women of color professionals (Gay, 2022).
While mentorship and role models provide encouragement, and opportunities to emulate
desired behavior, among other qualities, the concept of sponsorship is directed toward publicly
lifting others up by believing in and speaking positively and professionally about the person
when they are not in the room and is key for women of color (Verduzco-Gutierrez et al, 2022).
Sponsorship
For women of color in higher education, sponsorship is vital to engage with connections
to higher-level resources and visible projects that advance your career (Bessette, 2014). Having a
sponsor goes beyond mentorship and adds components of care, advocacy, managing the
reputation of a person and the use of positional power and influence to remove barriers to access
to high status networks and projects for women of color (Means & Fields, 2022) and connects
sponsors’ protégé(s) to the sponsor's extended audience (Chow, 2021). Advancing women of
color in higher education by enhancing the quality of their networks and opportunities through
mentorship, role modeling and sponsorship is key to creating positive pathways for women of
color (Verduzco-Gutierrez et al., 2022).
Career and Professional Development
Kraimer et al.’s (2011) study of exempt employees (n = 264), who are not compensated
for working beyond normal working hours, the findings demonstrated that when employees
perceive that the organization supports them with professional development and career
opportunities, they are likely to stay and perform their roles better (Kraimer et al., 2011). In
contrast, when employees perceive a lack of career opportunities, they leave (Kraimer et al.,
2011). Employees perceive training and development as a signal that their employer cares about
25

their professional growth (Kraimer et al., 2011). Additionally, “expanded social connections to
leaders with influence lead to more participation in employees’ development activities” (p. 495)
and act as social capital for career development (Kraimer et al., 2011). It is important to note that
not all employees possess an interest in learning and/or development. Maurer (2008) found in
their study of employees (n = 651) commitment to an organization was dependent on the
employee’s orientation for growth and desired effort (2008). An organization’s expectations for
learning and performance can contribute to or take away from an employee’s commitment to
stay with an organization (Maurer, 2008).
Many industries require a level of knowledge, skills, abilities, credentials, education, and
alignment of work styles and work values. In higher education, the professional SA governing
bodies (the National Association for Student Affairs Professionals (NASPA) and ACPA College
Student Educators International identified 10 competency areas that are important for SA
professionals to develop and maintain for their and the industry's professional success. These
competencies provide
essential knowledge, skills, and dispositions expected of all student affairs educators,
regardless of functional area or specialization within the field … are intended to define
student affairs work and lay out directions for the future development of student affairs
educators both individually and as a profession. (ACPA & NASPA, 2015, p. 7)
Dasgupta et al. (2015) found motivation and participation increased when women in
STEM worked in smaller, female-dominated groups. Furthermore, for women to remain
motivated to pursue career advancement and leadership opportunities, particularly in male-
dominated fields with high gender bias, it is important for women to personally interact with
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others who are already skilled and can provide opportunities for learning and growth (Dasgupta
et al., 2015).
Ambrose et al. (2010) found that practice toward a specific goal, combined with
feedback, increases learning. Having opportunities to learn, apply practical knowledge, and
receive positive feedback from mentors increases leadership self-efficacy and motivation for
women to pursue leadership roles (Cziraki et al., 2018), and motivation and self-efficacy are
raised when observers see others who are like themselves completing tasks (Elliot et al., 2017).
In a 4-month study, Cziraki et al. (2018) surveyed nurses (n = 727) and assessed
leadership self-efficacy using a Likert scale. When participants had opportunities to develop
specific skills that lead to self-mastery, including stepping into temporary leadership roles or
projects, and access to mentoring and positive feedback, self-efficacy and desire to pursue
leadership roles increased. An earlier study where women (n = 21) attended a graduate-level
leadership course over 3 years yielded similar results (Momsen & Carlson, 2013). Self-efficacy
was increased through mastery-building, observation, and ongoing feedback. Momsen and
Carlson (2013) suggested organizations should put ongoing learning opportunities into practice.
In addition to skills development, Huszczo and Endres (2017) studied traits and gender
differences to predict leadership self-efficacy. They found predictors of women’s self-efficacy
were their willingness to be open to opportunities, carefulness, diligence, and focus on doing
tasks well (Huszczo & Endres, 2017). In contrast, they found men’s leadership self-efficacy was
predicated on being extroverted (Huszczo & Endres, 2017). Huszczo and Endres further stated
that leadership self-efficacy begins with one’s belief in their abilities and high self-awareness
(Huszczo & Endres, 2017). Bandura and Locke (2003, as cited in Huszczo & Endres, 2017)
27

explained, “Personality traits as antecedents to leadership are important to identify, as they affect
‘leaders’ thoughts, motivations, perseverance, well-being, vulnerabilities, and choices” (p. 305).
Retaining Women in the Workplace
Women have participated in a fluctuating labor market over the past 50 years (U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022). The most recent U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2022) data
showed nearly half of women who are eligible to work are in the current workforce, earning on
average 82 cents for every dollar men earn, with Asian women earning more than White women,
Black women earning less than White women, and Hispanic women earning the least (U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021a). Despite consistently lower pay on average than their male
counterparts (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022), women have consistently contributed to
their family’s economic wealth and, over time, have devoted increased working hours toward
those financial contributions (Boushey & Vaghul, 2016; Brooking Institution, 2020).
In a comprehensive, annual study on the state of women in corporate America to improve
the workplace for women, McKinsey conducted interviews with 333 organizations and surveyed
40,000+ employees, including interviews with women with diverse identities (McKinsey&
Company, 2022). According to McKinsey & Company, organizations find it challenging to
retain women, particularly women of color and women in leadership positions. Employees are
leaving without concern and are more confident they will find a new role when they are ready.
They are tired of being overworked, under-resourced, underpaid, unsupported, unwelcomed,
inflexible work hours, and lacking opportunities for career development and advancement
(McKinsey & Company, 2022).
Women are demanding more, the Women in the Workplace study found (LeanIn, 2022).
Women, particularly women leaders, who recognize they are overworked, undervalued, and
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burned out require flexible working conditions, well-being practices, and a focus on DEI. The
study also found that both women leaders and younger women are willing to leave their jobs to
seek companies that include flexibility, well-being, and embedded DEI practices (Figure 1;
McKinsey & Company, 2022).

Figure 1
The Factors Driving Women Leaders to Switch Jobs Are More Important to Young Women

Note. From Women in the workplace 2022 by McKinsey & Co, 2022.
(https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/featured%20insights/diversity%20and%20i).
Copyright 2022 by McKinsey & Company.

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Comparable to outcomes stated in McKinsey and Company’s 2022 workplace study, a
2017 Center for Creative Leadership study surveyed 745 participants (female and male emerging
and established leaders) and found women are asking for flexible working conditions, career
advancement, leadership opportunities and the resources needed to assist them with their career
advancement, and finding meaningful work (Clerkin, 2017).
Many industries urge and value the retention of women in the workplace. For example,
challenges to retaining women in academic medicine include lack of promotion, higher rates of
burnout, pay disparities, family responsibilities, and excessive work hours, to name only a few
(Onumah et al., 2021; Ramas et al., 2021). These issues are more prominent for women of color
and impact women’s overall well-being spurring the need for creative solutions for retention
(Ramas et al., 2021). Ramas et al. (2021) suggested keeping in mind the unique barriers for
women to create new working models, promote equity, reduce burnout, and improve DEI efforts
(Ramas et al., 2021). Additionally, providing mentorship, role models, work-life balance
(Onumah et al., 2021), networking opportunities, and training for career advancement helps
retain women (Carr et al., 2016).
In the finance industry, Credit Suisse, focused on global investment banking and
financial services, reported increased financial benefits for companies and shareholders when
women occupy management and leadership roles (Credit Suisse, 2019). More women inside
organizations also boost companies’ ability to outperform competitors. Retaining and promoting
women makes sense for increased profitability (Credit Suisse, 2019). Credit Suisse’s retention
steps suggest increasing paternity leave for fathers (partners), flexible work arrangements, and
implementing proven effective policies to reduce gender bias, such as setting equitable salaries,
equitable recruiting and hiring practices, and promotions to retain women (Credit Suisse, 2019).
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Women are underrepresented and underpaid in STEM fields, which can devalue women’s
contributions to innovation and organizational competitiveness (Cech & Blair-Loy, 2019). The
Leadership Lab for Women, interested in advancing and retaining women in STEM fields
through a women’s professional leadership development program, provided women with much-
needed feedback, coaching and strategies to advance and retain women (Van Oosten et al., 2017,
p. 1). The factors that support retention efforts of women in STEM are like those of the
industries previously mentioned and include self-awareness, having a personal vision,
mentorship and coaching, women-only development programs, and peer connections for
feedback and mutual learning (Van Oosten et al., 2017, p. 3). Women who remain in STEM
professions know who they are and what they want. They know what it takes to achieve their
goals, can build important relationships and “take initiative to overcome bias and barriers” (Van
Oosten et al., 2017, p. 3).
Flexibility in the Workplace
In their review of research on workplace flexibility, Bal and Izak (2021) noted that
flexibility has become a singular word with multiple interpretations, trends, and tensions (p. 38).
Following are the four interpretations related to the term “flexibility:” “organizational flexibility
refers to the ability of organizations to adapt to changes in their environment” (Bal & Izak, 2021,
p. 39). Employee flexibility refers to an employee’s ability to flex to the needs of their role and
their employer, and flexible work refers to work performed outside of the traditional full-time
employee work status, such as part-time or contractual (p. 39). Bal and Izak’s (2021) fourth
definition, flexible work arrangements, is one that, according to McKinsey & Company (2022),
is necessary for retaining women. These arrangements offer organizations and employees the
opportunity to decide “when and where work is conducted” (Bal & Izak, 2021, p. 39).
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Developing flexible work policies is necessary to support working women’s needs
beyond their daily work schedule (OECD, 2014; Malone, 2022). Not having their flexible
working needs met was exacerbated by the recent COVID-19 pandemic and caused women to
fall behind in their career progression (Augustus, 2021; Malone, 2022). Flexible working
conditions, such as deciding when and where work gets done, are one of the key factors in
attracting and retaining women in the workplace (Credit Suisse, 2019; McKinsey & Company,
2022) and are a top priority for women no matter their generation (Wooldridge, 2021).
Well-Being in the Workplace
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) defined well-being as “a positive
outcome that is meaningful for people and many sectors of society because it tells us that people
perceive that their lives are going well” (Nunes et al., 2016, p. 2). A large-scale study conducted
with SA professionals (N = 2414) used well-being frameworks and literature and found well-
being and bettering the quality of professional work-life is predicated on providing “actions such
as, including setting goals, providing professional development opportunities, and encouraging a
culture of well-being” (Chessman, 2021, p. 159). Setting goals is important to a person’s short-
and long-term future (Locke & Latham, 1990) and benefits individuals with higher job
satisfaction (Benz, 2017; Rothmann, 2008) and their self-efficacy (Bandura, 1982). Additionally,
providing women resources, e.g., social support from peers, across the lifecycle of their careers
increases job satisfaction and well-being (Gervais & Millear, 2014). As the most recent
McKinsey report (2022) stated, implementing well-being practices attracts and retains women in
the workforce.
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Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion
Gallup (2022), a workplace consulting and global research firm, defined diversity as
“traits and characteristics that make people unique. … Diversity represents the full spectrum of
human differences, often based on race, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual orientation, age,
socioeconomic status, neurodiversity, and physical disability” (p. 3). Equity “involves taking into
consideration the historical and sociopolitical factors that affect opportunities and experiences so
that policies, procedures, and systems can help meet people’s unique needs without one person
or group having an unfair advantage over another” (Gallup, 2022, p. 3). Inclusion requires “an
environment where individuals are appreciated for their unique characteristics and feel
comfortable sharing their points of view and other aspects of their true, authentic self. They feel
respected, accepted, and encouraged to fully participate in the organization” (Gallup, 2022, p. 3).
Gallup uses a trademarked Q12 (12 questions) survey to determine employee engagement
annually. In 2022 Gallup mapped three survey items to equity and seven to track inclusion.
Equity items relate to fair treatment of everyone, fair pay, and equal opportunities for career
advancement (Gallup, 2022, p. 5). Inclusion items included being treated with respect, a
commitment to the strengths of each person, confidence in the employer addressing ethical or
integrity-related concerns, feeling comfortable being oneself, being a valued team member,
supervisors supporting a trusting and open environment, and having the freedom to make
decisions to do one’s job well (Gallup, 2022, p. 5). Employees are more engaged in their work
when DEI is incorporated throughout the company (Gallup, 2022).
DEI is more than a checkbox (Gallup, 2022; Magaw & Nobile, 2018). DEI requires
ongoing efforts for change requiring buy-in at the leadership level to sustain implementation
efforts (Gallup, 2022; Magaw & Nobile, 2018), a level of assessment and evaluation (Foma,
33

2014) and measuring outcomes, creating infrastructures, resolution measures, leadership
accountability, well-being resources, inclusive workforce demographics, social and
environmental impact considerations (Zheng, 2023). DEI seems to evoke a singular idea or
approach for progress to happen; however, it is important to understand and know that DEI
components are interconnected (Gallup, 2022) and need structural change initiatives (Zheng,
2023).
Promoting diversity improves a company’s reputation and its profits, safety (Druley,
2020), workforce innovation, creativity, and employee engagement (Gallup, 2022) and decision
making and lowers employee attrition (Druley, 2020; Foma, 2014; Pullinger, 2020). A diverse
workforce also increases productivity and is more likely to have teams with a multi-level
approach to understanding and problem-solving (Foma, 2014). An organization where all ideas
are welcomed, heard, and appreciated fosters a sense of belonging (Foma, 2014; Gallup, 2020).
Theoretical Framework
This research drew from Yosso’s (2005) community cultural wealth framework. Yosso
expanded CRT to support a counternarrative to the traditional Bordieuan literature that views
marginalized communities as coming from deficient cultures; instead, it situates marginalized
communities as ripe with cultural wealth.
This research focused on centering the voice of women of color working in SA at PHEU.
Specifically, this research examined women of color and their lived experiences through
navigational capital, social capital, and aspirational capital influences (Yosso, 2005) and the vast
cultural wealth women of color bring to SA at PHEU. The underlying assumption is that once
this analysis is complete and the navigational capital, social capital, and aspirational capital
34

needs are addressed, women of color will experience more opportunities for career advancement
and/or leadership in SA at PHEU.
Yosso’s model (Figure 2) consists of six cultural capital domains and is synthesized as
community cultural wealth.

Figure 2
Model of Community Cultural Wealth

Note. Adapted from Black Wealth/White Wealth: A New Perspective on Racial Inequality by M.
L. Oliver, & T. M. Shapiro, 1995. Routledge. Copyright 1995 by Routledge.

35

Yosso (2005) defined six cultural capitals that create community cultural wealth.
Linguistic capital “includes the intellectual and social skills attained through communication
experiences in more than one language and/or style” (Yosso, 2005, pp. 78–79). Familial capital
“refers to those cultural knowledges nurtured among familia (kin) that carry a sense of
community history, memory, and cultural intuition” (Yosso, 2005, p. 79). Resistance capital
“refers [to] those knowledges and skills fostered through oppositional behavior that challenges
inequality … grounded in the legacy of resistance to subordination exhibited by communities of
color” (Yosso, 2005, pp. 80–81). Navigational capital “refers to skills of maneuvering through
social institutions … infers the ability to maneuver through institutions not created with
communities of color in mind.” (Yosso, 2005, p. 80). Social capital “can be understood as
networks of people and community resources” (Yosso, 2005, pp. 79–80). Aspirational capital is
“the ability to maintain hopes and dreams for the future, even in the face of real and perceived
barriers” (Yosso, 2005, pp. 77–78).
While all six types of capital are important to understand community cultural wealth, the
three types of capital this study uses to drive the study’s focus are: navigational, social, and
aspirational because these three areas are pivotal to a women’s career success and opportunities
for career advancement and/or leadership. Women of color have unique experiences that must be
continuously navigated through these three types of capital (Yosso, 2005).
Modified Conceptual Framework
This research examined the lived experiences of women of color through navigational,
social, and aspirational capital influences (Yosso, 2005) as it pertains to career advancement
and/or leadership opportunities for women of color. The underlying assumption is that once this
analysis is complete and ‘employees’ navigational capital, social capital, and aspirational capital
36

needs are addressed and implemented, women of color will experience increased career
advancement and opportunities for leadership in SA at PHEU (Figure 3).

Figure 3
Conceptual Framework: Career Advancement and Leadership Opportunities for Women of Color: Social, Navigational and
Aspirational

Note. Adapted from “Whose Culture Has Capital? A Critical Race Theory Discussion of Community Cultural Wealth” by T. J. Yosso,
2005, Race Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 69–91, (https://doi.org/10.1080/1361332052000341006). Copyright 2005 by Taylor &
Francis.
36
38

Conclusion
There are many considerations for women seeking career advancement and leadership
opportunities. Considerations include access to role models, learning opportunities, professional
development opportunities and receiving feedback from role models whom women see as like
themselves, with the ability to complete tasks successfully (Cziraki et al., 2018; Elliot et al.,
2017). In addition to a lack of opportunities for skill building, women face gender stereotypes
that can detract from increasing self-efficacy (Debebe, 2017; Huszczo & Endres, 2017). Women
seeking career advancement and/or leadership opportunities grow higher self-efficacy and
motivation when they can practice, develop, and apply new skills that are observable and when
offered feedback (Cziraki et al., 2018; Momsen & Carlson, 2013). It is important to support
women of color in their career advancement and attainment of leadership opportunities because
women of color bring strong leadership and diversity of thought as well as necessary
combinations of leadership types that strengthen organizations’ overall growth (Baker, 2014;
Kerby & Burns, 2012; Pullinger, 2020).
Chapter Two provided the relevant concepts related to barriers to career and leadership
advancement for women of color. Chapter Three details the methodology, data collection, and
analysis.

39

Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter presented the research design and methods used for data collection and
analysis for exploring and understanding the challenges women of color experience while
seeking career advancement and/or leadership opportunities in SA at PHEU. The primary goal
was to explore this phenomenological study through the lens of cultural capital influences from
Yosso’s (2005) community cultural wealth framework. The following chapter outlines the
purpose of the study, research questions, data collection, instrumentation, participants, and data
analysis and concludes with trustworthiness, ethics, credibility, researchers’ positionality,
limitations, and delimitations.
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions
The purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological research was to evaluate how women
of color used navigational capital, social capital, and aspirational capital as they sought career
advancement and/or leadership opportunities in SA at PHEU. While a complete evaluation of the
PHEU environmental landscape would focus on all stakeholders in SA, for practical purposes,
the stakeholder focus for this inquiry was women of color who completed, at minimum, their
first year working in SA at PHEU. This inquiry used a modified model of cultural capital wealth
(Figure 2) specifically focused on the social, aspirational, and navigational capitals incorporated
in that model. With these capital influences central to this inquiry, this study addressed two
research questions:
1. How do women of color draw on their cultural wealth, knowledge, and skills to
advance their careers and or leadership opportunities?
2. How does the organization support or hinder career advancement and or leadership
opportunities for women of color?
40

Overview of Methodology
The paradigms of inquiry most aligned with this research approach are twofold;
constructivism and critical/transformative inquiry. The constructivist ontological approach
describes how individuals hold multiple, socially constructed realities through the nature of
being as well as searching for understanding, building, and applying subjective, contextual
meanings to their experiences in work and life, creating a worldview (Creswell & Creswell,
2018; Esposito & Evans-Winters, 2021). The critical/transformative paradigm brings subjective
knowledge to the fore by listening and situating the voice and experience of those who are
oppressed and unjustly denied access (Esposito & Evans-Winters, 2021). The
critical/transformative paradigm seeks to illuminate power structures and how these structures
and their policies have marginalized people throughout history and suggests transformation as an
important outcome of research in human sciences (Egbo, 2005).
The constructivism and critical/transformative paradigms helped to understand and
discover the meaning and knowledge women of color have developed from their lived
experiences. These paradigms of inquiry help to understand and support women of color
pursuing career advancement and/or leadership opportunities.
The research design for this inquiry took a qualitative, inductive research approach to
understand the social phenomena, meaning, and context for women of color and their lived
experiences with career advancement and/or leadership opportunities. Qualitative research
focuses on understanding how people interpret their experiences and build meaning based on
those experiences (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Furthermore, critical research requires an
awareness of power dynamics in participants' lived experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Using qualitative research design for this inquiry held that there are multiple realities (Creswell
41

& Creswell, 2018) for women of color that are important to their career-related experience and
career success.
This research used one-on-one, semi-structured interviews as the data collection tool. The
semi-structured interview allowed me to ask questions to prompt the conversation about the
phenomenon yet allowed for flexibility (Locke et al, 2000) as the participants responded with
their personal insights from each question (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).
Data Collection, Instrumentation, and Analysis
This research sought to center the voice and understand the lived experiences of women
of color regarding their career advancement and/or leadership opportunities in SA at PHEU. Data
were collected through 60-minute semi-structured, open-ended interviews (Appendix A).
Participants were provided information regarding the background of the study ahead of time
(Appendix B) and were invited to ask clarifying questions about the research. Participants were
provided a consent form prior to their participation in the study and were informed their
participation was optional and voluntary. Participants could opt out of the study at any time
without any negative consequences. Participants’ names were not collected, nor was any
identifiable characteristic that could have been attributed to them.
The Zoom video conferencing and recording platform provided by IT services at
University of Southern California (2022) were used to capture video, audio, and a transcript of
the interview. I kept hand-written and typed notes to mitigate any technical issues and to capture
what may not have been verbally expressed and instead was expressed through emotions and/or
shifts in the body (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002). Videos, transcripts, and research
notes were reviewed and reflected on after the completion of each interview. Videos, transcripts,
and research notes were deleted once the analysis was complete.
42

Instrumentation
This research used semi-structured interviews as the primary form of data collection.
Semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions (Patton, 2002) allowed participants to
share and elaborate on their personal experiences with me while maintaining a similar form of
data collection across all participant interviews. Semi-structured open-ended interview questions
allowed the me to build on the conversation by asking relevant questions and probing
interviewees’ responses, when needed, to gain a deeper understanding of participants’
experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2002).
Participant Stakeholders
The stakeholder group for this research consists of women of color who worked at PHEU
in SA. This research used purposeful sampling through the recruitment of 11 participants.
Purposeful sampling considers participants with one or more shared characteristics in common to
determine accounts of experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The two criteria for participants
were that they self-identify as women of color and have completed their first year of employment
in SA.
Because this research used the lens of navigational, social, and aspirational capital
(Yosso, 2005) to explore career advancement and/or leadership opportunities for women of color
at PHEU/SA (Appendix C), it is important for at least 1 year of employment at PHEU/SA to
have elapsed to fully explore the research questions. Having worked in SA at PHEU and had
people management responsibilities, I did not recruit any of my direct reports for this research. I
assigned pseudonyms to all participants.
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Data Collection Procedures
I invited participants to interview via email and provided information about the study.
The COVID-19 pandemic created a health and safety concern where meeting in person is not
preferred. Data collection took place through 60-minute video interviews via the Zoom video
conference platform (University of Southern California, 2022). I provided participants Zoom
instructions prior to interviews. Reaching data saturation is important for the quality of the
research (Fusch & Ness, 2015). I sought to interview 10–12 participants to ensure saturation
levels were reached and themes emerged (Guest et al., 2006). I interviewed 11 participants.
Informed consent allows participants an opportunity to opt out of the research process at any
time without any negative consequences for participants. I did not collect the participants’ names
at any time. I compensated the participants with a $10 gift card within a week after their
interviews.
I gave the participants a short survey to obtain demographics related to their age, gender,
race, special degrees, certifications obtained by participants, time working in PHEU/SA, and any
other information participants wanted to share (Appendix D).
Data Analysis
I used a combination of methods to analyze the data. The first was comparative analysis
(Gibbs, 2018), where findings were captured and compared to elucidate themes that emerged
from the data. This inductive approach built patterns, categories, and themes (Creswell &
Creswell, 2018). Second, I created a priori codes related to navigational, social, and aspirational
capitals that were informed by Yosso’s (2005) cultural capital influences. Ongoing data analysis
began after each interview to ensure I captured and wrote notes while still fresh in my mind, and
I continuously reviewed and reflected on the transcripts. I used Creswell’s (2014) qualitative data
44

analysis model to organize and analyze the data. The six-step model involves organizing data,
preparing them for analysis, reading through them, coding and organizing them, identifying
themes and descriptions, presenting the analysis results, and interpreting the results. This model,
presented as linear, is interrelated and does not follow any particular order (Creswell, 2014). I
used an excel spreadsheet to track a priori coding and analyze data (Appendix E).
Credibility and Trustworthiness
I conducted the primary collection of research. To build credibility and trustworthiness, I
implemented and practiced reflexivity throughout the process (Malterud, 2001). Reflexivity was
particularly important as the study involved intersectional aspects that are culturally different and
outside of my personal experience, given that I am a member of the dominant culture (Esposito
& Evans-Winters, 2021). Furthermore, I engaged in critical reflexivity and awareness of “one’s
own values and personal tastes and the purposeful examination of one’s feeling, behaviors, and
motives” (Esposito & Evans-Winters, 202, p. 17). When I had questions, I consulted the
participants and asked for clarification. I also reflected on the data with the chair of my
dissertation committee and colleagues of color to ensure I was sensitive and knowledgeable
regarding the many barriers that women of color encounter and the language used to center their
voices and experience.
Trustworthiness is critical to research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This research
considered the intersectionality of race, gender, and power dynamics inherent to being a woman
of color; therefore, it was vital for me to understand and be sensitive to positional power and
gender and race dynamics throughout conducting research (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Tilman
(2002, as cited in Esposito & Evans-Winters, 2021) explained that when conducting culturally
sensitive research, it is important to center the “knowledge and experiences” of those
45

communities who are participating in the research and to build a relationship between the
community or individual and the researcher (p. 11).
Furthermore, Merriam and Tisdell (2016) recommended ongoing transcript checking to
ensure results are represented across the data to increase reliability. Where needed, I followed up
with participants to confirm I had the correct meaning and information.
In addition to practicing reflexivity throughout the research (Malterud, 2001), I shared
my positionality, background, and interests in the problem of practice with the participants to
increase trustworthiness between them and me.
Ethics and Researcher Positionality
Using human subjects for any research involves consideration of ethical issues (Creswell
& Creswell, 2018). The researcher, while asking interviewees questions, inserts themselves into
the participants’ lives, which requires the researcher to engage in ethical research practices to
remove the risk of harm to the participant while conducting their research (Creswell & Creswell,
2018).
Qualitative research requires protecting human subjects within the process of research as
the participants share their personal experiences through interview questions and probes for a
deeper understanding of their lived experiences. Some of the information shared was personal,
and participants did experience unexpected feelings. An unexpected feeling arose as participants
mentioned that it “felt good to share feelings and frustrations.” I took the University of Southern
California’s (USC) training to adhere to the requirements of USC’s Institutional Review Board
(IRB) for the protection of human subjects and understood the imperative to protect the privacy
of participants to avoid harm. I offered the participants an information sheet of counseling and
46

psychological services available to them at PHEU if they wanted to process feelings that arose
during the interview. No participants asked for or wanted the resource sheet.
Consent and Confidentiality for Research Participants
Consent to voluntarily participate in the research was given to participants through the
information sheet for exempt research (Appendix E), which outlined the purpose of the research
and the participants’ right to stop their participation in the research at any time without negative
consequences.
Verbal consent was obtained from participants prior to interviews and data collection. All
information was stored on my secure, password-protected personal computer and deleted upon
completion of data analysis. Per USC IRB, I asked participants to give verbal consent to confirm
their participation. I notified them that they could opt out of the research at any time without any
negative consequences. I asked them to consent to the interview being recorded. To ensure no
identifying information was attributed to individual participants, I assigned each a pseudonym to
protect their anonymity. I conducted the interviews via the Zoom platform. I gave the
participants instructions on how to use the Zoom platform and how to anonymize their names
ahead of the interviews.
Researcher ’s Positionality
I am a White woman and someone who held a management role at the time of data
collection. I also held a coaching role in SA at PHEU. I did not coach any of the participants. I
chose this topic to highlight and address the multiple barriers women of color face with career
advancement and/or leadership opportunities. This topic is important to better understand how to
support women of color in their aspirations and goal attainment for their career success. My
interest in this topic evolved from coaching and supporting women in their career pursuits. As a
47

coach and manager, I noticed, through coaching conversations, the nuanced concerns of women
of color can be different from White women’s experiences. This was particularly noticeable
when considering the multiple intersectional considerations inherent to women of color.
Understanding that women’s work and lived experiences in the workplace are not a monolith
encouraged me to dig deeper into the phenomenon women of color face daily in the workplace,
particularly while considering career advancement and/or leadership opportunities.
As a female, first-generation, low-income graduate student, I often experienced barriers
to career advancement and securing leadership opportunities. Over my career, I needed to learn
how to navigate workplace policies and cultures to gain access to people and resources that
would help me succeed while I maintained my aspirations, despite countless barriers and
hardships as a single mother raising three children. I continue to experience this as a White
woman with the privileges of education who had already obtained a management position with
leadership responsibilities and organizational input. I recognized how difficult it can be to be a
woman working and navigating expectations, gender biases, and workplace policies that can
prevent women from accessing the support structures for career advancement and/or leadership
opportunities. I am aware that colleagues who are women of color experience much greater
barriers to career advancement and/or leadership opportunities and are required to work even
harder to be seen and valued in systems that otherwise question their knowledge, actions,
presence, and their value-add to an organization.
While I benefited from learning from participants and the research, I hoped to contribute
to the body of research and to encourage significant change in how SA recognizes the important
cultural backgrounds and contributions of women of color and how these contributions are vital
in supporting them as they go about the business of supporting students throughout students’
48

tenure at PHEU. I hoped to contribute to the greater understanding of how to incorporate the vast
richness of community cultural wealth these women hold and continue to bring to SA and higher
education.
Compensation
Participants were sent a $10 gift card for their time and involvement in the interview.
Limitations
Limitations are the influences on the research that the researcher cannot control (Creswell
& Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This research's limitations were its context and
access to participants. The pandemic limited access to participants for face-to-face interviews
due to hybrid work models, a distributed workforce, and the social distancing necessary for
health and safety reasons.
I conducted interviews through Zoom’s online video conferencing platform. Participation
was, at times, limited due to technical issues like suddenly being dropped from the internet and
unreliable Wi-Fi. Not all participants knew how to change or delete their names for anonymity.
Instead, I removed their names from the data set. Two interviewees had a family member enter
the digital space during the interview, which caused slight distractions for them. When this
happened, we paused the interview and restarted once a confidential space was re-established.
Delimitations
Delimitations are choices and boundaries set by the researcher to carry out the research
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The research examined the lived
experiences of women of color working in SA at PHEU and was limited to non-White women
who had worked there for no less than 1 year. Not all cultural and racial backgrounds of women
of color were represented in this research. Additionally, this research and analysis did not include
49

the lived experiences of other stakeholders. This research did not include stakeholders such as
students, faculty, employees working under temporary contractual work, and employees working
in unionized areas. These stakeholders may hold different views and insights regarding career
advancement and/or leadership opportunities than the participants interviewed.
Chapter Three provided an overview of the methodology, data collection,
instrumentation, method of analysis, consent and confidentiality for participants, ethics,
researcher’s positionality and limitations and delimitations of the research used to undertake this
qualitative research approach.
Chapter Four shares research findings related to the research questions:
1. How do women of color draw on their cultural wealth, knowledge, and skills to
advance their careers and leadership opportunities?
2. How does the organization support or hinder career advancement or leadership
opportunities for women of color?

50

Chapter Four: Findings
The research aimed to explore the skills, navigational capital, social capital, and
aspirational capital of women of color as they seek career advancement and leadership
opportunities in the SA division at PHEU. In addition, this research sought to center the voices of
women of color to understand their lived experiences of navigating the workplace environment,
gaining opportunities to build connections to people and resources, and maintaining aspirational
goals while moving toward career or leadership advancement.
Cultural Capital Wealth
As stated in Chapter Two, this research applied three of six cultural capital wealth tenets
(Yosso, 2005) to explore and center the participants’ voices: navigational capital, aspirational
capital, and social capital. Navigational capital refers to using learned skills to navigate spaces
and systems not traditionally set up for people of color to succeed. Aspirational capital refers to
maintaining hope for a better future despite barriers. Social capital determines one’s ability to
access networks of people and resources for support as one navigates spaces (Yosso, 2005). The
following research questions guided the qualitative research and the interview protocol:
1. How do women of color draw on their cultural wealth, knowledge, and skills to
advance their careers and leadership opportunities?
2. How does the organization support or hinder career advancement or leadership
opportunities for women of color?
Description of the Participants
I sorted the 11 participants into wide age ranges to protect their anonymity (Table 1). The
research inclusion criteria required participants to identify as a woman of color and have worked
in the SA division at PHEU for a minimum of 1 year. All participants reported working in the
51

division for no less than 4 years. The interviewees represented six of the seven main SA
departments.
The presentation of the findings attempts to honor and center the participants’ voices and
experiences. The following are short biographies describing the participants. Information
regarding their demographics and experiences was modified or omitted to provide anonymity.
Table 1 shows the participants’ demographics.

Table 1
Summary of Participants’ Demographics (n = 11)
Participant
pseudonym
Age
range
Years
worked
in SA
Racially identify as

Highest
level of
education
Possesses
certifications or
additional
training
Aileen 28–35 6–10 Asian/Asian American Masters Yes
Camila 36–43 11+ Hispanic/Latinx Masters Yes
Lakshmi 36–43 6–10 Asian/Asian American Masters Yes
Paulina 52+ 11+ Hispanic/Latinx Masters Yes
Rhaina 44–52 11+ Black/African American Bachelors No
Shima 36–43 11+ Asian/Asian American Masters Yes
Shonda 52+ 1–5 Black/African American Bachelors Yes
Sofia 20–27 1–5 Middle Eastern/Caucasian Masters No
Suyin 44–52 6–10 Asian/Asian American Bachelors No
Tammy 44–52 1–5 Hispanic/Latinx/Caucasian Masters No
Tina 28–35 1–5 Asian American/Black Associates No

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Aileen
As an undergraduate, Aileen was involved in residential education. That experience
encouraged her to move into student development. Aileen is motivated to “make a tangible
difference” and values communication and conflict resolution. Aileen also values varying
opinions and feels as though
we can make relationships, but then it’s another thing to maintain relationships. It
requires a lot of work. … I didn’t take a lead from my parents on how to go to college,
make connections and be professional, but I did learn from them how to have a strong
work ethic, almost to the point of instilling perfectionism, and I also learned how to show
up and be present. My parents told me I needed to represent my culture appropriately.
Prior to joining PHEU, Aileen had regular conversations with her supervisor at her previous
company. At the time, that supervisor also shared her Asian American identity. She has not had
any career conversations with her supervisor at PHEU/SA. She said, “Oh, I’m still waiting for
that conversation. I’ll probably be the one who brings it up.”
Camila
Camila is in a supervisory role with a small team. Camila is also a mother. During her
undergraduate studies, mentors encouraged her to work in SA. Camila values truth, family, and
purpose. She is fascinated by people and behavior change. While Camila has had many mentors,
“none of them have been women of color, which is incredibly painful.” She mentioned she has
always looked for someone who looks like her to connect with and share stories: “There is all
this talk of uplifting women, women of color uplifting other women of color, but there is not
much action.” Camila has not had any career conversation with her current manager, who,
Camila states, “is a non-White woman.”
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Lakshmi
Lakshmi’s employment background is in the financial industry rather that higher
education. Lakshmi wanted to work at PHEU and started with a temporary position she obtained
through a third-party temporary placement agency. Eventually, Lakshmi was hired into a
permanent position and has continued to advance to higher-level roles. Lakshmi’s cultural
background and family influenced her career by teaching her “to be respectful toward my
supervisors.” She stated, “Ethics and being ethical have always been fundamental in my family.
Having ethics has been passed down to me my whole life.” Lakshmi values her family, showing
respect, following her morals, working hard, putting in the effort, doing a good job and being
efficient and organized. Lakshmi is also a mother.
Her career conversations have included saying to her supervisors, who have always been
in leadership roles, “I want to be a leader and a change-maker.” Lakshmi explained that she “can
be a change-maker [when she puts in the effort]. I’m offered more opportunities when I do my
work well.”
Paulina
Paulina attended PHEU as an undergraduate and loved participating in student activities.
As a student, she was involved in community outreach efforts and focused on supporting
minorities. She values supporting students and people who are underrepresented. She values
education, family, faith, and relationships. She oversees a large team at PHEU and is also a
mother. Paulina’s family has always supported her and encouraged her to have an impact. She
stated,
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My family is really huge on the fact that titles don’t matter. It is more about the impact
you are having on other people. It matters what you are doing for other people. That
message has really stuck with me my whole career.
In her more than 11 years of experience in SA, Paulina has only had a few conversations about
her career and areas she would like to grow. She recently had a career conversation with her
supervisor. She stated,
He’s very encouraging, in terms of, you know, saying that it’s [what I’m interested in]
great and everything, and like, good luck and have fun. It hasn’t been constructive since
my career focus is not an area he knows about.
Rhaina
Rhaina obtained a bachelor’s degree while married and having children. She also has
medical assistance training and has worked in SA for more than 11 years. She stated that she
“had gone from one administrative job to another before applying to and joining SA as an
administrative assistant, … and I have been in the same administrative role ever since.” Rhaina
values kindness, family, her faith, helping students, and the opportunity to grow. Her husband
inspires and motivates her to keep going and keep speaking up. However, regarding career
conversations, she stated, “I have asked many times if I can take on more work, but my boss has
never trusted that I can do more.” Despite asking several times and, over the years, being
promised a conversation that would include stretch assignments and support to take on more
opportunities, Rhaina was continuously rejected but remained hopeful that her role would
expand. However, after years of absent conversations, Rhaina finally gave up: “I just stopped
bringing it up. It’s too frustrating.”

55

Shima
Shima holds a supervisory role and oversees a small team. As an undergraduate in
college, she was involved in student activities where she engaged with administrative leaders and
staff. These interactions helped solidify a path for a future career. Shima values connections,
diplomacy, and multiculturalism. Her family
did not have typical expectations for me to be a certain thing [like a doctor]. They instead
emphasized learning. My parents put a very high value on learning. There was a heavy
emphasis on engagement and learning about things, about yourself, and learning for the
sake of learning.
Shima has had minimal interactions or conversations about her career in the 11 years since
joining PHEU/SA. Shima stated, “I have tried [to talk about my career] once or twice, but it has
never panned out to anything.”
Shonda
After 4 years of applying to positions at PHEU, Shonda secured her first role as an
administrative assistant. Shonda values kindness, respect, and excellence. As a teenager, she
traveled to assist with humanitarian efforts and moved to the United States to complete her 4-
year college degree. After completing college, she wanted to return to and have an impact on her
home country, but it was too dangerous to return home. So, on her mother’s advice, she stayed in
the United States. Shonda’s home country taught her that women are passive, pretty, and silent.
However, she is happy to be “in service” to others and says she has never had a vision for
furthering her career:
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I didn’t know what that looked like, you know? There was no specific career I looked at
and said I wish I could do that. No one ever sat down with me and said let’s create a
vision for you.
Sofia
Sofia recently obtained a master’s degree. While in college, Sofia engaged in student
government and interacted with several administrators. She also participated in a program that
encourages people with less-represented identities in higher education to go into higher
education, specifically SA. Through this program, Sofia met with a program mentor every other
week and further developed her interest in working in higher education. She values learning,
education, and setting boundaries for work. She also thinks it helps to set realistic expectations
for her supervisor: “They can’t be everything to us or me. They are human.” Working in SA is
meaningful for Sofia. She mentioned, “Growing up, I always felt safest and happiest in the
educational setting. Working in education means a lot to me.” In terms of her career
conversations, Sofia has had one career conversation in 4 years with one person working in
leadership in SA and stated,
It wasn’t like I walked away knowing what I wanted to do with my future, but I think
more highly of that person since they took the time to meet with me for 30 minutes.
However, that’s it. I have yet to talk with anyone else, like a supervisor. They’re busy.
They’re not really looking out for us.
Suyin
Suyin is a child of immigrants and grew up in a very Caucasian area of the United States,
where she did not have a connection to her cultural identity. She states, “It’s only recently that I
57

have started to claim some of my culture back.” Suyin shared that, since joining PHEU, her
supervisors have been a “mixed bag:”
I’ve had very few great bosses in SA. I know they exist because I’ve heard others talk
about them, but I’ve not had the good fortune to have one. It’s interesting because I do
not feel like I need a great boss. I just need an average boss that isn’t so negative and
doesn’t lack integrity. My boss has never had anything positive to say about me or my
career. So, we don’t talk about it.
Suyin is a mother and appreciates the recognition of a job well done. She values teamwork,
interesting projects, the arts, and her private time away from work.
Tammy
After many years working in other industries and roles, Tammy found herself
unemployed. After a year of unemployment, Tammy contacted her PHEU connections and
informed them she was looking for a job. Shortly afterward, Tammy received a few SA job
postings, for which Tammy applied, and she ultimately got her dream role. She stated, “I am a
mission-driven professional and focus on helping students become a whole person, not just on
the academic side, but to be happy, healthy, and high-achieving, good citizens. That is my
purpose.” Tammy values creativity, trust, and autonomy. She has struggled with her racial and
ethnic identity because, as she stated, she is “White-passing.” She received mixed messages
about her ethnicity from her father. Her father told her that while they are “brown,” they are “not
one of [those] Mexicans.” He pushed Tammy to work hard and understand her privilege. She
attributes her past and current success to her mentors and professional relationships. Tammy’s
current boss frequently conducts career conversations with Tammy about her short- and long-
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term career goals and provides resources and encouragement for personal and professional
growth: “My boss is grooming me to take over for her one day.”
Tina
Tina shared that she has a hidden disability and always strives to learn and excel in
everything she does. She is motivated by helping students. Tina has worked in SA for more than
5 years as an assistant and values authenticity, creativity, and respect. Tina was working for a

third-party temporary placement agency when she heard of an open role at PHEU/SA. Tina
applied for a position through a personal connection at SA and quickly received a job offer. Tina
is inspired by images of powerful women “like Michele Obama; she is a professional baddy.”
She is also inspired by her mother, who is Asian American and, at one time, owned her own
business. Tina has not had anyone ask where she wants to go in her career and stated, “I would
love some constructive feedback so I can grow in my job and get better and eventually move
forward.”
Findings of Research Question 1
Research Question 1 explored how women of color draw on their cultural wealth,
knowledge, and skills to advance their careers and leadership opportunities in SA at PHEU.
Participant interviews (N = 11) took place over 2 weeks in May and June 2022. The interview
protocol presented 17 questions to participants. Ten of the 11 participants answered all 17
questions. Two questions were used to build rapport, 10 questions were used to understand
navigational, social, and aspirational cultural wealth, knowledge, and skills for career
advancement or leadership opportunities, and five were asked to understand the organizational
barriers or supports to advance women of color in their career or leadership opportunities.
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Because these interviews were dynamic, many responses overlapped interview questions and
addressed both research questions.
The following section will cover findings from both research questions. Participants were
honest and open in discussing their personal experiences of using their skills, knowledge, and
cultural capital to access career or leadership advancement at PHEU in the SA division. Many
times, participants shed tears and shared frustrations while maintaining hope and a vision for
their future career advancement or leadership opportunities outside of and beyond working at
PHEU/SA.
The findings below center the participants’ personal experiences. After introducing the
findings related to participants’ descriptions of their working environment, I share findings from
Research Questions 1 and 2 as related to three of Yosso’s (2005) tenets of cultural capital wealth:
navigational, social, and aspirational.
PHEU/SA Working Environment
Participants shared a variety of experiences related to the culture at PHEU/SA. Six
participants describe the environment in positive terms. Tina shares, “I love working in SA. I
find it fun and diverse, and I love the mission of supporting students.” Similarly, Tammy stated,
“I’m currently in a role I find very supportive. I feel like SA colleagues are my people because I
am very mission-driven.” Rhaina stated, “It’s a good working environment. Everyone seems
friendly.” Paulina, the participant with the longest tenure in SA, explained how SA has changed
during her tenure of over 11 years: “[It] has changed a lot over the years. I found it collegial
when I first started. Offices and work have shifted and moved around a lot over the years. SA is
still collegial, but now it is very scattered.”
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Despite feeling happy and lucky to do the work she really cares about, Sophia attributed
recent changes in SA to the 2019 COVID pandemic: “I mean, I think it’s changed a lot since
COVID. I will say it feels like there’s a stronger and bigger gap between all of us. There’s not as
much of a community.” Lakshmi described her initial experience when joining her department:
“When I first arrived, our department was going through a lot of reorganization, and people were
pretty upset. However, I view SA as inclusive. For example, I work in business, and I participate
in a variety of conversations.”
Five participants said they found the culture to be political. Camila, who has worked in
SA for more than 11 years, described the working environment as “very toxic, White-dominated,
privileged, distrustful, under-resourced, understaffed, and academically snobby.” She further
emphasized, “It has been extremely difficult to be in these spaces as a woman of color. … There
is a lot of double-speak (i.e., be yourself, be authentic, but you’re punished when you do).”
Participants described the culture as one that withholds vital information and how the lack of
information creates gossip and a difference in power dynamics. Camila stated, “People want to
be on the inside and want to know, and because information is held so tightly, it causes a lot of
gossip.” Like Camila, Suyin shared, “Managers hold tight to information. There’s this unspoken
system and structure of information that benefit some and leave out others. The people in power
feel and act like they are superior. Like they are entitled because of their title.”
Aileen shared, “The culture is a bit of a political and emotional roller coaster. Lately,
though, there’s this sudden reckoning where we recognize it’s a lot of work, and we’re tired and
underpaid, and our leaders are not listening.” Recognizing the overall environment, Aileen
shared, “[The] SA environment is very hierarchical. There is a communication disconnect
between administrators and lower-level [staff]. Lower-level staff are not provided a seat at the
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decision-making table.” Paulina shared a similar sentiment: “I’ve attended SA all-staff meetings.
It’s obvious [our office] is on the periphery. When you’re on the periphery, you don’t feel like
you belong, especially when the work you do isn’t recognized because other offices in SA rank
higher.” Suyin pointed out her experience with hierarchy, as it determines which departments
division leadership focuses on: “It is not a great thing to have to say, but for the sake of
comparison, Blackness is treated as a priority in SA, and hidden disabilities are largely ignored.”
Navigational Capital
Navigational capital, as Yosso (2005) explained, refers to the “skills of maneuvering
through social institutions … not created with communities of color in mind … developing skills
and strategies to navigate through racially-hostile university campuses … and do well, despite
the presence of stressful events and conditions” (p. 80).
Navigating Workplace Environment
During interviews, participants discussed strategies and skills needed to navigate their
working environment. Camila has navigated her working environment by censoring herself and
selectively choosing when to speak up in meetings or at events. In addition to censoring herself,
Camila mentioned leaning on her White allies to raise concerns or issues: “I text my White allies
to say what needs to be said in meetings, and it helps. It helps a lot, actually.” She further
explained, “If I speak up, I’m afraid I’ll be punished by being refused resources. It’s burned me
too many times. So, I do keep things close to my chest. I navigate the space by staying silent.”
Aileen also expressed caution: “I think higher education can be very political in many ways.
Being able to read those politics … and being strategic about what I say are essential skills to
have working here.”
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The participants also described the difficulty of navigating spaces due to a lack of
communication from managers and leaders withholding information. Shima said, “There is a lot
of power oppression, and, like, who gets to say what. It’s a lot of who gets what, and how do I
get access to that?” Suyin noted, “Managers hold tight to information. There’s, like, this
unspoken system and structure of information that benefit a select few.” Lastly, Camila shared,
“The currency in SA is information because of how it’s closely guarded and because how things
are so private. People want to be on the inside, … and so, I think that that’s why the gossip mills
turn.”
Using Navigational Skills to Build Professional Relationships and Enter Spaces
Communicating effectively, building professional relationships, and effective technical
skills provide access to resources, such as high-visibility projects, mentorship, learning
opportunities, comradery, and a sense of belonging. These relationships and technical skills
provide access to information and knowledge to support a woman’s understanding of how to
navigate conversations and workplace politics, leading to learning opportunities.
Five participants discussed communication and relationship skills as necessary
components to navigating their workplace environment and creating professional relationships.
Communication and relationship skills are necessary for navigating day-to-day interactions,
attending meetings, sending correspondence, and following directions to complete the goals and
objectives of one’s work requirements. Paulina uses relationship-building skills: “I find people
who have knowledge and understanding that I don’t have, and then I listen and learn from them
to navigate important decisions.” Tina shared she builds professional relationships by “being
reliable and supportive. In public settings, I purposely and intentionally talk about our office and
what we do. My boss noticed I was doing this and decided to make me a point of contact for
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marketing.” Tina further shared, “I wasn’t in that position before. I go to staff networking events,
talk up our office, and build relationships. This is something our office doesn’t really have. It
kind of makes me a little bit more important.”
Shonda shared, “It pays to be a good person and treat others kindly. So, being a good
person matters a lot. You don’t get ahead by stepping on other people.” Shima stated that care
and compassion for others and being self-reflective have helped her connect to others
professionally: “I use self-reflection, humility, and understanding, which have helped me be
relatable to others. I’m also transparent, honest, and I’m flexible to other’s points of view.”
Rhaina shared that she networks and shadows “others who are working in similar areas to build
relationships. I also do a lot of listening so I can connect to others.”
Suyin uses her “listening skills and asks for clarification so I can give [managers and
directors] exactly what they are looking for.” She further shared, “I just try to do a really good
job to solve the problem and hope that some good press about my work will open a door
somewhere else sometime.” Like Suyin, Lakshmi uses listening to understand and solve
problems to successfully navigate her work environment: “I navigate the space by anticipating
the needs and answers leadership is looking for by listening for key ideas and concepts. I’m
sensitive to using information and process improvement to solve problems.”
It is worth noting that two participants discussed how their technical skills helped them
build professional relationships and access interesting projects where they feel valued and
engaged. Sophia shared that her age and ability to handle projects requiring a degree of technical
difficulty and efficiency have made it easier for her to engage in spaces that are typically not
offered to someone in her position:
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I’m relatively young and more connected to the generation and things that are happening
on our campus. I also have professional skills like research and being able to quickly do
things on the computer, and it makes people want to have me around. I get to be a part of
a lot of different projects.
Aileen shared that her use of technology in higher education is a strategic way to enter spaces
and build relationships:
Universities and colleges make decisions ultimately based on being a business. So, I
make sure to use metrics, reasoning, and data to approach my work. When I have any
specific asks, I make certain to back it up with data and reasoning. Ultimately, if you are
tech-savvy and use systems thinking, you are given more value in some places with some
people.
Aspirational Capital
Participants shared their aspirational goals, what motivates them to seek career
advancement or leadership opportunities, and where their future lies. Their future goals do not
include working in SA. Nine participants see their future careers working outside of SA. Only
two participants expressed satisfaction with where they are in terms of their careers and see a
future in SA for the foreseeable future. Participants’ future career decisions are in part due to
their personal lives and levels of job satisfaction. Three main themes emerged when addressing
participants’ future aspirational goals: working outside of SA, buying time in SA, and remaining
in SA. I begin with the nine participants who expressed their aspirations for moving outside of
working in SA, including participants who currently work in SA but wish to move on to roles
outside of higher education. I then share the narratives of two participants who mentioned
looking forward to continuing their careers in SA.
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Working Outside of Student Affairs
Five participants discussed their future careers as working outside of SA. Tina shared her
aspirational goal: “My future career looks like ‘independence.’ It’s on my own time, at my own
pace. I want to follow my mother’s footsteps and be a business owner of a nonprofit. That’s my
road to success.” Similarly, Rhaina explained, “Someday, I want to have my own business. I
can’t do it right now, but I want to soon, but, first, I’ll need to consider my ability to pay for
medical benefits long-term since I have kids.” Despite having worked in upper-level
management positions for more than 11 years, Paulina eventually plans to leave higher education
altogether. She aspires to work in human resources to help other women of color develop
professionally: “I’m looking to move into people development. I don’t care if I have to take a
step back and start at the bottom. I want to lift others up. There are too many [women of color]
doubting their skills and abilities.”
Aileen shared that she is uncertain about where her future will be and is considering the
possibility of moving out of higher education:
If I remain in the [SA] field, and that is a big if, I see myself moving towards [DEI] work.
I’ve learned a lot of what I can do within the DEI space. I am also considering bringing
everything that I’ve learned to the tech industry. There is a lot of [DEI] work to be done,
and I feel it is the next meaningful step for me.
Like Aileen, Sophia questions if she will stay in SA and does not have a clear picture of what
that would look like:
Honestly, the nearest that I kind of see is eventually being a director of an office, you
know, maybe in the next 5 years or so. And then maybe after that helping to lead like a
unit, you know, something along those lines. I’m not someone who wants to go all the
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way up in the chain. So, if I were to stay in SA, then, you know, I would see myself
maybe like an AVP or something. I don’t know. I can’t really see it right now.
Sophia works in the DEI space and recognizes diversity, equity, and inclusion as an important
ambition of hers: “[DEI] is obviously an area where a lot of companies are trying to advance.”
Sophia’s main concern about continuing DEI work in higher education stems from what she
considers a deficient salary: “I’m not gonna lie, I have looked at other job opportunities and
other fields [outside of higher ed]. I’ve always felt like I would stay in SA, but the lack of
reasonable pay causes me to constantly look elsewhere.”
Buying Time in Student Affairs
Four participants mentioned their time is limited in their current roles in SA and are
maintaining their current roles while looking to move on when they can. Having worked in SA
for more than 11 years, Camila does not feel as though her future career in SA looks promising:
I have a few more years left, and then I gotta get out of here. I feel like I’m not going to
get promoted. Because of my experience with leadership, I put the idea of career
advancement aside a long time ago. I’m tapped out in SA. I could maybe do a lateral
move at best. … I’m pretty sure there’s nothing I would be handpicked for or asked to
apply for based on the way I think I’m perceived in our unit.
Shima, who holds a higher-level position, is unsure of her future in SA. She does want to
continue working in the higher education space by working more on “lifting others up” and
through advocacy work. She stated, “I see myself putting together and shaping policy and
messaging.” She also aspires to have a higher income, a higher title, and more career
progression: “I do want to see progression in my career growth and my title, and I want more
pay. I don’t necessarily want more work. We’re already overworked.” She shared the conditions
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SA would need to change for her to stay: “If I continue working in SA, it would mean my work
is recognized and that I feel a sense of belonging. Student affairs needs to do a better job at
helping people feel as though they belong.”
Shonda shared that she is “buying time” in her current role while developing her side
business: “I’ll finish my journey at PHEU soon and then go into my own social media business.
I’m working on that on the side during my own time. I’ll be much more successful in that role.”
Shonda further stated, “By the time I leave, which is very soon, I’ll have built a successful
business I’ve aspired to. I know it is not [an] SA aspiration, but an aspiration is an aspiration.”
Suyin, who expressed unhappiness in her role, looks forward to her future outside of SA and
explained, “Eventually, I want to work in the arts. I won’t work here anymore. But for now, and
the foreseeable future, I’m just going to make the best of whatever I can for as long as I can
tolerate it.”
While nine participants do not see a future working in SA, two do see a promising future
in SA. The two participants expressed satisfaction with where they are in terms of their careers.
Lakshmi, who is in management and has had continued career conversations, continued
advancement, and increased responsibility, sees her future in SA. She stated,
I’m happy where I am right now. I used to be a lot more driven, but my focus in life right
now has changed. I’m focused on a good work-life balance, on being a good mom, and
being a good worker, you know, trying to balance those two things. I’m taking a pause on
my eagerness for career advancement.
Tammy, who shared that SA colleagues “are [her] people” and loves her job, sees herself
eventually becoming the director of her current area and has had the encouragement, support,
and guidance from her direct manager on how to succeed in her next role:
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I see myself moving more into leadership in the area I’m in now. Let’s just say I am
being trained and encouraged to take over the director role. I still need to apply for the
role when it’s time, but my boss assured me that I will get her job when she leaves.
Social Capital
Yosso (2005) described social capital as “networks of people and community resources.
These peer and other social contacts can provide both instrumental and emotional support to
navigate through society’s institutions” (p. 79).
Lack of Mentorship
When asked if they have been mentored by women or women of color at any time
regarding career advancement or leadership opportunities, the participants’ answer was no.
While some had mentors, it does not appear those mentorship moments did much for career
advancement or leadership opportunities.
Eight women have had few to no mentor relationships. Shonda shared that through
working with a career coach, she learned to speak up, voice concerns, and share her opinions in
meetings: “Learning those things was really powerful because, in my culture, you don’t talk.
Period.” When asked specifically if she has had a mentor, Shonda stated, “No, never, not in all
my life. I guess it’s my fault, too. I could have asked for help.” Tina shared, “I haven’t been
mentored while working here. My mentor experience has been mostly from my mom and sisters,
or people I admire, like Michelle Obama.” Similarly, Rhaina could not think of a time she had
been mentored or had a mentoring conversation with someone at work: “I participated in a staff
coaching program that was like mentoring. I guess a family member mentors me. We’ve talked
about me opening my business. She has a business, too. Otherwise, I can’t think of any other
mentor conversations.”
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Aileen mentioned, “A lot of the opportunities I’ve had for growth or learning how to
navigate a space has come from previous mentors.” She further explained, “However, I think that
for me, I haven’t quite found [mentorship] here at PHEU.” Shima also shared that her
mentorship experience has been limited to working at her previous institutions: “I haven’t been
mentored at PHEU. I had a vice provost at another school mentor me. They have the same
identity as I have, and they are still a friend to this day.” Shima also mentioned, “It [mentorship]
would be helpful to build more confidence in understanding dynamics and what is in my control
and out of my control. It would also help me be a better mentor to others” Sophia similarly
shared the benefit of connecting to a mentor:
In a lot of ways, having a mentor is like having someone who really sees you and
believes in you is probably the biggest thing. Just having someone to talk to, whether
that’s to vent or share good news. Someone who understands where you’re at, like
they’ve been in the field, and they know. Also, just kind of seeing yourself in them, you
know?
Paulina said, “I’ve had an informal mentor in my life for a long time. We’re still friends,
and I still meet with her.” Paulina explained, “She’s Latina and works in a different industry. I’m
usually the one who reaches out, though. I’ve also had informal peer mentors who are not
women of color where I’d say we mentor each other.” Lakshmi holds an expanded view on
mentorship and believes that mentorship comes in many forms: “I see anyone who has trained
me and helped me with my career as someone who is a mentor to me.”
Career Advancement and Professional Development
People in positions of leadership can act as advocates for women seeking learning
opportunities to improve their skills and advance their careers. Leaders also have access to and
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knowledge of leadership opportunities, such as participating in hiring committees, sitting on a
board, leading a high-visibility project, and working cross-functionally with a different office
that exposes staff to new colleagues through networking. Managers and directors play a vital role
in helping women succeed in advancing their careers.
Participants were asked about their career-related conversations with people in leadership
positions. The people in these positions were current managers, the managers’ manager, and
other people in leadership positions in the SA division. Nine participants mentioned having had
few to no career conversations with someone in a leadership position.
Shonda, who has worked in the SA division for more than 4 years, stated, “I don’t think
I’ve ever had any conversations about my career.” Camila’s experience was similar: “I haven’t
had those conversations. I’ve just talked about [my career goals] with my peers and my White
allies who don’t work here at SA.” Suyin shared, “I don’t have one-on-ones where those
conversations would happen. I don’t get feedback about my work from my director. I do get
great feedback from other projects I work on with other directors, just not my director.”
Tina also stated, “I haven’t had those conversations in my current role. I’ve been in this role for
more than 2 years. I had a couple of conversations in my previous role. Nothing major, though.”
Tina further shared the desire to receive feedback so she could improve: “I wish my current
supervisor would be a little more, what’s the word? Constructive. I would love feedback, so I
know how to get better. I’d be driven to stretch myself more if I received some feedback.”
Rhaina shared, “I’ve had a conversation with my new boss, but it’s because they want to
know what I do, and they’re looking at my job description”.
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Paulina stated, “I’ve had a few conversations, but they’re not helpful. They encourage me
to go after what I’m interested in. It’s like, “Good luck. ... Have fun.” But they don’t know the
area I’m interested in, so it’s not much help.” Sophia shared,
Um, honestly, I have probably had one conversation. And it wasn’t that it was so helpful.
I think them being willing to have a 30-minute Zoom call with me spoke volumes, even
though they didn’t say anything revolutionary, or they weren’t particularly helpful in the
sense that they gave me the answers to my concerns. Even so, I appreciated their time.
Access to Career or Leadership Opportunities
When asked how they access career or leadership opportunities for their professional
growth, seven participants mentioned that they have not had access to them. Shonda, who is in
an administrative role, stated, “I see other people advance, but that’s not my journey,
apparently.” When asked if she has had access to opportunities, Camila simply stated, “I
haven’t.”
Tina, who has not had access to career advancement or leadership opportunities, stated, “I
haven’t really had access to those things. Once, I talked to someone that was a peer, and they
gave me resources to continue down an alternate path I was exploring.” Rhaina and Tammy
shared that they have begun to think about accessing career or leadership opportunities. Rhaina
explained that she is “taking more initiative in putting myself out there to see if I can get more
involved in things going on in the division. Recently, I attended my very first conference. I’ve
been here over 11 years.” Tammy shared, “I’ve become more dedicated to my career growth and
plan to take more advantage of career resources PHEU/SA has in order to advance my career.”
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Four participants shared that they have tried engaging in career and leadership
advancement and have recognized their progress has been slow and challenging. Shima stated,
“Honestly, I feel stuck.” She explained,
The women of color I graduated with are at other institutes, and they are 6 or 7 years
ahead of me, and it makes me feel like, what is it that I’m not doing or that I don’t have?
I do see women of color getting ahead other places. Just not here. I know it’s important to
advocate for yourself. I feel like I am trying to advocate for myself, but I’m not being
heard. Everything is shot down. It leaves me questioning my value.
Paulina, who is in senior management and has the longest tenure of study participants at
SA (more than 11 years), shared her challenges with accessing leadership opportunities:
I attended a leadership program outside of PHEU. I sought it out. It wasn’t given to me. I
was grateful for the university for paying for some of it. And I’ve been a member of
professional associations early on in my career, but the more I moved up, the less time I
had to attend those events and network with people. I have a family, and a lot of times, I
had to choose between going to conferences to learn and grow or being with my family. I
chose family. Choices of where I focused my career growth had to be made. And I made
those decisions the best that I could.
Sophia shared that she has had limited opportunities in her department “on a smaller
scale without much outside visibility for my work.” Sophia stated,
I don’t think that I genuinely have had any access to any leadership opportunities.
I’ve applied to be on hiring committees or other random things but haven’t really heard
back. There are so few leadership opportunities shared with us, and there’s really a lack
of interest in our assistance. Developmentally, that is career related, I have done or taken
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on because of my own push or quest for it. Sometimes there’s support to attend a
conference or to attend a webinar, but a lot of times, it’s because I searched it out. Like
it’s not because someone said, ‘Hey, I think you should attend this.’ It does take a lot of
like personal onus to access professional resources. And that’s unfortunate.
Like Sophia, Aileen stated that leadership and career opportunities have mostly come
from her purposeful engagement in her own professional growth:
I’ve been involved in a leadership group outside of SA. That was something I pursued
through being connected to an affinity group. And there’s been financial support when I
wanted to attend a conference. But there hasn’t really been any ongoing conversation
about, like, what did you learn or what did you do while you were away? There is no
follow-up.
Summary of Findings for Research Question 1
As the research findings suggest, participants do not see a future working in SA. They are
not accessing career or leadership opportunities and are not engaging in career conversations
with managers or supervisors that can provide direction and resources for success. Additionally,
participants conveyed having had limited mentoring in their careers and expressed a lack of a
clear path or access to career advancement or leadership opportunities.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 addressed how the organization supports or hinders career
advancement or leadership opportunities for women of color. Participants shared the supports
they experienced and the challenges they perceived as having hindered their career success. I
first share the findings related to barriers and then share the findings related to supports for
participants’ career advancement and leadership opportunities.
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Barriers
The participants’ responses revealed a variety of barriers preventing them from obtaining
career advancement and leadership opportunities. Two main themes emerged as barriers to
career advancement: lack of career conversations with leadership, including managers, directors
and other leaders in SA, and managers’ lack of interest or encouragement of career advancement.
Nine participants attributed a lack of career conversations as a barrier to career success, despite,
as Aileen pointed out, “having to write annual goals and meet the expectations of my manager
and the division’s core competencies. We don’t talk about how I can get ahead. Conversations
stop at what I have accomplished to meet my annual work goals.”
In addition to a lack of career conversations with managers and leaders, participants
shared they lack support from managers. Lack of care and encouragement from managers and/or
leaders regarding career growth opportunities was discussed in terms of not being able to find
someone to support their role and daily tasks while they are away engaging in professional
development. They felt overwhelmed with the amount of work when they returned. Additionally,
participants pointed to a lack of performance affirmation, particularly receiving little to no
feedback from their managers.
Participants attributed career barriers to a multitude of factors. Table 2 provides an
overview of themes participants discussed as barriers.

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Table 2
Barriers to Career Advancement and Leadership Opportunities
Barriers Number of
participants
Exemplary quote
Absent career
conversations
9 Rhaina: I’ve been here over 15 years and never had career
conversations with my boss. If I asked for something, she
would always say, “Yeah, we’ll talk about that, but then
we wouldn’t.
Managers 9 Suyin: I’ve had very few great bosses in SA. I don’t need a
great boss, just an average boss that has integrity and
won’t take credit for my work and who will let me into
meetings to give the presentation that I researched and
created. I’ve been told no; I can’t be in the meetings. I’ve
been body blocked. There’s a message of “Don’t get too
big for your britches.”
No clear path
to success
4 Camila: There is no direct pipeline, no clear, direct solid
pipeline to career advancement. There are no models. No
one’s helping me carve that out. So, there’s no way I’m
staying.
Lack of pay
equity
4 Suyin: I’ve worked in SA for more than 4 years, and I’ve
only gotten the regular cost of living raise. We are not
fairly compensated in SA. We’re not paid like other
departments across PHEU. Pay equity does not exist in
SA.
Lack of
affirmation
of
performance
3 Shonda: It would be nice if managers affirmed my work and
would tell me, ‘You’ve done an amazing job.’ It really
doesn’t cost money to say that. It goes a long way to hear
‘you’ve done a really great job.’ I think they feel like we
know it, but yeah, we don’t know it.

Supports for Advancing Career and Leadership Opportunities
Participants shared the factors that support their career growth and leadership
opportunities. Three main themes emerged: mentorship and support from colleagues and peers,
funds earmarked for professional development, and awareness of learning resources like access
to a variety of courses and online learning.
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Seven participants raised the significance of financial support from the university
earmarked specifically for professional development. They share that it is important for the
university to continue to provide these funds while also imperative for the university to provide
dedicated, uninterrupted time (e.g., no phone calls from work) away from their jobs to utilize
those funds. Eight participants had specific knowledge of available learning resources, like
LinkedIn Learning, Coursera, and courses provided by the university, in addition to online
webinars. While participants knew they had access to courses, they were uncertain what classes
to take to improve their skills, advance their careers, or gain access to leadership opportunities.
Table 3 presents a summary of the findings.

Table 3
Supports for Advancing Career and Leadership Opportunities
Support Frequency Exemplary quote
Colleagues and peers
provide career
support
7 Aileen: Supports have been other colleagues who
look out for me and send me jobs, or they catch up
with me, invest time in me. It shows they have an
investment in my career and who I become.
Professional
development funds
7 Sophia: PHEU does a really good job of offering
professional development funds. And I think that’s
really important to career advancement. So that’s a
big thing. I don’t honestly know about a lot of the
other resources that are available related to career
advancement.
Classes and online
learning
opportunities
8 Lakshmi: I am inquisitive and aware where there are
resources like LinkedIn Learning and Coursera. I
make sure that I am aware of new skills I need. …
You never know if you need to have a skillset so
you can find another job in case you lose your job.

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Summary of Findings for Research Question 2
Participants demonstrated awareness of obstacles to career advancement and leadership
opportunities. These barriers prevent participants from experiencing and reaching potential
opportunities like participating in hiring committees, engaging in high-visibility assignments,
and taking on short- or long-term learning tasks where participants can advance their skills and
knowledge. Additionally, managers do not have career conversations with participants. Career
conversations are vital for participants to know what is possible for their future careers and
where they can grow and learn. Participants shared a lack of a clear path to career success in SA.
Shima shared, “If you don’t see it, you can’t be it.”
Participants conveyed three areas where they have experienced support for their career
growth while working in SA: support of colleagues and peers, dedicated professional
development funds from the university, and access to courses and online learning despite not
having time to participate in classes or webinars. Support from their peers was fundamental for
learning about job openings, providing a sense of comradery, emotional support, and validation
that they “are doing a great job.” While participants are aware of available classes and online
webinars, they also recognize they have limited time and direction to grow professionally and
lack guidance in what substantiates a clear path to career success.
Additional Findings
This research sought to center participants’ voices. While not all findings were
significant, it is important to include additional findings that highlight the participants’ personal
experiences. Following is a summary of additional comments participants expressed regarding
working in SA.
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While a lesser discussed theme, four participants shared their frustration of not having a
clear understanding of a career path and how to apply their transferrable skills. An additional
theme that four participants mentioned conveyed wage disparities with knowledge of colleagues
at the same job grade level whose salaries differ by “thousands of dollars despite being hired
within weeks or months of each other.” In addition to wage disparity inside the SA division,
participants noted of the difference in salaries across the university, as SA staff are paid
significantly less than staff in other departments, such as information technology, despite
occupying the same job grade level. Additionally, participants pointed to a lack of performance
affirmation, particularly receiving little to no feedback from their managers. Figure 4 represents
their most commonly used words and phrases when discussing this topic.

Figure 4
Participant Voices: What We Need

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While the literature review related to a variety of barriers and supports currently affecting
women in the workplace, the participants working at PHEU in SA pointed to three main themes
as vital for their future career success: the need for mentorship, clear professional development
and learning opportunities, and the need for affinity groups.
Mentorship
Ten of 11 participants expressed a need for mentorship from someone who has been
where they are, knows how to navigate professional conversations, understands the
developmental skills needed to move up in the organization, and how to prepare for and present
in various spaces. Paulina shared, “It would be great if someone actually believed in me and
encouraged me to grow and showed me how to take on bigger roles.” Mentors provide vital
direction, encouragement, and support to women of color. Participants shared a high level of
disappointment in women of color in leadership who could provide mentorship but chose not to.
Camila states, “There are not mentors or role models that are women of color or that are open to
being a mentor.” Through mentorship and role modeling, women learn various leadership styles,
communication styles, and ways of being in a multitude of spaces. Lakshmi stated, “We need
women in leadership positions mentoring us, women who are making change, you know, show
us the change-makers in the world. Show us some role modeling.”
Learning Opportunities
In addition to mentorship, eight participants expressed that it is imperative to create and
offer learning opportunities where women of color can develop the necessary skills to move into
higher roles that often entail different or additional skills. Shima shared, “Give [women of color]
a kickstart or jumpstart with experiential learning opportunities so they can be prepared for the
next step.” The lack of learning opportunities prevents women of color from developing essential
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new skills that could demonstrate new or developing competencies. For example, Tammy stated,
“I need some experience managing people. I’ve managed volunteers throughout my career, but I
haven’t managed an actual employee. I’m going to need to be able to do that at some point.”
Furthermore, participants count on leaders, like managers and supervisors, to provide direction
and knowledge for available learning and growth opportunities. Sophia shared, “There needs to
be communication from leadership that says, “Hey, we encourage you to take this learning series
or register for this course or whatever it may be. It would help a lot.” Similarly, Shonda stated, “I
wish managers could make recommendations about how you can grow and if there is a better
position for you because, as an employee, it can be really hard to see what is out there for your
next step.”
Affinity Groups Provide a Supportive Safe Space to Grow
The third theme is related to the need for affinity spaces or an employee resource group
(ERG) for women of color where they can be themselves and feel seen, heard, and supported.
Nine participants discussed their desire for a group, cohort, or coalition of women of color who
support each other, lift each other up, and encourage each other to reach their higher goals. Tina
shared, “We just need to have a safe haven to be ourselves. We need something like an affinity
group.” Rhaina explained an affinity group “would be all women of color working together,
pushing each other, leaning on each other, telling each other you’re proud of them. A support
system where we feel seen and heard.” She further explained, “The perfect place would also
have training, workshops, conferences, and networking events.” Tammy stated the group would
provide a space where women could explore their intersecting identities. “Where there is
freedom, a supportive environment, and safety to try things on, to explore who we really are as
women and women of color.” Camila expanded on the need for a dedicated space for women of
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color and shared, “We need to create a women’s network for women of color. A coalition for
professional women who have experience and are looking to thrive, whether it’s in their careers
or at home, or the managing of both.” Aileen shared, “We need spaces where we don’t have to
do the emotional work. It’s just an affirming and empowering space. Everybody deserves to feel
like they belong, and those affinity groups create that for people.”
Summary of Findings
Chapter Four explored participants’ personal experiences of their lack of career
advancement and leadership opportunities. The findings highlight the frustration participants
expressed regarding a lack of guidance for their professional development, lack of mentorship,
lack of career conversations with leadership and management, and lack of opportunities for
learning and growth. Additionally, participants shared factors they need to support their career
and leadership growth. Those factors include a need for mentorship, learning and growth
opportunities, and a safe place to be themselves to connect with other women of color through
affinity groups.
Chapter Five presents recommendations for improving career advancement and
leadership opportunities for women of color in SA at PHEU. Because this research was
conducted to center the voice of women of color, the recommendations that follow are their
recommendations for change.

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Chapter Five: Recommendations
The purpose of this research was to center the voice of women of color and their
experiences working in SA at PHEU as they seek career advancement and leadership
opportunities. Three significant findings related to social, navigational, and aspirational capital
wealth (Gardner, 2014; Yosso, 2005) include participants’ stated needs for mentorship and role
modeling, professional development, and an affinity group that provides a safe space to grow,
learn and explore. Yosso (2005) explained that “communities of color nurture cultural wealth …
through dynamic processes that build on one another” (Yosso, 2005, p. 77). Participants gave
back and supported each other in their day-to-day interactions and in their personal calls for help
when another was trying to learn and grow. Despite the participants’ efforts and desires, their
professional development and career aspirations were largely overlooked, limiting the
experiences and support they received to advance their careers. Two research questions were
explored:
1. How do women of color draw on their cultural wealth, knowledge, and skills to
advance their careers and or leadership opportunities?
2. How does the organization support or hinder career advancement and or leadership
opportunities for women of color?
Summary of Findings
As discussed in Chapter Four, three prominent needs emerged from the data to center and
support participants’ voices for career advancement and leadership opportunities at PHEU/SA.
These needs pertain to mentorship and role models, professional development opportunities, and
an affinity space (Figure 5).

Figure 5
Cultural Capital Wealth: Barriers and Supports for Career Advancement for Women of Color in Student Affairs

Note. Adapted from “Whose Culture Has Capital? A Critical Race Theory Discussion of Community Cultural Wealth,” by T. J.
Yosso, 2005, Race, Ethnicity and Education, 8(11), 69–91. (https://doi.org/10.1080/1361332052000341006). Copyright 2005 by
Taylor & Francis.
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Recommendation 1: Provide Mentorship and Role Models
Participants discussed the need for role models and mentorship as important aspects of
their growth. Participants used their cultural wealth, knowledge, and skills to persevere toward
career advancement and leadership opportunities despite their voices and aspirations largely
being ignored. In the absence of senior mentors and role models, peer mentorship was important
for participants as necessary social, navigational, and aspirational capital and has contributed
social and emotional support with access to information and resources for career mobility
(Seibert et al., 2001, p. 219). Peers played a large role in encouraging and lifting each other up.
When participants learned of jobs and learning opportunities for advancement, they shared these
opportunities through their network of peers, encouraging each other by providing feedback on
resumes, tips for application submission, and shared best practices for interview techniques.
Participants gave back and supported each other in their day-to-day interactions and personal
calls for help when another sought to learn and grow.
Mentorship and building networks of connection provide a sounding board for women of
color and assist in building a career path (Fries-Britt & Kelly, 2005). In workplaces where
women of color are in the minority, mentorship and social networks from other women of color
have been found to provide needed social and emotional support (Ibarra, 1995). Cross-race
relationships and broader social networks also provide opportunities for career advancement for
women of color (Ibarra, 1995). Mentorship provides access to women leaders and their expertise
and is an important aspect of career advancement for women of color, acting as a form of social
capital (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010) and building trust and respect for personal growth
(Laverick, 2016; Rohrich & Durand, 2020). Providing mentorship and social connections within
the workplace play a vital role in a woman’s career success (Gold, 2008; Seibert et al., 2001;
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Sterling, 2018) and helps mitigate the negative stereotyping women of color face in the
workplace (Elliot et al., 2017; Hoyt, 2013) while offering mutual benefits for both the mentor
and the person being mentored (Hopkins-Thompson, 2000). Hopkins-Thompson (2000)
suggested that formalized mentorship opportunities in education can be successful with the right
structure, resources, and time.
Role models provide women the opportunity to envision what is possible (Morgenroth et
al., 2015). By observing minorities in action, women can expand their consciousness to new
possibilities (Stephenson-Hunter, 2021) and identity construction (Sealy & Singh, 2009),
increasing their own understanding of what they want to do and where they want to grow
(Gibson, 2003; Ibarra, 1999). The participants discussed their disappointment with the lack of
role models available to them at PHEU/SA and stated that not having formal mentors and role
models created barriers to their career success. They particularly pointed out their
disappointment with senior women of color who could not or would not make themselves
available as role models or mentors for their staff. For women of color to adequately prepare for
their career advancement or leadership opportunities, they must be able to emulate the behavior
needed to move up in their organization (Rohrich & Durand, 2020).
In addition to mentorship and role modeling, the research showed sponsorship is key to a
woman’s career success (Bessette, 2014). Mentorship provides advice and understanding and
assists with career pathways (Fries-Britt & Kelly, 2005). Role models offer opportunities to learn
and grow through emulating a person or persons (Gibson, 2003; Ibarra, 1999). However,
sponsorship provides care, advocacy, and reputation management from a person in positional
power who can speak up on one’s behalf and put one’s name forward for key learning or
leadership opportunities (Chow, 2021; Means & Fields, 2022).
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It is recommended to create an online mentorship, role model, and sponsorship platform
matching system within and outside of SA at PHEU. Middle managers and senior leadership can
upload their profiles to the platform highlighting their experience, skills, knowledge, and social
identities, as well as their availability with a link to their calendar so that women can engage with
the platform and create meetings with those they see as someone to connect with and learn from.
For a structured process of how to create a mentorship matching program, Deng et al. (2022)
offered an evidence-based five-step process that involves engagement with organizational
development professionals for successful mentor-protégé implementation and includes
assessments, understanding similarities, developmental needs, the input of those with a potential
for a match, and an opportunity to revise matches prior to finalizing a match (Deng et al., 2022,
p. 396).
Recommendation 2: Provide Professional Development Opportunities for Women of Color
Working in Student Affairs
Women of color face slower career advancement (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010).
PHEU/SA should expand opportunities for career development through short- or long-term
stretch projects like opportunities to chair hiring committees and/or change initiatives that have
connections to women who currently occupy leadership roles and have high visibility.
Experiential learning opportunities increase the necessary knowledge for career advancement
through action and reflection (Sewchuk, 2005) and learning through observation, application,
motivation, and feedback (Bandura, 2001; Horsburgh & Ippolito, 2018). Participants shared their
frustration with the optics of potential learning opportunities. When the SA central office sent an
email about an opportunity to join a workgroup or hiring committee (where women would have
exposure to staff with senior management or leadership roles), they would submit a lengthy
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application to participate but never hear back. Additionally, when participants applied to the SA
central office’s invitations for cross-collaboration opportunities related to highly visible work
groups and initiatives, their applications largely went unanswered because those few
opportunities were taken up by staff already occupying leadership positions, essentially shutting
out lower-level staff.
Managers play a significant part in their staff’s professional development (Miller et al.,
2019). Participants perceive their managers hold knowledge and information for developing the
necessary skills and acumen for new roles and pathways. Martin (2010) found that the perception
of managerial support for using skills on the job correlated with greater reports of transfer of
knowledge (Martin, 2010, p. 90). Supervisors help staff understand expectations of learning and
applied knowledge (Martin, 2010). Managers can encourage employees to further their skills and
development by being involved in and reinforcing the application of their learning and
recognizing the learning in which staff engaged (Martin, 2010, p. 90). Participants discussed the
need for career conversations to receive feedback on where to grow and how they could improve.
Additionally, some participants pointed out that their managers need to attend cultural
sensitivity training for daily interactions and especially when engaging with their staff during
annual performance reviews. Instead of productive career conversations to discuss and encourage
the participants’ career aspirations (Miller et al., 2019), managers missed the opportunity to
encourage growth and advancement by solely focusing on if or what the participant needed to
improve to meet annual performance goals. Additionally, student affairs managers need to be
mindful of how they approach supervision with their staff of color (Elliot et al., 2021).
Elliot et al. (2021) provided strategies for managers to approach their “supervision of
staff through an identity-conscious lens” (p. 54). Recognizing organizations and supervision hold
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complexity and power, it is appropriate to approach supervision at the individual, supervision,
and organizational level:
• At the individual level, supervisors are urged to practice self-reflection and
understand their own “identities and relationships with systems of power” (p. 55) to
engage effectively across differences (Elliot et al., 2021, p. 56).
• The supervision level encourages identity exploration for supervisors, “balancing
work expectations and the way supervisees navigate racial battle fatigue” (p. 56) and
“equitable ways to deal with conflict” (Elliot et al., 2021, p. 56).
• At the organizational level, Elliot et al. (2021) urged supervisors to “pay attention to
the system” and to “consider how we [supervisors] contribute to a truly equitable and
just organizational culture” (Elliot et al., 2021, p. 56).
These practices at the organizational level provide opportunities to sustain identity-conscious
supervision and “transform organizational systems…into what higher education urgently needs”
(Elliot et al., 2021, p. 56).
One thing to note as a positive support from the PHEU organization is an annual
disbursement of professional development funds (between $500 and $1,000). These funds expire
at PHEU’s fiscal year-end. If participants do not use their annual professional development
funds, those funds do not roll over to the next year. This essentially leaves professional
development funds (a benefit and perk of working at PHEU) on the table when a person does not
have the time to participate in classes or training. Participants found it difficult to take time away
from work to develop skills due to demanding expectations from managers and students and a
lack of supported structured time to take classes and training. Additionally, participants noted
that they were not sure which classes and training would help improve their chances for career
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advancement. Unsupported professional development and a lack of career opportunities cause
employees to doubt their future in an organization resulting in their departure (Kraimer et al.,
2011).
Recommendation 3: Provide Affinity Groups for Women of Color
While affinity groups, also known as employee resource groups (ERGs) were absent
from the literature review on career advancement for women of color, a need for them emerged
in the interview data. Participants in this research described the need for affinity groups that
provide a safe space to be themselves, to learn and grow (Green, 2018) through training and
workshops facilitated by other women who look like them, and to learn from each other.
Participants shared that an affinity group can provide a space where women of color can feel a
sense of belonging (Hagerty et al., 1996), share resources and emotional support (Douglas,
2008), and explore their identities with other women of color.
Because biases are embedded in structural racism, like stereotyping and the negative
impact of racial microaggressions (Solorzano et al., 2000), women of color can experience the
devaluing effects of racial battle fatigue (Pizarro & Kohli, 2020). Racial affinity groups offer a
safe space wherein women of color can mitigate racial battle fatigue and avoid the emotional
labor of interacting with White groups (Corbin et al., 2018). Green (2018) also demonstrated that
affinity groups provide an environment that increases opportunities for mentorship and shared
understanding of how to navigate circumstances beyond the workplace (Green, 2018).
Organizations benefit from supporting affinity groups as well. At the organizational level,
affinity groups can act as a direct voice from the affinity group to organizational leaders who can
act and make needed changes (“An Inside Look,” 2021) and increase employee involvement and
connection to the company (Van Aken, 1994). Affinity groups support the message that their
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organization is actively engaged with DEI efforts, “companies are finding that these goals of
diversity and inclusion can be nurtured and supported through their organizations’ existing
affinity groups” (Douglas, 2008, Green, 2018). Lambertz-Berndt (2016) suggested that prior to
developing affinity groups, “keep the following three guidelines in mind: sufficient meeting
spaces and affinity group participants for each identity, quality facilitation, and offering meeting
times during the workday” (p. 120).
Using an equity-minded model for change in higher education can help ensure that those
who are affected are included and centered when considering how the problem can be addressed
and change can happen. The Design for Equity in Higher Education (DEHE) model provides
such a model (Figure 6).

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Figure 6
Design for Equity in Higher Education Model

Note. From Design for Equity in Higher Education (DEHE) by K. C. Culver, J. Harper, and A.
Kezar, 2021. Pullias Center for Higher Education. Copyright 2021 by the University of Southern
California.

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Culver et al. (2021) explained that designing for equity in higher education includes eight
phases: organize, empathize, define, ideate, choose, prototype, get buy-in, and test (Culver et al.,
2021, p. 1). The model is described more fully in the following paragraphs. Each phase of the
DEHE model could address designing equitable practices in the context of higher education’s
division of student affairs and consider the challenges women of color face in advancing their
careers.
In the organizing phase, key stakeholders, like a design team comprised of women of
color working in student affairs, their managers/supervisors, administrators, and trusted
designers need to organize and define the objectives, identify who has the authority to make the
change and ensure commitment to the process of change for career advancement of women of
color (Culver et al., 2021). For example, the participants in this research would be the voice for
the necessary changes. Working directly with the designers, getting buy-in from their
managers/supervisors, and consulting with the administration for funding is key in this phase.
Once the design team has been created, empathizing with the user group [women of
color] requires a deep understanding of the “motivations, experiences, and emotions” (p. 8) of
that group. It requires a “multi-pronged approach” of data collection, interviews, and observation
(Culver et al., 2021, p. 8). Participants in this research were distrustful of interviews and
observations due to past, personal experiences of having their shared information used against
them. Affinity groups working with a trusted, equity-minded designer(s) would most likely
support this phase of the DEHE model. To be clear, I do not believe it is the responsibility of
women of color in affinity groups to be solely responsible for the changes needed to support their
career advancement. This responsibility lies with leadership partnering with women of color and
key stakeholders like administrators who are invested in their women of color staff and who
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support the efforts to ethically carry out the “multi-pronged” approach suggested by Culver et al.
(2021).
Once the empathize phase is complete, the design team can (re)define and synthesize data
to express their understanding of the relevant findings and needs of women of color with the goal
in mind of “sensemaking and storytelling” (Culver et al., 2021, p. 9). Women of color trying to
advance their career and leadership opportunities are essential to consult with during this phase
of the DEHE model to pinpoint factors that contribute to the current state of the problem and aid
designers in defining specific solutions (Culver et al., 2021, p. 10). For example, in the
storytelling aspect of the (re) define phase, women of color can share their personal story via
video of the barriers and supports they experience while trying to navigate advancing their
careers. As Culver et al. found (2021), storytelling can make sense of complex situations and
show others the structures and policies women of color need to navigate to get ahead.
Once the design team has gone through the (re)define phase, the ideating phase can set
aside constraints and judgments and instead utilize playfulness and imagination in a participatory
safe space to create multiple solutions (Culver et al., 2021, p. 10). Like women of color who
have gained experience throughout their careers, Culver et al. (2021) noted that in the ideate
phase of equity-minded design, their designers “relied on experiential knowledge gained through
their careers” (p. 11) and added the importance of relying on models for creating solutions in
higher education where one does not have information and expertise (Culver et al., 2021). While
it is not the responsibility of women of color to educate and inform leadership about how their
careers are being blocked from advancing, their experiential knowledge is vital for designers to
consider in the process of design prior to creating solutions. Women of color can add immense
insight to the ideate phase of design.
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Once solutions are narrowed, a new phase of “choose” begins. With equity in mind and
an awareness of who is participating (or not) in the choose phase, designers consider the long-
lasting impact their solutions can have (Culver et al., 2021, p. 12). During the choose phase, the
design team needs to “assess the feasibility and context of ideas, then decide which ideas to
expand and draft” (Culver et al., 2021, p. 5).
In the final three iterative stages of equity-minded design: prototype, get buy-in, and test,
multiple solutions (prototypes) are created to move the process along. At this point of the equity-
minded process, the design team has generated multiple ideas and solutions to gain buy-in, and
by “sharing, not selling” the solution(s) and embracing the complexity inherent in higher
education’s approval processes, the team is then able to test, evaluate and refine (Culver et al.,
2021, p. 14).
The final phases of test, evaluate, and refine of the DEHE model involve understanding
that pilot solutions offer a way to test and refine what may or may not work for women of color.
Testing to see what works and is relevant, listening and evaluating solutions and making the
necessary adjustments provides opportunities to create new solutions that increase the
effectiveness and impact of the project meant to help those for whom the design was created. It is
important to acknowledge the challenges in creating effective solutions for one group and not
others. Participants noted that some groups get more attention and resources than other groups.
As Suyin, a participant in this research, stated in chapter four, “It is not a great thing to have to
say, but for the sake of comparison, Blackness is treated as a priority in SA, and hidden
disabilities are largely ignored.” Higher education spaces can pit one group against another when
groups ask for resources, perpetuating what Robert and Harlan (2006), who discuss
discrimination and marginalization toward people with disabilities, deemed the scarcity ideology
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that can “affect the most vulnerable and powerless employees—people with disabilities, women,
racial/ethnic minorities, and low-level job incumbents—who become the scapegoats for the
grievances of an increasingly alienated labor force required to produce more with less” (Robert
& Harlan, 2006, p. 619). Crucial to ensuring efforts to support minoritized women’s career
advancement is managing the perceptions of specialized programs for one group and no other
groups (Kottke & Agars, 2005). Perception management entails understanding and mitigating
social cognitions, such as persistent stereotyping, social identity, social groups (in-group, out-
group), and justice initiatives to support these programs (Kottke & Agars, 2005).
The DEHE equity-minded design model could be useful in addressing supporting staff
who face ongoing discrimination and marginalization and whose professional development is
largely ignored.
Recommendations for Future Research
This research focused on centering the voice of women of color who, at the time of data
collection, worked in SA at a private university (PHEU) in the western part of the United States.
While research related to student affairs has shown the critical role student affairs professionals
play in supporting students’ professional and academic development (Doyle, 2004; Herrmann,
2018; Luedke, 2017; Smith, 2016) guided by professional competencies (ACPA & NASPA,
2015; Munch & Cortez, 2014), research on embedding professional development programs for
student affairs professionals is missing. Additionally, research on women of color working in
student affairs is limited. Research has shown that women, in general, face barriers with
workplace policies that limit flexible work arrangements, increase burnout and feelings of being
overworked (McKinnon-Crowley et al., 2021) and cause women in student affairs to experience
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lower job satisfaction and eventually consider leaving the profession altogether (Brewer &
Clippard, 2002; Mullen et al., 2018).
Recommendations for future research include conducting comprehensive and
comparative research across private and public universities for women of color related to their
career advancement in SA divisions, broadening the scope of research, and providing women of
color a more prominent voice and a platform for leaders to create affective, impactful change to
retain women of color.
Further research is recommended through the lens of intersectionality. Intersectional
considerations highlight the complexities and challenges women of color face while trying to
advance in their careers. Researching the intersectional and lived experiences of women of color
in higher education could provide information for the necessary changes to advance women of
color in student affairs.
Further research is recommended using the DEHE equity-minded model to design
specific professional development programs that advance women of color in higher education’s
student affairs division.
Conclusion
This research aimed to center the voice of women of color working in higher education in
SA. Women of color at PHEU/SA were denied access to professional development opportunities
and resources, making connections to leaders and mentors who could help advance their careers,
and denied the navigational and informational factors needed to get ahead. Despite using their
cultural capital wealth, knowledge, and skills, women of color continued to face barriers. This
research was vital because it furthered the knowledge related to the barriers and supports women
of color experience in higher education’s student affairs division. Specifically, this research
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conveyed the lived experiences of women of color working in higher education in SA by
centering their voices, sharing their narratives, and their specific recommendations for change
toward their career advancement and leadership opportunities. While research exists regarding
student affairs professionals, this research expanded that scope by including an intersectionality
lens to explore how women of color use their cultural capital wealth to advance their careers and
leadership opportunities. This research is essential as it broadens the discussion of women of
color in the workplace and allows higher education to learn from and address much-needed
changes to support, advance and retain women of color.

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Appendix A: Interview Protocol
The following questions were used in the interviews for this study.
Hello and Introduction to Interview
• Hello,
o How are you doing?
o Is this still a good time for us to talk today?
o I’ll cover a few logistical things in the next few minutes, but first is there
anything you would like to ask me before we start our discussion?
• Thank you for …
o being willing to share your experience and wisdom with me.
o being open to being interviewed. I appreciate it.
• Intro myself, again. … Through my personal experience, work-relationships, and
friendships with women in student affairs, I have heard different stories of their
experiences with access to career advancement and/or leadership opportunities. I look
forward to learning about your experience during our time together today.
• I want to reiterate participation in this study is completely voluntary. If you decide
not to participate there are no negative consequences. Also, once we get started, you
can decide not to answer a question(s) and you can stop participating at any time
without any negative consequences.
• I want to acknowledge that some of the questions may bring up an unpleasant
experience and you are free to skip the question altogether or share as much or as
little as you would like to regarding the question.
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• The purpose of this interview is to talk with you about your experience working
within the division of student affairs and how you have navigated your role, built
relationships and your personal aspirations toward career advancement and/or
obtaining leadership opportunities.
• Your participation in this study will last approximately 1 hour, but you are welcome
to reach out to me anytime during the data collection portion of the study.
Confidentiality
• Now that I have shared the purpose of the study and the interview, I am hoping that
you continue to agree to being interviewed, and if you do, let me assure you
o This conversation is private and confidential and will only be used for the
purpose of this study.
o If you would like, I will send you a transcript of the conversation to ensure
that you agree to using any or all the information discussed in the interview.
o If you choose not to have parts of the interview included, I will delete that
portion of the interview from the transcript, making it ineligible as data for the
study.
o I do need your consent to record. Upon starting the recording, Zoom will
announce that the conversation is being recorded. If you agree to be recorded,
there is an option for you to select your agreement to continue the recording.
Introduction to the Interview
• I’ll be asking a series of questions over the next hour.
• Please be as illustrative as possible. Paint me a picture, if you will, of your personal
experience.
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• Questions will be open-ended to allow for as much detail as possible.
• During the interview and because of time constraints, I may interrupt, ask a probing
question or re-direct our conversation as needed.
• I will be taking notes as you speak (just in case there are technical issues). I may do
this by typing or handwriting notes. Please know I am listening and want to capture
your voice and your words. Are you ready to begin the interview? Great! Let’s begin.
I will begin the recording, after recording begins, I will ask participant to confirm
receipt of the USC information sheet for the study.

Table A1
Interview Questions
Interview question Possible probes Cultural capital
Please tell me how long you
have worked within the
division of student affairs
(SA).

Building rapport
Thinking back on your career
path, please, can you share
with me how you’ve come
to work in student affairs?

Tell me more Building rapport
When you reflect on your
time working in the division
of SA how would you
describe the culture?

What has that experience
meant to you?
Social
How have you navigated the
culture in student affairs?

What has that experience
meant to you?
How has this experience
impacted you?
Navigational

If you were to describe the
skills you have used to build
professional relationships
Specifically, how, if at all,
have you built professional
relationships within SA?
Navigational
Social
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Interview question Possible probes Cultural capital
throughout your career,
what might those be?
Describe your ability to build
professional relationships
across the broader
university.
When you think about your
future career, tell me what
that looks like.

Can you expand on that? Aspirational
How, if at all, have you been
mentored in your career?
Can you give me an example
of when this has happened?
What more could be done?
Social
What, if any, conversations
have you had about your
career with someone in a
leadership position?

If someone in SA is not
mentioned: How, if at all,
have you been mentored
within SA?
Social
How, if at all, have you
accessed career or
leadership opportunities?
Has this happened while
working in SA? If yes,
how?
Navigational
Social
When you think about your
job or career what barriers
or supports have you
experienced?
What, if any, barriers, or
hurdles in your role in
student affairs?
What has supported you as
you navigate your role in
student affairs?
What would make it better?
Navigational
When you think about
resources that are available
to support you in your
career what comes up?
How did you learn about
those resources?
What more could be done?
Social
What do you believe is
needed for you to be
successful?
Can you expand on that some
more?
Navigational
Social
Aspirational
When you think about your
background and/or culture,
what about that might have
influenced your career?
How so? Please provide an
example.
Aspirational
Reflecting on your personal
experiences, what would
you share with other women
of color that would help
them with their career?

What about student affairs
should they know to
advance their careers?
Navigational
Aspirational
Social
Please share any advice you
received regarding your
Tell me how this affected
your career?
Navigational
Aspirational
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Interview question Possible probes Cultural capital
career from your family,
friends, neighbors, etc.

Tell me how this affected
your leadership
opportunities.

Social
If you could create the perfect
environment for women of
color to succeed in their
career what would that look
like? Dream big. Money,
resources, and time are no
object.

And, what else? Navigational
Aspirational
Social
Is there anything I haven’t
asked that you feel I should
know?

What else? Navigational
Aspirational
Social

Note. Adapted from “Whose Culture Has Capital? A Critical Race Theory Discussion of
Community Cultural Wealth” by T. J. Yosso, 2005, Race Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 69–91,
(https://doi.org/10.1080/1361332052000341006). Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis.

Thank you for the opportunity to talk with you openly regarding your experiences within
the division of student affairs. Those were all the questions I have for you.
Before we finish,
• Is there anything you think I should remove from our discussion?
• As I review the data, and acquire preliminary findings, or if I need clarification would
you mind if I reach out to you again?
• Lastly, do you have any questions for me?
Thank you, once again. This information is valuable and important to help guide
recommendations for the organization to support women of color seeking career advancement
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and/or leadership opportunities. I wish you the very best, and as I mentioned, please reach out to
me at any time. You can contact me at paspa@usc.edu.
Researcher will end the recording at this time.
Additional Probes
• What do you mean by that?
• Anything else?
• Can you help me understand what you mean by that?
• Could you tell me more about your thinking on that?
• Can you give me an example to clarify the point?
• Any other reason for that?
• Would you tell me what you have in mind?
• What caused you to feel that way?
• What else is important to know?
• What else matters here?

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Appendix B: Information Sheet for Exempt Research
The information sheet for exempt research will be included as an attachment in the email
sent to participants who are being invited to participate in the interviews.

INFORMATION SHEET FOR EXEMPT RESEARCH

STUDY TITLE: Using Cultural Capital Skills as a Woman of Color in Student Affairs: What
Does it Take to Get ahead?

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR: Pamela Paspa

FACULTY ADVISOR: Patricia Tobey, Ph.D.

You are invited to participate in a research study. Your participation is voluntary. This document
explains information about this study. You should ask questions about anything that is unclear to
you.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to examine barriers to career advancement and/or leadership
opportunities for women of color in the division of student affairs. We hope to learn how women
of color use social capital, navigational capital, and aspirational capital to seek advancement
and/or leadership opportunities in their career within the division of student affairs in higher
education. You are invited as a participant because you have worked in the division of student
affairs for more than one year, and you self-identify as a woman of color.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT

Your participation in this study is completely voluntary, and you have the right at any
time and for any reason, to withdraw from the study. You will be interviewed as a part of this
study. As a participant, you have been informed about the study topics that will be discussed
during the interview.
Interviews will take place via the Zoom video conferencing platform and will last 60
minutes. With your permission, the video interview will also be audio-recorded and transcribed,
129

verbatim, later. The Zoom software automatically includes the identifying information of the
person that is logged in to the interview. If you do not wish to be identified in Zoom during the
interview, please ensure that you have followed the instructions explaining how to remove your
identifying information from the software. If you choose not to remove identifying information,
please know identifying information will be edited out at the time of transcription.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION

You will receive a $10 gift card for your time. You do not have to answer all the questions to
receive the card. The card will be sent to you within one week of completing the interview.
CONFIDENTIALITY
The members of the research team, Pamela Paspa and Patricia Tobey, Ph.D. (faculty advisor),
and the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) may access the data.
The IRB reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research
subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
Every effort will be made to protect your privacy and to preserve confidentiality. All
information about your participation, as well as the content of the conversation, will be strictly
confidential. You will have the opportunity to ask for removal of any language from the
recording before the completion of the interview. All information will be kept on a secured hard
drive and destroyed at the end of the study.
Interviews will be conducted via Zoom video software. The Zoom video software
automatically includes the identifying credentials of the person that is logged in to the Zoom
interview. Please be sure to follow the suggested instructions explaining how to remove your
name from the video software prior to our interview. If you choose not to remove identifying
information, the identifying information will be edited and removed at the time of interview
transcription.
Transcription software will be used to transcribe the interview recorded via Zoom. All
identifying information will be removed at that time. As necessary, editing the transcript will
ensure that participant’s personal identifying details are removed from the transcript, and that
what remains are identifiers that distinguish who said what. If you wish, you have the right to
130

review the transcript after the interview to determine if there is anything you wish to edit,
remove, clarify, or that you do not want to be included in the data analysis.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Pamela Paspa (paspa@usc.edu) or
Patricia Tobey Ph.D., [faculty advisor] (tobey@usc.edu).

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board at (323) 442-0114 or email
irb@usc.edu.

131

Appendix C: Crosswalk
The following table shows Yosso’s (2005) cultural capital wealth influences, research
questions and corresponding number for interview questions.

Table C1
Crosswalk
Research questions Theoretical framework/tenets Interview questions
Community cultural wealth
Building rapport

1, 2,
How do women of color draw
on their cultural wealth,
knowledge, and skills to
advance their careers and
leadership opportunities?
Navigational
Aspirational
Social
4, 5, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16,17
6, 9,12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17
3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17
How does the organization
support or hinder career
advancement or leadership
opportunities for women of
color?
Navigational
Aspirational
Social
9, 10
10, 12
8, 9, 11, 12

Note. Adapted from “Whose Culture has Capital? A Critical Race Theory Discussion of
Community Cultural Wealth” by T. J. Yosso, 2005, Race Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 69–91,
(https://doi.org/10.1080/1361332052000341006). Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis.

132

Appendix D: Study Participation Survey
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education Organizational Change and Leadership

Doctoral Study: Using Cultural Capital Skills as a Woman of Color in Student Affairs: What
Does it Take to Get ahead?
Survey for Interview Participants
Hello (participant’s name)
Thank you for offering to participate in a study of how women of color working in the
division of student affairs experience career advancement and/or leadership opportunities. For
more information about this study please revisit the study’s information sheet that you received
in a previous email.
The study is associated with my doctoral program at the University of Southern
California (USC) Rossier School of Education. Note: This study has received approval from the
University of Southern California Institutional Review Board.
This survey is anonymous. It is designed to gather demographic information about
women of color working in the division of student affairs who have agreed to participate in an
interview. Participation in this survey is completely voluntary. Completing the survey is
understood as agreement to consent to participate. However, if you no longer wish to participate,
please discontinue completing the survey and go to the last question informing me that you no
longer wish to participate.
If you have any questions about this study, please contact Pamela Paspa (paspa@usc.edu)
or my advisor Patricia Tobey, PhD. (tobey@usc.edu).
133

I am looking forward to learning more about you!
Kind regards,
Pamela Paspa (paspa@usc.edu)
Doctoral Candidate, University of Southern California
This study has received approval from the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board.
Survey Questions
1. How many years have you worked in the division of student affairs at Private Higher
Education University (PHEU, pseudonym).
2. What is your highest level of education?
• high school
• associate degree
• bachelor’s degree
• master’s degree
• doctoral degree
3. What is your age?
• 20–27
• 28–35
• 36–43
• 44–52
• 52 or older

134

4. Have you obtained any certifications or specialty training outside of your educational
degree?
5. If yes, please share the type of certification or training you obtained.
6. Knowing that race is not a monolith please share how you identify? Select all that
apply or use the write in option.
• Asian
• Black/African American
• Caucasian
• Hispanic/Latinx
• Native American
• Pacific Islander
• Prefer not to answer
• Write in option ________________
7. What is your gender identification?
Write in option__________________________
8. Is there anything else you would like me to know about your background or
demographics?
Option to write more _______________________________
Thank you for your time in completing this survey.
If you have any questions about this study, please contact me Pamela Paspa
(paspa@usc.edu) or my advisor, Patricia Tobey, Ph.D. (tobey@usc.edu).
Kind regards,
Pamela Paspa
Doctoral Candidate, University of Southern California
135

This study has received approval from the University of Southern California Institutional
Review Board.

136

Appendix E: Qualitative Coding Sheet
Appendix E: Qualitative Coding Sheet
Research questions Conceptual framework: cultural
capital wealth tenets:
navigational, aspirational, social
(Code Level 1)
(Code Level 2)
How do women of
color draw on their
cultural wealth,
knowledge, and
skills to advance
their careers and or
leadership
opportunities?

*Positive feelings
Navigational Bureaucratic/political environment
Toxic culture
Silenced
Information hoarding
Unreasonable expectations
Demands on time
Exhaustion/overworked
Aspirational Lack of experiential learning
opportunities
Lack of visible, short-term projects
Desire to leave student affairs
Social

Lack of contact with leadership
No mentors/No mentors of color
Limited to no career conversations
with managers or leaders
Limited Access to Career
Knowledge

*Supportive Colleagues
*Peer Networks

How does the
organization support
or hinder career
advancement and or
leadership
opportunities for
women of color

*Positive feelings

Navigational Microaggressions
Bureaucratic/political/hierarchy
Information hoarding
Unclear path for career trajectory
Aspirational Lack professional pathways and
direction from leadership
Lack of role modeling
Lack of role models who are
women of color
Lack of mentorship
137

Research questions Conceptual framework: cultural
capital wealth tenets:
navigational, aspirational, social
(Code Level 1)
(Code Level 2)
Lack of professional development
Lack of growth opportunities
Lack of career advancement/
limited roles
*Provided professional
development funds
Social

Lack of career conversations with
managers
No mentorship from leadership
Feel dismissed
Tight relationships at the
top/hierarchical

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Paspa, Pamela K. (author)

Core Title Using cultural capital skills as a woman of color in student affairs: what does it take to get ahead?

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Organizational Change and Leadership (On Line)

Degree Conferral Date 2023-05

Publication Date 05/09/2023

Defense Date 04/14/2023

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag career advancement,community cultural wealth,OAI-PMH Harvest,student affairs,women of color

Format theses (aat)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Tobey, Patricia Elaine (committee chair), Hinga, Briana (committee member), Johnson, Joslyn (committee member)

Creator Email pamelapaspa@gmail.com,paspa@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-oUC113120606

Unique identifier UC113120606

Identifier etd-PaspaPamel-11812.pdf (filename)

Legacy Identifier etd-PaspaPamel-11812

Document Type Dissertation

Format theses (aat)

Rights Paspa, Pamela K.

Internet Media Type application/pdf

Type texts

Source 20230511-usctheses-batch-1041 (batch), University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the author, as the original true and official version of the work, but does not grant the reader permission to use the work if the desired use is covered by copyright. It is the author, as rights holder, who must provide use permission if such use is covered by copyright.

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA

Repository Email cisadmin@lib.usc.edu